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5,500 | Netlist | The word netlist can be used in several different contexts, but perhaps the most popular is in the field of electronic design. In this context, a "netlist" describes the connectivity of an electronic design. Netlists usually convey connectivity information and provide nothing more than instances, nets, and perhaps some attributes. If they express much more than this, they are usually considered to be a hardware description language such as Verilog, VHDL, or any one of several specific languages designed for input to simulators. Netlists can be either physical or logical; either instance-based or net-based; and flat or hierarchical. The latter can be either folded or unfolded. Contents and structure of a netlist Most netlists either contain or refer to descriptions of the parts or devices used. Each time a part is used in a netlist, this is called an "instance." Thus, each instance has a "master", or "definition". These definitions will usually list the connections that can be made to that kind of device, and some basic properties of that device. These connection points are called "ports" or "pins", among several other names. An "instance" could be anything from a MOSFET transistor or a bipolar transistor, to a resistor, capacitor, or integrated circuit chip. Instances have "ports". In the case of a vacuum cleaner, these ports would be the three metal prongs in the plug. Each port has a name, and in continuing the vacuum cleaner example, they might be "Neutral", "Live" and "Ground". Usually, each instance will have a unique name, so that if you have two instances of vacuum cleaners, one might be "vac1" and the other "vac2". Besides their names, they might otherwise be identical. Nets are the "wires" that connect things together in the circuit. There may or may not be any special attributes associated with the nets in a design, depending on the particular language the netlist is written in, and that language's features. Instance based netlists usually provide a list of the instances used in a design. Along with each instance, either an ordered list of net names are provided, or a list of pairs provided, of an instance port name, along with the net name to which that port is connected. In this kind of description, the list of nets can be gathered from the connection lists, and there is no place to associate particular attributes with the nets themselves. SPICE is perhaps the most famous of instance-based netlists. Net-based netlists usually describe all the instances and their attributes, then describe each net, and say which port they are connected on each instance. This allows for attributes to be associated with nets. EDIF is probably the most famous of the net-based netlists. Hierarchy In large designs, it is a common practice to split the design into pieces, each piece becoming a "definition" which can be used as instances in the design. In the case of the vacuum cleaner analogy, you might now have a vacuum cleaner definition with its ports, but now perhaps this definition might also include a full electrical description of the internals of the vacuum cleaner, with the motors, switches, etc., inside it. A definition which includes no instances would be referred to as "primitive", or "leaf", among other names; and a definition which includes instances would be "hierarchical". A "folded" hierarchy allows a single definition to be represented several times by instances. An "unfolded" hierarchy will not allow a definition to be used more than once in the hierarchy. Folded Hierarchies can be extremely compact. A small netlist (for example, just a few hundred instances) could describe connections with tens or hundreds of thousands of instances this way. How? Let's suppose definition "A" is a simple primitive memory cell. Further suppose that definition "B" contains 32 instances of "A". Further suppose definition "C" contains 32 instances of "B". Further suppose "D" contains 32 instances of "C", and "E" contains 32 instances of "D". At this point, the design contains a total of 5 definitions (A through E), and 128 total instances. Yet, E describes a circuit that contains 1,048,576 instances of "A"! A "Flat" design is one where only instances of primitives are allowed. Hierarchical designs can be "exploded" or "flattened" into flat designs via recursive algorithms. "Explosion" can be a very apt term if the design was highly folded (as in the previous example). Also, folded designs can be "unfolded", by creating a new copy (with a new name) of each definition each time it is used. This will generate a much larger database if the design was highly folded, but will also preserve the hierarchy. By providing a list of the instance names as one descends a folded hierarchy from the top definition to the primitives, one can derive a unique hierarchical path to any instance. These paths can be used to tie a flat design description to a folded hierarchical version of the same design. Backannotation Backannotation are data that could be added to a hierarchical netlist. Usually they are kept separate from the netlist, because several such alternate sets of data could be applied to a single netlist. These data may have been extracted from a physical design, and might provide extra information for more accurate simulations. Usually the data are composed of a hierarchical path and a piece of data for that primitive. Inheritance Another concept often used in netlists is that of inheritance. Suppose a definition of a capacitor has an associated attribute called "Capacitance" with a default value of "100 pF" (100 picofarads). Each instance of this capacitor might also have such an attribute, only with a different value of capacitance. And other instances might not associate any capacitance at all. In the case where no capacitance is specified for an instance, the instance will "inherit" the 100 pF value from its definition. A value specified will "override" the value on the definition. If a great number of attributes end up being the same as on the definition, a great amount of information can be "inherited", and not have to be redundantly specified in the netlist, saving space, and making the design easier to read by both machines and people. | Netlist |@lemmatized word:1 netlist:10 use:9 several:5 different:2 context:2 perhaps:4 popular:1 field:1 electronic:2 design:19 describe:5 connectivity:2 netlists:8 usually:8 convey:1 information:3 provide:6 nothing:1 instance:34 net:12 attribute:8 express:1 much:2 consider:1 hardware:1 description:5 language:4 verilog:1 vhdl:1 one:5 specific:1 input:1 simulator:1 either:5 physical:2 logical:1 base:6 flat:4 hierarchical:7 latter:1 fold:5 unfold:2 content:1 structure:1 contain:7 refer:2 part:2 device:3 time:3 call:3 thus:1 master:1 definition:19 list:7 connection:4 make:2 kind:2 basic:1 property:1 point:2 port:8 pin:1 among:2 name:9 could:4 anything:1 mosfet:1 transistor:2 bipolar:1 resistor:1 capacitor:3 integrate:1 circuit:3 chip:1 case:3 vacuum:6 clean:5 would:3 three:1 metal:1 prong:1 plug:1 continue:1 example:3 might:8 neutral:1 live:1 ground:1 unique:2 two:1 cleaner:1 besides:1 otherwise:1 identical:1 wire:1 connect:3 thing:1 together:1 may:3 special:1 associate:5 depend:1 particular:2 write:1 feature:1 along:2 ordered:1 pair:1 gather:1 place:1 spice:1 famous:2 say:1 allow:4 edif:1 probably:1 hierarchy:7 large:2 common:1 practice:1 split:1 piece:3 become:1 analogy:1 also:4 include:3 full:1 electrical:1 internals:1 motor:1 switch:1 etc:1 inside:1 primitive:5 leaf:1 single:2 represent:1 folded:3 extremely:1 compact:1 small:1 hundred:2 ten:1 thousand:1 way:1 let:1 suppose:5 simple:1 memory:1 cell:1 far:3 b:2 c:2 e:3 total:2 yet:1 exploded:1 flatten:1 via:1 recursive:1 algorithm:1 explosion:1 apt:1 term:1 highly:2 previous:1 unfolded:1 create:1 new:2 copy:1 generate:1 database:1 preserve:1 names:1 descend:1 top:1 derive:1 path:3 tie:1 version:1 backannotation:2 data:5 add:1 kept:1 separate:1 alternate:1 set:1 apply:1 extract:1 extra:1 accurate:1 simulation:1 compose:1 inheritance:2 another:1 concept:1 often:1 capacitance:4 default:1 value:5 pf:2 picofarad:1 specify:3 inherit:1 override:1 great:2 number:1 end:1 amount:1 inherited:1 redundantly:1 save:1 space:1 easy:1 read:1 machine:1 people:1 |@bigram bipolar_transistor:1 resistor_capacitor:1 integrate_circuit:1 vacuum_cleaner:1 hundred_thousand:1 |
5,501 | Symphony_No._9_(Beethoven) | Ludwig van Beethoven was completely deaf when he composed his ninth symphony. The Symphony No. 9 in D minor, Op. 125 "Choral" is the final symphony of Ludwig van Beethoven. Completed in 1824, the symphony is one of the best known works of the Western classical repertoire and is considered one of Beethoven's greatest masterpieces. The symphony was the first example of a major composer using voices in a symphony. The words are sung during the final movement by four vocal soloists and a chorus. They were taken from the "Ode to Joy", a poem written by Friedrich Schiller in 1785 and revised in 1803 (of which the 'Ode to Joy' is penned), with additions made by the composer. History Composition A page from Beethoven's manuscript The Philharmonic Society of London originally commissioned the symphony in 1817. Beethoven started the work in 1818 and finished early in 1824. However, both the words and notes of the symphony have sources dating from earlier in Beethoven's career. The title of Schiller's poem An die Freude is literally translated as "To Joy", but is normally called the "Ode to Joy". It was written in 1785 and first published the following year in the poet's own literary journal, Thalia. Beethoven had made plans to set this poem to music as far back as 1793, when he was 22 years old. Beethoven's sketchbooks show that bits of musical material that ultimately appeared in symphony were written in 1811, 1815, and 1817. In addition, the symphony also emerged from other pieces by Beethoven that, while completed works in their own right, are also in some sense sketches for the future symphony. The Choral Fantasy Opus. 80 (1808), basically a piano concerto movement, brings in a chorus and vocal soloists near the end to form the climax. As in the Ninth Symphony, the vocal forces sing a theme first played instrumentally, and this theme is highly reminiscent of the corresponding theme in the Ninth Symphony (for a detailed comparison, see Choral Fantasy). Going further back, an earlier version of the Choral Fantasy theme is found in the song "Gegenliebe" ("Returned Love"), for piano and high voice, which dates from before 1795. Hopkins (1981, 249) The theme for the scherzo can be traced back to a fugue written in 1815. The introduction for the vocal part of the symphony caused many difficulties for Beethoven. Beethoven's friend Anton Schindler, later said: "When he started working on the fourth movement the struggle began as never before. The aim was to find an appropriate way of introducing Schiller's ode. One day he [Beethoven] entered the room and shouted 'I got it, I just got it!' Then he showed me a sketchbook with the words 'let us sing the ode of the immortal Schiller'". However, Beethoven did not retain this version, and kept rewriting until he had found its final form, with the words "O Freunde, nicht diese Töne". Premiere Beethoven was eager to have his work played in Berlin as soon as possible after finishing it. He thought that musical taste in Vienna was dominated by Italian composers such as Rossini. When his friends and financiers heard this, they urged him to premiere the symphony in Vienna. The Ninth Symphony was premiered on May 7 1824 in the Kärntnertortheater in Vienna, along with the overture Die Weihe des Hauses and the first three parts of the Missa Solemnis. This was the composer's first on-stage appearance in twelve years; the hall was packed. The soprano and alto parts were interpreted by two famous young singers: Henriette Sontag and Caroline Unger. Although the performance was officially directed by Michael Umlauf, the theatre's Kapellmeister, Beethoven shared the stage with him. However, two years earlier, Umlauf had watched as the composer's attempt to conduct a dress rehearsal of his opera Fidelio ended in disaster. So this time, he instructed the singers and musicians to ignore the totally deaf Beethoven. At the beginning of every part, Beethoven, who sat by the stage, gave the tempos. He was turning the pages of his score and beating time for an orchestra he could not hear. There are a number of anecdotes about the premiere of the Ninth. Based on the testimony of the participants, there are suggestions that it was under-rehearsed (there were only two full rehearsals) and rather scrappy in execution. On the other hand, the premiere was a big success. In any case, Beethoven was not to blame, as violist Josef Bohm recalled, "Beethoven directed the piece himself; that is, he stood before the lectern and gesticulated furiously. At times he raised, at other times he shrunk to the ground, he moved as if he wanted to play all the instruments himself and sing for the whole chorus. All the musicians minded his rhythm alone while playing". When the audience applauded - testimonies differ over whether at the end of the scherzo or the whole symphony - Beethoven was several measures off and still conducting. Because of that, the contralto Caroline Unger walked over and turned Beethoven around to accept the audience's cheers and applause. According to one witness, "the public received the musical hero with the utmost respect and sympathy, listened to his wonderful, gigantic creations with the most absorbed attention and broke out in jubilant applause, often during sections, and repeatedly at the end of them." The whole audience acclaimed him through standing ovations five times; there were handkerchiefs in the air, hats, raised hands, so that Beethoven, who could not hear the applause, could at least see the ovation gestures. The theatre house had never seen such enthusiasm in applause. At that time, it was customary that the Imperial couple be greeted with three ovations when they entered the hall. The fact that five ovations were received by a private person who was not even employed by the state, and moreover, was a musician (a class of people who had been perceived as lackeys at court), was in itself considered almost indecent. Police agents present at the concert had to break off this spontaneous explosion of ovations. Beethoven left the concert deeply moved. The repeat performance on May 23 in the great hall of the Fort was, however, poorly attended. Editions The Breitkopf & Härtel edition dating from 1864 has been used widely by orchestras. In 1997 Bärenreiter published an edition by Jonathan Del Mar. According to Del Mar, this edition corrects nearly 3000 mistakes in the Breitkopf edition, some of which were remarkable. Professor David Levy, however, criticized this edition in Beethoven Forum, saying that it could create "quite possibly false" traditions. Breitkopf also published a new edition by Peter Hauschild in 2005. While many of the modifications in the newer editions make minor alterations to dynamics and articulation, both editions make a major change to the orchestral lead-in to the final statement of the choral theme in the fourth movement (IV: m525-m542). The newer versions alter the articulation of the horn calls, creating syncopation that no longer relates to the previous motive. The new Breitkopf & Härtel and Bärenreiter make this alteration differently, but the result is a reading that is strikingly different than what was commonly accepted based on the 1864 Breitkopf edition. While both Breitkopf & Härtel and Bärenreiter consider their editions the most accurate versions available—labeling them Urtext editions—their conclusions are not universally accepted. In his monograph "Beethoven—the ninth symphony", Professor David Levy describes the rationale for these changes and the danger of calling the editions Urtext. Instrumentation The symphony is scored for the following orchestra. These are by far the largest forces needed for any Beethoven symphony; at the premiere, Beethoven augmented them further by assigning two players to each wind part. Woodwinds Piccolo (fourth movement only) 2 Flutes 2 Oboes 2 Clarinets in A, B-flat and C 2 Bassoons Contrabassoon (fourth movement only) Brass 2 Horns (1 and 2) in D and B-flat 2 Horns (3 and 4) in B-flat (bass), B-flat and E-flat 2 Trumpets in D and B-flat 3 Trombones (alto, tenor, and bass, second and fourth movements only) Percussion Timpani Bass Drum (fourth movement only) Triangle (fourth movement only) Cymbals (fourth movement only) Voices (all voices fourth movement only) Soprano solo Alto solo Tenor solo Bass solo SATB Choir (Tenor briefly divides) Strings Violins I, II Violas Violoncellos Double Basses Form The symphony is in four movements, marked as follows: Allegro ma non troppo, un poco maestoso Scherzo: Molto vivace - Presto Adagio molto e cantabile - Andante Moderato - Tempo I - Andante Moderato - Adagio - Lo Stesso Tempo Recitative: (Presto – Allegro ma non troppo – Vivace – Adagio cantabile – Allegro assai – Presto: O Freunde) – Allegro assai: Freude, schöner Götterfunken – Alla marcia – Allegro assai vivace: Froh, wie seine Sonnen – Andante maestoso: Seid umschlungen, Millionen! – Adagio ma non troppo, ma divoto: Ihr, stürzt nieder – Allegro energico, sempre ben marcato: (Freude, schöner Götterfunken – Seid umschlungen, Millionen!) – Allegro ma non tanto: Freude, Tochter aus Elysium! – Prestissimo: Seid umschlungen, Millionen! Beethoven changes the usual pattern of Classical symphonies in placing the scherzo movement before the slow movement (in symphonies, slow movements are usually placed before scherzi). This was the first time that he did this in a symphony, although he had done so in some previous works (including the quartets Op. 18 no. 5, the "Archduke" piano trio Op. 97, the "Hammerklavier" piano sonata Op. 106). Haydn, too, had used this arrangement in a number of works. First movement The first movement is in sonata form, and the mood is often stormy. The opening theme, played pianissimo over string tremolos, so much resembles the sound of an orchestra tuning that many commentators have suggested that was Beethoven's inspiration. But from within that musical limbo emerges a theme of power and clarity which will drive the entire movement. Later, at the outset of the recapitulation section, it returns fortissimo in D major, rather than the opening's D minor. The coda employs the chromatic fourth interval. Second movement The second movement, a scherzo, is also in D minor, with the opening theme bearing a passing resemblance to the opening theme of the first movement, a pattern also found in the Hammerklavier piano sonata, written a few years earlier. It uses propulsive rhythms and a timpani solo. At times during the piece Beethoven directs that the beat should be one downbeat every three bars, perhaps because of the very fast pace of the majority of the movement which is written in triple time, with the direction ritmo di tre battute ("rhythm of three bars"), and one beat every four bars with the direction ritmo di quattro battute ("rhythm of four bars"). Beethoven had been criticised before for failing to adhere to standard form for his compositions. He used this movement to answer his critics. Normally, Scherzi are written in triple time. Beethoven wrote this piece in triple time, but it is punctuated in a way that, when coupled with the speed of the metre, makes it sound as though it is in quadruple time. While adhering to the standard ternary design of a dance movement (scherzo-trio-scherzo, or minuet-trio-minuet), the scherzo section has an elaborate internal structure: it is a complete sonata form. Within this sonata form, the first group of the exposition starts out with a fugue. The contrasting trio section is in D major and in duple (cut) time. The trio is the first time the trombones play in the work. Third movement The lyrical slow movement, in B flat major, is in a loose variation form, with each pair of variations progressively elaborating the rhythm and melody. The first variation, like the theme, is in 4/4 time, the second in 12/8. The variations are separated by passages in 3/4, the first in D major, the second in G major. The final variation is twice interrupted by episodes in which loud fanfares for the full orchestra are answered by double-stopped octaves played by the first violins alone. A prominent horn solo is assigned to the fourth player. Trombones are tacet for the movement. Fourth movement The famous choral finale is Beethoven's musical representation of Universal Brotherhood and has been characterized by Charles Rosen as a symphony within a symphony. It contains four movements played without interruption. Rosen, Charles. "The Classical Style: Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven". page 440. New York: Norton, 1997. This "inner symphony" follows the same overall pattern as the Ninth Symphony as a whole. The scheme is as follows: First "movement": theme and variations with slow introduction. Main theme which first appears in the cellos and basses is later "recapitulated" with voices. Second "movement": 6/8 scherzo in military style (begins at "Alla marcia," words "Froh, wie seine Sonnen fliegen"), in the "Turkish style." Concludes with 6/8 variation of the main theme with chorus. Third "movement": slow meditation with a new theme on the text "Seid umschlungen, Millionen!" (begins at "Andante maestoso") Fourth "movement": fugato finale on the themes of the first and third "movements" (begins at "Allegro energico") The movement has a thematic unity, in which every part may be shown to be based on either the main theme, the "Seid umschlungen" theme, or some combination of the two. The first "movement within a movement" itself is organized into sections: An introduction, which starts with a stormy Presto passage. It then briefly quotes all three of the previous movements in order, each dismissed by the cellos and basses which then play in an instrumental foreshadowing of the vocal recitative. At the introduction of the main theme, the cellos and basses take it up and play it through. The main theme forms the basis of a series of variations for orchestra alone. The introduction is then repeated from the Presto passage, this time with the bass soloist singing the recitatives previously suggested by cellos and basses. The main theme again undergoes variations, this time for vocal soloists and chorus. Vocal parts Words written by Beethoven (not Schiller) are shown in italics. {| |- | German original | English translation |- | O Freunde, nicht diese Töne! Sondern laßt uns angenehmere anstimmen, und freudenvollere. Freude! Freude! | Oh friends, not these tones! Let us raise our voices in more pleasing And more joyful sounds! Joy! Joy! |- | Freude, schöner Götterfunken Tochter aus Elysium, Wir betreten feuertrunken, Himmlische, dein Heiligtum! Deine Zauber binden wieder Was die Mode streng geteilt; Alle Menschen werden Brüder, Wo dein sanfter Flügel weilt. | Joy, beautiful spark of gods Daughter of Elysium, We enter drunk with fire, Heavenly one, your sanctuary! Your magic binds again What custom strictly divided. All men become brothers, Where your gentle wing rests. |- | Wem der große Wurf gelungen, Eines Freundes Freund zu sein; Wer ein holdes Weib errungen, Mische seinen Jubel ein! Ja, wer auch nur eine Seele Sein nennt auf dem Erdenrund! Und wer's nie gekonnt, der stehle Weinend sich aus diesem Bund! | Whoever has had the great fortune To be a friend's friend, Whoever has won a devoted wife, Join in our jubilation! Indeed, whoever can call even one soul, His own on this earth! And whoever was never able to, must creep Tearfully away from this band! |- | Freude trinken alle Wesen An den Brüsten der Natur; Alle Guten, alle Bösen Folgen ihrer Rosenspur. Küße gab sie uns und Reben, Einen Freund, geprüft im Tod; Wollust ward dem Wurm gegeben, Und der Cherub steht vor Gott. | Joy all creatures drink At the breasts of nature; All good, all bad Follow her trail of roses. Kisses she gave us, and wine, A friend, proven in death; Pleasure was to the worm given, And the cherub stands before God. |- | Froh, wie seine Sonnen fliegen Durch des Himmels prächt'gen Plan, Laufet, Brüder, eure Bahn, Freudig, wie ein Held zum Siegen. | Glad, as His suns fly Through the Heaven's glorious design, Run, brothers, your race, Joyful, as a hero to victory. |- | Seid umschlungen, Millionen! Diesen Kuß der ganzen Welt! Brüder, über'm Sternenzelt Muss ein lieber Vater wohnen. Ihr stürzt nieder, Millionen? Ahnest du den Schöpfer, Welt? Such' ihn über'm Sternenzelt! Über Sternen muss er wohnen. | Be embraced, millions! This kiss for the whole world! Brothers, above the starry canopy Must a loving Father dwell. Do you bow down, millions? Do you sense the Creator, world? Seek Him beyond the starry canopy! Beyond the stars must He dwell. |- |Finale repeats the words:Seid umschlungen, Millionen! Diesen Kuß der ganzen Welt! Brüder, über'm Sternenzelt Muss ein lieber Vater wohnen. Seid umschlungen, Diesen Kuß der ganzen Welt! Freude, schöner Götterfunken Tochter aus Elysium, Freude, schöner Götterfunken |Finale repeats the words:Be embraced, you millions! This kiss for the whole world! Brothers, beyond the star-canopy Must a loving Father dwell. Be embraced, This kiss for the whole world! Joy, beautiful spark of gods, Daughter of Elysium, Joy, beautiful spark of gods |} Influence Many later composers of the Romantic period and beyond were influenced specifically by Beethoven's Ninth Symphony. At Easter 1831 Richard Wagner completed a piano arrangement of Beethoven's 9th symphony. Wagner had to decide which instrumental lines in the original had to be omitted since the pianist cannot play all the orchestral parts, thus giving his reduction a personal signature. An important theme in the finale of Johannes Brahms' Symphony No. 1 in C minor is related to the "Ode to Joy" theme from the last movement of Beethoven's Ninth symphony. When this was pointed out to Brahms, he is reputed to have retorted "Any ass can see that!", which suggests the imitation was intentional. Brahms's first symphony was, at times, both praised and derided as "Beethoven's Tenth". Symphony No. 1 in C minor, Op. 68. The Kennedy Center, 2006 Anton Bruckner used the chromatic fourth in his third symphony in much the same way that Beethoven used it in the first movement's coda. Similarly, Gustav Mahler echoes the texture and mood of the first movement's opening in the opening of his first symphony. In the opening notes of the third movement of his Symphony No. 9 (The "New World"), Antonín Dvořák pays homage to the scherzo of this symphony with his falling fourths and timpani strokes. Steinberg, Michael. "The Symphony: a listeners guide". page 153. Oxford University Press, 1995. The hymn, "Joyful, Joyful We Adore Thee", with words written in 1907 by Henry van Dyke, is sung to the "Ode to Joy" tune and is included in many hymnals. Beethoven's Ninth Symphony was an influence on the development of the compact disc. Philips, the company that had started the work on the new audio format, originally planned for a CD to have a diameter of 11.5 cm, while Sony planned a 10 cm diameter needed for one hour of music. However, according to a Philips website, Norio Ohga insisted in 1979 that the CD be able to contain a complete performance of the Ninth Symphony: However, Kees Immink, Philips' chief engineer, who developed the CD, denies this, claiming that the increase was motivated by technical considerations, and that even after the increase in size, the Furtwängler recording was not able to fit onto the earliest CDs. Curse of the ninth Several composers besides Beethoven have completed no more than nine symphonies. This has led certain subsequent composers, particularly Anton Bruckner and Gustav Mahler, to be superstitious about composing their own ninth or tenth symphonies, or to try to avoid writing them at all. This phenomenon has become known as the "curse of the ninth". Performance challenges Duration Lasting more than an hour, the Ninth was an exceptionally long symphony for its time. Like much of Beethoven's later music, his Ninth Symphony is demanding for all the performers, including the choir and soloists. Metronome markings As with all of his symphonies, Beethoven has provided his own metronome markings for the Ninth Symphony, and as with all of his metronome markings, there is controversy among conductors regarding the degree to which they should be followed. Historically, conductors have tended to take a slower tempo than Beethoven marked for the slow movement, and a faster tempo for the military march section of the finale. Conductors in the historically informed performance movement, notably Roger Norrington, have used Beethoven's suggested tempos, to mixed reviews. Ritard/a tempo at the end of the first movement Many conductors move the "a tempo" in m.511 of the first movement to measure m.513 to coincide with the "Funeral March". Re-orchestrations and alterations A number of conductors have made alterations in the instrumentation of the symphony. Mahler's retouching Gustav Mahler revised the orchestration of the Ninth to make it sound like what he believed Beethoven would have wanted if given a modern orchestra. For example, since the modern orchestra has larger string sections than in Beethoven's time, Mahler doubled various wind and brass parts to preserve the balance between strings on the one hand and winds and brass on the other. Horn and trumpet alterations Beethoven's writing for horns and trumpets throughout the symphony (mostly the 2nd horn and 2nd trumpet) is often altered by performers to avoid large leaps (those of a 12th or more). Flute and first violin alterations In the first movement, at times the first violins and flute have ascending 7th leaps within mostly descending melodic phrases. Many conductors alter the register of these passages to create a single descending scale (examples: measure 143 in the flute, m. 501 in the first violins). 2nd bassoon doubling basses in the finale Beethoven's indication that the 2nd bassoon should double the basses in measures 115-164 of the finale was not included in the Breitkopf parts, though it was included in the score. Del Mar, Jonathan (1981) Orchestral Variations: Confusion and Error in the Orchestral Repertoire London: Eulenburg Books, p. 43 Notable recordings After rejecting many performances that he conducted, the notoriously perfectionistic Arturo Toscanini approved the release of the 1952 LP studio recording of the symphony he made for RCA Victor. Soloists were Jan Peerce (tenor), Eileen Farrell (soprano), Nan Merriman (mezzo) and Norman Scott (bass), with the Robert Shaw Chorale, and Toscanini conducting the NBC Symphony Orchestra. The first stereo recording of the Ninth Symphony was by Ferenc Fricsay conducting the Berlin Philharmonic in 1958. Regardless of the truth or not of the legend that Karajan determined the length of the compact disc based on Beethoven's Ninth, almost all recordings fit on a single disc. Political significance has attached to Beethoven's Ninth: Leonard Bernstein conducted a version of the 9th, with "Freiheit" ("Freedom") replacing "Freude" ("Joy"), to celebrate the fall of the Berlin Wall during Christmas 1989. Morin (2002), p. 98 This concert was performed by an orchestra and chorus made up of many nationalities: from Germany, the Bavarian Radio Symphony Orchestra and Chorus, the Chorus of the Berlin Radio Symphony Orchestra, and members of the Sächsische Staatskapelle Dresden; from the Soviet Union, members of the Orchestra of the Kirov Theatre, from the United Kingdom, members of the London Symphony Orchestra; from the USA, members of the New York Philharmonic, and from France, members of the Orchestre de Paris. Soloists were June Anderson, soprano, Sarah Walker, mezzo-soprano, Klaus König, tenor, and Jan-Hendrik Rootering, bass. This is the publisher's catalogue entry for a DVD of Bernstein's Christmas 1989 "Ode to Freedom" concert. Seiji Ozawa conducted the Nagano Winter Orchestra as well as seven choirs in six countries on five continents, performed the Fourth Movement in its entirety, for the 1998 Winter Olympic Games during the finale of the Opening Ceremony. The chorus locations being New York City, Berlin, Cape Point, Sydney, and Beijing, with two in Nagano: the Tokyo Opera Singers and the audience at Nagano Olympic Stadium. Daniel Barenboim, who had recorded the work twice before, conducting the West-Eastern Divan (a youth orchestra of Israel and Arab musicians, which he co-founded) in concert in Berlin on 27 August, 2006 Wilhelm Furtwängler conducted the Berlin Philharmonic on April 19th, 1942, on the eve of Hitler's 53rd birthday, this is now available as a semi-private recording. Furtwängler conducted the Bayreuth Festival Orchestra in 1951. This concert reopened the Bayreuth Festival after the Allies temporarily suspended it following the Second World War. The 74-minute 1951 recording inspired the length of the compact disc. There have been various attempts to record the Ninth to come closer to what Beethoven's contemporaries would have heard, such as recording the Ninth with period instruments. Roger Norrington conducting the London Classical Players recorded it with period instruments for a 1987 release by EMI Records (rereleased in 1997 under the Virgin Classics label). Benjamin Zander made a 1992 recording of the Ninth with the Boston Philharmonic Orchestra and noted soprano Dominique Labelle (who first performed the work with the late Robert Shaw), following Beethoven's own metronome markings. Twelve years later after Norrington, Philippe Herreweghe recorded the Ninth with his period-instrument Orchestre des Champs-Élysées and his Collegium Vocale chorus for Harmonia Mundi in 1999. Sir John Eliot Gardiner recorded his period-instrument version of the Ninth Symphony, Talli Makell, "Ludwig van Beethoven" in Classical Music: The Listener's Companion ed. Alexander J. Morin (San Francisco: Backbeat Books, 2002), p. 99 conducting his Monteverdi Choir and Orchestre Révolutionnaire et Romantique in 1992. It was first released by Deutsche Grammophon in 1994 on their early music Archiv Produktion label as part of his complete cycle of the Beethoven symphonies. His soloists included Luba Orgonasova, Anne Sofie von Otter, Anthony Rolfe Johnson and Gilles Cachemaille. Franz Liszt arranged the whole symphony for piano, and that arrangement has been recorded by Konstantin Scherbakov. Richard Wagner arranged the orchestral parts for piano, retaining vocal soloists and choir, and this has been recorded by Noriko Ogawa with the Bach Collegium Japan directed by Masaaki Suzuki. At 79 minutes, one of the longest Ninths recorded is Karl Böhm's, conducting the Vienna Philharmonic in 1981 with Jessye Norman and Plácido Domingo among the soloists. One of the first recordings to incorporate many of Jonathan Del Mar's corrections was by Sir Charles Mackerras, as the first symphony in his EMI cycle of the Beethoven symphonies with the Royal Liverpool Philharmonic Orchestra and the Royal Liverpool Philharmonic Choir in 1991. His soloists included Bryn Terfel, Della Jones, Joan Rodgers and Peter Bronder. Mackerras later re-recorded the Ninth for his second recorded cycle of Beethoven symphonies for Hyperion Records, live at the 2006 Edinburgh Festival, this time with the Philharmonia Orchestra. David Zinman's 1997 recording with the Zurich Tonhalle Orchestra was a modern instrument recording that used the Baerenreiter edition edited by Jonathan Del Mar. Anthem During the division of Germany in the Cold War, the Ode to Joy segment of the symphony was also played in lieu of an anthem at the Olympic Games for the Unified Team of Germany between 1956 and 1968. In 1972, the musical backing (without the words) was adopted as the Anthem of Europe by the Council of Europe and subsequently by the European Communities (now the European Union) in 1985. In 1985, the European Union chose Beethoven's music as the EU anthem. EUROPA - The EU at a glance - The European Anthem When Kosovo declared independence in 2008, it lacked an anthem, so for the independence ceremonies it used Ode to Joy, in recognition of the European Union's role in its independence. It has since adopted its own anthem. Additionally, the Ode to Joy was adopted as the national anthem of Rhodesia in 1974 as Rise O Voices of Rhodesia. Notes Bibliography Books and scholarly articles Buch, Esteban, Beethoven's Ninth: A Political History Translated by Richard Miller, ISBN 0-226-07824-8 (University Of Chicago Press)Esteban Buch: Beethoven's Ninth Hopkins, Antony (1981) The Nine Symphonies of Beethoven. London: Heinemann. Levy, David Benjamin, "Beethoven: the Ninth Symphony," revised edition (Yale University Press, 2003). Parsons, James, “‘Deine Zauber binden wieder’: Beethoven, Schiller, and the Joyous Reconciliation of Opposites,” Beethoven Forum (2002) 9/1, 1–53. Taruskin, Richard, "Resisting the Ninth", in his Text and Act: Essays on Music and Performance (Oxford University Press, 1995). External links Audio CBC Radio Two "Concerts On Demand" (Performance of the entire symphony by Vancouver Symphony Orchestra conducted by Bramwell Tovey) Link Broken David Bernard conducting the Park Avenue Chamber Symphony Christoph Eschenbach conducting the Philadelphia Orchestra Sound samples and other info from the Classical Music Pages Scores, manuscripts and text Schott Musik International 31st and last publisher of Beethoven & copyright holderOperaResource - RealHoffmann, A Brief History of Schott Original manuscript (site in German) The William and Gayle Cook Music Library at the Indiana University School of Music's has posted a score for the symphony. Text/libretto, with translation, in English and German Other material EU official page about the anthem Analysis of the Beethoven Symphony No. 9 on the All About Ludwig van Beethoven Page A guided tour of Beethoven's 9th Symphony by Rob Kapilow on WNYC's Soundcheck'' Program note from the Kennedy Center with more information about the symphony's finale as it might have been, and is Analysis for students (with timings) of the final movement, at Washington State University | Symphony_No._9_(Beethoven) |@lemmatized ludwig:4 van:5 beethoven:69 completely:1 deaf:2 compose:2 ninth:32 symphony:71 minor:6 op:5 choral:6 final:6 complete:7 one:12 best:1 known:1 work:11 western:1 classical:6 repertoire:2 consider:3 great:3 masterpiece:1 first:33 example:3 major:7 composer:8 use:10 voice:7 word:10 sung:1 movement:49 four:5 vocal:8 soloist:11 chorus:10 take:3 ode:11 joy:16 poem:3 write:12 friedrich:1 schiller:6 revise:3 pen:1 addition:2 make:11 history:3 composition:2 page:7 manuscript:3 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5,502 | Armed_Forces_of_El_Salvador | The Armed Force of El Salvador, in Spanish Fuerza Armada de El Salvador is the official name of the combined armed forces of El Salvador. It has been in existence since breaking up from the United Provinces of Central America in 1840. Recently, the El Salvadoran Army decided to follow the example of the Israeli Defence Forces. Both nations have a similar population: 6,000,000 citizens. Currently the Salvadoran Military is fighting with U.S. Forces against Rebel forces in Iraq. Military branches: Army, Navy, Air Force Military manpower - military age: 18 years of age Military manpower - availability: males age 17-49: 1,428,974 (2000 est.) Military manpower - fit for military service: males age 17-49: 906,656 (2006 est.) Military manpower - reaching military age annually: males: 67,181 (2000 est.) Military expenditures - dollar figure: $2.5 billion (FY98) Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 16.4% (FY98) Aircraft inventory In 1988 the Salvadoran Air Force had over 2,000 personnel, including an air defense unit, a security group, and some conscripts. The antiaircraft artillery battalion was equipped with twenty-four Yugoslav-made M-55 20mm guns and four selfpropelled guns and was staffed with army personnel. From the mid1970s to the late 1980s, the air force had acquired aircraft from Israel (French-made), France, Brazil, and the United States. Although the air force suffered a major setback on January 27, 1982, when guerrillas attacked Ilopango Air Base outside San Salvador and destroyed 75 percent of the air force's inventory, the United States delivered replacement aircraft within weeks. With additional United States assistance, the air force built up quickly in 1985 and by late 1986 had a large helicopter force and a variety of other aircraft (see table 8, Appendix). Attrition continued to be high in the late 1980s, with a number of helicopters and other aircraft downed by guerrilla forces or mechanical failure. In the late 1980s, the Salvadoran Air Force was organized into the Military Aviation School (Escuela de Aviacion Militar-- EAM) and five squadrons: the Hunter Squadron (Escuadrilla de Caza), based in San Miguel; the Hunter Bomber Squadron (Escuadrilla de Caza Bombardeo), based at Ilopango Air Base; the Attack Squadron (Escuadrilla de Ataque) and the Transport Squadron (Escuadrilla de Transporte), also based at Ilopango; and the growing Helicopter Squadron (Escuadrilla de Helicoptero), with aircraft based at both Ilopango and San Miguel. Aircraft inventory ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Aircraft ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Origin ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Type ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Versions ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|In service http://www.milaviapress.com/orbat/elsalvador/index.php ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Notes |----- | Basler BT-67 || || tactical transport || || 2 || |----- | Dassault Ouragan || || Fighter-bomber || M.D.450A || 8 || Retired |----- | Bell UH-1 Iroquois || || utility helicopter || UH-1H/M || 15 || |----- | Bell 407 || || utility helicopter || || 1 || |----- |----- | Bell 412 || || transport helicopter || 412EP || 4 || |----- | Cessna T-41 Mescalero || || trainer || T-41D || 1 || |----- | Cessna 210 || || utility || || 2 || |----- | Cessna O-2 Skymaster || || liaison || O-2AO-2B || 81 || |---- | Cessna A-37 Dragonfly || || attack || A-37B || 9 || |----- | Fouga Magister|| || jet trainer || || 9 || |----- | ENAER T-35 Pillan || || trainer || T-35AT-35B || 23 || |----- | Swearingen Merlin || || transport || IIIB || 1 || |----- |----- | MD Helicopters MD 500 || || utility helicopter || MD 500E || 5 || |----- | IAI Arava || Israel || utility || || 3 || |----- | Schweizer 300 || || utility helicopter || 300C || 6 || |----- | Socata Rallye || || utility || Rallye 235G || 5 || |} References 2 http://armyreco.ifrance.com/amerique_du_nord/el_salvadore/el-salvadore_index_equipement.htm 3 http://www.country-data.com/cgi-bin/query/r-4309.html 4 http://www.country-data.com/frd/cs/el_salvador/sv_appen.html External links El Salvador Armed Foces El Salvador Armed Forces | Armed_Forces_of_El_Salvador |@lemmatized armed:2 force:15 el:7 salvador:6 spanish:1 fuerza:1 armada:1 de:7 official:1 name:1 combine:1 existence:1 since:1 break:1 united:4 province:1 central:1 america:1 recently:1 salvadoran:4 army:3 decide:1 follow:1 example:1 israeli:1 defence:1 nation:1 similar:1 population:1 citizen:1 currently:1 military:12 fight:1 u:1 rebel:1 iraq:1 branch:1 navy:1 air:10 manpower:4 age:5 year:1 availability:1 male:3 est:3 fit:1 service:2 reach:1 annually:1 expenditure:1 dollar:1 figure:1 billion:1 expenditures:1 percent:2 gdp:1 aircraft:8 inventory:3 personnel:2 include:1 defense:1 unit:1 security:1 group:1 conscript:1 antiaircraft:1 artillery:1 battalion:1 equip:1 twenty:1 four:2 yugoslav:1 make:2 gun:2 selfpropelled:1 staff:1 late:4 acquire:1 israel:2 french:1 france:1 brazil:1 state:3 although:1 suffer:1 major:1 setback:1 january:1 guerrilla:2 attack:3 ilopango:4 base:6 outside:1 san:3 destroy:1 deliver:1 replacement:1 within:1 week:1 additional:1 assistance:1 build:1 quickly:1 large:1 helicopter:9 variety:1 see:1 table:1 appendix:1 attrition:1 continue:1 high:1 number:1 mechanical:1 failure:1 organize:1 aviation:1 school:1 escuela:1 aviacion:1 militar:1 eam:1 five:1 squadron:6 hunter:2 escuadrilla:5 caza:2 miguel:2 bomber:2 bombardeo:1 ataque:1 transport:4 transporte:1 also:1 grow:1 helicoptero:1 style:6 text:6 align:6 left:6 background:6 aacccc:6 origin:1 type:1 version:1 http:4 www:3 milaviapress:1 com:4 orbat:1 elsalvador:1 index:1 php:1 note:1 basler:1 bt:1 tactical:1 dassault:1 ouragan:1 fighter:1 retire:1 bell:3 uh:2 iroquois:1 utility:7 cessna:4 mescalero:1 trainer:3 skymaster:1 liaison:1 dragonfly:1 fouga:1 magister:1 jet:1 enaer:1 pillan:1 swearingen:1 merlin:1 iiib:1 md:3 iai:1 arava:1 schweizer:1 socata:1 rallye:2 reference:1 armyreco:1 ifrance:1 htm:1 country:2 data:2 cgi:1 bin:1 query:1 r:1 html:2 frd:1 c:1 external:1 link:1 arm:2 foces:1 |@bigram el_salvador:5 manpower_availability:1 manpower_fit:1 military_expenditures:1 expenditures_percent:1 squadron_escuadrilla:5 escuadrilla_de:5 de_transporte:1 align_left:6 background_aacccc:6 http_www:3 index_php:1 fighter_bomber:1 bell_uh:1 uh_iroquois:1 utility_helicopter:4 cessna_utility:1 utility_cessna:1 cessna_skymaster:1 cgi_bin:1 bin_query:1 external_link:1 |
5,503 | Demographics_of_the_Faroe_Islands | This article is about the demographic features of the population of the Faroe Islands, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. Faroese student in national costume. The vast majority of the population are ethnic Faroese, of Norse descent. Ethnic Faroese are (in enetic terms) the most homogenous folk. Recent DNA analysis have revealed that Y chromosomes, tracing male descent, are 87% Scandinavian. The origin of the isolated population of the Faroe Islands investigated using Y chromosomal markers. The studies show that mitochondrial DNA, tracing female descent, is 84% British. Of the approximately 48,000 inhabitants of the Faroe Islands (16,921 private households (2004)), 98% are realm citizens, meaning Faroese, Danish, or Greenlandic. By birthplace one can derive the following origins of the inhabitants: born on the Faroes 91.7%, in Denmark 5.8%, and in Greenland 0.3%. The largest group of foreigners are Icelanders comprising 0.4% of the population, followed by Norwegians and Polish, each comprising 0.2%. Altogether, on the Faroe Islands there are people from 77 different nationalities. The Faroe Islands have the highest rate of adoption in the world, despite a relatively high birth rate of 2.6 children. Faroese is spoken in the entire country as a first language. It is not possible to say exactly how many people worldwide speak the Faroese language. This is for two reasons: Firstly, many ethnic Faroese live in Denmark and few who are born there return to the Faroes with their parents or as adults. Secondly, there are some established Danish families on the Faroes who speak Danish at home. The Faroese language is one of the smallest of the Germanic languages. It is most similar to Icelandic and Old Norse. In the twentieth century Faroese became the official language and since the Faroes are a part of the Danish realm Danish is taught in schools as a compulsory second language. Faroese language policy provides for the active creation of new terms in Faroese suitable for modern life. CIA World Factbook demographic statistics Demographics of the Faroe Islands, Data of FAO, year 2005 ; Number of inhabitants in thousands. The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated. Population 48,850 (July 2008 est.) Age structure 0-14 years: 21,9% (male 5,489; female 5,166) 15-64 years: 64% (male 16,650; female 14,482) 65 years and over: 14,1% (male 3,233; female 3,648) (2008 est.) Population growth rate 0.376% (2008 est.) Birth rate 13.25 births/1,000 population (2008 est.) Death rate 8.67 deaths/1,000 population (2008 est.) Net migration rate -0.82 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2008 est.) Sex ratio at birth: 1.07 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.06 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 1.15 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.89 male(s)/female total population: 1.09 male(s)/female (2008 est.) Infant mortality rate 6.46 deaths/1,000 live births (2008 est.) Life expectancy at birth total population: 79.29 years male: 76.86 years female: 81.89 years (2008 est.) Total fertility rate 2.45 children born/woman (2008 est.) Nationality noun: Faroese (singular and plural) adjective: Faroese Ethnic groups Faroese (mixed Scandinavian), Danish Religions Lutheran Languages Faroese (derived from Old Norse), Danish Literacy definition: NA total population: NA% male: NA% female: NA% note: similar to Denmark proper NameAreaInhabitantsPeople per km²Main placesRegionsStreymoy373.521,71757.4Tórshavn and VestmannaTórshavn and rest of StreymoyEysturoy286.310,73837Fuglafjørður and RunavíkNorth Eysturoy and South EysturoyVágar177.62,85615.7Míðvágur and SørvágurVágarSuðuroy1665,07430.9Tvøroyri and VágurSuðuroySandoy112.11,42812.4SandurSandoyBorðoy955,03052.4KlaksvíkKlaksvík and rest of northern Faroes (Norðoyar)Viðoy4160515ViðareiðiNorðoyarKunoy35.51353.8KunoyNorðoyarKalsoy30.91364.8Mikladalur and HúsarNorðoyarSvínoy27.4582.7SvínoyNorðoyarFugloy11.2464KirkjaNorðoyarNólsoy10.326226.1NólsoyStreymoyMykines10.3192MykinesVágarSkúvoy10615.7SkúvoySandoyHestur6.1407.1HesturStreymoyStóra Dímun2.771.9DímunSandoyKoltur2.520.8KolturStreymoyLítla Dímun0.800–Sandoy See also Faroe Islands List of Faroese people References | Demographics_of_the_Faroe_Islands |@lemmatized article:1 demographic:4 feature:1 population:14 faroe:7 island:7 include:1 density:1 ethnicity:1 education:1 level:1 health:1 populace:1 economic:1 status:1 religious:1 affiliation:1 aspect:1 faroese:16 student:1 national:1 costume:1 vast:1 majority:1 ethnic:4 norse:3 descent:3 enetic:1 term:2 homogenous:1 folk:1 recent:1 dna:2 analysis:1 reveal:1 chromosome:1 trace:2 male:11 scandinavian:2 origin:2 isolated:1 investigate:1 use:1 chromosomal:1 marker:1 study:1 show:1 mitochondrial:1 female:11 british:1 approximately:1 inhabitant:3 private:1 household:1 realm:2 citizen:1 mean:1 danish:7 greenlandic:1 birthplace:1 one:2 derive:2 following:2 bear:3 faroes:5 denmark:3 greenland:1 large:1 group:2 foreigner:1 icelander:1 comprise:2 follow:1 norwegian:1 polish:1 altogether:1 people:3 different:1 nationality:2 high:2 rate:8 adoption:1 world:3 despite:1 relatively:1 birth:6 child:2 speak:3 entire:1 country:1 first:1 language:8 possible:1 say:1 exactly:1 many:2 worldwide:1 two:1 reason:1 firstly:1 live:2 return:1 parent:1 adult:1 secondly:1 established:1 family:1 home:1 small:1 germanic:1 similar:2 icelandic:1 old:2 twentieth:1 century:1 become:1 official:1 since:1 part:1 teach:1 school:1 compulsory:1 second:1 policy:1 provide:1 active:1 creation:1 new:1 suitable:1 modern:1 life:2 cia:2 factbook:2 statistic:2 data:1 fao:1 year:10 number:1 thousand:1 unless:1 otherwise:1 indicate:1 july:1 est:10 age:1 structure:1 growth:1 death:3 net:1 migration:1 migrant:1 sex:1 ratio:1 total:4 infant:1 mortality:1 expectancy:1 fertility:1 woman:1 noun:1 singular:1 plural:1 adjective:1 mixed:1 religion:1 lutheran:1 literacy:1 definition:1 na:4 note:1 proper:1 nameareainhabitantspeople:1 per:1 vestmannatórshavn:1 rest:2 runavíknorth:1 eysturoy:1 south:1 northern:1 norðoyar:1 sandoy:1 see:1 also:1 list:1 reference:1 |@bigram faroe_island:7 density_ethnicity:1 ethnicity_education:1 health_populace:1 populace_economic:1 religious_affiliation:1 affiliation_aspect:1 vast_majority:1 mitochondrial_dna:1 twentieth_century:1 factbook_demographic:1 demographic_statistic:2 statistic_cia:1 factbook_unless:1 unless_otherwise:1 male_female:8 net_migration:1 rate_migrant:1 est_infant:1 infant_mortality:1 mortality_rate:1 life_expectancy:1 expectancy_birth:1 total_fertility:1 fertility_rate:1 est_nationality:1 nationality_noun:1 singular_plural:1 literacy_definition:1 |
5,504 | Henry_the_Navigator | This article is about the Portuguese prince. For the Dutch prince sometimes known as "Henry the Navigator", see Prince Henry of the Netherlands. The Infante Henrique, Duke of Viseu (; Porto, March 4, 1394 – November 13, 1460 in Sagres) was an infante (prince) of the Portuguese House of Aviz and an important figure in the early days of the Portuguese Empire, being responsible for the beginning of the European worldwide explorations. He is known in English as Prince Henry the Navigator (). Prince Henry the Navigator was the third child of King John I of Portugal, the founder of the Aviz dynasty, and of Philippa of Lancaster, the daughter of John of Gaunt. Henry encouraged his father to conquer Ceuta (1415), the Muslim port on the North African coast across the Straits of Gibraltar from the Iberian peninsula, with profound consequences on Henry's worldview: Henry became aware of the profit possibilities in the Saharan trade routes that terminated there and became fascinated with Africa in general; he was most intrigued by the Christian legend of Prester John and the expansion of Portuguese trade. It is a common conception that Henry gathered at his Vila on the Sagres peninsula a school of navigators and map-makers. He did employ some cartographers to help him chart the coast of Mauritania in the wake of voyages he sent there, but for the rest there was no center of navigational science or any supposed observatory in the modern sense of the word, nor was there an organized navigational center. In “Crónica da Guiné” Henry is described as a person with no luxuries, not avaricious, speaking with soft words and calm gestures, a man of many virtues that never allowed any poor person leave his presence empty handed. Early life Coat of Arms of Infante Henry, the Navigator, 1st Duke of Viseu. Henry was born in 1394 in Porto, probably when the royal couple was being housed in the old mint of the city, nowadays called Casa do Infante (Prince's House). He was the third son born to Philippa of Lancaster, the sister of King Henry IV of England. Henry was 21 when he, his father and brothers conquered the Moorish port of Ceuta in northern Morocco, that had been for a long time the base for Barbary pirates that assaulted the Portuguese coast, depopulating villages by capturing their inhabitants to be sold in the African slave market. This attack was successful, as it inspired Henry to explore down the coast of Africa, most of which was unknown to Europeans. The desire to locate the source of the West African gold trade, find the legendary Christian kingdom of Prester John, and stop the pirate attacks on the Portuguese coast were three of his main interests in the region. The ships that sailed the Mediterranean at that time were too slow and too heavy to make these voyages. Under his direction, a new and much lighter ship was developed, the caravel, which would allow sea captains to sail further, faster and much more efficiently. In 1419, his father appointed him the governor of the province of the Algarve. Resources and income On May 25, 1420, Henry gained appointment as the governor of the very rich Order of Christ, the Portuguese successor to the Knights Templar, which had its headquarters at Tomar. Henry would hold this position for the remainder of his life, and the order was an important source of funds for Henry's ambitious plans, especially his persistent attempts to conquer the Canary Islands, which the Portuguese had claimed to have discoverd before the year 1346. Henry also had other resources. When John I died, Henry's eldest brother, Duarte became head of the castles council, and granted Henry a "Royal Flush" of all profits from trading within the areas he discovered as well as the sole right to authorize expeditions beyond Cape Bojador. He also held various valuable monopolies on resources in the Algarve. When Duarte died eight years later, Henry supported his brother Pedro for the regency during Afonso V of Portugal's minority, and in return received a confirmation of this levy. Henry also promoted the colonization of the Azores during Pedro's regency (1439–1448). Vila do Infante, patron of Portuguese exploration According to João de Barros, in Algarve he repopulated a village that he called Terçanabal (maybe from * dársen'Anibal). This village was situated in a strategic position for his maritime enterprises and was later called Vila do Infante. From his Vila do Infante, or Town of the Prince, on the Sagres peninsula, Henry sponsored voyages down the coast of Mauretania that were primarily exploration expeditions, later on bringing back to the nearby town of Loola, from whence they set out, numerous African slaves and goods. Panel of glazed tiles by Jorge Colaço (1922) representing Henry the Navigator at the Promontory of Sagres. Lisboa, Pavilhão Carlos Lopes. The first contacts with the African slave market were made by expeditions to ransom Portuguese subjects enslaved by pirate attacks on Portuguese ships or villages. Henry justified this on the grounds that he was converting these captives to Christianity. As Sir Peter Russell remarks in his biography, "In Henryspeak, conversion and enslavement were interchangeable terms." The view that Henry's court rapidly grew into the technological base for exploration, with a naval arsenal and an observatory, etc., is believed by some historians, though not actually proven. Henry did possess geographical curiosity, though, and therefore employed cartographers. Jehuda Cresques, a noted cartographer, received an invitation to come to Sagres and probably make maps for Henry, a position he accepted. Henry was somewhat interested in profits from his voyages. From the first Africans that were brought to Lagos for sale in 1444 (see his contemporary biography by Zurara), he received from the merchants the value corresponding to the fifth part (o quinto) as the expedition had been sponsored by the shipowners. The nearby port of Lagos provided a convenient harbor from which these expeditions left. The voyages were made in very small ships, mostly the caravel, a light and maneuverable vessel that used the lateen sail of the Arabs. Most of the voyages sent out by Henry consisted of one or two ships that navigated by following the coast, stopping at night to tie up along some shore. Early results of Henry's explorers Until Henry's time, Cape Bojador remained the most southerly point known to Europeans on the unpromising desert coast of Africa, although the Periplus of the Carthaginian Hanno the Navigator described a journey farther south about 2,000 years earlier. As a second fruit of this work João Gonçalves Zarco, Bartolomeu Perestrelo and Tristão Vaz Teixeira rediscovered the Madeira Islands in 1420, and at Henry's instigation Portuguese settlers colonized the islands. In 1427, one of Henry's navigators, probably Gonçalo Velho, discovered the Azores. Portugal soon colonized these islands in 1430. Gil Eanes, the commander of one of Henry's expeditions, became the first European known to pass Cape Bojador in 1434. This was a breakthrough as it was considered close to the end of the world, with difficult currents that did not encourage commercial enterprise. Henry and the navigators in the monument to the Portuguese discoveries, Lisbon Henry also continued his involvement in events closer to home. In 1431 he donated houses for the Estudo Geral to reunite all the sciences — grammar, logic, rhetoric, arithmetic, music and astronomy — into what would later become the University of Lisbon. For other subjects like medicine or philosophy, he ordered that each room should be decorated according to each subject that was being taught. He functioned as a primary organizer of the Portuguese expedition to Tangier in 1437. This proved a disastrous failure; Henry's younger brother Fernando was given as a hostage to guarantee that the Portuguese would fulfill the terms of the peace agreement that had been made with Çala Ben Çala. The agreement was first broken by the Moors, who attacked the Portuguese and captured the Portuguese wounded when they were being carried to the ships, killing those who tried to resist. The Archbishop of Braga and the count of Arraiolos refused to approve the terms in the reunion of the Portuguese Cortes, thus condemning Fernando to remain in miserable captivity until his death eleven years later. Henry for most of his last twenty-three years concentrated on his exploration activities, or on Portuguese court politics. Henry's tomb in the Monastery of Batalha. Using the new ship type, the expeditions then pushed onwards. Nuno Tristão and Antão Gonçalves reached Cape Blanco in 1441. The Portuguese sighted the Bay of Arguin in 1443 and built an important fort there around the year 1448. Dinis Dias soon came across the Senegal River and rounded the peninsula of Cap-Vert in 1444. By this stage the explorers had passed the southern boundary of the desert, and from then on Henry had one of his wishes fulfilled: the Portuguese had circumvented the Muslim land-based trade routes across the western Sahara Desert, and slaves and gold began arriving in Portugal. By 1452, the influx of gold permitted the minting of Portugal's first gold cruzado coins. A cruzado was equal to 400 reis at the time. From 1444 to 1446, as many as forty vessels sailed from Lagos on Henry's behalf, and the first private mercantile expeditions began. Alvise Cadamosto explored the Atlantic coast of Africa and discovered several islands of the Cape Verde archipelago between 1455 and 1456. In his first voyage, which started on March 22 1455, he visited the Madeira Islands and the Canary Islands. On the second voyage, in 1456, Cadamosto became the first European to reach the Cape Verde Islands. António Noli later claimed the credit. By 1462, the Portuguese had explored the coast of Africa as far as the present-day nation Sierra Leone. Twenty-eight years later, Bartolomeu Dias (can be spelt Diaz) proved that Africa could be circumnavigated when he reached the southern tip of the continent. This is now known as the "Cape of Good Hope." In 1498, Vasco da Gama was the first sailor to travel from Portugal to India. Bibliography Fiction Arkan Simaan, L'Écuyer d'Henri le Navigateur, Éditions l'Harmattan, Paris. Historical novel based on Zurara's chronicles, written in French. ISBN : 978-2-296-03687-1 Mentioned in the prologue of the SNES game, Uncharted Waters. Appears as the Portuguese Leader in the Age of Empires 3 Videogame See also Diogo Gomes Alvise Cadamosto Gomes Eanes de Zurara Saint Vincent Panels Prince Henry the Navigator Park Footnote | Henry_the_Navigator |@lemmatized article:1 portuguese:23 prince:9 dutch:1 sometimes:1 know:5 henry:43 navigator:10 see:3 netherlands:1 infante:7 henrique:1 duke:2 viseu:2 porto:2 march:2 november:1 sagres:5 house:4 aviz:2 important:3 figure:1 early:3 day:2 empire:2 responsible:1 beginning:1 european:5 worldwide:1 exploration:5 english:1 third:2 child:1 king:2 john:5 portugal:6 founder:1 dynasty:1 philippa:2 lancaster:2 daughter:1 gaunt:1 encourage:2 father:3 conquer:3 ceuta:2 muslim:2 port:3 north:1 african:6 coast:10 across:3 strait:1 gibraltar:1 iberian:1 peninsula:4 profound:1 consequence:1 worldview:1 become:6 aware:1 profit:3 possibility:1 saharan:1 trade:4 route:2 terminate:1 fascinate:1 africa:6 general:1 intrigue:1 christian:2 legend:1 prester:2 expansion:1 common:1 conception:1 gather:1 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5,505 | Demographics_of_Nauru | This article is about the demographic features of the population of Nauru, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. Naurean people As of July 2002, the population of Nauru was estimated at 12,329. The inhabitants are known as Nauruans. People Demography The tiny equatorial island of Nauru has been inhabited for about 2,000 years. Today, most of the people of Nauru live along a narrow and fertile coastal strip of the island. The total population numbers in excess of 11,000. Ethnicity Its population is approximately 58 percent indigenous Nauruan and 26 percent other Pacific Islander, with sizable minorities of both Europeans and Chinese, each numbering about 8 percent respectively. The indigenous Nauruans are a mixture of three Pacific ethnic groups: Melanesian, Micronesian and Polynesian. A small overseas population also lives in Nauru, made up mainly of Chinese, Filipinos, Tuvaluans and I-Kiribati. Language Nauruans also have their own distinct Pacific language, though most people speak or understand English. Religion The population is largely Christian as a result of missionary activity in the 19th century. Most Christians tend to belong to Protestant denominations. There are also significant Baha'i and Buddhist minorities. Education Education in Nauru is both free and compulsory from age 5 through 16. There are 6 infant schools, 2 primary schools, 1 secondary school, a technical school and a mission school on Nauru. Students who wish to pursue higher education are often granted scholarships to study abroad. Human Development The population of Nauru has an average life expectancy ranging from 62 years, depending on the sources used. The infant mortality rate for Nauru was 10.33 deaths for every 1000 live births, the birth rate is about 26.09 births per 1,000, and the overall population growth rate is 1.9 percent. In terms of health, diabetes, cancer and hypertension all present serious problems in contemporary society, due to a highly Westernized diet. Another health challenge has been the increase in the rate of alcoholism in Nauru. Nevertheless, medical and dental care are provided free for all Nauruans. CIA World Factbook demographic statistics The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated. Population structure Age structure 0-14 years: 39.6% (male 2,515; female 2,366) 15-64 years: 58.7% (male 3,578; female 3,656) 65 years and over: 1.7% (male 108; female 106) Sex ratio at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.06 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 0.98 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 1.05 male(s)/female total population: 1.01 male(s)/female Ethnic groups Nauruan 58% other Pacific Islander 26% Chinese 8% European 8% Religion: Christian (two-thirds Protestant, one-third Roman Catholic; 78%). Also a sizeable Bahá'í population (9%), Buddhist (11%) Languages: Nauruan (official, a distinct Pacific Island language) English widely understood, spoken, and used for most government and commercial purposes Population dynamics Population growth rate: 1.81% (2006 est.) Birth rate: 26.6 births/1,000 population Death rate: 7.06 deaths/1,000 population Net migration rate: 0 migrant(s)/1,000 population Infant mortality rate: 10.52 deaths/1,000 live births Life expectancy at birth total population: 61.57 years female: 65.26 years male: 58.05 years Total fertility rate: 3.5 children born/woman See also Nauru | Demographics_of_Nauru |@lemmatized article:1 demographic:3 feature:1 population:19 nauru:11 include:1 density:1 ethnicity:2 education:4 level:1 health:3 populace:1 economic:1 status:1 religious:1 affiliation:1 aspect:1 naurean:1 people:4 july:1 estimate:1 inhabitant:1 know:1 nauruan:7 demography:1 tiny:1 equatorial:1 island:3 inhabit:1 year:11 today:1 live:4 along:1 narrow:1 fertile:1 coastal:1 strip:1 total:4 number:2 excess:1 approximately:1 percent:4 indigenous:2 pacific:5 islander:2 sizable:1 minority:2 european:2 chinese:3 respectively:1 mixture:1 three:1 ethnic:2 group:2 melanesian:1 micronesian:1 polynesian:1 small:1 overseas:1 also:5 make:1 mainly:1 filipinos:1 tuvaluans:1 kiribati:1 language:4 distinct:2 though:1 speak:1 understand:1 english:2 religion:2 largely:1 christian:3 result:1 missionary:1 activity:1 century:1 tend:1 belong:1 protestant:2 denomination:1 significant:1 baha:1 buddhist:2 free:2 compulsory:1 age:2 infant:3 school:5 primary:1 secondary:1 technical:1 mission:1 student:1 wish:1 pursue:1 high:1 often:1 grant:1 scholarship:1 study:1 abroad:1 human:1 development:1 average:1 life:2 expectancy:2 range:1 depend:1 source:1 use:2 mortality:2 rate:10 death:4 every:1 birth:8 per:1 overall:1 growth:2 term:1 diabetes:1 cancer:1 hypertension:1 present:1 serious:1 problem:1 contemporary:1 society:1 due:1 highly:1 westernized:1 diet:1 another:1 challenge:1 increase:1 alcoholism:1 nevertheless:1 medical:1 dental:1 care:1 provide:1 cia:2 world:2 factbook:2 statistic:2 following:1 unless:1 otherwise:1 indicate:1 structure:2 male:9 female:9 sex:1 ratio:1 two:1 third:2 one:1 roman:1 catholic:1 sizeable:1 bahá:1 í:1 official:1 widely:1 understood:1 spoken:1 government:1 commercial:1 purpose:1 dynamic:1 est:1 net:1 migration:1 migrant:1 fertility:1 child:1 bear:1 woman:1 see:1 |@bigram density_ethnicity:1 ethnicity_education:1 health_populace:1 populace_economic:1 religious_affiliation:1 affiliation_aspect:1 pacific_islander:2 sizable_minority:1 micronesian_polynesian:1 chinese_filipinos:1 protestant_denomination:1 life_expectancy:2 infant_mortality:2 mortality_rate:2 factbook_demographic:1 demographic_statistic:2 statistic_cia:1 factbook_unless:1 unless_otherwise:1 male_female:8 bahá_í:1 net_migration:1 rate_migrant:1 expectancy_birth:1 total_fertility:1 fertility_rate:1 |
5,506 | Hansie_Cronje | Wessel Johannes "Hansie" Cronje (September 25, 1969 - June 1, 2002) was a South African cricketer and captain of the South African national cricket team in the 1990s. He was voted the 11th greatest South African in 2004 despite having been banned for life from professional cricket for his role in a match-fixing scandal. Early life Born in Bloemfontein, Cronje matriculated in 1987 from the prestigious Grey College school in Bloemfontein. An excellent all round sportsman, he represented the then Orange Free State in cricket and rugby at schools level. Cronje also went to the University of Orange Free State and there he left with a Bachelor of Commerce. His father Ewie had played for Orange Free State in the 1960s, and Hansie's older brother Frans had also played first-class cricket. First-class career Cronje made his first-class debut for Orange Free State against Transvaal at Johannesburg in January 1988 at the age of 18. In the following season he was a regular appearing in all eight Currie Cup matches plus being part of the Benson and Hedges Series winning team, scoring 73 as an opener in the final. In 1989/90, despite playing all the Currie Cup matches, he failed to make a century, and averaged only 19.76; however, in one-day games he averaged 60.12. During that season he scored his maiden century for South African Universities against Mike Gatting's rebels. South African Universities v England XI, 1989/90, Scorecard Despite having just turned 21, Cronje was made captain of Orange Free State for the 1990/1 season. He scored his maiden century for them against Natal in December 1990, and finished the season with another century and a total of 715 runs at 39.72. That season he also scored 159* in a 40-over match against Griqualand West. In 1992/3 he captained Orange Free State to the Castle Cup/Total Power Series double. In 1995 Cronje appeared for Leicestershire where he scored 1301 runs at 52.04 finishing the season as the county's leading scorer. In 1995/6 he finished the season top of the batting averages in the Currie Cup Batting Averages in Castle Cup 1995/6 his top score of 158 helped Free State chase down 389 to beat Northern Transvaal. Free State v Northern Transvaal, Castle Cup 1995/6, Scorecard In 1997, Cronje played for Ireland as an overseas player in the Benson and Hedges Cup and helped them to a 46-run win over Middlesex by scoring 94 not out and taking three wickets. Ireland v Middlesex, Benson & Hedges Cup 1997, Scorecard This was Ireland's first ever win against English county opposition. Ireland v Middlesex, Benson & Hedges Cup 1997, Match Report Later in the same competition he scored 85 and took 1 wicket against Glamorgan. Glamorgan v Ireland, Benson & Hedges Cup 1997, Scorecard International career Debuts Cronje's form in 1991/2 was impressive especially in the one-day format where he averaged 61.40. He earned an international call up for the 1992 World Cup, making his One Day International debut against Australia at Sydney. During the tournament he played in eight of the team's nine games, averaging 34.00 with the bat while his medium pace was used bowling 20 overs. After the World Cup Cronje was part of the tour to the West Indies; he featured in the three ODI's and in the Test match at Bridgetown that followed he made his Test debut, this was South Africa first Test since readmission and they came close to beating a strong West Indian side, going into the final day at 122/2 chasing 200 they collapsed to 148. India toured South Africa in 1992/3. In the one-day series Cronje managed just one fifty but with the ball he was economical and took his career best figures of 5/32, becoming the second South African to take 5 wickets in an ODI. South Africa v India, 1st ODI 1992/3, Match Report In the Test series that followed he scored his maiden test century, 135 off 411 balls, after coming in at 0-1 in the second over he was last man out, after eight and three-quarter hours, in a total of 275. This contributed to South Africa's first Test win since readmission. At the end of the season in a triangular tournament with Pakistan and West Indies he scored 81 off 70 balls against Pakistan. In South Africa's next Test series against Sri Lanka Cronje scored his second Test century, 122 in the second Test in Colombo; the victory margin of an innings and 208 runs is a South African record. He finished the series with 237 runs at 59.25 after scoring 73* in the drawn third Test. Stand-in captain In 1993/4 there was another Castle Cup/Total Power Series double for Orange Free State. In international cricket he was named as vice-captain for the tour of Australia despite being the youngest member of the squad. In the first ODI of the triangular tournament with New Zealand and Australia he guided South Africa to victory against Australia with 91* which won him the man of the match award. He scored 71 in a rain affected first Test at Melbourne before a tense second Test that South Africa won by 5 runs, an injury to captain Kepler Wessels meant Cronje was captain for the final day of the match. Between the second and third Tests the one-day tournament continued, now with Cronje as captain, South Africa made the final series but lost it 2-1 to Australia. He became South Africa's second-youngest Test captain, after Murray Bisset in 1898-99, when he led the team for the third Test at Adelaide but it was an unsuccessful start to his captaincy career as the series was squared. In February 1994 there was the return series as Australia toured South Africa. Cronje started the ODI series with scores of 112, 97, 45 and 50* and when Australia played Orange Free State in their final match before the first Test, Cronje hit 251 off 306 balls, 200 of these came on the final day in which 294 runs were added, despite this Orange Free State lost the match. In the first Test at Johannesburg he added another century as South Africa won by 197 runs. This innings was the end of a 14 day period in which he'd scored 721 runs against the Aussies. However, he failed to reach fifty in the next two Tests and four ODIs as both series were drawn. There was another drawn series when South Africa toured England in 1994, Cronje scoring just one century on the whole tour and scored only 90 runs in the three-Test series. In October 1994, South Africa again came up against Australia, in a triangular one-day series also featuring Pakistan, Cronje scored 354 runs at an average of 88.50 but despite this South Africa lost all their matches. Batting Averages for South Africa, Wills Triangular Series 1994/5 This series was Bob Woolmer's first as coach and Kepler Wessels' last as captain. Cronje who'd previously been vice-captain was named as captain for the Test series with New Zealand in 1994/5. Permanent captain South Africa lost the first Test in Johannesburg but before the second Test the two teams plus Pakistan and Sri Lanka competed for the Mandela Trophy, New Zealand failed to gain a win in the six match round robin stage while South Africa beat Pakistan in the final. This changed the momentum as South Africa secured wins in Durban and Cape Town, where Cronje scored his fourth Test century, he was the first captain since W. G. Grace to win a three-match rubber after being one down. In early 1995 South Africa won one-off Tests against both Pakistan and New Zealand, in Auckland Cronje scored the only century of the match before a final day declaration left his bowlers just enough time to dismiss the Kiwis. In October 1995 South Africa won a one-off Test with Zimbabwe, Cronje scoring a second innings 54* to guide them to seven wicket win. In the two one-dayers that followed he took five wickets as South Africa won both comfortably. South Africa won the five Test series against England 1-0 despite Cronje struggling, scoring just 113 runs at 18.83. However, he top scored in the one-day series which they won 6-1. In the 1996 World Cup he scored 78 and 45* against New Zealand and Pakistan respectively as South Africa won their group but in the Quarter final with West Indies a Brian Lara century ended their 10 game winning streak. 1996/97 featured back-to-back series with India, the first away was lost 2-1 the home series was won 2-0, in the six Tests combined Cronje managed just one fifty. Cronje produced better form against Australia averaging over 50 in both Test and ODI series although both were lost. Cronje started 1997/98 by leading South Africa to their first series victory in Pakistan, his batting continued to struggle with his biggest contribution being taking the wickets of Inzamam-ul-Haq and Moin Khan in the Third Test. Pakistan v South Africa, 3rd Test 1997/8, Scorecard Better form Cronje once again came up against Australia and once again ended on the losing side. In the triangular one day series they won the group with Australia just scrapping through, they also won the first 'final' but South Africa lost the last two finals. During the group matches Cronje had threatened to lead his team off after Pat Symcox had missiles thrown at him, Symcox had the last laugh ending the match with 4/24. Before the Test series started he scored consecutive centuries against Tasmania and Australia A these were his first in two years. In the first Test, Cronje scored 70 as South Africa saved the match; in the second Test, he lasted 335 minutes for his 88. Despite this, they lost by an innings. In the third Test, they scored 517 and although Mark Taylor carried his bat for 169, Australia needed to bat 109 overs to save the match. Mark Waugh batted 404 minutes, and, despite controversy when Waugh hit one of his bails off (under Law 35 he was adjudged to have finished his stroke and therefore given not out), South Africa fell three wickets short. Cronje put a stump through the umpires` dressing room door after the match and was lucky to avoid a ban. Australia v South Africa, 3rd Test, Match Report Cronje missed the first Test of the series with Pakistan because of a knee injury. The second Test at Durban was lost, but he top scored at Port Elizabeth with 85, to help square the three Test series 1-1. There was still time in the season for a two-Test series with Sri Lanka. The first was won with Cronje scoring 49 and 74; in the second Test, he took 3/14, his best bowling in Tests, South Africa v Sri Lanka, 2nd Test 1997/8, Scorecard and smashed 82 off 63 balls, his fifty being brought up with three consecutive sixes off Muttiah Muralitharan, and was reached off just 31 balls; at the time, it was the second fastest in Tests after Kapil Dev`s. In the triangular series, which South Africa won, he scored only one fifty at East London where he also took 2/17 off 10 overs. South Africa v Pakistan, Standard Bank International Series 1997/8 Scorecard During the 1998 Test series against England, Cronje scored five consecutive fifties, having failed to score one in the nine previous Tests against them. In his fiftieth Test, at Trent Bridge he scored 126, his sixth and last Test century and his first in 29 matches. During his second innings of 67, he passed 3,000 runs - only the second South African to do so. S. Africa - England series highlights However, England won the Test, and the one at Headingley, to win the series 2-1, Cronje finished the series as South Africa's top scorer with 401 runs at 66.83. Whitewash, tie and forfeit In the West Indies series of 1998/9 Cronje captained South Africa to their only whitewash in a 5 Test series. Tests - Whitewashes However his best batting against West Indies came when playing for Free State, he scored 158* as they chased down 438 and made up a first innings deficit of 249. Free State v West Indians, 1998/9, Scorecard In the ODI series he was South Africa's top scorer and took 11 wickets at 14.72 as South Africa won 6-1. In March 1999 they toured New Zealand beating them 1-0 in the Test series and 3-2 in the one-dayers. Cronje's form at the 1999 World Cup was poor, finishing with 98 runs at 12.25 as South Africa was eliminated after the famous tied Semi-final against Australia at Edgbaston. In the first match of the tournament versus India, Cronje came onto the field with an earpiece wired to coach Bob Woolmer, but at the first drinks break match referee Talat Ali ordered him to remove it. Earpiece row mars South Africa win In October 1999 Cronje became South Africa's highest Test run scorer during the first Test against Zimbabwe. South Africa v Zimbabwe, 1st Test 1999/00, Scorecard The two Test series was won 2-0 thanks to innings victories. The series with England was won in the fourth Test at Cape Town, Cronje's fiftieth as captain. The fifth test of the 1999/2000 South Africa v England series at Centurion was ruined by rain - going into the final day only 45 overs had been possible with South Africa 155/6. On the final morning as they batted on news filtered through that the captains had met and were going to "make a game of it". A target of 250 from 70 overs was agreed. When South Africa reached 248/8 Cronje declared; both teams then forfeited an innings leaving England a target of 249 to win the Test, which they did with two wickets left and only five balls remaining. It ended South Africa's 14 game unbeaten streak in Test cricket. Cronje was later learnt to have accepted money and a gift from a bookmaker in return for making an early declaration in this Test (see below). Cronje top scored with 56 after South Africa were left reeling at 21-5 in the Final of the triangular tournament which featured England and Zimbabwe. South Africa v England, Standard Bank International Series 1999/00 Final, Scorecard Cronje struggled against India in his final Test series scoring just 25 runs in two Tests (he took six wickets) however South Africa were still able to complete their first series win in India. India's first lost series at home since 1987. On 31 March 2000 his cricket career finished with a 73-ball 79 against Pakistan in the final of Sharjah Cup 1999/00. Pakistan v South Africa, Coca-Cola Sharjah Cup 1999/00 Final, Scorecard Career record Under Cronje's captaincy South Africa won 27 Tests and lost 11, completing series victories against every team except Australia. Tests - Most matches as captain (South Africa) He captained the One-Day International team to 99 wins out of 138 matches with one tied match and three no results. He holds the South African record for matches captained in and matches won as captain. ODIs - Most matches as captain (South Africa) His 99 wins as captain makes him the third most successful captain worldwide in terms of matches won, behind Ricky Ponting and Allan Border, and in terms of percentage of wins (73.70), behind Ponting and Clive Lloyd. ODIs - Most matches as captain Between September 1993 and March 2000 he played in 162 consecutive ODIs, a South African record. ODIs - Most consecutive matches for a team Match fixing On 7 April 2000, Delhi police revealed they had a recording of a conversation between Cronje and Sanjay Chawla, a representative of an Indian betting syndicate, over match-fixing allegations. Three other players: Herschelle Gibbs, Nicky Boje and Pieter Strydom were also implicated. On 8 April 2000 the UCBSA (United Cricket Board of South Africa) denied that any of their players were involved in match-fixing, Cronje said "the allegations are completely without substance". UCBSA statement on match fixing allegations However, on April 11 Cronje was sacked as captain after confessing to Ali Bacher that he had not been "entirely honest". He admitted accepting between $10,000 and $15,000 from a London-based bookmaker for 'forecasting' results, not match fixing, during the recent one day series in India. On 7 June the King Commission began. The following day Gibbs revealed that Cronje had offered him $15,000 to score less than 20 runs in the 5th ODI at Nagpur. He also admitted another offer of $15,000 to Henry Williams to concede more than 50 runs in that same match. Gibbs scored 74 off 53 balls and Williams injured his shoulder and couldn't complete his second over so neither received the $15,000. Off-spinner Derek Crookes, who was also a witness, admitted being surprised to open the bowling at Nagpur. Hansie offered me $15,000, says Gibbs On 15 June Cronje released a statement that revealed all his contact with bookmakers. In 1996 during the third Test in Kanpur, he was introduced to Mukesh Gupta by Mohammad Azharuddin. Gupta gave Cronje $30,000 to persuade the South Africans to lose wickets on the last day to lose the match, South Africa were 127/5 chasing 460, Cronje was already out and spoke to no other players "I had received money for doing nothing". During the return tour Cronje received $50,000 from Gupta for team information. In the 2000 Centurion Test Marlon Aronstam contacted him offering R500,000 for the charity of his choice together with a gift if Cronje declared and made a game of it. He also admitted asking Pieter Strydom to place an R50 bet on South Africa to win for him. After the match Aronstam visited Cronje giving him two amounts of money (R30,000 and R20,000) together with a leather jacket. The promised R500,000 did not materialise. Before the one-day series Cronje received repeated calls from "Sanjay" asking to fix a match, Cronje gave him the names of Gibbs, Strydom and Boje to try to get rid of him. But Cronje was offered $140,000 for the fifth ODI if Gibbs scored under 20, Williams went for more than 50 and South Africa scored around 270. Cronje finally comes clean On 28 August Gibbs and Williams were suspended from playing international cricket for 6 months. Gibbs was also fined R60,000 and Williams R10,000, while Strydom received no punishment. Six-month bans for Gibbs, Williams On 11 October Cronje was banned from playing or coaching cricket for life. Cronje banned for life He challenged his life ban in September 2001 but on 17 October 2001 his application was dismissed. Cronje remains an outcast Plane crash On 1 June 2002 Cronje's scheduled flight home from Johannesburg to George had been grounded so instead he hitched a ride as the only passenger on a passenger aircraft in a Hawker Siddeley HS 748 turboprop aircraft. Near George airport, the pilots lost visibility in cloud, and were unable to land, partly due to unserviceable navigational equipment. While circling, the plane crashed into the Outeniqua mountains northeast of the airport. Cronje, aged 32, and the two pilots were killed instantly. In August 2006 an inquest into the plane crash by South Africa's High Court started Cronje inquest opens - the inquest reached the conclusion that "the death of the deceased Wessel Johannes (Hansie) Cronje was brought about by an act or omission prima facie amounting to an offence on the part of pilots." Pilot error caused Cronje crash However, theories that Cronje was murdered - on the orders of a cricket betting syndicate - have flourished since his death, and were most recently re-floated by former Nottinghamshire coach Clive Rice in the wake of the death of Pakistan coach Bob Woolmer in March 2007. Did a cricketer kill Woolmer? Cronje's alleged involvement in match-fixing, the suspicion of murder in both the Cronje and Woolmer cases and the links between cricketers and betting syndicates have since appeared in the 2008 novel Raffles and the Match-Fixing Syndicate by Adam Corres. Life in film Hansie, a biographical film about the life of Hansie Cronje was released on 26 September 2008. The film was written by older brother Frans Cronje and directed by Regardt van den Bergh. The title role is played by Frank Rautenbach. See also Declaration and forfeiture - Cronje was the only Test captain to ever forfeit an innings List of South Africans - voted 11 in the SABC3's Great South Africans List of people who died in aviation-related incidents List of cricketers banned for match fixing References External links Match fixing scandal Cronje Sacked Hansie Cronje killed in a plane crash Hansie movie | Hansie_Cronje |@lemmatized wessel:2 johannes:2 hansie:8 cronje:73 september:4 june:4 south:69 african:13 cricketer:4 captain:27 national:1 cricket:11 team:11 vote:2 great:2 despite:9 ban:7 life:7 professional:1 role:2 match:46 fix:5 scandal:2 early:3 bear:1 bloemfontein:2 matriculate:1 prestigious:1 grey:1 college:1 school:2 excellent:1 round:2 sportsman:1 represent:1 orange:9 free:13 state:13 rugby:1 level:1 also:12 go:5 university:3 leave:4 bachelor:1 commerce:1 father:1 ewie:1 play:11 old:2 brother:2 frans:2 first:27 class:3 career:6 make:11 debut:4 transvaal:3 johannesburg:4 january:1 age:2 following:2 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losing:1 scrap:1 threaten:1 pat:1 symcox:2 missile:1 throw:1 laugh:1 consecutive:5 tasmania:1 year:1 save:2 minute:2 mark:2 taylor:1 carry:1 need:1 waugh:2 controversy:1 bail:1 law:1 adjudge:1 stroke:1 therefore:1 give:4 fell:1 short:1 put:1 stump:1 umpire:1 dress:1 room:1 door:1 lucky:1 avoid:1 miss:1 knee:1 port:1 elizabeth:1 still:2 bowling:2 smash:1 bring:2 muttiah:1 muralitharan:1 fast:1 kapil:1 dev:1 east:1 london:2 standard:2 bank:2 previous:1 fiftieth:2 trent:1 bridge:1 sixth:1 pass:1 highlight:1 headingley:1 whitewash:3 tie:3 forfeit:3 indies:1 deficit:1 march:4 poor:1 eliminate:1 famous:1 semi:1 edgbaston:1 versus:1 onto:1 field:1 earpiece:2 wire:1 drink:1 break:1 referee:1 talat:1 ali:2 order:2 remove:1 row:1 mar:1 high:2 thanks:1 innings:3 fifth:2 centurion:2 ruin:1 possible:1 morning:1 news:1 filter:1 meet:1 target:2 agree:1 declare:2 leaving:1 remain:2 unbeaten:1 learn:1 accept:2 money:3 gift:2 bookmaker:3 see:2 reel:1 able:1 complete:3 sharjah:2 coca:1 cola:1 every:1 except:1 result:2 hold:1 successful:1 worldwide:1 term:2 behind:2 ricky:1 ponting:2 allan:1 border:1 percentage:1 clive:2 lloyd:1 april:3 delhi:1 police:1 reveal:3 recording:1 conversation:1 sanjay:2 chawla:1 representative:1 betting:1 syndicate:4 fixing:6 allegation:3 herschelle:1 gibbs:9 nicky:1 boje:2 pieter:2 strydom:4 implicate:1 ucbsa:2 united:1 board:1 deny:1 involve:1 say:2 completely:1 without:1 substance:1 statement:2 sack:2 confess:1 bacher:1 entirely:1 honest:1 admit:4 base:1 forecast:1 recent:1 king:1 commission:1 begin:1 offer:5 less:1 nagpur:2 henry:1 williams:6 concede:1 injure:1 shoulder:1 neither:1 receive:5 spinner:1 derek:1 crookes:1 witness:1 surprise:1 open:2 release:2 contact:2 kanpur:1 introduce:1 mukesh:1 gupta:3 mohammad:1 azharuddin:1 persuade:1 already:1 speak:1 nothing:1 information:1 marlon:1 aronstam:2 charity:1 choice:1 together:2 ask:2 place:1 bet:3 visit:1 amount:2 leather:1 jacket:1 promised:1 materialise:1 repeated:1 try:1 get:1 rid:1 around:1 finally:1 clean:1 august:2 suspend:1 month:2 fin:1 punishment:1 challenge:1 application:1 outcast:1 plane:4 crash:5 schedule:1 flight:1 george:2 ground:1 instead:1 hitch:1 ride:1 passenger:2 aircraft:2 hawker:1 siddeley:1 hs:1 turboprop:1 near:1 airport:2 pilot:4 visibility:1 cloud:1 unable:1 land:1 partly:1 due:1 unserviceable:1 navigational:1 equipment:1 circle:1 outeniqua:1 mountains:1 northeast:1 kill:3 instantly:1 inquest:3 court:1 conclusion:1 death:3 deceased:1 act:1 omission:1 prima:1 facie:1 offence:1 error:1 cause:1 theory:1 murder:2 flourish:1 recently:1 float:1 former:1 nottinghamshire:1 rice:1 wake:1 allege:1 involvement:1 suspicion:1 case:1 link:2 novel:1 raffle:1 adam:1 corres:1 film:3 biographical:1 write:1 direct:1 regardt:1 van:1 den:1 bergh:1 title:1 frank:1 rautenbach:1 forfeiture:1 list:3 people:1 die:1 aviation:1 related:1 incident:1 reference:1 external:1 movie:1 |@bigram hansie_cronje:4 benson_hedge:5 batting_average:3 west_indie:4 sri_lanka:4 cronje_score:9 brian_lara:1 ul_haq:1 knee_injury:1 muttiah_muralitharan:1 top_scorer:2 west_indies:1 coca_cola:1 match_fixing:6 leather_jacket:1 hawker_siddeley:1 prima_facie:1 van_den:1 external_link:1 |
5,507 | Wikipedia:Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing%2FC_-_D | symbols - B -- C - D -- E - H -- I - K -- L - N -- O - Q -- R - S -- T - W -- X - Z -- FOLDOC Status Page C C NO IMPORT (already exists) (c) C* C++ NO IMPORT (already exists) C+- C+@ C-10 C1 security c2man C2 security c386 C5 C64 c68 CA ca cable modem cache cache block cache coherency DONE cache conflict redirect to cache coherency cache consistency redirect to cache coherency cache hit redirect to cache cache line DONE cache memory redirect to cache cache miss redirect to cache Cache On A STick redirect to COAST caching redirect to cache CACI CACM CAD CAD/CAM CADD Cadence Design Systems CADET CADRE CAE CAF CAFE CAGE CAI Cairo CAIS CAIS-A CAiSE CAJOLE CAL Calc calculator Calculus of Communicating Systems Calendar API Calendar Application Programming Interface Caliban Calico California State University San Marcos callback call-by-name call-by-need call-by-reference call-by-value call-by-value-result call/cc callee Caller ID calling convention Call-Level Interface Call Unix Callware call-with-current-continuation CALS CAM CAM-6 CAMAL Cambridge Lisp Camelot Library camera ready CAMIL CAML Caml Light CAM-PC Campus Wide Information System CAN can Canada Cancel Cancelbunny Cancelm00se Cancelmoose Cancelpoodle candidate key Candle candygrammar canonical Canonical Encoding Rules canonical name canonicity C (ANSI) can't happen Cantor CAP Capabilities Maturity Model capability Capability Maturity Model capacitor capacity CAPI Cap'n Crunch Captain Abstraction Captain Crunch card Cardbox for Windows Cardbus cardinality cardinal number CARDS card walloper Career Limiting Move caret careware DONE cargo cult programming Caribou CodeWorks Carl Friedrich Gauss Carnegie Mellon University carpal tunnel syndrome Carriage Return Carrierless Amplitude/Phase Modulation carrier scanner carrier signal Cartesian coordinates Cartesian product CAS CAS 8051 Assembler cascade Cascading Style Sheets CASE case case and paste case based reasoning CASE Data Interchange Format CASE framework case insensitive Case Integration Services CASE*Method case sensitive case sensitivity CASE SOAP III case statement CASE tools cashe CAST cast casters-up mode casting the runes CAT cat Cat 3 Cat 5 catatonic CATE Categorical Abstract Machine Language category Category 3 Category 5 CA-Telon cathode ray tube CATIA cationic cocktail C/ATLAS CATNIP CATO Cauchy sequence cause-effect graphing CAV Cayenne Software CAYLEY cb CBASIC C-BC CBD C Beautifier CBIR CBN CBR CBT CBV cbw cc CC++ C/C++ CCalc CCD CCIRN CCITT CCITT HIgh-Level Language CCL CCLU ccmail cc:mail CCP CCR CCS CCSP CCTA CD cd CDA CDC CDDI CDD/Plus CDE CDF redirect to Common Data Format CD-i CDIF CDL CDM CDMA CDP1802 CDPD cdr CD-R CD-Read-Write CD-Rewritable CD-ROM CD-ROM drive CD-RW CDS cd tilde CE Cecil Cedar CEEMAC+ CEI-PACT Celeron CELIP cell Cellang CELLAS Cello CELLSIM Cellular cellular automata cellular automaton Cellular Digital Packet Data cellular multiprocessing Cellular Neural Network CELP CEN CENELEC Centi-Call Second central office Central office exchange service central processing unit Centrex Centronics Centrum voor Wiskunde en Informatica century meltdown cepstra cepstrum CEPT CER Ceramic Pin Grid Array Ceres workstation Oberon System Cerf, Vint CERN CERNLIB CERT Certificate Authority CESP CESSL cextract cf CFD CFML cforth cfortran.h CFP CFP92 cg CGA CGGL CGI cgi-bin CGI Joe CGI program CGI script CGM CGOL cgram ch chad chad box Chadless keypunch chain Challenge-Handshake Authentication Protocol Chalmers University of Technology change management channel channel hopping channel op channel service unit channel service unit/data service unit chan op chaos CHAP char character character encoding character encoding scheme character graphics characteristic function character repertoire character set character set identifier Charge-Coupled Device CHARITY charityware Charles Babbage Charles Simonyi CHARM CHARM++ Charme CHARYBDIS chase pointers CHASM chat chatbot chat room chatterbot cheapernet checkdigit Checkout Test language checkpoint checksum chemist Chen CHEOPS Chernobyl packet chess CHI Chicago chicken head chicklet keyboard DONE chiclet keyboard DONE child child process DONE child record child version CHILI CHILL Chimera chine nual Chinese Army technique CHIP chip CHIP-48 CHIP-8 chip box Chip Jewelry Chip Scale Packaging chip set Chips & Technologies CHISEL chmod CHOCS choke chomp CHOP Chop Chorus Christmas tree Christmas tree packet Christopher Strachey chromatic number chrome chroot CHRP chug chunker Church, Alonzo Church integer Church of the SubGenius Church-Rosser Theorem ci CI$ CICERO CICS CID CIDR CIEL CIF CIFS Cigale CIL CIM CIMS PL/I Cinderella Book CINT92 C-Interp ciphertext CIP-L CIR CIRCAL circuit CIRcuit CALculus circuit switched circuit switching circular buffer Cirrus Logic CIS CISC Cisco Systems, Inc. CISI CITRAN CityScape CIX NO IMPORT written in 1994 CJK CJKV ck CL cl CLAM C Language Integrated Production System Clarify Clarion Claris CLASP class class hierarchy classic Classic-Ada classical logic Classic C Classless Inter-Domain Routing class library class method Class Oriented Ring Associated Language Class-Relation Method Clean NO IMPORT (already exists) clean Cleanroom CLEAR clear box testing CLEO CLHEP CLI CLiCC click client client-server client/server client-server model Client To Client Protocol C++Linda C-Linda CLIP CLiP clipboard Clipper CLIPS clique CLISP Clive Sinclair CLIX CLM CLNP clobber clock clock rate - DONE clock speed clone clone-and-hack coding clonebot CLOS closed-box testing closed set closed term Clos network closure closure conversion Clover clover key CLP CLP* CLP(R) CLP(sigma*) CLR CLtL1 CLtL2 CLU clu2c cluster Cluster 86 clustergeeking clustering CLUT CLV CLX CM cm CMA CMAY CMC CMIP CMIS CML CMM CMOS CMP CMS CMS-2 CMU CMU CL CMU Common Lisp CMVC CMYK CMZ cn CNAME CNC CNET CNI CNN CNRI co CO2 Coad/Yourdon COALA coalesced sum Coalition for Networked Information coarse grain COAST coax coaxial cable COBOL COBOL-1961 Extended COBOL fingers COBRA cobweb site Cocktail cocktail shaker sort CoCo Cocol Coco Language Cocol/R COCOMO Coco/R CODASYL Codd's First Normal Form Codd's reduction algorithm code Code 2.0 codebook CODEC CodeCenter coded character set Code Division Multiple Access -- DONE code division multiplexing code grinder code management code police code position coder/decoder codes C-odeScript code segment code walk codewalker CODIL codomain coefficient of X coercion COFF COGENT Cogent Prolog Cognitech cognitive architecture COGO Coherent Parallel C COHESION COIF cokebottle COLASL COLD cold boot ColdFusion ColdFusion Markup Language COLD-K COLINGO collision collision detection collocation co-location colon color Color Graphics Adapter color model Colossus colour colour depth colour look-up table colour model colour palette Columbia AppleTalk Package Column Address Strobe COM com COMAL combination combinator combinatory logic Comdex COME FROM COMIS COMIT Comite Europeen des Postes et Telecommunications COMIT II Comma comma command command interpreter command key command line interface command line interpreter command line option comma separated values COMMEN comment comment out commercial at Commercial Internet eXchange Commercial Translator comm mode Commodore 1010 Commodore 128 Commodore 1541 -- DONE Commodore 1570 Commodore 1571 Commodore 1581 -- DONE Commodore 64 Commodore 64DX Commodore 65 Commodore Business Machines DONE (Commodore International) Commodore SX64 COMmon Algorithmic Language Common Applications Environment Common Applications Service Element Common Architecture for Next Generation Internet Protocol COmmon Business Oriented Language common carrier Common Command Set Common Communication Services Common Desktop Environment Common ESP Common Gateway Interface Common Hardware Reference Platform Common Intermediate Format Common Intermediate Language Common Internet File System Common-ISDN-API Common ISDN Application Programming Interface Common Lisp Common LISP in Parallel Common LISP Object System CommonLoops Common Management Information Protocol Common Management Information Services Common Object File Format Common Object Model Common Object Request Broker Architecture Common Objects Common Program Interface Common User Access Commonwealth Hackish Communicating Functional Processes Communicating Sequential Processes Communications Decency Act Communications of the ACM communications port Communications Server communications software communication system COMNET compact Compact COBOL Compact Disc Compact Disc interactive Compact Disc Read-Only Memory Compact Disc Read-Write Compact Disc Recordable Compact Disc Rewritable compaction compactness preserving Compaq Computer Corporation Compas Pascal COMPASS compatibility compatible Compatible Timesharing System Compel Competitive Access Provider compiler compiler compiler Compiler-Compiler compiler-compiler compiler jock Compiler Language for Information Processing Compiler Target Language COMPL complement Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor complementary nondeterministic polynomial complete complete graph complete inference system complete lattice complete metric space completeness complete partial ordering complete theory complete unification Complex Instruction Set Computer complexity complexity analysis complexity class complexity measure complex number complex programmable logic device component component architecture component based development Component Integration Laboratories Component Object Model com port composite composition Compositional C++ Compound Document Architecture compound key COMPREHENSIVE Comprehensive Perl Archive Network Comprehensive TeX Archive Network compress Compressed SLIP compressed video compression COMPROSL Compu$erve Compulink Information eXchange CompuServe Corporation CompuServe Information Service Compusult Ltd. computability theory computable Computational Adequacy Theorem computational complexity computational geometry computational learning COMpute ParallEL Computer computer Computer Aided Design Computer Aided Engineering Computer-Aided Instruction Computer-Aided Learning Computer Aided Software Engineering Computer-Aided Software Testing Computer Animation Movie Language Computer-Assisted Learning Computer-Assisted Software Engineering Computer Associates Computer-Based Training Computer Compiler computer confetti Computer Conservation Society computer crime Computer Design Language computer dictionary Computer Emergency Response Team computer ethics computer geek computer-generated imagery Computer Generation Incorporated Computer Graphics Metafile computer language computer law computer literacy Computer Mediated Communication computer nerd computer network Computer Output to Laser Disk Computer Professionals for Social Responsibility computer program Computer + Science NETwork computer security computer sex Computer Software Configuration Item Computer Supported Cooperative Work Computer Telephone Integration Computer Telephony Integration computer virus computer vision compute server computing Computing Devices Canada Ltd. computing dictionary computron Compuware Corporation COMSL COMTRAN con ConC concatenate concatenated key concentrator conceptualisation Concert/C ConCoord concrete class Concrete Data Structure concrete syntax CONCUR concurrency Concurrent C Concurrent C++ Concurrent Clean NO IMPORT (already exists) Concurrent CLU Concurrent Euclid Concurrent LISP Concurrent Massey Hope Concurrent ML Concurrent Oberon Concurrent Object-Oriented C Concurrent Object-Oriented Language Concurrent Pascal Concurrent Prolog Concurrent Scheme ConcurrentSmalltalk Concurrent SP/k condela condition out condom Conference On DAta SYstems Languages Conferencing over IP confidence test CONFIG.SYS configuration item configuration management configuration programming conflation ConflictNet congestion CONIC logical conjunction Conjunctive Normal Form connect connected graph connected subgraph connectionless protocol Connection Machine LISP connection-oriented connection-oriented network service connective connector conspiracy CONNIVER Co-NP CONS cons conservative evaluation considered harmful consistently complete console console jockey Consortium for Lexical Research constant angular velocity constant applicative form constant folding Constantine/Yourdon constant linear velocity constant mapping constraint constraint functional programming Constraint Handling In Prolog ConstraintLisp Constraint Logic Programming CONSTRAINTS constraint satisfaction constructed type constructive Constructive Cost Model constructive solid geometry constructor Consul container class content addressable memory content-based information retrieval Content Data Model content-free contention slot context context clash context-free context-sensitive menu context switch Contextually Communicating Sequential Processes continental drift continuation Continuation Passing Style continuation passing style continuations continuous function Continuous System Modeling Program continuous wave contraction control Control and Status Register control-C control code control flow NO IMPORT (more detailed article) Control flow control-G Control Language controller control-O Control Program Control Program for Microcomputers control-Q control-S control structure NO IMPORT (more detailed article) Control flow control tty control unit conventional memory Convergent Technologies Convergent Technologies Operating System Conversational LISP Conversational Monitor System converse conversion to iteration CONVERT convert.f90 Convex Computer Corporation convex hull Conway, John Horton Conway's Law Conway's Life cooC cooccurrence matrix cookbook cooked mode cookie cookie bear cookie file cookie jar cookie monster cooky COOL CooL COOL:Gen Co-operative Development Environment Cooperative Information System cooperative multitasking coordinate Coordinated Universal Time Coordinating Committee for Intercontinental Research Networks copious free time copper Copper Distributed Data Interface coprocessor copy and paste copybook copybroke copying garbage collection copyleft copy member copy module copy protection copyright copywronged CORAL CORAL 66 CORBA CORBIE CORC core core cancer core dump core gateway Corel Corporation core leak Corel VENTURA Core War corge Cornell List Processor Cornell Theory Center Cornell University Coroutine Pascal Corporation for Open Systems Corporation for Research and Educational Networking CORREGATE Correlatives and Conversions Cortex CORTL COS COSE COSINE cosmic rays COSS Cost Driver Attribute Cost/Schedule Control System Criteria COTS Cougar cough and die countable countably many counted country code coupling Course Author Language courseware Coursewriter III cowboy COWSEL CP CPAN CParaOps5 CPE CPGA CPI CPL CPLD CPM DONE (same as below) CP/M DONE cpo cpp cppp C Programmer's Disease C-Prolog cproto CPS CPSR CPU CPU Info Center CPU time CPU Wars CR cr cracker cracking crack root crank crapplet CrApTeX crash crash and burn crawler crawling horror Cray instability crayola crayola books crayon Cray Research, Inc. CRC creationism creeping elegance creeping featurism creeping featuritis C-Refine CREN CREW PRAM crippleware criptography Crisis Software CRISP crisp Crispy Critters critical mass critical section CRL CRLF CRM crock cron cross-assembler cross-compiler cross-platform cross-post cross software CROSSTABS crosstalk CROW PRAM CRT crudware cruft cruftsmanship cruft together crufty crumb crunch cruncha cruncha cruncha crunchy cryppie crypt cryptanalysis Crypt Breakers Workbench cryptography cryptology Crystal CS-4 C-Scheme CSCI C/SCSC CSCW CSG CSG-tree csh C shell .cshrc CSID C++SIM CSK Software CSL CSLIP CSM CSMA/CD CSMP CSNET CSO CSP CSP/80 CS/PCode CSP/k CS-Prolog CSPS CSP-S CS/QCode CSR CSS CSSA CSS/II CSSL CSTools CSU CSU/DSU CSV CTC CTCP CTI CTL CTOS ctrl CTS CTSS CTY CU cu CUA (CUA - Common User Application) Cube cube cubing CUCH Cuckoo's Egg CUL Culler-Fried System CUPID CUPL curly bracket current curried function NO IMPORT (already exists) currying NO IMPORT (Already exists) curseperl curses cursor cursor dipped in X CU-SeeMe CUSI cuspy Customer Information Control System Customer Information Systems Customer Interaction Software Customer Relationship Management CUT cut and paste cut a tape cutover cv CVS CW CWeb CWI CWIC CWIS C with Classes cx cxref cy Cy486SLC cyber cyberbunny cyberchondriac cybercrud CyberGlove cybernetics cyberpunk cyberrhea cybersex cyberspace cyberspastic cyber-squatting CyberWand CyberZine CYBIL Cyc CYCL cycle cyclebabble cycle crunch cycle drought cycle of reincarnation cycle server cyclic redundancy check cyclic redundancy code Cyclo cyclomatic complexity Cygnus Tcl Tools cylinder CypherText Cyrix Cyrix 6x86 -- DONE cz D D DAA DAC DACAPO DACNOS D/A converter DACTL DADS daemon DAG Daisy DAISY 201 daisy chain DONE daisywheel printer dangling pointer DANTE DAP Fortran DAPLEX DARE dark-side hacker Darms DARPA Dartmouth BASIC Darwin kernel DAS DASD DASE DASL DAT data data abstraction Data Address Generator database database administrator database machine DONE database management system database manager database normalisation -- DONE (renamed database normalization) database query language database server Data/BASIC DATABUS data bus data channel DATACODE I Datacom Data Communication Equipment Data Communications Equipment data compression Data definition language data dictionary data dictionary file data driven Data Driven Machine Data Encryption Algorithm Data Encryption Key Data Encryption Standard data flow data flow analysis Data Flow Diagram data fork data frame Data General DONE Data General mN601 data glove datagram data hierarchy Data Interchange Standards Association Data Jack Datakit Data Link Connection Identifier data link layer data link level Data Link Provider Interface Data Management Language Data Manipulation Language data mart Datamation data mining data model data modeling data modelling Data Over Cable Systems Interface Specifications data packet Dataparallel-C Data Parallel Haskell data path Dataphone Digital Service data processing data rate data set data set organization Datastorm Technologies, Inc. data striping Data Structures Language Data Terminal Equipment Data Terminal Ready DATA-TEXT data transfer rate DATATRIEVE data type DataViews DataVis data warehouse data warehousing date DAU daughter David Turner day mode DAZIX DB DB2 DB-25 DBA dBASE DBC DBCS dBFAST DBH DBMS DBPL DBRI dBXL DC DC1 DC2 DC3 DC4 DCA DCALGOL DCC DCDL DCE DCG DCI DCL DCOM DCP D. C. Power Lab DCS DCT DD dd DDB DDCMP DDE DDE Manager DDIF DDL DDM DDN DDO DDP DDR-RAM DDR-SDRAM DDS DDT de DE-9 DEA DEACON dead DEADBEEF DONE (included in Magic debug values) dead code deadlock deadly embrace dead tree dead tree edition deamon death code Death Star deb Debian Debian GNU/Linux debianize deboursification De Bruijn graph De Bruijn notation debugging DEC dec DEC Alpha decay DECdesign DECdns DEChead dechunker decidability decidable decimal point decision problem decision support decision support database Decision Support Systems decision theory deckle declarative language DECmate DECnet Decomposed Petri Net decompress decryption DECstation DECT DECtape DECUS Decus cpp DEC Wars DECwindows DECwrite DED dedicated line deductive database deductive tableau Deep Blue deep hack mode deep magic deep space de facto standard default route defect defect analysis defect density defenestration Defense Advanced Research Project Agency Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency Defense Communications Agency Defense Data Network Defense Data Network Network Information Center Defense Information Systems Agency Defense Trade Regulations deferral definite clause definite sentence definitional constraint programming deflate deflate compression deflate/inflate compression deforestation defrag defragment defunct process degree degrees of freedom dehose DEK Delaunay triangulation delayed control-transfer delay instruction delay slot delete delimiter delint Delirium Delivered Source Instruction Dell Computer Corporation Delphi Delphi Technique Delta delta Delta-4 delta conversion Delta-Prolog delta reduction DELTASE demand driven demand paged demand paging DeMarco DeMarco/Yourdon demented Demeter demigod De-Militarised Zone demo demodulate demodulation demo mode demon Demon Internet Ltd. NO IMPORT article from 1994 DeMorgan's theorem demo version Denis Howe Dennis Ritchie denotational semantics Denotational Semantics Language Department of Defense Department of Defense Network depeditate dependability dependable software deprecated depth-first search DER dereference de-rezz derived class derived type DES descender descent function Descriptive Top-Level Specification descriptor design Design In Real Time design pattern design recovery Design System language desk check desktop database Desktop Management Interface Desktop Management Task Force -- DONE desktop manager desktop publishing DESQview destructor DESY DETAB deterministic deterministic automaton DETOL developer development Developmental Test and Evaluation development environment device Device Control Device Control 1 Device Control 2 Device Control 3 Device Control 4 device driver device independent bitmap Devil Book dev/null devo DEX DFA DFC DFD DFS DFT DGL DG/L DHCP Dhrystone DHSD DHTML DIALOG dialup DIAMAG diameter Diamond DIANA DIB DIBOL dickless workstation Dick Size War DICOM Dictionary APL dictionary flame Dictionary of Algorithms and Data Structures Dictionary of Computing DID diddle die die horribly diff Difference Engine difference equation differential differential driver differential line Diffie-Hellman digerati digest Digex DigiCash Digicom digirati digit Digital digital digital audio Digital Audio Tape digital camera digital carrier digital dashboard Digital Data Service Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications digital envelope Digital Equipment Computer Users Society Digital Equipment Corporation DONE Digital Equipment Corporation Network DONE, as DECnet Digital European Cordless Telecommunications Digital Express Group, Inc. Digital Lempel Ziv 1 Digital Library Initiative Digital Linear Tape Digital Multimeter Digital Research DONE digital service unit Digital Signal Processing DONE Digital Signal Processing Language digital signature digital signatures Digital Signature Standard Digital Simulation Language Digital Simultaneous Voice and Data DIGITAL Standard MUMPS Digital Subscriber Line Digital Subscriber Line Access Module Digital Subscriber Loop Digital Switched Network Digital to Analog Converter Digital Versatile Disc Digital Video Disc Dijkstra's guarded command language dike DIL Dilbert Dilberted DIM DIMATE DIMM DIM statement DIN DIN-8 ding Dining Philosophers Problem dink DinnerBell DINO dinosaur dinosaur pen dinosaurs mating diode Diophantine equation DIP diplex Direct-Access Storage Device Direct Client to Client Protocol Direct Connection directed acyclic graph directed graph Directed Oc directed set Direct Inward Dialing directional coupler Directly Executable Test Oriented Language direct mapped cache Direct Memory Access directory Directory Access Protocol directory service Directory System Agent Directory User Agent DirectX Dirt dirtball dirty power DISA disc disc drive disclaimer disconnect Discordianism discrete cosine transform discrete Fourier transform discrete preorder discriminated union discussion group Disiple disjoint union Disjunctive Normal Form disk disk controller - DONE disk drive disk duplexing diskette disk farm diskless workstation disk mirroring Disk Operating System disk operating system disk striping Dislang display display hack Display PostScript DONE display standard display standards display terminal Dissociated Press distfix Distributed Component Object Model Distributed Computing Environment distributed database Distributed Data Management Distributed Eiffel Distributed Logic Programming Distributed Management Environment distributed memory Distributed Network Operating System Distributed Operating Multi Access Interactive Network Distributed Processes Distributed Queue Dual Bus Distributed Smalltalk distributed system distributed systems distribution distributive lattice disusered dithering DONE Ditto Drive diverge divisor DJ DJGPP DjVu DK dk DL/1 DLC DLCI DLE DLG DL/I DLL DLM DLP DLPI DLT DLUR/DLUS DLZ1 dm DMA DMAD dmake DMALGOL DME DMI DML DMM DMTF -- DONE DMZ DNA computing DNF DNIS DNIX DNOS DNS do DOA Doc doc docking station DOCMaker doco DOCSIS document documentation Document Examiner Document Image Processing Document Object Model Document Style Semantics and Specification Language Document Type Definition DOCUS DoD DoD-1 dodgy DOD-STD-2167A DoD-STD-2168 DOE DOF dogcow dogpile dogwash DOL dollar do loop DOM domain domain address Domain Analysis domain architecture Domain Architecture Model domain calculus domain engineering domainist domain maturity domain model domain name Domain Name Server Domain Name System domain selection Domain Software Engineering Environment domain-specific language domain theory DOMF Donald Knuth dongle dongle-disk Don't do that then! donuts DOOM DOORS doorstop Dorito Syndrome DORUM DOS DOS/360 -- DONE DOS Protected Mode Interface DOS requester dot dot address dot file dot matrix printer dot notation dot pitch dotted quad double bucky double-click Double Data Rate Random Access Memory Double Data Rate Synchronous Random Access Memory double DECkers double density doubled sig double-duplex double quote doubly linked list DOUGLAS Douglas Engelbart Doug Lenat DOW COMPILER down download downloading downsizing downstream down-time downward closed Downy cocktail DP DPB DPer dpi DONE DPL DPL-82 DPLL DPMI DPMS DPN DPP d-Prolog DPS dpSather DPSK DQDB draco Draft Once ReUse Many drag and drop drag-n-drop DRAGON dragon Dragon Book DRAGOON drain DRAM DRAM refresh Drawing eXchange Format dread high bit disease DRECNET driver drivers Dr. James H. Clark droid DROOL drool-proof paper drop cable drop-down list drop-down menu drop-ins drop on the floor drop-outs DrScheme DRUCO I drugged drum drunk mouse syndrome dry run DS0 DS1 DS1C DS2 DS3 DSA DSE DSEE D-shell connector DSI DSL DSLAM DS level DSM DSN DSP DSP32 Assembly Language DSP56000 DSP56001 dsp56165-gcc dsp56k-gcc DSP/C DSPL DSR DSS DSSSL DST DSU DSVD DSW DTALGOL DTD DTE DT&E DTLS DTMF DTP DTR DTS DTSS D-type D-type flip-flop DUA dual DUAL-607 dual-attached dual-homed Dual In-Line Dual In-line Memory Module Dual In-Line Package dual ported dual-stack Dual Tone Multi Frequency DUEL Duff's device dumbed down dumb terminal dump dumpster diving Dungeon dup killer duplex Duplex High Speed Data dup loop Durra dusty deck DV cartridge DVD DVD-R DVD-ROM DVI DONE (several versions) Dvorak Dwarf Storage Unit DWDM dweeb dwg DWIM DX4 DXF dyadic DYANA Dylan Dylperl dynamic adaptive routing Dynamic Address Translation Dynamically Linked Library dynamically scoped dynamic analysis dynamic binding dynamic database management system Dynamic Data Exchange Dynamic Data Linking dynamic DBMS Dynamic Drive Overlay Dynamic Execution Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol Dynamic HTML DYnamic LANguage dynamic link dynamic link library Dynamic Object-Oriented Requirements System dynamic RAM dynamic random access memory dynamic routing DYnamics ANAlyzer dynamic scope dynamic scoping DYNAMO Dynix Dynix Automated Library Systems dynner DYSAC DYSTAL dz See also : Free On-line Dictionary of Computing | Wikipedia:Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing%2FC_-_D |@lemmatized symbol:1 b:1 c:42 e:1 h:3 k:4 l:3 n:3 q:2 r:6 w:1 x:3 z:1 foldoc:1 status:2 page:3 import:10 already:6 exist:6 security:3 ca:5 cable:4 modem:1 cache:18 block:1 coherency:3 conflict:1 redirect:8 consistency:1 hit:1 line:12 memory:10 miss:1 stick:1 coast:2 caci:1 cacm:1 cad:2 cam:4 cadd:1 cadence:1 design:8 system:36 cadet:1 cadre:1 cae:1 caf:1 cafe:1 cage:1 cai:1 cairo:1 cais:2 caise:1 cajole:1 cal:1 calc:1 calculator:1 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5,508 | Islamism | Islamism (Islam+ism; Arabic: al-'islāmiyya) is a set of ideologies holding that Islam is not only a religion but also a political system; that modern Muslims must return to their roots of their religion, and unite politically. Islamism is a controversial term and definitions of it sometimes vary. Leading Islamist thinkers emphasized the enforcement of sharia (Islamic law); of pan-Islamic political unity; and of the elimination of non-Muslim, particularly western, military, economic, political, social, or cultural influences in the Muslim world, which they believe to be incompatible with Islam. Qutbism: An Ideology of Islamic-Fascism by DALE C. EIKMEIER From Parameters, Spring 2007, pp. 85-98. Some observers suggest Islamism's tenets are less strict and can be defined as a form of identity politics or "support for [Muslim] identity, authenticity, broader regionalism, revivalism, [and] revitalization of the community". Fuller, Graham E., The Future of Political Islam, Palgrave MacMillan, (2003), p.21 Still others define it as "an Islamic militant, anti-democratic movement, bearing a holistic vision of Islam whose final aim is the restoration of the caliphate". footnotes of 9/11 Commission Report Mehdi Mozaffari, `Bin Laden and Islamist Terrorism` Militant Tidsskrift vol. 131 (March 2002), p.1 Many of those described as "Islamists" oppose the use of the term, maintaining that they are simply Muslims, and that their political beliefs and goals are an expression of Islamic religious belief. Similarly, some scholars favour the term "activist Islam" instead "Understanding Islamism", International Crisis Group, http://merln.ndu.edu/archive/icg/Islamism2Mar05.pdf, Islamic republic by Bernard Lewis or "political Islam". Trevor Stanley, Definition: Islamism, Islamist, Islamiste, Islamicist, Perspectives on World History and Current Events, July 2005. URL: http://www.pwhce.org/islamism.html Downloaded: 11 June 2007 Central figures of modern Islamism include Muhammad Iqbal, Jamal al-Din al-Afghani, Abul Ala Maududi, Sayyid Qutb and Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini. Coming to Terms, Fundamentalists or Islamists? Martin Kramer originally in Middle East Quarterly (Spring 2003), pp. 65-77. Definitions of Islamism Islamism has been defined as: “Islam as a modern ideology and a political program”, “the belief that Islam should guide social and political as well as personal life”, Berman, S, “Islamism, Revolution, and Civil Society, Perspectives on Politics”, Vol. 1, No. 2, June 2003, American Political Science Association, p. 258 “the ideology that guides society as a whole and that law must be in conformity with the Islamic sharia”, Shepard, W. E. Sayyid Qutb and Islamic Activism: A Translation and Critical Analysis of Social Justice in Islam. Leiden, New York: E.J. Brill., (1996). p. 40 “a movement that seeks cultural differentiation from the West and reconnection with the pre-colonial symbolic universe”, Burgat, F, “Islamic Movement”, pp. 39-41, 67-71, 309 "the organised political trend, owing its modern origin to the founding of the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt in 1928, that seeks to solve modern political problems by reference to Muslim texts", Fred Halliday, from "The Left and the Jihad", 8 - 9 - 2006 “the whole body of thought which seeks to invest society with Islam which may be integrationist, but may also be traditionalist, reform-minded or even revolutionary”, and “the active assertion and promotion of beliefs, prescriptions, laws or policies that are held to be Islamic in character.” a movement of "Muslims who draw upon the belief, symbols, and language of Islam to inspire, shape, and animate political activity." May contain moderate, tolerant, peaceful Islamists or those who "preach intolerance and espouse violence" Speech by Robert H. Pelletreau, Jr., Council on Foreign Relations, May 8, 1996, at http://dosfan.lib.uic.edu/ERC/bureaus/nea/960508PelletreauMuslim.html . Islamism takes several forms and spans a wide range of strategies and tactics, and thus is not a united movement. Moderate reformists who accept and work within the democratic process include the Justice and Development Party of Turkey, Tunisian author and reformer Rashid Al-Ghannouchi and Malaysian opposition leader Anwar Ibrahim. The Islamist group Hezbollah in Lebanon participates in both elections and armed attacks, seeking to abolish the state of Israel. Groups such as the Jamaat-e-Islami of Pakistan and the Sudanese Muslim Brotherhood favored a top-down road to power by military coup d'état. Roy, Failure of Political Islam, (1994), p.24 The radical Islamists al-Qaeda and Egyptian Islamic Jihad reject entirely democracy and self-proclaimed Muslims they find overly moderate, and preach violent jihad, urging and conducting attacks on a religious basis. Another major division within Islamism is between the fundamentalist "guardians of the tradition" of the Salafism or Wahhabi movement, and the "vanguard of change" centered on the Muslim Brotherhood. Fuller, The Future of Political Islam, (2003), p.194-5 Olivier Roy argues that "Sunni pan-Islamism underwent a remarkable shift in the second half of the 20th century" when the Muslim Brotherhood movement and focus on Islamistation of pan-Arabism was eclipsed by the Salafi movement with its emphasis on "sharia rather than the building of Islamic institutions," and rejection of Shia Islam. Roy, Olivier, The Politics of Chaos in the Middle East, Columbia University Press, (2008), p.92-3 Different Islamist groups have come to blows in places such as present day Iraq. History of usage The term Islamism was coined in eighteenth-century France as a way of referring to Islam. Earliest known use of the term identified by the Oxford English Dictionary is 1747. Oxford English Dictionary By the turn of the twentieth century it had begun to be displaced by the shorter and purely Arabic term Islam and by 1938, when Orientalist scholars completed The Encyclopaedia of Islam, seems to have virtually disappeared from the English language. The term Islamism is considered to have first begun to acquire its contemporary connotations in French academia between the late 1970s and late 1980s. From French, it began to migrate to the English language in the mid-1980s, and in recent years has largely displaced the term Islamic fundamentalism in academic circles. The use of the term Islamism was at first "a marker for scholars more likely to sympathize" with new Islamic movements; however, as the term gained popularity it became more specifically associated with political groups such as the Taliban or the Algerian Armed Islamic Group, as well as with highly publicized acts of violence. An article in Middle East Quarterly in 2003 states, "In summation, the term Islamism enjoyed its first run, lasting from Voltaire to the First World War, as a synonym for Islam. Enlightened scholars and writers generally preferred it to Mohammedanism. Eventually both terms yielded to Islam, the Arabic name of the faith, and a word free of either pejorative or comparative associations. There was no need for any other term, until the rise of an ideological and political interpretation of Islam challenged scholars and commentators to come up with an alternative, to distinguish Islam as modern ideology from Islam as a faith." Relation between Islam and Islamism An Islamic Flag, known as the 'Flag of Islam' ('Alam al-Islam) or 'Flag of Shahada' ('Alam al-Shahada) featuring the first Kalimah, the Shahada, widely used by Muslims. White flags with black lettering symbolically represent 'Dar al-Salam/Islam' and Black flags with white lettering symbolically represent 'Dar al-Harb/Kufr The concept Islamism is controversial, not just because it posits a political role for Islam, but also because Islamists believe their views merely reflect Islam, and the idea that Islam is, or can be, apolitical is an error. Scholars and observers who do not believe that Islam is a political ideology include Fred Halliday and John Esposito. Islamists have asked the question, "If Islam is a way of life, how can we say that those who want to live by its principles in legal, social, political, economic, and political spheres of life are not Muslims, but Islamists and believe in Islamism, not [just] Islam?" Abid Ullah Jan, Wikipedia: Good Intentions, Horrible Consequences, Al-Jazeerah Op-Ed, 27 February, 2006. (archive.org accessed 2007-10-24). A writer for the International Crisis Group maintains that "the conception of 'political Islam' ... is unhistorical as well as self-serving," a creation of Americans to explain the Iranian Islamic Revolution. In reality it is apolitical Islam that requires explanation — it was an historical fluke of the "shortlived heyday of secular Arab nationalism between 1945 and 1970." Understanding Islamism Middle East/North Africa Report N°37 2 March 2005 On the other hand, Muslim-owned and run media have used the terms "Islamist" and "Islamism" - as distinguished from Muslim and Islam - to distinguish groups such as the Islamic Salvation Front in Algeria Algerian group joins al-Qaeda brand or Jamaa Islamiya in Egypt, Egypt frees 900 Islamist militants which actively seeking to implement Islamic law, from other Muslim groups. Another source distinguishes Islamist from Islamic "by the fact that the latter refers to a religion and culture in existence over a millennium, whereas the first is a political/religious phenomenon linked to the great events of the 20th century". Islamists have, at least at times, defined themselves as "Islamiyyoun/Islamists" to differentiate themselves from "Muslimun/Muslims". Final Report of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States, The 9/11 Commission Report, W.W. Norton & Company, New York, (2004), p.562 According to Bernard Lewis, Islamists, or as he terms them "activist Muslims", follow the role that the Prophet Muhammad played as a "rebel" during his time in Mecca: There are in particular two political traditions, one of which might be called quietist, the other activist. The arguments in favor of both are based, as are most early Islamic arguments, on the Holy Book and on the actions and sayings of the Prophet. The quietist tradition obviously rests on the Prophet as sovereign, as judge and statesman. But before the Prophet became a head of state, he was a rebel. Before he traveled from Mecca to Medina, where he became sovereign, he was an opponent of the existing order. He led an opposition against the pagan oligarchy of Mecca and at a certain point went into exile and formed what in modern language might be called a "government in exile," with which finally he was able to return in triumph to his birthplace and establish the Islamic state in Mecca...The Prophet as rebel has provided a sort of paradigm of revolution—opposition and rejection, withdrawal and departure, exile and return. Time and time again movements of opposition in Islamic history tried to repeat this pattern. Influence of Islamism Few observers contest the influence of Islamism. Following the collapse of the Soviet Union, political movements based on the liberal ideology of free expression and democratic rule have led the opposition in other parts of the world such as Latin America, Eastern Europe and many parts of Asia; however "the simple fact is that political Islam currently reigns as the most powerful ideological force across the Muslim world today". Fuller, The Future of Political Islam, (2003), p.67 Even some of those who see Islamism as fraught with contradictions believe "the socioeconomic realities that sustained the Islamist wave are still here and are not going to change: poverty, uprootedness, crises in values and identities, the decay of the educational systems, the North-South opposition, and the problem of immigrant integration into the host societies". Roy, Failure of Political Islam (1994) p.27 The strength of Islamism draws from the strength of religiosity in general in the Muslim world. Compared to Western and other non-Muslim societies, "[w]hat is striking about the Islamic world is that ... it seems to have been the least penetrated by irreligion". Where other peoples may look to the physical or social sciences for answers in areas which their ancestors regarded as best left to scripture, in the Muslim world, religion has become more encompassing, not less, as "in the last few decades, it has been the fundamentalists who have increasingly represented the cutting edge of the culture". Cook, Michael, The Koran: A Very Short Introduction, Oxford University Press, (2000) In Egypt and the rest of the Muslim world "the word secular, a label proudly worn 30 years ago, is shunned" and "used to besmirch" political foes. Murphy, Caryle, Passion for Islam: Shaping the Modern Middle East: the Egyptian Experience, Scribner, (c2002), p.161 The small secular opposition parties "cannot compare" with Islamists in terms of "doggedness, courage," "risk-taking" or "organizational skills". Murphy, Caryle, Passion for Islam, (c2002), p.160 In the Middle East and Pakistan, religious discourse dominates societies, the airwaves, and thinking about the world. Radical mosques have proliferated throughout Egypt. Bookstores are dominated by works with religious themes ... The demand for sharia, the belief that their governments are unfaithful to Islam and that Islam is the answer to all problems, and the certainty that the West has declared war on Islam; these are the themes that dominate public discussion. Islamists may not control parliaments or government palaces, but they have occupied the popular imagination. The Age of Sacred Terror by Daniel Benjamin and Steven Simon, Randon House, 2002, p.172-3 Islamism has been described as "competeing in the democratic public square in places like Turkey and Indonesia. Farr, Thomas F. "Islam's Way to Freedom", First Things, November 2008, p.24-28 (p.26) In Morocco, the Islamist Justice and Development Party (PJD) supported King Muhammad VI's "Mudawana," a startlingly progressive family law which grants women the right to a divorce, raises the minimum age for marriage to 18, and, in the event of separation, stipulates equal distribution of property. Muslim Brothers in Jordan condemned the Iraq War, while their comrades in Iraq sat in the Iraqi government. In Egypt, with the Muslim Brotherhood officially banned, it puts forward only independent candidates during election. Pundits have estimated it would receive at least thirty percent of the votes in free elections, and even more with a lower turnout at the polls, because of the ability to mobilize adherents at any time. Socialists, liberals, and nationalists have long been marginalized in Islamic countries with apparent dictatorship. The fact that many regimes use a threatening theocracy as a pretext to deal with the secular opposition at the same time usually only plays into the hands of Islamists. As countries like Egypt and Tunisia have demonstrated, the price of suppressing Islamism in the name of freedom is the undermining of democracy. Today Islamists are among the most passionate advocates of freedom of speech, fair elections, and pluralism – genuinely Western values posing a dilemma for the west, much as the Palestinian legislative elections showed. http://www.qantara.de/webcom/show_article.php/_c-476/_nr-924/i.html The Islamism Debate: God's Counterculture Sources of strength Amongst the various reasons for the global strength of Islamism are: Alienation from the West Muslim alienation from Europe and its ways, including its political ways. The memory in Muslim societies of the many centuries of "cultural and institutional success" of Islamic civilization that have created an "intense resistance to an alternative `civilizational order`", such as Western civilization, Fuller, E., The Future of Political Islam, (2003), p.15 Outside Islamdom, Christian missionaries from Europe usually succeeded in making converts. Whether for spiritual reasons or for material ones, substantial numbers of American Indians, Africans, Hindus, Buddhists, and Confucians accepted the Gospels. But Muslims did not." Pipes, Daniel, In the Path of God: Islam and Political Power, Basic Books, (1983), p.173 The proximity of the core of the Muslim world to Europe and Christendom where it first conquered and then was conquered. Iberia in the seventh century, the Crusades which began in the eleventh century, then for centuries the Ottoman Empire, were all fields of war between Europe and Islam. Islam and the Myth of Confrontation, Fred Halliday; (2003) p.108 The Islamic world was aware of European fear and hatred: For almost a thousand years, from the first Moorish landing in Spain to the second Turkish siege of Vienna, Europe was under constant threat from Islam. In the early centuries it was a double threat – not only of invasion and conquest, but also of conversion and assimilation. All but the easternmost provinces of the Islamic realm had been taken from Christian rulers, and the vast majority of the first Muslims west of Iran and Arabia were converts from Christianity ... Their loss was sorely felt and it heightened the fear that a similar fate was in store for Europe. Lewis, Bernard, Islam and the West Oxford University Press, p.13, (1993) and also felt its own anger and resentment at the much more recent technological superiority of westerners who, are the perpetual teachers; we, the perpetual students. Generation after generation, this asymmetry has generated an inferiority complex, forever exacerbated by the fact that their innovations progress at a faster pace than we can absorb them. ... The best tool to reverse the inferiority complex to a superiority complex ... Islam would give the whole culture a sense of dignity. Hassan Hanafi, Islamist philosophy professor at Cairo University quoted in Passion for Islam by Caryle Murphy, p.172 For Islamists, the primary threat of the West is cultural rather than political or economic. Cultural dependency robs one of faith and identity and thus destroys Islam and the Islamic community (ummah) far more effectively than political rule. Haddad/Esposito pg.xvi The end of the Cold War and Soviet occupation of Afghanistan has eliminated the common atheist Communist enemy uniting some religious Muslims and the capitalist west. Kepel, Gilles, Jihad, Harvard University Press, (2002), p.218 Resurgence of Islam The resurgence of Islamic devotion and the attraction to things Islamic can be traced to several events. A tenet of the Quran is that Islam will deliver victory and success. For example 23:1: "Successful indeed are the believers"; http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/023.qmt.html Sura 9:14 "Fight them and God will punish them at your hands ... God will make you victorious over them" ; 22:40: "God will certainly aid those who aid His (cause): for verily God is Full of Strength, Exalted in Might." An example of Islamic belief in victory is: "If you understand the true character of a Muslim, you will be convinced that he cannot live in humiliation, abasement or subjugation. He is bound to prevail and no power on earth can overwhelm him." (Towards Understanding Islam by Abul A'la Mawdudi, p.26) `Islam is a martial civilization. If you succeed, that means God is on your side.` from: Lippman, Thomas W., Understanding Islam, New American Library, (1982), p.50 Yet, by the end of World War I, there was scarcely such a thing left as a Muslim state not dominated by the Christian West. How could this happen? Only two answers were possible. Either the claims of Islam were false and the Christian or post-Christian West had finally come up with another system that was superior, or Islam had failed through not being true to itself. Obviously, a redoubling of faith and devotion by Muslims was called for to reverse this tide. Edward Mortimer in Faith and Power: The Politics of Islam, in Wright, Sacred Rage, Simon and Schuster, (1985), pp.64-66) The connection between the lack of an Islamic spirit and the lack of victory was underscored by the disastrous defeat of Arab nationalist-led armies fighting under the slogan "Land, Sea and Air" in the 1967 Six Day War, compared to the near-victory of the Yom Kippur War six years later. In that war the military's slogan was "God is Great". Wright, Sacred Rage, p.64-6 Along with the Yom Kippur War came the Arab oil embargo where the (Muslim) Gulf oil-producing states' dramatic decision to cut back on production and quadruple the price of oil, made the terms oil, Arabs and Islam synonymous – with power – in the world, and especially in the Muslim world's public imagination. Wright, Sacred Rage, p.66 from Pipes, Daniel, In the Path of God, Basic Books, (1983), (p.285) Many Muslims believe as Saudi Prince Saud al Faisal did that the hundreds of billions of dollars in wealth obtained from the Persian Gulf's huge oil deposits were nothing less than a gift from God to the Islamic faithful. from interview by Robin Wright of UK Foreign Secretary (at the time) Lord Carrington in November 1981, Sacred Rage: The Wrath of Militant Islam by Robin Wright, Simon and Schuster, (1985), p.67 As the Islamic revival gained momentum, governments such as Egypt's, which had previously repressed (and was still continuing to repress) Islamists, joined the bandwagon. They banned alcohol and flooded the airwaves with religious programming, Murphy, Passion for Islam, (2002), p.36 giving the movement even more exposure. Saudi Arabian funding Starting in the mid-1970s the Islamic resurgence was funded by an abundance of money from Saudi Arabian oil exports. Kepel, Gilles, Jihad: on the Trail of Political Islam, Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, (2002), pp.69-75 The 10s of billions of dollars in "petro-Islam" largess obtained from the recently heightened price of oil funded an estimated "90% of the expenses of the entire faith." Dawood al-Shirian, `What Is Saudi Arabia Going to Do?` Al-Hayat, May 19, 2003 Throughout the Muslim world, religious institutions for people both young and old, from children's maddrassas to high-level scholarships received Saudi funding, Abou al Fadl, Khaled, The Great Theft: Wrestling Islam from the Extremists, HarperSanFrancisco, 2005, pp.48-64 "books, scholarships, fellowships, and mosques" (for example, "more than 1500 mosques were built and paid for with money obtained from public Saudi funds over the last 50 years"), Kepel, Gilles, Jihad: on the Trail of Political Islam, Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, (2002), p.72 along with training in the Kingdom for the preachers and teachers who went on to teach and work at these universities, schools, mosques, etc. Nasr, Vali, The Shia Revival, Norton, (2006), p.155 The funding was also used to reward journalists and academics who followed the Saudis' strict interpretation of Islam; and satellite campuses were built around Egypt for Al Azhar, the world's oldest and most influential Islamic university. (Murphy, Caryle, Passion for Islam, (2002) p.32 The interpretation of Islam promoted by this funding was the strict, conservative Saudi-based Wahhabism or Salafism. In its harshest form it preached that Muslims should not only "always oppose" infidels "in every way," but "hate them for their religion ... for Allah's sake," that democracy "is responsible for all the horrible wars of the 20th century," that Shia and other non-Wahhabi Muslims were infidels, etc. Saudi Publications on Hate Ideology While this effort has by no means converted all, or even most, Muslims to the Wahhabist interpretation of Islam, it has done much to overwhelm more moderate local interpretations, and has set the Saudi-interpretation of Islam as the "gold standard" of religion in Muslims' minds. An interview with Minister Mentor of Singapore, Lee Kuan Yew Grand Mosque Seizure The strength of the Islamist movement was manifest in an event which might have seemed sure to turn Muslim public opinion against fundamentalism, but did just the opposite. In 1979 the Grand Mosque in Mecca Saudi Arabia was seized by an armed fundamentalist group and held for over a week. Scores were killed, including many pilgrim bystanders Wright, Sacred Rage, (2001), p.148 in a gross violation of one of the most holy sites in Islam (and one where arms and violence are strictly forbidden). Masjid-ul-Haram: Sacred and forbidden Wright, Lawrence, The Looming Tower: Al Qaeda and the Road to 9/11. New York: Knopf, (2006), pp. 103-104 Instead of prompting a backlash against the movement from which the attackers originated, however, Saudi Arabia, already very conservative, responded by shoring up its fundamentalist credentials with even more Islamic restrictions. Crackdowns followed on everything from shopkeepers who did not close for salah and newspapers that showed photos of women, to the selling of dolls, teddy bears (images of animate objects are considered haraam), and dog food (dogs are considered unclean). Wright, Robin, Sacred Rage: The Wrath of Militant Islam, p.155 In other Muslim countries, blame for and wrath against the seizure was directed not against fundamentalists, but against Islamic fundamentalism's foremost geopolitical enemy – the United States. Ayatollah Khomeini sparked attacks on American embassies when he announced: It is not beyond guessing that this is the work of criminal American imperialism and international Zionism despite the fact that the object of the fundamentalists' revolt was the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, America's major ally in the region. Anti-American demonstrations followed in the Philippines, Turkey, Bangladesh, India, the UAE, Pakistan, and Kuwait. The US Embassy in Libya was burned by protestors chanting pro-Khomeini slogans and the embassy in Islamabad, Pakistan was burned to the ground. Wright, Robin, Sacred Rage: The Wrath of Militant Islam, p.149 Dissatisfaction with the status quo The original heart of the Muslim world – the Arab world – has been afflicted with economic stagnation. For example it has been estimated that the exports of Finland, a European country of five million, exceeded those of the entire 260 million-strong Arab world, excluding oil revenue. using statistics from mid-1990s, Commentary, "Defeating the Oil Weapon," September 2002 This economic stagnation is argued to have commenced with the demise of the Ottoman Caliphate in 1924, with trade networks being disrupted and societies torn apart with the creation of new nation states - prior to this, the Middle East had a diverse and growing economy and more general prosperity. What went wrong in the Muslim World? Strong population growth combined with economic stagnation has created urban conglomerations in Cairo, Istanbul, Tehran, Karachi, Dacca, and Jakarta each with well over 12 million citizens, millions of them young and unemployed or underemployed. Fuller, Graham E., The Future of Political Islam, Palgrave MacMillan, (2003), p.68 Such a demographic, alienated from the westernized ways of the urban elite, but uprooted from the comforts and more passive traditions of the villages they came from, is understandably favorably disposed to an Islamic system promising a better world Kepel, Gilles, Muslim extremism in Egypt: the prophet and pharaoh, Berkeley: University of California Press, (c2003), p.218 – an ideology providing an "emotionally familiar basis for group identity, solidarity, and exclusion; an acceptable basis for legitimacy and authority; an immediately intelligible formulation of principles for both a critique of the present and a program for the future." Lewis, Bernard, The Crisis of Islam: Holy War and Unholy Terror, (2003), p.22 Shelter of the mosque While dictatorial regimes can preempt opposition nationalist or socialist campaigns by closing down their networks and headquarters, the center for Islamist political organizing is the mosque. It is exempt from government crackdowns in the Muslim world (and often in the non-Muslim world) by virtue of its sacredness. "It is in the mosque where [Islamists] canvas neighborhoods in the course of providing social services, spread their political messages and campaign for votes where permitted to participate." Lewis, Bernard, The Crisis of Islam: Holy War and Unholy Terror, (2003), p.23 Fuller, Graham E., The Future of Political Islam, Palgrave MacMillan, (2003), pp.33-4 Charitable work Islamist movements such as the Muslim Brotherhood, "are well known for providing shelters, educational assistance, free or low cost medical clinics, housing assistance to students from out of town, student advisory groups, facilitation of inexpensive mass marriage ceremonies to avoid prohibitively costly dowry demands, legal assistance, sports facilities, and women's groups." All this compares very favorably against incompetent, inefficient, or neglectful governments whose commitment to social justice is limited to rhetoric. Fuller, Graham E., The Future of Political Islam, Palgrave MacMillan, (2003), p.28 Power of identity politics Islamism can also be described as part of the religiously-oriented nationalism that emerged in the Third World in the 1970s: resurgent Hinduism in India, ultra-Orthodox Judaism in Israel, militant Buddhism in Sri Lanka, resurgent Sikh nationalism in the Punjab, `Liberation Theology` of Catholicism in Latin America, and of course, Islamism in the Muslim world." Fuller, Graham E., The Future of Political Islam, Palgrave MacMillan, (2003), pp.70-71 (This is distinguished from ethnic or linguistic-based nationalism which Islamism opposes.) These all challenged Westernized ruling elites on behalf of `authenticity` and tradition. Specific examples Earliest history Some Islamic militant or revivalist movements and leaders pre-dating Islamism include Ibn Taymiyyah, a Syrian Islamic jurist during the 13th and 14th centuries who is often quoted by contemporary Islamists. Ibn Taymiyya argued against the shirking of Sharia law, and against practices such as the celebration of the Prophet's birthday or the construction of mosques around the tombs of Sufi sheikhs, believing that these were unacceptable borrowings from Christianity: Many Muslims `do not even know of the Christian origins of these practices. Accursed be Christianity and its adherents!` A Fury For God: the Islamist Attack on America by Malise Ruthven, 2002, p.135. source: Muhammad `Umar Memon, Ibn Taymiyya's Struggle against Popular Religion, with an annotated translation of Kitab Iqitada ... (the Hague, 1976), pp.78, 210 Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi (~1564–1624) was part of "a reassertion of orthodoxy within Sufism" and was known to his followers as the `renovator of the second millennium`. It has been said of Sirhindi that he `gave to Indian Islam the rigid and conservative stamp it bears today.` Mortimer, Faith and Power, (1982) p.58. Quoting Aziz Ahmad, Studies in Islamic Culture in the Indian Environment, Oxford University Press, (1964), p.189 Shah Waliullah of India and Muhammad ibn Abd-al-Wahhab of Arabia were contemporaries who met each other while studying in Mecca. Muhammad ibn Abd-al-Wahhab advocated doing away with the later accretions like grave worship and getting back to the letter and the spirit of Islam as preached and practiced by the Prophet Muhammad. He went on to found Wahhabism. Shah Waliullah was a forerunner of reformists like Muhammad Abduh in his belief that there was "a constant need for new ijtihad as the Muslim community progressed and expanded and new generations had to cope with new problems" and in his interest in the social and economic problems of the poor. Mortimer, Faith and Power, (1982) pp.67-68. Sayyid Ahmad Barelvi was a disciple and successor of Shah Waliullah's son and emphasized the `purification` of Islam from un-Islamic beliefs and practices. He anticipated modern Islamists by leading a jihad movement and attempted to create an Islamic state with strict enforcement of Islamic law. While he waged jihad against Sikhs in North-Western India, his followers fought the British after his death and allied itself with the Indian Mutiny. Mortimer, Faith and Power, (1982), p.69 After the failure of the Indian Mutiny some of Shah Waliullah's followers turned to more peaceful methods of preserving the Islamic heritage and founded the Dar al-Ulum seminary in 1867 in the town of Deoband. From the school developed the Deobandi movement which became the largest philosophical movement of traditional Islamic thought in the subcontinent and led to the establishment of thousands of madrasahs throughout modern-day India, Pakistan and Bangladesh. Today, Deobandism is represented in Pakistan by the Jamiat Ulema-e-Islam organization/political party and its splinter groups. Islam and the Muslim World, (2004) p.374 The Clash with the West Sayyid Jamāl al-Dīn al-Afghānī The end of the 19th century saw the dismemberment of most of the Muslim Ottoman Empire by non-Muslim European colonial powers. Mortimer, Edward, Faith and Power, (1982), p.85 The empire spent massive sums on Western civilian and military technology to try to modernize and compete with the encroaching European powers, and in the process went deep into debt to these powers. ottoman empire: debt In this context, the publications of Jamal ad-din al-Afghani (1837–97), Muhammad Abduh (1849–1905) and Rashid Rida (1865–1935) preached Islamic alternatives to the political, economic, and cultural decline of the empire. Mortimer, Edward, Faith and Power, (1982), p.93, 237-240, 249 Muhammad Abduh and Rashid Rida formed the beginning of the Salafist movement, Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World, Macmillan Reference, 2004, v.2, p.609 The New Encyclopedia of Islam by Cyril Glasse, Rowman and Littlefield, 2001, p.19 The Oxford Dictionary of Islam by John L. Esposito, OUP, 2003, p.275 Historical Dictionary of Islam by Ludwig W. Wadamed, Scarecrow Press, 2001, p.233 see discussion section as well as the Islamic modernist/secularist movement. www.islamic-considerations.blogspot.com Their ideas included the creation of a truly Islamic society under sharia law, and the rejection of taqlid, the blind imitation of earlier authorities, which they believed deviated from the true messages of Islam. Passion for Islam: Shaping the Modern Middle East: the Egyptian Experience by Caryle Murphy, p.46 Unlike some later Islamists, Salafists strongly emphasized the restoration of the Caliphate. Roy, Failure of Political Islam (1994), p.33 Sayyid Abul Ala Maududi Sayyid Abul Ala Maududi was a "Deobandi alumni" Maulana Maududi's Two-Nation Theory Mawdudi trained with two Deobandi ulama at the Fatihpuri mosque’s seminary in Delhi and received his certificates to teach religious sciences (ijazahs) in 1926. Bonney, R, “Jihad: From Qur’an to Bin Laden”, Palgrave Macmillan, Hampshire, 2004, p. 201 and an important early twentieth-century figure in the Islamic revival in India, and then after independence from Britain, in Pakistan. Trained as a lawyer he chose the profession of journalism, and wrote about contemporary issues and most importantly about Islam and Islamic law. In the struggle for the creation of a separate Muslim state in South Asia Maudidi and his party first opposed the establishment of the state of Pakistan but later supported the idea. He was an inspirational figure for modern Islamist groups in South Asia and elsewhere. Maududi founded the Jamaat-e-Islami party in 1941 and remained its leader until 1972. Although Maududi was educated at Deobandi institution(s) Bonney, R, “Jihad: From Qur’an to Bin Laden”, Palgrave Macmillan, Hampshire, 2004, p. 201 his party is a long-time rival of the Deobandi party/group Jamiat Ulema-e-Islam. Abul Ala Maududi. Maududi had much more impact through his writing than through his political organizing. His extremely influential book,Towards Understanding Islam (Risalat Diniyat in Arabic), placed Islam in a modern context and influenced not only conservative ulema but liberal modernizers such as al-Faruqi, whose "Islamization of Knowledge" carried forward some of Maududi's key principles. Maududi believed that Islam was all emcompassing "Everything in the universe is 'Muslim' for it obeys God by submission to His laws... The man who denies God is called Kafir (concealer) because he conceals by his disbelief what is inherent in his nature and embalmed in his own soul." A. Maududi's 'Towards Understanding Islam' Maududi also believed that Muslim society could not be Islamic without Sharia, and Islam required the establishment of an Islamic state. This state should be a "theo-democracy," Abu al-A'la al-Mawdudi, "Political Theory of Islam," in Khurshid Ahmad, ed., Islam: Its Meaning and Message (London: Islamic Council of Europe, 1976), pp.159-161. based on the principles of: tawhid (unity of God), risala (prophethood) and khilafa (caliphate). Abu al-A'la al-Mawdudi, Islamic Way of Life (Delhi: Markazi Maktaba Islami, 1967), p.40 Esposito and Piscatory, "Democratization and Islam," pp.436-437, 440 Esposito, The Islamic Threat, pp.125-126; Voll and Esposito, Islam and Democracy, pp.23-26. Because Islam is all-encompassing, Maududi believed that the Islamic state should not be limited to just the "homeland of Islam", it is for all the world: Islam wishes to destroy all States and Governments anywhere on the face of the earth which are opposed to the ideology and programme of Islam regardless of the country or the Nation which rules it. The purpose of Islam is to set up a State on the basis of its own ideology and programme, ... the objective of Islamic 'Jihad' is to eliminate the rule of an un-Islamic system" Sayeed Abdul A'la Maududi, Jihad in Islam p.9 Although Maududi talked about Islamic revolution, he was the author of the book S. Abul A‘la Maududi, The Process of Islamic Revolution (Lahore, 1980) he was both less revolutionary and less politically/economically populist than later Islamists like Qutb. Maududi on social justice: "a man who owns a car can drive it; and those who do not own one should walk; and those who are crippled cannot walk but can hop along" (Nizam al-Hayat fi al-Islam, 1st ed., n.d. (Bayrut: Musassast al-Risalah, 1983), p.54) See also Radical Islamic Fundamentalism: the Ideological and Political Discourse of Sayyid Qutb by Ahmad S. Moussalli American University of Beirut, (1992) The Muslim Brotherhood Roughly contemporaneous with Maududi was the founding of the Muslim Brotherhood in Ismailiyah, Egypt in 1928 by Hassan al Banna. His was arguably the first, largest and most influential modern Islamic political/religious organization. Under the motto "the Qur'an is our constitution," The Message of the Teachings – Hasan al-Banna it sought Islamic revival through preaching and also by providing basic community services including schools, mosques, and workshops. Like Maududi, Al Banna believed in the necessity of government rule based on Shariah law implemented gradually and by persuasion, and of eliminating all non-Muslim imperialist influence in the Muslim world. Jihad was declared against European colonial powers. Some elements of the Brotherhood, though perhaps against orders, did engage in violence against the government, and its founder Al-Banna was assassinated in 1949 in retaliation for the assassination of Egypt's premier Mahmud Fami Naqrashi three months earlier. Egypt, A Timeline of Recent Events The Brotherhood has suffered periodic repression in Egypt and has been banned several times, in 1948 and several years later following confrontations with Egyptian president Gamal Abdul Nasser, who jailed thousands of members for several years. In recent years its status has usually been described as "semi-legal." Free Republic. The day before, and after – It's been 25 years since the Islamist genie first went on the rampage Despite periodic repression, the Brotherhood has become one of the most influential movements in the Islamic world, "The Moderate Muslim Brotherhood," Robert S. Leiken & Steven Brooke, Foreign Affairs Magazine particularly in the Arab world. Along with being the only opposition group in Egypt able to field candidates during elections, it has fostered several offshoot organizations in many other countries. Egypt’s Muslim Brotherhood; Understanding Centrist Islam by John Walsh. Harvard Review. Winter 2003 Sayyid Qutb Sayyid Qutb Maududi's political ideas influenced Sayyid Qutb, one of the key philosophers of Islamism, and a leading member of the Muslim Brotherhood movement. Qutb believed things had reached such a state that the Muslim community had literally ceased to exist. It "has been extinct for a few centuries," Qutb, Sayyid, Milestones, The Mother Mosque Foundation, (1981), p.9 having reverted to Godless ignorance (Jahiliyya). To eliminate jahiliyya, Qutb argued Sharia, or Islamic law, must be established. Sharia law was not only accessible to humans and essential to the existence of Islam, but also all-encompassing, precluding "evil and corrupt" non-Islamic ideologies like socialism, nationalism, or liberal democracy. Qutb preached that Muslims must engage in a two-pronged attack of converting individuals while also waging jihad to forcibly eliminate the "structures" of Jahiliyya – not only from the Islamic homeland but from the face of the earth. Qutb was both the most famous member of the brotherhood and enormously influential in the Muslim world at large. Qutb is considered by some to be "the founding father and leading theoretician" of modern jihadis, such as Osama bin Laden. Fawaz A. Gerges, The Far Enemy: Why Jihad Went Global (Bronxville, N.Y.: Sarah Lawrence College) prologue How Did Sayyid Qutb Influence Osama bin Laden? Ironically, the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt and in Europe has not embraced his vision of armed jihad, something for which they have been denounced by more radical Islamists. Robert S. Leiken and Steven Brooke in Foreign Affairs, March/April 2007 The Six Day War of 1967 The quick and decisive defeat of the Arab troops during the Six-Day War by Israeli troops constituted a pivotal event in the Arab Muslim world. The defeat along with economic stagnation in the defeated countries, was blamed on the Arab nationalism of the ruling regimes. A steep and steady decline in the popularity and credibility of both secular and nationalist politics ensued. Ba'athism, Arab Socialism, and Arab Nationalism suffered, and Islamist movements inspired by Mawlana Maududi, and Sayyid Qutb gained ground. Mayer, p.110 Islamic Republic in Iran Imam Khomeini The first Modern Islamic state (with the possible exception of Zia's Pakistan "The Islamic Resurgence: Prospects and Implications" by Kemal A. Faruki, from Voices of Resurgent Islam, ed. by John L. Esposito, OUP, (1983), p.283 ) was established among the Shia of Iran. In a major shock to the rest of the world, Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini led the Iranian Revolution of 1979 to overthrow the oil-rich, well-armed, Westernized and pro-American secular monarchy ruled by Shah Muhammad Reza Pahlavi. Khomeini's beliefs were similar to Sunni Islamic thinkers like Mawdudi and Qutb: He believed that imitation of the early Muslims and the restoration of Sharia law were essential to Islam, that secular, Westernizing Muslims were actually agents of the West serving Western interests, and that the "plundering" of Muslim lands was part of a long-term conspiracy against Islam by the Christian West. Khomeini (1981), p.54 But they also differed: As a Shia, the early Muslims whom Khomeini looked to were Ali ibn Abī Tālib and Husayn ibn Ali, not Caliphs Abu Bakr, Omar or Uthman. Khomeini talked not about restoring the Caliphate, but about establishing an Islamic state where the leading role was taken by Islamic jurists (ulama) as the successors of Shia Imams until the Mahdi returned from occultation. His concept of velayat-e-faqih ("guardianship of the [Islamic] jurist"), held that the leading Shia Muslim cleric in society – which Khomeini and his followers believed to be himself – should serve as head of state in order to protect or "guard" Islam and Sharia law from “innovation" and "anti-Islamic laws" passed "by sham parliaments.” The revolution was influenced by Marxism through Islamist thought and also by writings that sought either to counter Marxism (Muhammad Baqir al-Sadr's work) or to integrate socialism and Islamism (Ali Shariati's work). A strong wing of the revolutionary leadership was made up of leftists or "radical populists", such as Ali Akbar Mohtashami-Pur. Ranstorp, Hizb'allah in Lebanon, (1997) pp.103, 126 While initial enthusiasm for the revolution in the Muslim world was intense, it has waned as "purges, executions, and atrocities tarnished its image". Kepel, Gilles, Jihad, Harvard University Press, (2002), p.118 As a model for potential Islamic states, the Islamic Republic has not been notably successful in achieving many of its goals: Hokumat-e Islami: Velayat-e faqih (book by Khomeini)#Criticism raising standards of living; ridding Iran of corruption, poverty, political oppression and Westernization, What Happens When Islamists Take Power? The Case of Iran or even protecting Sharia from innovation. "The Western Mind of Radical Islam" by Daniel Pipes, First Things, December 1995 Internally, it has been modestly successful in increasing literacy National Literacy Policies – IRI unesco country report iran and health care. Howard, Jane. Inside Iran: Women's Lives, Mage publishers, (2002), p.89 It has also maintained its hold on power in Iran in spite of the US economic sanctions, and has created or assisted like-minded Shia Islamist groups in Iraq (SCIRI) Supreme Council for the Islamic Revolution in Iraq#History Bakhash, Shaul, The Reign of the Ayatollahs, Basic Books, (c1984), p.233 and Lebanon (Hezbollah), "Hezbollah is coy about revealing the sums it has received from Iran. ... Reports have spoken of figures ranging from 5 to 10 million dollars per month, but it is possible that Hezbollah has received larger sums. It is only in recent years (after 1989) that Iran has decreased its aid." from: Jaber, Hala, Hezbollah: Born with a vengeance, New York: Columbia University Press, (c1997), p.150 (two Muslim countries that also have large Shiite populations). During the 2006 Israel-Lebanon conflict, the Iranian government enjoyed something of a resurgence in popularity amongst the predominantly Sunni "Arab street," 'Removing Saddam strengthened Iran' Quote: "They went directly for the kind of things that make them very unpopular in the West and very popular on the Arab streets. So Iranian President [Mahmoud] Ahmadinejad started to attack Israel and question the Holocaust." due to its support for Hezbollah and to President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad's vehement opposition to the United States and his call for the annihilation of Israel. Ahmadinejad: Wipe Israel off map OCTOBER 28, 2005 Lebanon Hezbollah emblem The Lebanese Civil War gave radical Shia movements in that country a new power and prominence after 1975. Expatriate Iranian cleric Musa al-Sadr founded the Amal movement well before his native country's own revolution (see below), heading a combination of political party and militia. After his disappearance in 1978 his organization survived, but the opportunity arose for other factions to mobilize potential support from the same social base. The most successful such movement is Hezbollah. Founded in 1985 by Lebanese Shia aided by Iranian Shia Islamists, the movement is dedicated to the expulsion of Western "colonialist entities" from Lebanon and to the destruction of Israel, which it sees as an illegal state that is usurping Islamic territory. Hezbollah was instrumental in driving the Israeli military from Lebanon in 2000, which heightened its popularity in Lebanon even among non-Shia. In 2006, an Israeli attempt to crush Hezbollah by attacking its strongholds in south Lebanon sustained serious casualties and was considered by many observers to be a failure for Israel. Pakistan's Islamization campaign General Zia ul-Haq In July 1977 General Zia-ul-Haq overthrew Prime Minister Ali Bhutto's regime in Pakistan. Ali Bhutto, a leftist in political competition with Islamists, had banned alcohol, horse-racing, and nightclubs, and announced that the "sharia would be fully applied" within six months, shortly before he was overthrown. Asian Survey, 6, n.29, William L. Richter, "The Political Dynamics of Islamic Resurgence in Pakistan." Ul-Haq was much more committed to Islamism, and "Islamization" or implementation of Islamic law (AKA sharia), became a cornerstone of his eleven-year military dictatorship and Islamism became his "official state ideology". An admirer of Mawdudi, Mawdudi's party Jamaat-e-Islami became the "regime's ideological arm", and its members prospered under ul-Haq. Kepel, Jihad, (2002), pp.98, 100, 101 Under his leadership anyone which showed to oppose his form 'Islam', was persecuted and legitimized to be a victim. The Ahmadi Community was severely persecuted under his dictatorial rule by various Islamist movements, who due to the non-action of the government rallied support and immensely grew in numbers and influence. The decades of build up and current Islamist wave in Pakistan is a result of ul-Haq's support for the various Islamist movements. In Pakistan this Islamization from above was "probably" more complete "than under any other regime except those in Iran and Sudan," but Ul-Haq was also criticized by some Islamists for imposing "symbols" rather than substance, and using Islamization to legitimize his means of seizing power. Fuller, Future of Political Islam, (2003), p.131 The program was a dramatic reversal of the traditional secularism of Pakistan's founding Muslim League and its leader Mohammad Ali Jinnah, but unlike neighboring Iran, ul-Haq's policies were intended to "avoid revolutionary excess", and not to strain relations with his American and Persian Gulf state allies. Kepel, Jihad, (2002), p.98 Ul-Haq was killed in 1988 but Islamization is still proceeding in Pakistan. Afghanistan: Jihad against the Soviets In 1979 the Soviet Union deployed its 40th Army into Afghanistan, attempting to suppress an Islamic rebellion against an allied Marxist regime in the Afghan Civil War. The conflict, pitting indigenous impoverished Muslims (mujahideen) against an atheist superpower, galvanized thousands of Muslims around the world to send aid and sometimes to go themselves to fight jihad. Leading this pan-Islamic effort was Palestinian sheikh Abdullah Yusuf Azzam. While the military effectiveness of these "Afghan Arabs" was marginal, Azzam's group is said to have organized paramilitary training for more than 20,000 Muslim recruits, from about 20 countries around the world. When the Soviet Union abandoned the Marxist Najibullah regime and withdrew from Afghanistan in 1989 (the regime finally fell in 1992), the victory was seen by many Muslims as the triumph of Islamic faith over superior military power and technology that could be duplicated elsewhere. The jihadists gained legitimacy and prestige from their triumph both within the militant community and among ordinary Muslims, as well as the confidence to carry their jihad to other countries where they believed Muslims required assistance. "blowback revisited" Foreign Affairs 2005 Peter Bergen Osama bin Laden The "veterans of the guerrilla campaign" returning home to Algeria, Egypt and other countries "with their experience, ideology, and weapons," were often eager to continue armed jihad. The collapse of the Soviet Union itself in 1991, was seen by many Islamists, including Bin Laden, as the defeat of a superpower at the hands of Islam, the $6 billion in aid given by the US to the mujahideen having nothing to do with the victory. As bin Laden opined: "[T]he US has no mentionable role" in "the collapse of the Soviet Union ... rather the credit goes to God and the mujahidin" of Afghanistan. bin Laden interview with Peter Arnett, March 1997 Persian Gulf War Another factor in the early 1990s that worked to radicalize the Islamist movement was the Gulf War, which brought several hundred thousand US and allied non-Muslim military personnel to Saudi Arabian soil to put an end to Saddam Hussein's occupation of Kuwait. Prior to 1990 Saudi Arabia played an important role in restraining the many Islamist groups that received its aid. But Saddam embraced Islamic rhetoric and attacked Saudi Arabia, his enemy in the war, for violating Islamic unity and its role as custodian of the two holy cities by allowing non-Muslims on its soil (traditional Muslim belief holds that non-Muslims must not be allowed on the Arabian peninsula), and he also accused the Kingdom of being a puppet of the west. These attacks resonated with conservative Muslims and the problem did not go away with Saddam's defeat either, since American troops remained stationed in the kingdom, and a defacto cooperation with the Palestinian-Israeli peace process developed. Saudi Arabia attempted to compensate for its loss of prestige among these groups by repressing those domestic Islamists who attacked it (bin Laden being a prime example), and increasing aid to Islamic groups (Islamist madrassas around the world and even aiding some violent Islamist groups) that did not, but its pre-war influence on behalf of moderation was greatly reduced. Jihad: The Trail of Political Islam Gilles Kepel pp.205-217 One result of this was a campaign of attacks on government officials and tourists in Egypt, a bloody civil war in Algeria and Osama bin Laden's terror attacks climaxing in 9/11 attack. Jihad: The Trail of Political Islam Gilles Kepel p.207 Jihad movements of Egypt Ayman al-Zawahiri While Qutb's ideas became increasingly radical during his imprisonment prior to his execution in 1966, the leadership of the Brotherhood, led by Hasan al-Hudaybi, remained moderate and interested in political negotiation and activism. Fringe or splinter movements inspired by the final writings of Qutb in the mid-1960s (particularly the manifesto "Milestones," aka Ma'alim fi-l-Tariq) did, however, develop and they pursued a more radical direction. Wright, Lawrence, Looming Tower, (2006), p.332 By the 1970s, the Brotherhood had renounced violence as a means of achieving its goals. The path of violence and military struggle was then taken up by the Egyptian Islamic Jihad organization responsible for the assassination of Anwar Sadat in 1981. Unlike earlier anti-colonial movements, Islamic Jihad directed its attacks against what it believed were "apostate" leaders of Muslim states - leaders who held secular leanings or who had introduced or promoted Western/foreign ideas and practices into Islamic societies. Its views were outlined in a pamphlet written by Muhammad Abd al-Salaam Farag, in which he states: ...there is no doubt that the first battlefield for jihad is the extermination of these infidel leaders and to replace them by a complete Islamic Order... Another of the Egyptian groups which employed violence in their struggle for Islamic order was al-Gama'a al-Islamiyya (Islamic Group). Victims of their campaign against the Egyptian state in the 1990s included the head of the counter-terrorism police (Major General Raouf Khayrat), a parliamentary speaker (Rifaat al-Mahgoub), dozens of European tourists and Egyptian bystanders, and over 100 Egyptian police. Timeline of modern Egypt Ultimately the campaign to overthrow the government was unsuccessful, and the major jihadi group, Jamaa Islamiya (or al-Gama'a al-Islamiyya), renounced violence in 2003. Other lesser known groups include the Islamic Liberation Party, Al-Najun min al-nar and Al-Takfir wa al-Hijra and these groups have variously been involved in activities such as attempted assassinations of political figures, arson of video shops and attempted takeovers of government buildings. Mazih Ayubi, Political Islam, 1991, p73 Sudan Hassan al-Turabi For many years Sudan had an Islamist regime under the leadership of Hassan al-Turabi. His National Islamic Front first gained influence when strongman General Gaafar al-Nimeiry invited members to serve in his government in 1979. Turabi built a powerful economic base with money from foreign Islamist banking systems, especially those linked with Saudi Arabia. He also recruited and built a cadre of influential loyalists by placing sympathetic students in the university and military academy while serving as minister of education. Fuller, Graham E., The Future of Political Islam, Palgrave MacMillan, (2003), p.108 After al-Nimeiry was overthrown in 1985 the party did poorly in national elections but in 1989 it was able to overthrow the elected post-al-Nimeiry government with the help of the military. Turabi was noted for his commitment to the democratic process and a liberal government before coming to power, but strict application of sharia law, and an intensification of the long-running war in southern Sudan, Human Rights Watch 1989 Sudan human rights abuses, once in power. The NIF regime also harbored Osama bin Laden for a time (before 9/11), and worked to unify Islamist opposition to the American attack on Iraq in the 1991 Gulf War. After Sudanese intelligence services were implicated in an assassination attempt on the President of Egypt, UN economic sanctions were imposed on Sudan, a very poor country, and Turabi fell from favor. Wright, Lawrence, Looming Towers, (2006), pp.213-215 He was imprisoned for a time in 2004-5. Some of the NIF policies, such as the war with the non-Muslim south, have been reversed, though the National Islamic Front (now named the National Congress Party) still holds considerable power in the Sudanese government. Algeria The FIS emblem An Islamist movement influenced by Salafism and the jihad in Afghanistan, as well as the Muslim Brotherhood, was the FIS or Front Islamique de Salut (the Islamic Salvation Front) in Algeria. Founded as a broad Islamist coalition in 1989 it was led by Abbassi Madani, and a charismatic radical young preacher, Ali Belhadj. Taking advantage of liberalization by the unpopular ruling leftist/nationalist FLN regime, it used its preaching to advocate the establishment of a legal system following Sharia law, education in Arabic rather than French, and gender segregation, with women staying home to alleviate the high rate of unemployment among young Algerian men. The FIS won sweeping victories in local elections and it was going to win national elections in 1991 when voting was canceled by a military coup d'état. As Islamists took up arms to overthrow the regime, the FIS's leaders were arrested and it became overshadowed by Islamist guerilla groups particularly the Islamic Salvation Army, MIA and Armed Islamic Group (or GIA). A bloody and devastating civil war ensued in which between 150,000 and 200,000 people were killed over the next decade. Civilians – including foreigners, University academics, intellectuals, writers, journalists, and medical doctors – were targeted by Islamist extremists. Kepel, Jihad, (2002), p.262 Algeria Timeline although government forces were also accused of killing civilians and of manipulating the brutal takfiri GIA The civil war was not a victory for Islamism. By 2002 the main guerrilla groups had either been destroyed or had surrendered. The popularity of Islamist parties has declined to the point that "the Islamist candidate, Abdallah Jaballah, came a distant third with 5% of the vote" in the 2004 presidential election. "International: Freer and more peaceful; An election in Algeria," The Economist, April 17, 2004. V.371, n. 8371; p.56 Afghanistan Taliban Flag of Taliban In Afghanistan the mujahideen's victory did not lead to justice and prosperity but to a vicious and destructive civil war between warlords, making Afghanistan one of the poorest countries on earth. In 1996, a new movement known as the Taliban, rose to power, defeated most of the warlords and took over roughly 80% of Afghanistan. The Taliban were spawned by the thousands of madrasahs the Deobandi movement established for impoverished Afghan refugees and supported by governmental and religious groups in neighboring Pakistan. Rashid, Taliban (2000), p.26, 32 The Taliban differed from other Islamist movements to the point where they might be more properly described as Islamic fundamentalist or neofundamentalist, interested in spreading "an idealized and systematized version of village customs to an entire country." Is Islamism a Threat? A Debate Middle East Quarterly, December 1999 Despite Afghanistan's great poverty, they had little interest in social, economic and technological development – at one time explaining that "we Muslims believe God the Almighty will feed everybody one way or another." Agence France-Presse, `Taliban reject warnings of aid pull-out`, 16 July 1998 Their ideology was also described as being influenced by Pashtunwali tribal law, Wahhabism, and the jihadism pan-Islamism of their guest Osama bin Laden. Rashid,Taliban, (2000), p.132, 139 Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World, (2004) The Taliban considered "politics" to be against Sharia and thus did not hold elections. They were led by Mullah Mohammed Omar who was given the title "Amir al-Mu'minin" or Commander of the Faithful, and a pledge of loyalty by several hundred Taliban-selected Pashtun clergy in April 1996. Like most Islamists, the Taliban enforced strict prohibitions on women, but these were so severe – for example effectively forbidding most employment and schooling – that they created an international outcry. For example, in 1998 feminist groups in the United States applied serious pressure on the Unocal oil company to end its relationship with the Taliban regime. Rashid, Taliban, (2000), p.174 The Taliban were also famous for other activities they banned – music, TV, videos, photographs, pigeons, kite-flying, beard-trimming, etc. – and for the energy and the resources which they used to enforce the bans, including hundreds perhaps thousands of religious police officers armed with "whips, long sticks and Kalashnikovs." Rashid,Taliban (2000), p.105 The Taliban also opposed Shi'ism and have been accused by human rights groups of indiscriminately killing thousands of Shia. Human Rights Watch, AFGHANISTAN: THE MASSACRE IN MAZAR-I SHARIF They were also overwhelmingly Pashtun and were accused of not sharing power with the approximately 60% of Afghanis who belonged to other ethnic groups. (see: Taliban#Ideology) Rashid, Taliban (2000), p.98, 101 The Taliban's hosting of Osama bin Laden, despite the attacks he organized against the United States, led to an American-organized attack against which drove them from power following the 9/11 attacks. BBC article stating that bin Laden is "a man without sin" Taliban are still very much alive and fighting a vigorous insurgency from bases in the frontier regions of Pakistan with suicide bombings and armed attacks being launched against NATO, Afghan government targets and civilians. Attacks on civilians Some Islamist groups call for and/or engage in attacks on not only police/military enemies, but non-combatants as well. These groups include several mentioned above: al-Gama'a al-Islamiyya (Islamic Group) of Egypt, Islamist groups in Algeria, Hamas and Islamic Jihad in Gaza and the West Bank, and perhaps most famously Osama bin Laden and his al-Qaeda group. Both Muslims and non-Muslims have been among the targets and victims. Some of the groups have proudly proclaimed the attacks, others have been silent or denied involvement. Justification for attacks on Muslims often comes as takfir, an implicit death threat since under traditional Sharia law the punishment for apostasy in Islam is death. Justification for attacks on non-Muslims is often the allegation that the targets had "waged war against God," are occupiers of Musilm land, or tourists unwelcome on Muslim land. Suicide or "martyrdom operations" are a lethal technique among radical Islamists, sometimes motivated by the much disputed explanation that "God will give" those who kill themselves in the path of jihad 70 or 72 female "virgins" and "everlasting happiness." Virgins? What virgins? What is Jihad? Vinod Kumar Religious or sectarian attacks in situations where Islamists are active have been particularly serious following 2004. In Iraq, 8,262 people were killed in terror attacks in 2005 and 13,340 in 2006, Report: Global terrorism up more than 25 percent although not all of theses casualties came from attacks by Islamist groups. Islamist or fundamentalist attacks are also on the increase in Afghanistan Afghan Suicide Attacks Rising, Report Shows ... increasing number of armed attacks that either target civilians or are launched without regard for the impact on civilian life and in Pakistan, where hundreds have been killed in 2006 and 2007, The Assault of Suicide-Bombers in Pakistan and Afghanistan although in both countries not all of the attacks have been on civilians. Hizb ut-Tahrir An influential international Islamist movement is the 'party' Hizb ut-Tahrir, founded in 1953 by a Sufi and Islamic Qadi (judge) Taqiuddin al-Nabhani. HT is unique from most other Islamist movements in that the party focuses not on local issues or on providing social services, but on unifying the Muslim world under its vision of a new Islamic caliphate spanning from North Africa and the Middle East to much of central and South Asia. To this end it has drawn up and published a constitution for its proposed caliphate state. The constitution's 187 articles specify specific policies such as sharia law, a "unitary ruling system" headed by a caliph elected by Muslims, an economy based on the gold standard, public ownership of utilities, public transport, and energy resources, and Arabic as the "sole language of the State." Draft Constitution In its focus on the Caliphate, HT takes a different view of Muslim history than some other Islamists such as Muhammad Qutb. HT sees Islam's pivotal turning point as occurring not with the death of Ali, or one of the other four rightly guided Caliphs in the 7th century, but with the 1918 or 1922 abolition of the Ottoman Caliphate. This is believed to have ended the true Islamic system, something for which it blames "the disbelieving (Kafir) colonial powers" working through Turkish modernist Mustafa Kamal. an-Nabhani, Taqiuddin, The System of Islam (Nidham ul Islam), Al-Khilafa Publications, www.khilafa.com, 1423 AH – 2002 CE p.58 HT does not engage in armed jihad or vote-getting, but works to take power through "ideological struggle" to change Muslim public opinion, and in particular through elites who will "facilitate" a "change of the government," i.e. launch a bloodless coup. It allegedly attempted and failed such coups in 1968 and 1969 in Jordan, and in 1974 in Egypt, and is now banned in both countries. "Fighting the War of Ideas", Zeyno Baran. Foreign Affairs, Nov/December 2005 The party is sometimes described as "Leninist" and "rigidly controlled by its central leadership," For Allah and the caliphate with its estimated one million members required to spend "at least two years studying party literature under the guidance of mentors (Murshid)" before taking "the party oath." HT is particularly active in the ex-soviet republics of Central Asia and in Europe. In the UK its rallies have drawn thousands of Muslims, "9,000 mainly young people attend HT Rally," September 15, 2002 and the party is said to have outpaced the Muslim Brotherhood in both membership and radicalism. "The Moderate Muslim Brotherhood", Robert S. Leiken and Steven Brooke, From Foreign Affairs, March/April 2007 Turkey In Turkey, something of an anomaly among Islamist movements and parties is the Justice and Development Party (Turkey) (Adalet ve Kalkinma Partisi) (AKP) of Turkey headed by Recep Tayyip Erdogan. The successor to earlier Islamist parties of Necmettin Erbakan – National Order Party (Milli Nizam Partisi), National Salvation Party (Milli Selamet Partisi), Welfare Party (Refah Partisi) – AKP was the first Islamist party in history to win a free national election and form a government. Fuller, Graham E., The Future of Political Islam, Palgrave MacMillan, (2003), p.11 In July 2007 it won 46% of the vote, (a landslide in Turkey's multiparty political landscape). Turkey's ruling party claims win assessed 1.9.2007 Since its victory in 2002 elections, the tensions between the AKP and those claiming secularism - the bureacracy (particularly the judiciary), the Armed Forces, and an important fraction of society, including the heterodox Alevi sect - have been on the boil. In 2008, Turkey's chief prosecutor filed a case asking that the AKP be banned for "anti-secular activities". The Constitutional Court accepted the case but decided against a ban. Instead the court ruled that the party's public financing be cut in half, as well as issue a “serious warning” that it was steering the country in too Islamic a direction. Turkish Court Calls Ruling Party Constitutional By SABRINA TAVERNISE and SEBNEM ARSU, July 31, 2008 Despite the aggressive opposition in Turkey, the AKP has been praised in the west for policies supporting "integration into the global economy, and membership in the EU," rather than aligning with Islamic countries. Turkey's Justice and Development Party: A Model for Democratic Islam? assessed 1.9.2007 On the other hand, the AKP has also been criticised in the west for its alleged hidden agenda of transforming Turkey into an Islamic state Turkey’s Turning Point: Could There Be An Islamic Revolution in Turkey? Road to Nowhere and its procrastination in improving human rights, democracy, and freedom of speech in Turkey. AKP Proritizing Headscarf Over EU Criticism Islamism has been criticised for: repression of free expression, rigidity, hypocrisy, lack of true understanding of Islam, misinterpreting the Quran and Sunna, and for innovations to Islam (bid‘ah), notwithstanding Islamists' proclaimed opposition to any such innovation. Despite this, Islamism remains very popular among many Muslims. Action against Several governments, including the U.S. government have engaged in efforts to counter Islamism, or violent Islamism, since 2001. These efforts were centered in the U.S. around public diplomacy programs conducted by the State Department. There have been calls to create an independent agency in the U.S. with a specific mission of undermining Islamism and jihadism. Christian Whiton, an official in the George W. Bush administration, called for a new agency focused on the nonviolent practice of "political warfare" aimed at undermining the ideology. NOVEMBER 30, 2008, 1:36 P.M. ET Information Warfare Matters U.S. Defense Secretary Robert Gates called for establishing something similar to the defunct U.S. Information Agency, which was charged with undermining the communist ideology during the Cold War. Creating a New Public Diplomacy Cabinet Post. Spring 2008 Post 9/11 Issues It is important to distinguish between Islamists and Islamist terrorists: "While ignoring the overwhelming majority of Islamists who have nothing to do with terror and making them virtually irrelevant and stigmatized in Western political discourse ... To ignore the complexity of political Islam and tar all Islamists with the same brush of terrorism guarantees Bin Laden's success." Graham E Fuller, The Future of Political Islam, p.83 International Crisis Group warns that the tendency of "policy-makers ... to lump all forms of Islamism together, brand them as radical and treat them as hostile ... is fundamentally misconceived." Furthermore, it states: “...the issues and grievances which have been grist to the mill of Sunni jihadism across the Muslim world have not been resolved or even appreciably attenuated since 2001, but, on the contrary, aggravated and intensified. The failure to address the Palestinian question and, above all, the decision to make war on Iraq and the even more extraordinary mishandling of the post-war situation there have unquestionably motivated and encouraged jihadi activism across the Muslim world. Unsophisticated Western understanding and rhetoric that tends to discredit all forms of political Islamism, coupled with the lumping together of the internal, irredentist and global jihadis...” Other countries In the 1990s, Islamist conflicts erupted around the world. In 1995 a series of terrorist attacks were launched against France. Malaysia is described as a "soft" Islamist state, whereas Iran is considered a "hard" Islamist state. Cohen, Stephen Philip, The Idea of Pakistan, Brookings Institution Press, (2004), p.297 A considerable effort has been made to fight against Western targets, especially the United States. The United States, in particular, was made a target of Islamist fire because of its support for Israel, its presence on Saudi Arabian soil, what Islamists regard as its aggression against Muslims in Iraq and Afghanistan, and because of its support of the regimes that Islamists oppose. In addition, some Islamists have concentrated their activity against Israel, and nearly all Islamists view Israel with hostility. Osama bin Laden, at least, believes that this is of necessity due to the historical conflict between Muslims and Jews, and believes that there is a Jewish/American alliance against Islam. On the other extreme (i.e. the moderate end) of the Islamist movement, the Muhammadiyah movement in Indonesia has stated that it is concerned with "far more important issues than the application of Sharia," namely strengthening the education, health, economy and society of that Muslim nation, a task they maintain represents "the greater Shari'a" or path of God. Fuller, Graham E., The Future of Political Islam, Palgrave MacMillan, (2003), p.199 Other moderate Islamist groups include the Islamist Justice and Development Party (PJD) in Morocco which supports King Muhammad VI's "Mudawana," a progressive family law which grants women the right to a divorce, raises the minimum age for marriage to 18, and, in the event of separation, stipulates equal distribution of property. Muslim Brothers in Jordan condemned the Iraq War, while their comrades in Iraq sat in the Iraqi government. There is some debate as to how influential Islamist movements remain. Some scholars assert that Islamism is a fringe movement which is dying, following the clear failures of Islamist regimes like the regime in Sudan, the Habitué's Saudi regime and the Deobandi Taliban to improve the lot of Muslims. However, others (such as Ahmed Rashid and Graham E. Fuller) feel that the Islamists still command considerable support and cite the fact that Islamists in Pakistan and Egypt regularly win 10 to 30 percent in electoral polls, despite the fact that they are prosecuted and that many believe the polls are rigged against them. Islamist movements Country or scope Movement or movements International Al-Qaida Muslim Brotherhood Hizb ut-Tahrir</tr> Afghanistan Taliban</tr> Algeria Groupe Islamique Armé Islamic Salvation Front Groupe Salafiste pour la Prédication et le Combat</tr> Bahrain Al Wefaq Al Asalah</tr> Egypt Gama'at Islamiya</tr> Lebanon Hizballah</tr> Iraqi Kurdistan Islamic Movement in Kurdistan Islamic Group of Kurdistan Islamic Union of Kurdistan</tr> Iranian Kurdistan Khabat</tr> Palestinian territories Hamas</tr> Somalia Islamic Courts Union Al-Shabaab</tr> South Asia Jamaat-e-Islami There are Jamaats in India, Pakistan and followers of Wahhabism. Jamaat-ul-MujahideenLashkar-e-Taiba Pakistan's premier spy agency, Inter-Services Intelligence, created Lashkar-e-Taiba now supported by al Qaeda </tr> See also Clash of Civilizations Islamic inquisition Islamofascism Political aspects of Islam Zionism References Further reading Hassan, Riaz Inside Muslim Minds Melbourne University Press, 2008 Hassan, Riaz Faithlines: Muslim Conceptions of Islam and Society Oxford University Press, 2002 Fuller, Graham E., The Future of Political Islam, Palgrave MacMillan, (2003) " On Suicide Bombings" by Talal Asad A Fundamental Fear: Eurocentrism and Emergence of Islamism' by S. Sayyid, London: Zed Press. The Al Qaeda Connection: International Terrorism, Organized Crime, And the Coming Apocalypse by Paul L. Williams Jihad: The Trail of Political Islam by Gilles Kepel The War for Muslim Minds by Gilles Kepel Gilles Kepel, The Roots of Radical Islam London: Saqi, 2005 (originally published in French as Le Prophete et Pharaon, 1984) Paul Berman: Terror And Liberalism W. W. Norton & Company, New York 2003 Robert Dreyfuss: Devil's Game: How the United States Helped Unleash Fundamentalist Islam. Henry Holt/Metropolitan Books, November 2005 Philip S. Khoury:, "Islamic Revival and the Crisis of the Secular State in the Arab World: an Historical Appraisal." in Arab Resources: The Transformation of a Society. ed. I. Ibrahim. London: Croom Helm, 1983. Mandaville, Peter: "Transnational Muslim Politics", (2001), London: Routledge. Bernard Lewis: The Emergence of Modern Turkey London, Oxford University Press, 1961 Beverley Milton-Edwards: Islamic fundamentalism since 1945. London: Routledge, 2005 Nazih Ayubi, Political Islam (London: Routledge, 1991). John Esposito, Voices of Resurgent Islam Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1983. John Esposito, The Islamic Threat: Myth or Reality Oxford: Oxford University Press 1992. John Esposito and Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad, Islam, Gender, and Social Change. Fred Halliday, Islam and the Myth of Confrontation London: I.B. Tauris, 1996. Khomeini, Ruhollah (1981). Algar, Hamid (translator and editor). Islam and Revolution: Writing and Declarations of Imam Khomeini. Berkeley: Mizan Press. Mayer, Ann Elizabeth, "The Fundamentalist Impact on Law, Politics and Constitution in Iran, Pakistan and the Sudan", In: Fundamentalism and the State, Martin Marty & S. Appleby (eds.) External links Understanding Islamism Evaluating the Islamist movement – written by Greg Noakes, an American Muslim who works at the Washington Report Coming to Terms, Fundamentalists or Islamists? Martin Kramer originally in Middle East Quarterly (Spring 2003), pp. 65-77. 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5,509 | Amaryllis | Amaryllis () Sunset Western Garden Book, 1995:606–607 is a monotypic genus of plant also known as the Belladonna Lily or naked ladies. The single species, Amaryllis belladonna, is a native of South Africa, particularly the rocky southwest region near the Cape. It is often confused with Hippeastrum, a flowering bulb commonly sold in the winter months for its ability to bloom indoors. Characteristics It is a bulbous plant, with each bulb being 5-10 cm in diameter. It has several strap-shaped, green leaves, 30-50 cm long and 2-3 cm broad, arranged in two rows. The leaves are produced in the autumn or early spring in cold climates and eventually die down by late spring. The bulb is then dormant until late summer. In late summer (August in zone 7) each bulb produces one or two leafless stems 30-60 cm tall, each of which bear a cluster of 2 to 12 funnel-shaped flowers at their tops. Each flower is 6-10 cm diameter with six tepals (three outer sepals, three inner petals, with similar appearance to each other). The usual color is white with crimson veins, but pink or purple also occur naturally. The common name "naked lady" stems from the plant's pattern of flowering when the foliage has died down. http://www.thegoodwebguide.co.uk/index.php?art_id=558 The species was introduced into cultivation at the beginning of the eighteenth century. Many bulbs sold as Amaryllis and described as 'ready to bloom for the holidays' actually belong to the allied genus Hippeastrum, despite being labeled as 'Amaryllis' by sellers and nurseries. Adding to the name confusion, some bulbs of other species with a similar growth and flowering pattern are also sometimes called this plant's common name "naked ladies". Some of those species have their own more widely used and accepted common names, such as the Resurrection Lily (Lycoris squamigera). There is an Amaryllis belladonna x Crinum moorei cross, called X Amarcrinum http://www.pacificbulbsociety.org/pbswiki/index.php/XAmarcrinum , which have named cultivars. The name The botanic name Amaryllis is taken from a shepherdess in Virgil's pastoral "Eclogues," from the Greek ἀμαρύσσω (Latin amarysso) meaning "to sparkle." http://behindthename.com/php/view.php?name=amaryllis It is used as a given name for females. The plant is also known as the "Jersey Lily" after Lily Langtry. References External links Amaryllis/Hippeastrum identification Amaryllis and Hippeastrum Info Forum Cultivation etc(Ger+Eng) | Amaryllis |@lemmatized amaryllis:9 sunset:1 western:1 garden:1 book:1 monotypic:1 genus:2 plant:5 also:4 know:2 belladonna:3 lily:4 naked:3 lady:3 single:1 specie:4 native:1 south:1 africa:1 particularly:1 rocky:1 southwest:1 region:1 near:1 cape:1 often:1 confuse:1 hippeastrum:4 flowering:2 bulb:6 commonly:1 sell:2 winter:1 month:1 ability:1 bloom:2 indoors:1 characteristic:1 bulbous:1 cm:5 diameter:2 several:1 strap:1 shape:2 green:1 leaf:2 long:1 broad:1 arrange:1 two:2 row:1 produce:2 autumn:1 early:1 spring:2 cold:1 climate:1 eventually:1 die:2 late:3 dormant:1 summer:2 august:1 zone:1 one:1 leafless:1 stem:2 tall:1 bear:1 cluster:1 funnel:1 flower:3 top:1 six:1 tepal:1 three:2 outer:1 sepal:1 inner:1 petal:1 similar:2 appearance:1 usual:1 color:1 white:1 crimson:1 vein:1 pink:1 purple:1 occur:1 naturally:1 common:3 name:9 pattern:2 foliage:1 http:3 www:2 thegoodwebguide:1 co:1 uk:1 index:2 php:4 introduce:1 cultivation:2 beginning:1 eighteenth:1 century:1 many:1 describe:1 ready:1 holiday:1 actually:1 belong:1 allied:1 despite:1 label:1 seller:1 nursery:1 add:1 confusion:1 growth:1 sometimes:1 call:2 widely:1 use:2 accepted:1 resurrection:1 lycoris:1 squamigera:1 x:2 crinum:1 moorei:1 cross:1 amarcrinum:1 pacificbulbsociety:1 org:1 pbswiki:1 xamarcrinum:1 cultivar:1 botanic:1 take:1 shepherdess:1 virgil:1 pastoral:1 eclogue:1 greek:1 ἀμαρύσσω:1 latin:1 amarysso:1 meaning:1 sparkle:1 behindthename:1 com:1 view:1 give:1 female:1 jersey:1 langtry:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 identification:1 info:1 forum:1 etc:1 ger:1 eng:1 |@bigram cm_tall:1 http_www:2 index_php:2 external_link:1 |
5,510 | Humanae_Vitae | Humanae Vitae (Latin "Of Human Life") is an encyclical written by Pope Paul VI and promulgated on July 25, 1968. Subtitled "On the Regulation of Birth", it re-affirms the traditional teaching of the Roman Catholic Church regarding abortion, contraception, and other issues pertaining to human life. Mainly because of its prohibition of all forms of artificial contraception, the encyclical has been controversial. The document is sometimes described as prophetic by those who believe that its four predictions about the effects of contraception on society were accurate. Pope Paul VI did not issue any additional encyclicals in the remaining ten years of his pontificate. In 2008, Pope Benedict XVI called this topic "so controversial, yet so crucial for humanity's future." Humanae Vitae became "a sign of contradiction but also of continuity of the Church's doctrine and tradition... What was true yesterday is true also today." Benedict XVI, international congress organized by the Pontifical Lateran University on the 40th anniversary of the encyclical Humanae Vitae, May 12, 2008 Summary Affirmation of traditional teaching In this encyclical Paul VI reaffirmed the Catholic Church's traditional view of marriage and marital relations and a continued condemnation of artificial birth control. There were two Papal committees and numerous independent experts looking into the latest advancement of science and medicine on the question of artificial birth control, (Germain Grisez on "Humanæ Vitæ," Then and Now, Retrieved 2 March 2006 . which were noted by the Pope in his encyclical Humane Vitae 2-8 The expressed views of Paul VI reflected the teachings of his predecessors, especially Pius XI, Pius XI, encyc.letter Divini illius Magistri: AAS 22 (1930), 58-61; encyc. letter Casti connubii: AAS 22 (1930), 545-546 Pius XII Discorsi e radiomessaggi di Pio XII, VI, 191-192; to Italian Association of Catholic Midwives: AAS 43 (1951), 835-854 and John XXIII John XXIII, encyc. letter Mater et Magistra: AAS 53 (1961), 457. all of whom had insisted on the divine obligations of the marital partners in light of their partnership with God the creator. Doctrinal Basis Paul VI himself, even as commission members issued their personal views over the years, always reaffirmed the teachings of the Church, repeating them more than once in the first years of his Pontificate. Herder Korrespondenz, Orbis Catholicus Freiburg, Herder Verlag, 1964-1968 To Pope Paul VI as to all his predecessors, marital relations are much more than a union of two people. They constitute a union of the loving couple with a loving God, in which the two persons create a new person materially, while God completes the creation by adding the soul. For this reason, Paul VI teaches in the first sentence of Humanae Vitae, that the transmission of human life is a most serious role in which married people collaborate freely and responsibly with God the Creator. Humane Vitae, 1 This divine partnership, so Paul VI does not allow for arbitrary human decisions, which may limit divine providence. The Pope does not paint an overly romantic picture of marriage: Marital relations are a source of great joy , but also of difficulties and hardships. Humanae Vitae, 1 The question of human procreation, exceeds in the view of Paul VI specific disciplines such as biology, psychology, demography or sociology. Humane Vitae, 7 The reason for this , so Paul VI is that married love takes its origin from God, who "is love," From this basic dignity, he defines his position: Love is total—that very special form of personal friendship in which husband and wife generously share everything, allowing no unreasonable exceptions and not thinking solely of their own convenience. Whoever really loves his partner loves not only for what he receives, but loves that partner for the partner's own sake, content to be able to enrich the other with the gift of himself. Humane Vitae 8-9 The encyclical opens with an assertion of the competency of the magisterium of the Catholic Church to decide questions of morality. It then goes on to observe that circumstances often dictate that married couples should limit the number of children, and that the sexual act between husband and wife is still worthy even if it can be foreseen not to result in procreation. Nevertheless, it is held that the sexual act must "retain its intrinsic relationship to the procreation of human life", and the "direct interruption of the generative process already begun" is unlawful. Every action specifically intended to prevent procreation is forbidden, except in medically necessary circumstances. Therapeutic means necessary to cure diseases are exempted, even if a foreseeable impediment to procreation should result, but only if infertility is not directly intended. Humanae Vitae This includes both chemical and barrier methods of contraception. All these are held to directly contradict the "moral order which was established by God". Abortion, even for therapeutic reasons, is absolutely forbidden, as is sterilization, even if temporary. Therapeutic means which induce infertility are allowed (e.g., hysterectomy), if they are not specifically intended to cause infertility (e.g., the uterus is cancerous, so the preservation of life is intended). Natural family planning methods (abstaining from intercourse during certain parts of the menstrual cycle) are allowed, since they take advantage of "a faculty provided by nature." The acceptance of artificial methods of birth control is then claimed to result in several negative consequences, among them a "general lowering of moral standards" resulting from sex without consequences, and the danger that men may reduce women "to being a mere instrument for the satisfaction of [their] own desires"; finally, abuse of power by public authorities, and a false sense of autonomy. Humanae vitae 17 Appeal to natural law and conclusion Public authorities should oppose laws which undermine natural law Humanae Vitae 23 ; scientists should further study effective methods of natural birth control; doctors should further familiarize themselves with this teaching, in order to be able to give advice to their patients, Humanae Vitae 27 priests must spell out clearly and completely the Church's teaching on marriage Humanae Vitae 28 The encyclical acknowledges that "perhaps not everyone will easily accept this particular teaching", but points out that the Roman Catholic Church cannot "declare lawful what is in fact unlawful", because she is concerned with "safeguarding the holiness of marriage, in order to guide married life to its full human and Christian perfection Humane Vitae, 30 This is to be the priority for his fellow bishops and priests and lay people. The Pope predicts that future progress in social cultural and economic spheres will make marital and family life more joyful, provided God's design for the world is faithfully followed. Humane Vitae, 30 The encyclical closes with an appeal to observe the natural laws of the Most High God. These laws must be wisely and lovingly observed. Humanae Vitae, 31 History Origins There had been a long-standing general Christian prohibition on contraception and abortion, with such Church Fathers as Clement of Alexandria and Saint Augustine condemning the practices. It was not until the 1930 Lambeth Conference that the Anglican Communion allowed for contraception in limited circumstances. All other mainline Protestant denominations have since removed prohibitions against artificial contraception. In a partial reaction, Pope Pius XI wrote the encyclical Casti connubii (On Christian Marriage) in 1930, reaffirming the Catholic Church's belief in various traditional Christian teachings on marriage and sexuality, including the prohibition of artificial birth control even within marriage. While the emphasis in Casti Connubii is against contraception, it was controversially interpreted to allow the use of natural family planning. The commission of John XXIII With the appearance of the first oral contraceptives in 1960, dissenters in the Church argued for a reconsideration of the Church positions. In 1963 Pope John XXIII established a commission of six European non-theologians to study questions of birth control and population. The role of Karol Wojtyła According to George Weigel's biography of John Paul II, Paul VI named Archbishop Karol Wojtyła to the commission. However, the Communist authorities in Poland would not permit him to travel to Rome to physically take part. Wojtyła had earlier defended the church's position from a philosophical standpoint in his 1960 book Love and Responsibility. Wojtyła's position was strongly considered, and was reflected in the final draft of the encyclical, although much of his language and arguments were not incorporated. Weigel attributes much of the poor reception of the encyclical to the omission of many of Wojtyła's arguments. "The encyclical was not drafted precisely as Wojtyla proposed". Highlights Faithfulness to God's Design 13. Men rightly observe that a conjugal act imposed on one's partner without regard to his or her condition or personal and reasonable wishes in the matter, is no true act of love, and therefore offends the moral order in its particular application to the intimate relationship of husband and wife. If they further reflect, they must also recognize that an act of mutual love which impairs the capacity to transmit life which God the Creator, through specific laws, has built into it, frustrates His design which constitutes the norm of marriage, and contradicts the will of the Author of life. Hence to use this divine gift while depriving it, even if only partially, of its meaning and purpose, is equally repugnant to the nature of man and of woman, and is consequently in opposition to the plan of God and His holy will. But to experience the gift of married love while respecting the laws of conception is to acknowledge that one is not the master of the sources of life but rather the minister of the design established by the Creator. Just as man does not have unlimited dominion over his body in general, so also, and with more particular reason, he has no such dominion over his specifically sexual faculties, for these are concerned by their very nature with the generation of life, of which God is the source. "Human life is sacred—all men must recognize that fact," Our predecessor Pope John XXIII recalled. "From its very inception it reveals the creating hand of God." See John XXIII, encyc. letter Mater et Magistra: AAS 53 (1961), 447 [TPS VII, 331]. The Concern of the Church 18. It is to be anticipated that perhaps not everyone will easily accept this particular teaching. There is too much clamorous outcry against the voice of the Church, and this is intensified by modern means of communication. But it comes as no surprise to the Church that she, no less than her divine Founder, is destined to be a "sign of contradiction." Lk 2. 34) She does not, because of this, evade the duty imposed on her of proclaiming humbly but firmly the entire moral law, both natural and evangelical. Since the Church did not make either of these laws, she cannot be their arbiter—only their guardian and interpreter. It could never be right for her to declare lawful what is in fact unlawful, since that, by its very nature, is always opposed to the true good of man. In preserving intact the whole moral law of marriage, the Church is convinced that she is contributing to the creation of a truly human civilization. She urges man not to betray his personal responsibilities by putting all his faith in technical expedients. In this way she defends the dignity of husband and wife. This course of action shows that the Church, loyal to the example and teaching of the divine Savior, is sincere and unselfish in her regard for men whom she strives to help even now during this earthly pilgrimage "to share God's life as sons of the living God, the Father of all men." Developing countries 23. We are fully aware of the difficulties confronting the public authorities in this matter, especially in the developing countries. In fact, We had in mind the justifiable anxieties which weigh upon them when We published Our encyclical letter Populorum Progressio. But now We join Our voice to that of Our predecessor John XXIII of venerable memory, and We make Our own his words: "No statement of the problem and no solution to it is acceptable which does violence to man's essential dignity; those who propose such solutions base them on an utterly materialistic conception of man himself and his life. The only possible solution to this question is one which envisages the social and economic progress both of individuals and of the whole of human society, and which respects and promotes true human values." John XXIII, Encyc. letter Mater et Magistra: AAS 53 (1961), 447 [TPS VII, 331] No one can, without being grossly unfair, make divine Providence responsible for what clearly seems to be the result of misguided governmental policies, of an insufficient sense of social justice, of a selfish accumulation of material goods, and finally of a culpable failure to undertake those initiatives and responsibilities which would raise the standard of living of peoples and their children. See Paul VI, encyc. letter Populorum progressio, nos. 48-55: AAS 59 (1967), 281-284 [TPS XII, 160-162] If only all governments which were able would do what some are already doing so nobly, and bestir themselves to renew their efforts and their undertakings! There must be no relaxation in the programs of mutual aid between all the branches of the great human family. Here We believe an almost limitless field lies open for the activities of the great international institutions. Reception Some Cardinals, bishops, priests in Western Europe and the USA voiced opposition to Humanae Vitae. Some lay Catholics disagree with the prohibition on artificial birth control and continue to use these methods. Galileo affair comparison Cardinal Leo Joseph Suenens, a moderator of the ecumenical council, questioned, "whether moral theology took sufficient account of scientific progress, which can help determine, what is according to nature. I beg you my brothers let us avoid another Galileo affair. One is enough for the Church." Peter Hebblethwaite, Paul VI, Paulist Press New York, 1993, p.394 In an interview in Informations Catholiques Internationales on May 15, 1969, he critiqued the Pope’s decision again as frustrating the collegiality defined by the Council Hebblethwaite, Paul VI, Paulist Press New York, 1993, p 533 , calling it a non-collegial or even an anti-collegial act. Hebblethwaite, Paul VI, Paulist Press New York, 1993, p 528 . He was supported by Vatican II theologians such as Karl Rahner, Hans Küng, and several bishops, including Christopher Butler, who called it one of the most important contributions to contemporary discussion in the Church. Peter Hebblethwaite, Paul VI, Paulist Press New York, 1993, p 533 Open dissent The publication of the encyclical marks the first time in the twentieth century that open dissent from the laity about teachings of the church was voiced widely and publicly. The teaching has been criticized by development organizations and others who claim that it limits the methods available to fight worldwide population growth and struggle against AIDS. Within two days of the encyclical's release, a group of dissident theologians, led by Rev. Charles Curran, then of The Catholic University of America, issued a statement claiming that Catholics' individual consciences should prevail in such a personal and private issue. Canadian, Dutch, and German bishops Two months later, the controversial "Winnipeg Statement" issued by the Canadian Conference of Catholic Bishops stated that those who cannot accept the teaching should not be considered shut off from the Catholic Church, and that individuals can in good conscience use contraception as long as they have first made an honest attempt to accept the difficult directives of the encyclical. Dutch and German bishops also stressed the role of the individual conscience in their catechisms. Dutch Catechism The Dutch Catechism of 1966, based on the Dutch bishops' interpretation of the just completed Vatican Council, and the first post-Council comprehensive Catholic catechism, noted the lack of mention of artificial contraception in the Council. "As everyone can ascertain nowadays, there are several methods of regulating births. The Second Vatican Council did not speak of any of these concrete methods… This is a different standpoint than that taken under Pius XI some thirty years which was also maintained by his successor... we can sense here a clear development in the Church, a development, which is also going on outside the Church." A New Catechism, 402 Poland There were significant struggles between the Church and the communist rulers of Poland, who promoted abortion and birth control. Soviet Union and ecumenical reactions In the Soviet Union, Literaturnaja Gazeta, a publication of Soviet intellectuals, included an editorial and statement by Russian physicians against the encyclical. HK 1968 548 Ecumenical reactions were mixed. Lutherans and the World Council of Churches were disappointed. Eugene Carson Blake criticised the concepts of nature and natural law, which, in his view, still dominated Catholic theology, as outdated. This concern dominated several articles in Catholic and non-Catholic journals at the time. La Croix 7.31 1968, 8,13, 1968, Sontagsblatt, 11,11,1968, Reforme, 8,10,1968 The ecumenical Patriarch Athenagoras I, stated his full agreement with Pope Paul VI: “He could not have spoken in any other way” Herder Korrespondenz, Orbis Catholicus, Freiburg, 1968 HK 1968 404 Latin America In Latin America, much support developed for the Pope and his encyclical. As World Bank President Robert McNamara declared at the 1968 Annual Meeting of the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank Group that countries permitting birth control practices will get preferential access to resources, doctors in La Paz, Bolivia, called it insulting that money should be exchanged for the conscience of a Catholic nation. In Colombia, Cardinal Archbishop Anibal Muñoz Duque declared, if American conditionality undermines Papal teachings, we prefer not to receive one cent. Herder Korrespondenz, Orbis Catholicus, Freiburg, 1968, HK 1968 549 The Senate of Bolivia passed a resolution, stating that Humanae Vitae can be discussed in its implications on individual consciences, but, it is of greatest significance, because the papal document defends the rights of developing nations to determine their own population policies. Herder Korrespondenz, Orbis Catholicus, Freiburg, 1968 HK 1968 549 The Jesuit Journal Sic dedicated one edition to the encyclical with supportive contributions. Sic, 31, 308, October 1968 pp 359-379 Response of Pope Paul VI Pope Paul VI was troubled by the Encyclical's reception in the West. In March 1969, he had a meeting with one of the main critics of Humanae Vitae, Leo Cardinal Joseph Suenens. Paul heard him out and said merely, "Yes, pray for me; because of my weaknesses, the Church is badly governed," Peter Hebblethwaite, Paul VI, Paulist Press New York, 1993, p.532 On June 23, 1978, weeks before his death, in an address to the College of Cardinals, Paul VI reaffirmed his encyclical Humanae Vitae, "following the confirmations of serious science," and which sought to affirm the principle of respect for the laws of nature and of "a conscious and ethically responsible paternity." L'Osservatore: Paul VI Never Looked Back: Vatican Paper Remembers "Humanae Vitae", 25 July 2008 Legacy Although polls show that most Catholics in the West still dissent from the Church teaching on contraception, there has nevertheless been a resurgence of support for it. Several Catholic lay writers, including Janet E. Smith, Kimberly Hahn, Christopher West and Mary Shivanandan have all written extensively in support of the teaching, and on the reasons behind it. Also, developments in fertility awareness since the 1960s For example, one Natural Birth Control website (Justisse) quotes the British Medical Journal (British Medical Journal, 307, 2003) as saying "According to the World Health Organization, 93% of women everywhere can identify the symptoms which distinguish adequately between the fertile and the infertile phases of the [menstrual] cycle… [Using fertility awareness for reproductive planning] is inexpensive, highly effective, without side effects and may be particularly acceptable to and efficacious among [certain] people." have given rise to natural family planning organizations such as the Couple to Couple League and the Creighton Model FertilityCare System, which actively provide formal instruction on the use and reliability of natural methods of birth control. Pope John Paul II After he became pope in 1978, John Paul II continued on the Catholic Theology of the Body of his predecessors with a series of lectures, entitled the Theology of the Body, in which he talked about an original unity between man and women, purity of heart (on the Sermon on the Mount) marriage and celibacy and reflections on Humane Vitae, focusing largely on responsible parenthood and marital chastity. Weigel, 336-343 Pope John Paul II readdressed some of the same issues in his 1993 encyclical Veritatis splendor. He reaffirmed much of Humanae Vitae, and specifically described the practice of artificial contraception as an act not permitted by Catholic teaching in any circumstances. The same encyclical also clarifies the use of conscience in arriving at moral decisions, including in the use of contraception. John Paul quoted Humanae Vitae as a compassionate encyclical, Christ has come not to judge the world but to save it, and while he was uncompromisingly stern towards sin, he was patient and rich in mercy towards sinners". Veritatis Splendor 95 Pope Benedict XVI On May 12, 2008, Pope Benedict XVI accepted an invitation to talk participants in the International Congress organized by the Pontifical Lateran University on the 40th anniversary of Humanae Vitae. He put the encyclical in the broader view of love in a global context, a topic he called "so controversial, yet so crucial for humanity's future." Humanae Vitae became "a sign of contradiction but also of continuity of the Church's doctrine and tradition... What was true yesterday is true also today." Benedict XVI, international congress organized by the Pontifical Lateran University on the 40th anniversary of the encyclical Humanae Vitae, May 12, 2008 The Church continues to reflect "in an ever new and deeper way on the fundamental principles that concern marriage and procreation." The key message of Humanae Vitae is love. Benedict states, that the fullness of a person is achieved by a unity of soul and body, but neither spirit nor body alone can love, only the two together. If this unity is broken, if only the body is satisfied, love becomes a commodity. Quoted from Deus Caritas Est References External links The Encyclical Letter Humanae Vitae on the Vatican website Original Latin text of Humanae Vitae The Humanae Vitae controversy, chapter from George Weigel's biography of Karol Wojtyła G. E. M. Anscombe: Contraception and Chastity Cardinal Varkey's Letter on Family Planning Trends Among Catholics: Varkey Cardinal Vithayathil, Kerala, India Natural Family Planning, John and Sheila Kippley's website that supports Humanae Vitae and provides instruction in natural family planning The Vindication of Humanae Vitae, by Mary Eberstadt, First Things Magazine, August/September issue, 2008. 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5,511 | Joseph_Stalin | Josef Stalin (born Iosef Besarionis dze Jughashvili 18 December 1878 5 March 1953) was the General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union's Central Committee from 1922 until his death in 1953. In the years following Lenin's death in 1924, he rose to become the leader of the Soviet Union. Stalin launched a command economy, replacing the New Economic Policy of the 1920s with Five-Year Plans and launching a period of rapid industrialization and economic collectivization. The upheaval in the agricultural sector disrupted food production, resulting in widespread famine, such as the Soviet famine of 1932-1933, known in Ukraine as the Holodomor. Findings of the Commission on the Ukraine Famine, Famine Genocide, 19 April 1988; [http://www.skrobach.com/ukrhol.htm Statement by Pope John Paul II on the 70th anniversary of the Famine, Skrobach; Expressing the sense of the House of Representatives regarding the man-made famine that occurred in Ukraine in 1932–1933, US House of Representatives, 21 October 2003; Bilinsky, Yaroslav [http://www.faminegenocide.com/resources/bilinsky.html|doi=10.1080/14623529908413948 Was the Ukrainian Famine of 1932–1933 Genocide?, Journal of Genocide Research, 1999, Vol. 1.1, Issue 2, pages=147–156. During the late 1930s, Stalin launched the Great Purge (also known as the "Great Terror"), a campaign to purge the Communist Party of people accused of corruption or treachery; he extended it to the military and other sectors of Soviet society. Targets were often executed, imprisoned in Gulag labor camps or exiled. In the years following, millions of ethnic minorities were also deported. Pohl, Otto, Ethnic Cleansing in the USSR, 1937-1949, ISBN 0313309213 In 1939, the Soviet Union under Stalin signed a non-aggression pact with Nazi Germany, followed by a Soviet invasion of Poland, Finland, the Baltics, Bessarabia and northern Bukovina. After Germany violated the pact in 1941, the Soviet Union joined the Allies to play a large role in the Axis defeat, at the cost of the largest death toll for any country in the war. Thereafter, contradicting statements at allied conferences, Stalin installed communist governments in most of Eastern Europe, forming the Eastern bloc, behind what was referred to as an "Iron Curtain" of Soviet rule. This launched the long period of antagonism known as the Cold War. Stalin's careful control of the media helped him to foster a cult of personality. However, after his death his successor, Nikita Khrushchev, denounced his legacy, initiating the period known as de-Stalinization. Stalin before the Revolution Childhood and early adult crime Young Stalin, circa 1894, age 16 Stalin was born on 18 December 1878 in Gori, Georgia to a family of limited financial means in a town plagued by gang warfare and street brawls. At seven, he contracted smallpox, which permanently scarred his face. At twelve, two horse-drawn carriage accidents left his left arm permanently damaged. At ten, he began attending a church school that required the Georgian children to speak Russian. At sixteen, he received a scholarship to a Georgian Orthodox seminary, where he wrote poetry and rebelled against being forced to speak Russian. Though he performed well, his was expelled shortly before his final exams because he was unable to pay his tuition fees. Shortly after leaving the Seminary, he discovered the writings of Vladimir Lenin and decided to become a Marxist revolutionary. He began organizing strikes in 1902 and joined the Bolsheviks in 1903. Stalin at first worked against the Mensheviks and, during the Russian Revolution of 1905, he organized and armed Bolshevik militias across Georgia, running protection rackets waging guerrilla warfare on Cossacks, policemen and the Okhrana. After meeting Lenin at a Bolshevik conference, Stalin returned to Georgia, and plotted the assassination of a Cossack general with the Mensheviks, while raising money for the Bolsheviks through extortion, bank robberies and hold-ups. Marriage, bank robberies and Pravda The information card on "I. V. Stalina", from the files of the Tsarist secret police in Saint Petersburg, 1911 Simon Sebag Montefiore. Young Stalin. 2007. ISBN 9780297850687 In the summer of 1906, Stalin married Ekaterina Svanidze, who later gave birth to Stalin's first child, Yakov. Stalin temporarily resigned from the party over its ban on bank robberies, conducted a large raid on a bank shipment resulting in the death of 40 people and then fled to Baku, where Ekaterina died of typhus. In Baku, Stalin organized Muslim Azeris and Persians in partisan activities, including the murders of many "Black Hundreds" right-wing supporters of the Tsar, and conducted protection rackets, ransom kidnappings, counterfeiting operations and robberies. After his arrest in 1908, he spent seven months in prison and escaped Siberian exile. After his return, Stalin unsuccessfully attempted to root out Tsarist spies in the Bolshevik party and was again arrested. In 1911 he was again exiled, during which he had an affair with his landlady Maria Kuzakova resulting in the birth of son Constantine. Simon Sebag-Montefiore: Young Stalin. Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 978-1400044658. After his release, in April 1912 in Saint Petersburg, Stalin created the newspaper Pravda from an existing party newspaper, but was caught by the authorities and again exiled to Siberia, where he escaped again after thirty eight days. Thereafter, Stalin published editorials in Pravda calling for a reconciliation between Bolsheviks and Mensheviks, which angered Lenin, resulting in Stalin's removal as Pravda'''s editor. Essay and four years exile Stalin then spent time in Vienna with Nikolai Bukharin and completed an essay titled "Marxism and the National Question", which was published in March 1913 under the pseudonym "K. Stalin." He returned to Saint Petersburg and was arrested along with many other Bolsheviks and condemned to four years imprisonment in Siberia. Living near the Arctic Circle, Stalin had an affair leading to the birth of two more children, one who died in infancy. In late 1916, Stalin was conscripted into the army but was found unfit for service in 1917 due to his damaged left arm. Thereafter, Stalin served his last four months of exile. Revolution and early wars Role during the Russian Revolution of 1917 After returning from exile to Saint Petersburg, Stalin ousted Vyacheslav Molotov and Alexander Shlyapnikov as editors of Pravda, and took a position in favor of supporting Alexander Kerensky's provisional government. However, after Lenin prevailed at the April 1917 Party conference, Stalin and Pravda supported overthrowing the provisional government. At this conference, Stalin was elected to the Bolshevik Central Committee. After Lenin participated in an attempted revolution, Stalin helped Lenin evade capture and, to avoid a bloodbath, ordered the besieged Bolsheviks to surrender. He smuggled Lenin to Finland and assumed leadership of the Bolsheviks. After the jailed Bolsheviks were freed to help defend Saint Petersburg, in October 1917, the Bolshevik Central Committee voted in favor of an insurrection. On 7 November, from the Smolny Institute, Stalin, Lenin and the rest of the Central Committee coordinated the coup against the Kerensky government - the so-called October Revolution. Kerensky left the capital to rally the Imperial troops at the German front. By 8 November, the Winter Palace had been stormed and Kerensky's Cabinet had been arrested. Role in the Russian Civil War, 1917–1919 Joseph Stalin, Vladimir Lenin, and Mikhail Kalinin meeting in 1919. All three of them were "Old Bolsheviks" — members of the Bolshevik party before the Russian Revolution of 1917. Upon seizing Petrograd, Stalin was appointed People's Commissar for Nationalities' Affairs. Robert Service. Stalin: A Biography. 2004. ISBN 978-0-330-41913-0 Thereafter, civil war broke out in Russia, pitting Lenin's Red Army against the White Army, a loose alliance of anti-Bolshevik forces. Lenin formed a five-member Politburo which included Stalin and Trotsky. In May 1918, Lenin dispatched Stalin to the city of Tsaritsyn. Through his new allies, Kliment Voroshilov and Semyon Budyonny, Stalin imposed his influence on the military. Stalin challenged many of the decisions of Trotsky, ordered the killings of many former Tsarist officers in the Red Army and counter-revolutionaries Simon Sebag Montefiore. Stalin: The Court of the Red Tsar, Knopf, 2004 (ISBN 1-4000-4230-5) and burned villages in order to intimidate the peasantry into submission and discourage food bandit raids. In May 1919, in order to stem mass desertions on the Western front, Stalin had deserters and renegades publicly executed as traitors. Role in the Polish-Soviet War, 1919-1920 After their Civil War victory, the Bolsheviks moved to expand the revolution into Europe, starting with Poland, which was fighting the Red Army in Ukraine. As joint commander of an army in the Ukraine, Stalin moved against the then-Polish city of Lwów, which conflicted with the general strategy set by Lenin and Trotsky, and refused the movement of troops from his army to a battle for Warsaw. Later, the battles for both Lwów and Warsaw were lost. Stalin returned to Moscow in August 1920, where he defended himself and resigned his military commission. At the Ninth Party Conference on 22 September, Trotsky openly criticized Stalin's war record. Rise to power Stalin played a decisive role in engineering the 1921 Red Army invasion of Georgia following which he adopted particularly hardline, centralist policies towards Soviet Georgia, which included the Georgian Affair of 1922 and other repressions. Knight, Ami W. (1991), Beria and the Cult of Stalin: Rewriting Transcaucasian Party History. Soviet Studies, Vol. 43, No. 4, pp. 749–763. Shanin, Teodor (July 1989), Ethnicity in the Soviet Union: Analytical Perceptions and Political Strategies. Comparative Studies in Society and History, Vol. 31, No. 3, pp. 409–424. Lenin and Lev Kamenev helped to have Stalin appointed as General Secretary in 1922 to help build a base against Trotsky, who moved to formally impose the Party dictatorship over the industrial sectors. Lenin, who disliked Stalin's policy towards Georgia, suffered a stroke in 1922, forcing him into semi-retirement in Gorki. Stalin visited him often, acting as his intermediary with the outside world. The pair quarreled and their relationship deteriorated. Lenin dictated increasingly disparaging notes on Stalin in what would become his testament. He criticized Stalin's rude manners, excessive power, ambition and politics, and suggested that Stalin should be removed from the position of General Secretary. During Lenin's semi-retirement, Stalin forged an alliance with Kamenev and Grigory Zinoviev against Trotsky. These allies prevented Lenin's Testament from being revealed to the Twelfth Party Congress in April 1923. Lenin died of a heart attack on 21 January 1924. Thereafter, Stalin's disputes with Kamenev and Zinoviev intensified. Stalin allied himself now with Nikolai Bukharin. Stalin began advocating that the Bolsheviks should focus on building communism in the countries they already controlled rather than spreading the revolution, as Trotsky, Kamenev and Zinoviev advocated. Trotsky, Kamenev and Zinoviev were ejected from the Central Committee and then expelled from the Party. Kamenev and Zinoviev were readmitted, but Trotsky was exiled from the Soviet Union. Stalin pushed for more rapid industrialization and central control of the economy, contravening Lenin's New Economic Policy. At the end of 1927, a critical shortfall in grain supplies prompted Stalin to push for collectivisation of agriculture. After Bukharin criticized Stalin's plans for rapid industrialization as being financed by kulak wealth, he was ejected from the Politburo in November 1929. Stalin took great advantage of the ban on factionalism. By 1928 (the first year of the Five-Year Plans) Stalin was supreme among the leadership. and the following year Trotsky was exiled because of his opposition. Bolstering Soviet secret service and intelligence Stalin vastly increased the scope and power of the state's secret police and intelligence agencies. Under his guiding hand, Soviet intelligence forces began to set up intelligence networks in most of the major nations of the world, including Germany (the famous Rote Kappelle spy ring), Great Britain, France, Japan, and the United States. Stalin saw no difference between espionage, communist political propaganda actions, and state-sanctioned violence, and he began to integrate all of these activities within the NKVD. Stalin made considerable use of the Communist International movement in order to infiltrate agents and to ensure that foreign Communist parties remained pro-Soviet and pro-Stalin. One of the best examples of Stalin's ability to integrate secret police and foreign espionage came in 1940, when he gave approval to the secret police to have Leon Trotsky assassinated in Mexico. Soviet Readers Finally Told Moscow Had Trotsky Slain. Published in the New York Times on 5 January 1989. Accessed 4 October 2007. Cult of personality Roses for Stalin (1949), painting by Boris Vladimirski. Stalin created a cult of personality in the Soviet Union around both himself and Lenin. Many personality cults in history have been frequently measured and compared to his. Numerous towns, villages and cities were renamed after the Soviet leader (see List of places named after Stalin) and the Stalin Prize and Stalin Peace Prize were named in his honor. He accepted grandiloquent titles (e.g. "Coryphaeus of Science," "Father of Nations," "Brilliant Genius of Humanity," "Great Architect of Communism," "Gardener of Human Happiness," and others), and helped rewrite Soviet history to provide himself a more significant role in the revolution. At the same time, according to Khrushchev, he insisted that he be remembered for "the extraordinary modesty characteristic of truly great people." Statutes of Stalin depict him at a height and build approximating Alexander III, while photographic evidence suggests he was between 5 ft 5 in and 5 ft 6 in (165–168 cm). Trotsky criticized the cult of personality built around Stalin. It reached new levels during the Great Patriotic War, with Stalin's name included in the new Soviet national anthem. Stalin became the focus of literature, poetry, music, paintings and film, exhibiting fawning devotion, crediting Stalin with almost god-like qualities, and suggesting he single-handedly won the Second World War. It is debatable as to how much Stalin relished the cult surrounding him. The Finnish communist Tuominen records a sarcastic toast proposed by Stalin at a New Year Party in 1935 in which he said "Comrades! I want to propose a toast to our patriarch, life and sun, liberator of nations, architect of socialism [he rattled off all the appellations applied to him in those days] Joseph Vissarionovich Stalin, and I hope this is the first and last speech made to that genius this evening." Changes to Soviet society, 1927–1939 Purges and deportations Purges Beria's letter to PolitburoStalin's resolutionThe Politburo's decisionLeft: Beria's January 1940 letter to Stalin, asking permission to execute 346 "enemies of the CPSU and of the Soviet authorities" who conducted "counter-revolutionary, right-Trotskyite plotting and spying activities"Middle: Stalin's handwriting: "за" (support).Right: The Politburo's decision is signed by Secretary Stalin Stalin, as head of the Politburo consolidated near-absolute power in the 1930s with a Great Purge of the party, justified as an attempt to expel 'opportunists' and 'counter-revolutionary infiltrators'. Orlando Figes The Whisperers: Private Life in Stalin's Russia, 2007, ISBN 0-08050-7461-9. Lenin, Stalin, and Hitler: The Age of Social Catastrophe. By Robert Gellately. 2007. Knopf. 720 pages ISBN 1400040051 Those targeted by the purge were often expelled from the party, however more severe measures ranged from banishment to the Gulag labor camps, to execution after trials held by NKVD troikas. Ian Kershaw, Moshe Lewin, Stalinism and Nazism: Dictatorships in Comparison, Cambridge University Press 1997, ISBN 0521565219, page 300 Leo Kuper, Genocide: Its Political Use in the Twentieth Century, Yale University Press 1982, ISBN 0300031203 In the 1930s, Stalin apparently became increasingly worried about the growing popularity of Sergei Kirov. At the 1934 Party Congress where the vote for the new Central Committee was held, Kirov received only three negative votes, the fewest of any candidate, while Stalin received 1,108 negative votes. After the assassination of Kirov, which may have been orchestrated by Stalin, Stalin invented a detailed scheme to implicate opposition leaders in the murder, including Trotsky, Kamenev and Zioviev. The investigations and trials expanded. Stalin passed a new law on "terrorist organizations and terrorist acts", which were to be investigated for no more than ten days, with no prosecution, defense attorneys or appeals, followed by a sentence to be executed "quickly." Thereafter, several trials known as the Moscow Trials were held, but the procedures were replicated throughout the country. Article 58 of the legal code, listing prohibited anti-Soviet activities as counterrevolutionary crime was applied in the broadest manner. The flimsiest pretexts were often enough to brand someone an "enemy of the people," starting the cycle of public persecution and abuse, often proceeding to interrogation, torture and deportation, if not death. The Russian word troika gained a new meaning: a quick, simplified trial by a committee of three subordinated to NKVD with sentencing carried out within 24 hours. Before AfterNikolai Yezhov, the young man walking with Stalin in the top photo from the 1930s, was shot in 1940. Following his death, Yezhov was edited out by Soviet censors. Such retouching was a common occurrence during Stalin's rule. Many military leaders were convicted of treason, and a large scale purging of Red Army officers followed. The scale of Stalin's purging of Red Army officers was exceptional—90% of all generals and 80% of all colonels were killed. This included three out of five Marshals, 13 out of 15 Army commanders, 57 of 85 Corps commanders, 110 of 195 divisional commanders and 220 of 406 brigade commanders as well as all commanders of military districts. (pg 195, Carell, P. (1964) Hitler's War on Russia: The Story of the German Defeat in the East. translated from German by Ewald Osers, B.I. Publications New Delhi, 1974 (first Indian edition). The repression of so many formerly high-ranking revolutionaries and party members led Leon Trotsky to claim that a "river of blood" separated Stalin's regime from that of Lenin. Tucker, Robert C., Stalinism: Essays in Historical Interpretation, , American Council of Learned Societies Planning Group on Comparative Communist Studies, Transaction Publishers, 1999, ISBN 0765804832, page 5 In August 1940, Trotsky was assassinated in Mexico, where he had lived in exile since January 1937 , which eliminated the last of Stalin's opponents among the former Party leadership. The only three "Old Bolsheviks" (Lenin's Politburo) that remained were Stalin, Mikhail Kalinin, and Chairman of Sovnarkom Vyacheslav Molotov. Mass operations of the NKVD also targeted "national contingents" (foreign ethnicities), such as Poles, Ethnic Germans, Koreans, etc. A total of 350,000 (144,000 of them Poles) were arrested and 247,157 (110,000 Poles) were executed. Concurrent with the purges, efforts were made to rewrite the history in Soviet textbooks and other propaganda materials. Notable people executed by NKVD were removed from the texts and photographs as though they never existed. Gradually, the history of revolution was transformed to a story about just two key characters: Lenin and Stalin. In light of revelations from the Soviet archives, historians now estimate that nearly 700,000 people (353,074 and 328,612 for 1937 and 1938 alone respectively, according to official data) were executed in the course of the terror, with the great mass of victims being "ordinary" Soviet citizens: workers, peasants, homemakers, teachers, priests, musicians, soldiers, pensioners, ballerinas, beggars. Hiroaki Kuromiya, The Voices of the Dead: Stalin's Great Terror in the 1930s. Yale University Press, 24 December 2007. ISBN 0300123892 p. 4 Some experts believe the evidence released from the Soviet archives is understated, incomplete or unreliable. Rosefielde, Stephen, Stalinism in Post-Communist Perspective: New Evidence on Killings, Forced Labour and Economic Growth in the 1930s, Europe-Asia Studies, Vol. 48, No. 6, 1996 Comment on Wheatcroft by Robert Conquest, 1999 Pipes, Richard, Communism: A History (Modern Library Chronicles), page 67 For example, Robert Conquest suggests that the probable figure for executions during the years of the Great Purge is not 681,692, but some two and a half times as high. He believes that the KGB was covering its tracks by falsifying the dates and causes of death of rehabilitated victims. Life and Terror in Stalin's Russia: 1934-1941. - book reviews by Robert Conquest, 1996, National Review At the time, while reviewing a list of people to be shot, Stalin reportedly muttered to no one in particular: "Who's going to remember all this riffraff in ten or twenty years time? No one." Quoted in Dmitri Volkogonov, Stalin: Triumph and Tragedy (New York, 1991), pg 210. In addition, Stalin dispatched a contingent of NKVD operatives to Mongolia, established a Mongolian version of the NKVD troika and unleashed a bloody purge in which tens of thousands were executed as 'Japanese Spies.' Mongolian ruler Khorloogiin Choibalsan closely followed Stalin's lead. Hiroaki Kuromiya, The Voices of the Dead: Stalin's Great Terror in the 1930s. Yale University Press, 24 December 2007. ISBN 0300123892 p. 2 Deportations Meeting in a prison cell Shortly before, during and immediately after World War II, Stalin conducted a series of deportations on a huge scale which profoundly affected the ethnic map of the Soviet Union. It is estimated that between 1941 and 1949 nearly 3.3 million were deported to Siberia and the Central Asian republics. By some estimates up to 43% of the resettled population died of diseases and malnutrition. Soviet Transit, Camp, and Deportation Death Rates Separatism, resistance to Soviet rule and collaboration with the invading Germans were cited as the official reasons for the deportations, rightly or wrongly. Individual circumstances of those spending time in German-occupied territories were not examined Alan Bullock, pp. 904–905 After the brief Nazi occupation of the Caucasus, the entire population of five of the small highland peoples and the Crimean Tatars more than a million people in total were deported without notice or any opportunity to take their possessions.</blockquote> During Stalin's rule the following ethnic groups were deported completely or partially: Ukrainians, Poles, Koreans, Volga Germans, Crimean Tatars, Kalmyks, Chechens, Ingush, Balkars, Karachays, Meskhetian Turks, Finns, Bulgarians, Greeks, Latvians, Lithuanians, Estonians, and Jews. Large numbers of Kulaks, regardless of their nationality, were resettled to Siberia and Central Asia. Deportations took place in appalling conditions, often by cattle truck, and hundreds of thousands of deportees died en route. Those who survived were forced to work without pay in the labour camps. Many of the deportees died of hunger or other conditions. In February 1956, Nikita Khrushchev condemned the deportations as a violation of Leninism, and reversed most of them, although it was not until 1991 that the Tatars, Meskhetians and Volga Germans were allowed to return en masse to their homelands. The deportations had a profound effect on the peoples of the Soviet Union. The memory of the deportations played a major part in the separatist movements in the Baltic States, Tatarstan and Chechnya, even today. Collectivization Stalin's regime moved to force collectivization of agriculture. This was intended to increase agricultural output from large-scale mechanized farms, to bring the peasantry under more direct political control, and to make tax collection more efficient. Collectivization meant drastic social changes, on a scale not seen since the abolition of serfdom in 1861, and alienation from control of the land and its produce. Collectivization also meant a drastic drop in living standards for many peasants, and it faced violent reaction among the peasantry. In the first years of collectivization it was estimated that industrial production would rise by 200% and agricultural production by 50%, but these estimates were not met. Stalin blamed this unanticipated failure on kulaks (rich peasants), who resisted collectivization. (However, kulaks proper made up only 4% of the peasant population; the "kulaks" that Stalin targeted included the slightly better-off peasants who took the brunt of violence from the OGPU and the Komsomol. These peasants were about 60% of the population). Those officially defined as "kulaks," "kulak helpers," and later "ex-kulaks" were to be shot, placed into Gulag labor camps, or deported to remote areas of the country, depending on the charge. Archival data indicates that 20,201 people were executed during 1930, the year of Dekulakization. The two-stage progress of collectivization — interrupted for a year by Stalin's famous editorials, "Dizzy with success" Stalin, Joseph, Dizzy with success,Pravda, 2 March 1930 and "Reply to Collective Farm Comrades" Stalin, Joseph, Reply to Collective Farm Comrades, Pravda, 3 April 1930 — is a prime example of his capacity for tactical political withdrawal followed by intensification of initial strategies. Famines Famine affected other parts of the USSR. The death toll from famine in the Soviet Union at this time is estimated at between five and ten million people. The worst crop failure of late tsarist Russia, in 1892, had caused 375,000 to 400,000 deaths. Most modern scholars agree that the famine was caused by the policies of the government of the Soviet Union under Stalin, rather than by natural reasons. Entering Gulag (a leaf from Eufrosinia Kersnovskaya's notebook) According to Alan Bullock, "the total Soviet grain crop was no worse than that of 1931 ... it was not a crop failure but the excessive demands of the state, ruthlessly enforced, that cost the lives of as many as five million Ukrainian peasants." Stalin refused to release large grain reserves that could have alleviated the famine, while continuing to export grain; he was convinced that the Ukrainian peasants had hidden grain away, and strictly enforced draconian new collective-farm theft laws in response. Alan Bullock, p. 269 Other historians hold it was largely the insufficient harvests of 1931 and 1932 caused by a variety of natural disasters that resulted in famine, with the successful harvest of 1933 ending the famine. Soviet and other historians have argued that the rapid collectivization of agriculture was necessary in order to achieve an equally rapid industrialization of the Soviet Union and ultimately win World War II. This is disputed by other historians; Alec Nove claims that the Soviet Union industrialized in spite of, rather than because of, its collectivized agriculture. The USSR also experienced a major famine in 1946–48 due to Soviet economic policy and the Soviet entitlement system that cost an estimated 1 to 1.5 million lives as well as secondary population losses due to reduced fertility. According to Ellman, although the 1946 drought was severe, government mismanagement of its grain reserves largely accounted for the population losses. Michael Ellman, "The 1947 Soviet Famine and the Entitlement Approach to Famines," Cambridge Journal of Economics 24 (2000): 603–30. PDF file Ukrainian famine The Holodomor famine is sometimes referred to as the Ukrainian Genocide, implying it was engineered by the Soviet government, specifically targeting the Ukrainian people to destroy the Ukrainian nation as a political factor and social entity. See also: See also: See also: While historians continue to disagree whether the policies that led to Holodomor fall under the legal definition of genocide, twenty six countries have officially recognized the Holodomor as such. On 28 November 2006 the Ukrainian Parliament approved a bill, according to which the Soviet-era forced famine was an act of genocide against the Ukrainian people. Professor Michael Ellman concludes that Ukrainians were victims of genocide in 1932-33, according to a more relaxed definition, which is favored by some specialists in the field of genocide studies. He also asserts that, while this is not the only Soviet genocide (e.g. The Polish operation of the NKVD), it is the worst in terms of mass casualties. Michael Ellman, Stalin and the Soviet Famine of 1932-33 Revisited Europe-Asia Studies, Routledge. Vol. 59, No. 4, June 2007, 663-693. PDF file Current estimates on the total number of casualties within Soviet Ukraine range mostly from 2.2 million France Meslé, Gilles Pison, Jacques Vallin France-Ukraine: Demographic Twins Separated by History, Population and societies, N°413, juin 2005 ce Meslé, Jacques Vallin Mortalité et causes de décès en Ukraine au XXè siècle + CDRom ISBN 2-7332-0152-2 CD online data (partially - http://www.ined.fr/fichier/t_publication/cdrom_mortukraine/cdrom.htm to 4 to 5 million. Stanislav Kulchytsky, Hennadiy Yefimenko. Демографічні наслідки голодомору 1933 р. в Україні. Всесоюзний перепис 1937 р. в Україні: документи та матеріали (Demographic consequence of Holodomor of 1933 in Ukraine. The all-Union census of 1937 in Ukraine), Kiev, Institute of History, 2003. С. Уиткрофт (Stephen G. Wheatcroft), "О демографических свидетельствах трагедии советской деревни в 1931—1933 гг." (On demographic evidence of the tragedy of the Soviet village in 1931-1833), "Трагедия советской деревни: Коллективизация и раскулачивание 1927-1939 гг.: Документы и материалы. Том 3. Конец 1930-1933 гг.", Российская политическая энциклопедия, 2001, ISBN 5-8243-0225-1, с. 885, Приложение № 2 - The famine of 1932–33 IndustrializationSee also: Industrialisation of the Soviet UnionThe Russian Civil War and wartime communism had a devastating effect on the country's economy. Industrial output in 1922 was 13% of that in 1914. A recovery followed under the New Economic Policy, which allowed a degree of market flexibility within the context of socialism. Under Stalin's direction, this was replaced by a system of centrally ordained "Five-Year Plans" in the late 1920s. These called for a highly ambitious program of state-guided crash industrialization and the collectivization of agriculture. With seed capital unavailable because of international reaction to Communist policies, little international trade, and virtually no modern infrastructure, Stalin's government financed industrialization both by restraining consumption on the part of ordinary Soviet citizens to ensure that capital went for re-investment into industry, and by ruthless extraction of wealth from the kulaks. In 1933 workers' real earnings sank to about one-tenth of the 1926 level. Common and political prisoners in labor camps were forced to do unpaid labor, and communists and Komsomol members were frequently "mobilized" for various construction projects. The Soviet Union used foreign experts, e.g. British engineer Stephen Adams, to instruct their workers and improve their manufacturing processes. In spite of early breakdowns and failures, the first two Five-Year Plans achieved rapid industrialization from a very low economic base. While it is generally agreed that the Soviet Union achieved significant levels of economic growth under Stalin, the precise rate of growth is disputed. It is not disputed, however, that these gains were accomplished at the cost of millions of lives. Official Soviet estimates stated the annual rate of growth at 13.9%; Russian and Western estimates gave lower figures of 5.8% and even 2.9%. Indeed, one estimate is that Soviet growth became temporarily much higher after Stalin's death. See also: According to Robert Lewis the Five-Year Plan substantially helped to modernize the previously backward Soviet economy. New products were developed, and the scale and efficiency of existing production greatly increased. Some innovations were based on indigenous technical developments, others on imported foreign technology. ScienceMain articles: Science and technology in the Soviet Union, Suppressed research in the Soviet Union, LysenkoismScience in the Soviet Union was under strict ideological control by Stalin and his government, along with art and literature. There was significant progress in "ideologically safe" domains, owing to the free Soviet education system and state-financed research. However, in several cases the consequences of ideological pressure were dramatic — the most notable examples being the "bourgeois pseudosciences" genetics and cybernetics. Some areas of physics were criticized, Oliver Freire Jr. Marxism and the Quantum Controversy: Responding to Max Jammer's Question Péter Szegedi Cold War and Interpretations in Quantum Mechanics However, although initially planned, while Stalin personally and directly contributed to study in Linguistics, the principle work of which is a small essay, "Marxism and Linguistic Questions." Joseph V. Stalin (1950-06-20). "Concerning Marxism in Linguistics", Pravda. Available online as Marxism and Problems of Linguistics including other articles and letters also published in Pravda soon after 8 February and 4 July 1950. Scientific research was hindered by the fact that many scientists were sent to labor camps (including Lev Landau, later a Nobel Prize winner, who spent a year in prison in 1938–1939) or executed (e.g. Lev Shubnikov, shot in 1937). Social services Under the Soviet government people benefited from some social liberalization. Girls were given an adequate, equal education and women had equal rights in employment, improving lives for women and families. Stalinist development also contributed to advances in health care, which significantly increased the lifespan and quality of life of the typical Soviet citizen. Stalin's policies granted the Soviet people universal access to healthcare and education, effectively creating the first generation free from the fear of typhus, cholera, and malaria. Simon Sebag Montefiore. Stalin: The Court of the Red Tsar, Knopf, 2004 (ISBN 1-4000-4230-5) The occurrences of these diseases dropped to record low numbers, increasing life spans by decades. Soviet women under Stalin were the first generation of women able to give birth in the safety of a hospital, with access to prenatal care. Education was also an example of an increase in standard of living after economic development. The generation born during Stalin's rule was the first near-universally literate generation. Millions benefitted from mass literacy campaigns in the 1930s, and from workers training schemes. Acton, Edward, Russia, The Tsarist and Soviet Legacy, Longmann Group Ltd (1995) ISBN 0-582-08922-0 Engineers were sent abroad to learn industrial technology, and hundreds of foreign engineers were brought to Russia on contract. Transport links were improved and many new railways built. Workers who exceeded their quotas, Stakhanovites, received many incentives for their work; they could afford to buy the goods that were mass-produced by the rapidly expanding Soviet economy. The increase in demand due to industrialization and the decrease in the workforce due to World War II and repressions generated a major expansion in job opportunities for the survivors, especially for women. Culture Stalin propaganda poster, reading: "Beloved Stalin — a fortune of the nation!" Although born in Georgia, Stalin became a Russian nationalist and significantly promoted Russian history, language, and Russian national heroes, particularly during the 1930s and 1940s. He held the Russians up as the elder brothers of the non-Russian minorities. During Stalin's reign the official and long-lived style of Socialist Realism was established for painting, sculpture, music, drama and literature. Previously fashionable "revolutionary" expressionism, abstract art, and avant-garde experimentation were discouraged or denounced as "formalism". Famous figures were repressed, and many persecuted, tortured and executed, both "revolutionaries" (among them Isaac Babel, Vsevolod Meyerhold, Anna Akhmatova, Nikolai Gumilev, Lev Gumilev) and "non-conformists" (for example, Osip Mandelstam). Small amounts of remnant of pre-revolutionary Russia survived. The degree of Stalin's personal involvement in general, and in specific instances, has been the subject of discussion. Stalin's favorite novelPharaoh, shared similarities with Sergei Eisenstein's film, Ivan the Terrible, produced under Stalin's tutelage. In architecture, a Stalinist Empire Style (basically, updated neoclassicism on a very large scale, exemplified by the Seven Sisters of Moscow) replaced the constructivism of the 1920s. Stalin's rule had a largely disruptive effect on indigenous cultures within the Soviet Union, though the politics of Korenizatsiya and forced development were possibly beneficial to the integration of later generations of indigenous cultures. Caricature of "Stalin a great friend of religion", when churches were allowed to be opened during World War II. Religion Stalin's role in the fortunes of the Russian Orthodox Church is complex. Continuous persecution in the 1930s resulted in its near-extinction: by 1939, active parishes numbered in the low hundreds (down from 54,000 in 1917), many churches had been leveled, and tens of thousands of priests, monks and nuns were persecuted and killed. Over 100,000 were shot during the purges of 1937–1938. See also: During World War II, the Church was allowed a revival as a patriotic organization, after the NKVD had recruited the new metropolitan, the first after the revolution, as a secret agent. Thousands of parishes were reactivated until a further round of suppression in Khrushchev's time. The Russian Orthodox Church Synod's recognition of the Soviet government and of Stalin personally led to a schism with the Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia. Just days before Stalin's death, certain religious sects were outlawed and persecuted. Many religions popular in the ethnic regions of the Soviet Union including the Roman Catholic Church, Uniats, Baptists, Islam, Buddhism, Judaism, etc. underwent ordeals similar to the Orthodox churches in other parts: thousands of monks were persecuted, and hundreds of churches, synagogues, mosques, temples, sacred monuments, monasteries and other religious buildings were razed. Theorist Stalin and his supporters have highlighted the notion that socialism can be built and consolidated by a country as underdeveloped as Russia during the 1920s. Indeed this might be the only means in which it could be built in a hostile environment. Joseph V.Stalin. "Voprosy leninizma", 2nd ed., Moscow, p. 589; (1951) "Istoricheskij materializm", ed. by F. B. Konstantinov, Moscow, p. 402; P. Calvert (1982). "The Concept of Class", New York, pp. 144–145. In 1933, Stalin put forward the theory of aggravation of the class struggle along with the development of socialism, arguing that the further the country would move forward, the more acute forms of struggle will be used by the doomed remnants of exploiter classes in their last desperate efforts and that, therefore, political repression was necessary. In 1936, Stalin announced that the society of the Soviet Union consisted of two non-antagonistic classes: workers and kolkhoz peasantry. These corresponded to the two different forms of property over the means of production that existed in the Soviet Union: state property (for the workers) and collective property (for the peasantry). In addition to these, Stalin distinguished the stratum of intelligentsia. The concept of "non-antagonistic classes" was entirely new to Leninist theory. Among Stalin's contributions to Communist theoretical literature were "Marxism and the National Question", "Trotskyism or Leninism", and "Stalin's Collected Works". Calculating the number of victims Researchers before the 1991 dissolution of the Soviet Union attempting to count the number of people killed under Stalin's regime produced estimates ranging from 3 to 60 million. See also: Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn: The Gulag Archipelago 1918–1956, 1973–1976 ISBN 0-8133-3289-3 After the Soviet Union dissolved, evidence from the Soviet archives also became available, containing official records of the execution of approximately 800,000 prisoners under Stalin for either political or criminal offenses, around 1.7 million deaths in the Gulags and some 390,000 deaths during kulak forced resettlement for a total of about 3 million officially recorded victims in these categories. Stephen G. Wheatcroft, "Victims of Stalinism and the Soviet Secret Police: The Comparability and Reliability of the Archival Data. Not the Last Word", Source: Europe-Asia Studies, Vol. 51, No. 2 (Mar., 1999), pp. 315-345, gives the following numbers: During 1921-53, the number of sentences was (political convictions): sentences, 4,060,306; death penalties, 799,473; camps and prisons, 2,634397; excile, 413,512; other, 215,942. In addition, during 1937-52 there were 14,269,753 non-political sentences, among them 34,228 death penalties, 2,066,637 sentences for 0-1 year, 4,362,973 for 2-5 years, 1,611,293 for 6-10 years, and 286,795 for more than 10 years. Other sentences were non-custodial. The official Soviet archival records do not contain comprehensive figures for some categories of victims, such as the those of ethnic deportations or of German population transfers in the aftermath of WWII. Other notable exclusions from NKVD data on repression deaths include the Katyn massacre, other killings in the newly occupied areas, and the mass shootings of Red Army personnel (deserters and so-called deserters) in 1941. Also, the official statistics on Gulag mortality exclude deaths of prisoners taking place shortly after their release but which resulted from the harsh treatment in the camps. Ellman, Michael. Soviet Repression Statistics: Some Comments Europe-Asia Studies. Vol 54, No. 7, 2002, 1151-1172 Some historians also believe the official archival figures of the categories that were recorded by Soviet authorities to be unreliable and incomplete. See also: Robert Gellately. Lenin, Stalin, and Hitler: The Age of Social Catastrophe. Knopf, 2007 ISBN 1400040051 p. 584: "Anne Applebaum is right to insist that the statistics 'can never fully describe what happened.' They do suggest, however, the massive scope of the repression and killing." In addition to failures regarding comprehensive recordings, as one additional example, Robert Gellately and Simon Sebag-Montefiore argue the many suspects beaten and tortured to death while in "investigative custody" were likely not to have been counted amongst the executed. Robert Gellately. Lenin, Stalin, and Hitler: The Age of Social Catastrophe. Knopf, 2007. ISBN 1400040051 p. 256 Historians working after the Soviet Union's dissolution have estimated victim totals ranging from approximately 4 million to nearly 10 million, not including those who died in famines. See also: and Russian writer Vadim Erlikman, for example, makes the following estimates: executions, 1.5 million; gulags, 5 million; deportations, 1.7 million out of 7.5 million deported; and POWs and German civilians, 1 million a total of about 9 million victims of repression. Some have also included deaths of 6 to 8 million people in the 1932–1933 famine as victims of Stalin's repression. This categorization is controversial however, as historians differ as to whether the famine was a deliberate part of the campaign of repression against kulaks and others, or simply an unintended consequence of the struggle over forced collectivization. R. W. Davies, Stephen G. Wheatcroft: The Years of Hunger: Soviet Agriculture, 1931–1933, 2004 ISBN 0-333-31107-8 Andreev, EM, et al., Naselenie Sovetskogo Soiuza, 1922–1991. Moscow, Nauka, 1993. ISBN 5-02-013479-1 Accordingly, if famine victims are included, a minimum of around 10 million deaths — 6 million minimum from famine and 4 million minimum from other causes — are attributable to the regime, Steven Rosefielde. Documented Homicides and Excess Deaths: New Insights into the Scale of Killing in the USSR during the 1930s. Communist and Post-Communist Studies, Vol. 30, No. 3, pp 321-333, 1997. University of California with a number of recent historians suggesting a likely total of around 20 million, citing much higher victim totals from executions, gulags, deportations and other causes. See also: and and Robert Gellately. Lenin, Stalin, and Hitler: The Age of Social Catastrophe. Knopf, 2007 ISBN 1400040051 p. 584: "More recent estimations of the Soviet-on-Soviet killing have been more 'modest' and range between ten and twenty million." and Stéphane Courtois. The Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror Repression. Harvard University Press, 1999. p. 4: "U.S.S.R.: 20 million deaths." and Jonathan Brent, Inside the Stalin Archives: Discovering the New Russia. Atlas & Co., 2008 (ISBN 0977743330) Introduction online (PDF file): Estimations on the number of Stalin's victims over his twenty-five year reign, from 1928 to 1953, vary widely, but 20 million is now considered the minimum. Adding 6–8 million famine victims to Erlikman's estimates above, for example, would yield a total of between 15 and 17 million victims. Researcher Robert Conquest, meanwhile, has revised his original estimate of up to 30 million victims down to 20 million. Robert Conquest. The Great Terror: A Reassessment, Oxford University Press, 1991 (ISBN 0-19-507132-8). Others maintain that their earlier higher victim total estimates are correct. How Many Did Stalin Really Murder? by Professor R.J. Rummel World War II, 1939–1945 Ribbentrop and Stalin at the signing of the Pact Pact with Hitler After a failed attempt to sign an anti-German political alliance with France and Britain and talks with Germany regarding a potential political deal Lionel Kochan. The Struggle For Germany. 1914-1945. New York, 1963 , Vehviläinen, Olli, Finland in the Second World War: Between Germany and Russia, Macmillan, 2002, ISBN 0333801490, page 30 on 23 August 1939, the Soviet Union entered into a non-aggression pact with Nazi Germany, negotiated by Soviet foreign minister Vyacheslav Molotov and German foreign minister Joachim von Ribbentrop. Officially a non-aggression treaty only, an appended secret protocol, also reached on 23 August 1939, divided the whole of eastern Europe into German and Soviet spheres of influence. Encyclopedia Britanica, German-Soviet Nonaggression Pact, 2008 Text of the Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact, executed 23 August 1939 The eastern part of Poland, Latvia, Estonia, Finland and part of Romania were recognized as parts of the Soviet sphere of influence, with Lithuania added in a second secret protocol in September 1939. Christie, Kenneth, Historical Injustice and Democratic Transition in Eastern Asia and Northern Europe: Ghosts at the Table of Democracy, RoutledgeCurzon, 2002, ISBN 0700715991 Stalin and Ribbentrop traded toasts on the night of the signing discussing past hostilities between the countries. Shirer, William L., The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich: A History of Nazi Germany, Simon and Schuster, 1990 ISBN 0671728687, pages 541 Implementing the division of Eastern Europe and other invasions German and Soviet soldiers in victory parade in Brest in front of picture of Stalin On 1 September 1939, the German invasion of its agreed upon portion of Poland started World War II. On 17 September the Red Army invaded eastern Poland and occupied the Polish territory assigned to it by the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, followed by co-ordination with German forces in Poland. Eleven days later, the secret protocol of the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact was modified, allotting Germany a larger part of Poland, while ceding most of Lithuania to the Soviet Union. Planned and actual territorial changes in Eastern and Central Europe 1939–1940 (click to enlarge) After Stalin declared that he was going to "solve the Baltic problem", by June 1940, Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia were and merged into the Soviet Union, after repressions and actions therein brought about the deaths of over 160,000 citizens of these states. Senn, Alfred Erich, Lithuania 1940 : revolution from above, Amsterdam, New York, Rodopi, 2007 ISBN 9789042022256 After facing stiff resistance in an invasion of Finland, Kennedy-Pipe, Caroline, Stalin's Cold War, New York: Manchester University Press, 1995, ISBN 0719042011 an interim peace was entered, granting the Soviet Union the eastern region of Karelia (10% of Finnish territory). After this campaign, Stalin took actions to bolster the Soviet military, modify training and improve propaganda efforts in the Soviet military. In June 1940, Stalin directed the Soviet annexation of Bessarabia and northern Bukovina, proclaiming this formerly Romanian territory part of the Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic. But in annexing northern Bukovina, Stalin had gone beyond the agreed limits of the secret protocol. After the Tripartite Pact was signed by Axis Powers Germany, Japan and Italy, in October 1940, Stalin traded letters with Ribbentrop, with Stalin writing about entering an agreement regarding a "permanent basis" for their "mutual interests." After a conference in Berlin between Hitler, Molotov and Ribbentrop, Germany presented the Molotov with a proposed written agreement for Axis entry. On 25 November, Stalin responded with a proposed written agreement for Axis entry which was never answered by Germany. Shortly thereafter, Hitler issued a secret directive on the eventual attempts to invade the Soviet Union. In an effort to demonstrate peaceful intentions toward Germany, on 13 April 1941, Stalin oversaw the signing of a neutrality pact with Axis power Japan. Hitler breaks the pact During the early morning of 22 June 1941, Hitler broke the pact by implementing Operation Barbarossa, the German invasion of Soviet held territories and the Soviet Union that began the war on the Eastern Front. Although Stalin had received warnings from spies and his generals, he felt that Germany would not attack the Soviet Union until Germany had defeated Britain. In the initial hours after the German attack commenced, Stalin hesitated, wanting to ensure that the German attack was sanctioned by Hitler, rather than the unauthorized action of a rogue general. Accounts by Nikita Khrushchev and Anastas Mikoyan claim that, after the invasion, Stalin retreated to his dacha in despair for several days and did not participate in leadership decisions. However, some documentary evidence of orders given by Stalin contradicts these accounts, leading some historians to speculate that Kruschev's account is inaccurate. By the end of 1941, the Soviet military had suffered 4.3 million casualties and German forces had advanced 1,050 miles (1,690 kilometers). Glantz, David, The Soviet-German War 1941–45: Myths and Realities: A Survey Essay, 11 October 2001, page 7 Soviets stop the Germans While the Germans pressed forward, Stalin was confident of an eventual Allied victory over Germany. In September 1941, Stalin told British diplomats that he wanted two agreements: (1) a mutual assistance/aid pact and (2) a recognition that, after the war, the Soviet Union would gain the territories in countries that it had taken pursuant to its division of Eastern Europe with Hitler in the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact. The British agreed to assistance but refused to agree upon the territorial gains, which Stalin accepted months later as the military situation deteriorated somewhat in mid-1942. By December, Hitler's troops had advanced to within 20 miles of the Kremlin in Moscow. On 5 December, the Soviets launched a counteroffensive, pushing German troops back 40–50 miles from Moscow, the Wermacht's first significant defeat of the war. In 1942, Hitler shifted his primary goal from an immediate victory in the East, to the more long-term goal of securing the southern Soviet Union to protect oil fields vital to a long-term German war effort. While Red Army generals saw evidence that Hitler would shift efforts south, Stalin considered this to be a flanking campaign in efforts to take Moscow. Soviet push to Germany The Soviets repulsed the important German strategic southern campaign and, although 2.5 million Soviet casualties were suffered in that effort, it permitted the Soviets to take the offensive for most of the rest of the war on the Eastern Front. The Big Three: Stalin, U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt, and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill at the Tehran Conference, November 1943. Germany attempted an encirclement attack at Kursk, which was successfully repulsed by the Soviets. Kursk marked the beginning of a period where Stalin became more willing to listen to the advice of his generals. By the end of 1943, the Soviets occupied half of the territory taken by the Germans from 1941-1942. Soviet military industrial output also had increased substantially from late 1941 to early 1943 after Stalin had moved factories well to the East of the front, safe from German invasion and air attack. In November 1943, Stalin met with Churchill and Roosevelt in Tehran. The parties later agreed that Britain and America would launch a cross-channel invasion of France in May 1944, along with a separate invasion of southern France. Stalin insisted that, after the war, the Soviet Union should incorporate the portions of Poland it occupied pursuant to the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact with Germany, which Churchill tabled. In 1944, the Soviet Union made significant advances across Eastern Europe toward Germany, including Operation Bagration, a massive offensive in Belorussia against the German Army Group Centre. Final victory Soviet soldiers raising the Soviet flag over the Reichstag after its capture By April 1945, Germany faced its last days with 1.9 million German soldiers in the East fighting 6.4 million Red Army soldiers while 1 million German soldiers in the West battled 4 million Western Allied soldiers. Glantz, David, The Soviet-German War 1941–45: Myths and Realities: A Survey Essay, 11 October 2001 While initial talk existed of a race to Berlin by the Allies, after Stalin successfully lobbied for Eastern Germany to fall within the Soviet "sphere of influence" at Yalta, no plans were made by the Western Allies to seize the city by a ground operation. Beevor, Antony, Berlin: The Downfall 1945, Viking, Penguin Books, 2005, ISBN 0670886955, page 194 Williams, Andrew (2005). D-Day to Berlin. Hodder. ISBN 0340833971., page 310-1 On 30 April, Hitler and Eva Braun committed suicide, after which Soviet forces found their remains, which had been burned at Hitler's directive. Bullock, Alan, Hitler: A Study in Tyranny, Penguin Books, ISBN 0140135642, 1962, pages 799-800 German forces surrendered a few days later. Despite the Soviets' possession of Hitler's remains, Stalin did not believe that his old nemesis was actually dead, a belief that remained for years after the war. Kershaw, Ian, Hitler, 1936-1945: Nemesis, W. W. Norton & Company, 2001, ISBN 0393322521, pages 1038-39 Dolezal, Robert, Truth about History: How New Evidence Is Transforming the Story of the Past, Readers Digest, 2004, ISBN 0762105232, page 185-6 Fending off the German invasion and pressing to victory in the East required a tremendous sacrifice by the Soviet Union. Soviet military casualties totaled approximately 35 million (official figures 28.2 million) with approximately 14.7 million killed, missing or captured (official figures 11.285 million). Glantz, David, The Soviet-German War 1941–45: Myths and Realities: A Survey Essay, 11 October 2001, page 13 Although figures vary, the Soviet civilian death toll probably reached 20 million. Questionable tactics Part of the 5 March 1940 memo from Lavrentiy Beria to Stalin proposing execution of Polish officers After taking around 300,000 Polish prisoners in 1939 and early 1940, obozy jenieckie zolnierzy polskich (Prison camps for Polish soldiers) Encyklopedia PWN. Last accessed on 28 November 2006. Edukacja Humanistyczna w wojsku. 1/2005. Dom wydawniczy Wojska Polskiego. ISNN 1734-6584. (Official publication of the Polish Army) Молотов на V сессии Верховного Совета 31 октября цифра «примерно 250 тыс.» (Please provide translation of the reference title and publication data and means) Отчёт Украинского и Белорусского фронтов Красной Армии Мельтюхов, с. 367. (Please provide translation of the reference title and publication data and means) 25,700 Polish POWs were executed on 5 March 1940, pursuant to a note from to Stalin from Lavrenty Beria, the members of the Soviet Politburo, Fischer, Benjamin B., "The Katyn Controversy: Stalin's Killing Field", Studies in Intelligence, Winter 1999-2000. Excerpt from the minutes No. 13 of the Politburo of the Central Committee meeting, shooting order of 5 March 1940 online, last accessed on 19 December 2005, original in Russian with English translation in what became known as the Katyn massacre. Sanford, Google Books, p. 20-24. While Stalin personally told a Polish general they'd "lost track" of the officers in Manchuria, Various authors. Biuletyn „Kombatant” nr specjalny (148) czerwiec 2003 Special Edition of Kombatant Bulletin No.148 6/2003 on the occasion of the Year of General Sikorski. Official publication of the Polish government Agency of Combatants and Repressed Ромуальд Святек, "Катынский лес", Военно-исторический журнал, 1991, №9, Polish railroad workers found the mass grave after the 1941 Nazi invasion. The massacre became a source of political controversy, Engel, David. " Facing a Holocaust: The Polish Government-In-Exile and the Jews, 1943–1945]". 1993. ISBN 0-8078-2069-5. Bauer, Eddy. "The Marshall Cavendish Illustrated Encyclopedia of World War II". Marshall Cavendish, 1985 with the Soviets eventually claiming that Germany committed the executions when the Soviet Union retook Poland in 1944. Goebbels, Joseph. The Goebbels Diaries (1942–1943). Translated by Louis P. Lochner. Doubleday & Company. 1948 The Soviets did not admit responsibility until 1990. "CHRONOLOGY 1990; The Soviet Union and Eastern Europe." Foreign Affairs, 1990, pp. 212. Stalin introduced controversial military orders, such as Order No. 270, requiring superiors to shoot deserters on the spot Text of Order No. 270 while their family members were subject to arrest. Thereafter, Stalin also conducted a purge of several military commanders that were shot for "cowardice" without a trial. Stalin issued Order No. 227, directing that commanders permitting retreat without permission to be subject to a military tribunal, and soldiers guilty of disciplinary procedures to be forced into "penal battalions", which were sent to the most dangerous sections of the front lines. From 1942 to 1945, 427,910 soldiers were assigned to penal battalions. G. I. Krivosheev. Soviet Casualties and Combat Losses. Greenhill 1997 ISBN 1-85367-280-7 The order also directed "blocking detachments" to shoot fleeing panicked troops at the rear. In June 1941, weeks after the German invasion began, Stalin also directed employing a scorched earth policy of destroying the infrastructure and food supplies of areas before the Germans could seize them, and that partisans were to be set up in evacuated areas. He also ordered the NKVD to murder around one hundred thousand political prisoners in areas where the Wermacht approached, Robert Gellately. Lenin, Stalin, and Hitler: The Age of Social Catastrophe. Knopf, 2007 ISBN 1400040051 p. 391 while others were deported east. See also: Allen Paul. Katyn: Stalin’s Massacre and the Seeds of Polish Resurrection, Naval Institute Press, 1996, (ISBN 1-55750-670-1), p. 155 After the capture of Berlin, Soviet troops reportedly raped from tens of thousands to two million women, Schissler, Hanna The Miracle Years: A Cultural History of West Germany, 1949-1968 and 50,000 during and after the occupation of Budapest. Mark, James, "Remembering Rape: Divided Social Memory and the Red Army in Hungary 1944-1945", Past & Present - Number 188, August 2005, page 133 Naimark, Norman M., The Russians in Germany: A History of the Soviet Zone of Occupation, 1945-1949. Cambridge: Belknap, 1995, ISBN 0-674-78405-7, pages 70-71 In former Axis countries, such as Germany, Romania and Hungary, Red Army officers generally viewed cities, villages and farms as being open to pillaging and looting. Beevor, Antony, Berlin: The Downfall 1945, Penguin Books, 2002, ISBN 0-670-88695-5. Specific reports also include Report of the Swiss legation in Budapest of 1945 and Hubertus Knabe: Tag der Befreiung? Das Kriegsende in Ostdeutschland (A day of liberation? The end of war in Eastern Germany), Propyläen 2005, ISBN 3549072457 German). According to recent figures, of an estimated four million POWs taken by the Russians, including Germans, Japanese, Hungarians, Romanians and others, some 580,000 never returned, presumably victims of privation or the Gulags. Richard Overy, The Dictators Hitler's Germany, Stalin's Russia p.568–569 Soviet POWs and forced laborers who survived German captivity were sent to special "transit" or "filtration" camps meant determine which were potential traitors. Of the approximately 4 million to be repatriated 2,660,013 were civilians and 1,539,475 were former POWs. Of the total, 2,427,906 were sent home and 801,152 were reconscripted into the armed forces. 608,095 were enrolled in the work battalions of the defense ministry. 272,867 were transferred to the authority of the NKVD for punishment, which meant a transfer to the Gulag system. (“Военно-исторический журнал” (“Military-Historical Magazine”), 1997, №5. page 32) Земское В.Н. К вопросу о репатриации советских граждан. 1944-1951 годы // История СССР. 1990. № 4 (Zemskov V.N. On repatriation of Soviet citizens. Istoriya SSSR., 1990, No.4 89,468 remained in the transit camps as reception personnel until the repatriation process was finally wound up in the early 1950s. Allied conferences on post-war Europe The Big Three: British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt and Stalin at the Yalta Conference, February 1945. Stalin met in several conferences with British Prime Minister Winston Churchill (and later Clement Atlee) and/or American President Franklin D. Roosevelt (and later Harry Truman) to plan military strategy and, later, to discuss Europe's postwar reorganization. Very early conferences, such as that with British diplomats in Moscow in 1941 and with Churchill and American diplomats in in Moscow in 1942, focused mostly upon war planning and supply, though some preliminary postwar reorganization discussion also occurred. In 1943, Stalin met with Churchill and Roosevelt in the Tehran Conference. In 1944, Stalin met with Churchill in the Moscow Conference. Beginning in late 1944, the Red Army occupied much of Eastern Europe during these conferences and the discussions shifted to a more intense focus on the reorganization of postwar Europe. In February 1945, at the conference at Yalta, Stalin demanded a Soviet sphere of political influence in Eastern Europe. Stalin eventually was convinced by Churchill and Roosevelt not to dismember Germany. Stalin also stated that the Polish government-in-exile demands for self-rule were not negotiable, such that the Soviet Union would keep the territory of eastern Poland they had already taken by invasion with German consent in 1939, and wanted the pro-Soviet Polish government installed. After resistance by Churchill and Roosevelt, Stalin promised a re-organization of the current Communist puppet government on a broader democratic basis in Poland. He stated the new government's primary task would be to prepare elections. The parties at Yalta further agreed that the countries of liberated Europe and former Axis satellites would be allowed to "create democratic institutions of their own choice", pursuant to the "the right of all peoples to choose the form of government under which they will live." 11 February 1945 Potsdam Report, reprinted in Potsdam Ashley, John, Soames Grenville and Bernard Wasserstein, The Major International Treaties of the Twentieth Century: A History and Guide with Texts, Taylor & Francis, 2001 ISBN 041523798X The parties also agreed to help those countries form interim governments "pledged to the earliest possible establishment through free elections" and "facilitate where necessary the holding of such elections." After the re-organization of the Provisional Government of the Republic of Poland, the parties agreed that the new party shall "be pledged to the holding of free and unfettered elections as soon as possible on the basis of universal suffrage and secret ballot." One month after Yalta, the Soviet NKVD arrested 16 Polish leaders wishing to participate in provisional government negotiations, for alleged "crimes" and "diversions", which drew protest from the West. The fraudulent Polish elections, held in January 1947 resulted in Poland's official transformation to undemocratic communist state by 1949. At the Potsdam Conference from July to August 1945, though Germany had surrendered months earlier, instead of withdrawing Soviet forces from Eastern European countries, Stalin had not moved those forces. At the beginning of the conference, Stalin repeated previous promises to Churchill that he would refrain from a "Sovietization" of Eastern Europe. Stalin pushed for reparations from Germany without regard to the base minimum supply for German citizens' survival, which worried Truman and Churchill who thought that Germany would become a financial burden for Western powers. In addition to reparations, Stalin pushed for "war booty", which would permit the Soviet Union to directly seize property from conquered nations without quantitative or qualitative limitation, and a clause was added permitting this to occur with some limitations. By July 1945, Stalin's troops effectively controlled the Baltic States, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Bulgaria and Romania, and refugees were fleeing out of these countries fearing a Communist take-over. The western allies, and especially Churchill, were suspicious of the motives of Stalin, who had already installed communist governments in the central European countries under his influence. In these conferences, his first appearances on the world stage, Stalin proved to be a formidable negotiator. Anthony Eden, the British Foreign Secretary noted: "Marshal Stalin as a negotiator was the toughest proposition of all. Indeed, after something like thirty years' experience of international conferences of one kind and another, if I had to pick a team for going into a conference room, Stalin would be my first choice. Of course the man was ruthless and of course he knew his purpose. He never wasted a word. He never stormed, he was seldom even irritated." Post-war era, 1945–1953 The Iron Curtain and the Eastern Bloc After Soviet forces remained in Eastern and Central European countries, with the beginnings of communist puppet regimes in those countries, Churchill referred to the region as being behind an "Iron Curtain" of control from Moscow. Muller, James W., Churchill's "Iron Curtain" Speech Fifty Years Later, University of Missouri Press, 1999, ISBN 0826212476, pages 1-8 Gaddis, John Lewis, We Now Know: Rethinking Cold War History, Oxford University Press, Incorporated, 1998, ISBN 0198780710 The countries under Soviet control in Eastern and Central Europe were called the "Eastern bloc." The Eastern Bloc 1948-1989. In Soviet-controlled East Germany, the major task of the ruling communist party in Germany was to channel Soviet orders down to both the administrative apparatus and the other bloc parties pretending that these were initiatives of its own, with deviations potentially leading to reprimands, imprisonment, torture and even death. Property and industry were nationalized under their government. The German Democratic Republic was declared on 7 October 1949, with a new constitution which enshrined socialism and gave the Soviet-controlled Socialist Unity Party ("SED") control. In Berlin, after citizens strongly rejected communist candidates in an election, in June 1948, the Soviet Union blockaded West Berlin, the portion of Berlin not under Soviet control, cutting off all supply of food and other items. The blockade failed due to the unexpected massive aerial resupply campaign carried out by the Western powers known as the Berlin Airlift. In 1949, Stalin conceded defeat and ended the blockade. While Stalin had promised at the Yalta Conference that free elections would be held in Poland, after an election failure in "3 times YES" elections, Curp, David, A Clean Sweep?: The Politics of Ethnic Cleansing in Western Poland, 1945-1960, Boydell & Brewer, 2006, ISBN 1580462383, pages 66-69 vote rigging was employed to win a majority in the carefully controlled poll. "Poland." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Retrieved on 7 April 2007 Tom Buchanan, Europe's Troubled Peace, 1945–2000: 1945–2000, Blackwell Publishing, 2005, ISBN 0631221638, Google Print, p.84 A brief history of Poland: Chapter 13: The Post-War Years, 1945–1990. Polonia Today Online. Retrieved on 28 March 2007. Following the forged referendum, the Polish economy started to become nationalized. Poland - The Historical Setting: Chapter 6: The Polish People's Republic. Polish Academic Information Center, University at Buffalo. Retrieved on 14 March 2007. Stalin and Politburo colleagues in the Kremlin, 1946. In Hungary, when the Soviets installed a communist government, Mátyás Rákosi, who described himself as "Stalin's best Hungarian disciple" Sugar, Peter F., Peter Hanak and Tibor Frank, A History of Hungary, Indiana University Press, 1994, ISBN 025320867X, page 375-77 and "Stalin's best pupil", Matthews, John P. C. , Explosion: The Hungarian Revolution of 1956, Hippocrene Books, 2007, ISBN 0781811740, page 93-4 took power. Rákosi employed "salami tactics", slicing up these enemies like pieces of salami, Baer, Helmut David, The Struggle of Hungarian Lutherans Under Communism, Texas A&M University Press, 2006 ISBN 1585444804, page 16 to battle the initial postwar political majority ready to establish a democracy. Granville, Johanna, The First Domino: International Decision Making during the Hungarian Crisis of 1956, Texas A&M University Press, 2004. ISBN 1-58544-298-4 Rákosi, employed Stalinist political and economic programs, and was dubbed the “bald murderer” for establishing one of the harshest dictatorships in Europe. Gati, Charles, Failed Illusions: Moscow, Washington, Budapest, and the 1956 Hungarian Revolt, Stanford University Press, 2006 ISBN 0804756066, page 9-12 Approximately 350,000 Hungarian officials and intellectuals were purged from 1948 to 1956. During World War II, in Bulgaria, the Red Army crossed the border and created the conditions for a communist coup detat on the following night. The Soviet military commander in Sofia assumed supreme authority, and the communists whom he instructed, including Kimon Georgiev, took full control of domestic politics. In 1949, the Soviet Union, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Poland, and Romania founded the Comecon in accordance with Stalin's desire to enforce Soviet domination of the lesser states of Central Europe and to mollify some states that had expressed interest in the Marshall Plan, Germany (East), Library of Congress Country Study, Appendix B: The Council for Mutual Economic Assistance and which were now, increasingly, cut off from their traditional markets and suppliers in Western Europe. Czechoslovakia, Hungary, and Poland had remained interested in Marshall aid despite the requirements for a convertible currency and market economies. In July 1947, Stalin ordered these communist-dominated governments to pull out of the Paris Conference on the European Recovery Programme. This has been described as "the moment of truth" in the post-World War II division of Europe. In Greece, Britain and the United States supported the anti-communists in the Greek Civil War and suspected the Soviets of supporting the Greek communists, although Stalin refrained from getting involved in Greece, dismissing the movement as premature. Albania remained an ally of the Soviet Union, but Yugoslavia broke with the USSR in 1948. In Stalin's last year of life, one of his last major foreign policy initiatives was the 1952 Stalin Note for German reunification and Superpower disengagement from Central Europe, but Britain, France, and the United States viewed this with suspicion and rejected the offer. Sino-Soviet Relations Stalin and Mao Zedong on Chinese Postage stamp In Asia, the Red Army had overrun Manchuria in the last month of the war and then also occupied Korea above the 38th parallel north. Mao Zedong's Communist Party of China, though receptive to minimal Soviet support, defeated the pro-Western and heavily American-assisted Chinese Nationalist Party in the Chinese Civil War. There was friction between Stalin and Mao from the beginning. During World War II Stalin had supported the conservative dictator of China, Chiang Kai-Shek, as a bulwark against Japan and had turned a blind eye to Chiang's mass killings of communists. He generally put his alliance with Chiang against Japan ahead of helping his ideological allies in China in his priorities. Even after the war Stalin concluded a non-agression pact between the USSR and Chiang's Kuomintang (KMT) regime in China and instructed Mao and the Chinese communists to cooperate with Chiang and the KMT after the war. Mao did not follow Stalin's instructions though and started a communist revolution against Chiang. Stalin did not believe Mao would be successful so he was less than enthusiastic in helping Mao. The USSR continued to maintain diplomatic relations with Chiang's KMT regime until 1949 when it became clear Mao would win. Stalin did conclude a new friendship and alliance treaty with Mao after he defeated Chiang. But there was still a lot of tension between the two leaders and resentment by Mao for Stalin's less than enthusiastic help during the civil war in China. The Communists controlled mainland China while the Nationalists held a rump state on the island of Formosa (now Taiwan). The Soviet Union soon after recognized Mao's People's Republic of China, which it regarded as a new ally. The People's Republic claimed Taiwan, though it had never held authority there. Diplomatic relations between the Soviet Union and China reached a high point with the signing of the 1950 Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship and Alliance. Both countries provided military support to a new friendly state in North Korea. After various Korean border conflicts, war broke out with U.S.-allied South Korea in 1950, starting the Korean War. North Korea Contrary to America's policy which restrained armament (limited equipment was provided for infantry and police forces) to South Korea, Stalin extensively armed Kim Il Sung's North Korean army and air forces with military equipment (to include T-34/85 tanks) and "advisors" far in excess of those required for defensive purposes) in order to facilitate Kim's (a former Soviet Officer) aim of conquering the rest of the Korean peninsula. The North Korean Army struck in the pre-dawn hours of Sunday, 25 June 1950, crossing the 38th parallel behind a firestorm of artillery, beginning their invasion of South Korea. During the Korean War, Soviet pilots flew Soviet aircraft from Chinese bases against United Nations aircraft defending South Korea. Post cold war research in Soviet Archives has revealed that the Korean War was begun by Kim Il-sung with the express permission of Stalin, though this is disputed by North Korea. Israel Stalin originally supported the creation of Israel in 1948. The USSR was one of the first nations to recognize the new country. See, e.g., Brown, Philip Marshall. "The Recognition of Israel", American Journal of International Law, Vol. 42, No. 3 (Jul., 1948), p. 620. Golda Meir came to Moscow as the first Israeli Ambassador to the USSR that year. However, he later changed his mind and came out against Israel. Falsifiers of History In 1948, Stalin personally edited and rewrote by hand sections of the cold war book Falsifiers of History. Falsifiers was published in response to the documents made public in Nazi-Soviet Relations, 1939–1941: Documents from the Archives of The German Foreign Office, which included the secret protocols of the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact and other secret German-Soviet relations documents. Falsifiers originally appeared as a series of articles in Pravda in February 1948, and was subsequently published in numerous language and distributed worldwide. The book did not attempt to directly counter or deal with the documents published in Nazi-Soviet Relations and rather, focused upon Western culpability for the outbreak of war in 1939. It argues that "Western powers" aided Nazi rearmament and aggression, including that American bankers and industrialists provided capital for the growth of German war industries, while deliberately encouraging Hitler to expand eastward. It depicted the Soviet Union as striving to negotiate a collective security against Hitler, while being thwarted by double-dealing Anglo-French appeasers who, despite appearances, had no intention of a Soviet alliance and were secretly negotiating with Berlin. It casts the Munich agreement, not just as Anglo-French short-sightedness or cowardice, but as a "secret" agreement that was a "a highly important phase in their policy aimed at goading the Hitlerite aggressors against the Soviet Union." The book also included the claim that, during the Pact's operation, Stalin rejected Hitler's offer to share in a division of the world, without mentioning the Soviet offers to join the Axis. Historical studies, official accounts, memoirs and textbooks published in the Soviet Union used that depiction of events until the Soviet Union's dissolution. Domestic Support Domestically, Stalin was seen as a great wartime leader who had led the Soviets to victory against the Nazis. His early cooperation with Hitler was forgotten. That cooperation included helping the German Army violate the Treaty of Versailles limitations, with training in the Soviet Union, the notorious Molotov-von Ribbentrop treaty which partitioned Poland giving the Soviet Union what is now Belarus and granted the Soviet Union a free hand in Finland, Lithuania, Estonia, and Latvia, and Soviet trade with Hitler to counteract the expected French and British trade blockades. By the end of the 1940s, Russian patriotism increased due to successful propaganda efforts. For instance, some inventions and scientific discoveries were claimed by Russian propaganda. Examples include the boiler, reclaimed by father and son Cherepanovs; the electric light, by Yablochkov and Lodygin; the radio, by Popov; and the airplane, by Mozhaysky. Stalin's internal repressive policies continued (including in newly acquired territories), but never reached the extremes of the 1930s, in part because the smarter party functionaries had learned caution. The "Doctors' plot" The "Doctors' plot" was a plot outlined by Stalin and Soviet officials in 1952 and 1953 whereby several doctors (over half of which were Jewish) allegedly attempted to kill Soviet officials. Ro'i, Yaacov, Jews and Jewish Life in Russia and the Soviet Union, Routledge, 1995, ISBN 0714646199, page 103-6 The prevailing opinion of many scholars outside the Soviet Union is that Stalin intended to use the resulting doctors’ trial to launch a massive party purge.<ref>Encyclopedia Britannica, Doctors' Plot], 2008</ref> The plot is also viewed by many historians as an anti-Semitic provocation. It followed on the heels of the 1952 show trials of the Jewish Anti-Fascist Committee and the secret execution of thirteen members on Stalin's orders in the Night of the Murdered Poets. Stalin's Secret Pogrom: The Postwar Inquisition of the Jewish Anti-Fascist Committee (introduction) by Joshua Rubenstein Thereafter, in a December Politburo session, Stalin announced that "Every Jewish nationalist is the agent of the American intelligence service. Jewish nationalists think that their nation was saved by the USA (there you can become rich, bourgeois, etc.). They think they're indebted to the Americans. Among doctors, there are many Jewish nationalists." From the diary of Vice-Chair of the Sovmin V.A. Malyshev. See G. Kostyrchenko, Gosudarstvennyj antisemitizm v SSSR, Moscow, 2005, pp. 461, 462 To mobilize the Soviet people for his campaign, Stalin ordered TASS and Pravda to issue stories along with Stalin's alleged uncovering of a "Doctors Plot" to assassinate top Soviet leaders, Gorlizki, Yoram and Oleg Khlevniuk, Cold Peace: Stalin and the Soviet Ruling Circle 1945-1953, Sourcebooks, Inc., 2005 ISBN 0195304209, page 158 including Stalin, in order to set the stage for show trials. Zuehlke, Jeffrey, Joseph Stalin, Twenty-First Century Books, 2005, ISBN 0822534215, page 99-101 The next month, Pravda published stories with text regarding the purported "Jewish bourgeois-nationalist" plotters. Stalin directed Kruschev to incite anti-Semitism in the Ukraine, telling him "The good workers at the factory should be given clubs so they can beat the hell out of those Jews." Pinkus, Benjamin, The Soviet Government and the Jews 1948-1967: A Documented Study, Cambridge University Press, 1984, ISBN 0521247136, pages 107-8 Regarding the origins of the plot, people who knew Stalin, such as Kruschev, suggest that Stalin had long harbored negative sentiments toward Jews, Montefiore, Simon Sebag, Young Stalin, Random House, Inc., 2008, ISBN 1400096138, page 165 Kun, Miklós, Stalin: An Unknown Portrait, Central European University Press, 2003, ISBN 9639241199, page 287 and anti-Semitic trends in the Kremlin's policies were further fueled by the exile of Leon Trotsky. Rappaport, Helen, Joseph Stalin: A Biographical Companion, ABC-CLIO, 1999 ISBN 1576070840, page297 Following ant-Semitic purges in the 1930s and 1940s, in 1946, Stalin wrote that "every Jew is a potential spy." Some historians have argued that Stalin was also planning to send millions of Jews to four large newly built labor camps in Western Russia using a "Deportation Commission" Eisenstadt, Yaakov, Stalin's Planned Genocide, 22 Adar 5762, 6 March 2002 that would purportedly act to save Soviet Jews from an engraged Soviet population after the Doctors Plot trials. Solzhenitzin, Alexander, The Gulag Archipelago, 1973 Others argue that any charge of an alleged mass deportation lacks specific documentary evidence. Regardless of whether a plot to deport Jews was planned, in his "Secret Speech" in 1956, Soviet Premier Nikita Kruschev stated that the Doctors Plot was "fabricated ... set up by Stalin", that Stalin told the judge to beat confessions from the defendants Kruschev, Nikita, SPECIAL REPORT TO THE 20TH CONGRESS OF THE COMMUNIST PARTY OF THE SOVIET UNION, Closed session, February 24-25, 1956 and had told Politburo members "You are blind like young kittens. What will happen without me? The country will perish because you do not know how to recognize enemies." Death and reactions At the end of January 1953 Stalin's personal physician Miron Vovsi (cousin of Solomon Mikhoels who was assassinated in 1948 at the orders of Stalin) was arrested within the frame of the so-named Doctors' Plot. Vovsi was released by Beria after Stalin's death in 1953, as was his son-in-law, the composer Mieczyslaw Weinberg. In 1983, Mikhoel's daughter, Natalia Vovsi-Mikoels, wrote a biography of her father in Hebrew: My Father Shlomo Mikhoels: The Life and Death of a Jewish Actor. On 1 March 1953, after an all-night dinner in his Kuntsevo residence some 15 km west of Moscow centre with interior minister Lavrentiy Beria and future premiers Georgy Malenkov, Nikolai Bulganin and Nikita Khrushchev, Stalin did not emerge from his room, having probably suffered a stroke that paralyzed the right side of his body. Stalin's Grave by the Kremlin Wall Necropolis Although his guards thought that it was odd for him not to rise at his usual time, they were under orders not to disturb him. He was discovered lying on the floor of his room only at about 10 p.m. in the evening. Lavrentiy Beria was informed and arrived a few hours afterwards, and the doctors only arrived in the early morning of 2 March. Stalin died four days later, on 5 March 1953, at the age of 74, and was embalmed on 9 March. His daughter Svetlana recalls the scene as she stood by his death bed: "He suddenly opened his eyes and cast a glance over everyone in the room. It was a terrible glance. Then something incomprehensible and awesome happened. He suddenly lifted his left hand as though he were pointing to something above and bringing down a curse upon all of us. The next moment after a final effort the spirit wrenched itself free of the flesh." Officially, the cause of death was listed as a cerebral hemorrhage. His body was preserved in Lenin's Mausoleum until 31 October 1961, when his body was removed from the Mausoleum and buried next to the Kremlin walls as part of the process of de-Stalinization. It has been suggested that Stalin was assassinated. The ex-Communist exile Avtorkhanov argued this point as early as 1975. The political memoirs of Vyacheslav Molotov, published in 1993, claimed that Beria had boasted to Molotov that he poisoned Stalin: "I took him out." Khrushchev wrote in his memoirs that Beria had, immediately after the stroke, gone about "spewing hatred against [Stalin] and mocking him", and then, when Stalin showed signs of consciousness, dropped to his knees and kissed his hand. When Stalin fell unconscious again, Beria immediately stood and spat. Later analyses of death In 2003, a joint group of Russian and American historians announced their view that Stalin ingested warfarin, a powerful rat poison that inhibits coagulation of the blood and so predisposes the victim to hemorrhagic stroke (cerebral hemorrhage). Since it is flavorless, warfarin is a plausible weapon of murder. The facts surrounding Stalin's death will probably never be known with certainty. His demise arrived at a convenient time for Lavrenty Beria and others, who feared being swept away in yet another purge. It is believed that Stalin felt Beria's power was too great and threatened his own. Whether Beria or anyone else was directly responsible for Stalin's death, it is true that the Politburo did not summon medical attention for Stalin for more than a day after he was found. Radzinsky notes in Stalin: The First In-Depth Biography Based on Explosive New Documents From Russia's Secret Archives, that while Stalin was preparing Beria's downfall, Beria first had Stalin's head of security killed and this allowed Beria to interfere with the bodyguard arrangements for Stalin. The head of security on that night gave the guards the order, allegedly from Stalin, that they were not required and could go to bed. Next morning there was no activity from Stalin's room. This was advantageous for Beria since the purge — which had already started against the Jewish doctors — was scheduled to start moving up to current Politburo members including Beria and Khrushchev; indeed Molotov had already been deposed. According to Radzinsky, this was also the resumption of "the Terror": to ensure obedience of the nation in anticipation of a planned nuclear war. Stalin intended to use the USSR's lead in the development of a hydrogen bomb to his advantage, by engineering a conflict with the West. This, he thought, could be achieved by building on the show trials of "the Jewish doctors", and embracing an anti-semitic expulsion of "the Jews" to Siberia. Reaction by successors Grutas Park is home to a monument of Stalin, originally set up in Vilnius. Monument to Stalin in Gori, Georgia. The harshness with which Soviet affairs were conducted during Stalin's rule was subsequently repudiated by his successors in the Communist Party leadership, most notably by Nikita Khrushchev's repudiation of Stalinism in February 1956. In his "Secret Speech", On the Personality Cult and its Consequences, delivered to a closed session of the 20th Party Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, Khrushchev denounced Stalin for his cult of personality, and his regime for "violation of Leninist norms of legality". The embalming of the Soviet founder in Lenin's Mausoleum was performed over the objection of Lenin's widow, Nadezhda Krupskaya. Recent support by some in Russia In recent years, some in Russia, perhaps in reaction to economic hardship or political instability, have signalled some support for Stalin. Results of a controversial poll taken in 2006 stated that over thirty-five percent of Russians would vote for Stalin if he were still alive. In July 2008, Stalin topped at number 2 of the list of most popular figures of the Russian history and culture in the nationwide television project "Name of Russia. Historical Choice 2008" in which 292,220 out of 1,453,390 voted for him. In December 2008 Stalin was voted third in a poll of the greatest Russians (behind Saint Alexander Nevsky and Pyotr Stolypin, one of Nicholas II's prime ministers), leading to accusations that the poll had been rigged in order to prevent him or Lenin being given first place. http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2008/dec/29/stalin-name-of-russia Greatest Russian poll Also, a new statue of Stalin, along with others who fought against Hitler, is to be erected in Moscow. Personal life Origin of name, nicknames and pseudonyms Stalin's original name and surname are transliterated as " ". Like other Bolsheviks, he became commonly known by one of his revolutionary noms de guerre, of which "Stalin" was only the last. Prior nicknames included "Koba", "Ivanov" and many others. During Stalin's reign his nicknames included: "Uncle Joe", by western media, during and after the World War II. "The Human Monster," page 4. O'Hehir, A. Salon.com. 5 May 2005. "Kremlin Highlander" (), in reference his Caucasus Mountains origin, notably by Osip Mandelstam in his Stalin Epigram. Appearance While photographs and portraits portray Stalin as physically massive and majestic - he had several painters shot who did not depict him "right" -, he was only five feet four inches high (160 cm). His mustached face was fleshy and pock-marked, and his black hair later turned grey and thinned out. After a carriage accident in his youth, his left arm was shortened and stiffened at the elbow, while his right hand was thinner than his left and frequently hidden. His dental health also deteriorated as he got older - when he died, he only had three of his own teeth remaining. Hartston, William. Encyclopedia of Useless Information.Naperville, Illinous: Sourcebooks, Inc. 2007. 350. He could be charming and polite, mainly towards visiting statesmen, but was generally coarse, rude, and abusive. In movies, Stalin was often played by Mikheil Gelovani and, less frequently, by Aleksei Dikiy. Marriages and family Ekaterina "Kato" Svanidze, Stalin's first wife. Stalin's son Yakov, whom he had with his first wife Ekaterina Svanidze, shot himself because of Stalin's harshness toward him, but survived. After this, Stalin said "He can't even shoot straight". Simon Sebag Montefiore. Stalin: The Court of the Red Tsar, Knopf, 2004. page=11 (ISBN 1-4000-4230-5), Yakov served in the Red Army during World War II and was captured by the Germans. They offered to exchange him for Field Marshal Friedrich Paulus, who had surrendered after Stalingrad, but Stalin turned the offer down, stating "You have in your hands not only my son Yakov but millions of my sons. Either you free them all or my son will share their fate." http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,941216,00.html Afterwards, Yakov is said to have committed suicide, running into an electric fence in Sachsenhausen concentration camp, where he was being held. Stalin with his children: Vasiliy and Svetlana Stalin and Nadezhda Alliluyeva Stalin had a son, Vasiliy, and a daughter, Svetlana, with his second wife Nadezhda Alliluyeva. She died in 1932, officially of illness. She may have committed suicide by shooting herself after a quarrel with Stalin, leaving a suicide note which according to their daughter was "partly personal, partly political". Koba the Dread, p. 133, ISBN 0786868767; Stalin: The Man and His Era, p. 354, ISBN 0807070017, in a footnote he quotes the press announcement as speaking of her "sudden death"; he also cites pp. 103–105 of his daughter's book, Twenty Letters to a Friend, the Russian edition, New York, 1967. According to A&E Biography, there is also a belief among some Russians that Stalin himself murdered his wife after the quarrel, which apparently took place at a dinner in which Stalin tauntingly flicked cigarettes across the table at her. Historians also claim her death ultimately "severed his link from reality." Vasiliy rose through the ranks of the Soviet air force, officially dying of alcoholism in 1962; however, this is still in question. He distinguished himself in World War II as a capable airman. Svetlana emigrated to the United States in 1967. Stalin may have married a third wife, Rosa Kaganovich, the sister of Lazar Kaganovich. Kahan, Stuart, The Wolf of the Kremlin, William Morrow & Co, 1987 In March 2001 Russian Independent Television NTV interviewed a previously unknown grandson living in Novokuznetsk, Yuri Davydov, who stated that his father had told him of his lineage, but, was told to keep quiet because the campaign against Stalin's cult of personality. Beside his suite in the Kremlin, Stalin had numerous domiciles. In 1919 he started with a country house near Usovo, he added dachas at Zuvalova and Kuntsevo (Blizhny dacha built by Miron Merzhanov). Before WWII he added the Lipki estate and Semyonovskaya, and had at least four dachas in the south by 1937, including one near Sochi. A luxury villa near Gagri was given to him by Beria. In Abkhasia he maintained a mountain retreat. After the war he added dachas at Novy Alon, near Sukhumi, in the Valdai Hills, and at Lake Mitsa. Another estate was near Zelyony Myss on the Black Sea. All these dachas, estates, and palaces were staffed, well furnished and equipped, kept safe by security forces, and were mainly used privately, rarely for diplomatic purposes. Nikolai Tolstoy, ibid., pages 35-37 Between places Stalin would travel by car or train, never by air; he flew only once when attending the 1943 Tehran conference. Religious beliefs and policies Stalin, had a complex relationship with religious institutions in the Soviet Union. Avalos, Hector, Fighting Words: The Origins Of Religious Violence. by, page 325 While he studied at a seminary, he became a closet atheist. Zubok and Pleshakov further state, "Many would later note, however, that his works were influenced by a distinctly Biblical style" and "his atheism remained rooted in some vague idea of a God of nature." A story that Stalin became an atheist at thirteen fails on several obvious accounts, including Stalin's remaining religious, even pious, for some years longer. Stalin: Breaker of Nations. by Robert Conquest, page 20 One account states that Stalin's reversal on bans against the church during World War II followed a sign that he believed he received from heaven. (Radzinsky 1996, p.472-3) Hypotheses, rumors and misconceptions about Stalin Conflicting evidence exist about the birth of Stalin, who listed his birth year in various documents as being in 1878 before coming to power in 1922. Although there is an inconsistency among published sources about Stalin's year and date of birth, Iosif Dzhugashvili is found in the records of the Uspensky Church in Gori, Georgia as born on 18 December (Old Style: 6 December) 1878. This birth date is maintained in his School Leaving Certificate, his extensive tsarist Russia police file, a police arrest record from 18 April 1902 which gave his age as 23 years, and all other surviving pre-Revolution documents. As late as 1921, Stalin himself listed his birthday as 18 December 1878 in a curriculum vitae in his own handwriting. However, after his coming to power in 1922, Stalin changed the date to . That became the day his birthday was celebrated in the Soviet Union. The phrase "death of one man is a tragedy, death of a million is a statistic", sometimes attributed to Stalin, was made by a German writer, Erich Maria Remarque. In addition, hypotheses and popular rumors exist about Stalin's real father. Some Bolsheviks and others have accused Stalin of being an agent for the Okhrana. Smith, Edward Ellis.The Young Stalin. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1967. pg 77. See also Anti-Stalinist left Cominform Engineers of the human soul Grigory Mairanovsky Involuntary settlements in the Soviet Union Joseph Stalin Museum, Gori Klement Gottwald Marshal of the Soviet Union Mass graves in the Soviet Union Neo-Stalinism Night of the Murdered Poets Stalin's antisemitism Stalin Monument in Budapest Stalin's Monument (Prague) Stalin Society The Soviet Story Vasili Blokhin Notes References Further reading Antonov-Ovseyenko, Anton. The Time of Stalin: Portrait of a Tyranny. Harpercollins, 1983 (ISBN 0060390271) Brent, Jonathan. Inside the Stalin Archives: Discovering the New Russia. Atlas & Co., 2008 (ISBN 0977743330) Introduction online (PDF file) Brent, Jonathan; Naumov, Vladimir Pavlovich. Stalin's Last Crime: The Plot Against the Jewish Doctors, 1948–1953. New York: HarperCollins, 2003 (hardcover, ISBN 0-06-019524-X; paperback, ISBN 0-06-093310-0); as Stalin's Last Crime: The Doctor's Plot. London: John Murray, 2004 (paperback, ISBN 0-7195-6508-1). Broekmeyer, Marius. Stalin, the Russians, and Their War, 1941–1945. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 2004 (hardcover, ISBN 0-299-19594-2; paperback, ISBN 0-299-19594-5). Bullock, Alan. Hitler and Stalin: Parallel Lives. London: HarperCollins, 1991 (hardcover, ISBN 0002154943); New York: Vintage Books, 1993 (paperback, ISBN 0679729941). Boterbloem, Kees. Life and Death under Stalin: Kalinin Province, 1945–1953. Montreal, Quebec; Kingston, ON: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1999 (hardcover, ISBN 0-7735-1811-8). Conquest, Robert. The Great Terror: A Reassessment. New York: Oxford University Press, 1990 (hardcover, ISBN 0-19-507132-8). Conquest, Robert. The Harvest of Sorrow: Soviet Collectivization and the Terror-Famine. New York: Oxford University Press, 1986 (hardcover, ISBN 0-19-505180-7); London: Pimlico, 2002 (paperback, ISBN 0712697500). Davies, Sarah; Harris, James R. Stalin: A New History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005 (paperback, ISBN 0-521-85104-1). Deutscher, Isaac. Stalin: A Political Biography. New York: Oxford University Press, 1967 (paperback, ISBN 0-19-500273-3); London: Penguin Books, 1990 (paperback, ISBN 0140135049). Djilas, Milovan. Conversations With Stalin. Harcourt Trade Publishers New York, 1962 (Hardcover, ISBN 0151225907); Harvest Books, 1963 (Paperback, ISBN 0156225913) Figes, Orlando. The Whisperers: Private Life in Stalin's Russia. Metropolitan Books, 2007 (Hardcover, ISBN 0805074619); Picador, 2008 (Paperback, ISBN 0312428030) Gellately, Robert. Lenin, Stalin, and Hitler: The Age of Social Catastrophe. Knopf, August 2007 (hardcover, ISBN 1400040051). Gill, Graeme. Stalinism (2nd ed.). New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 1998 (paperback, ISBN 0-312-17764-X). Jonge, Alex de. Stalin and the Shaping of the Soviet Union. New York: William Morrow, 1986 (hardcover, ISBN 0-688-04730-0); 1987 (paperback, ISBN 0688072917). Keep, John L.H.; Litvin, Alter L. Stalinism: Russian and Western Views at the Turn of the Millennium (Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions). New York: Routledge, 2004 (hardcover, ISBN 0-415-35108-1); 2005 (paperback, ISBN 0-415-35109-X). Kuromiya, Hiroaki. Stalin. Harlow, UK: Longman, 2006 (paperback, ISBN 0-582-78479-4). Kuromiya, Hiroaki. The Voices of the Dead: Stalin's Great Terror in the 1930s. Yale University Press, 24 December 2007. ISBN 0300123892 The Leader Cult in Communist Dictatorships: Stalin and the Eastern Bloc, edited by Apor, Balázs; Jan C. Behrends, Polly Jones and E.A. Rees. Houndmills, UK; New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004 (ISBN 1-4039-3443-6). The Lesser Evil: Moral Approaches to Genocide Practices (Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions), edited by Helmut Dubiel and Gabriel Motzkin. New York: Routledge, 2004 (hardcover, ISBN 0-7146-5493-0; paperback, ISBN 0-7146-8395-7). Laqueur, Walter. Stalin: The Glasnost Revelations. New York: Scribner, 1990 (hardcover, ISBN 0684192039). Mace, James E. "The Man-Made Famine of 1933 in Soviet Ukraine", Famine in Ukraine 1932–1933: A Memorial Exhibition, edited by Roman Serbyn and Bohdan Krawchenko. Edmonton, Alberta: Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies, 1986 (hardcover, ISBN 0-920862-43-8), pp. 1–14. Mawdsley, Evan. The Stalin Years: The Soviet Union, 1929–53. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2003 (paperback, ISBN 0-7190-6377-9). McDermott, Kevin. Stalin: Revolutionary in an Era of War (European History in Perspective). New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006 (hardcover, ISBN 0-333-71121-1; paperback, ISBN 0-333-71122-X). McLoughlin, Barry and McDermott, Kevin (eds). Stalin's Terror: High Politics and Mass Repression in the Soviet Union. Palgrave Macmillan, 2002. ISBN 1403901198 Medvedev, Roy A.; Medvedev, Zhores A. The Unknown Stalin: His Life, Death, and Legacy. London: I.B. Tauris, 2003 (hardcover, ISBN 1-86064-768-5); Woodstock, NY; New York: The Overlook Press, 2005 (paperback, ISBN 1585676446). Montefiore, Simon Sebag. Stalin: The Court of the Red Tsar. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2004 (ISBN 1-4000-4230-5); New York: Vintage, 2005 (paperback, ISBN 1400076781). Montefiore, Simon Sebag. Young Stalin. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2007 (hardcover, ISBN 9780297850687). An excerpt is available online. Murphy, David E. What Stalin Knew: The Enigma of Barbarossa. Yale University Press, 2005 (hardcover ISBN 0300107803); (2006 paperback ISBN 030011981X). Overy, Richard. Dictators: Hitler's Germany and Stalin's Russia. Allen Lane, 2004 (hardcover, ISBN 0-7139-9309-X); Penguin Books, 2005 (paperback, ISBN 0-14-028149-5); New York: W.W. Norton, 2004 (hardcover, ISBN 0-393-02030-4); 2006 (paperback reprint, ISBN 0-393-32797-3). Parrish, Michael. The Lesser Terror: Soviet state security, 1939–1953. Praeger Press, 1996 (ISBN 0275951138) Pipes, Richard. Communism: A History. Modern Library Chronicles, 2001 (hardcover, ISBN 0679640509); (2003 paperback reprint, ISBN 0812968646) Priestland, David. Stalin and the Politics of Mobilization: Ideas, Power, and Terror in Inter-war Russia. New York: Oxford University Press (USA), 2006 (hardcover, ISBN 0-19-924513-4). Radzinsky, Edvard. Stalin: The First In-Depth Biography Based on Explosive New Documents from Russia's Secret Archives. Doubleday, 1996 (hardcover, ISBN 0-385-47397-4); Anchor, 1997 (paperback, ISBN 0-385-47954-9). Chapter 1 is available online. Rayfield, Donald. Stalin and His Hangmen: The Tyrant and Those Who Killed for Him. New York: Random House, 2004 (hardcover, ISBN 0-375-50632-2); 2005 (paperback, ISBN 0375757716). Redefining Stalinism (Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions), edited by Harold Shukman. New York: Routledge, 2003 (hardcover, ISBN 0-7146-5415-9; paperback, ISBN 0-7146-8342-6). Ree, Erik van. The Political Thought of Joseph Stalin: A Study in Twentieth-Century Revolutionary Patriotism. London; New York: Routledge Courzon, 2002 (hardcover, ISBN 0-7007-1749-8). Roberts, Geoffrey. Stalin's Wars: From World War to Cold War, 1939–1953. New Heaven, CT; London: Yale University Press, 2006 (hardcover, ISBN 0300112041). Rummel, R.J. Death By Government. New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Publishers, 1994 (hardcover, ISBN 1560001453); 1997 (paperback, ISBN 1-56000-927-6). Rummel, R.J. Lethal Politics: Soviet Genocide and Mass Murder Since 1917. New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Publishers, 1990 (hardcover, ISBN 0887383335); (paperback, ISBN 1560008873) Sandag, Shagdariin; Kendall, Harry H.; Wakeman, Frederic E. Poisoned Arrows: The Stalin-Choibalsan Mongolian Massacres, 1921–1941. Westview Press (October 1999). ISBN 0813337100 Service, Robert. Stalin: A Biography. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 2005 (hardcover, ISBN 0-674-01697-1); 2006 (paperback, ISBN 0674022580). Souvarine, Boris. Stalin: A Critical Survey of Bolshevism. Whitefish, MT: Kessinger Publishing, 2005 (paperback, ISBN 1-4191-1307-0)Online. Solzhenitsyn, Aleksandr I. Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn "The Gulag Archipelago: 1918–1956" A first hand account of the Soviet slave labor camp by a survivor dissonant author. Stalin's Terror Revisited. Edited by Melanie Ilic and Stephen G. Wheatcroft. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006 (hardcover, ISBN 1-4039-4705-8). Tucker, Robert C. Stalin as Revolutionary, 1879–1929: A Study in History and Personality. New York: W.W. Norton, 1973 (ISBN 0-393-05487-X); 1992 (paperback, ISBN 0393007383). Tucker, Robert C. Stalin in Power: The Revolution from Above, 1928–1941. New York: W.W. Norton, 1990 (hardcover, ISBN 0-393-02881-X); 1992 (paperback, ISBN 0393308693). Tzouliadis, Tim. The Forsaken: An American Tragedy in Stalin's Russia. The Penguin Press, 2008 (Hardcover, ISBN 1594201684) Ulam, Adam Bruno. Stalin: The Man and His Era. Boston: Beacon Press, 1989 (paperback, ISBN 0-8070-7005-X); London: I.B. Tauris, 1989 (ISBN 1850431744). Vaksberg, Arkady. The Murder of Maxim Gorky. A Secret Execution. (Enigma Books: New York, 2007. ISBN 978-1-929631-62-9.) Volkogonov, Dmitri Antonovich (Author); Shukman, Harold (Editor, Translator). Autopsy for an Empire: the Seven Leaders Who Built the Soviet Regime. Free Press, 1998 (Hardcover, ISBN 0684834200); (Paperback, ISBN 0684871122) Ward, Chris. The Stalinist Dictatorship. London: Arnold Publishers, 1998 (hardcover, ISBN 0-340-70640-6; paperback, ISBN 0-340-70641-4). Ward, Chris. "Stalin Through Seventeenth-Century Eyes", Journal of European Studies, Vol. 36, No. 2. (2006), pp. 181–200. Yakovlev, Alexander N. (Author); Austin, Anthony (Translator). A Century of Violence in Soviet Russia. Yale University Press, 2002 (Hardcover, ISBN 0300087608); 2004 (Paperback, ISBN 0300103220) External links Nikolai Getman: The Gulag collection Library of Congress: Revelations from the Russian Archives Electronic archive of Stalin's letters and presentations Sovetika.ru A site about the Soviet era "Another view of Stalin" by Ludo Martens, Progressive Labor Party website "The Revolution Betrayed" by Leon Trotsky Impressions of Soviet Russia by John Dewey Stalin and the 'Cult of Personality' A "Stalinist" rebuttal of the Khrushchev's "Secret Speech" from the CPUSA, 1956 Stalin Biography from Spartacus Educational A List of Key Documentary Material on Stalin "Stalin and the Struggle for Democratic Reform, Part One" and "Part Two" by Grover Furr. [http://images.library.pitt.edu/cgi-bin/i/image/image-idx?c=stalinka Stalinka: The Digital Library of Staliniana Modern History Sourcebook: Stalin's Reply to Churchill, 1946 Modern History Sourcebook: Nikita S. Khrushchev: The Secret Speech — On the Cult of Personality, 1956 The political economy of Stalinism: evidence from the Soviet secret archives / Paul R. Gregory "Demographic catastrophes of the 20th century", chapter from Demographic Modernization in Russia 1900–2000, ed. A. G. Vishnevsky, 2006 ISBN 5983790420 — estimates of the human cost of Stalin's rule Annotated bibliography for Joseph Stalin from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues "Secret documents reveal Stalin was poisoned" study by the Russian paper Pravda of events behind possible death by poisoning Over 2,000 original German WWII soldier photographs from the Eastern Front Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Current Intelligence. Death of Stalin, 16 July 1953. How Many Did Stalin Really Murder? by Professor R.J. Rummel Death of the Butcher by Hoover fellow Arnold Beichman A secret revealed: Stalin's police killed Americans (1997 Associated Press article) Stalin giving a speech in Russian with English subtitles The Harvest of Sorrow: Soviet Collectivization and the Terror-Famine (1986) Getty, J. Arch, Gabor T. Rittersporn, and Viktor N. Zemskov. 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5,512 | Affection | Affection is a "disposition or state of mind or body" affection - Definitions from Dictionary.com that is often associated with a feeling or type of love. It has given rise to a number of branches of meaning concerning: emotion (popularly: love, devotion etc); disease; influence; state of being (philosophy) 17th and 18th Century Theories of Emotions > Francis Hutcheson on the Emotions (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy) ; and state of mind (psychology) Affect (psychology). Usage A kiss can express affection. "Affection" is popularly used to denote a feeling or type of love, amounting to more than goodwill or friendship. Writers on ethics generally use the word to refer to distinct states of feeling, both lasting and spasmodic. Some contrast it with passion as being free from the distinctively sensual element. More specifically the word has been restricted to emotional states the object of which is a person. In the former sense, it is the Greek "pathos" and as such it appears in the writings of French philosopher René Descartes, Dutch philosopher Baruch Spinoza, and most of the writings of early British ethicists. However, on various grounds (e.g., that it does not involve anxiety or excitement and that it is comparatively inert and compatible with the entire absence of the sensuous element), it is generally and usefully distinguished from passion. In this narrower sense the word has played a great part in ethical systems, which have spoken of the social or parental affections as in some sense a part of moral obligation. For a consideration of these and similar problems, which depend ultimately on the degree in which the affections are regarded as voluntary, see H. Sidgwick, Methods of Ethics pp. 345–349. Affectionate behavior Numerous behaviors are used by people to express affection. Some theories according to Communication professor Kory Floyd of Arizona State University suggest that affectionate behavior evolved from parental nurturing behavior due to its associations with hormonal rewards with research verifying that expressions of affection, although commonly evaluated positively, can be considered negative if they pose implied threats to one's well being. Furthermore, affectionate behavior in positively valenced relationships may be associated with numerous health benefits. Other, more loving type gestures of affectionate behavior include obvious signs of liking a person. Psychology In psychology the terms affection and affective are of great importance. As all intellectual phenomena have by experimentalists been reduced to sensation, so all emotion has been and is regarded as reducible to simple mental affection, the element of which all emotional manifestations are ultimately composed. The nature of this element is a problem which has been provisionally, but not conclusively, solved by many psychologists; the method is necessarily experimental, and all experiments on feeling are peculiarly difficult. The solutions proposed are two. In the first, all affection phenomena are primarily divisible into those which are pleasurable and those which are the reverse. The main objections to this are that it does not explain the infinite variety of phenomena, and that it disregards the distinction which most philosophers admit between higher and lower pleasures. The second solution is that every sensation has its specific affective quality, though by reason of the poverty of language many of these have no name. W. Wundt, Outlines of Psychology (trans. C. H. Judd, Leipzig, 1897), maintains that we may group under three main affective directions, each with its negative, all the infinite varieties in question; these are (a) pleasure, or rather pleasantness, and displeasure, (b) tension and relaxation, (c) excitement and depression. These two views are antithetic and no solution has been discovered. American psychologist Henry Murray (1893–1988) developed a theory of personality that was organized in terms of motives, presses, and needs. According to Murray, these psychogenic needs function mostly on the unconscious level, but play a major role in our personality. Murray classified five affection needs: Affiliation: Spending time with other people. Nurturance: Taking care of another person. Play: Having fun with others. Rejection: Rejecting other people. Succorance: Being helped or protected by others Two methods of experiment on affection have been tried: The first, introduced by A. Mosso, the Italian psychologist, consists in recording the physical phenomena which are observed to accompany modifications of the affective consciousness. Thus it is found that the action of the heart is accelerated by pleasant, and retarded by unpleasant, stimuli; again, changes of weight and volume are found to accompany modifications of affection—and so on. Apart altogether from the facts that this investigation is still in its infancy and that the conditions of experiment are insufficiently understood, its ultimate success is rendered highly problematical by the essential fact that real scientific results can be achieved only by data recorded in connection with a perfectly normal subject; a conscious or interested subject introduces variable factors which are probably incalculable. The second is Fechner's method; it consists of recording the changes in feeling-tone produced in a subject by bringing him in contact with a series of conditions, objects or stimuli graduated according to a scientific plan and presented singly in pairs or in groups. The result is a comparative table of likes and dislikes. Mention should also be made of a third method which has hardly yet been tried, namely, that of endeavouring to isolate one of the three directions by the method of suggestion or even hypnotic trance observations. See also Affectional orientation Affective filter Public display of affection Doctrine of the affections Terms of endearment Further reading For a contemporary text regarding the expression of affection, see: K. Floyd, "Communicating Affection: Interpersonal Behavior and Social Context," Cambridge University Press, 2006 For the subject of emotion in general see modern textbooks of psychology, e.g. those of J. Sully W. James G. T. Fechner O. Kulpe; Angelo Mosso, La Paura (Milan, 1884, 1900 Eng. trans. E. Lough and F. Kiesow, Lond. 1896) E. B. Titchener, Experimental Psychology (1905); art. "Psychology" and works there quoted. 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5,513 | Cyril_M._Kornbluth | Cyril Michael Kornbluth (July 23, 1923–March 21, 1958) was an American science fiction author and a notable member of the Futurians. He used a variety of pen-names, including Cecil Corwin, S.D. Gottesman, Edward J. Bellin, Kenneth Falconer, Walter C. Davies, Simon Eisner, and Jordan Park. Biography Kornbluth was born and grew up in New York City. As a teenager, he became a member of the Futurians, the influential group of science fiction fans and writers. While a member of the Futurians, he met and became friends with Isaac Asimov, Frederik Pohl, Donald A. Wollheim, Robert A. W. Lowndes, and his future wife Mary Byers. He also participated in the Fantasy Amateur Press Association. Fancyclopedia Kornbluth served in the US Army during World War II (European Theatre). He received a Bronze Star for his service in the Battle of the Bulge, where he served as a member of a heavy machine gun crew. Upon his discharge, he returned to finish his education, which had been interrupted by the war, at the University of Chicago. Work Kornbluth began writing at fifteen. His first solo work, "King Cole of Pluto", was published in May 1940 and appeared in Super Science Stories. An earlier collaboration, "Stepsons of Mars", written with Richard Wilson and published under the name "Ivar Towers", appeared in the April 1940 Astonishing. His other short fiction includes "The Little Black Bag", "The Marching Morons", "The Altar at Midnight", "MS. Found in a Chinese Fortune Cookie", "Gomez", and "The Advent on Channel 12". "The Little Black Bag" was adapted for television by the BBC in 1969 for its Out of the Unknown series. In 1970, the same story was adapted by Rod Serling for an episode of his Night Gallery series. This dramatization starred Burgess Meredith as the alcoholic Dr. Full, who has lost his license and become a derelict. He finds a bag containing advanced medical technology from the future, which, after an unsuccessful attempt to pawn it, he uses benevolently — reclaiming his career and redeeming his soul ... but not that of the guttersnipe he takes in as his receptionist/assistant. "The Marching Morons" was one of Kornbluth's most famous short stories; it is a satirical look at a far future in which the world's population consists of five billion idiots and a few million geniuses — the precarious minority of the "elite" working desperately to keep things running behind the scenes. Part of its appeal is that readers identify with the beleaguered geniuses (which is entirely compatible with science fiction fans' broadly held opinion of their relationship with the mundane majority). Some believe that "The Marching Morons" is a direct sequel to "The Little Black Bag": it is easy to miss this, as "Bag" is set in the contemporary present while "Morons" takes place several centuries from now, and there is no character who appears in both stories. The titular black bag in the first story is actually an artifact from the time period of "The Marching Morons": a medical kit filled with self-driven instruments enabling a far-future moron to "play doctor." Many of Kornbluth's novels were written as collaborations: either with Judith Merril (using the pseudonym Cyril Judd), or with Frederik Pohl. By far the most successful and important of these were the novels Gladiator-At-Law and The Space Merchants. The Space Merchants contributed significantly to the maturing and to the wider academic respectability of the science fiction genre, not only in America but also in Europe. (See for instance: in Wikipedia: Zoran Živković, writer, the book Contemporaries of the Future - Savremenici budućnosti, Belgrade, Serbia, 1983, pp. 250-261). Kornbluth also wrote several novels under his own name, the most successful being The Syndic and Not This August. Death Kornbluth died at age thirty-four in Waverly, New York. Scheduled to meet with Bob Mills in New York City, Kornbluth had to shovel out his driveway, which left him running behind. Racing to make his train, he suffered a heart attack on the platform of the train station. A number of short stories remained unfinished at Kornbluth's death; these were eventually completed and published by Pohl. On of these stories, "The Meeting" (The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction, November 1972), was the co-winner of the 1973 Hugo Award for Best Short Story; it tied with R. A. Lafferty's "Eurema's Dam." http://www.worldcon.org/hy.html#73 All of Kornbluth's short stories have been collected as His Share of Glory: The Complete Short Science Fiction of C. M. Kornbluth (NESFA Press, 1997). Kornbluth's name is mentioned in Lemony Snicket's Series of Unfortunate Events as a member of V.F.D. Personality and habits Frederik Pohl (in his autobiography The Way the Future Was) and Damon Knight (in his memoir The Futurians) both give vivid and affectionate descriptions of Kornbluth as a man of odd personal habits and vivid eccentricities. Among the traits which they describe: Kornbluth decided to educate himself by reading his way through an entire encyclopedia from A to Z; in the course of this effort, he acquired a great deal of esoteric knowledge that found its way into his stories ... in alphabetical order by subject. When Kornbluth wrote a story that mentioned the ancient Roman weapon ballista, Pohl knew that Kornbluth had finished the "A" volume and had started the "B". According to Pohl, Kornbluth never brushed his teeth, and they were literally green. Deeply embarrassed by this, Kornbluth developed the habit of holding his hand in front of his mouth when speaking. Kornbluth disliked black coffee, but felt obliged to acquire a taste for it because he believed that professional authors were "supposed to" drink black coffee. He trained himself by putting gradually less cream into each cup of coffee he drank, until he eventually "weaned himself" (Knight's description) and switched to black coffee. Selected bibliography Novels Outpost Mars (with Judith Merril, writing as Cyril Judd), first published as a Galaxy serial entitled Mars Child and reprinted in Galaxy novel #46 as Sin in Space in 1961. The Space Merchants (with Frederik Pohl), first published as a Galaxy serial entitled Gravy Planet, 1952 Gunner Cade (with Judith Merril, writing as Cyril Judd, first published as an Astounding Science Fiction serial in 1952) Takeoff (1952) The Syndic (1953) Gladiator at Law (with Frederik Pohl, first published as a Galaxy serial, 1954) Search the Sky (with Frederik Pohl, 1954) Wolfbane (with Frederik Pohl) (first published as a Galaxy serial, 1954) Not This August (AKA Christmas Eve, 1955) Short fiction The Mindworm The Marching Morons The Little Black Bag Critical Mass (with Frederik Pohl) Non-science fiction The Naked Storm (1952, as Simon Eisner) Valerie (1953, as Jordan Park), a novel about a girl accused of witchcraft Half (1953, as Jordan Park), a novel about an intersex person A Town is Drowning (1955, with Frederik Pohl) Presidential Year (1956, with Frederik Pohl) Sorority House (1956, with Frederik Pohl, as Jordan Park), a lesbian pulp novel A Man of Cold Rages (1958, as Jordan Park), a novel about an ex-dictator Notes References Asimov, Isaac. In Memory Yet Green (Doubleday, 1979) Knight, Damon. The Futurians (John Day, 1977) Pohl, Frederik. The Way The Future Was: A Memoir (Gollancz, 1978) External links Past Masters - Cyril with an M, or I'm As Kornbluth as Kansas In August b y Bud Webster, at Baen's Universe | Cyril_M._Kornbluth |@lemmatized cyril:5 michael:1 kornbluth:21 july:1 march:1 american:1 science:9 fiction:10 author:2 notable:1 member:5 futurians:5 use:3 variety:1 pen:1 name:4 include:2 cecil:1 corwin:1 gottesman:1 edward:1 j:1 bellin:1 kenneth:1 falconer:1 walter:1 c:2 davy:1 simon:2 eisner:2 jordan:5 park:5 biography:1 bear:1 grow:1 new:3 york:3 city:2 teenager:1 become:3 influential:1 group:1 fan:2 writer:2 meet:2 friend:1 isaac:2 asimov:2 frederik:12 pohl:15 donald:1 wollheim:1 robert:1 w:1 lowndes:1 future:7 wife:1 mary:1 byers:1 also:3 participate:1 fantasy:2 amateur:1 press:2 association:1 fancyclopedia:1 serve:2 u:1 army:1 world:2 war:2 ii:1 european:1 theatre:1 receive:1 bronze:1 star:2 service:1 battle:1 bulge:1 heavy:1 machine:1 gun:1 crew:1 upon:1 discharge:1 return:1 finish:2 education:1 interrupt:1 university:1 chicago:1 work:3 begin:1 write:7 fifteen:1 first:7 solo:1 king:1 cole:1 pluto:1 publish:8 may:1 appear:3 super:1 story:11 early:1 collaboration:2 stepson:1 mar:3 richard:1 wilson:1 ivar:1 tower:1 april:1 astonishing:1 short:7 little:4 black:8 bag:7 marching:5 moron:7 altar:1 midnight:1 find:3 chinese:1 fortune:1 cookie:1 gomez:1 advent:1 channel:1 adapt:2 television:1 bbc:1 unknown:1 series:3 rod:1 serling:1 episode:1 night:1 gallery:1 dramatization:1 burgess:1 meredith:1 alcoholic:1 dr:1 full:1 lose:1 license:1 derelict:1 contain:1 advanced:1 medical:2 technology:1 unsuccessful:1 attempt:1 pawn:1 benevolently:1 reclaim:1 career:1 redeem:1 soul:1 guttersnipe:1 take:2 receptionist:1 assistant:1 one:1 famous:1 satirical:1 look:1 far:3 population:1 consist:1 five:1 billion:1 idiot:1 million:1 genius:2 precarious:1 minority:1 elite:1 desperately:1 keep:1 thing:1 run:2 behind:2 scene:1 part:1 appeal:1 reader:1 identify:1 beleaguered:1 entirely:1 compatible:1 broadly:1 held:1 opinion:1 relationship:1 mundane:1 majority:1 believe:2 direct:1 sequel:1 easy:1 miss:1 set:1 contemporary:2 present:1 place:1 several:2 century:1 character:1 titular:1 actually:1 artifact:1 time:1 period:1 kit:1 fill:1 self:1 driven:1 instrument:1 enable:1 play:1 doctor:1 many:1 novel:9 either:1 judith:3 merril:3 pseudonym:1 judd:3 successful:2 important:1 gladiator:2 law:2 space:4 merchant:3 contribute:1 significantly:1 maturing:1 wider:1 academic:1 respectability:1 genre:1 america:1 europe:1 see:1 instance:1 wikipedia:1 zoran:1 živković:1 book:1 savremenici:1 budućnosti:1 belgrade:1 serbia:1 pp:1 syndic:2 august:3 death:2 die:1 age:1 thirty:1 four:1 waverly:1 schedule:1 bob:1 mill:1 shovel:1 driveway:1 leave:1 race:1 make:1 train:3 suffer:1 heart:1 attack:1 platform:1 station:1 number:1 remain:1 unfinished:1 eventually:2 complete:2 meeting:1 magazine:1 november:1 co:1 winner:1 hugo:1 award:1 best:1 tie:1 r:1 lafferty:1 eurema:1 dam:1 http:1 www:1 worldcon:1 org:1 hy:1 html:1 collect:1 share:1 glory:1 nesfa:1 mention:2 lemony:1 snicket:1 unfortunate:1 event:1 v:1 f:1 personality:1 habit:3 autobiography:1 way:4 damon:2 knight:3 memoir:2 give:1 vivid:2 affectionate:1 description:2 man:2 odd:1 personal:1 eccentricity:1 among:1 trait:1 describe:1 decide:1 educate:1 read:1 entire:1 encyclopedia:1 z:1 course:1 effort:1 acquire:2 great:1 deal:1 esoteric:1 knowledge:1 alphabetical:1 order:1 subject:1 ancient:1 roman:1 weapon:1 ballista:1 know:1 volume:1 start:1 b:2 accord:1 never:1 brush:1 teeth:1 literally:1 green:2 deeply:1 embarrass:1 develop:1 hold:1 hand:1 front:1 mouth:1 speaking:1 dislike:1 coffee:4 felt:1 oblige:1 taste:1 professional:1 suppose:1 drink:2 put:1 gradually:1 less:1 cream:1 cup:1 wean:1 switch:1 select:1 bibliography:1 outpost:1 galaxy:5 serial:5 entitle:2 child:1 reprint:1 sin:1 gravy:1 planet:1 gunner:1 cade:1 astound:1 takeoff:1 search:1 sky:1 wolfbane:1 aka:1 christmas:1 eve:1 mindworm:1 critical:1 mass:1 non:1 naked:1 storm:1 valerie:1 girl:1 accuse:1 witchcraft:1 half:1 intersex:1 person:1 town:1 drown:1 presidential:1 year:1 sorority:1 house:1 lesbian:1 pulp:1 cold:1 rage:1 ex:1 dictator:1 note:1 reference:1 memory:1 yet:1 doubleday:1 john:1 day:1 gollancz:1 external:1 link:1 past:1 master:1 kansa:1 bud:1 webster:1 baen:1 universe:1 |@bigram science_fiction:8 isaac_asimov:1 frederik_pohl:11 donald_wollheim:1 w_lowndes:1 marching_moron:5 fortune_cookie:1 rod_serling:1 burgess_meredith:1 judith_merril:3 belgrade_serbia:1 http_www:1 damon_knight:1 alphabetical_order:1 astound_science:1 christmas_eve:1 external_link:1 cyril_kornbluth:1 |
5,514 | Alligatoridae | Alligators and caimans are archosaurs, species of crocodilians and form the family Alligatoridae (sometimes regarded instead as the subfamily Alligatorinae). True alligators Alligators proper occur in the fluvial deposits of the age of the Upper Chalk in Europe, where they did not die out until the Pliocene age. The true alligators are now restricted to two species, A. mississippiensis in the southeastern United States, which can grow to 4.24 m (14 ft) and weigh 1000 lbs (454.5 kg) <http://www.eparks.org/marine_and_coastal/marine_wildlife/alligator.asp> , with the record length of 5.81 m (19 ft 2 in), and the small A. sinensis in the Yangtze River, People's Republic of China, which grows to an average of 1.5 m (5 ft). Their name derives from the Spanish el lagarto, which means "the lizard". Alligator prenasalis fossil Caimans In Central and South America, the alligator family is represented by five species of the genus Caiman, which differs from the alligator by the absence of a bony septum between the nostrils, and the ventral armour is composed of overlapping bony scutes, each of which is formed of two parts united by a suture. Some authorities further divide this genus into three, splitting off the smooth-fronted caimans into a genus Paleosuchus and the Black Caiman into Melanosuchus. Caimans tend to be more agile and crocodile-like in their movements, and have longer, sharper teeth than alligators. C. crocodilus, the Spectacled Caiman, has the widest distribution, from southern Mexico to the northern half of Argentina, and grows to a modest size of about 2.2 meters. The largest is the near-threatened Melanosuchus niger, the Jacare-assu, Large, or Black Caiman of the Amazon. Black Caimans grow to 16.5 feet (5 m) <http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/cnhc/cbd-faq-q2.htm> , with the largest recorded size 5.79 m (19 ft). The Black Caiman and American Alligator are the only members of the alligator family posing the same danger to humans as the larger species of the crocodile family. Although the Caiman has not been studied in-depth, it has been discovered that their mating cycles (previously thought to be spontaneous or year-round) are linked to the rainfall cycles and the river levels in order to increase their offspring's chances of survival. Differences from crocodiles Alligators differ from crocodiles principally in having wider and shorter heads, with more obtuse snouts; in having the fourth, enlarged tooth of the under jaw received, not into an external notch, but into a pit formed for it within the upper one; in lacking a jagged fringe which appears on the hind legs and feet of the crocodile; in having the toes of the hind feet webbed not more than half way to the tips; and an intolerance to salinity, alligators strongly preferring fresh water, while crocodiles can tolerate salt water due to specialized glands for filtering out salt. In general, crocodiles tend to be more dangerous to humans than alligators. Another odd trait recently discovered is that both caimans and the American Alligator have been observed taking foliage and fruit into their diet in addition to their normal diet of fish and meat <http://scienceblogs.com/tetrapodzoology/2008/10/alligators_eat_fruit.php> . Taxonomy An alligator nest at Everglades National Park, Florida, United States. ORDER Crocodilia Family Alligatoridae Genus Leidyosuchus (extinct) Genus Deinosuchus (extinct) Subfamily Alligatorinae Genus Albertochampsa (extinct) Genus Chrysochampsa (extinct) Genus Hassiacosuchus (extinct) Genus Navajosuchus (extinct) Genus Ceratosuchus (extinct) Genus Allognathosuchus (extinct) Genus Hispanochampsa (extinct) Genus Arambourgia (extinct) Genus Procaimanoidea (extinct) Genus Wannaganosuchus (extinct) Genus Alligator Alligator prenasalis (extinct) Alligator mcgrewi (extinct) Alligator olseni (extinct) Chinese Alligator, Alligator sinensis Alligator mefferdi (extinct) American Alligator, Alligator mississippiensis Subfamily Caimaninae Genus Necrosuchus (extinct) Genus Eocaiman (extinct) Genus Paleosuchus Cuvier's Dwarf Caiman, Paleosuchus palpebrosus Smooth-fronted Caiman, Paleosuchus trigonatus Genus Purussaurus (extinct) Genus Mourasuchus (extinct) Genus Orthogenysuchus (extinct) Genus Caiman Yacare Caiman, Caiman yacare Spectacled Caiman, Caiman crocodilus Rio Apaporis Caiman, C. c. apaporiensis Brown Caiman, C. c. fuscus Caiman lutescans (extinct) Caiman sorontans (extinct) - Not reported in the literature, probably a 'nomen nudum' Broad-snouted Caiman, Caiman latirostris Genus Melanosuchus Melanosuchus fisheri (extinct) Black Caiman, Melanosuchus niger'' References External links | Alligatoridae |@lemmatized alligator:25 caiman:26 archosaurs:1 specie:4 crocodilian:1 form:3 family:5 alligatoridae:2 sometimes:1 regard:1 instead:1 subfamily:3 alligatorinae:2 true:2 proper:1 occur:1 fluvial:1 deposit:1 age:2 upper:2 chalk:1 europe:1 die:1 pliocene:1 restrict:1 two:2 mississippiensis:2 southeastern:1 united:2 state:2 grow:4 ft:4 weigh:1 lb:1 kg:1 http:3 www:2 eparks:1 org:1 asp:1 record:1 length:1 small:1 sinensis:2 yangtze:1 river:2 people:1 republic:1 china:1 average:1 name:1 derive:1 spanish:1 el:1 lagarto:1 mean:1 lizard:1 prenasalis:2 fossil:1 central:1 south:1 america:1 represent:1 five:1 genus:24 differ:2 absence:1 bony:2 septum:1 nostril:1 ventral:1 armour:1 compose:1 overlap:1 scute:1 part:1 unite:1 suture:1 authority:1 far:1 divide:1 three:1 split:1 smooth:2 fronted:1 paleosuchus:4 black:5 melanosuchus:5 tend:2 agile:1 crocodile:7 like:1 movement:1 long:1 sharp:1 teeth:1 c:5 crocodilus:2 spectacled:2 wide:1 distribution:1 southern:1 mexico:1 northern:1 half:2 argentina:1 modest:1 size:2 meter:1 large:4 near:1 threaten:1 niger:2 jacare:1 assu:1 amazon:1 foot:3 flmnh:1 ufl:1 edu:1 cnhc:1 cbd:1 faq:1 htm:1 recorded:1 american:3 member:1 pose:1 danger:1 human:2 although:1 study:1 depth:1 discover:2 mating:1 cycle:2 previously:1 think:1 spontaneous:1 year:1 round:1 link:2 rainfall:1 level:1 order:2 increase:1 offspring:1 chance:1 survival:1 difference:1 principally:1 wider:1 short:1 head:1 obtuse:1 snout:1 fourth:1 enlarge:1 tooth:1 jaw:1 receive:1 external:2 notch:1 pit:1 within:1 one:1 lack:1 jagged:1 fringe:1 appear:1 hind:2 leg:1 toe:1 web:1 way:1 tip:1 intolerance:1 salinity:1 strongly:1 prefer:1 fresh:1 water:2 tolerate:1 salt:2 due:1 specialize:1 gland:1 filter:1 general:1 dangerous:1 another:1 odd:1 trait:1 recently:1 observe:1 take:1 foliage:1 fruit:1 diet:2 addition:1 normal:1 fish:1 meat:1 scienceblogs:1 com:1 tetrapodzoology:1 php:1 taxonomy:1 nest:1 everglades:1 national:1 park:1 florida:1 crocodilia:1 leidyosuchus:1 extinct:24 deinosuchus:1 albertochampsa:1 chrysochampsa:1 hassiacosuchus:1 navajosuchus:1 ceratosuchus:1 allognathosuchus:1 hispanochampsa:1 arambourgia:1 procaimanoidea:1 wannaganosuchus:1 mcgrewi:1 olseni:1 chinese:1 mefferdi:1 caimaninae:1 necrosuchus:1 eocaiman:1 cuvier:1 dwarf:1 palpebrosus:1 front:1 trigonatus:1 purussaurus:1 mourasuchus:1 orthogenysuchus:1 yacare:2 rio:1 apaporis:1 apaporiensis:1 brown:1 fuscus:1 lutescans:1 sorontans:1 report:1 literature:1 probably:1 nomen:1 nudum:1 broad:1 snouted:1 latirostris:1 fisheri:1 reference:1 |@bigram weigh_lb:1 lb_kg:1 http_www:2 yangtze_river:1 hind_leg:1 external_link:1 |
5,515 | Michel_Tremblay | Michel Tremblay (born in Montreal, Quebec, Canada on June 25, 1942) is a novelist and playwright. Tremblay grew up in the Plateau Mont-Royal, a French-speaking neighbourhood of Montreal, at the time of his birth a neighbourhood with a working-class character and joual dialect, something that would heavily influence his work. Tremblay's first play, Les Belles-Sœurs, was written in 1965 and premiered at the Théâtre du Rideau Vert on August 28, 1968. Its impact was huge, bringing down the old guard of Canadian theatre and introducing joual to the mainstream. It stirred up controversy by portraying the lives of working class women and attacking the straight-laced, deeply religious society of mid-20th century Quebec. His work and its impact The most profound and lasting effects of Tremblay's early plays, including Hosanna and La Duchesse de Langeais, were the barriers they toppled in Quebec society. Until the Quiet Revolution of the early 1960s, Tremblay saw Quebec as a poor, working-class province dominated by an English-speaking elite and the Roman Catholic Church. Tremblay's work was part of a vanguard of liberal, nationalist thought that helped create an essentially modern society. His most famous plays are usually centered on homosexual characters. The women are usually strong but possessed with demons they must vanquish. It is said he sees Quebec as a matriarchal society. He is considered one of the best playwrights for women. In the late 1980s, Les Belles-soeurs ("The Sisters-in-Law") was produced in Scotland in Scots, as The Guid-Sisters ("guid-sister" being Scots for "sister-in-law"). His work has been translated into many languages, including Yiddish, and including such works as Sainte-Carmen de la Main, Ç'ta ton tour, Laura Cadieux, and Forever Yours, Marilou (À toi pour toujours, ta Marie-Lou). He has been openly gay throughout his public life, and he has written many novels (The Duchess and the Commoner, La nuit des princes charmants, Le Coeur découvert, Le Coeur éclaté) and plays (Hosanna, La duchesse de Langeais) centred on gay characters. In a 1987 interview with Shelagh Rogers for CBC Radio's The Arts Tonight, he remarked that he has always avoided behaviours he has considered masculine; for example, he does not smoke and he noted that he was 45 years old and did not know how to drive a car. "I think I am a rare breed," he said, "A homosexual who doesn't like men." He claims one of his biggest regrets in life was not telling his mother that he was gay, before she died. His latest play to receive wide acclaim is For The Pleasure Of Seeing Her Again, a funny and nostalgic play, centered on the memories of his mother. He later published the Plateau Mont-Royal Chronicles, a cycle of six novels including The Fat Woman Next Door is Pregnant (La grosse femme d'à côté est enceinte, 1978) and The Duchess and the Commoner (La duchesse et le roturier, 1982). The second novel of this series, Therese and Pierrette and the Little Hanging Angel (Thérèse et Pierrette à l'école des Saints-Anges, 1980), was one of the novels chosen for inclusion in the French version of Canada Reads, Le combat des livres, broadcast on Radio-Canada in 2005, where it was championed by union activist Monique Simard. Tremblay is currently working on a television series entitled Le Cœur découvert (The Heart Laid Bare), about the lives of a gay couple in Quebec, for the French-language TV network Radio-Canada. In 2005 he completed another novel cycle, the Cahiers (Le Cahier noir (translated as The Black Notebook), Le Cahier rouge, Le Cahier bleu), dealing with the changes that occurred in 1960s Montreal during the Quiet Revolution. Political views For many years, Tremblay has believed that the only reasonable solution for Quebec is to separate from Canada. Once the Parti Québécois was elected in Quebec, he softened his views on allowing his plays to be produced in English there. He made it clear, however, that that did not mean that he agreed with bilingualism, calling it "stupid" and stating that he thought it ridiculous to expect a housewife in Vancouver to be fluent in both English and French. L'enfant terrible no more CBC March 28, 1978 Despite his often outspoken views in public, Tremblay's treatment of politics in his plays is subtle. Speaking of politics and the theatre in an CBC interview in 1978, Tremblay said: "I know what I want in the theatre. I want a real political theatre, but I know that political theatre is dull. I write fables." In April 2006 he declared that he did not support the arguments put forward for the separation of Quebec. But he clarified his thoughts some time later by saying he was still a supporter of Quebec sovereignty, though critical of the actual state of the debate, which in his opinion was too much focused on economic issues. In response to this, the columnist Marc Cassivi of La Presse wrote that "there was only one closet a Quebec artist could never exit and that was the federalist one." The belief that dares not speak its nom, Globe and Mail, April 15, 2006 Awards and honours Tremblay has received numerous awards in recognition of his work. These include the Prix Victor-Morin (1974), the Prix France-Québec (1984), the Chalmers Award (1986) and the Molson Prize (1994). He received the Lieutenant-Governor's award for Ontario in 1976 and 1977. Tremblay was named the "Montréalais le plus remarquable des deux dernières décennies dans le domaine du théâtre" (the most remarkable Montrealer of the past two decades in theatre) (1978). In 1991 he was appointed Officier de l'Ordre de France, and in the same year, Chevalier de l'Ordre National du Québec. He is also a recipient of the Chevalier de l'Ordre des Arts et des Lettres de France (1994). In 1999, he received a Governor General's Award for the Performing Arts. This produced controversy when several well-known Quebec nationalists suggested that he should refuse the award. While he did not do this, he did admit, for the first time, that he had refused the Order of Canada in 1990. In 2000, Encore une fois, si vous le permettez (For The Pleasure of Seeing Her Again) won a Chalmers Award and a Dora Mavor Moore Award. Tremblay, Michel Canadian Theatre Encyclopedia 2005-02-04 Works Novels and short story collections Contes pour buveurs attardés (1966) La Cité dans l'œuf (1969) C't'à ton tour, Laura Cadieux (1973) Le Cœur découvert (1986) (The Heart Laid Bare) Les Vues animées (1990) Douze coups de théâtre: récits (1992) Le Cœur éclaté (1993) Un ange cornu avec des ailes de tôle (1994) La nuit des princes charmants (1995) (Some Night My Prince Will Come) Le Fantôme de Don Carlos(1996) Quarante-quatre minutes, quarante-quatre secondes (1997) Hôtel Bristol New York, N.Y (1999) L'Homme qui entendait siffler une bouilloire (2001) Bonbons assortis (2002) (Assorted Candies) Le Cahier noir (2003) (The Black Notebook) Le Cahier rouge (2004) (The Red Notebook) Le Cahier bleu (2005) Le Trou dans le mur (2006) La Traversée du continent (2007) La Traversée de la ville (2008) Chroniques du Plateau Mont-Royal, series of six novels: La grosse femme d'à côté est enceinte (1978) (The Fat Woman Next Door is Pregnant) Thérèse et Pierrette à l'école des Saints-Anges (1980) (Therese and Pierrette and the Little Hanging Angel) La Duchesse et le roturier (1982) (The Duchess and the Commoner) Des nouvelles d'Édouard (1984) Le Premier Quartier de la lune (1989) Un objet de beauté (1997) Plays Le Train, 1964. En pièces détachées, 1970. Trois petits tourts, 1971. À toi, pour toujours, ta Marie-Lou (1970) (Forever Yours, Marilou) Les Belles-Sœurs, 1968. Demain matin, Montréal m'attend, 1972. Hosanna et La Duchesse de Langeais, 1973. Bonjour, là, bonjour, 1974. Les Héros de mon enfance, 1976. Sainte Carmen de la Main et Surprise ! Surprise !, 1976 (Under the name Sainte-Carmen of the Main, this play received its first U.S. run at New York City's Cubiculo Theatre in 1986) Damnée Manon, sacrée Sandra, 1977. L'Impromptu d'Outremont, 1980. Les Anciennes Odeurs, 1981. Albertine en cinq temps, 1984 (Albertine in Five Times) Le Gars de Québec: d'après le Revizor de Gogol, 1985. Le Vrai monde ?, 1987. Nelligan, 1990. La Maison suspendue, 1990. Marcel poursuivi par les chiens, 1992. En circuit fermé, 1994. Messe solennelle pour une pleine lune d'été, 1996. Encore une fois si vous permettez, 1998 (For The Pleasure of Seeing Her Again) L'État des lieux, 2002. Impératif présent, 2003. Bonbons assortis au théâtre, 2006 Le Paradis à la fin de vos jours, 2008 Film scripts Françoise Durocher, waitress Il était une fois dans l'est Parlez-nous d'amour Le Soleil se lève en retard C't'à ton tour, Laura Cadieux' Works about Tremblay Renate Usmiani, Michel Tremblay. Douglas and McIntyre, 1982, ISBN 0-295-95863-4 Gilbert David and Pierre Lavoie, editors, "Le Monde de Michel Tremblay". Cahiers de Théâtre JEU/Éditions Lansman, 1993. Craig Walker, "Michel Tremblay: Existential Mythopoeia," The Buried Astrolabe: Canadian Dramatic Imagination and Western Tradition''. McGill-Queen's UP, 2001, ISBN 0-7735-2074-0 (hardcover), ISBN 0-7735-2075-9 (paperback) References External links Official Biography of Tremblay (Agence Goodwin) CBC Digital Archives – Michel Tremblay: L'enfant terrible of Canadian Theatre Interview, online from CBC Words at Large (audio excerpt) CBC Digital Archives – Michel Tremblay, Canada Reads author | Michel_Tremblay |@lemmatized michel:7 tremblay:20 bear:1 montreal:3 quebec:12 canada:7 june:1 novelist:1 playwright:2 grow:1 plateau:3 mont:3 royal:3 french:4 speak:2 neighbourhood:2 time:4 birth:1 work:12 class:3 character:3 joual:2 dialect:1 something:1 would:1 heavily:1 influence:1 first:3 play:10 le:33 belle:3 sœurs:2 write:4 premier:2 théâtre:5 du:5 rideau:1 vert:1 august:1 impact:2 huge:1 bring:1 old:2 guard:1 canadian:4 theatre:9 introduce:1 mainstream:1 stir:1 controversy:2 portray:1 life:4 woman:5 attack:1 straight:1 lace:1 deeply:1 religious:1 society:4 mid:1 century:1 profound:1 lasting:1 effect:1 early:2 include:5 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5,516 | Aon_(company) | Aon Corporation () is a world leading provider of risk management services, insurance and reinsurance brokerage, human capital and management consulting, and specialty insurance underwriting. It is based in the Aon Center in the Chicago Loop area of Chicago, Illinois, United States. "Contact Us." AON Corporation. Retrieved on January 31, 2009. Aon was created in 1982, when the Ryan Insurance Group (founded by Pat Ryan in the 1960s) merged with Combined International Corporation (founded by W. Clement Stone in 1919). In 1987, that company was introduced to Wall Street as Aon, a Gaelic word meaning “Oneness.” Aon Consulting Worldwide won Best Employee Benefit Consulting Firm and Best Retail Agent/Broker in 2007 by Business Insurance, an weekly industry newsmagazine. Best Employee Benefit Consulting Firm - 2007 Business Insurance, Retrieved on April 4, 2008 Best Retail Agent/Broker - 2007Business Insurance, Retrieved on April 4, 2008 In July 2007, Aon Corp. was ranked as the world's second largest insurance broker. Top 10 Brokers - 2007, Business Insurance, Retrieved on April 4, 2008 On August 22 2008, Aon announced that it will acquire London based Benfield Group. The acquiring price will be $1.75 Billion (USD) or 935 Million pounds, with $170 Million (USD) of debt. http://www.marketwatch.com/news/story/aon-acquire-benfield-group-limited/story.aspx?guid=%7B43DA6D9F-F631-43E3-A354-F3B91C21E0A9%7D&dist=hppr Corporate Overview Aon Corp. is a global provider of insurance brokerage services, insurance products,and risk and insurance advice, web based risk management information systems, as well as other consulting services, conducting business in more than 120 countries and sovereignties. The company operates in three major segments: commercial brokerage, consulting services, and consumer insurance underwriting. The company's brokerage unit, Aon Risk Services, provides retail property/casualty, liability, and other insurance products for groups and businesses, as well as risk management services. Aon Re Global handles reinsurance brokerage services for aviation, marine, energy, professional liability, and other niche and specialty business lines. Its consulting unit, Aon Consulting Worldwide, specializes in employee benefits administration. The risk and insurance brokerage segment accounted for 82% of total revenue from continuing operations in 2007, and the consulting segment 18%. The company employs approximately 36,000 professionals in its 500 offices in more than 120 countries. Aon is the world's second largest insurance brokerage, and largest reinsurance brokerage. It is also the top captive insurance company manager, and the third largest employee benefits consultant. Aon Center History Aon began with W. Clement Stone around the turn of the 20th century. Stone's mother bought a small Detroit insurance agency and in 1918 brought her son into the business. Young Stone sold low-cost, low-benefit accident insurance, underwriting and issuing policies on-site. The next year he founded his own agency, the Combined Registry Co. While selling up to 122 policies per day, he recruited a nationwide force of agents. As the Depression took hold, Stone reduced his workforce and improved training. Forced by his son's respiratory illness to winter in the South, Stone followed the sun to Arkansas and Texas. In 1939 he bought American Casualty Insurance Co. of Dallas. It was consolidated with other purchases as the Combined Insurance Co. of America in 1947. The company grew through the 1950s and 1960s, continuing to sell health and accident policies. In the 1970s Combined expanded overseas despite being hit hard by the recession. In 1982, after 10 years of stagnant growth under Clement Stone Jr., the elder Stone (then 79) resumed control until the completion of a merger with Ryan Insurance Co. allowed him to transfer power to Patrick Ryan. Ryan, the son of a Wisconsin Ford dealer, had started his company as an auto credit insurer in 1964. In 1976 the company bought the insurance brokerage units of the Esmark conglomerate. Ryan focused on insurance brokering and added more upscale insurance products. He also trimmed staff and took other cost-cutting measures, and in 1987 he changed Combined's name to Aon. In 1995, the company sold its remaining direct life insurance holdings to focus on consulting. The following year it began offering hostile takeover insurance policies to small and midsized companies. Aon built a global presence through purchases. In 1997 it bought The Minet Group, as well as troubled insurance brokerage Alexander & Alexander Services in a deal that made Aon (temporarily) the largest insurance broker worldwide. The firm made no US buys in 1998, but doubled its employee base with purchases including Spain's largest retail insurance broker, Gil y Carvajal, and the formation of Aon Korea, the first non-Korean firm of its kind to be licensed there. Responding to industry demands, Aon announced its new fee disclosure policy in 1999, and the company reorganized to focus on buying personal line insurance firms and to integrate its acquisitions. That year it bought Nikols Sedgwick Group, an Italian insurance firm, and formed RiskAttack (with Zurich US), a risk analysis and financial management concern aimed at technology companies. The cost of integrating its numerous purchases, however, hammered profits in 1999. Despite its troubles, in 2000 Aon bought Reliance Group's accident and health insurance business, as well as Actuarial Sciences Associates, a compensation and employee benefits consulting company. Later in that year, however, the company decided to cut 6% of its workforce as part of a restructuring effort. In 2003, the company saw revenues increase primarily because of rate hikes in the insurance industry (meaning higher commissions for Aon). Also that year Endurance Specialty, the company's Bermuda-based underwriting operations, went public. The next year Aon sold most of its holdings in Endurance. September 11 Attack Its New York offices were on floors 92 and 98-105 of the south tower of the World Trade Center at the time of the September 11, 2001 terrorist attack. As a result, 175 employees of Aon Corp. were killed in the attacks. Spitzer Investigation In 2004-2005 Aon, along with other brokers including AIG, Marsh & McLennan and Willis, fell under regulatory investigation under New York Attorney General Eliot Spitzer and other state attorneys general. At issue was the practice of insurance companies' payments to brokers (known as contingent commissions). The payments were thought to bring a conflict of interest, swaying broker decisions on behalf of carriers, rather than customers. In the spring of 2005, without acknowledging any wrongdoing, Aon agreed to a $190 million settlement payable over 30 months. UK regulatory breach In January 2009 Aon was fined £5.25m in the UK after it unwittingly made more than $7m worth of "suspicious" payments to overseas firms and individuals. The UK's Financial Services Authority stated that the fine related to the company's inadequate bribery and corruption controls, claiming that Aon between 14 January 2005 and 30 September 2007 had failed properly to assess the risks involved in its dealings with overseas firms and individuals. Aon fully cooperated with its investigation and qualified for a 30% discount on the fine. Aon said its conduct was not deliberate, adding it had since "significantly strengthened and enhanced its controls around the usage of third parties". References External links Aon Corporation website Aon UK website Aon Nederland website Aon France website Aon Remembers at Legacy.com Emporis - Aon Center, Chicago | Aon_(company) |@lemmatized aon:37 corporation:4 world:4 lead:1 provider:2 risk:8 management:5 service:9 insurance:34 reinsurance:3 brokerage:10 human:1 capital:1 consulting:4 specialty:3 underwriting:4 base:5 center:4 chicago:3 loop:1 area:1 illinois:1 united:1 state:3 contact:1 u:3 retrieve:4 january:3 create:1 ryan:6 group:7 found:3 pat:1 merge:1 combined:4 international:1 w:2 clement:3 stone:8 company:18 introduce:1 wall:1 street:1 gaelic:1 word:1 meaning:1 oneness:1 consult:7 worldwide:3 win:1 best:4 employee:7 benefit:6 firm:8 retail:4 agent:3 broker:9 business:8 weekly:1 industry:3 newsmagazine:1 april:3 july:1 corp:3 rank:1 second:2 large:6 top:2 august:1 announce:2 acquire:3 london:1 benfield:2 price:1 billion:1 usd:2 million:3 pound:1 debt:1 http:1 www:1 marketwatch:1 com:2 news:1 story:2 limited:1 aspx:1 guid:1 dist:1 hppr:1 corporate:1 overview:1 global:3 product:3 advice:1 web:1 information:1 system:1 well:4 conduct:2 country:2 sovereignty:1 operate:1 three:1 major:1 segment:3 commercial:1 consumer:1 unit:3 provide:1 property:1 casualty:2 liability:2 handle:1 aviation:1 marine:1 energy:1 professional:2 niche:1 line:2 specialize:1 administration:1 account:1 total:1 revenue:2 continue:2 operation:2 employ:1 approximately:1 office:2 also:3 captive:1 manager:1 third:2 consultant:1 history:1 begin:2 around:2 turn:1 century:1 mother:1 buy:8 small:2 detroit:1 agency:2 bring:2 son:3 young:1 sell:5 low:2 cost:3 accident:3 issue:2 policy:5 site:1 next:2 year:7 registry:1 co:4 per:1 day:1 recruit:1 nationwide:1 force:2 depression:1 take:2 hold:1 reduce:1 workforce:2 improved:1 training:1 respiratory:1 illness:1 winter:1 south:2 follow:1 sun:1 arkansas:1 texas:1 american:1 dallas:1 consolidate:1 purchase:4 america:1 grow:1 health:2 combine:1 expand:1 overseas:3 despite:2 hit:1 hard:1 recession:1 stagnant:1 growth:1 jr:1 elder:1 resume:1 control:3 completion:1 merger:1 allow:1 transfer:1 power:1 patrick:1 wisconsin:1 ford:1 dealer:1 start:1 auto:1 credit:1 insurer:1 esmark:1 conglomerate:1 focus:3 brokering:1 add:2 upscale:1 trim:1 staff:1 cut:2 measure:1 change:1 name:1 remain:1 direct:1 life:1 holding:2 following:1 offer:1 hostile:1 takeover:1 midsized:1 build:1 presence:1 minet:1 trouble:2 alexander:2 deal:1 make:3 temporarily:1 double:1 include:2 spain:1 gil:1 carvajal:1 formation:1 korea:1 first:1 non:1 korean:1 kind:1 license:1 respond:1 demand:1 new:3 fee:1 disclosure:1 reorganize:1 personal:1 integrate:2 acquisition:1 nikols:1 sedgwick:1 italian:1 form:1 riskattack:1 zurich:1 analysis:1 financial:2 concern:1 aim:1 technology:1 numerous:1 however:2 hammer:1 profit:1 reliance:1 actuarial:1 science:1 associate:1 compensation:1 later:1 decide:1 part:1 restructuring:1 effort:1 saw:1 increase:1 primarily:1 rate:1 hike:1 mean:1 high:1 commission:2 endurance:2 bermuda:1 go:1 public:1 september:3 attack:3 york:2 floor:1 tower:1 trade:1 time:1 terrorist:1 result:1 kill:1 spitzer:2 investigation:3 along:1 aig:1 marsh:1 mclennan:1 willis:1 fell:1 regulatory:2 attorney:2 general:2 eliot:1 practice:1 payment:3 know:1 contingent:1 think:1 conflict:1 interest:1 sway:1 decision:1 behalf:1 carrier:1 rather:1 customer:1 spring:1 without:1 acknowledge:1 wrongdoing:1 agree:1 settlement:1 payable:1 month:1 uk:4 breach:1 fin:1 unwittingly:1 worth:1 suspicious:1 individual:2 authority:1 fine:2 relate:1 inadequate:1 bribery:1 corruption:1 claim:1 fail:1 properly:1 assess:1 involve:1 dealing:1 fully:1 cooperate:1 qualify:1 discount:1 say:1 deliberate:1 since:1 significantly:1 strengthen:1 enhance:1 usage:1 party:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 website:4 nederland:1 france:1 remembers:1 legacy:1 emporis:1 |@bigram insurance_reinsurance:1 chicago_illinois:1 consulting_firm:2 insurance_broker:3 billion_usd:1 http_www:1 insurance_brokerage:5 hostile_takeover:1 external_link:1 |
5,517 | New_Testament | The New Testament (Greek: Καινὴ Διαθήκη, Kainē Diathēkē) is the name given to the second major division of the Christian Bible, the first such division being the much longer Old Testament. The New Testament is sometimes called the Greek New Testament or Greek Scriptures, or the New Covenant. The original texts were written by various authors after c. AD 45, in Koine Greek, the lingua franca of the eastern part of the Roman Empire. Its books were gradually collected into a single volume. Although Christian denominations differ as to which works are included in the New Testament, the majority have settled on the same twenty-seven book canon: it consists of the four narratives of the life and death of Jesus, called "Gospels"; a narrative of the Apostles' ministries in the early church, probably by the same author as the Gospel of Luke, which it continues; twenty-one early letters, commonly called "epistles" in Biblical context, written by various authors and consisting mostly of Christian counsel and instruction; and an Apocalyptic prophecy. Gospels Each of the Gospels narrates the life and death of Jesus of Nazareth. The traditional author is listed after each entry; modern scholarship generally regards these as anonymous. The Gospel of Matthew, traditionally ascribed to the Apostle Matthew, son of Alphaeus according to Papias, (see the Gospel according to the Hebrews) Clement of Alexandria, Irenaeus and Eusebius. Clontz, T.E. and J., "The Comprehensive New Testament with complete textual variant mapping and references for the Dead Sea Scrolls, Philo, Josephus, Nag Hammadi Library, Pseudepigrapha, Apocrypha, Plato, Egyptian Book of the Dead, Talmud, Old Testament, Patristic Writings, Dhammapada, Tacitus, Epic of Gilgamesh", Cornerstone Publications, 2008, p. 439, ISBN 978-0-9778737-1-5 The Gospel of Mark, traditionally ascribed to Mark the Evangelist, who wrote down the recollections of the Apostle Simon Peter according to Papias, Clement of Alexandria, Irenaeus, Eusebius. Clontz, p. 499 The Gospel of Luke, traditionally ascribed to Luke, a physician and companion of the Apostle Paul according to Clement of Alexandria, Irenaeus, Eusebius, Canon Muratori. Clontz, p. 516 The Gospel of John, traditionally ascribed to the Apostle John, son of Zebedee according to Papias, Clement of Alexandria, Irenaeus, Eusebius, Canon Muratori, Codex Vaticanus Alexandrinus. Clontz, p. 557 The first three are commonly classified as the Synoptic Gospels. They contain very similar accounts of events in Jesus' life. The Gospel of John describes several miracles and sayings of Jesus not found in the other three. Acts The book of Acts, also termed Acts of the Apostles or Acts of the Holy Spirit, is a narrative of the Apostles' ministry after Christ's death and subsequent resurrection, which is also a sequel to the third Gospel. Examining style, phraseology, and other evidence, modern scholarship generally concludes that Acts and Luke share the same author. Acts, traditionally ascribed to Luke according to Clement of Alexandria, Eusebius, Canon Muratori. Clontz, p. 587 Pauline epistles The Pauline epistles (or Corpus Paulinum) constitute those epistles traditionally attributed to Paul. However the authorship of a number of the other epistles is sometimes disputed (see section on authorship below, and Authorship of the Pauline epistles). Epistle to the Romans First Epistle to the Corinthians Second Epistle to the Corinthians Epistle to the Galatians Epistle to the Ephesians Epistle to the Philippians Epistle to the Colossians First Epistle to the Thessalonians Second Epistle to the Thessalonians First Epistle to Timothy Second Epistle to Timothy Epistle to Titus Epistle to Philemon General or Catholic epistles See main article: General epistles Includes those Epistles written to the church at large (catholic in this sense simply means universal). Epistle to the Hebrews, anonymous and unknown authorship Epistle of James, traditionally by James, brother of Jesus and Jude Thomas. First Epistle of Peter, traditionally ascribed to the Apostle Simon, called Peter. Second Epistle of Peter, traditionally ascribed to the Apostle Simon, called Peter. First Epistle of John, traditionally ascribed to the Apostle John, son of Zebedee. Second Epistle of John, traditionally ascribed to the Apostle John, son of Zebedee. Third Epistle of John, traditionally ascribed to the Apostle John, son of Zebedee. Epistle of Jude, traditionally ascribed to Jude Thomas, brother of Jesus and James. Revelation The final book of the New Testament is the Book of Revelation. The authorship is attributed either to the Apostle John, son of Zebedee or to John of Patmos. For a discussion of authorship see Authorship of the Johannine works. Revelation is sometimes called The Apocalypse of John. It is also not read or used during church services by the Eastern Orthodox church. See also: Apocalyptic literature, Bible prophecy Order The New Testament books are ordered differently in different Church Traditions. For example most Protestant Bibles follow the Roman Catholic order, but the Lutheran order is different. Outside the Western European Catholic/Protestant world there are different orders in the Slavonic, Syriac and Ethiopian Bibles (Gospels, Acts, Catholic epistles, Pauline epistles, and Apocalypse). Apocrypha In ancient times there were dozens of Christian writings claiming Apostolic inspiration, or for some other reason considered to have authority by some ancient churches, but which were not ultimately included in the 27-book New Testament canon. These works are considered "apocryphal", and are therefore referred to as the New Testament Apocrypha. It includes many writings unfavourable to the position of the orthodoxy, such as Gnostic writing. These apocryphal works are nevertheless important insofar as they provide an ancient context and setting for the composition of the canonical books. They also can help establish linguistic conventions common in the canonical texts. Examples of early apocryphal works are the Gospel of Thomas and the Epistle to the Laodiceans. The 4th century Codex Sinaiticus includes with the Old and New Testaments the Epistle of Barnabas and The Shepherd of Hermas. Language The common languages spoken by both Jews and Gentiles in the Holy Land at the time of Jesus were Aramaic, Koine Greek, and to a limited extent a colloquial dialect of Mishnaic Hebrew. Despite this, it is generally believed that the original text of the New Testament was written in Koine Greek, the vernacular dialect in 1st century Roman provinces of the Eastern Mediterranean, and later translated into other languages, most notably, Latin, Syriac, and Coptic. However, some of the Church Fathers seem to imply that Matthew was originally written in Hebrew or Aramaic, and there is another contention that the author of the Epistle to the Hebrews wrote in Hebrew, which was translated into Greek by Luke. Neither view holds much support among contemporary scholars, who argue that the literary facets of Matthew and Hebrews suggest that they were composed directly in Greek, rather than being translated. A very small minority of scholars consider the Aramaic version of the New Testament to be the original and believe the Greek is a translation (see Aramaic primacy). Etymology Some believe the English term New Testament ultimately comes from the Hebrew language. New Testament is taken from the Latin Novum Testamentum first coined by Tertullian. Some believe this in turn is a translation of the earlier Koine Greek Καινή Διαθήκη (pronounced in postclassical Greek as Keni Dhiathiki). This Greek term is found in the original Greek language of the New Testament, though commonly translated as new covenant, and found even earlier in the Greek translation of the Old Testament that is called the Septuagint. At Jeremiah 31:31, the Septuagint translated this term into Greek from the original Hebrew ברית חדשה (berit chadashah). The Hebrew term is usually also translated into English as new covenant. As a result, some claim the term was first used by Early Christians to refer to the new covenant that was the basis for their relationship with God. About two centuries later at the time of Tertullian and Lactantius, the phrase was being used to designate a particular collection of books that some believed embodied this new covenant. Tertullian, in the 2nd century, is the first currently known to use the terms novum testamentum/new testament and vetus testamentum/old testament. For example, in Against Marcion book 3, chapter 14, he wrote: This may be understood to be the Divine Word, who is doubly edged with the two testaments of the law and the gospel And in book 4, chapter 6, he wrote: For it is certain that the whole aim at which he has strenuously laboured even in the drawing up of his Antitheses, centres in this, that he may establish a diversity between the Old and the New Testaments, so that his own Christ may be separate from the Creator, as belonging to this rival god, and as alien from the law and the prophets. Lactantius, also in Latin, in the 3rd century, in his Divine Institutes, book 4, chapter 20, wrote: But all Scripture is divided into two Testaments. That which preceded the advent and passion of Christ—that is, the law and the prophets—is called the Old; but those things which were written after His resurrection are named the New Testament. The Jews make use of the Old, we of the New: but yet they are not discordant, for the New is the fulfilling of the Old, and in both there is the same testator, even Christ, who, having suffered death for us, made us heirs of His everlasting kingdom, the people of the Jews being deprived and disinherited. As the prophet Jeremiah testifies when he speaks such things: [Jer 31:31–32] "Behold, the days come, saith the Lord, that I will make a new testament to the house of Israel and the house of Judah, not according to the testament which I made to their fathers, in the day that I took them by the hand to bring them out of the land of Egypt; for they continued not in my testament, and I disregarded them, saith the Lord." ... For that which He said above, that He would make a new testament to the house of Judah, shows that the old testament which was given by Moses was not perfect; but that which was to be given by Christ would be complete. The Vulgate translation, in the 5th century, used testamentum in 2nd Corinthians 3: (6) Who also hath made us fit ministers of the new testament, not in the letter but in the spirit. For the letter killeth: but the spirit quickeneth. (Douay-Rheims) (14) But their senses were made dull. For, until this present day, the selfsame veil, in the reading of the old testament, remaineth not taken away (because in Christ it is made void). (Douay-Rheims) However, the more modern NRSV translates these verses from the Koine Greek as such: (6) Who has made us competent to be ministers of a new covenant, not of letter but of spirit; for the letter kills, but the Spirit gives life. (14) But their minds were hardened. Indeed, to this very day, when they hear the reading of the old covenant, that same veil is still there, since only in Christ is it set aside. Thus, it is common to translate using either of two English terms, testament and covenant, even though they are not synonymous. Authorship The New Testament is a collection of works, and as such was written by multiple authors. The traditional view is that all the books were written by apostles (e.g. Matthew and Paul), or disciples working under their direction (e.g. Mark Papias (c. 130) gives the perhaps earliest tradition of Mark's Apostolic connection: "This also the presbyter said: Mark, having become the interpreter of Peter, wrote down accurately, though not in order, whatsoever he remembered of the things said or done by Christ. For he neither heard the Lord nor followed him, but afterward, as I said, he followed Peter, who adapted his teaching to the needs of his hearers, but with no intention of giving a connected account of the Lord's discourses, so that Mark committed no error while he thus wrote some things as he remembered them. For he was careful of one thing, not to omit any of the thing which he had heard, and not to state any of them falsely" (cited by Eusebius of Caesarea, Church History, 3.39.21ff.). and Luke Irenaeus wrote about AD 180, "Luke, the attendant of Paul, recorded in a book the Gospel which Paul had declared" (cited by Eusebius, Historia Ecclesiastica, 5.8.3ff.). ). However, in modern times, with the rise of rigorous historical inquiry and textual criticism, these traditional ascriptions have been rejected by some. While the traditional authors have been listed above, a modern, unsubstantiated critical view is discussed herein. Seven of the epistles of Paul are generally accepted by most modern scholars as authentic; these undisputed letters include Romans, First Corinthians, Second Corinthians, Galatians, Philippians, First Thessalonians, and Philemon. Raymond E. Brown has this to say about Colossians: "At the present moment about 60 percent of critical scholarship holds that Paul did not write the letter" (An Introduction, p. 610; cited by earlychristianwritings.com). Liberal scholars usually question Pauline authorship for any other epistle, although there are conservative Christian scholars who accept the traditional ascriptions. However, almost no current mainstream scholars, Christian or otherwise, hold that Paul wrote Hebrews. In fact, questions about the authorship of Hebrews go back at least to the 3rd century ecclesiastical writer Caius, who attributed only thirteen epistles to Paul (Eusebius, Hist. eccl., 6.20.3ff.). A small minority of scholars hypothesize Hebrews may have been written by one of Paul's close associates, such as Barnabas, Silas, or Luke, given that the themes therein seemed to them as largely Pauline. The authorship of all non-Pauline books have been disputed in recent times. Ascriptions are largely polarized between Christian and non-Christian experts, making any sort of scholarly consensus all but impossible. Even majority views are unclear. The Synoptic Gospels, Matthew, Mark and Luke, unlike the other New Testament works, have a unique interrelationship. The dominant view among non-theologian scholars is the Two-Source Hypothesis. This hypothesis proposes that both Matthew and Luke drew significantly upon the Gospel of Mark and another common source, known as the "Q Source" (Q is derived from Quelle, the German word for "source"). However, the nature and even existence of Q is speculative, and scholars have proposed variants on the hypothesis which redefine or exclude it. Most pro-Q scholars believe that it was a single written document, while a few contest that "Q" was actually a number of documents or oral traditions. If it was a documentary source, no information about its author or authors can be obtained from the resources currently available. The traditional view supposes that Matthew was written first, and Mark and Luke drew from it and the second chronological work; and some scholars have attempted to use their modern methods to confirm the idea. An even smaller group of scholars espouse Lukan priority. Modern scholars are skeptical about authorship claims for noncanonical books, such as the Nag Hammadi corpus discovered in Egypt in 1945. This corpus of fifty-two Coptic books, dated to about 350–400, includes gospels in the names of Thomas, Philip, James, John, and many others. Like almost all ancient works, they represent copies rather than original texts. None of the original texts has been discovered, and scholars argue about the dating of the originals. Suggested dates vary from as early as 50 to as late as the late second century for the gnostics. (See Gospel of Thomas and New Testament Apocrypha.) To summarize, the only books for which there are solid authorship consensuses among modern critical scholars are the Pauline epistiles mentioned above, which are universally regarded as authentic, and Hebrews, which is nearly always rejected. The remaining nineteen books remain in dispute, some holding to the traditional view, and others regarding them as anonymous or pseudonymic. Date of composition According to tradition, the earliest of the books were the letters of Paul, and the last books to be written are those attributed to John, who is traditionally said to have lived to a very old age, perhaps dying as late as 100, although this is often disputed. Irenaeus of Lyons, c. 185, stated that the Gospels of Matthew and Mark were written while Peter and Paul were preaching in Rome, which would be in the 60s, and Luke was written some time later. Most secular scholars agree on the dating of the majority of the New Testament, except for the epistles and books that they consider to be pseudepigraphical (i.e., those thought not to be written by their traditional authors). For the Gospels they tend to date Mark no earlier than 65 and no later than 75. Matthew is dated between 70 and 85. Luke is usually placed within 80 to 95. However a select few scholars disagree with this as Luke indicates in the book of Acts that he has already written the Gospel of Luke prior to writing the introduction to Acts. Acts is written in a journal form indicating that it may have been written during Paul's journeys which it documents. That would put Acts as early as the 60's and the Gospel of Luke earlier than that. This then could push back Mark into the late 50's if one believes that Mark is the source of some of Luke's material. Early church fathers rarely seem to support parts of that. For instance Irenaeus claims "Luke recorded the teachings of Paul, after the deaths of Peter and Paul. He wrote after the Hebrew Matthew, at around the same time as Mark, and before John." Clement though claims: "Luke was written before Mark and John and at the same time as Matthew. " When taken with Clement's writing on Mark, this means that Peter and Paul were alive at the time that Luke was written. The earliest of the books of the New Testament was First Thessalonians, an epistle of Paul, written probably in 51, or possibly Galatians in 49 according to one of two theories of its writing. Of the pseudepigraphical epistles, Christian scholars tend to place them somewhere between 70 and 150, with Second Peter usually being the latest. In the 1830s German scholars of the Tübingen school dated the books as late as the third century, but the discovery of some New Testament manuscripts and fragments, not including some of the later writings, dating as far back as 125 (notably Papyrus 52) has called such late dating into question. Additionally, a letter to the church at Corinth in the name of Clement of Rome in 95 quotes from 10 of the 27 books of the New Testament, and a letter to the church at Philippi in the name of Polycarp in 120 quotes from 16 books. Therefore, some of the books of the New Testament were at least in a first-draft stage, though there is negligible evidence in these quotes or among biblical manuscripts for the existence of different early drafts. Other books were probably not completed until later, if we assume they must have been quoted by Clement or Polycarp. There are many minor discrepancies between manuscripts (largely spelling or grammatical differences). Canonization The process of canonization was complex and lengthy. It was characterized by a compilation of books that the apostolic tradition considered authoritative in worship and teaching, relevant to the historical situations in which they lived, and consonant with the Old Testament. Contrary to popular misconception, the New Testament canon was not summarily decided in large, bureaucratic Church council meetings, but rather developed over many centuries. Thus, McDonald states: McDonald, Lee M. The Formation of the Christian Biblical Canon. Peabody: Hendrickson, 1995. pp.116 Although a number of Christians have thought that church councils determined what books were to be included in the biblical canons, a more accurate reflection of the matter is that the councils recognized or acknowledged those books that had already obtained prominence from usage among the various early Christian communities. Similarly, from Patzia: Patzia, Arthur. The Making of the New Testament. Downers Grove: IVP, 1995. pp.104 It appears that the books that finally were canonized are those that enjoyed a special status and were utilized both frequently and universally by the church. However, this is not to say that no councils touched the issue of the canon. Some of these include the Council of Trent (also called the Tridentine Council) of 1546 for Roman Catholicism (by vote: 24 yea, 15 nay, 16 abstain), the Thirty-Nine Articles of 1563 for the Church of England, the Westminster Confession of Faith of 1647 for Calvinism, and the Synod of Jerusalem of 1672 for Eastern Orthodoxy. Although these councils did include statements about the canon, they were only reaffirming the existing canon which was reached by mutual agreement over many centuries—they were just making it official. According to the Catholic Encyclopedia article on the Canon of the New Testament: "The idea of a complete and clear-cut canon of the New Testament existing from the beginning, that is from Apostolic times, has no foundation in history. The Canon of the New Testament, like that of the Old, is the result of a development, of a process at once stimulated by disputes with doubters, both within and without the Church, and retarded by certain obscurities and natural hesitations, and which did not reach its final term until the dogmatic definition of the Tridentine Council." In the first three centuries of the Christian Church, Early Christianity, there seems not to have been a New Testament canon that was complete and universally recognized. One of the earliest attempts at solidifying a canon was made by Marcion, c. 140 AD, who accepted only a modified version of Luke (Gospel of Marcion) and ten of Paul's letters, while rejecting the Old Testament entirely. His unorthodox canon was rejected by a majority of Christians, as was he and his theology, Marcionism. Adolf Harnack in Origin of the New Testament (1914) argued that the orthodox Church at this time was largely an Old Testament Church (one that "follows the Testament of the Creator-God") without a New Testament canon and that it gradually formulated its New Testament canon in response to the challenge posed by Marcion. Palmer, 1881. Edwin Palmer, The Greek Testament with the Readings Adopted by the Revisers of the Authorised Version. London: Simon Wallenberg Press, 2007. ISBN 1843560232 The Muratorian fragment, dated at between 170 (based on an internal reference to Pope Pius I and arguments put forth by Bruce Metzger) and as late as the end of the 4th century (according to the Anchor Bible Dictionary), provides the earliest known New Testament canon attributed to mainstream (that is, not Marcionite) Christianity. It is similar, but not identical, to the modern New Testament canon. The oldest clear endorsement of Mark, Matthew, Luke, and John being the only legitimate gospels was written c. 180 AD It was a claim made by Bishop Irenaeus in his polemic Against the Heresies, for example III.XI.8: "It is not possible that the Gospels can be either more or fewer in number than they are. For, since there are four zones of the world in which we live, and four principal winds, while the Church is scattered throughout all the world, and the “pillar and ground” of the Church is the Gospel and the spirit of life; it is fitting that she should have four pillars, breathing out immortality on every side, and vivifying men afresh." At least, then, the books considered to be authoritative included the four gospels and many of the letters of Paul. Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, and Tertullian (all 2nd century) held the letters of Paul to be on par with the Hebrew Scriptures as being divinely inspired, yet others rejected him. Other books were held in high esteem but were gradually relegated to the status of New Testament Apocrypha. Eusebius, c. 300, gave a detailed list of New Testament writings in his Ecclesiastical History Book 3, Chapter XXV: "1... First then must be put the holy quaternion of the Gospels; following them the Acts of the Apostles... the epistles of Paul... the epistle of John... the epistle of Peter... After them is to be placed, if it really seem proper, the Apocalypse of John, concerning which we shall give the different opinions at the proper time. These then belong among the accepted writings." "3 Among the disputed writings [Antilegomena], which are nevertheless recognized by many, are extant the so-called epistle of James and that of Jude, also the second epistle of Peter, and those that are called the second and third of John, whether they belong to the evangelist or to another person of the same name. Among the rejected [Kirsopp Lake translation: "not genuine"] writings must be reckoned also the Acts of Paul, and the so-called Shepherd, and the Apocalypse of Peter, and in addition to these the extant epistle of Barnabas, and the so-called Teachings of the Apostles; and besides, as I said, the Apocalypse of John, if it seem proper, which some, as I said, reject, but which others class with the accepted books. And among these some have placed also the Gospel according to the Hebrews... And all these may be reckoned among the disputed books." "6... such books as the Gospels of Peter, of Thomas, of Matthias, or of any others besides them, and the Acts of Andrew and John and the other apostles... they clearly show themselves to be the fictions of heretics. Wherefore they are not to be placed even among the rejected writings, but are all of them to be cast aside as absurd and impious." Revelation is counted as both accepted (Kirsopp Lake translation: "Recognized") and disputed, which has caused some confusion over what exactly Eusebius meant by doing so. From other writings of the Church Fathers, we know that it was disputed with several canon lists rejecting its canonicity. EH 3.3.5 adds further detail on Paul: "Paul's fourteen epistles are well known and undisputed. It is not indeed right to overlook the fact that some have rejected the Epistle to the Hebrews, saying that it is disputed by the church of Rome, on the ground that it was not written by Paul." EH 4.29.6 mentions the Diatessaron: "But their original founder, Tatian, formed a certain combination and collection of the Gospels, I know not how, to which he gave the title Diatessaron, and which is still in the hands of some. But they say that he ventured to paraphrase certain words of the apostle [Paul], in order to improve their style." Palmer, 1881. Edwin Palmer, The Greek Testament. London: Simon Wallenberg Press, 2007. ISBN 1843560232 The New Testament canon as it is now was first listed by St. Athanasius, Bishop of Alexandria, in 367, in a letter written to his churches in Egypt, Festal Letter 39. Also cited is the Council of Rome, but not without controversy. That canon gained wider and wider recognition until it was accepted at the Third Council of Carthage in 397. Even this council did not settle the matter, however. Certain books continued to be questioned, especially James and Revelation. Even as late as the 16th century, theologian and reformer Martin Luther questioned (but in the end did not reject) the Epistle of James, the Epistle of Jude, the Epistle to the Hebrews and the Book of Revelation. Even today, German-language Luther Bibles are printed with these four books at the end of the canon, rather than their traditional order for other Christians. Due to the fact that some of the recognized Books of the Holy Scripture were having their canonicity questioned by Protestants in the 16th century, the Council of Trent reaffirmed the traditional canon (that is for Catholics the canon of the Council of Rome) of the Scripture as a dogma of the Catholic Church. Early manuscripts Rossano Gospels, 6th century, a representative of Byzantine text The early New Testament manuscripts can be classified into certain major families or types of text. A "text-type" is the name given to a family of texts with a common ancestor. It must be noted that many early manuscripts can be composed of several different text-types. For example, Codex Washingtonianus consists of only the four gospels, and yet, different parts are written in different text-types. Four distinctive New Testament text-types have been defined: The Alexandrian text-type is usually considered the best and most faithful at preserving the original; it is usually brief and austere. The main examples are the Codex Vaticanus, Codex Sinaiticus and Bodmer Papyri. The Western text-type has a fondness for paraphrase and is generally the longest. Most significant is the Western version of Acts, which is 10% longer. The main examples are the Codex Bezae, Codex Claromontanus, Codex Washingtonianus, Old Latin versions (prior to the Vulgate), and quotes by Marcion, Tatian, Irenaeus, Tertullian and Cyprian. The Caesarean text-type is a mixture of Western and Alexandrian types and is found in the Chester Beatty Papyri, in Codex Koridethi, and is quoted by Eusebius, Cyril of Jerusalem and Armenians. The Byzantine text-type is the textform that is contained in a majority of the extant manuscripts and thus is often called the "Majority Text." The origin of this text is debated among scholars. Some scholars, observing that few Byzantine readings exist among early uncial manuscript witnesses, contend that the text formed late and contains conflated readings. Other scholars look to the shear number of consistent witnesses to the Byzantine textform, and the existence of readings which parallel the Byzantine textform in very early translations, as evidence that the Byzantine textform is probably the closest text to that originally penned by the New Testament authors. The Byzantine textform can be found in the Gospels of Codex Alexandrinus, later uncial texts and most minuscule texts. The 1611 King James Version of the English New Testament was translated from what came to be known as the Textus Receptus, a text derived from the later editions of Erasmus' printed Greek New Testament. That in turn was based on a handful of manuscripts of the Byzantine text-type. Most modern English versions of the New Testament are based on critical reconstructions of the Greek text, such as the Nestle-Alands' Novum Testamentum Graece Greek New Testament or the United Bible Societies' (sometimes referred to collectively as the NU-Text), which have a pronounced Alexandrian character. Early Versions The first translations (usually called "versions") of the New Testament were made in the end of 2nd century into Syriac, Latin, and Coptic languages. These three versions were made directly from Greek, before a revision of Greek text, and they are always cited in modern critical apparatus. Syriac Versions Rabbula Gospels, Eusebian Canons Syriac was spoken in Syria, and Mesopotamia, and with dialect in Palestine, where it was known as Aramaic. Several Syriac translations were made and have come to us. It is possible some translations were lost. Tatian, the Syrian, about A.D. 170, prepared Diatessaron, a harmony of the four Gospels which he made in Rome. After his return to Syria he translated it into Syriac. Probably it was the first translation part of New Testament from Greek into other language. Since the 19th century there has been evidence supporting the existence of an Older Syriac version published at about the same time as the Diatessaron, or even a little earlier (Curetonianus, Syrus Sinaiticus from 5th or 4th century). They contain text of the four Gospels. The text of Acts and the Pauline Epistles has not survived to our time. We know only citations made by Eastern fathers. Old Syriac version is a representative of the Western text-type. The Peshitta version was prepared in the beginning of the 5th century. It contains only 22 books (2 Peter, 2 and 3 John, Jude, and Revelation were not translated). Philoxenian, probably was produced in 508 for Philoxenus, Bishop of Mabung. Bruce M. Metzger, The Early Versions of the New Testament, Clarendon Press, Oxford 1977, pp. 3-98. Latin Versions The Gospels were translated into Latin during the last quarter of the second century in North Africa (Afra). There were not many later European Latin translations (Itala), while the African Latin manuscripts are not numerous (Itala about 80 mss.). The Old Latin versions support the Western type of text. Because of ununiformed text Old Latin versions, interpolations, and corruption Jerome prepared another translation - Vulgate. In fact it was only a revision of Itala, and only the Gospels were revised precisely. We have 8,000 copies of Vulgate. In the order of the versions Latin version usually stands at the beginning in the apparatus. Coptic Versions The Coptic language was used in several dialects: Bohairic (northern dialect), Fayyumic, Sahidic (southern dialect), Akhmimic, and others. First translation was made in end of 2d century into Sahidic dialect (copsa). This translation was a representative of Alexandrian text-type. Bofairic translation was made a little later, because Greek language was more influenced in a North, than in a South. Probably it was made in the beginning of 3th century. It was very literally translation, a lot of Greek words, and even some grammar forms (f.e. syntactic construction μεν — δε) were incorporated to this translation. For this reason, bohairic translation is more helpful in reconstruction early Greek text, than any other ancient translation. Bruce M. Metzger, The Early Versions of the New Testament, Clarendon Press, Oxford 1977, pp. 99-152. Versions in other languages After A.D. 300 were made other translations into Armenian, Georgian, Ethiopic, Gothic, Old Church Slavonic, and other languages (Arabian, Nubian, Persian, Soghdian). Armenian, Georgian, and Ethiopic are often cited in critical apparatus, but Gothic, and Slavonic are cited very rarely. Additions Over the years, there have been a number of possible additions to the original text, such as: Matt 16:2b-3 Mark 16:9-20 Luke 22:19b-20,43-44 John 5:4 John 7:53-8:11 1 John 5:7b–8a Romans 16:24 In addition, there are a large number of variant readings, see Bruce Metzger's Textual Commentary on the Greek New Testament (1994) for details. Authority All Christian groups respect the New Testament, but they differ in their understanding of the nature, extent, and relevance of its authority. Views of the authoritativeness of the New Testament often depend on the concept of inspiration, which relates to the role of God in the formation of the New Testament. Generally, the greater the role of God in one's doctrine of inspiration, the more one accepts the doctrine of Biblical inerrancy and/or authoritativeness of the Bible. One possible source of confusion is that these terms are difficult to define, because many people use them interchangeably or with very different meanings. This article will use the terms in the following manner: Infallibility relates to the absolute correctness of the Bible in matters of doctrine. Inerrancy relates to the absolute correctness of the Bible in factual assertions (including historical and scientific assertions). Authoritativeness relates to the correctness of the Bible in questions of practice in morality. Christian scholars such as Professor Peter Stoner see the Bible having compelling and detailed fulfilled Bible prophecy and argue for the Bible's inspiration. This is argued to show that the Bible is authoritative, since it is argued that only God knows the future. A common objection in the West regarding this matter is that the burden of proof is on miracles, which, by Occam's Razor, should only be considered when all ordinary explanations fail. C. S. Lewis, Norman Geisler, William Lane Craig, and Christians who engage in Christian apologetics have argued that miracles are reasonable and plausible. . On the other hand, in the West those who do not believe in miracles often use the arguments of David Hume, Benedict de Spinoza, or the arguments of Deism. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deism All of these concepts depend for their meaning on the supposition that the text of Bible has been properly interpreted, with consideration for the intention of the text, whether literal history, allegory or poetry, etc. Especially the doctrine of inerrancy is variously understood according to the weight given by the interpreter to scientific investigations of the world. Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy For the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches, there are two strands of revelation, the Bible, and the (rest of the) Apostolic Tradition. Both of them are interpreted by the teachings of the Church. In Catholic terminology the Teaching Office is called the Magisterium; in Orthodox terminology the authentic interpretation of scripture and tradition is limited, in the final analysis, to the Canon Law of the Ecumenical councils. Both sources of revelation are considered necessary for proper understanding of the tenets of the faith. The Roman Catholic view is expressed clearly in the Catechism of the Catholic Church (1992): § 83: As a result the Church, to whom the transmission and interpretation of Revelation is entrusted, does not derive her certainty about all revealed truths from the holy Scriptures alone. Both Scripture and Tradition must be accepted and honoured with equal sentiments of devotion and reverence. § 107: The inspired books teach the truth. Since therefore all that the inspired authors or sacred writers affirm should be regarded as affirmed by the Holy Spirit, we must acknowledge that the books of Scripture firmly, faithfully, and without error teach that truth which God, for the sake of our salvation, wished to see confided to the Sacred Scriptures. Protestantism Following the doctrine of sola scriptura, Protestants believe that their traditions of faith, practice and interpretations carry forward what the scriptures teach, and so tradition is not a source of authority in itself. Their traditions derive authority from the Bible, and are therefore always open to reevaluation. This openness to doctrinal revision has extended in Liberal Protestant traditions even to the reevaluation of the doctrine of Scripture upon which the Reformation was founded, and members of these traditions may even question whether the Bible is infallible in doctrine, inerrant in historical and other factual statements, and whether it has uniquely divine authority. However, the adjustments made by modern Protestants to their doctrine of Scripture vary widely. American Evangelical and fundamentalist Protestantism Certain American conservatives, fundamentalists and evangelicals believe that the Scriptures are both human and divine in origin: human in their manner of composition, but divine in that their source is God, the Holy Spirit, who governed the writers of scripture in such a way that they recorded nothing at all contrary to the truth. Fundamentalists accept the enduring authority and impugnity of a prescientific interpretation of the Bible. In the United States this particularly applies to issues such as the ordination of women, abortion, and homosexuality. However, although American evangelicals are overwhelmingly opposed to such things, other evangelicals are increasingly willing to consider that the views of the biblical authors may have been culturally conditioned, and they may even argue that there is room for change along with cultural norms and scientific advancements. Both fundamentalists and evangelicals profess belief in the inerrancy of the Bible. In the US the fundamentalists' stronger emphasis on literal interpretation has led to the rejection of evolution, which contradicts the doctrine of Creationism. Evangelicals, on the other hand, tend to avoid interpretations of the Bible that would directly contradict generally accepted scientific assertions of fact. They do not impute error to biblical authors, but rather entertain various theories of literary intent which might give credibility to human progress in knowledge of the world, while still accepting the divine inspiration of the scriptures. Within the US, the Chicago Statement on Biblical Inerrancy (1978) is an influential statement, articulating evangelical views on this issue. Paragraph four of its summary states: "Being wholly and verbally God-given, Scripture is without error or fault in all its teaching, no less in what it states about God's acts in creation, about the events of world history, and about its own literary origins under God, than in its witness to God's saving grace in individual lives." Critics of such a position point out that there are many statements that Jesus makes in the Gospels or that Paul makes in his epistles, even to the point of making them commands, which are not taken as commands by most advocates of Biblical inerrancy. Examples of this are Jesus' command to the disciples to sell all they have and give the money to the poor so as to gain treasure in the Kingdom of Heaven (Mark 10:21), or Paul's calls to imitate him in celibacy (1 Cor 7:8). Other sections of the Bible, such as the second half of John chapter six, where Jesus commands that the disciples eat his flesh and drink his blood, are interpreted by most adherents of Biblical Inerrancy as symbolic language rather than literally, as might be expected from the statements of the doctrine. Supporters of Biblical Inerrancy generally argue that these passages are intended to be symbolic, and that their symbolic nature can be seen directly in the text, thus preserving the doctrine. American Mainline and liberal Protestantism Mainline American Protestant denominations, including the United Methodist Church, Presbyterian Church USA, The Episcopal Church, and Evangelical Lutheran Church in America, do not teach the doctrine of inerrancy as set forth in the Chicago Statement. All of these churches have more ancient doctrinal statements asserting the authority of scripture, but may interpret these statements in such a way as to allow for a very broad range of teaching—from evangelicalism to skepticism. It is not an impediment to ordination in these denominations to teach that the Scriptures contain errors, or that the authors follow a more or less unenlightened ethics that, however appropriate it may have seemed in the authors' time, moderns would be very wrong to follow blindly. For example, ordination of women is universally accepted in the mainline churches, abortion is condemned as a grievous social tragedy but not always a personal sin or a crime against an unborn person, and homosexuality is increasingly regarded as a genetic propensity or morally neutral preference that should be neither encouraged nor condemned. In North America, the most contentious of these issues among these churches at the present time is how far the ordination of gay men and lesbians should be accepted. Officials of the Presbyterian Church USA report: "We acknowledge the role of scriptural authority in the Presbyterian Church, but Presbyterians generally do not believe in biblical inerrancy. Presbyterians do not insist that every detail of chronology or sequence or prescientific description in scripture be true in literal form. Our confessions do teach biblical infallibility. Infallibility affirms the entire truthfulness of scripture without depending on every exact detail." Those who hold a more liberal view of the Bible as a human witness to the glory of God, the work of fallible humans who wrote from a limited experience unusual only for the insight they have gained through their inspired struggle to know God in the midst of a troubled world. Therefore, they tend not to accept such doctrines as inerrancy. These churches also tend to retain the social activism of their Evangelical forebears of the 19th century, placing particular emphasis on those teachings of Scripture that teach compassion for the poor and concern for social justice. The message of personal salvation is, generally speaking, of the good that comes to oneself and the world through following the New Testament's Golden Rule admonition to love others without hypocrisy or prejudice. Toward these ends, the "spirit" of the New Testament, more than the letter, is infallible and authoritative. There are some movements that believe the Bible contains the teachings of Jesus but who reject the churches that were formed following its publication. These people believe all individuals can communicate directly with God and therefore do not need guidance or doctrines from a church. These people are known as Christian anarchists. Latter-day Saints Members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (or Mormons) accept the Bible (including the New Testatment) as the word of God, so long as it is "translated correctly". Messianic Judaism Messianic Judaism generally holds the same view of New Testament authority as evangelical Protestants. See also Non-canonical books referenced in the Bible Gnosticism and the New Testament List of Gospels Expounding of the Law Bible translations Biblical canon Books of the Bible New Testament apocrypha New Testament view on Jesus' life Old Testament Two-source hypothesis Authorship of the Johannine works Authorship of the Pauline epistles Table of books of Judeo-Christian Scripture Textual variants in the New Testament :Category:New Testament books Novum Testamentum Graece Notes Further reading A.H. McNeile, An Introduction to the Study of the New Testament, second edition revised New Testament Introduction, D. Guthrie, Inter-Varsity Press, Leicester 1976. Raymond E. Brown: An Introduction to the New Testament (ISBN 0-385-24767-2) Interpreting the New Testament. An Introduction to the Principles and Methods of N.T. Exegesis, H. Conzelmann and A. Lindemann, translated by S.S. Schatzmann, Hendrickson Publishers. Peabody 1988. Burton L. Mack: Who Wrote the New Testament?, Harper, 1996 Bruce J. Malina: Windows on the World of Jesus: Time Travel to Ancient Judea. Westminster John Knox Press: Louisville (Kentucky) 1993 Bruce J. Malina: The New Testament World: Insights from Cultural Anthropology. 3rd edition, Westminster John Knox Press Louisville (Kentucky) 2001 Bruce J. Malina: Social Science Commentary on the Gospel of John Augsburg Fortress Publishers: Minneapolis 1998 Bruce J. Malina: Social-Science Commentary on the Synoptic Gospels Augsburg Fortress Publishers: Minneapolis 2003 Randel McCraw Helms: Who Wrote the Gospels? Detlev Dormeyer: The New Testament among the Writings of Antiquity (English translation), Sheffield 1998 H.C. Thiessen, Introduction to the New Testament, Eerdmans Publishing Company, Grand Rapids 1976 Ekkehard Stegemann and Wolfgang Stegemann: The Jesus Movement: A Social History of Its First Century. Augsburg Fortress Publishers: Minneapolis 1999 Wolfgang Stegemann: The Gospel and the Poor. Fortress Press. Minneapolis 1984 ISBN 0800617835 Theodor Zahn, Introduction to the New Testament, English translation, Edinburgh, 1910. External links Source text of New Testament Searchable New Testament Greek Lexicon Greek New Testament Byzantine Greek Original Side by side with the English (King James) and Russian (Synodal) translation - Commentary by the Greek Fathers - Icons from Mount Athos New Testament, Greek Polytonic Text according to Ecumenical Patriarchate (Greek) Greek New Testament text (searchable only; no downloads) with lexical aids General references New Testament Reading Room Extensive online NT resources (incl. commentaries), Tyndale Seminary Scholarly articles on the New Testament from the Wisconsin Lutheran Seminary Library Development and authorship The Gospels in the official canon, and some that were not included in the Bible | New_Testament |@lemmatized new:91 testament:100 greek:35 καινὴ:1 διαθήκη:2 kainē:1 diathēkē:1 name:7 give:15 second:15 major:2 division:2 christian:22 bible:30 first:22 much:2 longer:1 old:25 sometimes:4 call:18 scripture:22 covenant:8 original:12 text:41 write:41 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5,518 | Charles_Evers | James Charles Evers (born September 11, 1922) is an important civil rights advocate in the United States. The older brother of civil rights martyr Medgar Evers, Charles Evers is a leading civil rights spokesman within the Republican Party in his native Mississippi. He was the first African American elected since the Reconstruction era as mayor in a Mississippi city, in Fayette in 1969. He ran for governor in 1971 and the United States Senate in 1978, both times as an independent. Early life and education Born in Decatur, Mississippi, Evers had a strong, devoutly Christian mother and a fearless father. He learned from his parents that racism was not only wrong but un-Christian. He always saw the civil rights movement as a Christian movement teaching love, liberation and equality for all. During World War II, Charles and Medgar Evers both served in the U.S. Army. Charles fell in love with a Filipino woman overseas. He could not marry her and take her back with him to Mississippi because of her "white" skin color. Mississippi had enshrined Jim Crow rules in its constitution, which prohibited interracial marriages. Career In Mississippi about 1951, Charles and Medgar Evers grew interested in African freedom movements. They were interested in Jomo Kenyatta and the rise of the Kikuyu tribal resistance to colonialism in Kenya, known as the "Mau-Mau" Rebellion as it moved to open violence. Along with his brother, Charles became active in the Regional Council of Negro Leadership (RCNL), a civil rights organization that also promoted self-help and business ownership. He drew inspiration from Dr. T.R.M. Howard, the president of the RCNL, who was one the wealthiest blacks in the state. Between 1952 and 1955, Evers often spoke at the RCNL's annual conferences in Mound Bayou on such issues as voting rights. About 1956, Evers's entrepreneurial gifts and his civil rights activism landed him in trouble in Philadelphia, Mississippi. He left town and moved to Chicago. There, he vowed to support the movement back home, and fell into a life of hustling, running numbers for the Mob, and managing prostitutes. The money he made was said to have been substantial, and much of it was sent back to help the Civil Rights Movement. In 1963, Byron De La Beckwith shot Medgar Evers as he arrived home from work. Evers died in an ambulance on the way to the hospital. Charles Evers was shocked and deeply upset by news of his brother's death. Over the opposition of more establishment figures in the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) like Roy Wilkins, Charles took over Medgar's post as head of the NAACP in Mississippi. In 1969, Charles Evers was elected mayor of Fayette, Mississippi, the first African-American mayor in his state since Reconstruction. By then, Fayette had a majority of black residents, but African Americans had been effectively disfranchised in Mississippi from 1890 to 1965 and passage of the Voting Rights Act. Fayette had no industry, which meant it had almost no residents who had grown up outside the area. Its white community was known to be hostile towards black people. Evers' election as mayor had enormous symbolic significance statewide and national resonance. The NAACP named Evers the 1969 Man of the Year. John Updike mentioned Evers in his popular novel Rabbit Redux. Evers popularized the slogan, "Hands that picked cotton can now pick the mayor." Evers served many terms as mayor of Fayette. Admired by some, he alienated others with his inflexible stands on various town issues. Evers did not like to share or delegate power. The political rival who finally defeated Evers in a mayoral election used the slogan: "We've seen what Fayette can do for one man. Now let's see what one man can do for Fayette." In 1971 Evers ran but was defeated in the gubernatorial general election by Democrat William "Bill" Waller, 601,222 (77 percent) to 172,762 (22.1 percent). (Waller had been the original prosecutor of De La Beckwith.) In 1978, Evers ran for the Senate seat vacated by James O. Eastland. He finished in third place, behind his opponents, Democrat Maurice Dantin and Republican Thad Cochran, but he received 24 percent of the vote. Cochran won the election and still holds the Senate seat. Many believed that Evers' competing in the race drew enough votes from Dantin to allow Cochran to win. Evers has been quoted as saying, "I'll march, I'll picket, but I don't believe in no hunger strikes." He had the endurance, the driving ambition, and the gall of the successful politician—but never the innate caution. Evers attracted controversy for his support of judicial nominee Charles W. Pickering, a fellow Republican, in contrast to organizations such as the Mississippi NAACP and the Congressional Black Caucus. <-When? for what post? Discuss -> He remains distrusted by some blacks for allegedly having cooperated with the Mississippi State Sovereignty Commission during the Civil Rights era. Evers has befriended a range of people from sharecroppers to presidents. He was an informal advisor to politicians as diverse as Lyndon B. Johnson, George Wallace, Ronald Reagan and Robert Kennedy. On the other hand, Evers has severely criticized black leaders who, he believes, are charlatans or have not "paid the price." Charles Evers has been highly critical of such black community leaders as Roy Wilkins, Stokely Carmichael, H. Rap Brown and Louis Farrakhan. Many observers likened Medgar Evers to a "saint," in his religious faith, his total devotion to the cause of civil rights and his disregard for his own safety. By contrast, Charles Evers was an unabashed "sinner." Nevertheless, Mr. Evers did important work leading registration and voting drives in Mississippi, often defying death threats in the process. Evers has told his complex life story well in the memoir Have No Fear. Quotes "Every race of people that's ever been set free, its leaders paid the price. Medgar paid the price, every day. And one day he gave his life.""To all of you who still hold race hatred in your heart, I ask you please, give it up." "Whenever you see bigotry, hypocrisy is real close by." "Have no fear." References Charles Evers and Andrew Szanton, Have No Fear, Have No Fear: The Charles Evers Story (1998 book) David T. Beito and Linda Royster Beito, "T.R.M. Howard: Pragmatism over Strict Integrationist Ideology in the Mississippi Delta, 1942-1954" in Glenn Feldman, ed., Before Brown: Civil Rights and White Backlash in the Modern South (2004 book), 68-95. John Dittmer, Local People: the Struggle for Civil Rights in Mississippi (1994 book). Charles M. Payne, I've Got the Light of Freedom: The Organizing Tradition and the Mississippi Freedom Struggle (1995 book). External links The Rise and Fall of Jim Crow, PBS 90.1 WMPR, Jackson Mississippi, Charles Evers station manager : blues, urban contemporary gospel, talk, variety | Charles_Evers |@lemmatized james:2 charles:16 evers:34 born:1 september:1 important:2 civil:11 right:13 advocate:1 united:2 state:5 old:1 brother:3 martyr:1 medgar:7 lead:2 spokesman:1 within:1 republican:3 party:1 native:1 mississippi:17 first:2 african:4 american:3 elect:2 since:2 reconstruction:2 era:2 mayor:6 city:1 fayette:7 run:4 governor:1 senate:3 time:1 independent:1 early:1 life:4 education:1 bear:1 decatur:1 strong:1 devoutly:1 christian:3 mother:1 fearless:1 father:1 learn:1 parent:1 racism:1 wrong:1 un:1 always:1 saw:1 movement:5 teach:1 love:2 liberation:1 equality:1 world:1 war:1 ii:1 serve:2 u:1 army:1 fell:2 filipino:1 woman:1 overseas:1 could:1 marry:1 take:2 back:3 white:3 skin:1 color:1 enshrine:1 jim:2 crow:2 rule:1 constitution:1 prohibit:1 interracial:1 marriage:1 career:1 grow:2 interested:2 freedom:3 jomo:1 kenyatta:1 rise:2 kikuyu:1 tribal:1 resistance:1 colonialism:1 kenya:1 know:2 mau:2 rebellion:1 move:2 open:1 violence:1 along:1 become:1 active:1 regional:1 council:1 negro:1 leadership:1 rcnl:3 organization:2 also:1 promote:1 self:1 help:2 business:1 ownership:1 draw:2 inspiration:1 dr:1 r:2 howard:2 president:2 one:4 wealthy:1 black:7 often:2 speak:1 annual:1 conference:1 mound:1 bayou:1 issue:2 voting:2 entrepreneurial:1 gift:1 activism:1 land:1 trouble:1 philadelphia:1 leave:1 town:2 chicago:1 vow:1 support:2 home:2 hustling:1 number:1 mob:1 manage:1 prostitute:1 money:1 make:1 say:2 substantial:1 much:1 send:1 byron:1 de:2 la:2 beckwith:2 shot:1 arrive:1 work:2 die:1 ambulance:1 way:1 hospital:1 shock:1 deeply:1 upset:1 news:1 death:2 opposition:1 establishment:1 figure:1 national:2 association:1 advancement:1 colored:1 people:5 naacp:4 like:2 roy:2 wilkins:2 post:2 head:1 majority:1 resident:2 effectively:1 disfranchise:1 passage:1 act:1 industry:1 mean:1 almost:1 outside:1 area:1 community:2 hostile:1 towards:1 election:4 enormous:1 symbolic:1 significance:1 statewide:1 resonance:1 name:1 man:3 year:1 john:2 updike:1 mention:1 popular:1 novel:1 rabbit:1 redux:1 popularize:1 slogan:2 hand:2 pick:2 cotton:1 many:3 term:1 admire:1 alienate:1 others:1 inflexible:1 stand:1 various:1 share:1 delegate:1 power:1 political:1 rival:1 finally:1 defeat:2 mayoral:1 use:1 see:3 let:1 gubernatorial:1 general:1 democrat:2 william:1 bill:1 waller:2 percent:3 original:1 prosecutor:1 seat:2 vacate:1 eastland:1 finish:1 third:1 place:1 behind:1 opponent:1 maurice:1 dantin:2 thad:1 cochran:3 receive:1 vote:3 win:2 still:2 hold:2 believe:3 compete:1 race:3 enough:1 allow:1 quote:2 march:1 picket:1 hunger:1 strike:1 endurance:1 drive:2 ambition:1 gall:1 successful:1 politician:2 never:1 innate:1 caution:1 attract:1 controversy:1 judicial:1 nominee:1 w:1 pickering:1 fellow:1 contrast:2 congressional:1 caucus:1 discus:1 remain:1 distrust:1 allegedly:1 cooperate:1 sovereignty:1 commission:1 befriend:1 range:1 sharecropper:1 informal:1 advisor:1 diverse:1 lyndon:1 b:1 johnson:1 george:1 wallace:1 ronald:1 reagan:1 robert:1 kennedy:1 severely:1 criticize:1 leader:3 charlatan:1 pay:3 price:3 highly:1 critical:1 stokely:1 carmichael:1 h:1 rap:1 brown:2 louis:1 farrakhan:1 observer:1 liken:1 saint:1 religious:1 faith:1 total:1 devotion:1 cause:1 disregard:1 safety:1 unabashed:1 sinner:1 nevertheless:1 mr:1 registration:1 defy:1 threat:1 process:1 tell:1 complex:1 story:2 well:1 memoir:1 fear:4 every:2 ever:1 set:1 free:1 day:2 give:2 hatred:1 heart:1 ask:1 please:1 whenever:1 bigotry:1 hypocrisy:1 real:1 close:1 reference:1 andrew:1 szanton:1 book:4 david:1 beito:2 linda:1 royster:1 pragmatism:1 strict:1 integrationist:1 ideology:1 delta:1 glenn:1 feldman:1 ed:1 backlash:1 modern:1 south:1 dittmer:1 local:1 struggle:2 payne:1 get:1 light:1 organize:1 tradition:1 external:1 link:1 fall:1 pbs:1 wmpr:1 jackson:1 station:1 manager:1 blue:1 urban:1 contemporary:1 gospel:1 talk:1 variety:1 |@bigram medgar_evers:5 jim_crow:2 interracial_marriage:1 jomo_kenyatta:1 mau_mau:1 mau_rebellion:1 la_beckwith:2 association_advancement:1 advancement_colored:1 roy_wilkins:2 effectively_disfranchise:1 mayoral_election:1 lyndon_b:1 ronald_reagan:1 louis_farrakhan:1 external_link:1 |
5,519 | Doctor_of_Philosophy | Doctor of Philosophy, abbreviated Ph.D. or PhD for the Latin , meaning "teacher of philosophy", or, more rarely, D.Phil., for the equivalent , is an advanced academic degree awarded by universities. In many, but not all countries in the English-speaking world, it has become the highest degree one can earn (but see also the higher doctorates awarded by universities in the UK, Ireland and some Commonwealth countries) and applies to graduates in a wide array of disciplines in the sciences and humanities. The Ph.D. has become a requirement for a career as a university professor or researcher in most fields. The detailed requirements for award of a Ph.D. degree vary throughout the world; however, there are a number of common factors. In some countries (the US, Canada, Denmark, for example), most universities require coursework for Ph.D. degrees. In many other countries (especially those with a greater degree of specialization at the undergraduate level, such as the UK) there is no such condition in general. It is not uncommon, however, for individual universities or departments to specify analogous requirements for students not already in possession of a master's degree. In countries requiring coursework, there is usually a prescribed minimum amount of study — typically two to three years full time, or a set number of credit hours — which must take place before submission of a thesis. This requirement is usually waived for academic staff submitting a portfolio of peer-reviewed published work. The candidate may also be required to successfully complete a certain number of additional, advanced courses relevant to his or her area of specialization. A candidate must submit a thesis or dissertation consisting of a suitable body of original academic research, which is in principle worthy of publication in a peer-refereed context. In many countries a candidate must defend this work before a panel of expert examiners appointed by the university; in other countries, the dissertation is examined by a panel of expert examiners who stipulate whether the dissertation is in principle passable and the issues that need to be addressed before the dissertation can be passed. Universities in the non-English-speaking world have begun adopting similar standards to those of the Anglophone Ph.D. degree for their research doctorates (see, for example, Bologna Process). The term "doctor of philosophy" is not generally applied by them to graduates in disciplines other than philosophy itself. These doctoral degrees, however, are sometimes colloquially identified in English as Ph.D. degrees. History of the Ph.D. degree The origins of the doctorate dates back to the ijazat attadris wa 'l-iftta ("license to teach and issue legal opinions") in the medieval Madrasahs from the 9th century, though it was limited to Islamic law at the time, as in a Doctor of Laws degree. The doctorate was later extended to philosophy in the European universities in the Middle Ages which generally placed all academic disciplines outside the professional fields of theology, medicine and law under the broad heading of "philosophy" (or "natural philosophy" when referring to science). The degree of Doctor of Philosophy was a doctorate, generally granted as honorary degrees to select and well-established scholars. According to Wellington, Bathmaker, Hung, MucCullough and Sikes (2005), the first Ph.D. degree was awarded in Paris in 1150, but not until the early nineteenth century did the term "Ph.D. degree" acquire its modern meaning as the highest academic doctoral degree, thanks to university practice in Germany. As Wellington et al. explain, prior to the nineteenth century professional doctoral degrees could only be awarded in theology (Th.D.), law (J.D.), or medicine (M.D.). In 1861, Yale University adopted the German practice (first introduced in the 19th century at the Friedrich Wilhelm University in Berlin) of granting the degree to younger students who had completed a prescribed course of graduate study and successfully defended a thesis/dissertation containing original research in science or in the humanities. See, for instance, (subscription required) From the United States the degree spread to Canada in 1900, and then to the United Kingdom in 1917. This displaced the existing Doctor of Philosophy degree in some universities; for instance, the D.Phil. (higher doctorate in the faculty of philosophy) at the University of St Andrews was discontinued and replaced with the Ph.D. (research doctorate). Oxford retained the D.Phil. abbreviation for their research degrees. Some newer UK universities, for example Buckingham (est. 1976), Sussex (est. 1961), and, until a few years ago, York (est. 1963), chose to adopt the D.Phil., as did some universities in New Zealand. Doctor of Philosophy degrees across the globe Ph.D. degrees are awarded under different circumstances and with different requirements in many different countries. Australia and New Zealand Admission Admission to a Ph.D. program within Australia and New Zealand requires the prospective student to have completed a bachelor's degree with an honours component or a higher degree, such as a post graduate master's degree by research or a master's degree by course work. In most disciplines, honours require an extra year of study including a large research component in addition to coursework; however, in some disciplines such as engineering, law and pharmacy, honours are automatically awarded to high achievers of the normal four-year program. To obtain a Ph.D. position, students must usually gain first class honours, but may sometimes be admitted with high second class honours (known as a 2A, or Second Class Honours Division I). Alternatively, a student who fails to achieve first or second class Honours may apply for a research masters course (usually 12–18 months) and upgrade to a Ph.D. program after the first year, pending sufficient improvement. Funding In both Australia and New Zealand, Ph.D. students are sometimes offered a scholarship to study for their Ph.D. degree. The most common of these in Australia is the government-funded Australian Postgraduate Award (APA), which provides a living stipend to students of approximately AU$ 20,000 a year (tax free). Most universities in both countries also offer a similar scholarship that matches the APA amount, but are funded by the university. In recent years, with the tightening of research funding in Australia, these scholarships have become increasingly hard to obtain. Due to a continual increase to living costs, many Ph.D. students are forced to live under the poverty line, . In addition to the more common APA and University scholarships, Australian and New Zealand students also have other sources of funding in their Ph.D. degree. These could include, but are not limited to, scholarships offered by schools, research centres and commercial enterprise. For the latter, the amount is determined between the university and the organisation, but is quite often set at the APA (Industry) rate, roughly AU$7,000 more than the usual APA rate. Australian and New Zealand students are often also able to tutor undergraduate classes and do guest lectures (much like a teaching assistant in the USA) to generate income. An Australian or New Zealand Ph.D. scholarship is paid for a duration of 3 years, while a 6 month extension is usually possible upon citing delays out of the control of the student. Australian-citizen and other eligible Ph.D. and Research Masters students in Australia are not charged course fees as these are paid for by the Australian Government under the Research Training Scheme. International students and Coursework Masters students must pay course fees, unless they receive a scholarship to cover them. In order to attract top international doctoral students, the New Zealand government reduced international doctoral fees to the domestic fee level in 2006. Argentina Admission In the Latin American docta, the admission to a Ph.D. program at an Argentine University requires the full completion of a Master's degree or a Licentiate's degree. Non-Argentinian Master's titles are generally accepted into a Ph.D. program when the degree comes from a recognized university. Funding While a significant portion of postgraduate students finance their tuition and living costs with teaching or research work at private and state-run institutions, international institutions, such as the Fullbright Program and the Organization of American States (OAS), have been known to grant full scholarships for tuition with apportions for housing. http://spuweb.siu.edu.ar/studyinargentina/pages/study1203.php Scholarships in Argentina Requirements for completion Upon completion of at least two years' research and course work as a graduate student, a candidate must demonstrate truthful and original contributions to his or her specific field of knowledge within a frame of academic excellence. http://www.gfme.org/global_guide/pdf/13-18%20Argentina.pdf The doctoral candidate's work should be presented in a dissertation or thesis prepared under the supervision of a tutor or director, and reviewed by a Doctoral Committee. This Committee should be composed of examiners external to the program, and at least one of them should also be external to the institution. The academic degree of Doctor — abbreviated, "Dr.", with a suffix appropriate to the specific field — is received after a successful defense of the candidate’s dissertation. Comisión Nacional de Evaluación y Acreditación Universitaria Canada Admission Admission to a Ph.D. program at a Canadian university may require completion of a Master's degree in a related field, with sufficiently high grades and proven research ability. In some cases, a student may progress directly from an Honours Bachelor's degree to a Ph.D. program. The student usually submits an application package including a research proposal, letters of reference, transcripts, and in some cases, a sample of the student's writing. A common criterion for prospective Ph.D students is the comprehensive or qualifying examination, a process that often commences in the second year of a graduate program. Generally, successful completion of the qualifying exam permits continuance in the graduate program. Formats for this examination include oral examination by the student's faculty committee (or a separate qualifying committee), or written tests designed to demonstrate the student's knowledge in a specialized area (see below). At English-speaking universities, a student may also be required to demonstrate English language abilities, usually by achieving an acceptable score on a standard examination (e.g., Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL)). Depending on the field, the student may also be required to demonstrate ability in one or more additional languages. A prospective student applying to French-speaking universities may also have to demonstrate some English language ability. Funding While some students work outside the university (or at student jobs within the university), in some programs students are advised (or must agree) not to devote more than ten hours per week to activities (i.e., employment) outside of their studies, particularly if they have been given funding. At some Canadian universities, most Ph.D. students receive an award equivalent to the tuition amount for the first four years (this is sometimes called a tuition deferral or tuition waiver). Other sources of funding include teaching assistantships and research assistantships; experience as a teaching assistant is encouraged but not requisite in many programs. Some programs may require all Ph.D. candidates to teach, which may be done under the supervision of their supervisor or regular faculty. Besides these sources of funding, there are also various competitive scholarships, bursaries, and awards available, such as those offered by the federal government via NSERC, CIHR, or SSHRC. Requirements for completion In general, the first two years of study are devoted to completion of coursework and the comprehensive examinations. At this stage, the student is known as a "Ph.D. student." It is usually expected that the student will have completed most of his or her required coursework by the end of this stage. Furthermore, it is usually required that by the end of eighteen to thirty-six months after the first registration, the student will have successfully completed the comprehensive exams. Upon successful completion of the comprehensive exams, the student becomes known as a "Ph.D. candidate." From this stage on, the bulk of the student's time will be devoted to his or her own research, culminating in the completion of a Ph.D. thesis or dissertation. The final requirement is an oral defense of the thesis, which is open to the public. At most Canadian universities, the time needed to complete a Ph.D. degree typically ranges from four to six years. It is, however, not uncommon for students to be unable to complete all the requirements within six years, particularly given that funding packages often support students for only two to four years; many departments will allow program extensions at the discretion of the thesis supervisor and/or department chair. Alternate arrangements exist whereby a student is allowed to let their registration in the program lapse at the end of six years and re-register once the thesis is completed in draft form. The general rule is that graduate students are obligated to pay tuition until the initial thesis submission has been received by the thesis office. In other words, if a Ph.D. student defers or delays the initial submission of their thesis they remain obligated to pay fees until such time that the thesis has been received in good standing. France Admission Due to the differences in French education systems in comparison to anglophone systems, students who want to earn the Ph.D. degree must complete a Master of Science program which lasts for 2 years after graduation with a Bachelor's degree (5 years in total). In France, the Masters program is divided into two branches, Master of Engineering which orients the students towards the working world. On the other hand, a Master of Science orients the students towards research. The Ph.D admission is adopted by a graduate school (in French, "école doctorale"), a Ph.D Student has to follow some courses offered by the graduate school while continuing his/her research at laboratory. His/her research may be carried out in a laboratory, at a university, or in a company. In the last case, the company hires the student as an engineer and the student is supervised by both the company's tutor and a labs' professor. The validation of the Ph.D degree requires generally 3 to 4 years after the Master degree. Consequently, the Ph.D degree is considered in France as a "Bac +8" diploma ."Bac" stands for "Baccalauréat" which is the French High-school diploma. Funding The financing of Ph.D studies comes mainly from funds for research of French Ministry of National Education. These grants often depend of the results and the student's file. However, the student can apply for funds from a company who can host him/her at its premise (as in the case where Ph.D students do their research in a company). Other resources come from some regional/city projects, some associations, etc. Germany Admission In Germany an above-average degree (Master, Diplom, Magister or Staatsexamen) is usually required to gain admission to a doctoral program. The degree should usually be in a related field. The candidate must also find a tenured professor or Privatdozent to serve as the formal advisor and supervisor (Gutachter) of on the dissertation throughout the doctoral program. This supervisor is informally termed "Doktorvater". Doctoral programs in Germany generally take one to four years to complete (usually three), strongly depending on the subject. Since there are usually no formal classes to attend, and the doctoral candidate mainly conducts independent research under the tutelage of a single professor, a good deal of doctoral candidates work as teaching or research assistants, and are paid a reasonably competitive salary. This is a considerable difference from the situation in many other countries (such as the U. S.), where doctoral candidates are often referred to as Ph.D. "students". For German doctoral candidates, this rather inaccurate term should be avoided, because they do not take formal courses, but are often considered a full member of staff. However, external funding by research organisations and foundations is also common. Furthermore, many universities have established research-intensive Graduiertenkollegs, which are a colleges / research schools that provide funding for doctoral theses. History In early university history the Doctorate was awarded as a first degree. It has since evolved into a research degree. In German-speaking countries, most Eastern European countries, the former Soviet Union, most parts of Africa, Asia, and many Spanish-speaking countries the corresponding degree is simply called "doctor" (Doktor), and is distinguished by subject area with a Latin suffix (e.g. "Dr.med." for , "Dr.rer.nat" for — Doctor of Science, "Dr. phil." for , "Dr. iur." for , etc.). Norway Norway was one of the first countries to introduce the Doctor of Philosophy degree, inspired by the German university system. The degree doctor philosophiae, abbreviated dr. philos., was first awarded in 1847 http://www.hf.uio.no/forskningsprosjekter/ffu/FaktaUiO/faktadelen/Studieordninger.doc . The degree was used for all other fields than theology, law and medicine, which had separate degrees: doctor theologiae, doctor juris and doctor medicinae. In the late 20th century new degrees were created in the fields of natural sciences, humanities and social sciences, but it was still possible to obtain the dr. philos. degree in any field. As the dr. philos. degree was one of the four original doctoral degrees and much older than the specific degrees in natural sciences, humanities and social sciences, it was considered more prestigious by some. Both the dr. philos. degree and the other degrees required four years of high-level scientific research which significantly contributed to new knowledge of its field. Most people who started at a doctoral degree had already studied for six or seven years and obtained a Candidate degree (six years) or a Magister degree (seven years). Following a reform in 2003, all the traditional degrees except dr. philos. were abolished, and replaced by a new doctor of philosophy degree, spelled philosophiae doctor and abbreviated ph.d. The scientific standard of the ph.d. degree is lower, as it in most cases only requires three years of research. The traditional degree dr. philos., equivalent of four years of scientific research, is still awarded to those who qualify for such a degree without being admitted to an organized doctoral programme. Spain Doctor Degrees are regulated by Royal Decree (R.D. 778/1998) http://www.upm.es/laupm/organos_gobierno/normativa/NormativaDoctorado0203.pdf (in Spanish) , Real Decreto (in Spanish). They are granted by the University on behalf of the King, and its Diploma has the force of a public document. The Ministry of Science keeps a National Registry of Theses called TESEO Base de Datos TESEO . According to the National Institute of Statistics (INE), less than 5% of M.Sc. degree holders are admitted to Ph.D. programs, and less than 10% of 1st year Ph.D. students are finally granted a Doctor title http://sandevid.com/uploads/media/DOCTORADO_Y_TESIS_DOCTORALES_POR_SEXO_56e4d2_06.pdf . All doctoral programs are of research nature. A minimum of 5 years of study are required, divided into 2 stages: 1) A 3-year long period of studies, which concludes with a public dissertation presented to a panel of 3 Professors. If the projects receives approval from the university, he/she will receive a "Diploma de Estudios Avanzados" (part qualified doctor). 2) A 2-year (or longer) period of research. Extensions may be requested for up to 10 years. The student must write his thesis presenting a new discovery or original contribution to Science. If approved by his "thesis director", the study will be presented to a panel of 5 distinguished scholars. Any Doctor attending the public presentations is allowed to challenge the candidate with questions on his research. If approved, he will receive the doctorate. Four marks can be granted (Unsatisfactory, Pass, "Cum laude", and "Summa cum laude"). Those Doctors granted their degree "Summa Cum Laude" are allowed to apply for an "Extraordinary Award". A Doctor Degree is required in order to apply to a teaching position at the University. The social standing of Doctors in Spain is evidenced by the fact that only Ph.D. holders, Grandees and Dukes can take seat and cover their heads in the presence of the King Raíces de las normas y tradiciones del protocolo y ceremonial universitario actual: las universidades del Antiguo Régimen y los actos de colación. Protocolo y Etiqueta . All Doctor Degree holders are reciprocally recognized as equivalent in Germany and Spain ("Bonn Agreement of November 14 1994") Boletín Oficial del Estado. Texto del Documento . United Kingdom A University of Oxford DPhil in full academic dress. Admission In principle, a university is free to admit anyone to a Ph.D. programme; however, in practice, admission is usually conditional on the prospective student having successfully completed an undergraduate degree with at least upper second-class honours, or a postgraduate master's degree. Commonly, students are first accepted on to an MPhil programme and may transfer to PhD regulations upon satisfactory progress. This is typically done after one year, and the research work done will count towards the PhD degree. If a student fails to make satisfactory progress, he or she may be offered the opportunity to write up and submit for an MPhil degree. In addition, Ph.D. students from countries outside the EU/EFTA area are required to comply with the Academic Technology Approval Scheme (ATAS), which involves undergoing a security clearance process with the Foreign Office for certain courses in medicine, mathematics and many natural, engineering and material sciences. FCO Counter terrorism & weapons proliferation staff: Advice for PHD/doctoral level students applying for an ATAS certificate. Accessed 16 September 2008 Postgrad checks worry scientists BBC News, 12 March 2007 This requirement was introduced in 2007 due to concerns about terrorism and weapons proliferation. Funding In the United Kingdom, funding for Ph.D. students is sometimes provided by government-funded Research Councils or the European Social Fund, usually in the form of a tax-free bursary which consists of tuition fees together with a stipend of around GBP 12,940 per year for three years (rising to £14,940 per year in London) http://www.ahrc.ac.uk/images/pg_grants_fees_200809.pdf , whether or not the degree continues for longer. Research Council funding is sometimes 'earmarked' for a particular department or research group, who then allocate it to a chosen student, although in doing so they are generally expected to abide by the usual minimum entry requirements (typically a first degree with upper second class honours, although successful completion of a postgraduate master's degree is usually counted as raising the class of the first degree by one division for these purposes). However, the availability of funding in many disciplines (especially humanities, social studies, and pure science subjects) means that in practice only those with the best research proposals, references and backgrounds are likely to be awarded a studentship. The ESRC (Economic and Social Science Research Council) explicitly state that a 2.1 minimum (or 2.2 plus additional masters degree) is required - no additional marks are given for students with a first class honours or a distinction at masters level. Since 2002, there has been a move by research councils to fund interdisciplinary doctoral training centres such as MOAC http://www.warwick.ac.uk/go/moac which concentrate on communication between traditional disciplines and an emphasis on transferable skills in addition to research training. Many students who are not in receipt of external funding may choose to undertake the degree part time, thus reducing the tuition fees, as well as creating free time in which to earn money for subsistence. Students may also take part in tutoring, work as research assistants, or (occasionally) deliver lectures, at a rate of typically £25–30 per hour, either to supplement existing low income or as a sole means of funding. Completion Funding typically lasts for three or four years for PhD students and four years for students earning both their master's degree and PhD degree; there is a usually first-year assessment to remain in the programme and the thesis is submitted at the end of the 3-4 year program. These periods are usually extended pro rata for part-time students. With special dispensation, the final date for the thesis can be extended for up to four additional years, for a total of seven, but it is rare for students to spend more than four years in the programme. Since the early 1990s, the funding councils have adopted a policy of penalising departments where large proportions of students fail to submit their theses in four years (or pro rata equivalent) by reducing the number of funded places in subsequent years. http://www.esrcsocietytoday.ac.uk/ESRCInfoCentre/Images/res_grant_linked_studentships_tcm6-12550.pdf Other doctorates In the United Kingdom Ph.D. degrees are distinct from other doctorates, most notably the higher doctorates such as D.Litt. (Doctor of Letters) or D.Sc. (Doctor of Science), which are granted on the recommendation of a committee of examiners on the basis of a substantial portfolio of submitted (and usually published) research. Recent years have seen the introduction of professional doctorates, most notably in the fields of engineering (Eng.D.), education (Ed.D.), clinical psychology (D.Clin.Psych.),public administration (D.P.A.), business administration (D.B.A.), and music (D.M.A.). These typically have a more formal taught component consisting of smaller research projects, as well as a 40,000-60,000 word thesis component, which collectively is equivalent to that of a Ph.D. degree. United States Overview In the United States, the Ph.D. degree is the highest academic degree awarded by universities in most fields of study. The Ph.D. degree is often misunderstood to be synonymous with the term doctorate. While the Ph.D. degree is the most common doctorate, the term doctorate can refer to any number of doctoral degrees in the United States. The U.S. Department of Education and the National Science Foundation recognize numerous doctoral degrees as "equivalent", and do not discriminate between them. American students typically undergo a series of three phases in the course of their work toward the Ph.D. degree. The first phase consists of coursework in the student's field of study and requires one to three years to complete. This often is followed by a preliminary, a comprehensive examination, or a series of cumulative examinations where the emphasis is on breadth rather than depth of knowledge. The student is often later required to pass oral and written examinations in the field of specialization within the discipline, and here, depth is emphasized. Some Ph.D. programs require the candidate to successfully complete requirements in pedagogy (taking courses on higher level teaching and teaching undergraduate courses) or applied science (e.g., clinical practica and predoctoral clinical internship in Ph.D. programs in clinical or counseling psychology). Another two to four years are usually required for the composition of a substantial and original contribution to human knowledge in the form of a written dissertation, which in the social sciences and humanities typically ranges from 50 to 450 pages in length. In many cases, depending on the discipline, a dissertation consists of (i) a comprehensive literature review, (ii) an outline of methodology, and (iii) several chapters of scientific, social, historical, philosophical, or literary analysis. Typically, upon completion, the candidate undergoes an oral examination, sometimes public, by his or her supervisory committee with expertise in the given discipline. As the Ph.D. degree is often a preliminary step toward a career as a professor, throughout the whole period of study and dissertation research the student may be required or at least offered the opportunity, depending on the university and degree, to teach undergraduate or sometimes graduate courses in relevant subjects. The Ph.D. can also be awarded as a religious-exempt degree, if having a religious modifier, like Ph.D. in Religion or Ph.D. in Metaphysics. Admission There are 282 universities in the United States that award the Ph.D. degree, and those universities vary widely in their criteria for admission, as well as the rigor of their academic programs. Listing of Research I Universities, Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching - 282 is the sum of all three categories of doctoral universities. Typically, Ph.D. programs require applicants to have a Bachelor's degree in a relevant field (and, in rare cases, a master's degree), reasonably high grades, several letters of recommendation, relevant academic coursework, a cogent statement of interest in the field of study, and satisfactory performance on a graduate-level exam specified by the respective program (e.g., GRE, GMAT Wharton Doctoral Programs: Application Requirements http://www2.gsb.columbia.edu/doctoral/admissions/index.html ). Specific admissions criteria differ substantially according to university admissions policies and fields of study; some programs in well-regarded research universities (i.e., Research 1 universities) may admit less than five percent of applicants and require an exceptional performance on the GRE along with near-perfect grades, strong support in letters of recommendation, substantial research experience, and academically sophisticated samples of their writing. Master's degree "in passing" As applicants to many Ph.D. programs are not required to have master's degrees, many programs award a Master of Arts or Master of Science degree "in passing" or "in course" based on the graduate work done in the course of achieving the Ph.D. Students who receive such master's degrees are usually required to complete a certain amount of coursework and a master's thesis. Depending on the specific program, masters-in-passing degrees can be either mandatory or optional. Not all Ph.D. students choose to complete the additional requirements necessary for the M.A. or M.S. if such requirements are not mandated by their programs. Those students will simply obtain the Ph.D. degree at the end of their graduate study. Some programs also include a Master of Philosophy degree as part of the Ph.D. program. Master of Philosophy (M.Phil.) The M.Phil., in those universities that offer it, is usually awarded after the appropriate M.A. or M.S. (as above) is awarded, and the degree candidate has completed all further requirements for the Ph.D. degree (which may include additional language requirements, course credits, teaching experiences, and comprehensive exams) aside from the writing and defense of the dissertation itself. This formalizes the "all but dissertation" (ABD) status used informally by some students, and represents that the student has achieved a higher level of scholarship than the M.A./M.S. would indicate - as such, the M.Phil. is sometimes a helpful credential for those applying for teaching or research posts while completing their dissertation work for the Ph.D. degree itself. Policies and Regulations Time Depending on the specific field of study, completion of a Ph.D. program usually takes four to eight years of study after the Bachelor's Degree; those students who begin a Ph.D. program with a master's degree may complete their Ph.D. degree a year or two sooner. As Ph.D. programs typically lack the formal structure of undergraduate education, there are significant individual differences in the time taken to complete the degree. Many U.S. universities have set a ten-year limit for students in Ph.D. programs, or refuse to consider graduate credit older than ten years as counting towards a Ph.D. degree. Similarly, students may be required to re-take the comprehensive exam if they do not defend their dissertations within five years of taking it. Overall, 57% of students who begin a Ph.D. program in the US will complete their degree within ten years, approximately 30% will drop out or be dismissed, and the remaining 13% of students will continue on past ten years. In humanities, ten years may not be enough to get a Ph.D., "The Chronicle of Higher Education" July 27, 2007 Funding Doctoral students are usually discouraged from engaging in external employment during the course of their graduate training. As a result, Ph.D. students at U.S. universities typically receive a tuition waiver and some form of annual stipend. The source and amount of funding varies from field to field and university to university. Many U.S. graduate students work as teaching assistants or research assistants while they are doctoral students. Graduate schools increasingly encourage their students to seek outside funding; many are supported by fellowships they obtain for themselves or by their advisers' research grants from government agencies such as the National Science Foundation and the National Institutes of Health. Many Ivy League and other well-endowed universities provide funding for the entire duration of the degree program (if it is short) or for most of it. Ph.D. candidacy A Ph.D. Candidate (sometimes called Candidate of Philosophy) is a postgraduate student at the doctoral level who has successfully satisfied the requirements for doctoral studies, except for the final thesis or dissertation. As such, a Ph.D. Candidate is sometimes called an "ABD" (All But Dissertation or All But Defended). Although a minor distinction in postgraduate study, achieving Ph.D Candidacy is not without benefit. For example, Ph.D. Candidate status may coincide with an increase in the student's monthly stipend and may make the student eligible for additional employment opportunities. Ph.D. Candidate is not to be confused with Candidate of Sciences, an academic degree that has been used in certain countries in place of PhD. Models of supervision At some universities, there may be training for those wishing to supervise Ph.D. studies. There is now a lot of literature published for academics who wish to do this, such as Delamont, Atkinson and Parry (1997). Indeed, Dinham and Scott (2001) have argued that the worldwide growth in research students has been matched by increase in a number of what they term "how-to" texts for both students and supervisors, citing examples such as Pugh and Phillips (1987). These authors report empirical data on the benefits that Ph.D. students may gain if they publish their work, and note that Ph.D. students are more likely to do this with adequate encouragement from their supervisors. Wisker (2005) has noticed how research into this field has distinguished between two models of supervision: The technical-rationality model of supervision, emphasising technique; The negotiated order model, being less mechanistic and emphasising fluid and dynamic change in the Ph.D. process. These two models were first distinguished by Acker, Hill and Black (1994; cited in Wisker, 2005). Considerable literature exists on the expectations that supervisors may have of their students (Phillips & Pugh, 1987) and the expectations that students may have of their supervisors (Phillips & Pugh, 1987; Wilkinson, 2005) in the course of Ph.D. supervision. Similar expectations are implied by the Quality Assurance Agency's Code for Supervision (Quality Assurance Agency, 1999; cited in Wilkinson, 2005). See also International Ph.D. Equivalent Degrees: Belgium (Dutch-speaking): Doctor Belgium (French-speaking): Doctorat Brazil: Doutorado Egypt: Doctorat France: Doctorat Greece: Διδακτορικό Italy: dottorato di ricerca Latin America: Doctorado/Doctorate Mexico: Doctorado Poland: Doktor Portugal: Doutoramento Spain: Doctorado Turkey: Doktora Other Degrees: PhD in Management - A program designed for students interested in becoming professors in Business. Doctorate - A general term describing a set of degrees analogous to the Ph.D. Terminal degree - The highest degree awarded in a field, usually a Ph.D. Graduate student - A student pursuing education past the bachelor's degree, such as Masters Degree or a Ph.D. C.Phil. (also ABD) - Term, usually used unofficially, for a graduate student who has completed all Ph.D. coursework but has yet to defend his or her dissertation. Kandidat - Degree awarded by USSR and post-Soviet states. Licentiate - Degree awarded in various countries, including Portugal, Belgium, the , Argentina, Germany, Switzerland, Sweden, Finland, Australia, New Zealand, Mexico and Poland. Sandwich PhD Programme Ph.D. in popular culture: Piled Higher and Deeper - Life (or the lack thereof) in Academia, a comic strip by Jorge Cham Notes References Delamont, S., Atkinson, P. & Parry, O. (1997). Supervising the Ph.D.: A guide to success. Buckingham: Open University Press. ISBN 0-335-19516-4 Dinham, S. & Scott, C. (2001). The experience of the results of disseminating the results of doctoral research. Journal of Further and Higher Education, 25 (1) 45-55. ISSN: 1469-9486 MacGillivray, Alex; Potts, Gareth; Raymond, Polly. Secrets of Their Success (London: New Economics Foundation, 2002). Phillips, E. & Pugh, D.S. (1987). How to get a PhD : managing the peaks and troughs of research / Estelle M. Phillips and D.S. Pugh. Milton Keynes: Open University Press ISBN 0335155375 Simpson, Renate. How the PhD came to Britain: A century of struggle for postgraduate education, Society for Research into Higher Education, Guildford (1983). Wellington, J. Bathmaker, A._M., Hunt, C., McCullough, G. & Sikes, P. (2005). Succeeding with your doctorate. London: Sage. ISBN 1-4129-0116-2 Wilkinson, D. (2005) The essential guide to postgraduate study. London : SAGE ISBN 141290062X (hbk.) External links Doctorate Recipients from United States Universities: Summary Report 2005 (1.9MiB) LaTeX template for writing PhD thesis The Mathematics PhD in the United Kingdom: Notes on its History Contains information/links of more general relevance than mathematics. | Doctor_of_Philosophy |@lemmatized doctor:27 philosophy:16 abbreviate:4 ph:96 phd:13 latin:4 mean:3 teacher:1 rarely:1 phil:9 equivalent:8 advanced:2 academic:14 degree:124 award:24 university:56 many:20 country:17 english:7 speaking:6 world:4 become:5 high:20 one:9 earn:4 see:6 also:17 doctorate:19 uk:6 ireland:1 commonwealth:1 applies:1 graduate:20 wide:1 array:1 discipline:10 science:22 humanity:7 requirement:18 career:2 professor:7 researcher:1 field:23 detailed:1 vary:2 throughout:3 however:9 number:6 common:6 factor:1 u:7 canada:3 denmark:1 example:5 require:30 coursework:10 especially:2 great:1 specialization:3 undergraduate:6 level:9 condition:1 general:5 uncommon:2 individual:2 department:6 specify:2 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5,520 | Demographics_of_North_Korea | This article is about the demographic features of the population of North Korea, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. The demographics of North Korea are difficult to assess due to the limited amount of data available from the country. The historical data is derived from the work done by United States scholar Nicholas Eberstadt and demographer Judith Banister in 1992. Against the background of ethnic homogeneity, significant regional differences exist. However, regional stereotypes, like regional dialects, have been breaking down under the influence of centralized education, nationwide media, and the several decades of population movement since the Korean War. It is not technically impossible to be a North Korean citizen without being an ethnic Korean - James Dresnok, a White American, acquired North Korean citizenship in 1972 Russell, Mark “An American in North Korea, Pledging Allegiance to the Great Leader”, New York Times, October 19, 2006. Accessed January 28, 2007. - but immigration is almost unheard of, and ethnic minorities are negligible. History of reporting demographics Until the release of official data in 1989, the 1963 edition of the North Korea Central Yearbook was the last official publication to disclose population figures. After 1963 demographers used varying methods to estimate the population. They either totaled the number of delegates elected to the Supreme People's Assembly (each delegate representing 50,000 people before 1962 and 30,000 people afterward) or relied on official statements that a certain number of persons, or percentage of the population, was engaged in a particular activity. Thus, on the basis of remarks made by President Kim Il Sung in 1977 concerning school attendance, the population that year was calculated at 17.2 million persons. During the 1980s, health statistics, including life expectancy and causes of mortality, were gradually made available to the outside world. In 1989 the Central Statistics Bureau released demographic data to the United Nations Fund for Population Activities (UNFPA) in order to secure the UNFPA's assistance in holding North Korea's first nationwide census since the establishment of the DPRK in 1946. Although the figures given to the United Nations (UN) might have been purposely distorted, it appears that in line with other attempts to open itself to the outside world, the North Korean regime has also opened somewhat in the demographic realm. Although the country lacks trained demographers, accurate data on household registration, migration, and births and deaths are available to North Korean authorities. According to the United States scholar Nicholas Eberstadt and demographer Judith Banister, vital statistics and personal information on residents are kept by agencies on the ri, or ni (, : village, the local administrative unit) level in rural areas and the dong (, : district or block) level in urban areas. Size and growth rate In their 1992 monograph, The Population of North Korea, Eberstadt and Banister use the data given to the UNFPA and also make their own assessments. They place the total population at 21.4 million persons in mid-1990, consisting of 10.6 million males and 10.8 million females. This figure is close to an estimate of 21.9 million persons for mid-1988 cited in the 1990 edition of the Demographic Yearbook published by the UN. Korean Review, a book by Pan Hwan Ju published by the P'yongyang Foreign Languages Press in 1987, gives a figure of 19.1 million persons for 1986. Male-female ratio The figures disclosed by the government reveal an unusually low proportion of males to females: in 1980 and 1987, the male-to-female ratios were 86.2 to 100, and 84.2 to 100, respectively. Low male-to-female ratios are usually the result of a war, but these figures were lower than the sex ratio of 88.3 males per 100 females recorded for 1953, the last year of the Korean War. The male-to-female ratio would be expected to rise to a normal level with the passage of years, as happened between 1953 and 1970, when the figure was 95.1 males per 100 females. After 1970, however, the ratio declined. Eberstadt and Banister suggest that before 1970 male and female population figures included the whole population, yielding ratios in the ninetieth percentile, but that after that time the male military population was excluded from population figures. Based on the figures provided by the Central Statistics Bureau, Eberstadt and Banister estimate that the actual size of the "hidden" male North Korean military had reached 1.2 million by 1986 and that the actual male-to-female ratio was 97.1 males to 100 females in 1990. If their estimates are correct, 6.1 percent of North Korea's total population was in the military, numerically the world's fifth largest military force, in the late 1980s (fourth largest as of 2006). Growth rate The annual population growth rate in 1960 was 2.7 percent, rising to a high of 3.6 percent in 1970, but falling to 1.9 percent in 1975. This fall reflected a dramatic decline in the fertility rate: the average number of children born to women decreased from 6.5 in 1966 to 2.5 in 1988. Assuming the data are reliable, reasons for falling growth rates and fertility rates probably include late marriage, urbanization, limited housing space, and the expectation that women would participate equally in terms of work hours in the labor force. The experience of other socialist countries suggests that widespread labor force participation by women often goes hand-in-hand with more traditional role expectations; in other words, they are still responsible for housework and childrearing. The high percentage of males aged seventeen to twenty-six may also have contributed to the low fertility rate. According to Eberstadt and Banister's data, the annual population growth rate in 1991 was 1.9 percent. However, the CIA World Fact Book estimated that North Korea's annual population growth rate was 1.02% in 1991 and that it has since declined to 0.42% by 2009. Promoting population growth The North Korean government seems to perceive its population as too small in relation to that of South Korea. In its public pronouncements, P'yongyang has called for accelerated population growth and encouraged large families. According to one Korean American scholar who visited North Korea in the early 1980s, the country has no birth control policies; parents are encouraged to have as many as six children. The state provides t'agaso (nurseries) in order to lessen the burden of childrearing for parents and offers a seventy-seven-day paid leave after childbirth. Eberstadt and Banister suggest, however, that authorities at the local level make contraceptive information readily available to parents and that intrauterine devices are the most commonly adopted birth control method. An interview with a former North Korean resident in the early 1990s revealed that such devices are distributed free at clinics. Population structure and projections Demographers determine the age structure of a given population by dividing it into five-year age-groups and arranging them chronologically in a pyramidlike structure that "bulges" or recedes in relation to the number of persons in a given age cohort. Many poor, developing countries have a broad base and steadily tapering higher levels, which reflects a large number of births and young children but much smaller age cohorts in later years as a result of relatively short life expectancies. North Korea does not entirely fit this pattern; data reveal a "bulge" in the lower ranges of adulthood. In 1991 life expectancy at birth was approximately sixty-six years for males, almost seventy-three for females. It is likely that annual population growth rates will increase in the future, as well as difficulties in employing the many young men and women entering the labor force in a socialist economy already suffering from stagnant growth. Eberstadt and Banister estimate that the population will increase to 25.5 million by the end of the century and to 28.5 million in 2010. They project that the population will stabilize (that is, cease to grow) at 34 million persons in 2045 and will then experience a gradual decline. By comparison, South Korea's population is expected to stabilize at 52.6 million people in 2023. Settlement patterns and urbanization North Korea's population is concentrated in the plains and lowlands. The least populated regions are the mountainous Chagang and Yanggang provinces adjacent to the Chinese border. The largest concentrations of population are in North P'yŏngan and South P'yŏngan provinces, in the municipal district of P'yongyang, and in South Hamgyŏng Province, which includes the Hamhŭng-Hŭngnam urban area. Eberstadt and Banister calculate the average population density at 167 persons per square kilometer, ranging from 1,178 persons per square kilometer in P'yongyang Municipality to 44 persons per square kilometer in Yanggang Province. By contrast, South Korea had an average population density of 425 persons per square kilometer in 1989. Like South Korea, North Korea has experienced significant urban migration since the end of the Korean War. Official statistics reveal that 59.6 percent of the total population was classified as urban in 1987. This figures compares with only 17.7 percent in 1953. It is not entirely clear, however, what standards are used to define urban populations. Eberstadt and Banister suggest that although South Korean statisticians do not classify settlements of under 50,000 as urban, their North Korean counterparts include settlements as small as 20,000 in this category. And, in North Korea, people who engage in agricultural pursuits inside municipalities sometimes are not counted as urban. Urbanization in North Korea seems to have proceeded most rapidly between 1953 and 1960, when the urban population grew between 12 and 20 percent annually. Subsequently, the increase slowed to about 6 percent annually in the 1960s and between 1 and 3 percent from 1970 to 1987. In 1987 North Korea's largest cities were P'yongyang, with approximately 2.3 million inhabitants; Hamhŭng, 701,000; Ch'ŏngjin, 520,000; Namp'o, 370,000; Sunch'ŏn, 356,000; and Sinŭiju, 289,000. In 1987 the total national population living in P'yongyang was 11.5 percent. The government also restricts and monitors migration to cities and ensures a relatively balanced distribution of population in provincial centers in relation to P'yongyang. Koreans living overseas Large-scale emigration from Korea began around 1904 and continued until the end of World War II. During the Japanese colonial occupation (1910–45), many Koreans emigrated to Manchuria (China's three northeastern provinces of Heilongjiang, Jilin, and Liaoning), other parts of China, the Soviet Union, Hawaii, and the continental United States. People from Korea's northern provinces went mainly to Manchuria, China, and Siberia; many from the southern provinces went to Japan. Most émigrés left for economic reasons because employment opportunities were scarce; many Korean farmers had lost their land after the Japanese colonial government introduced a system of private land tenure, imposed higher land taxes, and promoted the growth of an absentee landlord class charging exorbitant rents. In the 1980s, more than 4 million ethnic Koreans lived outside the peninsula. The largest group, about 1.7 million people, lived in China (see Koreans in China); most had assumed Chinese citizenship. Approximately 1 million Koreans, almost exclusively from South Korea, lived in North America (see Korean Americans). About 389,000 ethnic Koreans resided in the former Soviet Union (see Koryosaram and Sakhalin Koreans). One observer noted that Koreans have been so successful in running collective farms in Soviet Central Asia that being Korean is often associated by other citizens there with being rich, and as a result there is growing antagonism against Koreans. Smaller groups of Koreans are found in Central America and South America (85,000), the Middle East (62,000), Europe (40,000), Asia (27,000), and Africa (25,000). Many of Japan's approximately 680,000 Koreans have below average standards of living. This situation is partly because of discrimination by the Japanese. Many resident Koreans, loyal to North Korea, remain separate from, and often hostile to, the Japanese social mainstream. The pro-North Korean Chongryon (General Association of Korean Residents in Japan, known as Chosen soren or Chosoren in Japanese) initially was more successful than the pro-South Korean Mindan (Association for Korean Residents in Japan) in attracting adherents among residents in Japan. Between 1959 and 1982, Chongryon encouraged the repatriation of Korean residents in Japan to North Korea. More than 93,000 Koreans left Japan, the majority (80,000 persons) in 1960 and 1961. Thereafter, the number of repatriates declined, apparently because of reports of hardships suffered by their compatriots. Approximately 6,637 Japanese wives accompanied their husbands to North Korea, of whom about 1,828 retained Japanese citizenship in the early 1990s. P'yongyang had originally promised that the wives could return home every two or three years to visit their relatives. In fact, however, they are not allowed to do so, and few have had contact with their families in Japan. In normalization talks between North Korean and Japanese officials in the early 1990s, the latter urged unsuccessfully that the wives be allowed to make home visits. CIA World Factbook demographic statistics The following demographic statistics are from the NATO, unless otherwise indicated. Population 22,665,345 (July 2009 est.) Age structure 0–14 years: 21.3% (male 2,440,439/female 2,376,557) 15–64 years: 69.4% (male 7,776,889/female 7,945,399) 65 years and over: 9.4% (male 820,504/female 1,305,557) (2009 est.) Population growth rate 1.02% (1991 est.) 0.31% (1996 est.) 0.87% (2006 est.) 0.42% (2009 est.) Birth rate 20.01 births/1,000 population (1991 est.) 17.58 births/1,000 population (1996 est.) 14.61 births/1,000 population (2006 est.) 14.61 births/1,000 population (2008 est.) Death rate 8.94 deaths/1,000 population (1991 est.) 9.52 deaths/1,000 population (1996 est.) 7.29 deaths/1,000 population (2006 est.) 7.29 deaths/1,000 population (2008 est.) Net migration rate -0.09 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2009 est.) Sex ratio at birth: 1.06 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.03 male(s)/female 15–64 years: 0.98 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.63 male(s)/female total population: 0.95 male(s)/female (2009 est.) Infant mortality rate total: 51.34 deaths/1,000 live births (2009 est.) Life expectancy at birth total population: 63.81 years male: 61.23 years female: 66.53 years (2009 est.) Total fertility rate 2.09 children born/woman (2006 est.) 1.96 children born/woman (2009 est.) Nationality noun: Korean(s) adjective: Korean Ethnic groups racially homogeneous: Koreans; small Chinese community, a few ethnic Japanese and ethnic Vietnamese. Religion: traditionally Korean shamanist, Buddhist(54%) and Confucianist, some Christian and syncretic Chondogyo (Religion of the Heavenly Way) Languages Korean Literacy definition: age 15 and over can read and write Korean total population: 99% male: 99% female: 99% Figures from CIA World Factbook as of 2009 References See also Demographics of South Korea North Korea Koreans List of Korea-related topics | Demographics_of_North_Korea |@lemmatized article:1 demographic:9 feature:1 population:51 north:31 korea:28 include:6 density:3 ethnicity:1 education:2 level:6 health:2 populace:1 economic:2 status:1 religious:1 affiliation:1 aspect:1 difficult:1 assess:1 due:1 limited:2 amount:1 data:9 available:4 country:5 historical:1 derive:1 work:2 united:5 state:4 scholar:3 nicholas:2 eberstadt:10 demographer:5 judith:2 banister:10 background:1 ethnic:8 homogeneity:1 significant:2 regional:3 difference:1 exist:1 however:6 stereotype:1 like:2 dialect:1 break:1 influence:1 centralized:1 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5,521 | Grape | A grape is the non-climacteric fruit, botanically a true berry, that grows on the perennial and deciduous woody vines of the genus Vitis. Grapes can be eaten raw or used for making , juice, jelly, vinegar, wine, grape seed extracts, raisins, and grape seed oil. Grapes are also used in some kinds of candy. History Ancient Egyptian hieroglyphics show the cultivation of grapes. Scholars believe that ancient Greeks, Phoenicians and Romans also grew grapes both for eating and wine production. Later, the growing of grapes spread to Europe, North Africa, and eventually to the United States. Native grapes in North America grew along streams; however, the first cultivated grapes in California were grown by Spanish Franciscan Friars looking to make a sacramental wine for the California Missions. The first table grape vineyard in California is credited to an early settler by the name of William Wolfskill in the Los Angeles area. As more settlers came to California, more and more varieties of European grapes were introduced, some for wine-making, others for raisins and some for eating fresh. Today in the United States, approximately 98 percent of commercially grown table grapes are from California (California Table Grape Commission). Description Grapes grow in clusters of 6 to 300, and can be crimson, black, dark blue, yellow, green and pink. "White" grapes are actually green in color, and are evolutionarily derived from the red grape. Mutations in two regulatory genes of white grapes turn off production of anthocyanins which are responsible for the color of red grapes. Anthocyanins and other pigment chemicals of the larger family of polyphenols in red grapes are responsible for the varying shades of purple in red wines. Grapevines Most grapes come from cultivars of Vitis vinifera, the European grapevine native to the Mediterranean and Central Asia. Minor amounts of fruit and wine come from American and Asian species such as: Vitis labrusca, the North American table and grape juice grapevines (including the concord cultivar), sometimes used for wine. Native to the Eastern United States and Canada. Vitis riparia, a wild vine of North America, sometimes used for winemaking and for jam. Native to the entire Eastern U.S. and north to Quebec. Vitis rotundifolia, the muscadines, used for jams and wine. Native to the Southeastern United States from Delaware to the Gulf of Mexico. Vitis amurensis, the most important Asian species. Distribution and production According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), 75,866 square kilometres of the world are dedicated to grapes. Approximately 71% of world grape production is used for wine, 27% as fresh fruit, and 2% as dried fruit. A portion of grape production goes to producing grape juice to be reconstituted for fruits canned "with no added sugar" and "100% natural". The area dedicated to vineyards is increasing by about 2% per year. The following table of top wine-producers shows the corresponding areas dedicated to grapes for wine making: CountryArea Dedicated Spain 11,750 km² France 8,640 km² Italy 8,270 km² Turkey 8,120 km² United States 4,150 km² Iran 2,860 km² Romania 2,480 km² Portugal 2,160 km² Argentina 2,080 km² Australia 1,642 km² Lebanon 1,122 km² Top Ten Grapes Producers — 11 June 2008 Country Production (Tonnes) Footnote 8,519,418 6,500,000 F 6,250,000 F 6,105,080 6,013,000 3,923,040 3,000,000 F 2,900,000 F 2,350,000 F 1,667,700 7,501,872 A No symbol = official figure, P = official figure, F = FAO estimate, * = Unofficial/Semi-official/mirror data, C = Calculated figure A = Aggregate(may include official, semi-official or estimates); Source: Food And Agricultural Organization of United Nations: Economic And Social Department: The Statistical Devision Seedless grapes Seedlessness is a highly desirable subjective quality in table grape selection, and seedless cultivars now make up the overwhelming majority of table grape plantings. Because grapevines are vegetatively propagated by cuttings, the lack of seeds does not present a problem for reproduction. It is, however, an issue for breeders, who must either use a seeded variety as the female parent or rescue embryos early in development using tissue culture techniques. There are several sources of the seedlessness trait, and essentially all commercial cultivators get it from one of three sources: Thompson Seedless, Russian Seedless, and Black Monukka, all being cultivars of Vitis vinifera. There are currently more than a dozen varieties of seedless grapes. Several, such as Einset Seedless, Reliance and Venus, have been specifically cultivated for hardiness and quality in the relatively cold climates of north-eastern United States and southern Ontario. Reisch BI, Peterson DV, Martens M-H. "Seedless Grapes", in "Table Grape Varieties for Cool Climates", Information Bulletin 234, Cornell University, New York State Agricultural Experiment Station, retrieved December 30, 2008 An offset to the improved eating quality of seedlessness is the loss of potential health benefits provided by the enriched phytochemical content of grape seeds (see Health claims, below). Raisins, currants, sultanas and Kismis In most of Europe, dried grapes are universally referred to as 'raisins' or the local equivalent. In the UK, three different varieties are recognized, forcing the EU to use the term "Dried vine fruit" in official documents. A raisin is any dried grape. While raisin is a French loanword, the word in French refers to the fresh fruit; grappe (from which the English grape is derived) refers to the bunch (as in une grappe de raisins). A currant is a dried Zante grape, the name being a corruption of the French raisin de Corinthe (Corinth grape). Note also that currant has come to refer also to the blackcurrant and redcurrant, two berries unrelated to grapes. A sultana was originally a raisin made from a specific type of grape of Turkish origin, but the word is now applied to raisins made from common grapes and chemically treated to resemble the traditional sultana. Health claims French Paradox Comparing diets among western countries, researchers have discovered that although the French tend to eat higher levels of animal fat, surprisingly the incidence of heart disease remains low in France, a phenomenon named the French Paradox and thought to occur from protective benefits of regularly consuming red wine. Apart from potential benefits of alcohol itself, including reduced platelet aggregation and vasodilation, polyphenols (e.g., resveratrol) mainly in the grape skin provide other suspected health benefits, such as: alteration of molecular mechanisms in blood vessels, reducing susceptibility to vascular damage decreased activity of angiotensin, a systemic hormone causing blood vessel constriction that would elevate blood pressure increased production of the vasodilator hormone, nitric oxide (endothelium-derived relaxing factor) Although adoption of wine consumption is not recommended by some health authorities, American Heart Association, Alcohol, wine and cardiovascular disease. a significant volume of research indicates moderate consumption, such as one glass of red wine a day for women and two for men, may confer health benefits. Alcohol. Harvard School of Public Health Emerging evidence is that wine polyphenols like resveratrol provide physiological benefit whereas alcohol itself may have protective effects on the cardiovascular system. Resveratrol Grape phytochemicals such as resveratrol, a polyphenol antioxidant, have been positively linked to inhibiting cancer, heart disease, degenerative nerve disease, viral infections and mechanisms of Alzheimer's disease. Protection of the genome through antioxidant actions may be a general function of resveratrol. In laboratory studies, resveratrol bears a significant transcriptional overlap with the beneficial effects of calorie restriction in heart, skeletal muscle and brain. Both dietary interventions inhibit gene expression associated with heart and skeletal muscle aging, and prevent age-related heart failure. Resveratrol is the subject of several human clinical trials, Listing of resveratrol clinical trials, ClinicalTrials.gov, a service of the US National Institutes of Health among which the most advanced is a one year dietary regimen in a Phase III study of elderly patients with Alzheimer's disease. Randomized Trial of a Nutritional Supplement in Alzheimer's Disease, US Department of Veterans Affairs, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, May 2008 Synthesized by many plants, resveratrol apparently serves antifungal and other defensive properties. Dietary resveratrol has been shown to modulate the metabolism of lipids and to inhibit oxidation of low-density lipoproteins and aggregation of platelets. Resveratrol is found in wide amounts among grape varieties, primarily in their skins and seeds which, in muscadine grapes, have about one hundred times higher concentration than pulp. LeBlanc, MR (2005). Cultivar, Juice Extraction, Ultra Violet Irradiation and Storage Influence the Stilbene Content of Muscadine Grapes (Vitis Rotundifolia Michx.). PhD Dissertation, Louisiana State University Fresh grape skin contains about 50 to 100 micrograms of resveratrol per gram. Anthocyanins and other phenolics Anthocyanins tend to be the main polyphenolics in red grapes whereas flavan-3-ols (e.g., catechins) are the more abundant phenolic in white varieties. Total phenolic content, an index of dietary antioxidant strength, is higher in red varieties due almost entirely to anthocyanin density in red grape skin compared to absence of anthocyanins in white grape skin. It is these anthocyanins that are attracting the efforts of scientists to define their properties for human health. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry Presents Research from the 2007 International Berry Health Benefits Symposium, Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry ACS Publications, February 2008 Phenolic content of grape skin varies with cultivar, soil composition, climate, geographic origin, and cultivation practices or exposure to diseases, such as fungal infections. Red wine offers health benefits more so than white because many beneficial compounds are present in grape skin, and only red wine is fermented with skins. The amount of fermentation time a wine spends in contact with grape skins is an important determinant of its resveratrol content. Ordinary non-muscadine red wine contains between 0.2 and 5.8 mg/L, depending on the grape variety, because it is fermented with the skins, allowing the wine to absorb the resveratrol. By contrast, a white wine contains lower phenolic contents because it is fermented after removal of skins. Wines produced from muscadine grapes may contain more than 40 mg/L, an exceptional phenolic content. Ector BJ, Magee JB, Hegwood CP, Coign MJ. Resveratrol Concentration in Muscadine Berries, Juice, Pomace, Purees, Seeds, and Wines. In muscadine skins, ellagic acid, myricetin, quercetin, kaempferol, and trans-resveratrol are major phenolics. Contrary to previous results, ellagic acid and not resveratrol is the major phenolic in muscadine grapes. Seed constituents Since the 1980s, biochemical and medical studies have demonstrated significant antioxidant properties of grape seed oligomeric proanthocyanidins. Together with tannins, polyphenols and polyunsaturated fatty acids, these seed constituents display inhibitory activities against several experimental disease models, including cancer, heart failure and other disorders of oxidative stress. Grape seed oil from crushed seeds is used in cosmeceuticals and skincare products for many perceived health benefits. Grape seed oil is notable for its high contents of tocopherols (vitamin E), phytosterols, and polyunsaturated fatty acids such as linoleic acid, oleic acid and alpha-linolenic acid. Fabien grape juice Commercial juice products from Concord grapes have been applied in medical research studies, showing potential benefits against the onset stage of cancer, platelet aggregation and other risk factors of atherosclerosis, loss of physical performance and mental acuity during aging and hypertension in humans. Diagram See also List of grape varieties Annual growth cycle of grapevines Sources Organisation Internationale de la Vigne et du Vin (pdf) Australian Wine and Brandy Corporation. Footnotes External links Taxonomic listings for Vitis genus, US Department of Agriculture, Germplasm Resources Information Network SAFECROP - Proceedings of the 5th International Workshop on Grapevine Downy and Powdery Mildew World's Healthiest Foods, in-depth nutrient profile for grapes Information on virus diseases of wine grapes | Grape |@lemmatized grape:65 non:2 climacteric:1 fruit:7 botanically:1 true:1 berry:4 grow:7 perennial:1 deciduous:1 woody:1 vine:3 genus:2 vitis:9 eat:3 raw:1 use:10 make:5 juice:7 jelly:1 vinegar:1 wine:26 seed:12 extract:1 raisin:10 oil:3 also:5 kind:1 candy:1 history:1 ancient:2 egyptian:1 hieroglyphic:1 show:4 cultivation:2 scholar:1 believe:1 greek:1 phoenician:1 roman:1 eating:2 production:7 later:1 spread:1 europe:2 north:6 africa:1 eventually:1 united:7 state:8 native:5 america:2 along:1 stream:1 however:2 first:2 cultivated:1 california:6 spanish:1 franciscan:1 friar:1 look:1 sacramental:1 mission:1 table:8 vineyard:2 credit:1 early:2 settler:2 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5,522 | ALGOL | ALGOL (short for ALGOrithmic Language) The name of the family is sometimes given in mixed case (Algol 60), and sometimes in all uppercase (ALGOL 68). For simplicity this article uses ALGOL. is a family of imperative computer programming languages originally developed in the mid 1950s which greatly influenced many other languages and became the de facto way algorithms were described in textbooks and academic works for almost the next 30 years cf. Pseudocode . It was designed to avoid some of the perceived problems with FORTRAN and eventually gave rise to many other programming languages (including BCPL, B, Pascal, C and Simula). ALGOL introduced code blocks and was the first language to use begin end pairs for delimiting them. Fragments of ALGOL-like syntax are sometimes still used as a notation for algorithms, so-called Pidgin Algol. There were three major specifications: ALGOL 58 - originally proposed to be called IAL (for International Algorithmic Language). ALGOL 60, described in detail on this page - revised 1963 ALGOL 68 - revised 1973 Niklaus Wirth based his own Algol-W on ALGOL 60 before moving to develop Pascal. Algol-W was intended to be the next generation ALGOL but the ALGOL 68 committee decided on a design that was more complex and advanced rather than a cleaned simplified ALGOL 60. The official ALGOL versions are named after the year they were first published. Algol68 is substantially different from Algol60 but was not well received so that in general "Algol" means dialects of Algol60. Import and Implementations The International Algorithmic Language (IAL) was extremely influential and is generally considered the ancestor of most of the modern programming languages (the so-called Algol-like languages). The Burroughs corporation built their line of computers to directly execute it. Additionally, in computer science, ALGOL object code was a simple and compact and stack-based instruction set architecture mainly used in teaching compiler construction and other high order language (of which Algol is generally considered the first) physical implementations such as Lisp machines and P-code machines. History ALGOL was developed jointly by a committee of European and American computer scientists in a meeting in 1958 at ETH Zurich (cf. ALGOL 58). It specified three different syntaxes: a reference syntax, a publication syntax, and an implementation syntax. The different syntaxes permitted it to use different keyword names and conventions for decimal points (commas vs periods) for different languages. ALGOL was used mostly by research computer scientists in the United States and in Europe. Its use in commercial applications was hindered by the absence of standard input/output facilities in its description and the lack of interest in the language by large computer vendors. ALGOL 60 did however become the standard for the publication of algorithms and had a profound effect on future language development. John Backus developed the Backus normal form method of describing programming languages specifically for ALGOL 58. It was revised and expanded by Peter Naur for ALGOL 60, and at Donald Knuth's suggestion renamed Backus-Naur form. Knuth, Donald E. (1964) Backus Normal Form vs Backus Naur Form. Communications of the ACM 7(12):735-736 Peter Naur: "As editor of the ALGOL Bulletin I was drawn into the international discussions of the language and was selected to be member of the European language design group in November 1959. In this capacity I was the editor of the ALGOL 60 report, produced as the result of the ALGOL 60 meeting in Paris in January 1960." The following people attended the meeting in Paris (from January 1 to 16): Friedrich L. Bauer, Peter Naur, Heinz Rutishauser, Klaus Samelson, Bernard Vauquois, Adriaan van Wijngaarden, and Michael Woodger (from Europe) John W. Backus, Julien Green, Charles Katz, John McCarthy, Alan J. Perlis, and Joseph Henry Wegstein (from the USA). Alan Perlis gave a vivid description of the meeting: "The meetings were exhausting, interminable, and exhilarating. One became aggravated when one's good ideas were discarded along with the bad ones of others. Nevertheless, diligence persisted during the entire period. The chemistry of the 13 was excellent." Both John Backus and Peter Naur served on the committee which created ALGOL 60 as did Wally Feurzeig, who later created Logo. ALGOL 60 inspired many languages that followed it. Tony Hoare remarked: "Here is a language so far ahead of its time that it was not only an improvement on its predecessors but also on nearly all its successors." "Hints on Programming Language Design", C.A.R. Hoare, December 1973. Page 27. (This statement is sometimes erroneously attributed to Edsger Dijkstra, also involved in implementing the first ALGOL 60 compiler.) IAL implementations timeline To date there have been at least 70 augmentations, extensions, derivations and sublanguages of Algol 60. The Encyclopedia of Computer Languages NameYearAuthorStateDescriptionTarget CPU ZMMD-implementation 1958 Friedrich L. Bauer, Heinz Rutishauser, Klaus Samelson, Hermann Bottenbruch Germany implementation of ALGOL 58 Z22Elliott ALGOL 1960 C. A. R. Hoare Subject of the famous Turing lecture Elliott 803 & the Elliott 503JOVIAL 1960 Jules Schwarz USA Was the DOD HOL prior to Ada (programming language) Various (see article)Burroughs Algol (Several variants) 1961 Burroughs Corporation (with participation by Hoare, Dijkstra, and others) USA Basis of the Burroughs (and now Unisys MCP based) computers Burroughs large systems and their midrange as well.Case ALGOL 1961 USA Simula was originally contracted as a simulation extension of the Case ALGOL UNIVAC 1107GOGOL 1961 Bill McKeeman USA For ODIN time-sharing system PDP-1X1 Algol 60 1961 Edsger Dijkstra and J.A. Zonneveld Netherlands Mathematical Centre, Amsterdam X1Dartmouth ALGOL 30 1962 Thomas Eugene Kurtz et al. USA LGP-30USS 90 Algol 1962 L. Petrone Italy Algol Translator 1962 G. van der May and W.L. van der Poel Netherlands Staatsbedrijf der Posterijen, Telegrafie en Telefonie ZEBRAKidsgrove Algol 1963 F. G. Duncan English Electric Company KDF9VALGOL 1963 Val Schorre USA A test of the META II compiler compilerWhetstone 1964 Brian Randell and L J Russell Atomic Power Division of English Electric Company. Precursor to Ferranti Pegasus (computer), National Physical Laboratories ACE (computer) and English Electric DEUCE implementations. English Electric Company KDF9NU ALGOL 1965 Norway UNIVACALGEK 1965 USSR Minsk-22 АЛГЭК, based on ALGOL-60 and COBOL support, for economical tasksMALGOL 1966 publ. A. Viil, M Kotli & M. Rakhendi, Estonian SSR Minsk-22ALGAMS 1967 GAMS group (ГАМС, группа автоматизации программирования для машин среднего класса), cooperation of Comecon Academies of Science Comecon Minsk-22, later ES EVM, BESMALGOL/ZAM 1967 Poland Polish ZAM computerRegneCentralen ALGOL 1967 Peter Naur Denmark Simula 67 1967 Ole-Johan Dahl and Kristen Nygaard Norway Algol 60 with classes UNIVAC 1107Chinese Algol 1972 China Chinese characters, expressed via the Symbol systemDG/L 1972 USA DG Eclipse family of Computers The Burroughs dialects included special Bootstrapping dialects such as ESPOL and NEWP. Properties ALGOL 60 as officially defined had no I/O facilities; implementations defined their own in ways that were rarely compatible with each other. In contrast, ALGOL 68 offered an extensive library of transput (ALGOL 68 parlance for Input/Output) facilities. ALGOL 60 allowed for two evaluation strategies for parameter passing: the common call-by-value, and call-by-name. Call-by-name had certain limitations in contrast to call-by-reference, making it an undesirable feature in imperative language design. For example, it is impossible in ALGOL 60 to develop a procedure that will swap the values of two parameters if the actual parameters that are passed in are an integer variable and an array that is indexed by that same integer variable. , Section 7.5, and references therein However, call-by-name is still beloved of ALGOL implementors for the interesting "thunks" that are used to implement it. Donald Knuth devised the "Man or boy test" to separate compilers that correctly implemented "recursion and non-local references." This test contains an example of call-by-name. ALGOL 68 was defined using a two-level grammar formalism invented by Adriaan van Wijngaarden and which bears his name. Van Wijngaarden grammars use a context-free grammar to generate an infinite set of productions that will recognize a particular ALGOL 68 program; notably, they are able to express the kind of requirements that in many other programming language standards are labelled "semantics" and have to be expressed in ambiguity-prone natural language prose, and then implemented in compilers as ad hoc code attached to the formal language parser. ALGOL 60 Reserved words and restricted identifiers There are 35 such reserved words in the standard Burroughs large systems sub-language: ALPHA, ARRAY, BEGIN, BOOLEAN, COMMENT, CONTINUE, DIRECT, DO, DOUBLE, ELSE, END, EVENT, FALSE, FILE, FOR, FORMAT, GO, IF, INTEGER, LABEL, LIST, LONG, OWN, POINTER, PROCEDURE, REAL, STEP, SWITCH, TASK, THEN, TRUE, UNTIL, VALUE, WHILE, ZIP. There are 71 such restricted identifiers in the standard Burroughs large systems sub-language: ACCEPT, AND, ATTACH, BY, CALL, CASE, CAUSE, CLOSE, DEALLOCATE, DEFINE, DETACH, DISABLE, DISPLAY, DIV, DUMP, ENABLE, EQL, EQV, EXCHANGE, EXTERNAL, FILL, FORWARD, GEQ, GTR, IMP, IN, INTERRUPT, IS, LB, LEQ, LIBERATE, LINE, LOCK, LSS, MERGE, MOD, MONITOR, MUX, NEQ, NO, NOT, ON, OPEN, OR, OUT, PICTURE, PROCESS, PROCURE, PROGRAMDUMP, RB, READ, RELEASE, REPLACE, RESET, RESIZE, REWIND, RUN, SCAN, SEEK, SET, SKIP, SORT, SPACE, SWAP, THRU, TIMES, TO, WAIT, WHEN, WITH, WRITE and also the names of all the intrinsic functions. Examples and portability issues Code sample (ALGOL 60) (The way the bold text has to be written depends on the implementation, e.g. 'INTEGER' (including the quotation marks) for integer; this is known as stropping.) procedure Absmax(a) Size:(n, m) Result:(y) Subscripts:(i, k); value n, m; array a; integer n, m, i, k; real y; comment The absolute greatest element of the matrix a, of size n by m is transferred to y, and the subscripts of this element to i and k; begin integer p, q; y := 0; i := k := 1; for p:=1 step 1 until n do for q:=1 step 1 until m do if abs(a[p, q]) > y then begin y := abs(a[p, q]); i := p; k := q end end Absmax Here's an example of how to produce a table using Elliott 803 ALGOL. "803 ALGOL", the manual for Elliott 803 ALGOL FLOATING POINT ALGOL TEST' BEGIN REAL A,B,C,D' READ D' FOR A:= 0.0 STEP D UNTIL 6.3 DO BEGIN PRINT PUNCH(3),££L??' B := SIN(A)' C := COS(A)' PRINT PUNCH(3),SAMELINE,ALIGNED(1,6),A,B,C' END' END' PUNCH(3) sends output to the teleprinter rather than the tape punch. SAMELINE suppresses the carriage return + line feed normally printed between arguments. ALIGNED(1,6) controls the format of the output with 1 digit before and 6 after the decimal point. Timeline: Hello world The variations and lack of portability of the programs from one implementation to another is easily demonstrated by the classic hello world program. ALGOL 58 (IAL) ALGOL 58 had no I/O facilities. ALGOL 60 family Since ALGOL 60 had no I/O facilities, there is no portable hello world program in ALGOL. The following program could (and still will) compile and run on an ALGOL implementation for a Unisys A-Series mainframe, and is a straightforward simplification of code taken from The Language Guide at the University of Michigan-Dearborn Computer and Information Science Department Hello world! ALGOL Example Program page. BEGIN FILE F(KIND=REMOTE); EBCDIC ARRAY E[0:11]; REPLACE E BY "HELLO WORLD!"; WRITE(F, *, E); END. A simpler program using an inline format: BEGIN FILE F(KIND=REMOTE); WRITE(F, <"HELLO WORLD!">); END. An even simpler program using the Display statement: BEGIN DISPLAY("HELLO WORLD!") END. An alternative example, using Elliott Algol I/O is as follows. Elliott Algol used different characters for "open-string-quote" and "close-string-quote", represented here by ‘ and ’. program HiFolks; begin print ‘Hello world’; end; Here's a version for the Elliott 803 Algol (A104) The standard Elliott 803 used 5 hole paper tape and thus only had upper case. The code lacked any quote characters so £ (UK Pound Sign) was used for open quote and ? (Question Mark) for close quote. Special sequences were placed in double quotes (e.g. ££L?? produced a new line on the teleprinter). HIFOLKS' BEGIN PRINT £HELLO WORLD££L???' END' The ICT 1900 Algol I/O version allowed input from paper tape or punched card. Paper tape 'full' mode allowed lower case. Output was to a line printer. 'BEGIN' 'WRITE TEXT'("HELLO WORLD"); 'END' ALGOL 68 In the language of the "Algol 68 Report", Input/output facilities were collectively called the "Transput". ALGOL 68 code was published with reserved words typically in lowercase, but bolded or underlined. begin print(("Hello, world!",newline)) end OR using a specific transput channel: begin putf((stand out,$gl$,"Hello, world!")) end For ease of programming computers with 7-bit characters of the time there were "official" methods to "BOLD" reserved words, for example, by using uppercase: BEGIN print(("Hello, world!",newline)) END Programmers were sometimes required to totally "THINK IN UPPERCASE" on computers that only had 6-bit characters, eg the CDC 6600 "super computers". In this case the above code would be written: 'BEGIN' PRINT(("HELLO, WORLD!",NEWLINE)) 'END' The "Algol 68 Report" was translated into Russian, German, French and Bulgarian, and allowed programming in languages with larger character sets, eg Cyrillic alphabet. eg the Russian BESM-4. BEGIN print(("Здравствуй, мир!",newline)) END Note: The 1964 Russian standard GOST 10859 allowed the encoding of 4-bit, 5-bit, 6-bit and 7-bit characters in ALGOL. See also ALGOL 58 ALGOL 60 ALGOL N ALGOL 68 Algol-W Atlas Autocode CORAL66 Edinburgh IMP Jensen's Device ISWIM JOVIAL NELIAC Simula S-algol References Further reading B. Randell and L.J. Russell, ALGOL 60 Implementation: The Translation and Use of ALGOL 60 Programs on a Computer. Academic Press, 1964. The design of the Whetstone Compiler. One of the early published descriptions of implementing a compiler. See the related papers: Whetstone Algol Revisited, and The Whetstone KDF9 Algol Translator by B. Randell E. W, Dijkstra, Algol 60 translation: an algol 60 translator for the x1 and making a translator for algol 60, report MR 35/61. Mathematisch Centrum, Amsterdam, 1961. External links Revised Report on the Algorithmic Language Algol 60 by Peter Naur, et al. ALGOL definition A BNF syntax summary of ALGOL 60 "The Emperor's Old Clothes" - Hoare's 1980 ACM Turing Award speech, which discusses ALGOL history and his involvement MARST, a free Algol-to-C translator AN IMPLEMENTATION OF ALGOL 60 FOR THE FP6000 Discussion of some implementation issues. "The European Side of the Last Phase of the Development of ALGOL 60" by Peter Naur Edinburgh University wrote compilers for Algol60 (later updated for Algol60M) based on their Atlas Autocode compilers initially bootstrapped from the Atlas to the KDF-9. The Edinburgh compilers generated code for the ICL1900, the ICL4/75 (an IBM360 clone), and the ICL2900. Here is the BNF for Algol60 and the ICL2900 compiler source, library documentation, and a considerable test suite including Brian Wichmann's tests. Also there is a rather superficial Algol60 to Atlas Autocode source-level translator. Eric Raymond's Retrocomputing Museum, among others a link to the NASE Algol-60 interpreter written in C. | ALGOL |@lemmatized algol:100 short:1 algorithmic:4 language:31 name:9 family:4 sometimes:5 give:3 mixed:1 case:7 uppercase:3 simplicity:1 article:2 use:20 imperative:2 computer:16 program:17 originally:3 develop:5 mid:1 greatly:1 influence:1 many:4 become:3 de:1 facto:1 way:3 algorithm:3 describe:3 textbook:1 academic:2 work:1 almost:1 next:2 year:2 cf:2 pseudocode:1 design:6 avoid:1 perceive:1 problem:1 fortran:1 eventually:1 rise:1 include:4 bcpl:1 b:6 pascal:2 c:8 simula:4 introduce:1 code:10 block:1 first:4 begin:17 end:17 pair:1 delimit:1 fragment:1 like:2 syntax:7 still:3 notation:1 call:11 pidgin:1 three:2 major:1 specification:1 propose:1 ial:4 international:3 detail:1 page:3 revised:1 revise:3 niklaus:1 wirth:1 base:5 w:6 move:1 intend:1 generation:1 committee:3 decide:1 complex:1 advance:1 rather:3 cleaned:1 simplify:1 official:2 version:3 publish:3 substantially:1 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5,523 | European_Democrats | The European Democrats is a loose association of Conservative parties in Europe. It is a political group in the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe. It was a political group (until 1992) and is a subgroup of EPP-ED (since 1992) in the European Parliament. European Democrats in the European Parliament 1979-1992 The European Democratic Group (ED) was formed on 17 July 1979 by British Conservative, Danish Conservative and other MEPs after their success in the 1979 elections. It supplanted the earlier European Conservative Group. In the late seventies and early eighties, the ED was the third-largest group in the Parliament. However, the group saw its membership fall sharply in the late 1980s, as many centre-right members moved to the rival European People's Party group, dominated by the German CDU and the ideology of Christian democracy in general. The ED had been somewhat further from the political centre and less pro-European than the EPP. Largely isolated, even hardline eurosceptics like Margaret Thatcher conceded that the British Conservatives could not be effectively heard from such a peripheral group. 1992-1999 On 1 May 1992, the ED (now largely composed of UK Conservative Party members) dissolved, and its remaining members were accorded "associated party" status in the EPP group; that is, being part of the parliamentary group without retaining actual membership in the EPP party organization. This was considered essential for the Conservatives, as the EPP was generally seen as quite favourable to European integration, a stance at odds with their core ideology. The Conservatives' relationship to the EPP would become a sore point in the following years, particularly for the eurosceptic general membership in Britain. William Hague hoped to put the issue to rest by negotiating a new arrangement in 1999 by which the parliamentary group would rebrand itself as "EPP-ED", with the "European Democrat" nomenclature returning after a seven-year hiatus. This was intended to nominally underscore the Conservatives' status apart from the rest of EPP, and it was hoped that with the coming enlargement of the European Union numerous newly involved right-wing parties, averse to the EPP proper for its perceived eurofederalism, would be willing to instead enter the ED subgroup, growing the overall alignment. 1999-present The arrangement proved to do little to appease opposition. Hague's successor, Iain Duncan Smith, made a concerted drive at one point to resurrect the European Democratic Group, but backed off when it became clear that Conservative MEPs would not move voluntarily. The hope that multiple Central and European parties would join ED also proved to be dubious, as only the Czech Civic Democratic Party took up the offer, with the remainder joining EPP proper or other groups such as Union for Europe of the Nations or Independence and Democracy. Today, ED remains a more eurosceptic subgroup within the broader EPP-ED bloc that contributes slightly more than 10% of its total MEPs. It has thus far resisted the trend of incorporating as a European political party. The future During the 2005 Conservative leadership contest, eventual winner David Cameron pledged to withdraw the Conservatives from the EPP-ED coalition, while opponent David Davis argued in a letter to the editor of the Daily Telegraph that the current ED arrangement allowed the Conservatives to maintain suitable distance from EPP while still having influence in the largest parliamentary grouping. Conservative/EPP-ED MEP Martin Callanan responded in that paper the following day: It was reported that the Czech Civic Democratic Party, the Polish Law and Justice party and the French Rally For France party were interested in joining a breakaway group, formed under the Movement for European Reform. Sir Reg Empey, Leader of the UUP has committed his party to a new group Leader's speech 2008 Its position would be that the European Union should exist; however, it should be a looser supranational organisation than the current structure. This would make it more eurosceptic than the EPP, and less eurosceptic than the Union for Europe of the Nations and the Independence and Democracy group. Some members from the above parties founded a new organization, the Alliance for an Open Europe, in the midst of this debate, with broadly similar objectives. It remains to be seem if what relationship would be anticipated between this body and a new Parliamentary group. Member parties Občanská Demokratická Strana (ODS) (Civic Democratic Party) (9 members out of 277 of the EPP-ED Group) Partito dei Pensionati (Pensioners' Party) (one member) Portugal Democratic and Social Centre / People's Party (2 members) Conservative Party/Ulster Unionist Party (27 members) http://www.uup.org/newsrooms/latest-news/conference/speech-by-jim-nicholson-mep-to-the-ulster-unionist-conference.php European Democrats in PACE (Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe) The European Democrat Group is a political group in the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe. Sources Political Groups of the European Parliament Political Groups of the European Parliament Development of Political Groups in the European Parliament Development of Political Groups in the European Parliament Europe Politique ED on Europe Politique European Parliament MEP Archives European Parliament profile of James Scott-Hopkins European Parliament profile of Henry Plumb European Parliament profile of Christopher Prout Democracy in the European Parliament Democracy in the European Parliament References See also Alliance for an Open Europe Movement for European Reform European People's Party–European Democrats External links European Democrats official website European Democrat Group in the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe | European_Democrats |@lemmatized european:33 democrat:8 loose:2 association:1 conservative:15 party:21 europe:11 political:9 group:25 parliamentary:8 assembly:4 council:4 subgroup:3 epp:16 ed:15 since:1 parliament:13 democratic:6 form:2 july:1 british:2 danish:1 meps:3 success:1 election:1 supplant:1 early:2 late:3 seventy:1 eighty:1 third:1 large:2 however:2 saw:1 membership:3 fall:1 sharply:1 many:1 centre:3 right:2 member:9 move:2 rival:1 people:3 dominate:1 german:1 cdu:1 ideology:2 christian:1 democracy:5 general:2 somewhat:1 far:2 less:2 pro:1 largely:2 isolated:1 even:1 hardline:1 eurosceptics:1 like:1 margaret:1 thatcher:1 concede:1 could:1 effectively:1 hear:1 peripheral:1 may:1 compose:1 uk:1 dissolve:1 remain:3 accord:1 associate:1 status:2 part:1 without:1 retain:1 actual:1 organization:2 consider:1 essential:1 generally:1 see:2 quite:1 favourable:1 integration:1 stance:1 odds:1 core:1 relationship:2 would:8 become:2 sore:1 point:2 following:2 year:2 particularly:1 eurosceptic:4 britain:1 william:1 hague:2 hop:2 put:1 issue:1 rest:2 negotiate:1 new:4 arrangement:3 rebrand:1 nomenclature:1 return:1 seven:1 hiatus:1 intend:1 nominally:1 underscore:1 apart:1 come:1 enlargement:1 union:4 numerous:1 newly:1 involve:1 wing:1 averse:1 proper:2 perceived:1 eurofederalism:1 willing:1 instead:1 enter:1 grow:1 overall:1 alignment:1 present:1 prove:2 little:1 appease:1 opposition:1 successor:1 iain:1 duncan:1 smith:1 make:2 concerted:1 drive:1 one:2 resurrect:1 back:1 clear:1 voluntarily:1 hope:1 multiple:1 central:1 join:3 also:2 dubious:1 czech:2 civic:3 take:1 offer:1 remainder:1 nation:2 independence:2 today:1 within:1 broad:1 bloc:1 contribute:1 slightly:1 total:1 thus:1 resist:1 trend:1 incorporate:1 future:1 leadership:1 contest:1 eventual:1 winner:1 david:2 cameron:1 pledge:1 withdraw:1 coalition:1 opponent:1 davis:1 argue:1 letter:1 editor:1 daily:1 telegraph:1 current:2 allow:1 maintain:1 suitable:1 distance:1 still:1 influence:1 grouping:1 mep:3 martin:1 callanan:1 respond:1 paper:1 day:1 report:1 polish:1 law:1 justice:1 french:1 rally:1 france:1 interested:1 breakaway:1 movement:2 reform:2 sir:1 reg:1 empey:1 leader:2 uup:2 commit:1 speech:2 position:1 exist:1 supranational:1 organisation:1 structure:1 found:1 alliance:2 open:2 midst:1 debate:1 broadly:1 similar:1 objective:1 seem:1 anticipate:1 body:1 občanská:1 demokratická:1 strana:1 od:1 partito:1 dei:1 pensionati:1 pensioner:1 portugal:1 social:1 ulster:2 unionist:2 http:1 www:1 org:1 newsroom:1 news:1 conference:2 jim:1 nicholson:1 php:1 pace:1 source:1 development:2 politique:2 archive:1 profile:3 james:1 scott:1 hopkins:1 henry:1 plumb:1 christopher:1 prout:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 official:1 website:1 |@bigram epp_ed:6 margaret_thatcher:1 iain_duncan:1 daily_telegraph:1 ulster_unionist:2 http_www:1 external_link:1 |
5,524 | Multihull | A multihull is a ship, vessel, craft or boat with more than one hull. Multihulls include: Proas, which have two differently shaped or sized hulls with lateral symmetry; catamarans, which have two hulls with longitudinal symmetry; and trimarans, which have a main hull in the center and symmetric stabilizing hulls on either side. These types of boats have several advantages compared to single-hull boats. The increased distance between the center of gravity and the center of buoyancy provide higher stability compared to boats with a single hull. This allows multihulls to have narrower hulls and thus substantially less wave-forming resistance, which in turn results in greater speed without applying more effort. In the case of boats under sail, stability serves to hold the vessel upright against the sideways force of the wind on the sails. This stability is provided in multihulls by the weight of the boat itself, in contrast to monohull sailcraft which typically use an underwater counterweight, a ballasted keel for this purpose, especially on larger sailboats. Multihull sailboats are typically much wider than the equivalent monohull, which allows them to carry no ballast, and the reduced weight also makes them faster than monohulls under equivalent conditions (see Nathanael Herreshoff's "Amaryllis", also 1988 America's Cup). It also means that multihulls need not sink or be abandoned if flooded, as opposed to ballasted monohulls who do indeed sink when flooded. The comfort of more onboard accommodation space and more level boats under sail offer substantially improved conditions for crew and passengers, which also contributes to the greatly increasing popularity of multihull sailboats during the the past few decades. There are also multihull powerboats, usually catamarans (never proas), both for racing and transportation. Speed, maneuverability, and space onboard are the main factors for choosing multihull design in powerboats. ... the weight of a multihull, of this length, is probably not much more than half the weight of a monohull of the same length and it can be sailed with less crew effort. Multihull component terms There are three terms that describe the components of modern multihulls. The term vaka, like the related terms aka and ama, come from the Malay and Micronesian language group terms for parts of the outrigger canoe, and vaka can be roughly translated as canoe or main hull. Aka - The aka of a multihull sailboat is a member of the framework that connects the hull to the ama(s) (outrigger). The term aka originated with the proa, but is also applied to modern trimarans. Ama - The term ama comes from the proa. The vaka is the main hull, the ama is the outrigger, and the aka or iako (Hawaiian) is the support connecting the two (not three) hulls. The term ama and aka have been widely applied to modern trimarans. Vaka - A proa consists of a vaka, the main canoe-like hull; an ama, the outrigger; and akas, the poles connecting the ama to the vaka. Catamarans and trimarans share the same terminology, with a vaka, ama, and aka. Semantically, the catamaran is a pair of Vaka held together by Aka, whereas the trimaran is a central Vaka, with Ama on each side, attached by Aka. Fundamental departure in concept Multihull and monohull ship layouts The differences between monohulls and multihulls are due to a fundamental difference in their underlying design principles, which can even be traced back to the days of the dugout canoe. Going to the basic round log; logs are generally unstable and they tend to roll over (capsize) without too much provocation. Hollowing out this log, into a dugout canoe, doesn't help this much, unless the hollowed out section penetrates below the log's center of buoyancy. Any load carried by the dugout then actually stabilizes the craft. Weight stabilized (monohull) It is in finding the solution to this basic problem that highlights the difference in fundamental principles. Western European cultures expanded on this concept by filling the bottoms of their watercraft with rocks and other ballast. This can be traced back to the Romans, Phoenicians, Vikings, and even further, as a common fundamental concept. Even modern powered Ocean liners carry tons of ballast, in order to maintain their stability. Naval architects go to great lengths to assure that the center of gravity, of their designs, remains substantially below the metacenter. This can only be achieved by adding weight, or ballast. What you then have, in essence, is a small passenger compartment, at waterline, dangling a long pendulum with a bob at the end. In terms of our round log; we've added a lever arm to one side, with a great weight attached. The log floats lower in the water but it will not capsize. Geometry stabilized (multihull) The Polynesians approached the problem in a completely different way. They discovered that two round logs tied together don't roll, or capsize, as easily as a single log. With the addition of more logs, one creates a flat raft, which is extremely stable. To add buoyancy one simply hollows out the logs, at no sacrifice in stability. However, this requires a lot of work and it has other problems such as increased drag and weight. Europeans also went through the raft stage. Back to our two logs, separating them by a pair of sticks, called Akas, one actually increases the stability manifold with no increase in weight and with a lot less overall work (no rocks to haul and no more trees to cut). Cover the intervening distance with a frame and platform creates a craft with almost the same level of stability of a raft and same performance. In addition to this, one can carry a tremendous amount of cargo without being bothered by having to expand a large part of cargo allowance in ballast. From this basis, came the proa, catamaran, and trimaran, plus all the other various outriggers seen throughout the Pacific. Even the Chinese Junk was built on these concepts, being a derivative of the ancient cargo raft. Design Summary On one hand is a round log, with a long attachment, and a great weight at the end, hanging straight down from the log, into the water. Unfortunately, it cannot be parked too close to the shore because of the long arm at the bottom. On the other hand are two round logs, separated by a framework that carries a platform; two simple craft and two entirely, almost mutually alien, concepts of design and construction. Balance is achieved in both designs. Essentially, both craft are stable. The single round log achieves this by being careful that the center of gravity remains well below the center of buoyancy at all times. This results in a narrow craft that has a deep draft and a fair amount of weight below the waterline. The other is a beamy craft, whose center of gravity may even be slightly above its center of buoyancy but, achieves its stability purely by the geometry of its wide stance on the water, to keep its rollcenter below its center of gravity. The difference is between balancing on one foot, using a heavy balance bar, verses standing in a wide two-footed stance. (The following two statements are simplified and intended to highlight the fundamental difference between the two approaches.) Monohulls are stabilized by keeping their center of gravity well below their center of buoyancy. This is done by adding ballast weight. Multihulls are stabilized by keeping their rollcenter below their center of gravity. This is done by spreading the Amas further apart, using longer Akas. A monohull may be stabilized by making it substantially wider than it is tall. However, it's then called a raft, with all the drag problems that rafts have. Advantage of multihulls Multihulls are inherently substantially faster than monohulls, because the absence of ballast reduces their weight and the amount of drag through the water considerably (see hull speed). The waterline to width ratio is larger, allowing the thinner hulls to be driven through the water at higher speeds, as each works somewhat independently of the other(s). Multihulls have a shallower draft which enables shallower waterways to be utilised, along with shallower moorings. It also reduces the risk of underwater collision. The stable platform of a multihull makes seasickness less likely, reduces the fatigue of 'walking on walls' and increases safety due to stability in a seaway. The stable platform is wide enabling deck area to be effectively utilized for solar panels and fresh water collection. By not heeling, instruments that require a level platform work more effectively (e.g. radar). Duplication of systems enables backups should failures occur. In a catamaran (the most popular multihull), most have twin engines and thus usually always a way of getting home. Many essential items are able to be duplicated e.g. water tanks, fuel tanks and toilets. Most multihulls are positively buoyant. Should hull penetration occur the vessel is unlikely to sink thus enabling time for rescue or repair. In fact, most modern production multihulls are officially rated as unsinkable, by various regulatory agencies around the world. Disadvantage of multihulls The width of a multihull vessel is often an issue, especially when docking. They are also more expensive to produce than a monohull of the same length. If a storm or wave capsizes a small monohull, it may recover when the weight of the ballast in the keel rights the boat, if it does not broach and sink before it recovers. Modern multihulls are not self-righting and can capsize but they don't sink; instead they float upside-down, providing a raft for the survivors to hang on to, that is much easier to find than a liferaft or single individual in a survival suit A fact borne out multiple times in Open Ocean multihull racing, with numerous rescues of crews, from capsized craft, in the same races that sank monohulls. . It is difficult to right a multihull and the larger ones could even require the use of a crane. The inherent inertia of a monohull dampens a great deal of ocillations and other surface effects. For example, monohulls can power through waves that a multihull would be forced to ride over. This means that multihulls are more prone towards hobby horsing especially when lightly loaded and of short overall length. Smaller differences in payload make a larger difference in performance. Popularity Multihulls are quite popular for racing, especially in Europe and Australia, and are somewhat popular for cruising in the Caribbean and South Pacific. They appear less frequently in the United States, although they are gradually becoming more popular, in Florida and the Caribbean. Until the 1980s most multihull sailboats (except for beach cats) were built either by their owners or by boat builders on a semi-custom basis. Since then several companies have been successful selling mass-produced (by boat industry standards) boats. Popular multihulls There are many types of multihulls in different categories. Among the small sailing catamarans, also called beach catamarans, the most recognized racing classes are the Hobie Cat 16, Formula 18 cats, A-cats and the Olympic multihull called Tornado. Pure power catamarans are becoming a common sight in international charter fleets in the Caribbean and Mediterranean. A new breed of catamarans has also now started to take shape in the form of the mega or super catamaran. This definition is reserved for those catamarans over 60 feet in length. It usually takes one year to build these huge vessels and often a large amount of customization takes place at the request of the owner who commissions the vessel. Larger boats include Corsair Marine (mid-sized trimarans), and Privilege (large, luxurious catamarans). The largest manufacturer of large multihulls is Fountaine Pajot in France. But also the much larger French trimarans of the ORMA racing circuit and round the world record attempts are included in this. In the powerboat part of the multihull spectrum we find a range of boats from small single pilot Formula 1 power boat series to the large multi-engined or even gas turbined power boats that are used in the off-shore powerboat racing series and that are piloted by 2 to 4 pilots. The performance record Since N.G. Herreshoff, in 1877, many have always been convinced about the superiority of multihulls. In 1978, hundred and one years after catamarans like Amarylis were banned from any and all forms of yacht racing [broken footnote], history was to prove them right. Starting with the victory of the little trimaran Olympus photo, skippered by Mike Birch in the first Route du Rhum. Light and slender Olympus photo seemed to devour the sea, running away from all other types of boats. No great open ocean race would be won by a monohull, ever again. In addition, winning times have dropped by 70%, since 1978, from Olympus photo's 23d 6h 58'35" to Gitana 11's 7d 17h 19'6", in 2006. See also Catamaran Trimaran monohull Monocat Sailing Round Texel International C-Class Catamaran Championship International Catamaran Challenge Trophy Notes References and Bibliography External links http://www.mocra-sailing.co.uk The Multihull Offshore Cruising & Racing Association http://www.catamaran.co.uk/main.htm The UK Catamaran Racing Association http://multihullboatbuilder.org Multihull Boatbuilding Information / Community http://www.multihull-maven.com Articles and news on multihulls, profiles of boats, designers, yards, etc. http://www.sailing.org International Sailing Federation http://www.multihulls-world.com/us/ The multihulls reference magazine | Multihull |@lemmatized multihull:22 ship:2 vessel:6 craft:8 boat:17 one:11 hull:16 multihulls:23 include:3 proas:2 two:11 differently:1 shape:2 sized:2 lateral:1 symmetry:2 catamaran:19 longitudinal:1 trimaran:10 main:6 center:13 symmetric:1 stabilize:7 either:2 side:3 type:3 several:2 advantage:2 compare:2 single:6 increased:1 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5,525 | Nicole_Kidman | Nicole Mary Kidman, AC (born June 20, 1967) is an Academy Award-winning Hawaiian-born Australian actress, model, singer and humanitarian. In 2006, Kidman was made a Companion of the Order of Australia, Australia's highest civilian honour. Stafford, Annabel: Kidman and the Kennedys honoured for their service, The Age, April 14, 2007. In 2006, she was also the highest-paid actress in the motion picture industry. Kidman's breakthrough was in the 1989 thriller Dead Calm. Her performances in films such as Days Of Thunder, To Die For (1995), Moulin Rouge! (2001), and The Hours (2002) won her critical acclaim. In 2003, Kidman received her star on the Walk of Fame in Hollywood, California. She is also known for her marriage to Tom Cruise and her current marriage to country musician Keith Urban. As a result of being born to Australian parents in Hawaii, Kidman has dual citizenship of Australia and the United States. Early life and family Kidman was born in Honolulu, Hawaii. Her father, Dr Antony David Kidman, is a biochemist, clinical psychologist and author, with an office in Lane Cove, Sydney, Australia. Ancestry of Nicole Kidman Her mother, Janelle Ann (née Glenny), is a nursing instructor who edits her husband's books and was a member of the Women's Electoral Lobby. At the time of Kidman's birth, her father was a visiting fellow at the National Institute of Mental Health of the United States. The family returned to Australia when Kidman was four and her parents now live on Sydney's North Shore. Kidman has a younger sister, Antonia Kidman, a journalist. She has known actress Naomi Watts since they were in their teens and the two remain best friends today. Kidman attended Lane Cove Public School and North Sydney Girls' High School. She studied at the Victorian College of the Arts in Melbourne, and at the Phillip Street Theatre in Sydney, with Naomi Watts. This was followed by attending the Australian Theatre for Young People. Career Early career in Australia (1983–1989) Kidman's first appearance in film came in 1983 at 15, in the Pat Wilson music video for the song "Bop Girl". By the end of the year she had a supporting role in the television series Five Mile Creek and four film roles, including BMX Bandits and Bush Christmas. During the 1980s, she appeared in several Australian productions, including the soap opera A Country Practice, the mini-series Vietnam (1986), Emerald City (1988), and Bangkok Hilton (1989). Breakthrough (1989–1995) In 1989, Kidman starred in Dead Calm as Rae Ingram, the wife of naval officer John Ingram (Sam Neill), held captive on a Pacific yacht trip by the psychotic Hughie Warriner (Billy Zane). The thriller garnered strong reviews; Variety.com commented: "Throughout the film, Kidman is excellent. She gives the character of Rae real tenacity and energy." Dead Calm. Variety.com. January 1, 2007. Retrieved March 10, 2007. Meanwhile, critic Roger Ebert noted the excellent chemistry between the leads, stating, "...Kidman and Zane do generate real, palpable hatred in their scenes together." Ebert, Roger (April 7, 1989). "Dead Calm". Retrieved March 10, 2007. In 1990, she appeared opposite Tom Cruise in Days of Thunder, a stock car racing movie. Kidman starred with Cruise in Ron Howard's Far and Away (1992). In 1995, Kidman featured in the ensemble cast of Batman Forever. On November 20 1993 she hosted Saturday Night Live. International success (1995–present) Kidman's second film in 1995, To Die For, was a satirical comedy that earned her critical praise. Ebert, Roger (Oct. 6, 1995). To Die For. Retrieved April 28, 2008. For her portrayal of the murderous newscaster Suzanne Stone Maretto, she won a Golden Globe Award and five other best actress awards. In 1998, she appeared in the film Practical Magic alongside Sandra Bullock, and starred in the stage play The Blue Room, which opened in London. In 1999 Kidman and Cruise portrayed a married couple in Eyes Wide Shut, the final film of Stanley Kubrick. The film opened to generally positive reviews but was subject to censorship controversies due to the explicit nature of its sex scenes. In 2002 Kidman received an Academy Award nomination for her performance in the 2001 musical film Moulin Rouge!, in which she played the courtesan Satine opposite Ewan McGregor. Consequently, Kidman received her second Golden Globe Award for Best Actress in a Motion Picture Musical or Comedy. The same year she also had a well-received starring role in the horror film The Others. While in Australia filming Moulin Rouge!, Kidman injured her ribs; as a result, Jodie Foster replaced her as leading actress in the film Panic Room. In that film, Kidman's voice appears on the phone as the mistress of the husband of the lead character. The following year, Kidman won critical praise for her portrayal of Virginia Woolf in The Hours, in which the prosthetics applied to her made her almost unrecognisable. She won the Academy Award for Best Actress for this role, along with a Golden Globe Award, a BAFTA, and numerous critics awards. Kidman became the first Australian actress to win an Academy Award. During her Academy Award acceptance speech, Kidman made a teary statement about the importance of art, even during times of war: "Why do you come to the Academy Awards when the world is in such turmoil? Because art is important. And because you believe in what you do and you want to honour that, and it is a tradition that needs to be upheld." Memorable Moments From Oscar Night. ABC News. March 23, 2003. Retrieved March 10, 2007. In the same year, Kidman starred in three very different films. The first film, Dogville, by Danish director Lars von Trier, was an experimental film set on a bare soundstage. In the second film, she co-starred with Anthony Hopkins in the film adaptation of Philip Roth's novel The Human Stain. The third film, Cold Mountain, a love story of two Southerners separated by the Civil War, garnered her a Golden Globe Award nomination. Kidman's 2004 film Birth was nominated for the Golden Lion Award at the Venice Film Festival, and Kidman was nominated for another Golden Globe Award. Kidman's two movies in 2005 were The Interpreter and Bewitched. The Interpreter, directed by Sydney Pollack, received mixed reviews, while Bewitched, co-starring Will Ferrell and based on the 1960s TV sitcom of the same name, was generally panned by critics. Neither film fared well in the United States, their box office sales falling well short of the production costs, but both films fared well internationally. In conjunction with her success in the film industry, Kidman became the face of the Chanel No. 5 perfume brand. She starred in a campaign of television and print ads with Rodrigo Santoro, directed by Moulin Rouge! director Baz Luhrmann to promote the fragrance during the holiday season in 2004, 2005, 2006, and 2008. The three-minute commercial produced for Chanel No. 5 perfume made Kidman the record holder for the most money paid per minute to an actor after she reportedly earned US$12million for the 3 minute advert. During this time, Kidman was also listed as the 45th Most Powerful Celebrity on the 2005 Forbes Celebrity 100 List. She made a reported US$14.5 million in 2004-2005. On People magazine's list of 2005's highest paid actresses, Kidman was second behind Julia Roberts with a US$16 million to US$17 million per-film price tag. She has since passed Roberts as the highest paid actress. Recently, Kidman appeared in the Diane Arbus bio-pic Fur. She also lent her voice to the animated film Happy Feet, which quickly garnered critical and commercial success; the film grossed over US$384 million dollars worldwide. In 2007, she starred in the science fiction movie The Invasion directed by Oliver Hirschbiegel where it was reported that she received $26 million dollars for her performance; although it was a critical and commercial failure Kidman said that she has no control over the success of her films. She also played opposite Jennifer Jason Leigh and Jack Black in Noah Baumbach's comedy-drama Margot at the Wedding. She also starred in the film adaptation of the first part of the planned His Dark Materials trilogy of films, playing the villainous Marisa Coulter. However, The Golden Compass''''s failure to meet expectations at the North American box office has reduced the likelihood of a sequel. Sander, Peter. "New Line and Director Settle 'Rings' Suit, Look to 'Hobbit'", Wall Street Journal, December 19, 2007. In 2008, she starred Baz Luhrmann's Australian period film titled Australia, which is set in the remote Northern Territory during the Japanese attack on Darwin during World War II. Kidman played opposite Hugh Jackman as an English woman feeling overwhelmed by the continent. On June 25, 2007, Nintendo announced that Kidman would be the new face of Nintendo's advertising campaign for the Nintendo DS game More Brain Training in its European market. Kidman was featured in a series of advertisements for Sky in Italy, speaking Italian during the spots. Kidman was originally set to star in The Reader, a post-war Germany drama, but due to her pregnancy she had to back out of the film. 'Pregnant' Nicole Quits Film - New York Post Shortly after the news of Kidman's departure, it was announced that Kate Winslet would take over the role. Kate Winslet Replaces Nicole Kidman in 'The Reader' - Cinematical Winslet went on to win the Oscar for Best Actress for the role - at the ceremony, Kidman was one of the five previous winners who presented her with the award. [www.oscar.com] On November 10, 2008, TV Guide reported that Kidman will star in the film adaptation of The Danish Girl alongside Charlize Theron. Kidman will play Elinar Wegener, the world's first post-op transsexual. Nicole Kidman to Star as Transsexual, Marrying Charlize Theron in New Film" TV Guide. November 10, 2008. Retrieved on November 12 2008. Singing |Nicole Kidman and Robbie Williams in the "Somethin' Stupid" music video| Not a singer before Moulin Rouge!, Kidman had well-received vocal performances in the film. Her collaboration with Ewan McGregor on "Come What May" peaked at 27 in the UK Singles Chart. Later she collaborated with Robbie Williams on "Somethin' Stupid", a cover of Williams' swing covers album Swing When You're Winning. It peaked at 8 in the Australian ARIAnet Singles Chart, and at 1 for three weeks in the UK. It was UK Christmas number 1 for 2001. In 2006, she voiced the animated movie Happy Feet, along with vocals for Norma Jean's 'heartsong', a slightly altered version of "Kiss" by Prince. Kidman is to sing in Rob Marshall's next movie, musical Nine, along with Daniel Day-Lewis, Penélope Cruz, Judi Dench, Sophia Loren and Marion Cotillard. Personal life Kidman mentioned in an interview with Ellen Degeneres in 2005 that she is banned from doing one of her favourite hobbies - sky diving - whilst shooting a movie. Interview with Ellen Degeneres following her seventh Golden Globe nomination for Birth on her chat show. Hugh reveals all about Nicole Kidman's sky diving past; Listen again to Hugh Jackman on Heart Breakfast Monday 15th December In January 2005, Kidman won interim restraining orders against two Sydney paparazzi. In the beginning of 2009, Kidman appeared in a series of special edition postage stamps featuring some of Australia's great actors. She, Geoffrey Rush, Russell Crowe, and Cate Blanchett each appear twice in the series: once as themselves and once as their Academy Award-winning character. Cate Blanchett, Nicole Kidman Happy to Be Licked--On Stamps People.com, February 4, 2009 Relationships Kidman has been married twice. She became romantically involved with actor Tom Cruise on the set of their 1990 movie, Days of Thunder. Kidman and Cruise were married on Christmas Eve 1990 in Telluride, Colorado. The couple adopted a daughter, Isabella Jane (born 1992), and a son, Connor Anthony (born 1995). They separated just after their 10th wedding anniversary. She was three months pregnant and had a miscarriage. Cruise filed for divorce in February 2001. The marriage was dissolved in 2001, Cruise citing irreconcilable differences. "Nicole Kidman: Still Loves Tom Cruise". ABC News. May 8, 2006. Retrieved March 10, 2007. The reasons for dissolution have never been made public. In Marie Claire, Kidman said she had an ectopic pregnancy early in their marriage. In the June 2006 Ladies' Home Journal, she said she still loved Cruise: "He was huge; still is. To me, he was just Tom, but to everybody else, he is huge. But he was lovely to me. And I loved him. I still love him." In addition, she has expressed shock about their divorce. "Nicole Kidman: Still Loves Tom Cruise". ABC News. May 8, 2006. Retrieved March 10, 2007. Nicole Kidman in August 2006 The 2003 film Cold Mountain brought rumours that an affair between Kidman and co-star Jude Law was responsible for the break-up of his marriage. Both denied the allegations, and Kidman won an undisclosed sum from the British tabloids that published the story. She gave the money to a Romanian orphanage in the town where the movie was filmed. Robbie Williams confirmed they had a short romance on her yacht in summer 2004. Shortly after her Oscar, there were rumours of a relationship between her and Adrien Brody. She met musician Lenny Kravitz in 2003 and dated him into 2004. Kidman met her second husband, country singer Keith Urban at G'Day LA, an event honouring Australians in January 2005. They married on June 25, 2006, at Cardinal Cerretti Memorial Chapel in the grounds of St Patrick's Estate, Manly in Sydney. They maintain homes in Sydney, Sutton Forest, Los Angeles and Nashville, Tennessee. In March 2008, they bought mansions in Los Angeles and Nashville within days. After speculation by the press, it was confirmed on 8 January 2008 that Kidman was three months pregnant. The couple had their first child, Sunday Rose Kidman Urban, on 7 July 2008, in Nashville, Tennessee. Kidman's father said the daughter's middle name was after Urban's late grandmother, Rose. Tauber, Michelle. The Secret Behind Baby Sunday Rose's Name Revealed!, People, July 8, 2008. Accessed July 29, 2008. Religion Kidman is a practising Roman Catholic. She attended Mary Mackillop Chapel in North Sydney. During her marriage to Cruise, she had been an occasional practitioner of Scientology. "Tom & Nicole Split A Question of Faith", New York Post, February 12, 2001. Politics Kidman's name was in an advertisement in the Los Angeles Times (17 August 2006) that condemned Hamas and Hezbollah and supported Israel in the 2006 Israel-Lebanon conflict. "Nicole Kidman and 84 Others Stand United Against Terrorism" Hollywood Grind. August 18, 2006. Kidman has donated to U.S. Democratic party candidates and endorsed John Kerry in the 2004 presidential election. Nicole Kidman's Federal Compaign Contribution Report NewsMeat.com. October 16, 2006. Retrieved on October 22, 2006. Charitable work Kidman has been a Goodwill Ambassador for UNICEF Australia since 1994. She has raised money for and drawn attention to the disadvantaged children around the world. In 2004, she was honored as a "Citizen of the World" by the United Nations. On 26 January 2006 (Australia Day''), Kidman received Australia's highest civilian honor when she was made a Companion of the Order of Australia. She was also nominated goodwill ambassador for UNIFEM. "Kidman becomes ambassador for UN" BBC News. January 26, 2006. Retrieved on October 22, 2006. Kidman joined the 'Little Tee Campaign' for breast cancer care to design T-shirts or vests to raise money for breast cancer. "Kidman joins the Breast Cancer Care crusade" NewKerala.com July 2, 2006. Retrieved on October 22, 2006. Kidman's mother had breast cancer in 1984. "Nicole Kidman fashions fight against women’s cancers" USA Today. March 3, 2004. Retrieved on October 22, 2006. Filmography Kidman's movies gross total is more than US$2 billion, with 17 movies making more than US$100 million. http://www.boxofficemojo.com/people/chart/?view=Actor&id=nicolekidman.htm Year Movie Role Notes and awards 1983 BMX Bandits Judy Bush Christmas Helen Five Mile Creek Annie TV seriesSkin Deep Sheena Henderson TV movieChase Through the Night Petra TV movie 1984 Matthew and Son Bridget Elliot TV movieWills & Burke Julia Matthews 1985 Archer's Adventure Catherine TV movieWinners Carol Trig TV series - episode 1 1986 Windrider Jade 1987 Watch the Shadows Dance Amy Gabriel The Bit Part Mary McAllister Room to Move Carol Trig TV miniseries An Australian in Rome Jill TV movie Vietnam Megan Goddard TV miniseries 1988 Emerald City Helen Nominated - Australian Film Institute Best Actress in a Supporting Role 1989 Dead Calm Rae Ingram Bangkok Hilton Katrina Stanton TV miniseries 1990 Days of Thunder Dr. Claire Lewicki 1991 Flirting Nicola Billy Bathgate Drew Preston Nominated - Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress 1992 Far and Away Shannon Christie 1993 Malice Tracy Kennsinger My Life Gail Jones 1995 To Die For Suzanne Stone Maretto Boston Society of Film Critics Award for Best ActressBFCA Critics' Choice Award for Best ActressGolden Globe Award for Best ActressSeattle International Film Festival Award for Best ActressNominated - BAFTA Award for Best Actress Batman Forever Dr. Chase Meridian 1996 The Portrait of a Lady Isabel Archer 1996 Shine Woman in bar uncredited cameo1997 The Peacemaker Dr. Julia Kelly 1998 Practical Magic Gillian Owens 1999 Eyes Wide Shut Alice Harford Won Filmcritica "Bastone Bianco" Award 1999 2001 Moulin Rouge! Satine Golden Globe Award for Best ActressMTV Movie Award for Best Female PerformanceMTV Movie Award for Best Musical SequenceNominated - Academy Award for Best ActressNominated - Screen Actors Guild Award for Best Cast The Others Grace Stewart Nominated - BAFTA Award for Best Actress Nominated - Golden Globe Award for Best ActressNominated - Goya Award for Best Actress Birthday Girl Sophia/Nadia 2002 The Hours Virginia Woolf Academy Award for Best ActressBAFTA Award for Best ActressBerlin Film Festival - Silver Berlin BearGolden Globe Award for Best ActressKansas CIty Film Critics Circle Award for Best ActressLas Vegas Film Critics Society Award for Best ActressNominated - Screen Actors Guild Award for Best ActressNominated - Screen Actors Guild Award for Best Cast 2003 Dogville Grace Margaret Mulligan The Human Stain Faunia Farley Cold Mountain Ada Monroe Nominated - Golden Globe Award for Best Actress 2004 The Stepford Wives Joanna Eberhart Birth Anna Nominated - Golden Globe Award for Best Actress 2005 The Interpreter Silvia Broome Bewitched Isabel Bigelow/Samantha 2006 Fur Diane Arbus Happy Feet Norma Jean voice 2007 The Invasion Dr. Carol Bennell Margot at the Wedding Margot The Golden Compass Marisa Coulter 2008 Australia Lady Sarah Ashley 2009 Nine Claudia Post-production The Danish Girl Einar Wegener/Lili Elbe Pre-production Awards In 2003, Kidman received a Star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. In addition to her 2003 Academy Award for Best Actress, Kidman has received Best Actress awards from the following critics' groups or award-granting organisations: the Hollywood Foreign Press (Golden Globes), the Australian Film Institute, Blockbuster Entertainment Awards, Empire Awards, Golden Satellite Awards, Hollywood Film Festival, London Critics Circle, Russian Guild of Film Critics, and the Southeastern Film Critics Association. In 2003, Kidman was given the American Cinematheque Award. She also received recognition from the National Association of Theatre Owners at the ShoWest Convention in 1992 as the Female Star of Tomorrow and in 2002 for a Distinguished Decade of Achievement in Film. Government honours In 2006, Kidman was made a Companion of the Order of Australia (AC), Australia's highest civilian honour, for "service to the performing arts as an acclaimed motion picture performer, to health care through contributions to improve medical treatment for women and children and advocacy for cancer research, to youth as a principal supporter of young performing artists, and to humanitarian causes in Australia and internationally." However, due to film commitments and her wedding to Urban, it was 13 April 2007 that she was presented with the honour. , presented by Governor-General of Australia, Major General Michael Jeffery in a ceremony at Government House, Canberra. Discography "Come What May" single (Duet with Ewan McGregor – October 2001) AUS #10, UK #27 "Sparkling Diamonds" (with Caroline O'Connor) - October 2001 (Moulin Rouge! Soundtrack) "Hindi Sad Diamonds" -October 2001 (Moulin Rouge! Soundtrack) "Somethin' Stupid" single (Duet with Robbie Williams – December 2001) AUS #8, UK #1l "Kiss" / "Heartbreak Hotel" – Nicole Kidman / Hugh Jackman - November 2006 (Happy Feet Soundtrack) References Additional reading External links Nicole's Magic {nkidman.com} Nicole Kidman's charity work | Nicole_Kidman |@lemmatized nicole:18 mary:3 kidman:88 ac:2 bear:3 june:4 academy:10 award:49 win:11 hawaiian:1 born:3 australian:11 actress:20 model:1 singer:3 humanitarian:2 make:9 companion:3 order:4 australia:18 high:7 civilian:3 honour:7 stafford:1 annabel:1 kennedy:1 service:2 age:1 april:4 also:9 paid:3 motion:3 picture:3 industry:2 breakthrough:2 thriller:2 dead:5 calm:5 performance:4 film:50 day:8 thunder:4 die:4 moulin:8 rouge:8 hour:3 critical:5 acclaim:1 receive:11 star:16 walk:2 fame:2 hollywood:5 california:1 know:2 marriage:6 tom:7 cruise:12 current:1 country:3 musician:2 keith:2 urban:5 result:2 parent:2 hawaii:2 dual:1 citizenship:1 united:4 state:4 early:3 life:3 family:2 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5,526 | Military_history | Military history is a humanities discipline within the scope of general historical recording of in the history of humanity, and its impact on the societies, their cultures, economies and changing intra and international relationships. A conflict may range from a melee between two tribal groups to conflicts between national militaries, and a world war of coalitions affecting the majority of the global human population. Military historians record and analyse the events of military history, the product of which forms an important part of how societies and their leaders formulate future plans and policies for societal development. Morillo, Pevkovic, pp.3-4 While human conflict has been a constant factor in the process of human social evolution over thousands of years, its historical recording only spans six millennia. There is much disagreement about when it began. Otterbein, pp.22-38 Some believe it has always been with us, derived from conflicts with other species; others stress the lack of clear evidence for it in our prehistoric past, and the fact that many peaceful, non-aggressive societies have, and still do exist (See Otterbein, Fry and Kelly in bibliography below). In War Before Civilization, Lawrence H. Keeley, a professor at the University of Illinois says that approximately 90-95% of known societies engaged in at least occasional warfare, and many fought constantly. Review: War Before Civilization The essential subjects of military history study are the decision making processes of the belligerents, the society's willingness and ability to economically support , the methods, strategic, operational and tactical used by the armed forces to achieve goals, and how these changed through the past 5,000 years of recorded history. Through the study of history, the military command seeks to not repeat past mistakes, and improve upon its current performance by instilling an ability in commanders to perceive historical parallels during a battle, so as to capitalize on the lessons learned from the past. The main areas military history includes past conflicts, their sustainment, military command, application of doctrine known as military art art and science, and the application of technology in specific military services. The discipline of military history is dynamic, changing with development as much of the subject area as the societies and organisations that make use of it. Cowley, Parker, p.xiii The dynamic nature of the discipline of military history is largely related to the rapidity of change the military forces, and the art and science of managing them, as well as the frenetic pace of technological development that had taken place during the period known as the Industrial Revolution, and more recently in the nuclear and information ages. How the change is studied, has as much to do with methods used by military historians, as the influence on these methods which are often biased towards being primarily European and technological, Black, p.ix revolutionising how warfare is understood when compared to the previous history. This process has necessitated a periodisation of history to highlight the short spans of dramatic change between increasingly shorter periods of relative stability in development of military forces. Historiography Historiography is the study of the record of military conflict to gain an accurate assessment of past conflicts that may prove difficult because of bias, even in ancient times, and systematic propaganda in more modern times. For this reason military history is periodised, creating overlaying boundaries of study and analysis in which descriptions of battles by leaders may be unreliable due to the inclination to minimize mention of failures, and exaggerate when boasting of successes when viewed at a later time. This is the reason for historiographical analysis, to allow an unbiased, contemporary view of records as the participants would have perceived the events. Morillo, Pevkovic, pp.4-5 One military historian, Jeremy Black in a recent work raised a number of issues 21st century military historians face as an inheritance of their predecessors: Eurocentricity, a technological bias, and fascination with technology, a focus on leading military powers and dominant military systems, the separation of land from sea, and more recently air conflicts, the focus on state-to-state conflict, a lack of focus on political "tasking" in how forces are used. If the above challenges were not sufficient for the military historians, the limitations of current methodological approaches are further complicated by the lacking of record either destroyed, or never recorded for its value as a military secret that may prevent some salient facts from being reported at all; scholars still do not know the nature of Greek fire for instance. Despite these limitations, wars are some of the most studied and detailed periods of human history. The documentation of military history begins with the confrontation between Sumer (current Iraq) and Elam (current Iran) c.2700 BCE near the modern Basra, and includes such enduring records as the Hebrew Bible. Other prominent records in military history are the Trojan War in Homer's Iliad, its historicity challenged, The Histories by Herodotus (484 BC - 425 BC) who, along with Thucydides (460 BC - 395 BC), are often called "father of history"., Herodotus: the father of history, Warburton the later being regarded as the first scientific historian due to his dismissing the notions of deities taking active part in history. His impartiality despite being an Athenian, allowed him to take advantage of his exile to research the war from different perspectives by carefully examining documents, and interviewing eyewitnesses. Farah, Karls, pp. 137-138 The approach centered around the analysis of a leader was taken by Xenophon (430 BC - 355 BC) in Anabasis, recording the expedition of Cyrus the Younger into Turkey. A comparative approach is made possible by the records of Julius Caesar (100 BC - 44 BC), for campaigns such as Commentarii de Bello Gallico and Commentarii de Bello Civili. Some other more recent prominent military historians include Hans Delbrück (1848-1929), Charles Oman (1860-1946), Basil Liddell Hart (1895-1970), Martin van Creveld, John Keegan, William Ledyard Rodgers, Lynn Montross, Cornelius Ryan, R. Ernest & Trevor N. Dupuy (1916-1995), George F.G. Stanley (1907-2002), John Terraine (1921-2003), Victor Davis Hanson and Jeremy Black to name a few. Technological evolution Relief of Ramses II located in Abu Simbel fighting at the Battle of Kadesh on a chariot. New weapons development can dramatically alter the face of war. In prehistoric times, fighting occurred by usage of clubs and spears, as early as 35,000 BC. Arrows, maces, and slings were developed around 12,000 BC. Chariots, pulled by animals like the onager, ox, donkey, and later the horse, originated around 2,000 BC. The chariot was an effective weapon for speed; while one man controlled the maneuvering of the chariot, a second bowman could shoot arrows at enemy soldiers. These became crucial to the maintenance of several governments, including the New Egyptian Kingdom and the Shang dynasty. Some of the military unit types and technologies which were developed in the ancient world are: Slinger Hoplite Auxiliaries Infantry Crossbowmen Chariots Cavalry For settled agrarian civilizations, the infantry would become the core of military action. The infantry started as opposing armed groups of soldiers underneath commanders. The Greeks used rigid, heavily-armed phalanxes, but the Romans used mobile legions that were easily maneuverable. Cavalry would become an important tool. In the Sicilian Expedition, led by Athens in an attempt to subdue Syracuse, the well-trained Syracusan cavalry became crucial to the success of the Syracusans. Macedonian Alexander the Great effectively deployed his cavalry forces to secure victories. In later battles, like the Battle of Cannae of the Second Punic War, the importance of the cavalry would be repeated. Hannibal was able to surround the Romans on three sides and encircled them by sending the cavalry to the rear of the army. There were also horse archers, who had the ability to shoot on horseback- the Mongols were especially fearsome with this tactic. In the Middle Ages, armored cataphracts continued to fight on horseback. Even in the First World War, cavalry was still considered important; the British mobilized 165,000 horses, the Austrians 600,000, the Germans 715,000, and the Russians more than a million. Keegan, p.73 The early Indo-Iranians developed the use of chariots in warfare. The scythed chariot was later invented in India and soon adopted by the Persian Empire. War elephants were often deployed for fighting in ancient warfare. They were first used in India and later adopted by both the Persians and Alexander the Great against one another. War elephants were also used in the Battle of the Hydaspes River, and by Hannibal in the Second Punic War against the Romans.(The effectiveness of war elephants in a battle is a matter of debate) There were also organizational changes, made possible by better training and intercommunication. Combined arms was the concept of using infantry, cavalry, and artillery in a coordinated way. The Romans, Swiss, and others made advances with this, which arguably led to them being unbeatable for centuries. A Greek trireme Naval warfare was often crucial to military success. Early navies used sailing ships without cannons; often the goal was to ram the enemy ships and cause them to sink. There was human oar power, often using slaves, built up to ramming speed. Galleys were used in the 3rd millennium BC by the Cretans. The Greeks later advanced these ships. In 1210 BC, the first recorded naval battle was fought between Suppiluliuma II, king of the Hittites, and Cyprus, which was defeated. In the Persian Wars, the navy became of increasing importance. Triremes were involved in more complicated sea-land operations. Themistocles helped to build up a stronger Greek navy, composed of 310 ships, and defeated the Persians at the Battle of Salamis, ending the Persian invasion of Greece. Moerbeek, Martijn (January 21, 1998). The battle of Salamis, 480 BC. Accessed May 16, 2006. In the First Punic War, the war between Carthage and Rome started with an advantage to Carthage because of their naval experience. A Roman fleet was built in 261 BC, with the addition of the corvus that allowed Roman soldiers onboard the ships to board the enemy ships. The bridge would prove effective at the Battle of Mylae, resulting in a Roman victory. The Vikings, in the 8th century AD, invented a ship propelled by oars with a dragon decorating the prow, hence called the Drakkar. The 12th century CE Song Dynasty invented ships with watertight bulk head compartments while the 2nd century BCE Han Dynasty invented rudders and sculled oars for their warships. Fortifications are important in warfare. Early hill-forts were used to protect inhabitants in the Iron Age. They were primitive forts surrounded by ditches filled with water. The Medieval Castle. Accessed May 16, 2006. Forts were then built out of mud bricks, stones, wood, and other available materials. Romans used rectangular fortresses built out of wood and stone. As long as there have been fortifications, there have been contraptions to break in, dating back to the times of Romans and earlier. Siege warfare is often necessary to capture forts. Some of the military unit types and technologies which were used in the medieval period are: Artillery Cataphract Condottieri Fyrd Janissary Knight (see also: Chivalry) Crossbow Pikeman Samurai Sipahi Bows and arrows were often used by combatants. Egyptians shot arrows from chariots effectively. The crossbow was developed around 500 BC in China, and was used a lot in the Middle Ages. Selby, Stephen (2001). A Crossbow Mechanism with Some Unique Features from Shandong, China. Accessed on May 17, 2006. The English/Welsh longbow from the 12th century also became important in the Middle Ages. It helped to give the English a large early advantage in the Hundred Years' War, even though the English were eventually defeated. It dominated battlefields for over a century. A small English Civil War-era cannon In the 10th century, the invention of gunpowder led to many new weapons that were improved over time. Blackpowder was used in China since the 4th century, but it was not used as a weapon until the 11th century. Until the mid-15th century, guns were held in one hand, while the explosive charge was ignited by the other hand. Then came the matchlock, which was used widely until around the 1720s. Leonardo da Vinci made drawings of the wheel lock which made its own sparks. Eventually, the matchlock was replaced by the flintlock. Cannons were first used in Europe in the early 14th century, and played a vital role in the Hundred Years' War. The first cannons were simply welded metal bars in the form of a cylinder, and the first cannonballs were made of stone. By 1346, at the battle of Crécy, the cannon had been used; at the Battle of Agincourt they would be used again. Calvert, J.B. (February 19, 2006) Cannons and Gunpowder. Accessed on May 18, 2006. At the beginning of the 16th century, the first European fire ships were used. Ships were filled with flammable materials, set on fire, and sent to enemy lines. This tactic was successfully used by Francis Drake to scatter the Spanish Armada at the Battle of Gravelines, Jorge. The "Invincible" Armada. Accessed on May 18, 2006. and would later be used by the Chinese, Russians, Greeks, and several other countries in naval battles. Naval mines were invented in the 17th century, though they were not used in great numbers until the American Civil War. They were used heavily in the First World War and Second World War. The first model of submarine was invented in 1624 by Cornelius Drebbel, which could go to depth of 15 feet (5 m). However, the first war submarine as we presently think of it was constructed in 1885 by Isaac Peral. The Turtle was developed by David Bushnell during the American Revolution. Robert Fulton then improved the submarine design by creating the Nautilus (submarine). Early Underwater Warfare. California Center for Military History. Accessed on May 18, 2006. A 155 mm M198 howitzer firing a shell. The Howitzer, a type of field artillery, was developed in 17th century to fire high trajectory explosive shells at targets that could not be reached by flat trajectory projectiles. Bayonets also became of wide usage to infantry soldiers. Bayonet is named after Bayonne, France where it was first manufactured in the 16th century. It is used often in infantry charges to fight in hand-to-hand combat. General Jean Martinet introduced the bayonet to the French army. They were used a lot in the American Civil War, and continued to be used in modern wars like the Invasion of Iraq. Balloons were first used in warfare at the end of the 18th century. It was first introduced in Paris of 1783; the first balloon traveled over 5 miles (8 km). Previously military scouts could only see from high points on the ground, or from the mast of a ship. Now they could be high in the sky, signalling to troops on the ground. This made it much more difficult for troop movements to go unobserved. At the end of the 18th century, iron-cased rockets were successfully used militarily in India against the British by Tipu Sultan of the Kingdom of Mysore during the Anglo-Mysore Wars. Rockets were generally inaccurate at that time, though William Hale, in 1844, was able to develop a better rocket. The new rocket no longer needed the rocket stick, and had a higher accuracy. In the 1860s there were a series of advancements in rifles. The first repeating rifle was designed in 1860 by a company bought out by Winchester, which made new and improved versions. Springfield rifles arrived in the mid-19th century also. Machine guns arrived in the middle of the 19th century. Automatic rifles and light machine guns first arrived at the beginning of the 20th century. Also in the 1860s came the first boats that would later be known as torpedo boats. These were first used in the American Civil War, but generally were not successful. Several Confederates used spar torpedoes, which were bombs on long poles designed to attach to boats. In the later part of the 19th century, the self-propelled torpedo was developed. The HNoMS Rap At the start of the World Wars, various nations had developed weapons that were a surprise to their adversaries, leading to a need to learn from this, and alter how to combat them. Flame throwers were first used in the first world war. The French were the first to introduce the armored car in 1902. Then in 1918, the British produced the first armored troop carrier. Many early tanks were proof of concept but impractical until further development. In World War I, the British and French held a crucial advantage due to their superiority in tanks; the Germans had only a few dozen A7V tanks, as well as 170 captured tanks. The British and French both had over several hundred each. The French tanks included the 13 ton Schnedier-Creusot, with a 75 mm gun, and the British had the Mark IV and Mark V tanks. Keegan, p.410 On December 17, 1903, the Wright Brothers performed the first controlled, powered, heavier-than-air flight; it went 39 meters (120 ft). In 1907, the first helicopter flew, but it wasn't practical for usage. Aviation became important in World War I, in which several aces gained fame. In 1911 an aircraft took off from a warship for the first time. It was a cruiser. Take-offs were soon perfected, but deck landings on a cruiser were another matter. This led to the development of an aircraft carrier with a decent unobstructed flight deck. Chemical warfare exploded into the public consciousness in World War I but may have been used in earlier wars without as much human attention. The Germans used gas-filled shells at the Battle of Bolimov on January 3, 1915. These were not lethal, however. In April 1915, the Germans developed a chlorine gas that was highly lethal, and used it to great effect at Second Battle of Ypres. Keegan, pp.197-199 World War II gave rise to even more technology. The worth of the aircraft carrier was proved in the battles between the United States and Japan like the Battle of Midway. Radar was independently invented by the Allies and Axis powers. It used radio waves to detect nearby objects. Molotov cocktails were invented by the Finns in 1939, during the Winter War. The atomic bomb was developed by the Manhattan Project and launched at Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945, ultimately ending World War II. During the Cold War, even though fighting did not actually occur, the superpowers- the United States and Russia- engaged in a race to develop and increase the level of technology available for military purposes. In the space race, both nations attempted to launch human beings into space to the moon. Other technological advances centered around intelligence (like the spy satellite) and missiles (ballistic missiles, cruise missiles). Nuclear submarine, invented in 1955. This meant submarines no longer had to surface as often, and could run more quietly. They evolved into becoming underwater missile platforms. Cruise missiles were invented in Nazi Germany during World War II in the form of the V-1. Periods of military history The influence of technology on military history, and evident Eurocentrism are nowhere more pronounced then in the attempt by the military historians to divide their subject area into more manageable periods of analysis. While general discipline of history subdivides history into Ancient history (Classical antiquity), Middle Ages (Europe, 4th century - 15th century), Early modern period (Europe, 14th century - 18th century), Modern era (Europe, 18th century - 20th century), and the Post-Modern (USA, 1949 - Present), the periodisation below stresses technological change in its emphasis, particularly the crucial dramatic change during the Gunpowder warfare period. Periodisation is not uniformly applied through time and space, affirming the claims of Eurocentrism from regional historians. For example what might be described as ancient warfare is still practised in a number of parts of the world. Other eras that are distinct in European history, such as the era of Medieval warfare, may have little relevance in East Asia. Prehistoric warfare The beginning of prehistoric wars is a disputed issue between anthropologists and historians. In the earliest societies, such as hunter-gatherer societies, there were no social roles or divisions of labor (with the exception of age or sex differences), so every able person contributed to any raids or defense of territory. In War Before Civilization, Lawrence H. Keeley, a professor at the University of Illinois, calculates that 87% of tribal societies were at war more than once per year, and some 65% of them were fighting continuously. The attrition rate of numerous close-quarter clashes, which characterize fare in tribal warrior society, produces casualty rates of up to 60%. The introduction of agriculture brought large differences between farm workers' societies and hunter-gatherer groups. Probably, during periods of famine, hunters started to massively attack the villages of countrymen, leading to the beginning of organized warfare. In relatively advanced agricultural societies a major differentiation of roles was possible; consequently the figure of professional soldiers or militaries as distinct, organized units was born. Ancient warfare The first archaeological record, though disputed, of a prehistoric battle is about 14,000 years old, and is located on the Nile in Sudan, in an area known as Cemetery 117. A large number of bodies, many with arrowheads embedded in their skeletons, indicates that they may have been the casualties of a battle. Much of what we know of ancient history is the history of militaries: their conquests, their movements, and their technological innovations. There are many reasons for this. Kingdoms and empires, the central units of control in the ancient world, could only be maintained through military force. Due to limited agricultural ability, there were relatively few areas that could support large communities, so fighting was common. Weapons and armor, designed to be sturdy, tended to last longer than other artifacts, and thus a great deal of surviving artifacts recovered tend to fall in this category as they are more likely to survive. Weapons and armor were also mass-produced to a scale that makes them quite plentiful throughout history, and thus more likely to be found in archaeological digs. Such items were also considered signs of posterity or virtue, and thus were likely to placed in tombs and monuments to prominent warriors. And writing, when it existed, was often used for kings to boast of military conquests or victories. Writing, when used by the common man, also tended to record such events, as major battles and conquests constituted major events that many would have considered worthy of recording either in an epic such as the Homeric writings pertaining to the Trojan War, or even personal writings. Indeed the earliest stories center around warfare, as war was both a common and dramatic aspect of life; the witnessing of a major battle involving many thousands of soldiers would be quite a spectacle, even today, and thus considered worthy both of being recorded in song and art, but also in realistic histories, as well as being a central element in a fictional work. Lastly, as nation-states evolved and empires grew, the increased need for order and efficiency lead to an increase in the number of records and writings. Officials and armies would have good reason for keeping detailed records and accounts involving any and all things concerning a matter such as warfare that in the words of Sun Tzu was "a matter of vital importance to the state". For all these reasons, military history comprises a large part of ancient history. Notable militaries in the ancient world included the Egyptians, Babylonians, Persians, Ancient Greeks (notably the Spartans and Macedonians), Indians (notably the Magadhas, Gangaridais and Gandharas), Early Imperial Chinese (notably the Qin and Han Dynasties), Xiongnu Confederation, Ancient Romans, and Carthaginians. The fertile crescent of Mesopotamia was the center of several prehistoric conquests. Mesopotamia was conquered by the Sumerians, Akkadians, Babylonians, Assyrians and Persians. Iranians were the first nation who introduced cavalry into their army. Suren-Pahlav S., General Surena; The Hero of Carrhae Egypt began growing as an ancient power, but eventually fell to the Persians, Greeks, Romans, Byzantines and Arabs. The earliest recorded battle in India was the Battle of the Ten Kings. The Indian epics Mahabharata and Ramayana are centred around conflicts and refer to military formations, theories of warfare and esoteric weaponry. Chanakya's Arthashastra contains a detailed study on ancient warfare, including topics on espionage and war elephants. Alexander the Great invaded Northwestern India and defeated King Porus in the Battle of the Hydaspes River. The same region was soon conquered by Chandragupta Maurya after defeating the Macedonians and Seleucids. He also went on to conquer the Nanda Empire and unify Northern India. Most of Southern Asia was unified under his grandson Ashoka the Great after the Kalinga War, though the empire collapsed not long after his reign. In China, the Shang Dynasty and Zhou Dynasty had risen and collapsed. This led to a Warring States Period, in which several states continued to fight with each other over territory. Philosopher-strategists such as Confucius and Sun Tzu wrote various manuscripts on ancient warfare (as well as international diplomacy). The Warring States era philosopher Mozi (Micius) and his Mohist followers invented various siege weapons and siege crafts, including the Cloud Ladder (a four-wheeled, protractable ramp) to scale fortified walls during a siege of an enemy city. The warring states were first unified by Qin Shi Huang after a series of military conquests, creating the first empire in 'China.' His empire was succeeded by the Han Dynasty, which expanded into Central Asia, Northern China/Manchuria, Southern China, and present day Korea and Vietnam. The Han came into conflict with settled people such as the proto-Korean Gojoseons, and proto-Vietnamese Nanyue. They also came into conflict with the Xiongnu (Huns), Yuezhi, and other steppe civilizations. The Han defeated and drove the Xiongnus west, securing the city-states along the silk route that continued into the Parthian Empire. After the decline of central imperial authority, the Han Dynasty collapsed into an era of civil war and continuous warfare during the Three Kingdoms period in the 3rd century CE. The Achaemenid Persian Empire was founded by Cyrus the Great after conquering the Median Empire, Neo-Babylonian Empire, Lydia and Asia Minor. His successor Cambyses went onto conquer the Egyptian Empire, much of Central Asia, and parts of Greece, India and Libya. The empire later fell to Alexander the Great after defeating Darius III. After being ruled by the Seleucid dynasty, the Persian Empire was subsequently ruled by the Parthian and Sassanid dynasties, which were the Roman Empire's greatest rivals during the Roman-Persian Wars. In Greece, several city-states emerged to power, including Athens and Sparta. The Greeks successfully stopped two Persian invasions, the first at the Battle of Marathon, where the Persians were led by Darius the Great, and the second at the Battle of Salamis, a naval battle where the Greek ships were deployed by orders of Themistocles and the Persians were under Xerxes I, and the land engagement of the Battle of Plataea. The Peloponnesian War then erupted between the two Greek powers Athens and Sparta. Athens built a long wall to protect its inhabitants, but the wall helped to facilitate the spread of a plague that killed about 30,000 Atheninans, including Pericles. After a disastrous campaign against Syracuse, the Athenian navy was decisively defeated by Lysander at the Battle of Aegospotami. The Macedonians, underneath Philip II of Macedon and Alexander the Great, invaded Persia and won several major victories, establishing Macedonia as a major power. However, following Alexander's death at an early age, the empire quickly fell apart. Meanwhile, Rome was gaining power, following a rebellion against the Etruscans. At the three Punic Wars, the Romans defeated the neighboring power of Carthage. The First Punic War centered around naval warfare. The Second Punic War started with Hannibal’s invasion of Italy by crossing the Alps. He famously won the encirclement at the Battle of Cannae. However, after Scipio invaded Carthage, Hannibal was forced to follow and was defeated at the Battle of Zama, ending the role of Carthage as a power. After defeating Carthage the Romans went on to become the Mediterranean's dominant power, successfully campaigning in Greece. (Aemilius Paulus decisive victory over Macedonia at the Battle of Pydna), in the Middle East (Lucius Licinius Lucullus, Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus), in Gaul (Gaius Julius Caesar) and defeating several Germanic tribes (Gaius Marius, Germanicus). While Roman armies suffered several major losses, their large population and ability (and will) to replace battlefield casualties, their training, organization, tactical and technical superiority enabled Rome to stay a predominant military force for several centuries, utilizing well trained and maneuverable armies to routinely overcome the much bigger "tribal" armies of their foes (see Battles of Aqua Sextiae, Vercellae, Tigranocerta, Alesia). In 54 BCE the Roman triumvir Marcus Licinius Crassus took the offensive against the Parthian Empire in the east. In a decisive battle at Carrhae Romans were defeated and the golden Aquila (legionary battle standards) was taken as trophy to Ctesiphon. The result was one of the worst defeats suffered by the Roman Republic in its entire history. Romans, whose armies consisted mainly of heavy infantry and only smaller cavalry contingents until then, after this defeat learnt the importance of cavalry from Iranians and eventually introduced it into their army, just as nearly a thousand year earlier the first Iranian to reached the Iranian Plateau introduced the Assyrians to a similar reform. However, the improvement of the quality of their cavalry coincided with a decline in the quality of their infantry. During the decline of the empire, the Romans relied on "barbarians" to serve in their military as federates, as well as independent "barbarian" kingdoms and their armies to defeat invaders such as the Huns. While successfully dealing with foreign opponents, Rome experienced numerous civil wars, notably the power struggles of Roman generals such as Marius and Sulla during the end of the Republic. Caesar was also notable for his role in the civil war against the other member of the Triumvirate (Pompey) and against the Roman Senate. The successors of Caesar - Octavian and Mark Anthony, also fought a civil war with Caesar's assassins (Senators Brutus, Crassus, etc). Octavian and Mark Anthony eventually fought another civil war between themselves to determine the sole ruler of the Rome. Octavian emerged victorious and Rome was turned into an empire with a huge standing army of professional soldiers. By the time of Marcus Aurelius, the Romans had expanded from the Atlantic Ocean in the west to Mesopotamia in the east and controlled Northern Africa and Central Europe up to the Black Sea. However, Aurelius marked the end of the Five Good Emperors, and Rome quickly fell to decline. The Huns, Goths, and other barbaric groups invaded Rome, which continued to suffer from inflation and other internal strifes. Despite the attempts of Diocletian, Constantine I, and Theodosius I, western Rome collapsed and was eventually conquered in 476. The Byzantine empire continued to prosper, however. Medieval warfare When stirrups came into use some time during the dark age militaries were forever changed. This invention coupled with technological, cultural, and social developments had forced a dramatic transformation in the character of warfare from antiquity, changing military tactics and the role of cavalry and artillery. Similar patterns of warfare existed in other parts of the world. In China around the fifth century armies moved from massed infantry to cavalry based forces, copying the steppe nomads. The Middle East and North Africa used similar, if often more advanced, technologies than Europe. In Japan the Medieval warfare period is considered by many to have stretched into the nineteenth century. In Africa along the Sahel and Sudan states like the Kingdom of Sennar and Fulani Empire employed Medieval tactics and weapons well after they had been supplanted in Europe. In the Medieval period, feudalism was firmly implanted, and there existed many landlords in Europe. Landlords often owned castles to protect their territory. The Islamic Arab Empire began rapidly expanding throughout the Middle East, North Africa, and Central Asia, initially led by Khalid ibn al-Walid, and later under the Umayyads, expanded to the Iberian Peninsula in the west and the Indus Valley in the east. The Abassids then took over the Arab Empire, though the Umayyads remained in control of Islamic Spain. At the Battle of Tours, the Franks under Charles Martel stopped short a Muslim invasion. The Abassids defeated the Tang Chinese army at the Battle of Talas, but were later defeated by the Seljuk Turks and the Mongols centuries later, until the Arab Empire eventually came to an end after the Battle of Baghdad in 1258. In China, the Sui Dynasty had risen and conquered the Chen Dynasty of the south. They invaded Vietnam (northern Vietnam had been in Chinese control since the Han Dynasty), fighting the troops of Champa, who had cavalry mounted on elephants. After decades of economic turmoil and a failed invasion of Korea, the Sui collapsed and was followed by the Tang Dynasty, who fought with various Turkic groups, the Tibetans of Lhasa, the Tanguts, the Khitans, and collapsed due to political fragmentation of powerful regional military governors (jiedushi). The innovative Song Dynasty followed next, inventing new weapons of war that employed the use of Greek Fire and gunpowder (see section below) against enemies such as the Jurchens. The Mongols under Genghis Khan, Ogedei Khan, Mongke Khan, and finally Kublai Khan later invaded and eventually defeated the Chinese Song Dynasty by 1279. The Mongol Empire continued to expand throughout Asia, the Middle East, and Eastern Europe, but following the death of Genghis Khan, the Mongol expansion halted and the empire was divided among his successors. In New Zealand, prior to European discovery, oral histories, legends and whakapapa include many stories of battles and wars. Maori warriors were held in high esteem. One group of Polynesians migrated to the Chatham Islands, where they developed the largely pacifist Moriori culture. Their pacifism left the Moriori unable to defend themselves when the islands were invaded by mainland Māori in the 1830s. They proceeded to massacre the Moriori and enslave the survivors. Moriori - The impact of new arrivals - Te Ara Encyclopedia of New Zealand New Zealand A to Z | Chatham Islands Warrior culture also developed in the isolated Hawaiian Islands. During the 1780s and 1790s the chiefs and alii were constantly fighting for power. After a series of battles the Hawaiian Islands were united for the first time under a single ruler who would become known as Kamehameha I. Gunpowder warfare After Gunpowder weapons were first developed in Song Dynasty China (see also Technology of Song Dynasty), the technology later spread west to the Ottoman Empire, from where it spread to the Safavid Empire of Persia and the Mughal Empire of India. The arquebus was later adopted by European armies during the Italian Wars of the early 16th century. This all brought an end to the dominance of armored cavalry on the battlefield. The simultaneous decline of the feudal system — and the absorption of the medieval city-states into larger states — allowed the creation of professional standing armies to replace the feudal levies and mercenaries that had been the standard military component of the Middle Ages. The period spanning between the 1648 Peace of Westphalia and the 1789 French Revolution is also known as Kabinettskriege (Princes' warfare) as wars were mainly carried out by imperial or monarchics states, decided by cabinets and limited in scope and in their aims. They also involved quickly shifting alliances, and mainly used mercenaries. Over the period of The long 19th century all military Arms and Services underwent significant developments that included a more mobile Field artillery, the transition from use of Battalion Infantry drill in close order to open order formations and the transfer of emphasis from the use of bayonets to the rifle that replaced the Musket, and virtual replacement of all types of cavalry with the universal Dragoons, or mounted infantry. Industrial warfare As weapons—particularly small arms—became easier to use, countries began to abandon a complete reliance on professional soldiers in favor of conscription. Technological advances became increasingly important; while the armies of the previous period had usually had similar weapons, the industrial age saw encounters such as the Battle of Sadowa, in which possession of a more advanced technology played a decisive role in the outcome. Conscription was employed in industrial warfare to increase the amount of soldiers that were available for combat. This was used by Napoleon Bonaparte in the Napoleonic Wars. Total war was used in industrial warfare, the objective being to prevent the opposing nation to engage in war. William Tecumseh Sherman's "March to the Sea" and Philip Sheridan's burning of the Shenandoah Valley are examples of total warfare. Modern warfare In modern times, war has evolved from an activity steeped in tradition to a scientific enterprise where success is valued above methods. The notion of total war is the extreme of this trend. Militaries have developed technological advances rivalling the scientific accomplishments of any other field of study. However, it should be noted that modern militaries benefit in the development of these technologies under the funding of the public, the leadership of national governments, and often in cooperation with large civilian groups, such as the General Dynamics and Lockheed Martin corporations, in the United States. And as for "total war," it may be argued that it is not an exclusive practice of modern militaries, but in the tradition of genocidal conflict that marks even tribal warfare to this day. What distinguishes modern military organizations from those previous is not their willingness to prevail in conflict by any method, but rather the technological variety of tools and methods available to modern battlefield commanders, from submarines to satellites, from knives to nuclear warheads. Some of the military unit types and technologies which were developed in modern times are: Ammunition Armory Conscription Grenadier Sappers and Miners Marine Aviation Rifleman Special Forces Naval Combatant Global Information Grid Active Electronically Scanned Array Network-centric warfare Supercomputer Space warfare Cyberwar World War I was sparked by the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, leading to the mobilization of Austria and Serbia. The Germans joined the Austrians to form the Central powers; the French, British, and Russia formed the Allied powers. Following the Battle of the Marne and the outflanking attempt of both nations in the "Race to the Sea", trench warfare ensued, leaving the war in a great deadlock. Major operations by the Germans at the Battle of Verdun and by the British and the French at the Battle of the Somme were carried out, and new technology like tanks and chlorine gas were used. Following the USA's entrance into the war, the Germans and their allies were eventually defeated. World War II ensued after Germany's invasion of Poland, forcing Britain and France to declare war. Germany quickly defeated France and Belgium, later aided by Italy. A hasty evacuation occurred at Dunkirk to save the Allied army from complete disaster. The Germans then attacked USSR and marched to take over the Soviet resources, but were thwarted. Meanwhile, Japan, who had already been at war with the Chinese since 1937, had launched a surprise attack on Pearl Harbor, leading the United States to join the Allied powers. In Europe, the Allies opened three fronts: in the west, after securing Normandy; in the east, aiding the Soviet Union; and in the south, through Italy. Germany eventually surrendered, upon which the Allies turned and focused troops to do island hopping. The dropping of the atom bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki led to the surrender of Japan and the end of the Second World War. Worsening relationships between wartime Allies developed into the Cold War, reaching a climax during the Cuban Missile Crisis at the same time as the Sino-Indian War. Hostilities never actually occurred, though the US-backed UN forces did engage against the communist states in the Korean War and the Vietnam War. See also Military science Military historiography Ancient Greek warfare Roman warfare Military history of ancient Rome Military history of the Soviet Union Manuel de Landa's War in the Age of Intelligent Machines Historical reenactment Militaria Wargaming References and footnotes Sources Recommended reading Fry, Douglas P., 2005, The Human Potential for Peace: An Anthropological Challenge to Assumptions about War and Violence, Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195181784 Kelly, Raymond C., 2000, Warless Societies and the Origin of War, University of Michigan Press. ISBN 9780472067381 Antiquity, Volume 70, Number 270, pp. 934–939, M. A. Littauer, and J. H. Crouwel, The origin of the true chariot, Antiquity Publications Ltd, 1996 External links Why Study War?, by Victor Davis Hanson, City Journal, Summer 2007 Military History Encyclopedia Military History Wiki Military history of continents | Military_history |@lemmatized military:63 history:39 humanity:2 discipline:4 within:1 scope:2 general:6 historical:4 recording:1 impact:2 society:13 culture:3 economy:1 change:11 intra:1 international:2 relationship:2 conflict:14 may:14 range:1 melee:1 two:3 tribal:5 group:7 national:2 world:20 war:82 coalition:1 affect:1 majority:1 global:2 human:8 population:2 historian:10 record:17 analyse:1 event:4 product:1 form:5 important:7 part:7 leader:3 formulate:1 future:1 plan:1 policy:1 societal:1 development:10 morillo:2 pevkovic:2 pp:6 constant:1 factor:1 process:3 social:3 evolution:2 thousand:3 year:7 span:3 six:1 millennium:2 much:8 disagreement:1 begin:5 otterbein:2 believe:1 always:1 u:2 derive:1 specie:1 others:2 stress:2 lack:2 clear:1 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5,527 | Chomsky_normal_form | In computer science, a formal grammar is said to be in Chomsky normal form if all of its production rules are of the form: or α or λ where , and are nonterminal symbols, α is a terminal symbol (a symbol that represents a constant value), is the start symbol, and λ is the empty string. Also, neither nor may be the start symbol. Every grammar in Chomsky normal form is context-free, and conversely, every context-free grammar can be efficiently transformed into an equivalent one which is in Chomsky normal form. With the exception of the optional rule λ (included when the grammar may generate the empty string), all rules of a grammar in Chomsky normal form are expansive; thus, throughout the derivation of a string, each string of terminals and nonterminals is always either the same length or one element longer than the previous such string. The derivation of a string of length n is always exactly steps long. Furthermore, since all rules deriving nonterminals transform one nonterminal to exactly two nonterminals, a parse tree based on a grammar in Chomsky normal form is a binary tree, and the height of this tree is limited to at most the length of the string. Because of these properties, many proofs in the field of languages and computability make use of the Chomsky normal form. These properties also yield various efficient algorithms based on grammars in Chomsky normal form; for example, the CYK algorithm that decides whether a given string can be generated by a given grammar uses the Chomsky normal form. The Chomsky normal form is named after Noam Chomsky, the US linguist who invented the Chomsky hierarchy. Alternative definition Some sources define Chomsky normal form in the following slightly different way: A formal grammar is in Chomsky normal form if all of its production rules are of the form: or α where , and are nonterminal symbols, and α is a terminal symbol. When using this definition, or may be the start symbol. This definition differs from the previous one in that it precludes the possibility that the grammar will generate the empty string, λ. It remains true that any context-free grammar accepting a language can be efficiently transformed into a grammar in Chomsky normal form that accepts -{λ}. The principal advantage of this later definition is that proofs are generally marginally simpler, due to the fact that each step in a derivation never decreases the length of the resulting string. Its disadvantage, of course, is that special consideration is needed if the original grammar generated λ.. References (Pages 98–101 of section 2.1: context-free grammars. Page 156.) (Pages 237–240 of section 6.6: simplified forms and normal forms.) John E. Hopcroft and Jeffrey D. Ullman, Introduction to Automata Theory, Languages and Computation, Addison-Wesley Publishing, Reading Massachusetts, 1979. ISBN 0-201-029880-X. (See chapter 4.) (Pages 103–106.) | Chomsky_normal_form |@lemmatized computer:1 science:1 formal:2 grammar:14 say:1 chomsky:14 normal:13 form:16 production:2 rule:5 α:4 λ:6 nonterminal:3 symbol:8 terminal:3 represent:1 constant:1 value:1 start:3 empty:3 string:10 also:2 neither:1 may:3 every:2 context:4 free:4 conversely:1 efficiently:2 transform:3 equivalent:1 one:4 exception:1 optional:1 include:1 generate:4 expansive:1 thus:1 throughout:1 derivation:3 nonterminals:3 always:2 either:1 length:4 element:1 long:2 previous:2 n:1 exactly:2 step:2 furthermore:1 since:1 derive:1 two:1 parse:1 tree:3 base:2 binary:1 height:1 limit:1 property:2 many:1 proof:2 field:1 language:3 computability:1 make:1 use:3 yield:1 various:1 efficient:1 algorithm:2 example:1 cyk:1 decide:1 whether:1 give:2 name:1 noam:1 u:1 linguist:1 invent:1 hierarchy:1 alternative:1 definition:4 source:1 define:1 follow:1 slightly:1 different:1 way:1 differs:1 preclude:1 possibility:1 remain:1 true:1 accept:2 principal:1 advantage:1 late:1 generally:1 marginally:1 simpler:1 due:1 fact:1 never:1 decrease:1 result:1 disadvantage:1 course:1 special:1 consideration:1 need:1 original:1 reference:1 page:4 section:2 simplify:1 john:1 e:1 hopcroft:1 jeffrey:1 ullman:1 introduction:1 automata:1 theory:1 computation:1 addison:1 wesley:1 publishing:1 read:1 massachusetts:1 isbn:1 x:1 see:1 chapter:1 |@bigram nonterminal_symbol:2 terminal_nonterminals:1 noam_chomsky:1 chomsky_hierarchy:1 preclude_possibility:1 addison_wesley:1 |
5,528 | Boudica | Boudica (; also spelled Boudicca), formerly known as Boadicea () and known in Welsh as "Buddug") (d. AD 60 or 61) was a queen of the Iceni tribe of what is now known as East Anglia in England, who led an uprising of the tribes against the occupying forces of the Roman Empire. Boudica's husband, Prasutagus, an Icenian king who had ruled as a nominally independent ally of Rome, left his kingdom jointly to his daughters and the Roman Emperor in his will. However, when he died his will was ignored. The kingdom was annexed as if conquered, Boudica was flogged and her daughters raped, and Roman financiers called in their loans. In AD 60 or 61, while the Roman governor, Gaius Suetonius Paulinus, was leading a campaign on the island of Anglesey in north Wales, Boudica led the Iceni, along with the Trinovantes and others, in revolt. They destroyed Camulodunum (Colchester), formerly the capital of the Trinovantes, but now a colonia (a settlement for discharged Roman soldiers) and the site of a temple to the former emperor Claudius, built and maintained at local expense, and routed a Roman legion, the IX Hispana, sent to relieve the settlement. On hearing the news of the revolt, Suetonius hurried to Londinium (London), the twenty-year-old commercial settlement which was the rebels' next target, but concluding he did not have the numbers to defend it, evacuated and abandoned it. It was burnt to the ground, as was Verulamium (St Albans). An estimated 70,000-80,000 people were killed in the three cities. Suetonius, meanwhile, regrouped his forces in the West Midlands, and despite being heavily outnumbered, defeated Boudica in the Battle of Watling Street. The crisis had led the emperor Nero to consider withdrawing all Roman forces from the island, but Suetonius's eventual victory over Boudica secured Roman control of the province. The history of these events, as recorded by Tacitus Tacitus, Agricola 14-16; Annals 14:29-39 and Cassius Dio, Cassius Dio, Roman History 62:1-12 were rediscovered during the Renaissance and led to a resurgence of Boudica's legendary fame during the Victorian era, when Queen Victoria was portrayed as her "namesake". Boudica has since remained an important cultural symbol in the United Kingdom. The absence of native British literature during the early part of the first millennium means that Britain owes its knowledge of Boudica's rebellion to the writings of the Romans. History Boudica's name Until the late 20th century, Boudica was known as Boadicea, which is probably derived from a mistranscription when a manuscript of Tacitus was copied in the Middle Ages. Her name takes many forms in various manuscripts–Boadicea and Boudicea in Tacitus; Βουδουικα, Βουνδουικα, and Βοδουικα in Dio–but almost certainly, it was originally Boudicca or Boudica, and is the Proto-Celtic feminine adjective *boudīka, "victorious", derived from the Celtic word *bouda, "victory" (cf. Irish bua (Classical Irish buadh), Buaidheach, Welsh buddugoliaeth). The name is attested in inscriptions as "Boudica" in Lusitania, "Boudiga" in Bordeaux, and "Bodicca" in Britain. Graham Webster, Boudica: The British Revolt against Rome AD 60, 1978; Guy de la Bédoyère, The Roman Army in Britain, retrieved 5 July, 2005 Based on later development of Welsh and Irish, Kenneth Jackson concludes that the correct spelling of the name in Brythonic is Boudica, Kenneth Jackson, "Queen Boudicca?", Britannia 10, 1979 (the closest English equivalent to the vowel in the first syllable is the ow in "bow-and-arrow"). The modern English pronunciation is . Boudicca. Dictionary.com. Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Boudicca (accessed: December 20, 2007). Background Tacitus and Dio agree that Boudica was of royal descent. Dio says that she was "possessed of greater intelligence than often belongs to women", that she was tall, had long red hair down to her hips, a harsh voice and a piercing glare, and habitually wore a large golden necklace (perhaps a torc), a many-coloured tunic, and a thick cloak fastened by a brooch. Location of modern Norfolk, once inhabited by the Iceni Her husband, Prasutagus, was the king of Iceni, people who inhabited roughly what is now Norfolk. They initially were not part of the territory under direct Roman control, having voluntarily allied themselves to Rome following Claudius's conquest of AD 43. They were jealous of their independence and had revolted in AD 47 when the then-governor, Publius Ostorius Scapula, threatened to disarm them. Tacitus, Annals 12:31-32 Prasutagus lived a long life of conspicuous wealth, and, hoping to preserve his line, made the Roman emperor co-heir to his kingdom along with his wife and two daughters. It was normal Roman practice to allow allied kingdoms their independence only for the lifetime of their client king, who would agree to leave his kingdom to Rome in his will: the provinces of Bithynia H. H. Scullard, From the Gracchi to Nero, 1982, p. 90 and Galatia, John Morris, Londinium: London in the Roman Empire, 1982, pp. 107-108 for example, were incorporated into the Empire in just this way. Roman law also allowed inheritance only through the male line. So when Prasutagus died his attempts to preserve his line were ignored and his kingdom was annexed as if it had been conquered. Lands and property were confiscated and nobles treated like slaves. According to Tacitus, Boudica was flogged and her daughters raped. Dio Cassius says that Roman financiers, including Seneca the Younger, chose this time to call in their loans. Tacitus does not mention this, but does single out the procurator, Catus Decianus, for criticism for his "avarice". Prasutagus, it seems, had lived well on borrowed Roman money, and on his death his subjects had become liable for the debt. Boudica's uprising In AD 60 or 61, while the current governor, Gaius Suetonius Paulinus, was leading a campaign against the island of Mona (modern Anglesey) in north Wales, which was a refuge for British rebels and a stronghold of the druids, the Iceni conspired with their neighbours the Trinovantes, amongst others, to revolt. Boudica was chosen as their leader. According to Tacitus, they drew inspiration from the example of Arminius, the prince of the Cherusci who had driven the Romans out of Germany in AD 9, and their own ancestors who had driven Julius Caesar from Britain. Tacitus, Agricola 15 Dio says that at the outset Boudica employed a form of divination, releasing a hare from the folds of her dress and interpreting the direction in which it ran, and invoked Andraste, a British goddess of victory. Perhaps it is significant that Boudica's own name means "victory" (see above). The rebels' first target was Camulodunum (Colchester), the former Trinovantian capital and now a Roman colonia. The Roman veterans who had been settled there mistreated the locals, and a temple to the former emperor Claudius had been erected there at local expense, making the city a focus for resentment. The Roman inhabitants of the city sought reinforcements from the procurator, Catus Decianus, but he sent only two hundred auxiliary troops. Boudica's army fell on the poorly defended city and destroyed it, besieging the last defenders in the temple for two days before it fell. Archaeologists have shown that the city was methodically demolished. Jason Burke, "Dig uncovers Boudicca's brutal streak", The Observer , 3 December 2000 The future governor Quintus Petillius Cerialis, then commanding the Legio IX Hispana, attempted to relieve the city, but suffered an overwhelming defeat. His infantry was wiped out; only the commander and some of his cavalry escaped. Catus Decianus fled to Gaul. When news of the rebellion reached him, Suetonius hurried along Watling Street through hostile territory to Londinium (London). Londinium was a relatively new town, founded after the conquest of 43 AD, but it had grown to be a thriving commercial centre with a population of travellers, traders, and probably, Roman officials. Suetonius considered giving battle there, but considering his lack of numbers and chastened by Petillius's defeat, decided to sacrifice the city to save the province. Londinium was abandoned to the rebels, who burnt it down, slaughtering anyone who had not evacuated with Suetonius. Archaeology shows a thick red layer of burnt debris covering coins and pottery dating before 60 AD within the bounds of the Roman city. George Patrick Welch, Britannia: The Roman Conquest & Occupation of Britain, 1963, p. 107 Verulamium (St Albans) was next to be destroyed. In the three cities destroyed, between seventy and eighty thousand people are said to have been killed. Tacitus says the Britons had no interest in taking or selling prisoners, only in slaughter by gibbet, fire, or cross. Dio's account gives more prurient detail: that the noblest women were impaled on spikes and had their breasts cut off and sewn to their mouths, "to the accompaniment of sacrifices, banquets, and wanton behaviour" in sacred places, particularly the groves of Andraste. Romans rally Statue by Thomas Thornycroft, standing near Westminster Pier, London Suetonius regrouped with the XIV Gemina, some vexillationes (detachments) of the XX Valeria Victrix, and any available auxiliaries. The prefect of Legio II Augusta, Poenius Postumus, ignored the call, but nonetheless the governor was able to call on almost ten thousand men. He took a stand at an unidentified location, probably in the West Midlands somewhere along the Roman road now known as Watling Street, in a defile with a wood behind him. But his men were heavily outnumbered. Dio says that, even if they were lined up one deep, they would not have extended the length of Boudica's line: by now the rebel forces numbered 230,000. However, this number should be treated with scepticism: Dio's account is known only from a late epitome, and ancient sources commonly exaggerate enemy numbers. Boudica exhorted her troops from her chariot, her daughters beside her. Tacitus gives her a short speech in which she presents herself not as an aristocrat avenging her lost wealth, but as an ordinary person, avenging her lost freedom, her battered body, and the abused chastity of her daughters. Their cause was just, and the deities were on their side; the one legion that had dared to face them had been destroyed. She, a woman, was resolved to win or die; if the men wanted to live in slavery, that was their choice. However, the lack of manoeuvrability of the British forces, combined with lack of open-field tactics to command these numbers, put them at a disadvantage to the Romans, who were skilled at open combat due to their superior equipment and discipline, and the narrowness of the field meant that Boudica could only put forth as many troops as the Romans could at a given time. First, the Romans stood their ground and used volleys of pila (heavy javelins) to kill thousands of Britons who were rushing toward the Roman lines. The Roman soldiers, who had now used up their pila, were then able to engage Boudica's second wave in the open. As the Romans advanced in a wedge formation, the Britons attempted to flee, but were impeded by the presence of their own families, whom they had stationed in a ring of wagons at the edge of the battlefield, and were slaughtered. This is not the first instance of this tactic. The women of the Cimbri, in the Battle of Vercellae against Gaius Marius, were stationed in a line of wagons and acted as a last line of defence; Florus, Epitome of Roman History 1.38 Ariovistus of the Suebi is reported to have done the same thing in his battle against Julius Caesar. Julius Caesar, Commentarii de Bello Gallico 1.51 Tacitus reports that "according to one report almost eighty thousand Britons fell" compared with only four hundred Romans. According to Tacitus, Boudica poisoned herself; Dio says she fell sick and died, and was given a lavish burial. Postumus, on hearing of the Roman victory, fell on his sword. Catus Decianus, who had fled to Gaul, was replaced by Gaius Julius Alpinus Classicianus. Suetonius conducted punitive operations, but criticism by Classicianus led to an investigation headed by Nero's freedman Polyclitus. Fearing Suetonius' actions would provoke further rebellion, Nero replaced the governor with the more conciliatory Publius Petronius Turpilianus. Tacitus, Annals XIV.39 The historian Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus tells us the crisis had almost persuaded Nero to abandon Britain. Suetonius, Nero 18, 39-40 Location of her defeat The location of Boudica's defeat is unknown. Most historians favour a site in the West Midlands, somewhere along the Roman road now known as Watling Street. Kevin K. Carroll suggests a site close to High Cross in Leicestershire, on the junction of Watling Street and the Fosse Way, which would have allowed the Legio II Augusta, based at Exeter, to rendezvous with the rest of Suetonius's forces, had they not failed to do so. Kevin K. Carroll, "The Date of Boudicca's Revolt", Britannia 10, 1979 Manduessedum (Mancetter), near the modern day town of Atherstone in Warwickshire, has also been suggested. Sheppard Frere, Britannia: A History of Roman Britain, 1987, p. 73 More recently a new discovery of Roman artifacts in Kings Norton close to Metchley Camp has suggested another possibility. Is Boudicca buried in Birmingham?, BBC, 25 May 2006, retrieved 9 September 2006 Historical sources Tacitus, the most important Roman historian of this period, took a particular interest in Britain as Gnaeus Julius Agricola, his father-in-law and the subject of his first book, served there three times. Agricola was a military tribune under Suetonius Paulinus, which almost certainly gave Tacitus an eyewitness source for Boudica's revolt. Cassius Dio's account is only known from an epitome, and his sources are uncertain. He is generally agreed to have based his account on that of Tacitus, but he simplifies the sequence of events and adds details, such as the calling in of loans, that Tacitus does not mention. It is possible that Gildas, in his 6th century polemic De Excidio Britanniae, alludes to Boudica in his typically oblique fashion as a "treacherous lioness", although his general lack of knowledge about the real history of the Roman conquest of Britain makes this far from certain. Gildas, The Ruin of Britain 6; Fabio P. Barbieri, History of Britain, 407-597, Book 1, Chapter 2, 2002 (retrieved 5 July 2005) Cultural depictions History and literature By the Middle Ages Boudica was forgotten. She makes no appearance in Bede's work, the Historia Brittonum, the Mabinogion or Geoffrey of Monmouth's History of the Kings of Britain. But the rediscovery of the works of Tacitus during the Renaissance allowed Polydore Virgil to reintroduce her into British history as "Voadicea" in 1534. Polydore Vergil's English History Book 2 (pp. 69-72). Raphael Holinshed also included her story in his Chronicles (1577), based on Tacitus and Dio, Raphael Holinshed, Chronicles: History of England 4.9-13 and inspired Shakespeare's younger contemporaries Francis Beaumont and John Fletcher to write a play, Bonduca, in 1610. Francis Beaumont and John Fletcher, Bonduca William Cowper wrote a popular poem, Boadicea, an ode, in 1782. William Cowper, Boadicea, an ode It was in the Victorian era that Boudica's fame took on legendary proportions as Queen Victoria was seen to be Boudica's "namesake". Victoria's Poet Laureate, Alfred, Lord Tennyson, wrote a poem, Boadicea, Alfred, Lord Tennyson, Boadicea and several ships were named after her. A great bronze statue of Boudica with her daughters in her war chariot (furnished with scythes after the Persian fashion) was commissioned by Prince Albert and executed by Thomas Thornycroft. It was completed in 1905 and stands next to Westminster Bridge and the Houses of Parliament, with the following lines from Cowper's poem, referring to the British Empire: Regions Caesar never knew Thy posterity shall sway. Ironically, the great anti-imperialist rebel was now identified with the head of the British Empire, and her statue stood guard over the city she razed to the ground. Graham Webster, Boudica: The British Revolt against Rome AD 60, 1978 In more recent times, Boudica has been the subject of numerous documentaries, including some by Discovery Channel, History International Channel, and the BBC. Fiction Boudica has been the subject of two feature films, the 1928 film Boadicea, where she was portrayed by Phyllis Neilson-Terry, Boadicea (1928) and 2003's Boudica (Warrior Queen in the USA), a UK TV film written by Andrew Davies and starring Alex Kingston as Boudica. Boudica (2003) A new film is planned for release in 2010 entitled Warrior, written by Brian Klugman and Lee Sternthal, directed by Gavin O'Connor, and produced by Mel Gibson. Boudicca (2010) at IMDb She has also been the subject of a 1978 British TV series, Warrior Queen, starring Sian Phillips as Boudica. Jennifer Ward-Lealand portrayed Boudica in an episode of Xena - Warrior Princess entitled "The Deliverer" in 1997. Boudica's story is the subject of several novels, including books by Rosemary Sutcliff, Pauline Gedge, Manda Scott, Alan Gold, Diana L. Paxson, David Wishart, George Shipway, and J. F. Broxholme (a pseudonym of Duncan Kyle). She plays a central role in the first part of G. A. Henty's novel Beric the Briton. One of the viewpoint characters of Ian Watson's novel "Oracle" is an eyewitness to her defeat. She has also appeared in several comic book series, including the Sláine, which featured two runs, entitled "Demon Killer" and "Queen of Witches" giving a free interpretation of Boudica's story. Other comic appearances include Witchblade and From Hell. Boudicca is a character in the animated series "Gargoyles". at The Gargoyles Encyclopedia. Additionally, in the alternate history novel "Ruled Britannia" by Harry Turtledove, Boudicca is the subject of a play written by William Shakespeare to incite the people of Britain to revolt against Spanish conquerors. Henry Purcell's last major work, composed in 1695, was music for play entitled "Bonduca, or the British Heroine" (Z. 574). Selections include "To Arms", "Britons, Strike Home" and "O lead me to some peaceful gloom". Boudica has also been the primary subject of songs by Irish singer/songwriter Enya, Dutch soprano Petra Berger, Scottish singer/songwriter Steve McDonald, English metal band Bal-Sagoth, Faith and the Muse and Dreams in the Witching House. She has also been mentioned in The Libertines' song The Good Old Days. Other cultural references There have been scattered reports that the restless spirit of Boudica has been seen in the county of Lincolnshire. These reports, dating back to the mid-19th century, claim Boudica rides her chariot, heading for some unknown destination, and many a traveller and motorist have claimed to have seen her. Dan Asfar, Haunted Highways: Ghost Stories and Strange Tales, 2003 There is also a long-lived urban myth that she is buried under Platform 10 of King's Cross railway station in London. Queen Boadicea ( - 61) - Find A Grave Memorial This originates from the village of Battle Bridge (previously on the station's site), which was said to be the site of her last battle, suicide and burial. This is now accepted as a fiction and a hoax, whose origins can be traced back to Lewis Spence's book 'Boadicea - Warrior Queen of the Britons (1937) (where it is given but unevidenced) Bob Trubshaw, "Boudica - the case for Atherstone and Kings Cross" from At the Edge or earlier. "A Boudicca question", discussion on the Time Team forum at Channel 4 It is now thought that Battle Bridge was a corruption of 'Broad Ford Bridge'. Other such legends place her burial on Parliament Hill, Hampstead or in Suffolk. In 2003, an LTR retrotransposon from the genome of the human blood fluke Schistosoma mansoni was named Boudica. Copeland CS, Brindley PJ, Heyers O, Michael SF, Johnston DA, Williams DL, Ivens AC, Kalinna BH, "Boudica, a retrovirus-like long terminal repeat retrotransposon from the genome of the human blood fluke Schistosoma mansoni". Journal of Virology 2003 Jun;77(11):6153-66; Copeland CS, Heyers O, Kalinna BH, Bachmair A, Stadler PF, Hofacker IL, Brindley PJ, "Structural and evolutionary analysis of the transcribed sequence of Boudicca, a Schistosoma mansoni retrotransposon". Gene 2004;329:103-114. In the BBC sitcom The Vicar of Dibley the title character is named Boadicea Geraldine Granger. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vicar_of_dibley On her 1987 debut album, the Irish singer Enya performs the song "Boadicea". Various female politicians, including former Prime Minister of New Zealand, Helen Clark have been called Boadicea. Boudicca is the name of a cruise ship owned by the Fred. Olsen & Co.. Boudicca is a playable leader in the 2007 expansion pack Civilization IV: Beyond the Sword. References Further reading Guy de la Bédoyère, 'Bleeding from the Roman Rods: Boudica' in Defying Rome. The Rebels of Roman Britain, Tempus, Stroud, 2003 Vanessa Collingridge; Boudica, Ebury, London, 2004 Richard Hingley & Christina Unwin, Boudica: Iron Age Warrior Queen, 2004 Manfred Böckl: Die letzte Königin der Kelten. (The last Queen of the Celts). Novel telling the life of the Iceni-Queen Boadicea in German language. (Rights: Aufbau Verlag, Berlin, Germany, 2005.) Joseph E. Roesch, Boudica, Queen of The Iceni (London, Robert Hale Ltd, 2006). Andrew Godsell "Boadicea: A Woman's Resolve" in "Legends of British History" (2008) See also List of women warriors in folklore, literature, and popular culture External links James Grout: Boudica, part of the Encyclopædia Romana Trying to Rule Britannia; BBC; 6 August 2004 Iceni at Roman-Britain.org Iceni at Romans in Britain Boadicea may have had her chips on site of McDonald's by Nick Britten PBS Boudica / Warrior Queen website Warrior queens and blind critics - article on the 2004 film King Arthur which discusses Boudica 24 Hour Museum trail Channel 4 History - In Boudica's Footsteps | Boudica |@lemmatized boudica:58 also:10 spell:1 boudicca:15 formerly:2 know:9 boadicea:17 welsh:3 buddug:1 ad:10 queen:15 iceni:9 tribe:2 east:1 anglia:1 england:2 lead:8 uprising:2 occupying:1 force:6 roman:45 empire:5 husband:2 prasutagus:5 icenian:1 king:8 rule:3 nominally:1 independent:1 ally:2 rome:6 leave:2 kingdom:7 jointly:1 daughter:7 emperor:5 however:3 die:5 ignore:3 annex:2 conquer:2 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5,529 | Overgrazing | Overgrazing occurs when plants are exposed to intensive grazing for extended periods of time, or without sufficient recovery periods. It can be caused by either livestock in poorly managed agricultural applications, or by overpopulations of native or non-native wild animals. It reduces the usefulness, productivity, and biodiversity of the land and is one cause of desertification and erosion. Overgrazing is also seen as a cause of the spread of non-native plants and weeds. Overgrazing is used as the canonical example of the Tragedy of the commons. Garrett Hardin, "The Tragedy of the Commons", Science, Vol. 162, No. 3859 (December 13, 1968), pp. 1243-1248. Also available here and here. Sustainable grassland production is based on grass management, animal management, and livestock marketing. Grazing management is the foundation of grassland-based livestock production since it affects both animal and plant health and productivity. West Virginia University Extension Service Overgrazing Can Hurt Environment, Your Pocketbook Ed Rayburn. 2000. Process Overgrazing can occur under continuous or rotational grazing. It can be caused by having too many animals on the farm or by not properly controlling their grazing activity. Overgrazing reduces palatable plant leaf areas, which reduces interception of sunlight and plant growth. Plants become weakened and have reduced root length, and potentially the pasture sod can be weakened although in many locales overgrazing results in an increased sod vigour dominated by unpalatable grasses. The reduced root length makes the plants more susceptible to death during dry weather. A weakened sod allows weed seeds to germinate and grow. Indicators One indicator of overgrazing is that the animals run short of pasture. In some regions of the United States under continuous grazing overgrazed pastures are predominated by short-grass species such as bluegrass and will be less than 2-3 inches tall in the grazed areas. In other parts of the world overgrazed pasture is typically taller than sustainably grazed pasture, with grass heights typically over 1 meter and dominated by unpalatable species such as Aristida or Imperata. In all cases palatable tall grasses such as orchard grass are sparse or non-existent. In such cases of overgrazing soil may be visible between plants in the stand, allowing erosion to occur, though in many circumstances overgrazed pastures have a greater sward cover than sustainably grazed pastures. Under rotational grazing, overgrazed plants do not have enough time to grow to the proper height between grazing events. The animals are turned into a paddock before the plants have restored carbohydrate reserves and grown back roots lost after the last defoliation (see table). The result is the same as under continuous grazing: in some parts of the United States tall-growing species die and short-growing species that are more subject to drought injury predominate the pasture, while in most other parts of the world tall, drought tolerant, unpalatable species such as Imperata or Aristida come to dominate. As the sod thins, weeds encroach into the pasture in some parts of the United States, whereas in most other parts of the worlds overgrazing can promote thick swards of native unpalatable grasses that hamper the spread of weeds. Another indicator of overgrazing in some parts of North America is that livestock run out of pasture, and hay needs to be fed early in the fall. In contrast most areas of the world do not experience the same climatic regime as the continental USA and hay feeding is rarely conducted. Overgrazing is also indicated in livestock performance and condition. Cows having inadequate pasture immediately following their calf's weaning may have poor body condition the following season. This may reduce the health and vigor of cows and calves at calving. Also, cows in poor body condition do not cycle as soon after calving, which can result in delayed breeding. This can result in a long calving season. With good cow genetics, nutrition, ideal seasons and controlled breeding 55% to 75% of the calves should come in the first 21 days of the calving season. Poor weaning weights of calves can be caused by insufficient pasture, when cows give less milk and the calves need pasture to maintain weight gain. Ecological impacts Overgrazing typically increases soil erosion. Reduction in soil depth, soil organic matter and soil fertility impair the land's future productivity. Soil fertility can sometimes be mitigated by applying the appropriate lime and fertilizers. However, the loss of soil depth and organic matter takes centuries to correct. Their loss is critical in determining the soil's water-holding capacity and how well pasture plants do during dry weather. Continental, Lower 48, United States of America Specific Prevention To prevent overgrazing, match the forage supplement to the herd's requirement. This means that a buffer needs to be in the system to adjust for the fastest growth of forages. Another potential buffer is to plant warm-season perennial grasses such as switchgrass, which do not grow early in the season. This reduces the area that the livestock can use early in the season, making it easier for them to keep up with the cool-season grasses. The animals then use the warm-season grasses during the heat of the summer, and the cool-season grasses recover for fall grazing. The grazing guidelines in the table are for rotationally grazed, cool-season forages. When using continuous grazing, manage pasture height at one-half the recommended turn-in height for rotational grazing to optimize plant health. The growth habit of some forage species, such as alfalfa, does not permit their survival under continuous grazing. When managing for legumes in the stand, it is beneficial to use rotational grazing and graze the stand close and then give adequate rest to stimulate the legumes' growth. References External links Western Watersheds Project | Overgrazing |@lemmatized overgrazing:14 occurs:1 plant:13 expose:1 intensive:1 grazing:10 extended:1 period:2 time:2 without:1 sufficient:1 recovery:1 cause:5 either:1 livestock:6 poorly:1 manage:3 agricultural:1 application:1 overpopulation:1 native:4 non:3 wild:1 animal:7 reduce:5 usefulness:1 productivity:3 biodiversity:1 land:2 one:3 desertification:1 erosion:3 also:4 see:2 spread:2 weed:4 use:5 canonical:1 example:1 tragedy:2 common:2 garrett:1 hardin:1 science:1 vol:1 december:1 pp:1 available:1 sustainable:1 grassland:2 production:2 base:2 grass:11 management:3 marketing:1 graze:6 foundation:1 since:1 affect:1 health:3 west:1 virginia:1 university:1 extension:1 service:1 hurt:1 environment:1 pocketbook:1 ed:1 rayburn:1 process:1 occur:2 continuous:5 rotational:4 many:3 farm:1 properly:1 control:2 activity:1 reduces:1 palatable:2 leaf:1 area:4 interception:1 sunlight:1 growth:4 become:1 weaken:2 root:3 length:2 potentially:1 pasture:15 sod:4 although:1 locale:1 result:4 increased:1 vigour:1 dominate:3 unpalatable:4 reduced:1 make:2 susceptible:1 death:1 dry:2 weather:2 weakened:1 allows:1 seed:1 germinate:1 grow:6 indicator:3 run:2 short:3 region:1 united:4 state:4 overgrazed:4 predominate:2 specie:6 bluegrass:1 less:2 inch:1 tall:5 grazed:3 part:6 world:4 typically:3 sustainably:2 height:4 meter:1 aristida:2 imperata:2 case:2 orchard:1 sparse:1 existent:1 soil:8 may:3 visible:1 stand:3 allow:1 though:1 circumstance:1 great:1 sward:2 cover:1 enough:1 proper:1 event:1 turn:2 paddock:1 restore:1 carbohydrate:1 reserve:1 back:1 lose:1 last:1 defoliation:1 table:2 die:1 subject:1 drought:2 injury:1 tolerant:1 come:2 thins:1 encroach:1 whereas:1 promote:1 thick:1 hamper:1 another:2 north:1 america:2 hay:2 need:3 feed:1 early:3 fall:2 contrast:1 experience:1 climatic:1 regime:1 continental:2 usa:1 feeding:1 rarely:1 conduct:1 indicate:1 performance:1 condition:3 cow:5 inadequate:1 immediately:1 follow:1 calf:5 weaning:1 poor:3 body:2 following:1 season:11 vigor:1 calve:2 cycle:1 soon:1 delayed:1 breeding:1 long:1 calving:2 good:1 genetics:1 nutrition:1 ideal:1 breed:1 first:1 day:1 wean:1 weight:2 insufficient:1 give:2 milk:1 maintain:1 gain:1 ecological:1 impact:1 increase:1 reduction:1 depth:2 organic:2 matter:2 fertility:2 impair:1 future:1 sometimes:1 mitigate:1 apply:1 appropriate:1 lime:1 fertilizer:1 however:1 loss:2 take:1 century:1 correct:1 critical:1 determine:1 water:1 holding:1 capacity:1 well:1 low:1 specific:1 prevention:1 prevent:1 match:1 forage:4 supplement:1 herd:1 requirement:1 mean:1 buffer:2 system:1 adjust:1 fast:1 potential:1 warm:2 perennial:1 switchgrass:1 easy:1 keep:1 cool:3 heat:1 summer:1 recover:1 guideline:1 rotationally:1 half:1 recommend:1 optimize:1 habit:1 alfalfa:1 permit:1 survival:1 legume:2 beneficial:1 close:1 adequate:1 rest:1 stimulate:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 western:1 watershed:1 project:1 |@bigram rotational_grazing:4 seed_germinate:1 non_existent:1 cow_calf:1 soil_erosion:1 external_link:1 |
5,530 | Geography_of_Guinea | Map of Guinea Topography of Guinea Guinea is located on the Atlantic Coast of West Africa and is bordered by Guinea-Bissau, Senegal, Mali, Côte d'Ivoire, Liberia, and Sierra Leone. The country is divided into four geographic regions: A narrow coastal belt (Lower Guinea); the pastoral Fouta Djallon highlands (Middle Guinea); the northern savanna (Upper Guinea); and a southeastern rain-forest region (Forest Guinea). The Niger, Gambia, and Senegal Rivers are among the 22 West African rivers that have their origins in Guinea. Climate The coastal region of Guinea and most of the inland have a tropical climate, with a rainy season lasting from April to November, relatively high and uniform temperatures, and high humidity. Conakry's year-round average high is 29 °C (85 °F), and the low is 23 °C (74 °F); its average annual rainfall is 4.3 metres (169 inches). Sahelian Upper Guinea has a shorter rainy season and greater daily temperature variations. General Information Location: Western Africa, bordering the North Atlantic Ocean, between Guinea-Bissau and Sierra Leone Geographic coordinates: Map references: Africa Area: total: 245,857 km² land: 245,857 km² water: 0 km² Area - comparative: slightly smaller than Oregon Land boundaries: total: 3,399 km border countries: Côte d'Ivoire 610 km, Guinea-Bissau 386 km, Liberia 563 km, Mali 858 km, Senegal 330 km, Sierra Leone 652 km Coastline: 320 km Maritime claims: exclusive economic zone: 200 nautical miles (370 km) territorial sea: 12 nautical miles (22 km) Climate: generally hot and humid; monsoonal-type rainy season (June to November) with southwesterly winds; dry season (December to May) with northeasterly harmattan winds Terrain: generally flat coastal plain, hilly to mountainous interior Elevation extremes: lowest point: Atlantic Ocean 0 m highest point: Mont Nimba 1,752 m Natural resources: bauxite, iron ore, diamonds, gold, uranium, hydropower, fish Land use: arable land: 2% permanent crops: 0% permanent pastures: 22% forests and woodland: 59% other: 17% (1993 est.) Irrigated land: 930 km² (1993 est.) Natural hazards: hot, dry, dusty harmattan haze may reduce visibility during dry season Environment - current issues: deforestation; inadequate supplies of potable water; desertification; soil contamination and erosion; overfishing, overpopulation in forest region Environment - international agreements: party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements See also Guinea | Geography_of_Guinea |@lemmatized map:2 guinea:14 topography:1 locate:1 atlantic:3 coast:1 west:2 africa:3 border:3 bissau:3 senegal:3 mali:2 côte:2 ivoire:2 liberia:2 sierra:3 leone:3 country:2 divide:1 four:1 geographic:2 region:4 narrow:1 coastal:3 belt:1 low:3 pastoral:1 fouta:1 djallon:1 highland:1 middle:1 northern:1 savanna:1 upper:2 southeastern:1 rain:1 forest:4 niger:1 gambia:1 river:2 among:1 african:1 origin:1 climate:4 inland:1 tropical:1 rainy:3 season:5 last:1 april:1 november:2 relatively:1 high:4 uniform:1 temperature:2 humidity:1 conakry:1 year:1 round:1 average:2 c:2 f:2 annual:1 rainfall:1 metre:1 inch:1 sahelian:1 shorter:1 great:1 daily:1 variation:1 general:1 information:1 location:1 western:1 north:1 ocean:2 coordinate:1 reference:1 area:2 total:2 land:5 water:2 comparative:1 slightly:1 small:1 oregon:1 boundary:1 km:10 coastline:1 maritime:1 claim:1 exclusive:1 economic:1 zone:1 nautical:2 mile:2 territorial:1 sea:2 generally:2 hot:2 humid:1 monsoonal:1 type:1 june:1 southwesterly:1 wind:2 dry:3 december:1 may:2 northeasterly:1 harmattan:2 terrain:1 flat:1 plain:1 hilly:1 mountainous:1 interior:1 elevation:1 extreme:1 point:2 mont:1 nimba:1 natural:2 resource:1 bauxite:1 iron:1 ore:1 diamond:1 gold:1 uranium:1 hydropower:1 fish:1 use:1 arable:1 permanent:2 crop:1 pasture:1 woodland:1 est:2 irrigated:1 hazard:1 dusty:1 haze:1 reduce:1 visibility:1 environment:2 current:1 issue:1 deforestation:1 inadequate:1 supply:1 potable:1 desertification:2 soil:1 contamination:1 erosion:1 overfishing:1 overpopulation:1 international:1 agreement:2 party:1 biodiversity:1 change:1 endanger:1 specie:1 hazardous:1 waste:1 law:1 ozone:1 layer:1 protection:1 wetland:1 sign:1 ratified:1 none:1 selected:1 see:1 also:1 |@bigram guinea_bissau:3 senegal_mali:1 côte_ivoire:2 liberia_sierra:1 sierra_leone:3 rain_forest:1 rainy_season:3 annual_rainfall:1 atlantic_ocean:2 geographic_coordinate:1 coastline_km:1 zone_nautical:1 nautical_mile:2 mile_km:2 hot_humid:1 harmattan_wind:1 coastal_plain:1 hilly_mountainous:1 iron_ore:1 arable_land:1 permanent_crop:1 permanent_pasture:1 pasture_forest:1 forest_woodland:1 woodland_est:1 est_irrigated:1 irrigated_land:1 dry_dusty:1 dusty_harmattan:1 supply_potable:1 potable_water:1 biodiversity_climate:1 desertification_endanger:1 endanger_specie:1 hazardous_waste:1 ozone_layer:1 protection_wetland:1 sign_ratified:1 ratified_none:1 |
5,531 | Behistun_Inscription | The Behistun Inscription (also Bisitun or Bisutun, Modern Persian: بیستون ; Old Persian: Bagastana, meaning "the god's place or land") is a multi-lingual inscription located on Mount Behistun in the Kermanshah Province of Iran, near the town of Jeyhounabad in western Iran. The inscription includes three versions of the same text, written in three different cuneiform script languages: Old Persian, Elamite, and Babylonian. A British army officer, Henry Rawlinson, had the inscription transcribed in two parts, in 1835 and 1843. Rawlinson was able to translate the Old Persian cuneiform text in 1838, and the Elamite and Babylonian texts were translated by Rawlinson and others after 1843. Babylonian was a later form of Akkadian: both are Semitic languages. In effect, then, the inscription is to cuneiform what the Rosetta Stone is to Egyptian hieroglyphs: the document most crucial in the decipherment of a previously lost script. The inscription is approximately 15 metres high by 25 metres wide, and 100 metres up a limestone cliff from an ancient road connecting the capitals of Babylonia and Media (Babylon and Ecbatana). It is extremely inaccessible as the mountainside was removed to make the inscription more visible after its completion. The Old Persian text contains 414 lines in five columns; the Elamite text includes 593 lines in eight columns and the Babylonian text is in 112 lines. The inscription was illustrated by a life-sized bas-relief of Darius, holding a bow as a sign of kingship, with his left foot on the chest of a figure lying on his back before him. The prostrate figure is reputed to be the pretender Gaumata. Darius is attended to the left by two servants, and ten one-metre figures stand to the right, with hands tied and rope around their necks, representing conquered peoples. Faravahar floats above, giving his blessing to the king. One figure appears to have been added after the others were completed, as was (oddly enough) Darius' beard , which is a separate block of stone attached with iron pins and lead. Bisotun is also one of the 80 treasures featured on Around the World in 80 Treasures presented by Dan Cruickshank. In ancient history Mount Behistun, Persia The first historical mention of the inscription is by the Greek Ctesias of Cnidus, who noted its existence some time around 400 BC, and mentions a well and a garden beneath the inscription dedicated by Queen Semiramis of Babylon to Zeus (the Greek analogue of Ahura Mazda). Tacitus also mentions it and includes a description of some of the long-lost ancillary monuments at the base of the cliff, including an altar to Herakles. What has been recovered of them, including a statue dedicated in 148 BC, is consistent with Tacitus' description. Diodorus also writes of "Bagistanon" and claims it was inscribed by Queen Semiramis. After the fall of the Persian Empire and its successors, and the fall of cuneiform writing into disuse, the nature of the inscription was forgotten and fanciful origins became the norm. For centuries, instead of being attributed to Darius — one of the first Persian kings — it was believed to be from the reign of Khosroes II of Persia — one of the last. A legend arose that it had been created by Farhad, a lover of Khosroes' wife, Shirin. Exiled for his transgression, Farhad is given the task of cutting away the mountain to find water; if he succeeds, he will be given permission to marry Shirin. After many years and the removal of half the mountain, he does find water, but is informed by Khosroes that Shirin had died. He goes mad, throws his axe down the hill, kisses the ground and dies. It is told in the book of Khusraw and Shirin that his axe was made out of a Pomegranate tree, and where he threw the axe a Pomegranate tree grew with fruit that would cure the ill. Shirin is not dead, naturally, and mourns upon hearing the news. Translation Column 1 (DB I 1-15), sketch by Fr. Spiegel (1881) The inscription was noted by an Arab traveller, Ibn Hawqal, in the mid-900s, who interpreted the figures as a teacher punishing his pupils. It was not until 1598, when the Englishman Robert Sherley saw the inscription during a diplomatic mission to Persia on behalf of Austria, that the inscription first came to the attention of western European scholars. His party came to the conclusion that it was a picture of the ascension of Jesus with an inscription in Greek. Biblical misinterpretations by Europeans were rife for the next two centuries. French General Gardanne thought it showed Christ and his twelve apostles, and Sir Robert Ker Porter thought it represented the 12 tribes of Israel and Shalmaneser of Assyria. Italian explorer Pietro della Valle visited the inscription in the course of a pilgrimage in around 1621, and German surveyor Carsten Niebuhr visited in around 1764 while exploring Arabia and the Middle East for Frederick V of Denmark, publishing a copy of the inscription in the account of his journeys in 1777. Niebuhr's transcriptions were used by Georg Friedrich Grotefend and others in their efforts to decipher the Old Persian cuneiform script. Grotefend had deciphered ten of the 37 symbols of Old Persian by 1802. In 1835, Sir Henry Rawlinson, an officer of the British East India Company army assigned to the forces of the Shah of Iran, began studying the inscription in earnest. As the town of Bisutun's name was anglicized as "Behistun" at this time, the monument became known as the "Behistun Inscription". Despite its relative inaccessibility, Rawlinson was able to scale the cliff and copy the Old Persian inscription. The Elamite was across a chasm, and the Babylonian four metres above; both were beyond easy reach and were left for later. Armed with the Persian text, and with about a third of the syllabary made available to him by the work of Georg Friedrich Grotefend, Rawlinson set to work on deciphering the text. Fortunately, the first section of this text contained a list of the same Persian kings found in Herodotus in their original Persian forms as opposed to Herodotus's Greek transliterations, for example Darius is given as the original "Dâryavuš" instead of the Hellenized "Δαρειος". By matching the names and the characters, Rawlinson was able to decipher the type of cuneiform used for Old Persian by 1838 and present his results to the Royal Asiatic Society in London and the Société Asiatique in Paris. Surprisingly, the Old Persian text was copied and deciphered before the recovery and copying of the Elamite and Babylonian inscriptions had even been attempted. In the interim, Rawlinson spent a brief tour of duty in Afghanistan, returning to the site in 1843. He first crossed a chasm between the Persian and Elamite scripts by bridging the gap with planks, subsequently copying the Elamite inscription. He was then able to find an enterprising local boy to climb up a crack in the cliff and suspend ropes across the Babylonian writing, so that papier-mâché casts of the inscriptions could be taken. Rawlinson, along with scholars Edward Hincks, Julius Oppert, William Henry Fox Talbot, and Edwin Norris, either working separately or in collaboration eventually deciphered these inscriptions, leading eventually to the ability to read them completely. The ability to read Old Persian, Elamite, and Babylonian was one of the key developments that put the field of Assyriology on a modern footing. After Rawlinson Later expeditions, in 1904 sponsored by the British Museum and led by Leonard William King and Reginald Campbell Thompson and in 1948 by George G. Cameron of the University of Michigan, obtained photographs, casts and more accurate transcriptions of the texts, including passages that were not copied by Rawlinson. It also became apparent that rainwater had dissolved some areas of the limestone in which the text is inscribed, while leaving new deposits of limestone over other areas, covering the text. The monument suffered some damage from soldiers using it for target practice during World War II. In recent years, Iranian archaeologists have been undertaking conservation works. The site became a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2006. Other historical monuments in Behistun complex The site covers an area of 116 hectares. Archeological evidence indicates that this region became a human shelter 40,000 years ago. There are 18 historical monuments other than the inscription of Darius the great in the Behistun complex that have been registered in the Iranian national list of historical sites. Some of them are: Hunters cave, Farhad Tarash, Median fortress, Parthian town, Seleucid statue of Herakles, Parthian worshipping place, Khosrow palace, Ilkhanid caravanserai , Median temple, Bas relief of Mithridates II of Parthia, Bas relief of Gotarzes II of Parthia, Sheikh Ali khan Zangeneh text endowment, Safavid caravanserai, Balash stone, Carved Sassanian stones, Royal Road, In the first image Herakles with curly hair and a beard rests on the lion skin. Beside him an olive tree is seen, carved on the wall while a quiver full of arrows is hanging from it and a club is also put near that. Behind the head of Herakles an inscription in seven lines and in old Greek is written on a smooth space with a frame similar to Greek temples. According to this inscription, the statue was carved in 139 BC on the occasion of a conquest for Seleucid Greeks (Demetrius II Nicator) against Parthian (Mithridates I of Parthia) [that later changed to defeat of the Seleucids]. The second image is a bas relief of Mithridates II of Parthia: this was carved between (123-110 BC) and represents Parthian king Mithridates and four of his satraps who are respecting the king. Bas relief of Gotarzes II of Parthia :shows the conquest of that king over Meherdates,an Arsacid prince, who lived in Rome. An inscription in Greek is seen on the left side of top outer frame of the relief. Sheikh Ali khan Zangeneh text endowment: According to this text,written in Sloth calligraphy, Sheikh Ali khan Zangeneh, a local ruler of 17th century, dedicates four shares (out of six) of his properties in Ghareh-vali and Chambatan (local villages) for Sadaats (descendants of the prophet Mohammad) and two remaining shares for the Bisotoun Safavid caravansarai. See also Behistun palace Darius I of Persia Full translation of the Behistun Inscription Achaemenid empire Taq-e Bostan (Rock reliefs of various Sassanid kings) Pasargadae (Tomb of Pasargadae Cyrus the Great) Ka'ba-i Zartosht (The "Cube of Zoroaster", a monument at Naqsh-e Rustam) Naqsh-e Rajab Cities of the Ancient Near East References Adkins, Lesley, "Empires of the Plain: Henry Rawlinson and the Lost Languages of Babylon", St. Martin's Press, New York, 2003. Rawlinson, H.C., Archaeologia, 1853, vol. xxxiv, p. 74 Thompson, R. Campbell. "The Rock of Behistun". Wonders of the Past. Edited by Sir J. A. Hammerton. Vol. II. New York: Wise and Co., 1937. (p. 760–767) Cameron, George G. "Darius Carved History on Ageless Rock". National Geographic Magazine. Vol. XCVIII, Num. 6, December 1950. (p. 825–844) Rubio, Gonzalo. "Writing in another tongue: Alloglottography in the Ancient Near East." In Margins of Writing, Origins of Cultures (ed. Seth Sanders. 2nd printing with postscripts and corrections. Oriental Institute Seminars, 2. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007), pp. 33-70. External links The Behistun Inscription, livius.org article by Jona Lendering, including Persian text (in cuneiform and transliteration), English translation, and additional materials English translation of the inscription text Case Western Reserve University Digital Library — the complete text of the Behistun inscription, in transcribed cuneiform and English translation, available in PDF format Brief description of Bisotun from UNESCO Bisotun receives its World Heritage certificate, Cultural Heritage News Agency, Tehran, July 3, 2008, . 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5,532 | Entropy | Ice melting is a common example of "entropy increasing" Note: In complex systems of molecules, such as at the critical point of water or when salt is added to an ice-water mixture, entropy can either increase or decrease depending on system parameters, such as temperature and pressure. For example, if the spontaneous crystallization of a supercooled liquid takes place under adiabatic conditions the entropy of the resulting crystal will be greater than that of the supercooled liquid (Denbigh, K. (1982). The Principles of Chemical Equilibrium, 4th Ed.). In general, however, when ice melts, the entropy of the two adjoined systems, i.e. the adjacent hot and cold bodies, when thought of as one "universe", increases. Here are some further tutorials: Ice-melting – JCE example; Ice-melting and Entropy Change – example; Ice-melting and Entropy Change – discussions described in 1862 by Rudolf Clausius as an increase in the disgregation of the molecules of the body of ice. Clausius, Rudolf (1862). Communicated to the Naturforschende Gesellschaft of Zurich, January 27, 1862; published in the Vierteljahrschrift of this Society, vol. vii. P. 48; in Poggendorff’s Annalen, May 1862, vol. cxvi. p. 73; in the Philosophical Magazine, S. 4. vol. xxiv. pp. 81, 201; and in the Journal des Mathematiques of Paris, S. 2. vol. vii. P. 209. Entropy is a concept applied across physics, information theory, mathematics and other branches of science and engineering. The following definition is shared across all these fields: where S is the conventional symbol for entropy. The sum runs over all microstates consistent with the given macrostate and is the probability of the ith microstate. The constant of proportionality k depends on what units are chosen to measure S. When SI units are chosen, we have k = kB = Boltzmann's constant = 1.38066×10−23 J K−1. If units of bits are chosen, then k = 1/ln(2) so that . Entropy is central to the second law of thermodynamics. The second law in conjunction with the fundamental thermodynamic relation places limits on a system's ability to do useful work. More explicitly, an energy TRS is not available to do useful work, where TR is the temperature of the coldest accessible reservoir or heat sink external to the system. For further discussion, see Exergy The second law can also be used to predict whether a physical process will proceed spontaneously. Spontaneous changes in isolated systems occur with an increase in entropy. The word "entropy" is derived from the Greek εντροπία "a turning towards" (εν- "in" + τροπή "a turning"). Definitions and descriptions In science, the term "entropy" is generally interpreted in three distinct but semi-related ways; from a macroscopic viewpoint (classical thermodynamics), microscopic viewpoint (statistical thermodynamics), and information viewpoint (information theory). The statistical definition of entropy (see below) is the fundamental definition because the other two can be mathematically derived from it, but not vice versa. All properties of entropy (including second law of thermodynamics) follow from this definition. Microscopic definition of entropy (statistical mechanics) In statistical thermodynamics, entropy is defined as as previously discussed. For almost all practical purposes, this can be taken as the fundamental definition of entropy since all other formulas for S can be mathematically derived from it, but not vice versa. (In some rare and recondite situations, a generalization of this formula may be needed to account for quantum coherence effects, but in any situation where a classical notion of probability makes sense, is the entropy.) In Boltzmann's 1896 Lectures on Gas Theory, he showed that this expression gives a measure of entropy for systems of atoms and molecules in the gas phase, thus providing a measure for the entropy of classical thermodynamics. If we now restrict attention to a microcanonical system, i.e. a system where all accessible microstates have the same probability, then as a corollary of the definition of entropy it is easy to show that where is the number of microstates corresponding to the observed thermodynamic macrostate (an "accessible" microstate is one with nonzero probability, in contrast to "inaccessible" microstates which all have zero probability). As previously stated, k depends on the choice of units. In 1877, Boltzmann visualized a probabilistic way to measure the entropy of an ensemble of ideal gas particles, in which he defined entropy to be proportional to the logarithm of the number of microstates such a gas could occupy. Henceforth, the essential problem in statistical thermodynamics, i.e. according to Erwin Schrödinger, has been to determine the distribution of a given amount of energy E over N identical systems. In general, entropy can be defined for any Markov processes with reversible dynamics and the detailed balance property. Statistical mechanics explains entropy as the amount of uncertainty (or "mixedupness" in the phrase of Gibbs) which remains about a system, after its observable macroscopic properties have been taken into account. For a given set of macroscopic variables, like temperature and volume, the entropy measures the degree to which the probability of the system is spread out over different possible quantum states. The more states available to the system with appreciable probability, the greater the entropy. More specifically, entropy is a logarithmic measure of the density of states. In essence, the most general interpretation of entropy is as a measure of our uncertainty about a system. The equilibrium state of a system maximizes the entropy because we have lost all information about the initial conditions except for the conserved variables; maximizing the entropy maximizes our ignorance about the details of the system. EntropyOrderParametersComplexity.pdf This uncertainty is not of the everyday subjective kind, but rather the uncertainty inherent to the experimental method and interpretative model. The interpretative model has a central role in determining entropy. The qualifier "for a given set of macroscopic variables" above has very deep implications: if two observers use different sets of macroscopic variables, then they will observe different entropies. For example, if observer A uses the variables U, V and W, and observer B uses U, V, W, X, then, by changing X, observer B can cause an effect that looks like a violation of the second law of thermodynamics to observer A. In other words: the set of macroscopic variables one chooses must include everything that may change in the experiment, otherwise one might see decreasing entropy! Jaynes, E. T., "The Gibbs Paradox," In Maximum Entropy and Bayesian Methods; Smith, C. R.; Erickson, G. J.; Neudorfer, P. O., Eds.; Kluwer Academic: Dordrecht, 1992, p.1-22 Macroscopic viewpoint (classical thermodynamics) In a thermodynamic system, a "universe" consisting of "surroundings" and "systems" and made up of quantities of matter, its pressure differences, density differences, and temperature differences all tend to equalize over time—because equilibrium state has higher probability (more possible combinations of microstates) than any other—see statistical mechanics. In the ice melting example, the difference in temperature between a warm room (the surroundings) and cold glass of ice and water (the system and not part of the room), begins to be equalized as portions of the heat energy from the warm surroundings spread out to the cooler system of ice and water. A thermodynamic system Over time the temperature of the glass and its contents and the temperature of the room become equal. The entropy of the room has decreased as some of its energy has been dispersed to the ice and water. However, as calculated in the example, the entropy of the system of ice and water has increased more than the entropy of the surrounding room has decreased. In an isolated system such as the room and ice water taken together, the dispersal of energy from warmer to cooler always results in a net increase in entropy. Thus, when the "universe" of the room and ice water system has reached a temperature equilibrium, the entropy change from the initial state is at a maximum. The entropy of the thermodynamic system is a measure of how far the equalization has progressed. A special case of entropy increase, the entropy of mixing, occurs when two or more different substances are mixed. If the substances are at the same temperature and pressure, there will be no net exchange of heat or work - the entropy increase will be entirely due to the mixing of the different substances. See, e.g., Notes for a “Conversation About Entropy” for a brief discussion of thermodynamic and "configurational" ("positional") entropy in chemistry. From a macroscopic perspective, in classical thermodynamics the entropy is interpreted as a state function of a thermodynamic system: that is, a property depending only on the current state of the system, independent of how that state came to be achieved. The state function has the important property that, when multiplied by a reference temperature, it can be understood as a measure of the amount of energy in a physical system that cannot be used to do thermodynamic work; i.e., work mediated by thermal energy. More precisely, in any process where the system gives up energy ΔE, and its entropy falls by ΔS, a quantity at least TR ΔS of that energy must be given up to the system's surroundings as unusable heat (TR is the temperature of the system's external surroundings). Otherwise the process will not go forward. In 1862, Clausius stated what he calls the “theorem respecting the equivalence-values of the transformations” or what is now known as the second law of thermodynamics, as such: The algebraic sum of all the transformations occurring in a cyclical process can only be positive, or, as an extreme case, equal to nothing. Quantitatively, Clausius states the mathematical expression for this theorem is as follows. Let δq be an element of the heat given up by the body to any reservoir of heat during its own changes, heat which it may absorb from a reservoir being here reckoned as negative, and T the absolute temperature of the body at the moment of giving up this heat, then the equation: must be true for every reversible cyclical process, and the relation: must hold good for every cyclical process which is in any way possible. This is the essential formulation of the second law and one of the original forms of the concept of entropy. It can be seen that the dimensions of entropy are energy divided by temperature, which is the same as the dimensions of Boltzmann's constant (kB) and heat capacity. The unit of entropy is "joule per kelvin" (JK−1). In this manner, the quantity ΔS is utilized as a type of internal energy, which accounts for the effects of irreversibility, in the energy balance equation for any given system. In the Gibbs free energy equation, ΔG = ΔH − TΔS, for example, which is a formula commonly utilized to determine if chemical reactions will occur, the energy related to entropy changes TΔS is subtracted from the "total" system energy ΔH to give the "free" energy ΔG of the system, as during a chemical process or as when a system changes state. Correspondence The statistical definition of entropy matches up with the thermodynamic formula for calculating entropy, because adding heat to a system, which increases its classical thermodynamic entropy, also increases the system's thermal fluctuations, so giving an increased lack of information about the exact microscopic state of the system, i.e. an increased statistical mechanical entropy. The thermodynamics approach to entropy is less general, because it only applies to systems where energy and temperature are well defined. In contrast, the statistical notion of entropy applies to all of thermodynamics as well as to other systems, such as cryptography, data compression and pattern recognition, where energy and temperature may be irrelevant and/or undefinable. Entropy versus heat and temperature Loosely speaking, when a system's energy is divided into its "useful" energy (energy that can be used, for example, to push a piston), and its "useless energy" (that energy which cannot be used to do external work), then entropy can be used to estimate the "useless", "stray", or "lost" energy, which depends on the entropy of the system and the absolute temperature of the surroundings. As the "useful" and "useless" energy both depend on the surroundings, neither one is a function of the state of the system, and both can be quite tricky to quantify. This stands in contrast to the system's Gibbs free energy, Helmholtz free energy, entropy, and temperature, all of which are well-defined functions of state. The Gibbs and Helmholtz free energies depend on the temperature of the system (not the surroundings), and do not purport to measure the "useful" energy. When heat is added to a system at high temperature, the increase in entropy is small. When heat is added to a system at low temperature, the increase in entropy is great. This can be quantified as follows: in thermal systems, changes in the entropy can be ascertained by observing the temperature while observing changes in energy. This is restricted to situations where thermal conduction is the only form of energy transfer (in contrast to frictional heating and other dissipative processes). It is further restricted to systems at or near thermal equilibrium. In systems held at constant temperature, the change in entropy, ΔS, is given by the equation where Q is the amount of heat absorbed by the system in an isothermal and reversible process in which the system goes from one state to another, and T is the absolute temperature at which the process is occurring. If the temperature of the system is not constant, then the relationship becomes a differential equation: Then the total change in entropy for a transformation is: This thermodynamic approach to calculating the entropy is subject to several narrow restrictions which must be respected. In contrast, the fundamental statistical definition of entropy applies to any system, including systems far from equilibrium, and including experiments where "heat" and "temperature" are undefinable. In situations where the thermodynamic approach is valid, it can be shown to be consistent with the fundamental statistical definition. In any case, the statistical definition of entropy remains the fundamental definition, from which all other definitions and all properties of entropy can be derived. History Rudolf Clausius, originator of the concept of entropy The first law of thermodynamics, formalized through the heat-friction experiments of James Joule in 1843, deals with the concept of energy, which is conserved in all processes; the first law, however, lacks in its ability to quantify the effects of friction and dissipation. Entropy began with the work of French mathematician Lazare Carnot who in his 1803 paper Fundamental Principles of Equilibrium and Movement proposed that in any machine the accelerations and shocks of the moving parts all represent losses of moment of activity. In other words, in any natural process there exists an inherent tendency towards the dissipation of useful energy. Building on this work, in 1824 Lazare's son Sadi Carnot published Reflections on the Motive Power of Fire in which he set forth the view that in all heat-engines whenever "caloric", or what is now known as heat, falls through a temperature difference, that work or motive power can be produced from the actions of the "fall of caloric" between a hot and cold body. This was an early insight into the second law of thermodynamics. Carnot based his views of heat partially on the early 18th century "Newtonian hypothesis" that both heat and light were types of indestructible forms of matter, which are attracted and repelled by other matter, and partially on the contemporary views of Count Rumford who showed in 1789 that heat could be created by friction as when cannon bores are machined. Accordingly, Carnot reasoned that if the body of the working substance, such as a body of steam, is brought back to its original state (temperature and pressure) at the end of a complete engine cycle, that "no change occurs in the condition of the working body". This latter comment was amended in his foot notes, and it was this comment that led to the development of entropy. In the 1850s and 1860s, German physicist Rudolf Clausius gravely objected to this latter supposition, i.e. that no change occurs in the working body, and gave this "change" a mathematical interpretation by questioning the nature of the inherent loss of usable heat when work is done, e.g. heat produced by friction. Clausius described entropy as the transformation-content, i.e. dissipative energy use, of a thermodynamic system or working body of chemical species during a change of state. This was in contrast to earlier views, based on the theories of Isaac Newton, that heat was an indestructible particle that had mass. Later, scientists such as Ludwig Boltzmann, Josiah Willard Gibbs, and James Clerk Maxwell gave entropy a statistical basis. Carathéodory linked entropy with a mathematical definition of irreversibility, in terms of trajectories and integrability. Consequences and applications The second law A law of physics, the second law of thermodynamics, states that the total entropy of any system cannot decrease except insofar as it flows outward across the boundary of the system. As a corollary, in an isolated system, the entropy cannot decrease (the second law places no restrictions on the increase of entropy). By implication, the entropy of the whole universe, assumed to be an isolated system, cannot decrease; it is always increasing. This is because there are processes that produce entropy from scratch, and the second law defines that these increases cannot be undone elsewhere. Two important consequences are that heat cannot of itself pass from a colder to a hotter body: i.e., it is impossible to transfer heat from a cold to a hot reservoir without at the same time converting a certain amount of work to heat. It is also impossible for any device that can operate on a cycle to receive heat from a single reservoir and produce a net amount of work; it can only get useful work out of the heat if heat is at the same time transferred from a hot to a cold reservoir. This means that there is no possibility of a "perpetual motion" system. Also, from this it follows that a reduction in the increase of entropy in a specified process, such as a chemical reaction, means that it is energetically more efficient. In general, according to the second law, the entropy of a system that is not isolated may decrease. An air conditioner, for example, cools the air in a room, thus reducing the entropy of the air. The heat, however, involved in operating the air conditioner always makes a bigger contribution to the entropy of the environment than the decrease of the entropy of the air. Thus, the total entropy of the room and the environment increases, in agreement with the second law. The arrow of time Entropy is the only quantity in the physical sciences that seems to imply a particular direction for time, sometimes called an arrow of time. As we go "forward" in time, the second law of thermodynamics states that the entropy of an isolated system tends to increase or remain the same; it will not decrease. Hence, from one perspective, entropy measurement is thought of as a kind of clock. The fundamental thermodynamic relation The entropy of a system depends on its internal energy and the external variables, such as the volume. In the thermodynamic limit this fact leads to an equation relating a the change in the internal energy to changes in the entropy and the external variables. This relation is known as the fundamental thermodynamic relation. If the volume is the only external variable, this relation is: Since the internal energy is fixed when one specifies the entropy and the volume, this relation is valid even if the change from one state of thermal equilibrium to another with infinitessimally larger entropy and volume happens in a non-quasistatic way (so during this change the system may be very far out of thermal equilibrium and then the entropy, pressure and temperature may not exist). The fundamental thermodynamic relation implies many thermodynamic identities that are valid in general, independent of the microscopic mdetails of the system. Important examples are the Maxwell relations and the relations between heat capacities. Entropy in chemical thermodynamics Thermodynamic entropy is central in chemical thermodynamics, enabling changes to be quantified and the outcome of reactions predicted. The second law of thermodynamics states that entropy in the combination of a system and its surroundings (or in an isolated system by itself) increases during all spontaneous chemical and physical processes. Spontaneity in chemistry means “by itself, or without any outside influence”, and has nothing to do with speed. The Clausius equation of δqrev/T = ΔS introduces the measurement of entropy change, ΔS. Entropy change describes the direction and quantifies the magnitude of simple changes such as heat transfer between systems – always from hotter to cooler spontaneously. Thus, when a mole of substance at 0 K is warmed by its surroundings to 298 K, the sum of the incremental values of qrev/T constitute each element's or compound's standard molar entropy, a fundamental physical property and an indicator of the amount of energy stored by a substance at 298 K. Jungermann, A.H. (2006). “Entropy and the Shelf Model: A Quantum Physical Approach to a Physical Property”. Journal of Chemical Education 83: 1686-1694 Entropy change also measures the mixing of substances as a summation of their relative quantities in the final mixture. Entropy is equally essential in predicting the extent of complex chemical reactions, i.e. whether a process will go as written or proceed in the opposite direction. For such applications, ΔS must be incorporated in an expression that includes both the system and its surroundings, ΔSuniverse = ΔSsurroundings + ΔS system. This expression becomes, via some steps, the Gibbs free energy equation for reactants and products in the system: ΔG [the Gibbs free energy change of the system] = ΔH [the enthalpy change] −T ΔS [the entropy change]. Entropy balance equation for open systems In chemical engineering, the principles of thermodynamics are commonly applied to "open systems", i.e. those in which heat, work, and mass flow across the system boundary. In a system in which there are flows of both heat () and work, i.e. (shaft work) and P(dV/dt) (pressure-volume work), across the system boundaries, the heat flow, but not the work flow, causes a change in the entropy of the system. This rate of entropy change is where T is the absolute thermodynamic temperature of the system at the point of the heat flow. If, in addition, there are mass flows across the system boundaries, the total entropy of the system will also change due to this convected flow. During steady-state continuous operation, an entropy balance applied to an open system accounts for system entropy changes related to heat flow and mass flow across the system boundary. To derive a generalized entropy balanced equation, we start with the general balance equation for the change in any extensive quantity Θ in a thermodynamic system, a quantity that may be either conserved, such as energy, or non-conserved, such as entropy. The basic generic balance expression states that dΘ/dt, i.e. the rate of change of Θ in the system, equals the rate at which Θ enters the system at the boundaries, minus the rate at which Θ leaves the system across the system boundaries, plus the rate at which Θ is generated within the system. Using this generic balance equation, with respect to the rate of change with time of the extensive quantity entropy S, the entropy balance equation for an open thermodynamic system is: where = the net rate of entropy flow due to the flows of mass into and out of the system (where = entropy per unit mass). = the rate of entropy flow due to the flow of heat across the system boundary. = the rate of internal generation of entropy within the system. Note, also, that if there are multiple heat flows, the term is to be replaced by where is the heat flow and is the temperature at the jth heat flow port into the system. Entropy in quantum mechanics (von Neumann entropy) In quantum statistical mechanics, the concept of entropy was developed by John von Neumann and is generally referred to as "von Neumann entropy", namely . where is the density matrix and Tr is the trace operator. This upholds the correspondence principle, because in the classical limit, i.e. whenever the classical notion of probability applies, this expression is equivalent to the familiar classical definition of entropy, Von Neumann established a rigorous mathematical framework for quantum mechanics with his work Mathematische Grundlagen der Quantenmechanik. He provided in this work a theory of measurement, where the usual notion of wave collapse is described as an irreversible process (the so called von Neumann or projective measurement). Using this concept, in conjunction with the density matrix he extended the classical concept of entropy into the quantum domain. It is well known that a Shannon based definition of information entropy leads in the classical case to the Boltzmann entropy. It is tempting to regard the Von Neumann entropy as the corresponding quantum mechanical definition. But the latter is problematic from quantum information point of view. Consequently Stotland, Pomeransky, Bachmat and Cohen have introduced a new definition of entropy that reflects the inherent uncertainty of quantum mechanical states. This definition allows to distinguish between the minimum uncertainty entropy of pure states, and the excess statistical entropy of mixtures. The information entropy of quantum mechanical states, Europhysics Letters 67, 700 (2004) Approaches to understanding entropy Order and disorder Entropy has often been loosely associated with the amount of order, disorder, and/or chaos in a thermodynamic system. The traditional qualitative description of entropy is that it refers to changes in the status quo of the system and is a measure of "molecular disorder" and the amount of wasted energy in a dynamical energy transformation from one state or form to another. In this direction, a number of authors, in recent years, have derived exact entropy formulas to account for and measure disorder and order in atomic and molecular assemblies. Landsberg, P.T. (1984). “Is Equilibrium always an Entropy Maximum?” J. Stat. Physics 35: 159-69. Landsberg, P.T. (1984). “Can Entropy and “Order” Increase Together?” Physics Letters 102A:171-173 One of the simpler entropy order/disorder formulas is that derived in 1984 by thermodynamic physicist Peter Landsberg, which is based on a combination of thermodynamics and information theory arguments. Landsberg argues that when constraints operate on a system, such that it is prevented from entering one or more of its possible or permitted states, as contrasted with its forbidden states, the measure of the total amount of “disorder” in the system is given by the following expression: Similarly, the total amount of "order" in the system is given by: In which CD is the "disorder" capacity of the system, which is the entropy of the parts contained in the permitted ensemble, CI is the "information" capacity of the system, an expression similar to Shannon's channel capacity, and CO is the "order" capacity of the system. Energy dispersal The concept of entropy can be described qualitatively as a measure of energy dispersal at a specific temperature. Frank L. Lambert, A Student’s Approach to the Second Law and Entropy Similar terms have been in use from early in the history of classical thermodynamics, and with the development of statistical thermodynamics and quantum theory, entropy changes have been described in terms of the mixing or "spreading" of the total energy of each constituent of a system over its particular quantized energy levels. Ambiguities in the terms disorder and chaos, which usually have meanings directly opposed to equilibrium, contribute to widespread confusion and hamper comprehension of entropy for most students. Carson, E. M. and J. R. Watson (Department of Educational and Professional Studies, Kings College, London), Undergraduate students' understandings of entropy and Gibbs Free energy, University Chemistry Education - 2002 Papers, Royal Society of Chemistry. As the second law of thermodynamics shows, in an isolated system internal portions at different temperatures will tend to adjust to a single uniform temperature and thus produce equilibrium. A recently developed educational approach avoids ambiguous terms and describes such spreading out of energy as dispersal, which leads to loss of the differentials required for work even though the total energy remains constant in accordance with the first law of thermodynamics. Frank L. Lambert, JCE 2002 (79) 187 [Feb Disorder—A Cracked Crutch for Supporting Entropy Discussions] Physical chemist Peter Atkins, for example, who previously wrote of dispersal leading to a disordered state, now writes that "spontaneous changes are always accompanied by a dispersal of energy", and has discarded 'disorder' as a description. Ice melting example The illustration for this article is a classic example in which entropy increases in a small "universe", a thermodynamic system consisting of the "surroundings" (the warm room) and "system" (glass, ice, cold water). In this universe, some heat energy δQ from the warmer room surroundings (at 298 K or 25 °C) will spread out to the cooler system of ice and water at its constant temperature T of 273 K (0 °C), the melting temperature of ice. The entropy of the system will change by the amount dS = δQ/T, in this example δQ/273 K. (The heat δQ for this process is the energy required to change water from the solid state to the liquid state, and is called the enthalpy of fusion, i.e. the ΔH for ice fusion.) The entropy of the surroundings will change by an amount dS = −δQ/298 K. So in this example, the entropy of the system increases, whereas the entropy of the surroundings decreases. It is important to realize that the decrease in the entropy of the surrounding room is less than the increase in the entropy of the ice and water: the room temperature of 298 K is larger than 273 K and therefore the ratio, (entropy change), of δQ/298 K for the surroundings is smaller than the ratio (entropy change), of δQ/273 K for the ice+water system. To find the entropy change of our "universe", we add up the entropy changes for its constituents: the surrounding room and the ice+water. The total entropy change is positive; this is always true in spontaneous events in a thermodynamic system and it shows the predictive importance of entropy: the final net entropy after such an event is always greater than was the initial entropy. As the temperature of the cool water rises to that of the room and the room further cools imperceptibly, the sum of the δQ/T over the continuous range, at many increments, in the initially cool to finally warm water can be found by calculus. The entire miniature "universe", i.e. this thermodynamic system, has increased in entropy. Energy has spontaneously become more dispersed and spread out in that "universe" than when the glass of ice water was introduced and became a "system" within it. Notice that the system will reach a point where the room, the glass and the contents of the glass will be at the same temperature. In this situation, nothing else can happen: although heat does exist in the room (in fact, the amount of heat is the same as in the beginning, since it is a closed system), it is now unable to do useful *work*, as there are no more heat transfers. Unless an external event intervenes (thus breaking the definition of a closed system), the room is destined to remain in the same condition for all eternity. Therefore, following the same reasoning but considering the whole universe as our "room", we reach a similar conclusion: that, at a certain point in the distant future, the whole universe will be a uniform, isothemic and inert body of matter, in which there will be no available energy to do work. This condition is known as the "heat death of the Universe". Topics in entropy Entropy and life For nearly a century and a half, beginning with Clausius' 1863 memoir "On the Concentration of Rays of Heat and Light, and on the Limits of its Action", much writing and research has been devoted to the relationship between thermodynamic entropy and the evolution of life. The argument that life feeds on negative entropy or negentropy as asserted in the 1944 book What is Life? by physicist Erwin Schrödinger served as a further stimulus to this research. Recent writings have used the concept of Gibbs free energy to elaborate on this issue Higgs, P. G., & Pudritz, R. E. (2009). “A thermodynamic basis for prebiotic amino acid synthesis and the nature of the first genetic code" Accepted for publication in Astrobiology . In the 1982 textbook Principles of Biochemistry by American biochemist Albert Lehninger, for example, it is argued that the "order" produced within cells as they grow and divide is more than compensated for by the "disorder" they create in their surroundings in the course of growth and division. In short, according to Lehninger, "living organisms preserve their internal order by taking from their surroundings free energy, in the form of nutrients or sunlight, and returning to their surroundings an equal amount of energy as heat and entropy." Evolution related definitions: Negentropy - a shorthand colloquial phrase for negative entropy. Ectropy - a measure of the tendency of a dynamical system to do useful work and grow more organized. Syntropy - a tendency towards order and symmetrical combinations and designs of ever more advantageous and orderly patterns. Extropy – a metaphorical term defining the extent of a living or organizational system's intelligence, functional order, vitality, energy, life, experience, and capacity and drive for improvement and growth. Ecological entropy - a measure of biodiversity in the study of biological ecology. In a study titled “Natural selection for least action” published in the Proceedings of The Royal Society A., Ville Kaila and Arto Annila of the University of Helsinki describe how the second law of thermodynamics can be written as an equation of motion to describe evolution, showing how natural selection and the principle of least action can be connected by expressing natural selection in terms of chemical thermodynamics. In this view, evolution explores possible paths to level differences in energy densities and so increase entropy most rapidly. Thus, an organism serves as an energy transfer mechanism, and beneficial mutations allow successive organisms to transfer more energy within their environment. Entropy and cosmology As a finite universe may be considered an isolated system, it may be subject to the Second Law of Thermodynamics, so that its total entropy is constantly increasing. It has been speculated that the universe is fated to a heat death in which all the energy ends up as a homogeneous distribution of thermal energy, so that no more work can be extracted from any source. If the universe can be considered to have generally increasing entropy, then—as Roger Penrose has pointed out—gravity plays an important role in the increase because gravity causes dispersed matter to accumulate into stars, which collapse eventually into black holes. Jacob Bekenstein and Stephen Hawking have shown that black holes have the maximum possible entropy of any object of equal size. This makes them likely end points of all entropy-increasing processes, if they are totally effective matter and energy traps. Hawking has, however, recently changed his stance on this aspect. The role of entropy in cosmology remains a controversial subject. Recent work has cast some doubt on the heat death hypothesis and the applicability of any simple thermodynamic model to the universe in general. Although entropy does increase in the model of an expanding universe, the maximum possible entropy rises much more rapidly - thus entropy density is decreasing with time. This results in an "entropy gap" pushing the system further away from equilibrium. Other complicating factors, such as the energy density of the vacuum and macroscopic quantum effects, are difficult to reconcile with thermodynamical models, making any predictions of large-scale thermodynamics extremely difficult. Other relations Although the concept of entropy was originally a thermodynamic construct, it has been adapted in other fields of study, including information theory, psychodynamics, thermoeconomics, and evolution. Entropy and Information theory In information theory, entropy is the measure of the amount of information that is missing before reception and is sometimes referred to as Shannon entropy. Balian, Roger (2003). Entropy – Protean Concept (PDF). Poincaré Seminar 2: 119-45. Shannon entropy is a broad and general concept which finds applications in information theory as well as thermodynamics. It was originally devised by Claude Shannon in 1948 to study the amount of information in a transmitted message. The definition of the information entropy is, however, quite general, and is expressed in terms of a discrete set of probabilities : In the case of transmitted messages, these probabilities were the probabilities that a particular message was actually transmitted, and the entropy of the message system was a measure of how much information was in the message. For the case of equal probabilities (i.e. each message is equally probable), the Shannon entropy (in bits) is just the number of yes/no questions needed to determine the content of the message. The question of the link between information entropy and thermodynamic entropy is a hotly debated topic. Some authors argue that there is a link between the two, while others will argue that they have absolutely nothing to do with each other. Lin, Shu-Kun. (1999). “Diversity and Entropy.” Entropy (Journal), 1[1], 1-3. The expressions for the two entropies are very similar. The information entropy H for equal probabilities is: where K is a constant which determines the units of entropy. For example, if the units are bits, then K=1/ln(2). The thermodynamic entropy S , from a statistical mechanical point of view was first expressed by Boltzmann: where p is the probability of a system being in a particular microstate, given that it is in a particular macrostate, and k is Boltzmann's constant. It can be seen that one may think of the thermodynamic entropy as Boltzmann's constant, divided by ln(2), times the number of yes/no questions that must be asked in order to determine the microstate of the system, given that we know the macrostate. The link between thermodynamic and information entropy was developed in a series of papers by Edwin Jaynes beginning in 1957. Edwin T. Jaynes - Bibliography There are many ways of demonstrating the equivalence of "information entropy" and "physics entropy", that is, the equivalence of "Shannon entropy" and "Boltzmann entropy". Nevertheless, some authors, like Tom Schneider, argue for dropping the word entropy for the H function of information theory and using Shannon's other term "uncertainty" instead. Schneider, Tom, DELILA system (Deoxyribonucleic acid Library Language), (Information Theory Analysis of binding sites), Laboratory of Mathematical Biology, National Cancer Institute, FCRDC Bldg. 469. Rm 144, P.O. Box. B Frederick, MD 21702-1201, USA. Standard textbook definitions The following is a list of definitions of entropy from a collection of textbooks. Note that textbook definitions are not always the most helpful definitions, but they are an important aspect of the culture surrounding the concept of entropy. Entropy – energy broken down in irretrievable heat. Boltzmann's constant times the logarithm of a multiplicity; where the multiplicity of a macrostate is the number of microstates that correspond to the macrostate. "In words, entropy is just the logarithm of the number of ways of arranging things in the system (times the Boltzmann's constant).". a non-conserved thermodynamic state function, measured in terms of the number of microstates a system can assume, which corresponds to a degradation in usable energy. McGraw-Hill Concise Encyclopedia of Chemistry, 2004 a direct measure of the randomness of a system. a measure of energy dispersal at a specific temperature. a measure of the partial loss of the ability of a system to perform work due to the effects of irreversibility. an index of the tendency of a system towards spontaneous change. a measure of the unavailability of a system’s energy to do work; also a measure of disorder; the higher the entropy the greater the disorder. Oxford Dictionary of Science, 2005 a parameter representing the state of disorder of a system at the atomic, ionic, or molecular level. Barnes & Noble's Essential Dictionary of Science, 2004 a measure of disorder in the universe or of the availability of the energy in a system to do work. Gribbin's Encyclopedia of Particle Physics, 2000 Miscellaneous definitions Entropy unit - a non-S.I. unit of thermodynamic entropy, usually denoted "e.u." and equal to one calorie per Kelvin per mole, or 4.184 Joules per Kelvin per mole. Gibbs entropy - the usual statistical mechanical entropy of a thermodynamic system. Boltzmann entropy - a type of Gibbs entropy, which neglects internal statistical correlations in the overall particle distribution. Tsallis entropy - a generalization of the standard Boltzmann-Gibbs entropy. Standard molar entropy - is the entropy content of one mole of substance, under conditions of standard temperature and pressure. Black hole entropy - is the entropy carried by a black hole, which is proportional to the surface area of the black hole's event horizon. Residual entropy - the entropy present after a substance is cooled arbitrarily close to absolute zero. Entropy of mixing - the change in the entropy when two different chemical substances or components are mixed. Loop entropy - is the entropy lost upon bringing together two residues of a polymer within a prescribed distance. Conformational entropy - is the entropy associated with the physical arrangement of a polymer chain that assumes a compact or globular state in solution. Entropic force - a microscopic force or reaction tendency related to system organization changes, molecular frictional considerations, and statistical variations. Free entropy - an entropic thermodynamic potential analogous to the free energy. Entropic explosion – an explosion in which the reactants undergo a large change in volume without releasing a large amount of heat. Entropy change – a change in entropy dS between two equilibrium states is given by the heat transferred dQrev divided by the absolute temperature T of the system in this interval. Sackur-Tetrode entropy - the entropy of a monatomic classical ideal gas determined via quantum considerations. Other mathematical definitions Kolmogorov-Sinai entropy - a mathematical type of entropy in dynamical systems related to measures of partitions. Topological entropy - a way of defining entropy in an iterated function map in ergodic theory. Relative entropy - is a natural distance measure from a "true" probability distribution P to an arbitrary probability distribution Q. Rényi entropy - a generalized entropy measure for fractal systems. volume entropy - a Riemannian invariant measuring the exponential rate of volume growth. Sociological definitions The concept of entropy has also entered the domain of sociology, generally as a metaphor for chaos, disorder or dissipation of energy, rather than as a direct measure of thermodynamic or information entropy: Entropology – the study or discussion of entropy or the name sometimes given to thermodynamics without differential equations. Example: "Entropology, not anthropology, should be the word for the discipline that devotes itself to the study of the process of disintegration in its most evolved forms." (In A World on Wane, London, 1961, pg. 397; translated by John Russell of Tristes Tropiques by Claude Levi-Strauss.) Psychological entropy - the distribution of energy in the psyche, which tends to seek equilibrium or balance among all the structures of the psyche. Economic entropy – a semi-quantitative measure of the irrevocable dissipation and degradation of natural materials and available energy with respect to economic activity. Social entropy – a measure of social system structure, having both theoretical and statistical interpretations, i.e. society (macrosocietal variables) measured in terms of how the individual functions in society (microsocietal variables); also related to social equilibrium. Corporate entropy - energy waste as red tape and business team inefficiency, i.e. energy lost to waste. (This definition is comparable to von Clausewitz's concept of friction in war.) Quotes --Willard Gibbs, Graphical Methods in the Thermodynamics of Fluids (1873) --Conversation between Claude Shannon and John von Neumann regarding what name to give to the “measure of uncertainty” or attenuation in phone-line signals (1949) See also Autocatalytic reactions and order creation Brownian ratchet Chaos theory Clausius-Duhem inequality Configuration entropy Departure function Enthalpy Entropy rate Geometrical frustration Introduction to entropy Maxwell's demon Multiplicity function Stirling's formula Thermodynamic databases for pure substances Thermodynamic potential References P. Pluch Quantum Probability Theory, PhD Thesis, University of Klagenfurt (2006) Further reading Entropy for beginners External links Entropy - A Basic Understanding A primer for entropy from a chemical perspective Interactive Shockwave Animation on Entropy Max Jammer (1973). Dictionary of the History of Ideas: Entropy Frank L. Lambert; entropysite.com – links to articles including simple introductions to entropy for chemistry students and for general readers. Thermodynamics - a chapter from an online textbook Entropy on Project PHYSNET Entropy - an Open Access journal | Entropy |@lemmatized ice:23 melting:5 common:1 example:19 entropy:261 increase:32 note:5 complex:2 system:140 molecule:3 critical:1 point:8 water:17 salt:1 add:5 mixture:3 either:2 decrease:13 depend:8 parameter:2 temperature:42 pressure:7 spontaneous:6 crystallization:1 supercooled:2 liquid:3 take:5 place:3 adiabatic:1 condition:6 result:3 crystal:1 great:5 denbigh:1 k:20 principle:6 chemical:14 equilibrium:16 ed:2 general:11 however:6 melt:3 two:10 adjoin:1 e:25 adjacent:1 hot:4 cold:6 body:12 thought:1 one:16 universe:18 tutorial:1 jce:2 change:54 discussion:5 describe:8 rudolf:4 clausius:10 disgregation:1 communicate:1 naturforschende:1 gesellschaft:1 zurich:1 january:1 publish:3 vierteljahrschrift:1 society:5 vol:4 vii:2 p:13 poggendorff:1 annalen:1 may:12 cxvi:1 philosophical:1 magazine:1 xxiv:1 pp:1 journal:4 des:1 mathematiques:1 paris:1 concept:15 apply:4 across:9 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5,533 | Hakka_cuisine | Hakka cuisine is the cooking style of the Hakka people, who are primarily found in southeastern China (Guangdong and Fujian), but also may be found in many other parts of China, as well as in the Chinese diaspora. Hongkong, Malaysia and Singapore have numerous restaurants serving Hakka cuisine Famous dishes float|Salt baked chicken (東江鹽焗雞) Famous Hakka dishes include: Dung Gong Yam Guk Gai - Salt baked chicken (東江鹽焗雞) [tuŋ44 kɔŋ44 jam11 kuk5 kai44] - originally baked inside a heap of hot salt, but today many restaurants simply cook in brine, or cover it with a salty mixture before steaming it or baking it in an oven. 東江 [tuŋ44 kɔŋ44] refers to the East River 東江河, which runs through eastern Guangdong province, China. It is the Hakka heartlands Noh Mi Ap - Duck stuffed with rice (糯米鴨) [nɔ53 mi31 ap1]- a whole duck is de-boned while maintaining the shape of the bird, the cavities being filled with seasoned sticky rice. Beef ball soup - very simple clear broth with lettuce and beef balls. Fried pork with fermented tofu: this is a popular Chinese New Year offering which involves two stages of cooking. As previously mentioned, fresh food was at a premium in Hakka areas, so the marinated pork was deep fried to remove the moisture in order to preserve it. When a meal of pork was desired, the fried pork was then stewed with water and wood's ear fungus. It is a Hakka equivalent to canned soup. float|Ngiong Tew Foo (釀豆腐, stuffed tofu cube) Ngiong Tew Foo (釀豆腐, [ɲjɔŋ55 tʰɛu55 fu53] stuffed tofu cube or Dung Gong Ngiong Tew Fu Bao - 東江釀豆腐煲): one of the more popular foods that originated from deep Hakka roots, it consists of tofu cubes heaped with minced meat (usually pork) and herbs, then fried till golden brown, or sometimes braised. Variations include usage of various oddments including eggplants, shiitake mushrooms, and bitter melon stuffed with the same meat paste. Traditionally, Yong tao foo is served in a clear yellow bean stew along with the bitter melon and shiitake variants. Modern variations that are more commonly seen sold in foodstalls are made by stuffing the tofu with solely fish paste. Usage of oddments to replace the tofu are more noticeable in this version, ranging from fried fish maw slices and okra to chili peppers. Kiu nyuk (扣肉 [kʰju53 ɲjuk1], sliced pork with preserved mustard greens): thick slices of pork belly, with a layer of preserved mustard greens between each slice, are cooked and served in a dark sauce made up of soy sauce and sugar. A variation of the recipe on Wikibooks Cookbook is available here. float|Kiu nyuk (扣肉;, sliced pork with preserved mustard greens) Lei cha or Pounded Tea (擂茶) [lui11 tsʰa11] : A consortment of tea leaves (usually green tea), peanuts, mint leaves, sesame seeds, mung beans and other herbs, which are pounded or ground into a fine powder which is mixed as a drink, or as a dietary brew to be taken with rice and other vegetarian side dishes such as greens, tofu, and pickled radish. Poon Choi (盆菜) [pʰun11 tsʰɔj53]: A variety of ingredients served in a basin. Sohn Pan Tzai (算盘子) [sɔn53 pʰan11 tsai31] or Àbacus Beads: Made of dough formed of tapioca and yam, cut into abacus-bead shapes, which when cooked, are soft on the outside and a chewy on the inside. The dish may be cooked with minced chicken or pork, dried shrimps, mushrooms and various other vegetables. The dish is stir-fried, seasoned with light soy sauce, salt, sugar and sometimes rice wine or vinegar (depending on taste). Hakka food also includes takes on other traditional Chinese dishes, just as other Chinese ethnic groups do. Footnotes Regional Variations In places such as India, and other places of Indian diaspora overseas, Hakka Cuisine is erroneously known as something that bears little to no resemblance to actual traditional Hakka dishes. This variation of "Hakka Cuisine" is in reality, mostly Indian Chinese cuisine, falsely known as Hakka since many Chinese restaurant owners in India were of Hakka origin. Typical dishes include Chilli Chicken and Manchurian Chow Mein (which in turn has no resemblance to real Manchurian cuisine), and these restaurants also serve traditional Indian dishes such as Pakora. Being immensely popular in these regions, this style of cuisine is often falsely credited of being representative of Hakka Cuisine in general and authentic style of Hakka Cuisine is rarely known in these areas. See also Cuisine Chinese cuisine Cooking External links Hakka Chicken Recipe | Hakka_cuisine |@lemmatized hakka:17 cuisine:11 cooking:1 style:3 people:1 primarily:1 find:2 southeastern:1 china:3 guangdong:2 fujian:1 also:4 may:2 many:3 part:1 well:1 chinese:7 diaspora:2 hongkong:1 malaysia:1 singapore:1 numerous:1 restaurant:4 serve:5 famous:2 dish:9 float:3 salt:4 bake:4 chicken:5 東江鹽焗雞:2 include:5 dung:2 gong:2 yam:2 guk:1 gai:1 originally:1 inside:2 heap:2 hot:1 today:1 simply:1 cook:6 brine:1 cover:1 salty:1 mixture:1 steam:1 oven:1 東江:1 refers:1 east:1 river:1 東江河:1 run:1 eastern:1 province:1 heartland:1 noh:1 mi:1 ap:1 duck:2 stuffed:2 rice:4 糯米鴨:1 whole:1 de:1 bone:1 maintain:1 shape:2 bird:1 cavity:1 fill:1 seasoned:1 sticky:1 beef:2 ball:2 soup:2 simple:1 clear:2 broth:1 lettuce:1 fry:5 pork:9 fermented:1 tofu:7 popular:3 new:1 year:1 offering:1 involve:1 two:1 stage:1 previously:1 mention:1 fresh:1 food:3 premium:1 area:2 marinated:1 deep:2 remove:1 moisture:1 order:1 preserve:1 meal:1 desire:1 fried:1 stew:2 water:1 wood:1 ear:1 fungus:1 equivalent:1 ngiong:3 tew:3 foo:3 釀豆腐:2 stuff:3 cube:3 fu:1 bao:1 東江釀豆腐煲:1 one:1 originate:1 root:1 consist:1 minced:2 meat:2 usually:2 herb:2 till:1 golden:1 brown:1 sometimes:2 braise:1 variation:5 usage:2 various:2 oddment:2 eggplant:1 shiitake:2 mushroom:2 bitter:2 melon:2 paste:2 traditionally:1 yong:1 tao:1 yellow:1 bean:2 along:1 variant:1 modern:1 commonly:1 see:2 sell:1 foodstalls:1 make:3 solely:1 fish:2 replace:1 noticeable:1 version:1 range:1 maw:1 slice:5 okra:1 chili:1 pepper:1 kiu:2 nyuk:2 扣肉:2 preserved:3 mustard:3 green:5 thick:1 belly:1 layer:1 dark:1 sauce:3 soy:2 sugar:2 recipe:2 wikibooks:1 cookbook:1 available:1 lei:1 cha:1 pound:2 tea:3 擂茶:1 consortment:1 leaf:2 peanut:1 mint:1 sesame:1 seed:1 mung:1 grind:1 fine:1 powder:1 mixed:1 drink:1 dietary:1 brew:1 take:2 vegetarian:1 side:1 pickle:1 radish:1 poon:1 choi:1 盆菜:1 variety:1 ingredient:1 basin:1 sohn:1 pan:1 tzai:1 算盘子:1 àbacus:1 bead:2 dough:1 form:1 tapioca:1 cut:1 abacus:1 soft:1 outside:1 chewy:1 dry:1 shrimp:1 vegetable:1 stir:1 season:1 light:1 wine:1 vinegar:1 depend:1 taste:1 traditional:3 ethnic:1 group:1 footnote:1 regional:1 place:2 india:2 indian:3 overseas:1 erroneously:1 know:3 something:1 bear:1 little:1 resemblance:2 actual:1 reality:1 mostly:1 falsely:2 since:1 owner:1 origin:1 typical:1 chilli:1 manchurian:2 chow:1 mein:1 turn:1 real:1 pakora:1 immensely:1 region:1 often:1 credit:1 representative:1 general:1 authentic:1 rarely:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram hakka_cuisine:6 guangdong_fujian:1 bake_oven:1 guangdong_province:1 shiitake_mushroom:1 chili_pepper:1 soy_sauce:2 sesame_seed:1 mung_bean:1 stir_fry:1 chow_mein:1 immensely_popular:1 external_link:1 |
5,534 | Charles_Goren | Charles Henry Goren (March 4, 1901 – April 3, 1991) was a world champion American bridge player and bestselling author who contributed significantly to the development and popularization of the game. Early years Goren was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, to Russian Jewish immigrants. He earned a law degree at McGill University in Montreal. While he was attending McGill, a girlfriend laughed at his ineptness at the game of bridge, motivating him to immerse himself in a study of existing bridge materials. When he graduated, he briefly attempted a law career in Philadelphia. The growing fame of Ely Culbertson, however, prompted Goren to abandon his original career choice to pursue bridge competitions, where he attracted the attention of Milton Work, who had developed the Work Point Count system. Goren began helping Work with his bridge articles and columns, and eventually began ghostwriting some of his material. Bridge contributions By 1936 Goren had begun his own bridge career and published the first of his many books on playing bridge, Winning Bridge Made Easy. Drawing on his experience with Work's system, Goren quickly became popular as an instructor and lecturer. His subsequent lifetime of contributions to the game have made him one of the most important figures in the history of bridge. Goren became world champion at the Bermuda Bowl in 1950. Goren's books have sold millions of copies (especially Winning Bridge Made Easy and Contract Bridge Complete); by 1958 his daily bridge column was appearing in 194 American newspapers. He also had a monthly column in McCall's and a weekly column in Sports Illustrated. His television program, Championship Bridge with Charles Goren, was broadcast from 1959 to 1964. Goren's longest partnership was with Helen Sobel, but he also famously partnered actor Omar Sharif. Sharif also wrote introductions to or co-authored several of Goren's bridge books. Point count system As he continued writing, Goren began to develop his high card point count system as an improvement over the existing system of counting "honor tricks." The high card point system represented a large step forward in bridge theory and quickly gained popularity due to its simplicity. Goren and others would later refine the system to account for hand distribution, as singletons and voids can greatly increase the strength of a hand. Four-card suits Goren also worked to popularize the opening of four-card suits, in contrast to the well-known five card majors approach that has become a major feature of Standard American bidding. Opening a four-card suit can improve the chances of the partnership identifying a four-four trump fit, and the four-card approach is still used by some experts today. The drawback of the four-card approach is that the Law of Total Tricks is more difficult to apply in cases where it is used. Other contributions In addition to his pioneering work in bringing simple and effective bridge to everyday players, Goren also worked to popularize the Precision bidding method, which is one of many variants of so-called big club systems (which use an opening bid of one club to indicate a strong hand). Legacy Goren died in 1991 in Encino, California, at the age of 90. While few players "play Goren" exactly today, the point count approach he popularized remains the foundation for most bidding systems. Bridge accomplishments Honors ACBL Hall of Fame 1964 ACBL Honorary Member of the Year 1959 Awards McKenney Trophy 1937, 1943, 1945, 1947, 1948, 1949, 1950, 1951 Precision Award (Best Article or Series on a System or Convention) 1974 Wins Bermuda Bowl (1) 1950 North American Bridge Championships (30) Vanderbilt (2) 1944, 1945 Asbury Park Trophy (now Spingold) (1) 1937 Spingold (5) 1943, 1947, 1951, 1956, 1960 Chicago (now Reisinger) (8) 1937, 1938, 1939, 1942, 1943, 1950, 1957, 1963 Men's Board-a-Match Teams (1) 1952 Master Mixed Teams (6) 1938, 1941, 1943, 1944, 1948, 1954 Life Master Pairs (2) 1942, 1958 Men's Pairs (3) 1938, 1943, 1949 Mixed Pairs (1) 1947 Master Individual (1) 1945 Other notable wins: Goldman Pairs (1) 1941 Runner-ups Bermuda Bowl (2) 1956, 1957 North American Bridge Championships (20) Vanderbilt (8) 1934, 1936, 1949, 1950, 1953, 1955, 1959, 1962 Spingold (2) 1939, 1950 Chicago (now Reisinger) (2) 1944, 1951 Men's Board-a-Match Teams (2) 1946, 1955 Master Mixed Teams (4) 1946, 1949, 1950, 1951 Life Master Pairs (1) 1953 Men's Pairs (1) 1935 Further reading Lessons on bridge from Charles Goren. External links ACBL Hall of Fame World Bridge Federation profile King of the Aces Time magazine (1958) Obituary by Alan Truscott in the New York Times Profile on bridgehands.com Turning Tricks: The Rise and Fall of Contract Bridge, by David Owen in The New Yorker | Charles_Goren |@lemmatized charles:3 henry:1 goren:18 march:1 april:1 world:3 champion:2 american:5 bridge:23 player:3 bestselling:1 author:1 contribute:1 significantly:1 development:1 popularization:1 game:3 early:1 year:2 bear:1 philadelphia:2 pennsylvania:1 russian:1 jewish:1 immigrant:1 earn:1 law:3 degree:1 mcgill:2 university:1 montreal:1 attend:1 girlfriend:1 laugh:1 ineptness:1 motivate:1 immerse:1 study:1 exist:2 material:2 graduate:1 briefly:1 attempt:1 career:3 grow:1 fame:3 ely:1 culbertson:1 however:1 prompt:1 abandon:1 original:1 choice:1 pursue:1 competition:1 attract:1 attention:1 milton:1 work:7 develop:2 point:5 count:5 system:10 begin:4 help:1 article:2 column:4 eventually:1 ghostwrite:1 contribution:3 publish:1 first:1 many:2 book:3 play:2 win:4 make:3 easy:2 draw:1 experience:1 quickly:2 become:3 popular:1 instructor:1 lecturer:1 subsequent:1 lifetime:1 one:3 important:1 figure:1 history:1 bermuda:3 bowl:3 sell:1 million:1 copy:1 especially:1 contract:2 complete:1 daily:1 appear:1 newspaper:1 also:5 monthly:1 mccall:1 weekly:1 sport:1 illustrate:1 television:1 program:1 championship:3 broadcast:1 long:1 partnership:2 helen:1 sobel:1 famously:1 partnered:1 actor:1 omar:1 sharif:2 write:2 introduction:1 co:1 authored:1 several:1 continue:1 high:2 card:8 improvement:1 honor:2 trick:3 represent:1 large:1 step:1 forward:1 theory:1 gain:1 popularity:1 due:1 simplicity:1 others:1 would:1 later:1 refine:1 account:1 hand:3 distribution:1 singleton:1 void:1 greatly:1 increase:1 strength:1 four:7 suit:3 popularize:3 opening:2 contrast:1 well:1 know:1 five:1 major:2 approach:4 feature:1 standard:1 bidding:3 open:1 improve:1 chance:1 identify:1 trump:1 fit:1 still:1 use:3 expert:1 today:2 drawback:1 total:1 difficult:1 apply:1 case:1 addition:1 pioneer:1 bring:1 simple:1 effective:1 everyday:1 precision:2 method:1 variant:1 call:1 big:1 club:2 bid:1 indicate:1 strong:1 legacy:1 die:1 encino:1 california:1 age:1 exactly:1 remain:1 foundation:1 accomplishment:1 acbl:3 hall:2 honorary:1 member:1 award:2 mckenney:1 trophy:2 best:1 series:1 convention:1 north:2 vanderbilt:2 asbury:1 park:1 spingold:3 chicago:2 reisinger:2 men:4 board:2 match:2 team:4 master:5 mixed:3 life:2 pair:6 individual:1 notable:1 goldman:1 runner:1 ups:1 read:1 lesson:1 external:1 link:1 federation:1 profile:2 king:1 ace:1 time:2 magazine:1 obituary:1 alan:1 truscott:1 new:2 york:1 bridgehands:1 com:1 turn:1 rise:1 fall:1 david:1 owen:1 yorker:1 |@bigram philadelphia_pennsylvania:1 omar_sharif:1 hall_fame:2 asbury_park:1 runner_ups:1 external_link:1 |
5,535 | Diesel_engine | A diesel engine is an internal combustion engine which operates using the diesel cycle (named after Dr. Rudolph Diesel). Diesel engines have the highest thermal efficiency of any internal or external combustion engine, because of their compression ratio. The defining feature of the diesel engine is the use of the heat of compression to initiate ignition to burn the fuel, which is injected into the combustion chamber during the final stage of compression. This is in contrast to a petrol (gasoline) engine or gas engine, which uses the Otto cycle, in which a fuel/air mixture is ignited by a spark plug. Diesel engines are manufactured in two stroke and four stroke versions. They were originally used as a more efficient replacement for stationary steam engines. Since the 1910s they have been used in submarines and ships. Use in locomotives, large trucks and electric generating plants followed later. In the 1930s, they slowly began to be used in a few automobiles. Since the 1970s, the use of diesel engines in larger on-road and off-road vehicles in the USA increased. , about 50 percent of all new car sales in Europe are diesel. Diesel engines in a museum Diesel generator on an oil tanker History Rudolf Diesel, of German nationality, was born in 1858 in Paris where his parents were Bavarian immigrants. Donald E. Thomas - Diesel: Technology and Society in Industrial Germany, University of Alabama Press, 1987, ISBN 0817302956, ISBN 9780817302955 He was educated at Munich Polytechnic. After graduation he was employed as a refrigerator engineer but his true love lay in engine design. Diesel designed many heat engines, including a solar-powered air engine. In 1893, he published a paper describing an engine with combustion within a cylinder, the internal combustion engine. In 1894, he filed for a patent for his new invention, dubbed the diesel engine. His engine was the first to prove that fuel could be ignited without a spark. He operated his first successful engine in 1897. In 1898, Diesel was granted U.S. Patent 608,845 for an "internal combustion engine". Though best known for his invention of the pressure-ignited heat engine that bears his name, Rudolf Diesel was also a well-respected thermal engineer and a social theorist. Diesel's inventions have three points in common: they relate to heat transference by natural physical processes or laws; they involve markedly creative mechanical design; and they were initially motivated by the inventor's concept of sociological needs. Rudolf Diesel originally conceived the diesel engine to enable independent craftsmen and artisans to compete with industry. Moon, John F. (1974), Rudolf Diesel and the Diesel Engine, London: Priory Press, ISBN 978-0-85078-130-4 At Augsburg, on August 10, 1893, Rudolf Diesel's prime model, a single iron cylinder with a flywheel at its base, ran on its own power for the first time. Diesel spent two more years making improvements and in 1896 demonstrated another model with a theoretical efficiency of 75 percent, in contrast to the 10 percent efficiency of the steam engine. By 1898, Diesel had become a millionaire. His engines were used to power pipelines, electric and water plants, automobiles and trucks, and marine craft. They were soon to be used in mines, oil fields, factories, and transoceanic shipping. History timeline A diesel engine built by MAN AG in 1906 Rudolf Diesel's 1893 patent on his engine design 1893: Rudolf Diesel obtains a patent (RP 67207) titled [Theory and Construction of a Rational Heat-engine to Replace the Steam Engine and Combustion Engines Known Today] "Arbeitsverfahren und Ausführungsart für Verbrennungsmaschienen". 1897: On August 10 Diesel builds his first working prototype in Augsburg 1899: Diesel licenses his engine to builders Krupp and Sulzer, who quickly become major manufacturers. 1902: until 1910 MAN produced 82 copies of the stationary diesel engine . 1903: A diesel engine was installed in a river boat. 1904: The French build the first diesel submarine, the Z. 1905: For diesel engines turbochargers and intercoolers were manufactured by Büchl (CH), as well as a scroll loader from Creux (F) company. 1908: Prosper L'Orange develops with Deutz a precisely controlled injection pump with a needle injection nozzle. 1909: The prechamber with hemispherical combustion chamber is developed by Prosper L'Orange with Benz. 1910: The Norwegian research ship Fram is the first ship of the world with a Diesel drive, afterwards Selandia was the first trading vessel. By 1960 the Diesel drive had displaced steam turbine and coal fired steam engines. 1912: The Danish built first diesel ship MS Selandia. The first locomotive with a diesel engine. 1913: U.S. Navy submarines use NELSECO units. Rudolf Diesel died mysteriously when he crossed the English Channel on the SS Dresden. 1914: German U-Boats are powered by MAN diesels. 1919: Prosper L'Orange obtains a patent on a prechamber insert and makes a needle injection nozzle. First diesel engine from Cummins. 1921: Prosper L'Orange builds a continuous variable output injection pump. 1922: First vehicle with (pre-chamber) diesel engine is theAgricultural tractor type 6 of Mercedes-Benz agricultural tractor OE Benz Sendling. 1923: first truck with diesel engine made by MAN, Benz and Daimler was tested. 1924: The introduction on the truck market of the diesel engine by commercial truck manufacturers in the IAA. Fairbanks-Morse starts building diesel engines. 1927: First truck injection pump and injection nozzles of Bosch. First passenger car prototype of Stoewer. 1930s: Caterpillar starts building diesels for their tractors. 1932: Introduction of strongest Diesel truck of the world by MAN with . 1933: of first passenger cars with diesel engine (Citroën Rosalie), Citroën uses an engine of the English Diesel pioneer sir Harry Ricardo . The car does not go into production due to legal restrictions in the use of Diesel engines. 1934: First turbo Diesel engine for railway train by Maybach. 1934–35: Junkers Motorenwerke in Germany starts production of the Jumo aviation diesel engine family, the most famous of these being the Jumo 205, of which over 900 examples are produced by the outbreak of World War II. 1936: Mercedes-Benz builds the 260D diesel car. AT&SF inaugurates the diesel train Super Chief. Airship Hindenburg is powered by diesel engines. First series manufactured passenger cars with diesel engine (Mercedes-Benz 260 D, Hanomag and Saurer). Daimler Benz airship diesel engine 602LOF6 for airship the LZ129 Hindenburg. 1937: BMW 114 (aircraft engine)|BMW 114 experimental airplane diesel engine development. 1938: First turbo Diesel engine of Saurer. 1944: Development of Air cooling for diesel engines by Klöckner Humboldt Deutz AG (KHD) for the production stage and later also for Magirus Deutz. 1953: Turbo Diesel truck for Mercedes in small series. 1954: Turbo-Diesel truck in mass production of Volvo. First diesel engine with an overhead cam shaft of Daimler Benz. | 1954–1959 || W120 (180 D) || 180 D || OM636 VII || Dieselvariante des 180, ab 1958 Ausstellfenster. Leistung: 43 PS. 1968: Peugeot introduces the 204, the first small cars with a transversally mounted diesel engine and front-wheel drive. 1973: DAF produces an air-cooled diesel engine. 1976 February: Testing of a diesel engine of Volkswagen for the passenger car Volkswagen Golf. The Common Rail injection system was developed by the ETH Zurich from 1976 to 1992. 1977: The production of the first passenger car turbo-Diesels (Mercedes 300 SD). 1985: ATI Intercooler diesel engine from DAF. First Common Rail system with the IFA truck type W50. 1986: Electronic Diesel Control (EDC) of Bosch with the BMW 524tD. 1987: Most powerful production truck with a MAN diesel engine. 1988: First turbochargers with direct injection in the diesel engine from Fiat. 1991: European emission standards euro 1 met with the truck diesel engine of Scania. 1993: Pump nozzle injection introduced in Volvo truck engines. 1994: Unit injector system by Bosch for diesel engines. 1997: First common rail in passenger car, Alfa Romeo 156. 1998: BMW makes history by winning the 24 Hour Nuerburgring race with the 320d, powered by a two-liter, four-cylinder diesel engine. The combination of high-performance with better fuel efficiency allows the team to make fewer pit stops during the long endurance race. 1999: euro 3 of Scania and first Common Rail truck diesel engine of Renault. 2004: In Western Europe, the ratio of passenger cars with diesel engine exceeds 50%. Selective catalytic reduction (SCR) system in Mercedes, Euro 4 with EGR system and particle filters of MAN. Piezoelectric injector technology by Bosch. 2006: AUDI R10 TDI wins 12 hours running in Sebring and defeats all other engine concepts. Euro 5 for all Iveco trucks. 2008: Subaru introduces the first mass-produced horizontally-opposed diesel engine. This is a Euro 5 compliant engine with an EGR system. 2009: Volvo claims the worlds strongest truck with their FH16 700. An inline 6 cylinder, 16 litre diesel engine producing of torque and fully complying with Euro 5 emission standards. How diesel engines work Diesel engine model, leftside Diesel engine model, rightside The diesel internal combustion engine differs from the gasoline powered Otto cycle by using a higher compression of the air to ignite the fuel rather than using a spark plug ("compression ignition" rather than "spark ignition"). In the diesel engine, only air is introduced into the combustion chamber. The air is then compressed with a compression ratio typically between 15 and 22 resulting into a 40 bar (about 600 psi) pressure compared to 14 bar (about 200 psi) in the gasoline engine. This high compression heats the air to 550 °C (about 1000 °F). At about this moment (the exact moment is determined by the fuel injection timing of the fuel system), fuel is injected directly into the compressed air in the combustion chamber. This may be into a (typically toroidal) void in the top of the piston or a 'pre-chamber' depending upon the design of the engine. The fuel injector ensures that the fuel is broken down into small droplets, and that the fuel is distributed as evenly as possible. The more modern the engine, the smaller, more numerous and better distributed are the droplets. The heat of the compressed air vaporises fuel from the surface of the droplets. The vapour is then ignited by the heat from the compressed air in the combustion chamber, the droplets continue to vaporise from their surfaces and burn, getting smaller, until all the fuel in the droplets has been burnt. The start of vaporisation causes a delay period during ignition, and the characteristic diesel knocking sound as the vapour reaches ignition temperature and causes an abrupt increase in pressure above the piston. The rapid expansion of combustion gases then drives the piston downward, supplying power to the crankshaft. Combined gas law As well as the high level of compression allowing combustion to take place without a separate ignition system, a high compression ratio greatly increases the engine's efficiency. Increasing the compression ratio in a spark-ignition engine where fuel and air are mixed before entry to the cylinder is limited by the need to prevent damaging pre-ignition. Since only air is compressed in a diesel engine, and fuel is not introduced into the cylinder until shortly before top dead center (TDC), premature detonation is not an issue and compression ratios are much higher. Early fuel injection systems Diesel's original engine injected fuel with the assistance of compressed air, which atomized the fuel and forced it into the engine through a nozzle (a similar principle to an aerosol spray). The nozzle opening was closed by a pin valve lifted by the camshaft to initiate the fuel injection before top dead center (TDC). This is called an air-blast injection. Driving the three stage compressor used some power but the efficiency and net power output was more than any other combustion engine at that time. Diesel engines in service today raise the fuel to extreme pressures by mechanical pumps and deliver it to the combustion chamber by pressure-activated injectors without compressed air. With direct injected diesels, injectors spray fuel through six or more small orifices in its nozzle. The early air injection diesels always had a superior combustion without the sharp increase in pressure during combustion. Interestingly research is performed and patents are taken out to use some form of air injection to reduce the nitrogen oxides and pollution, reverting to Diesels original implementation with its superior combustion. In all major aspects, it holds true to Rudolf Diesel's original design, that of igniting fuel by compression at an extremely high pressure within the cylinder. With much higher pressures and high technology injectors present-day diesel engines use the so-called solid injection system applied by Herbert Akroyd Stuart for his hot bulb engine. The indirect injection engine could be considered the latest development of these low speed "hot bulb" ignition engines. Cold weather Starting In cold weather high speed diesel engines, which are mostly prechambered, can be difficult to start because the mass of the cylinder block and cylinder head absorb the heat of compression, preventing ignition because of the higher surface to volume ratio. Prechambered engines therefore make use of small electric heaters inside the prechambers called glowplugs. These engines also generally have a higher compression ratio of 19:1 to 21:1. Low speed and compressed air started larger and intermediate speed diesels do not have glowplugs and compression ratios are around 16:1. Some engines use resistive grid heaters in the intake manifold to warm the inlet air until the engine reaches operating temperature. Engine block heaters (electric resistive heaters in the engine block) connected to the utility grid are often used when an engine is turned off for extended periods (more than an hour) in cold weather to reduce startup time and engine wear. In the past, a wider variety of cold-start methods were used. Some engines, such as Detroit Diesel engines and Lister-Petter engines, used a system to introduce small amounts of ether into the inlet manifold to start combustion. Saab marine engines, Field Marshall tractors (among others) used slow-burning solid-fuel 'cigarettes' which were fitted into the cylinder head as a primitive glow plug. Lucas developed the 'Thermostart', where an electrical heating element was combined with a small fuel valve. Diesel fuel slowly dripped from the valve onto the hot element and ignited. The flame heated the inlet manifold and when the engine was turned over the flame was drawn into the combustion chamber to start combustion. International Harvester developed a WD-40 tractor in the 1930s that had a 7-liter 4-cylinder engine which ran as a diesel, but was started as a gasoline engine. The cylinder head had valves which opened for a portion of the compression stroke to reduce the effective compression ratio, and a magneto produced the spark. An automatic ratchet system automatically disengaged the ignition system and closed the valves once the engine had run for 30 seconds. The operator then switched off the gasoline fuel system and opened the throttle on the diesel injection system. Recently direct-injection systems advanced to the extent that prechambers systems were not needed using a common rail with electronic fuel injection. Gelling Diesel fuel is also prone to "waxing" or "gelling" in cold weather, terms for the solidification of diesel oil into a partially crystalline state. The crystals build up in the fuel line (especially in fuel filters), eventually starving the engine of fuel and causing it to stop running. Low-output electric heaters in fuel tanks and around fuel lines are used to solve this problem. Also, most engines have a "spill return" system, by which any excess fuel from the injector pump and injectors is returned to the fuel tank. Once the engine has warmed, returning warm fuel prevents waxing in the tank. Due to improvements in fuel technology, with additives waxing rarely occurs in all but the coldest weather when a mix of diesel and kerosene should be used to run a vehicle. Fuel delivery A vital component of all diesel engines is a mechanical or electronic governor which regulates the idling speed and maximum speed of the engine by controlling the rate of fuel delivery. Unlike Otto-cycle engines, incoming air is not throttled and a diesel engine without a governor can not have a stable idling speed and can easily overspeed, resulting in its destruction. Mechanically governed fuel injection systems are driven by the engine's gear train. American Bosch Diesel Information Service Manual, fig.3-4, 3-5; Robert Bosch type VE Diesel injection pump These systems use a combination of springs and weights to control fuel delivery relative to both load and speed. Modern, electronically controlled diesel engines control fuel delivery by use of an electronic control module (ECM) or electronic control unit (ECU). The ECM/ECU receives an engine speed signal, as well as other operating parameters such as intake manifold pressure and fuel temperature, from a sensor and controls the amount of fuel and start of injection timing through actuators to maximize power and efficiency and minimize emissions. Controlling the timing of the start of injection of fuel into the cylinder is a key to minimizing emissions, and maximizing fuel economy (efficiency), of the engine. The timing is measured in degrees of crank angle of the piston before top dead center. For example, if the ECM/ECU initiates fuel injection when the piston is 10 degrees before TDC, the start of injection, or timing, is said to be 10° BTDC. Optimal timing will depend on the engine design as well as its speed and load. Advancing the start of injection (injecting before the piston reaches TDC) results in higher in-cylinder pressure and temperature, and higher efficiency, but also results in elevated engine noise and increased oxides of nitrogen (NOx) emissions due to higher combustion temperatures. Delaying start of injection causes incomplete combustion, reduced fuel efficiency and an increase in exhaust smoke, containing a considerable amount of particulate matter and unburned hydrocarbons . Major advantages Diesel engines have several advantages over other internal combustion engines: They burn less fuel than a gasoline engine performing the same work, due to the engine's high efficiency. Low Speed Engines, MAN Diesel. They have no high-tension electrical ignition system to attend to, resulting in high reliability and easy adaptation to damp environments. They can deliver much more of their rated power on a continuous basis than a gasoline engine. The life of a diesel engine is generally about twice as long as that of a gasoline engine When used under identical operating conditions, a diesel engine will likely produce at least twice the engine life of a gas engine. due to the increased strength of parts used, also because diesel fuel has better lubrication properties than gasoline. Diesel fuel is considered safer than gasoline in many applications. Although diesel fuel will burn in open air using a wick, it will not explode and does not release a large amount of flammable vapour. For any given partial load the fuel efficiency (mass burned per energy produced) of a diesel engine remains nearly constant, as opposed to gasoline and turbine engines which use proportionally more fuel with partial power outputs. Ransome-Wallis, Patrick (2001). Illustrated Encyclopedia of World Railway Locomotives. Courier Dover Publications. p. 32 fg. 5 They generate less waste heat in cooling and exhaust. With a diesel, boost pressure is limited only by the strength of the engine components not predetonation of the fuel charge as in gasoline engines. The carbon monoxide content of the exhaust is minimal, therefore diesel engines are used in underground mines. Diesel (compression ignition) engines run with an excess of air and often produce less than 1200 ppm CO. Mechanical and electronic injection Many configurations of fuel injection have been used over the past century (1900–2000). Most present day (2008) diesel engines make use of a camshaft, rotating at half crankshaft speed, lifted mechanical single plunger high pressure fuel pump driven by the engine crankshaft. For each cylinder, its plunger measures the amount of fuel and determines the timing of each injection. These engines use injectors that are basically very precise spring-loaded valves that open and close at a specific fuel pressure. For each cylinder a plunger pump is connected with an injector with a high pressure fuel line. Fuel volume for each single combustion is controlled by a slanted groove in the plunger which rotates only a few degrees releasing the pressure and is controlled by a mechanical governor, consisting of weights rotating at engine speed constrained by springs and a lever. The injectors are held open by the fuel pressure. On high speed engines the plunger pumps are together in one unit. Each fuel line should have the same length to obtain the same pressure delay. A cheaper configuration on high speed engines with less than six cylinders is to use an axial-piston distributor pump ,consisting of one rotating pump plunger delivering fuel to a valve and line for each cylinder (functionally analogous to points and distributor cap on an Otto engine). This contrasts with the more modern method of having a single fuel pump which supplies fuel constantly at high pressure with a common rail (single fuel line common) to each injector. Each injector has a solenoid operated by an electronic control unit, resulting in more accurate control of injector opening times that depend on other control conditions, such as engine speed and loading, and providing better engine performance and fuel economy. This design is also mechanically simpler than the combined pump and valve design, making it generally more reliable, and less noisy, than its mechanical counterpart. Both mechanical and electronic injection systems can be used in either direct or indirect injection configurations. Older diesel engines with mechanical injection pumps could be inadvertently run in reverse, albeit very inefficiently, as witnessed by massive amounts of soot being ejected from the air intake. This was often a consequence of push starting a vehicle using the wrong gear. Large ship diesels can run either way. Indirect injection An indirect injection diesel engine delivers fuel into a chamber off the combustion chamber, called a prechamber or ante-chamber, where combustion begins and then spreads into the main combustion chamber, assisted by turbulence created in the chamber. This system allows for a smoother, quieter running engine, and because combustion is assisted by turbulence, injector pressures can be lower, about 100 bar using a single orifice tapered jet injector . Mechanical injection systems allowed high-speed running suitable for road vehicles (typically up to speeds of around 4,000 rpm). The prechamber had the disadvantage of increasing heat loss to the engine's cooling system, and restricting the combustion burn, which reduced the efficiency by 5%–10%. Ashley, Steven. "Diesel cars come clean". Mechanical Engineering Magazine, August 1997. "As combustion proceeds from the swirl or prechamber, you get throttle losses and heat losses, which are the major reasons for the lower efficiency compared to DI," Indirect injection engines were used in small-capacity, high-speed diesel engines in automotive, marine and construction uses from the 1950s, until direct injection technology advanced in the 1980s. Indirect injection engines are cheaper to build and it is easier to produce smooth, quiet-running vehicles with a simple mechanical system. In road-going vehicles most prefer the greater efficiency and better controlled emission levels of direct injection. Mercedes-Benz type of prechamber and indirect injection engine can reach peak power over 5,000 rpm) once injection pump has been modified in Finland. Direct injection Modern diesel engines make use of one of the following direct injection methods: Direct injection injectors are mounted in the top of the combustion chamber. The problem with these vehicles was the harsh noise that they made. Fuel consumption was about 15 to 20 percent lower than indirect injection diesels, which for some buyers was enough to compensate for the extra noise. This type of engine was transformed by electronic control of the injection pump, pioneered by the Volkswagen Group in 1989. The injection pressure was still only around 300 bar (4350 psi), but the injection timing, fuel quantity, EGR and turbo boost were all electronically controlled. This gave more precise control of these parameters which made refinement more acceptable and emissions lower. Unit direct injection Unit direct injection also injects fuel directly into the cylinder of the engine. In this system the injector and the pump are combined into one unit positioned over each cylinder controlled by the camshaft. Each cylinder has its own unit eliminating the high pressure fuel lines, achieving a more consistent injection. This type of injection system, also developed by Bosch, is used by Volkswagen AG in cars (where it is called a Pumpe-Düse-System—literally "pump-nozzle system") and by Mercedes Benz ("PLD") and most major diesel engine manufacturers in large commercial engines (CAT, Cummins, Detroit Diesel, Volvo). With recent advancements, the pump pressure has been raised to 2,400 bar (35261 psi) , allowing injection parameters similar to common rail systems. Common rail direct injection In common rail systems, the separate pulsing high pressure fuel line to each cylinder injector is also eliminated. Instead, a high-pressure pump pressurises fuel at up to 2,000 bar (200 MPa, 30000 psi), Audi press release in a "common rail". The common rail is a tube that supplies each computer-controlled injector containing a precision-machined nozzle and a plunger driven by a solenoid or piezoelectric actuator. Types Early Rudolf Diesel intended his engine to replace the steam engine as the primary power source for industry. As such, diesel engines in the late 19th and early 20th centuries used the same basic layout and form as industrial steam engines, with long-bore cylinders, external valve gear, cross-head bearings and an open crankshaft connected to a large flywheel. Smaller engines would be built with vertical cylinders, while most medium- and large-sized industrial engines were built with horizontal cylinders, just as steam engines had been. Engines could be built with more than one cylinder in both cases. The largest early diesels resembled the triple-expansion reciprocating engine steam engine, being tens of feet high with vertical cylinders arranged in-line. These early engines ran at very slow speeds—partly due to the limitations of their air-blast injector equipment and partly so they would be compatible with the majority of industrial equipment designed for steam engines; maximum speeds of between 100 and 300 rpm were common. Engines were usually started by allowing compressed air into the cylinders to turn the engine, although smaller engines could be started by hand. In the early decades of the 20th century, when large diesel engines were first being used, the engines took a form similar to the compound steam engines common at the time, with the piston being connected to the connecting rod via a crosshead bearing. Following steam engine practice some manufactures made double-acting two-stroke and four-stroke diesel engines to increase power output, with combustion taking place on both sides of the piston, with two sets of valve gear and fuel injection. While it produced large amounts of power and was very efficient, the double-acting diesel engine's main problem was producing a good seal where the piston rod passed through the bottom of the lower combustion chamber to the crosshead bearing, and no more were built. By the 1930s turbochargers were fitted to some engines. Crosshead bearings are still used to reduce the wear on the cylinders in large long-stroke main marine engines. Modern A Yanmar 2GM20 marine diesel engine, installed in a sailboat. As with gasoline engines, there are two classes of diesel engines in current use: two-stroke and four-stroke. The four-stroke type is the "classic" version, tracing its lineage back to Rudolf Diesel's prototype. It is also the most commonly used form, being the preferred power source for many motor vehicles, especially buses and trucks. Much larger engines, such as used for railroad locomotion and marine propulsion, are often two-stroke units, offering a more favorable power-to-weight ratio, as well as better fuel economy. The most powerful engines in the world are two-stroke diesels of mammoth proportions. Two-stroke diesel operation is similar to that of gasoline counterparts, except that fuel is not mixed with air prior to induction, and the crankcase does not take an active role in the cycle. The traditional two-stroke design relies upon a mechanically driven positive displacement blower to charge the cylinders with air prior to compression and ignition. The charging process also assists in expelling (scavenging) combustion gases remaining from the previous power stroke. The archetype of the modern form of the two stroke Diesel is the Detroit Diesel engine, in which the blower pressurizes a chamber in the engine block that is often referred to as the "air box". The (much larger) Electromotive prime mover utilized in EMD Diesel-electric locomotives is built to the same principle. In a two-stroke diesel engine, as the cylinder's piston approaches the bottom dead center exhaust ports or valves are opened relieving most of the excess pressure after which a passage between the air box and the cylinder is opened, permitting air flow into the cylinder. standard p-v diagrams. Two-stroke engine * The air flow blows the remaining combustion gases from the cylinder—this is the scavenging process. As the piston passes through bottom center and starts upward, the passage is closed and compression commences, culminating in fuel injection and ignition. Refer to two-stroke Diesel engines for more detailed coverage of aspiration types and supercharging of two-stroke engine. Normally, the number of cylinders are used in multiples of two, although any number of cylinders can be used as long as the load on the crankshaft is counterbalanced to prevent excessive vibration. The inline-six cylinder design is the most prolific in light to medium-duty engines, though small V8 and larger inline-four displacement engines are also common. Small-capacity engines (generally considered to be those below five litres in capacity) are generally four or six cylinder types, with the four cylinder being the most common type found in automotive uses. Five cylinder diesel engines have also been produced, being a compromise between the smooth running of the six cylinder and the space-efficient dimensions of the four cylinder. Diesel engines for smaller plant machinery, boats, tractors, generators and pumps may be four, three or two cylinder types, with the single cylinder diesel engine remaining for light stationary work. Direct reversible two stroke marine diesels need at least three cylinders for reliable restarting forwards and reverse. Four cycle engines need at least six cylinders, repeated power strokes at 120 degrees. The desire to improve the diesel engine's power-to-weight ratio produced several novel cylinder arrangements to extract more power from a given capacity. The opposed piston engine uses two pistons in one cylinder with the cumbustion cavity in the middle and gas in- and outlets at the ends. This makes a comparatively light, powerful, swiftly running and economic engine possible as it is required in aviation. An example is the Junkers Jumo 204/205, the only aircraft diesel built and used in greater numbers. The Napier Deltic engine, with three cylinders arranged in a triangular formation, each containing two opposed-action pistons, the whole engine having three crankshafts, is one of the better known. The Commer van company of the United Kingdom used a similar design for road vehicles, designed by Tillings-Stevens, member of the Rootes Group, the TS3. The Commer TS3 engine had 3 horizontal in-line cylinders, each with two opposed action pistons that worked through rocker arms, to connecting rods and had one crankshaft. While both these designs succeeded in producing greater power for a given capacity, they were complex and expensive to produce and operate, and when turbocharger technology improved in the 1960s, this was found to be a much more reliable and simple way of extracting more power. Gas generator As a footnote, prior to 1950, Sulzer started experimenting with two-stroke engines with boost pressures as high as 6 atmospheres, in which all of the output power was taken from an exhaust gas turbine. The two-stroke pistons directly drove air compressor pistons to make a positive displacement gas generator. Opposed pistons were connected by linkages instead of crankshafts. Several of these units could be connected together to provide power gas to one large output turbine. The overall thermal efficiency was roughly twice that of a simple gas turbine. Modern High-Speed Oil Engines, Volume II by C. W. Chapman, published by The Caxton Publishing Co. Ltd. Reprinted in July 1949 This system was derived from Raúl Pateras Pescara's work on free-piston engines in the 1930s. Advantages and disadvantages versus spark-ignition engines Power and fuel economy The MAN S80ME-C7 low speed diesel engines use 155 gram fuel per kWh for an overall energy conversion efficiency of 54.4%, which is the highest conversion of fuel into power by any internal or external combustion engine. Diesel engines are more efficient than gasoline (petrol) engines of the same power, resulting in lower fuel consumption. A common margin is 40% more miles per gallon for an efficient turbodiesel. For example, the current model Škoda Octavia, using Volkswagen Group engines, has a combined Euro rating of 6.2 L/100 km (38 miles per US gallon) for the 102 bhp (76 kW) petrol engine and 4.4 L/100 km (54 mpg) for the 105 bhp (78 kW) diesel engine. However, such a comparison doesn't take into account that diesel fuel is denser and contains about 15% more energy by volume. Although the calorific value of the fuel is slightly lower at 45.3 MJ/kg (megajoules per kilogram) than gasoline at 45.8 MJ/kg, liquid diesel fuel is significantly denser than liquid gasoline. This is important because volume of fuel, in addition to mass, is an important consideration in mobile applications. No vehicle has an unlimited volume available for fuel storage. Adjusting the numbers to account for the energy density of diesel fuel, the overall energy efficiency is still about 20% greater for the diesel version. While higher compression ratio is helpful in raising efficiency, diesel engines are much more efficient than gasoline (petrol) engines when at low power and at engine idle. Unlike the petrol engine, diesels lack a butterfly valve (throttle) in the inlet system, which closes at idle. This creates parasitic loss and destruction of availability on the incoming air, reducing the efficiency of petrol/gasoline engines at idle. In many applications, such as marine, agriculture, and railways, diesels are left idling unattended for many hours or sometimes days. These advantages are especially attractive in locomotives (see dieselisation). Weight can be an issue, since diesel engines are typically heavier than gasoline engines of similar power output. This is essentially because the diesel must operate at lower engine speeds. Diesel fuel is injected just before the power stroke. As a result of this, the fuel cannot burn completely until it has encountered the right amount of oxygen. This results in incomplete combustion with too much fuel, poor design or failing injectors resulting in black exhaust. In the gasoline engine, air and fuel are mixed for the entire compression stroke, ensuring complete mixing even at higher engine speeds. Diesel engines usually have longer stroke lengths to achieve the necessary compression ratios. As a result piston and connecting rods are heavier and more force must be transmitted through the connecting rods and crankshaft to change the momentum of the piston. This is another reason that a diesel engine must be stronger for the same power output. Yet it is this same build quality that has allowed some enthusiasts to acquire significant power increases with turbocharged engines through fairly simple and inexpensive modifications. A gasoline engine of similar size cannot put out a comparable power increase without extensive alterations because the stock components would not be able to withstand the higher stresses placed upon them. Since a diesel engine is already built to withstand higher levels of stress, it makes an ideal candidate for performance tuning with little expense. However, it should be said that any modification that raises the amount of fuel and air put through a diesel engine will increase its operating temperature which will reduce its life and increase service requirements. These are issues with newer, lighter, high performance diesel engines which are not "overbuilt" to the degree of older engines and are being pushed to provide greater power in smaller engines. The addition of a turbocharger or supercharger to the engine greatly assists in increasing fuel economy and power output, mitigating the fuel-air intake speed limit mentioned above for a given engine displacement. Boost pressures can be higher on diesels than gasoline engines, due to the latter's susceptibility to knock, and the higher compression ratio allows a diesel engine to be more efficient than a comparable spark ignition engine. Because the burned gases are expanded further in a diesel engine cylinder, the exhaust gas is cooler, meaning turbochargers require less cooling, and can be more reliable, than on spark-ignition engines. With a diesel, boost pressure is essentially unlimited. It is literally possible to run as much boost as the engine will physically stand before breaking apart. Consequently, engine designers have come to realize that diesels are capable of substantially more power and torque than any comparably sized gasoline engine. Diesel — The Performance Choice, Banks Talks Tech, 11.19.04 The increased fuel economy of the diesel engine over the gasoline engine means that the diesel produces less carbon dioxide (CO2) per unit distance. Recently, advances in production and changes in the political climate have increased the availability and awareness of biodiesel, an alternative to petroleum-derived diesel fuel with a much lower net-sum emission of CO2, due to the absorption of CO2 by plants used to produce the fuel. Although concerns are now being raised as to the negative effect this is having on the world food supply, as the growing of crops specifically for biofuels takes up land that could be used for food crops and uses water that could be used by both humans and animals. The use of waste vegetable oil, sawmill waste from managed forests in Finland funded by Nokia venture capital, and the development of the production of vegetable oil from algae, demonstrate great promise in providing feed stocks for sustainable biodiesel, that are not in competition with food production. Diesel engines have lower power output than equivalent size petrol engine because its speed is limited by the time required for combustion. A combination of improved mechanical technology (such as multi-stage injectors which fire a short "pilot charges" of fuel into the cylinder to warm the combustion chamber before delivering the main fuel charge), higher injection pressures that have improved the atomisation of fuel into smaller droplets, and electronic control (which can adjust the timing and length of the injection process to optimise it for all speeds and temperatures), have mostly mitigated these problems in the latest generation of common-rail designs, while greatly improving engine efficiency. Poor power and narrow torque bands have been addressed by the use of superchargers, turbochargers, (especially variable geometry turbochargers), intercoolers, and a large efficiency increase from about 35% for IDI to 45% for the latest engines in the last 15 years. Even though diesel engines have a theoretical fuel efficiency of 75%, in practice it is less. Engines in large diesel trucks, buses, and newer diesel cars can achieve peak efficiencies around 45%, and could reach 55% efficiency in the near future. However, average efficiency over a driving cycle is lower than peak efficiency. For example, it might be 37% for an engine with a peak efficiency of 44%. Emissions Diesel engines produce very little carbon monoxide as they burn the fuel in excess air even at full load, at which point the quantity of fuel injected per cycle is still about 50% lean of stoichiometric. However, they can produce black soot (or more specifically diesel particulate matter) from their exhaust, which consists of unburned carbon compounds. This is caused by local low temperatures where the fuel is not fully atomized. These local low temperatures occur at the cylinder walls and at the outside of large droplets of fuel. At these areas where it is relatively cold, the mixture is rich (contrary to the overall mixture which is lean). The rich mixture has less air to burn and some of the fuel turns into a carbon deposit. Modern car engines use a diesel particulate filter (DPF) to capture carbon particles and then intermittently burn them using extra fuel injected into the engine. The full load limit of a diesel engine in normal service is defined by the "black smoke limit". Beyond which point the fuel cannot be completely combusted, as the "black smoke limit" is still considerably lean of stoichiometric. It is possible to obtain more power by exceeding it, but the resultant inefficient combustion means that the extra power comes at the price of reduced combustion efficiency, high fuel consumption and dense clouds of smoke. This is only done in specialized applications (such as tractor pulling competitions) where these disadvantages are of little concern. Likewise, when starting from cold, the engine's combustion efficiency is reduced because the cold engine block draws heat out of the cylinder in the compression stroke. The result is that fuel is not combusted fully, resulting in blue/white smoke and lower power outputs until the engine has warmed through. This is especially the case with indirect injection engines, which are less thermally efficient. With electronic injection, the timing and length of the injection sequence can be altered to compensate for this. Older engines with mechanical injection can have mechanical and hydraulic governor control to alter the timing, and multi-phase electrically controlled glow plugs, that stay on for a period after start-up to ensure clean combustion—the plugs are automatically switched to a lower power to prevent them burning out. Particles of the size normally called PM10 (particles of 10 micrometres or smaller) have been implicated in health problems, especially in cities. Some modern diesel engines feature diesel particulate filters, which catch the black soot and when saturated are automatically regenerated by burning the particles. Other problems associated with the exhaust gases (nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxides) can be mitigated with further investment and equipment; some diesel cars now have catalytic converters in the exhaust. All diesel engine exhaust emissions can be significantly reduced by the use of biodiesel fuel. Oxides of nitrogen do increase from a vehicle using biodiesel, but they too can be reduced to levels below that of fossil fuel diesel, by changing fuel injection timing. Power and torque For commercial uses requiring towing, load carrying and other tractive tasks, diesel engines tend to have better torque characteristics. Diesel engines tend to have their torque peak quite low in their speed range (usually between 1600–2000 rpm for a small-capacity unit, lower for a larger engine used in a truck). This provides smoother control over heavy loads when starting from rest, and, crucially, allows the diesel engine to be given higher loads at low speeds than a gasoline engine, making them much more economical for these applications. This characteristic is not so desirable in private cars, so most modern diesels used in such vehicles use electronic control, variable geometry turbochargers and shorter piston strokes to achieve a wider spread of torque over the engine's speed range, typically peaking at around 2500–3000 rpm. Noise The characteristic noise of a diesel engine is a contributor to low consumer acceptance of diesel engines for passenger cars. This noise is variably called diesel clatter, diesel nailing, or diesel knock. Diesel clatter is caused largely by the diesel combustion process, the sudden ignition of the diesel fuel when injected into the combustion chamber causes a pressure wave. Engine designers can reduce diesel clatter through: indirect injection; pilot or pre-injection; injection timing; injection rate; compression ratio; turbo boost; and exhaust gas recirculation (EGR). Common rail diesel injection systems permit multiple pre-injections as an aid to noise reduction. Diesel fuels with a higher cetane rating modify the combustion process and reduce diesel clatter. CN (Cetane number) can be raised by distilling higher quality crude oil, or by using a cetane improving additive. Some oil companies market high cetane or premium diesel. Biodiesel has a higher cetane number than petrodiesel, typically 55CN for 100% biodiesel. A combination of improved mechanical technology such as multi-stage injectors which fire a short "pilot charges" of fuel into the cylinder to initiate combustion before delivering the main fuel charge, higher injection pressures that have improved the atomisation of fuel into smaller droplets, and electronic control (which can adjust the timing and length of the injection process to optimise it for all speeds and temperatures), have mostly mitigated these problems in the latest generation of common-rail designs, while improving engine efficiency. Reliability The lack of an electrical ignition system greatly improves the reliability. The high durability of a diesel engine is also due to its overbuilt nature (see above) as well as the diesel's combustion cycle, which creates less-violent changes in pressure when compared to a spark-ignition engine, a benefit that is magnified by the lower rotating speeds in diesels. Diesel fuel is a better lubricant than gasoline so is less harmful to the oil film on piston rings and cylinder bores; it is routine for diesel engines to cover 250,000 miles (400,000 km) or more without a rebuild. Due to the greater compression force required and the increased weight of the stronger components, starting a diesel engine is harder. More torque is required to push the engine through compression. Either an electrical starter or an air start system is used to start the engine turning. On large engines, pre-lubrication and slow turning of an engine, as well as heating, are required to minimize the amount of engine damage during initial start-up and running. Some smaller military diesels can be started with an explosive cartridge, called a Coffman starter, which provides the extra power required to get the machine turning. In the past, Caterpillar and John Deere used a small gasoline pony motor in their tractors to start the primary diesel motor. The pony motor heated the diesel to aid in ignition and utilized a small clutch and transmission to actually spin up the diesel engine. Even more unusual was an International Harvester design in which the diesel motor had its own carburetor and ignition system, and started on gasoline. Once warmed up, the operator moved two levers to switch the motor to diesel operation, and work could begin. These engines had very complex cylinder heads, with their own gasoline combustion chambers, and in general were vulnerable to expensive damage if special care was not taken (especially in letting the engine cool before turning it off). As mentioned above, diesel engines tend to have more torque at lower engine speeds than gasoline engines. However, diesel engines tend to have a narrower power band than gasoline engines. Naturally-aspirated diesels tend to lack power and torque at the top of their speed range. This narrow band is a reason why a vehicle such as a truck may have a gearbox with as many as 18 or more gears, to allow the engine's power to be used effectively at all speeds. Turbochargers tend to improve power at high engine speeds; superchargers improve power at lower speeds; and variable geometry turbochargers improve the engine's performance equally by flattening the torque curve. Quality and variety of fuels Petrol/gasoline engines are limited in the variety and quality of the fuels they can burn. Older petrol engines fitted with a carburetor required a volatile fuel that would vaporize easily to create the necessary fuel/air mix for combustion. Because both air and fuel are admitted to the cylinder, if the compression ratio of the engine is too high or the fuel too volatile (with too low an octane rating), the fuel will ignite under compression, as in a diesel engine, before the piston reaches the top of its stroke. This pre-ignition causes a power loss and over time major damage to the piston and cylinder. The need for a fuel that is volatile enough to vaporize but not too volatile (to avoid pre-ignition) means that petrol engines will only run on a narrow range of fuels. There has been some success at dual-fuel engines that use gasoline/ethanol, gasoline/propane, and gasoline/methane. In diesel engines, a mechanical injector system vaporizes the fuel into a pre-combustion chamber (as opposed to a Venturi jet in a carburetor, or a Fuel injector in a fuel injection system vaporizing fuel into the intake manifold or intake runners as in a petrol engine). This forced vaporisation means that less-volatile fuels can be used. More crucially, because only air is inducted into the cylinder in a diesel engine, the compression ratio can be much higher as there is no risk of pre-ignition provided the injection process is accurately timed. This means that cylinder temperatures are much higher in a diesel engine than a petrol engine, allowing less-combustible fuels to be used. Diesel fuel is a form of light fuel oil, very similar to kerosene, but diesel engines, especially older or simple designs that lack precision electronic injection systems, can run on a wide variety of other fuels. Some of the most common alternatives are Jet A-1 or vegetable oil from a very wide variety of plants. Some engines can be run on vegetable oil without modification, and most others require fairly basic alterations. Biodiesel is a pure diesel-like fuel refined from vegetable oil and can be used in nearly all diesel engines. The only limits on the fuels used in diesel engines are the ability of the fuel to flow along the fuel lines and the ability of the fuel to lubricate the injector pump and injectors adequately. In general terms, inline mechanical injector pumps tolerate poor-quality or bio-fuels better than distributor-type pumps. Also, indirect injection engines generally run more satisfactorily on bio-fuels than direct injection engines. This is partly because an indirect injection engine has a much greater 'swirl' effect, improving vaporisation and combustion of fuel, and also because (in the case of vegetable oil-type fuels) lipid depositions can condense on the cylinder walls of a direct-injection engine if combustion temperatures are too low (such as starting the engine from cold). At the request of the French Government the Otto company demonstrated a diesel engine at the 1900 Exposition Universelle (World's Fair) which used peanut oil (see biodiesel). The French government were at the time exploring the possibility of using peanut oil as a locally produced fuel in their African colonies. Diesel himself later tested extensively the use of plant oils in his engine and began to actively promote the use of these fuels. Most large marine diesels (often called cathedral engines due to their size) run on heavy fuel oil (sometimes called "bunker oil"), which is a thick, viscous and almost un-flammable fuel which is very safe to store and cheap to buy in bulk as it is a waste product from the petroleum refining industry. The fuel must be heated to thin it out (often by the exhaust header) and is often passed through multiple injection stages to vaporize it. Fuel and fluid characteristics Diesel engines can operate on a variety of different fuels, depending on configuration, though the eponymous diesel fuel derived from crude oil is most common. The engines can work with the full spectrum of crude oil distillates, from natural gas, alcohols, gasoline, wood gas to the fuel oils from diesel oil to residual fuels. The type of fuel used is a combination of service requirements, and fuel costs. Good-quality diesel fuel can be synthesised from vegetable oil and alcohol. Diesel fuel can be made from coal or other carbon base using the Fischer-Tropsch process. Biodiesel is growing in popularity since it can frequently be used in unmodified engines, though production remains limited. Recently, biodiesel from coconut, which can produce a very promising coco methyl esther (CME), has characteristics which enhance lubricity and combustion giving a regular diesel engine without any modification more power, less particulate matter or black smoke, and smoother engine performance. The Philippines pioneers in the research on Coconut based CME with the help of German and American scientists. Petroleum-derived diesel is often called petrodiesel if there is need to distinguish the source of the fuel. Pure plant oils are increasingly being used as a fuel for cars, trucks and remote combined heat and power generation especially in Germany where hundreds of decentralised small- and medium-sized oil presses cold press oilseed, mainly rapeseed, for fuel. There is a Deutsches Institut für Normung fuel standard for rapeseed oil fuel.Residual fuels are the "dregs" of the distillation process and are a thicker, heavier oil, or oil with higher viscosity, which are so thick that they are not readily pumpable unless heated. Residual fuel oils are cheaper than clean, refined diesel oil, although they are dirtier. Their main considerations are for use in ships and very large generation sets, due to the cost of the large volume of fuel consumed, frequently amounting to many tonnes per hour. The poorly refined biofuels straight vegetable oil (SVO) and waste vegetable oil (WVO) can fall into this category, but can be viable fuels on non common rail or TDI PD diesels with the simple conversion of fuel heating to 80 to 100 degrees Celsius to reduce viscosity, and adequate filtration to OEM standards. Engines using these heavy oils have to start and shut down on standard diesel fuel ,as these fuels will not flow through fuel lines at low temperatures. Moving beyond that, use of low-grade fuels can lead to serious maintenance problems because of their high sulfur content. Most diesel engines that power ships like supertankers are built so that the engine can safely use low-grade fuels due to their separate cylinder and crankcase lubrication. Normal diesel fuel is more difficult to ignite and slower in developing fire than gasoline because of its higher flash point, but once burning, a diesel fire can be fierce. Fuel contaminants such as dirt and water are often more problematic in diesel engines than in gasoline engines. Water can cause serious damage, due to corrosion, to the injection pump and injectors; and dirt, even very fine particulate matter, can damage the injection pumps due to the close tolerances that the pumps are machined to. All diesel engines will have a fuel filter (usually much finer than a filter on a gasoline engine), and also a water trap. The water trap (which is sometimes part of the fuel filter) often has a float connected to a warning light, which warns when there is too much water in the trap, and must be drained before damage to the engine can result. The fuel filter must be replace much more often on a diesel engine than on a gasoline engine, changing the fuel filter every 2-4 oil changes is not uncommon for some vehicles. Safety The diesel engine is a very safe type of engine. Diesel engines are equipped with a mechanical or electronic governor to control minimum and maximum rpm, which makes Diesel engine runaway unlikely. The fuel is barely flammable so fire risk is low. Yachts In yachts diesels are used because petrol engines generate combustible vapors, which can accumulate in the bottom of the vessel, sometimes causing explosions. Therefore ventilation systems on petrol powered vessels are required. Yacht Safety Bureau The Yacht Safety Bureau, Inc.in the State of New York Military vehicle safety The United States Army and NATO use only diesel fuel engines and turbines because of fire hazard. Diesel does not explode in a manner such as gasoline does, it just slowly burns. US Army gasoline-engined tanks during World War II were nicknamed Ronsons, because it only took a single spark to ignite 50 or more gallons of highly volatile gasoline. Diesel applications The characteristics of diesel have different advantages for different applications. Passenger cars Diesel engines have long been popular in bigger cars and this is spreading to smaller cars. Diesel engines tend to be more economical at regular driving speeds and are much better at city speeds and at tick-over. Their reliability and life-span tend to be better (as detailed). Some 40% or more of all cars sold in Europe are diesel-powered where they are considered a low CO2 option. (However, particulate emission can be a concern). European governments traditionally favoured diesel engines in taxation policy, but this may be changing, and diesel is currently more expensive than petrol in the UK. Diesel cars cannot accelerate as quickly as petrol cars and the increased weight of their engines (normally at the front) tends to increase tyre wear. Cold-starting is more problematical in colder climates, and in cases of difficulty they are more difficult to jump start and to bump start. Mercedes-Benz in conjunction with Robert Bosch GmbH produced diesel-powered passenger cars starting in 1936 and very large numbers are used all over the world (often as "Grande Taxi"s in the Third World). They have put the emphasis on high performance diesel cars in their newer ranges, as does Volkswagen across various brands. Other manufacturers (Borgward in 1952, Fiat in 1953 and Peugeot in 1958) joined in, a trend which increased further in the 1970s and 1980s. Citroën sells more cars with diesel engines than gasoline engines, Peugeot) pioneered smoke-less HDI designs with filters. The Italian marque Alfa Romeo, known for design and successful history in racing, is now focusing on diesels that can be and are raced. Turbodiesels can outperform their naturally aspirated petrol-powered sister cars. One anecdote tells of Formula One driver Jenson Button, who was arrested while driving a diesel-powered BMW 330cd Coupé at 230 km/h (about 140 mph) in France, where he was too young to have a gasoline-engined car hired to him. Button dryly observed in subsequent interviews that he had actually done BMW a public relations service, as nobody had believed a diesel road car could be driven that fast. Yet, BMW had already won the 24 Hours Nürburgring overall in 1998 with a 3-series diesel. The BMW diesel lab in Steyr, Austria is led by Ferenc Anisits and develops innovative diesel engines. In the United States, diesel is not as popular in passenger cars as in Europe. Such cars have been traditionally perceived as heavier, noisier, having performance characteristics which make them slower to accelerate, sootier, smellier, and of being more expensive than equivalent gasoline vehicles. From the late seventies to the mid-eighties, General Motors' Oldsmobile, Cadillac, and Chevrolet divisions produced a low-powered and unreliable V8 diesel engine which generally serves as the prime example for this reputation. Dodge with its ever-famous Cummins inline-six diesels optioned in pickup trucks (since about the late 1980s) really revitalized the appeal for diesel power in light vehicles among American consumers, but a superior and widely-accepted American regular-production diesel passenger car never materialized. Ford Motor Company tried diesel engines in some passenger cars in the 1980s, but to not much avail. In addition, before the introduction of 15 parts per million ultra-low sulfur diesel, which started at 15 October 2006 in the U.S. (1 June 2006 in Canada), diesel fuel used in North America still had higher sulfur content than the fuel used in Europe, effectively limiting diesel use to industrial vehicles, which had further contributed to the negative image. Ultra-low sulfur diesel is not mandatory until 2010 in the US. This image does not reflect recent designs, especially where the very high low-rev torque of modern diesels is concerned—which have characteristics similar to the big V8 gasoline engines popular in the US. Light and heavy trucks, in the U.S., have been diesel-optioned for years. After the introduction of ultra-low sulfur diesel, Mercedes-Benz has marketed passenger vehicles under the BlueTec banner. In addition, other manufacturers such as Ford, General Motors, Honda, Subaru, Audi, Volkswagen, BMW, and Nissan plan to sell Diesel vehicles in the US in 2008-2010, designed to meet the tougher emissions requirements in 2010. Recently, in early 2008, Honda has stated that they plan to offer their 50 state compliant 2.2 liter i-DTEC diesel engine in the new 2009 Acura TSX for the US market. In Canada, Smart Fortwo was first introduced in 2004 with a diesel engine, up until 2008. In Japan, newly registered Diesel vehicles were less than 1% in 2005. Honda and Mercedes-Benz have made plans to offer Diesel vehicles in the future, with Mercedes-Benz having already started selling the Mercedes-Benz E320 CDI in autumn 2006. Other transport uses Larger transport applications (trucks, buses etc.) also benefit from the diesel's reliability and high torque output. Diesel displaced paraffin (or "Tractor vaporising oil", TVO) in most parts of the world by the end of the 1950s with the U.S. following some 20 years later. In merchant ships and boats the same advantages apply, with the relative safety of diesel fuel an additional benefit. The German "pocket battleships" were the largest diesel warships, but the German torpedo-boats known as E-boats (Schnellboot) of the Second World War were also diesel craft. Conventional submarines have used them since before the First World War. American World War II diesel-electric submarines operated on two-stroke cycle as opposed to the four-stroke cycle that other navies used. Military fuel standardisation NATO has a single vehicle fuel policy and has selected diesel for this purpose. NATO and the United States Marine Corps have even been developing a diesel military motorcycle based on a Kawasaki off road motorcycle, with a purpose designed naturally aspirated direct injection diesel at Cranfield University in England, to be produced in the USA, because motorcycles were the last remaining petrol/gasoline powered vehicle in their inventory. Previous to this, a few civilian motorcycles had been built using adapted stationary diesel engines, but the weight and cost disadvantages generally outweighed the efficiency gains. Engine speeds Within the diesel engine industry, engines are often categorized by their rotational speeds into three unofficial groups: High speed engines, medium speed engines and slow speed engines High and medium speed engines are predominantly four stroke engines. Medium speed engines are physically larger than high speed engines and can burn lower grade (slower burning) fuel than high speed engines. Slow speed engines are predominantly large two stroke crosshead engines, hence very different from high and medium speed engines. Due to the lower rotational speed of slow and medium speed engines, there is more time for combustion during the power stroke of the cycle, and these engine are capable of utilising lower fuel grades (slower burning) fuels than high speed engines. High-speed engines High-speed (approximately 1000 rpm and greater) engines are used to power trucks (lorries), buses, tractors, cars, yachts, compressors, pumps and small electrical generators. most high-speed engines have indirect injection, although many modern engines, particularly in on-highway applicatons, have common rail direct injection, which is not as reliable as mechanical injection, but is cleaner burning. Medium-speed engines Medium speed engines are used in large electrical generators, ship propulsion and mechanical drive applications such as large compressors or pumps. Engines used in electrical generators run at approximately 300 to 1000 rpm and are optimized to run at a set synchronous speed depending on the generation frequency (50 or 60 Hertz) and provide a rapid response to load changes. Typical synchronous speeds for modern medium speed engines are 500/514 RPM (50/60 Hz), 600 RPM (both 50 and 60 Hz), 720/750 rpm, and 900/1000 rpm. the largest medium speed engines in current production have outputs up to approximately 20,000 kW (26,800 bhp). and are supplied by companies like MAN B&W, Wartsila, Wärtsilä 64 Technology Review and Rolls-Royce (acquired Ulstein Bergen Diesel in 1999). Medium speed engines produced are four-stroke machines and two-stroke units. Typical cylinder bore size for medium speed engines ranges from 20 cm to 50 cm, and engine configurations typically are offered ranging from in-line 4 cylinder units to Vee 20 cylinder units. Most larger medium speed engines are started with compressed air direct on pistons, using an air distributor, as opposed to a pneumatic starting motor acting on the flywheel, which tends to be used for smaller engines. There is no definitive engine size cut-off point for this. Medium speed diesel engines operate on either diesel fuel or heavy fuel oil by direct injection in the same manner noted below for low speed engines. It should also be noted that most major manufacturers of medium speed engines make natural gas fueled versions of their diesel cycle engines, which in fact operate on the Otto cycle, and require spark ignition, typically provided with a spark plug. There are also dual (diesel/natural gas/coal gas) fuel versions of medium and low speed diesel engines using a lean fuel air mixture and a small injection of diesel fuel (so called "pilot fuel") for ignition. In case of a gas supply failure or maximum power demand these engines will instantly switch back to full diesel fuel operation . Low-speed engines The MAN B&W 5S50MC 5-cylinder, 2-stroke, low-speed marine diesel engine. This particular engine is found aboard a 29000 tonne chemical carrier. Also known as "slow-speed" or traditionally "oil engines", the largest diesel engines are primarily used to power ships, although there are a few land-based power generation units as well. These extremely large two-stroke engines have power outputs up to approximately 85 MW, operate in the range from approximately 60 to 200 rpm and are up to 15.25m (50ft) tall, and can weigh over 2000 tons. They typically use direct injection running on cheap low-grade "heavy fuel", also known as "Bunker C" fuel, which requires heating in the ship for tanking and before injection due to the fuel's high viscosity. The heat for fuel heating is often provided by waste heat recovery boilers located in the exhaust ducting of the engine, which produce the steam required for fuel heating. Provided the heavy fuel system is kept warm and circulating, engines can be started and stopped on heavy fuel. Large and medium marine engines are started with compressed air directly applied to the pistons. Air is applied to cylinders to start the engine forwards or backwards because they are normally directly connected to the propeller without clutch or gearbox, and to provide reverse propulsion either the engine must be run backwards or the ship will utilise an adjustable propeller. At least three cylinders are required with two stroke engines and at least six cylinders with four stroke engines to provide torque every 120 degrees. Companies such as MAN B&W Diesel, (formerly Burmeister & Wain) and Wärtsilä (which acquired Sulzer Diesel) design such large low speed engines. They are unusually narrow and tall due to the addition of a crosshead bearing. Today (2007), the 14 cylinder Wärtsilä-Sulzer 14RTFLEX96-C turbocharged two-stroke diesel engine built by Wärtsilä licensee Doosan in Korea is the most powerful diesel engine put into service, with a cylinder bore of delivering 84.42 MW (114,800 bhp). It was put into service in September 2006, aboard the world's largest container ship Emma Maersk'' which belongs to the A.P. Moller-Maersk Group. Typical bore size for low speed engines ranges from approximately . , all produced low speed engines with crosshead bearings are in-line configurations; no Vee versions have been produced. Supercharging and turbocharging Most diesels are now turbocharged and some are both turbo charged and supercharged. Because diesels do not have fuel in the cylinder before combustion is initiated, more than one bar of air can be loaded in the cylinder without preignition. A turbocharged engine can produce significantly more power than a naturally aspirated engine of the same configuration, as having more air in the cylinders allows more fuel to be burned and thus more power to be produced. A supercharger is powered mechanically by the engine's crankshaft, while a turbocharger is powered by the engine exhaust, not requiring any mechanical power, hence turbocharging does not adversely affect the fuel economy Heywood Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals Figure 15-40 shows better, and much bigger, efficiency of turbo engine versus NA version . A two-stroke engine does not have an exhaust and intake stroke. These are performed when the piston is at the bottom of the cylinder. Therefore large two-stroke engines have a piston pump, or electrical driven turbo at startup. Smaller two stroke engines (example Detroit 71 series) are fitted with turbochargers and a mechanically driven supercharger (i.e. a Roots blower). Because turbocharged or supercharged engines produce more power for a given engine size as compared to naturally aspirated engines, attention must be paid to the mechanical design of components, lubrication, and cooling to handle the power. Other applications Aircraft diesel engine Motorcycles Current and future developments , many common rail and unit injection systems already employ new injectors using stacked piezoelectric wafers in lieu of a solenoid, giving finer control of the injection event. Variable geometry turbochargers have flexible vanes, which move and let more air into the engine depending on load. This technology increases both performance and fuel economy. Boost lag is reduced as turbo impeller inertia is compensated for. Accelerometer pilot control (APC) uses an accelerometer to provide feedback on the engine's level of noise and vibration and thus instruct the ECU to inject the minimum amount of fuel that will produce quiet combustion and still provide the required power (especially while idling). The next generation of common rail diesels is expected to use variable injection geometry, which allows the amount of fuel injected to be varied over a wider range, and variable valve timing similar to that on gasoline engines. Particularly in the United States, coming tougher emissions regulations present a considerable challenge to diesel engine manufacturers. Ford's HyTrans Project has developed a system which starts the ignition in 400 ms, saving a significant amount of fuel on city routes, and there are other methods to achieve even more efficient combustion, such as homogeneous charge compression ignition, being studied. Craig Goodfellow; cited in Maintenance hazards Fuel injection introduces potential hazards in engine maintenance due to the high fuel pressures used. Residual pressure can remain in the fuel lines long after an injection-equipped engine has been shut down. This residual pressure must be relieved, and if it is done so by external bleed-off, the fuel must be safely contained. If a high-pressure diesel fuel injector is removed from its seat and operated in open air, there is a risk to the operator of injury by hypodermic jet-injection, even with only 100 psi pressure. The first known such injury occurred in 1937 during a diesel engine maintenance operation. See also Carbureted compression ignition model engines Diesel generator Elsbett—An improved multi-fuel diesel engine design Forced induction Gasoline direct injection Glow plug (model engine) Hesselman engine Hybrid power source Six stroke engine—40% improved efficiency over 4 stroke by using wasted heat to generate steam. Turbocharger Wärtsilä-Sulzer RTA96-C—world's most powerful, most efficient and largest diesel engine. WVO—Waste Vegetable Oil—filtered, alternative fuel for diesel engines. References External links HowStuffWorks Article Marine Engine Digest Diesel Efficiency Article—Comparison of fuel efficiency between diesel and gas variants of same cars Pictures of an extremely large container ship engine Diesel Engine Fundamentals FactsAboutSCR.com, Selective Catalytic Reduction diesel emissions technology Patents US Patent 845140 Combustion Engine, dated February 26 1907. US Patent 502837 Engine operated by the explosion of mixtures of gas or hydrocarbon vapor and air, dated August 8 1893. 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5,536 | Gamete | A gamete (from Ancient Greek γαμέτης; translated gamete = wife, gametes = husband) is a cell that fuses with another gamete during fertilization (conception) in organisms that reproduce sexually. In species that produce two morphologically distinct types of gametes, and in which each individual produces only one type, a female is any individual that produces the larger type of gamete — called an ovum (or egg) — and a male produces the smaller tadpole-like type — called a sperm. This is an example of anisogamy or heterogamy, the condition wherein females and males produce gametes of different sizes (this is the case in humans; the human ovum is approximately 20 times larger than the human sperm cell). In contrast, isogamy is the state of gametes from both sexes being the same size and shape, and given arbitrary designators for mating type. The name gamete was introduced by the Austrian biologist Gregor Mendel. Gametes carry half the genetic information of an individual, one chromosome of each type. In humans, an ovum can carry only X chromosome (of the X and Y chromosomes), whereas a sperm can carry either an X or a Y; hence, it has been suggested that males have the control of the sex of any resulting zygote, as the genotype of the sex-determining chromosomes of a male must be XY and a female XX. In other words, due to the presence of the Y chromosome exclusively in the sperm, it is that gamete alone that can determine that an offspring will be a male. Gametogenesis Scheme showing analogies in the process of maturation of the ovum and the development of the spermatids. The production of gameotypes is termed gametogenesis, during which phase gametocytes divide by meiosis into gametes. Meiosis reduces the number of sets of chromosomes from two to one (i.e., produces haploid gametes from diploid gametocytes). Organs that produce gametes are called gonads in animals, and archegonia or antheridia in plants. Gamete cycle A gamete of two generation ultimately creates a gamete in the next generation, but still keeping the same quantity of genetic information. Gametes are haploid cells; that is, they contain half(n) of a complete set of chromosomes (the actual number varies from species to species). When two gametes fuse (in animals typically involving a sperm and an egg), they form a zygote—a cell that has a complete set of chromosomes(2n) and therefore is diploid. The zygote receives one set of chromosomes from each of the two gametes through the fusion of the two gamete nuclei. After multiple cell divisions and cellular differentiation, a zygote develops, first into an embryo, and ultimately into a mature individual capable of producing gametes. Sperm-egg distinction Eggs are relatively few, large, and immobile, whereas sperm are many, small, and motile. The size difference is mostly (but not entirely) accounted for by the very large cytoplasm of the egg. Eggs awaiting zygote formation may be anchored either to something in the environment or by an organ that contains them; sperm may rely solely on their own motility or may be relayed into place by an organ such as pollen to reach the place of zygote formation. Typically many more sperm than eggs are created and wasted, in the sense of never fusing with a partner gamete. The sperm/egg distinction is the basis for distinguishing between males and females. Since some algae and fungi have sexual reproduction by combining two identical gametes, there is no male/female distinction in these species. This raises the question as to why most large/familiar species reproduce by sperm and egg. One theory for why the male/female distinction is so common is that it facilitated encounters between gametes, in ancestral marine species. Dusenbery, David B. (2009). Living at Micro Scale, Ch. 20. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass. ISBN 978-0-674-03116-6. Dissimilarity In contrast to a gamete, the diploid somatic cells of an individual contain one copy of the chromosome set from the sperm and one copy of the chromosome set from the egg; that is, the cells of the offspring have genes expressing characteristics of both the father and the mother. A gamete's chromosomes are not exact duplicates of either of the sets of chromosomes carried in the somatic cells of the individual that produced the gametes. They can be hybrids produced through crossover (a form of genetic recombination) of chromosomes, which takes place in meiosis. This hybridization has a random element, and the chromosomes tend to be a little different in every gamete that an individual produces. This recombination and the fact that the two chromosome sets ultimately come from either a grandmother or a grandfather on each parental side account for the genetic dissimilarity of siblings. Notes and references | Gamete |@lemmatized gamete:28 ancient:1 greek:1 γαμέτης:1 translate:1 wife:1 gametes:1 husband:1 cell:8 fuse:3 another:1 fertilization:1 conception:1 organism:1 reproduce:2 sexually:1 specie:6 produce:11 two:8 morphologically:1 distinct:1 type:6 individual:7 one:7 female:6 large:5 call:3 ovum:4 egg:10 male:8 small:2 tadpole:1 like:1 sperm:12 example:1 anisogamy:1 heterogamy:1 condition:1 wherein:1 different:2 size:3 case:1 human:4 approximately:1 time:1 contrast:2 isogamy:1 state:1 sex:3 shape:1 give:1 arbitrary:1 designators:1 mat:1 name:1 introduce:1 austrian:1 biologist:1 gregor:1 mendel:1 carry:4 half:2 genetic:4 information:2 chromosome:16 x:3 whereas:2 either:4 hence:1 suggest:1 control:1 resulting:1 zygote:6 genotype:1 determine:2 must:1 xy:1 xx:1 word:1 due:1 presence:1 exclusively:1 alone:1 offspring:2 gametogenesis:2 scheme:1 show:1 analogy:1 process:1 maturation:1 development:1 spermatid:1 production:1 gameotypes:1 termed:1 phase:1 gametocyte:2 divide:1 meiosis:3 reduce:1 number:2 set:8 e:1 haploid:2 diploid:3 organ:3 gonad:1 animal:2 archegonium:1 antheridium:1 plant:1 cycle:1 generation:2 ultimately:3 create:2 next:1 still:1 keep:1 quantity:1 contain:3 n:1 complete:2 actual:1 varies:1 typically:2 involve:1 form:2 therefore:1 receive:1 fusion:1 nucleus:1 multiple:1 division:1 cellular:1 differentiation:1 develops:1 first:1 embryo:1 mature:1 capable:1 distinction:4 relatively:1 immobile:1 many:2 motile:1 difference:1 mostly:1 entirely:1 account:2 cytoplasm:1 await:1 formation:2 may:3 anchor:1 something:1 environment:1 rely:1 solely:1 motility:1 relay:1 place:3 pollen:1 reach:1 waste:1 sense:1 never:1 partner:1 basis:1 distinguish:1 since:1 algae:1 fungi:1 sexual:1 reproduction:1 combine:1 identical:1 raise:1 question:1 familiar:1 theory:1 common:1 facilitate:1 encounter:1 ancestral:1 marine:1 dusenbery:1 david:1 b:1 living:1 micro:1 scale:1 ch:1 harvard:1 university:1 press:1 cambridge:1 mass:1 isbn:1 dissimilarity:2 somatic:2 copy:2 gene:1 express:1 characteristic:1 father:1 mother:1 exact:1 duplicate:1 hybrid:1 crossover:1 recombination:2 take:1 hybridization:1 random:1 element:1 tend:1 little:1 every:1 fact:1 come:1 grandmother:1 grandfather:1 parental:1 side:1 sibling:1 note:1 reference:1 |@bigram reproduce_sexually:1 gregor_mendel:1 haploid_gamete:1 sperm_egg:5 diploid_zygote:1 cellular_differentiation:1 male_female:3 algae_fungi:1 sexual_reproduction:1 somatic_cell:2 genetic_recombination:1 |
5,537 | ICANN | ICANN headquarters at USC ISI ICANN (, eye-can) is the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers. Headquartered in Marina Del Rey, California, United States, ICANN is a non-profit corporation that was created on September 18, 1998 in order to oversee a number of Internet-related tasks previously performed directly on behalf of the U.S. government by other organizations, notably the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA). ICANN's tasks include responsibility for Internet Protocol (IP) address space allocation, protocol identifier assignment, generic (gTLD) and country code (ccTLD) top-level domain name system management, and root server system management functions. More generically, ICANN is responsible for managing the assignment of domain names and IP addresses. To date, much of its work has concerned the introduction of new generic top-level domains (TLDs). The technical work of ICANN is referred to as the IANA function. ICANN's other primary function involves helping preserve the operational stability of the Internet; to promote competition; to achieve broad representation of global Internet community; and to develop policies appropriate to its mission through bottom-up, consensus-based processes. On September 29, 2006, ICANN signed a new agreement with the United States Department of Commerce (DOC) that is a step forward toward the full management of the Internet's system of centrally coordinated identifiers through the multi-stakeholder model of consultation that ICANN represents. ICANN-DOC JPA 09-29-2006 Paul Twomey has been the President/CEO of ICANN since March 27 2003. As of November 3, 2007, Peter Dengate Thrush replaced Vint Cerf as Chairman of the ICANN Board of Directors NZ Herald: NZer appointed 'Chairman of cyberspace' - 03 Nov 2007 . Structure At present, ICANN is formally organized as a non-profit corporation "for charitable and public purposes" under the California Nonprofit Public Benefit Corporation Law. It is managed by a Board of Directors, which is composed of six representatives of the Supporting Organizations, sub-groups that deal with specific sections of the policies under ICANN's purview; eight independent representatives of the general public interest, selected through a Nominating Committee in which all the constituencies of ICANN are represented; and the President and CEO, appointed by the rest of the Board. There are currently three Supporting Organizations. The Generic Names Supporting Organization (GNSO) deals with policy making on generic top-level domains (gTLDs). The Country Code Names Supporting Organization (ccNSO) deals with policy making on country-code top-level domains (ccTLDs). The Address Supporting Organization (ASO) deals with policy making on IP addresses. ICANN also relies on some advisory committees to receive advice on the interests and needs of stakeholders that do not directly participate in the Supporting Organizations. These include the Governmental Advisory Committee (GAC), which is composed of representatives of a large number of national governments from all the world; the At-Large Advisory Committee (ALAC) which is composed of representatives of organizations of individual Internet users from around the world; the Root Server System Advisory Committee which provides advice on the operation of the DNS root server system; the Security and Stability Advisory Committee (SSAC) which is composed of Internet experts who study security issues pertaining to ICANN's mandate; and the Technical Liaison Group (TLG) which is composed of representatives of other international technical organizations that focus, at least in part, on the Internet. Procedures ICANN holds periodic public meetings rotated between continents for the purpose of encouraging global participation in its processes. Critics argue that the locations of these meetings are often in countries with lower Internet usage and far away from locations that the majority of the Internet-using public can afford to reach. This makes public input or participation from traditional Internet users less likely. Supporters reply that ICANN has a worldwide presence, and a key part of its mission is to build Internet use where it is weak. ICANN was established in California due to the presence of Jon Postel, who was a founder of ICANN and was set to be its first CTO prior to his unexpected death. ICANN remains in the same building where he worked, which is home to an office of the Information Sciences Institute at the University of Southern California. Resolutions of the ICANN Board, preliminary reports and minutes of the meetings are published on the ICANN website, sometimes in real time. However there are criticisms from ICANN constituencies including Noncommercial Users Constituency (NCUC) and At-Large Advisory Committee (ALAC) that there is not enough public disclosure and that too many discussions take place and too many decisions are made out of sight of the public. UDRP One task that ICANN was asked to do was to address the issue of domain name ownership resolution for generic top-level domains (gTLDs). ICANN's attempt at such a policy was drafted in close cooperation with the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO), and the result has now become known as the Uniform Dispute Resolution Policy (UDRP). This policy essentially attempts to provide a mechanism for rapid, cheap and reasonable resolution of domain name conflicts, avoiding the traditional court system for disputes by allowing cases to be brought to one of a set of bodies that arbitrate domain name disputes. According to ICANN policy, a domain registrant must agree to be bound by the UDRP — they cannot get a domain name without agreeing to this. A look at the UDRP decision patterns has led some Hannibal Travis, The Battle for Mindshare: the Emerging Consensus that the First Amendment Protects Corporate Criticism and Parody on the Internet, 10 Virginia Journal of Law and Technology 3, 32-34 (2005), http://www.vjolt.net/vol10/issue1/v10i1_a3-Travis.pdf to conclude that compulsory domain name arbitration is less likely to give a fair hearing to domain name owners asserting defenses under the First Amendment and other laws, compared to the federal courts of appeal in particular. Notable events in history The original mandate for ICANN came from the United States government, spanning the presidential administrations of both Bill Clinton and George W. Bush. On January 30, 1998, the National Telecommunications and Information Administration (NTIA), an agency of the U.S. Department of Commerce, issued for comment, "A Proposal to Improve the Technical Management of Internet Names and Addresses." The proposed rule making, or "Green Paper", was published in the Federal Register on February 20, 1998, providing opportunity for public comment. NTIA received more than 650 comments as of March 23 1998, when the comment period closed. The Green Paper proposed certain actions designed to privatize the management of Internet names and addresses in a manner that allows for the development of robust competition and facilitates global participation in Internet management. The Green Paper proposed for discussion a variety of issues relating to DNS management including private sector creation of a new not-for-profit corporation (the "new corporation") managed by a globally and functionally representative Board of Directors. ICANN was formed in response to this policy. The IANA function currently exists under an agreement with the U.S. Department of Commerce. On March 14, 2002, in a public meeting in Accra, in Ghana, ICANN decided to reduce direct public ("at large") participation. On March 18, 2002, publicly elected At-Large Representative for North America board member Karl Auerbach sued ICANN in Superior Court in California to gain access to ICANN's accounting records without restriction. Auerbach won. In September and October 2003 ICANN played a crucial role in the conflict over VeriSign's "wild card" DNS service Site Finder. After an open letter from ICANN issuing an ultimatum to VeriSign, later supported by the IAB, the company voluntarily shut down the service on October 4, 2003. Following this action, VeriSign filed a lawsuit against ICANN on February 27, 2004, claiming that ICANN had overstepped its authority. In this lawsuit, VeriSign sought to reduce ambiguity about ICANN's authority. The antitrust component of VeriSign's claim was dismissed in August 2004. VeriSign's broader challenge that ICANN overstepped its contractual rights is currently outstanding. A proposed settlement already approved by ICANN's board would resolve VeriSign's challenge to ICANN in exchange for the right to increase pricing on .com domains. At the meeting of ICANN in Rome which took place from March 2 to March 6, 2004, ICANN agreed to ask approval of the US Department of Commerce for the Waiting List Service of VeriSign. On May 17, 2004, ICANN published a proposed budget for the year 2004-05. It included proposals to increase the openness and professionalism of its operations, and greatly increased its proposed spending from US $8.27m to $15.83m. The increase was to be funded by the introduction of new top-level domains, charges to domain registries, and a fee for some domain name registrations, renewals and transfers (initially USD 0.20 for all domains within a country-code top-level domain, and USD 0.25 for all others). The Council of European National Top Level Domain Registries (CENTR), which represents the Internet registries of 39 countries, rejected the increase, accusing ICANN of a lack of financial prudence and criticising what it describes as ICANN's "unrealistic political and operational targets". Despite the criticism, the registry agreement for the top-level domains .jobs and .travel includes a US $2 fee on every domain the licensed companies sell or renew. Along with the successful negotiations of the .travel and .jobs namespace, .mobi, and .cat are some of the new top-level domains introduced by ICANN. The introduction of the .eu Top Level Domain to the root in violation of RFC 1591 Specifically, RFC 1591 uses the ISO 3166 standard as the authoritative list of country codes. .eu is not a country code, but is listed among the Exceptional Reservations. , and the introduction of .asia are developments to watch. After an extensive build-up that saw speculation that the United Nations might signal a takeover of ICANN , followed by a negative reaction from the US government and worries about a division of the internet the World Summit on the Information Society in Tunisia in November 2005 agreed not to get involved in the day-to-day and technical operations of ICANN. However it also agreed to set up an international Internet Governance Forum, with a consultative role on the future governance of the Internet. ICANN's Government Advisory Committee is currently set up to provide advice to ICANN regarding public policy issues and has participation by many of the world's governments. ICANN meeting, Los Angeles USA, 2007. The sign refers to Vint Cerf, then Chairman of the Board of Directors, who is working on the Interplanetary Internet. On February 28, 2006, ICANN's board approved a settlement with VeriSign in the lawsuit resulting from SiteFinder that involved allowing VeriSign (the registry) to raise its registration fees by up to 7% a year. ICANN announcement , retrieved November 1, 2006 This was criticised by some people in the US House of Representatives' Small Business committee. CNET: Domain name price hikes come under fire On May 10, 2006 ICANN failed to approve a plan for a new ".xxx" suffix that would have been designated for websites with pornographic content. ICANN formally rejected .xxx on March 30, 2007 during its meeting at Lisbon, Portugal. On July 26, 2006, the United States government renewed the contract with ICANN for performance of the IANA function for an additional one to five years . The context of ICANN's relationship with the U.S. government was clarified on September 29, 2006 when ICANN signed a new Memorandum of Understanding with the United States Department of Commerce (DOC). In February 2007, ICANN began the steps to remove accreditation of one of their registrars, RegisterFly amid charges and lawsuits involving fraud, and criticism of ICANN's handling of the situation. ICANN has been the subject of criticism as a result of its handling of RegisterFly, and the harm caused to thousands of clients due to what has been called ICANN's "laissez faire attitude toward customer allegations of fraud". The Register, Burke Hansen Of ICANN and the Registerfly meltdown, March 3, 2007 On May 23, 2008 ICANN issued Enforcement Notices against 10 Accredited Registrars and announced this through press release entitled: "Worst Spam Offenders" Notified by ICANN, Compliance system working to correct Whois and other issues "Worst Spam Offenders" Notified by ICANN . This was largely in response to a report issued by KnujOn called The 10 Worst Registrars in terms of spam advertised junk product sites and compliance failure. The mention of the word spam in the title of the ICANN memo is somewhat misleading since ICANN does not address issues of spam or email abuse. Website content and usage are not within ICANN's mandate. However the KnujOn Report details how various registrars have not complied with their contractual obligations under the Registrar Accreditation Agreement (RAA) Registrar Accreditation Agreement . The main point of the KnujOn research was to demonstrate the relationships between compliance failure, illicit product traffic, and spam. The report demonstrated that out of 900 ICANN accredited Registrars fewer than 20 held 90% of the web domains advertised in spam. These same Registrars we also most frequently cited by KnujOn as failing to resolve complaints made through the Whois Data Problem Reporting System (WDPRS). The 10 Registrars cited were Xin Net, Beijing Networks, Todaynic, Joker, eNom, Monkier, Dynamic Dolphin, The Nameit Co, Directi, and Intercosmos. On June 26, 2008 the ICANN Board approved the new unrestricted gTLD program. This program would allow organizations, groups and individuals to register Internet addresses outside of the existing TLD rules. The proposed new top level domain names will expand to include common words such as .banks for all financial institutions, .music for all the music community and so on. They will also open up to other languages that don't rely on Roman characters, such as Arabic or Chinese. The Register, Cade MetzICANN approves customized top-level domains, June 26, 2008 On June 27, 2008 the NYTreported that the official sites of ICANN and IANA had been defaced by Turkish hackers the prior day. In July 2008 the U.S. Department of Commerce reiterated an earlier statement that it has no plans to transition management of the authoritative root zone file to ICANN. The letter also stresses the separate roles of the IANA and VeriSign. On October 1, 2008 ICANN issued Breach Notices against Joker and Beijing Innovative Linkage Technology Ltd. Breach Notices Sent to Joker.com and DNS.com.cn after further researching reports and complaints issued by KnujOn. These notices gave the Registrars given 15 days to fix their Whois investigation efforts. On 26 June 2008, ICANN approved the recommendation of a new unrestricted generic top-level domain program which would allow companies to register domains under any gTLD. ICANN Board Approves Sweeping Overhaul of Top-level Domains, CircleID, 26 June 2008 ICANN | Biggest Expansion in gTLDs Approved for Implementation Arguments Governance issues In the Memorandum of Understanding that set up the relationship between ICANN and the U.S. government, ICANN was given a mandate requiring that it operate "in a bottom up, consensus driven, democratic manner." However, the attempts that ICANN have made to set up an organizational structure that would allow wide input from the global Internet community did not produce results amenable to the current Board. As a result, the At-Large constituency and direct election of board members by the global Internet community were soon abandoned. It is argued that ICANN was never given the authority to decide policy (i.e. choose new TLDs or shut out other interested parties who refuse to pay ICANN's US$185,000 fee), but was to be a technical caretaker. Critics suggest that ICANN should not be allowed to impose business rules on market participants, and that all TLDs should be added on a first-come-first-served basis and the market should be the arbiter of who succeeds and who does not. A member of the European Parliament, William Newton-Dunn, has recently been addressing questions to the European Commission which asks whether ICANN is engaging in restraint of European free trade laws by imposing restrictions on who can operate a TLD and sell domain names. Question no 78 by Bill Newton Dunn (H-0126/07 ) Subject: ICANN's levy from price increases imposed on Europeans Some restrictions are considered insurmountable by many small business owners and individuals, such as the perhaps-partially-refundable $185,000 application fee. Alternatives Alternatives to ICANN have been suggested for managing the DNS namespace and the address space, including: Letting the U.S. government perform ICANN's tasks directly Assigning ICANN's tasks to the International Telecommunication Union Turning ICANN into a new UN agency Letting the Regional Internet Registries manage the addresses Abandoning all control and letting the DNS name space be a free-for-all Creating a new non-profit organization without any links to the current interested parties , none of these proposals had enough political support to be considered a viable alternative to the current processes. A number of private, for-profit firms are still trying to "seize the opportunity" of namespace development by creating new TLDs in alternative DNS roots. See also Alternative DNS root Domain name Domain name registrar IANA Internationalized domain names and GeoTLDs Internet democracy Top-level domain Uniform Domain-Name Dispute-Resolution Policy WHOIS Notes References Other sources Franda, Marcus, The Emergence of an International Regime, ISBN 1-55587-999-3 Wass, Erica, Addressing the World, ISBN 0-7425-2809-X Paré, Daniel J. Internet Governance in Transition, ISBN 0-7425-1846-9 Mueller, Milton L. Ruling the Root, ISBN 0-262-13412-8 Froomkin, A. Michael Wrong Turn in Cyberspace: Using ICANN to Route Around the APA and the Constitution, 50 Duke Law Journal17 (2000) Tim Schumacher, Thomas Ernstschneider & Andrea Wiehager Domain-Namen im Internet (text in German), ISBN 3-540-42910-7 External links ICANN website Memorandum of Understanding Between the Department of Commerce and the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers ICANNWatch Site advocating the return of public representation in ICANN VeriSign Domain Report - Quarterly analysis of global domain name market DailyChanges.com — a free ICANN Registrar Statistics website | ICANN |@lemmatized icann:94 headquarters:1 usc:1 isi:1 eye:1 internet:31 corporation:7 assign:4 name:24 number:6 headquarter:1 marina:1 del:1 rey:1 california:5 united:6 state:5 non:3 profit:5 create:3 september:4 order:1 oversee:1 related:1 task:5 previously:1 perform:2 directly:3 behalf:1 u:13 government:10 organization:12 notably:1 authority:4 iana:7 include:8 responsibility:1 protocol:2 ip:3 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5,538 | John_Pople | Sir John Anthony Pople, KBE, FRS, (October 31, 1925 – March 15, 2004) was a theoretical chemist. Born in Burnham on Sea, Somerset, England, he attended Bristol Grammar School. He won a scholarship to Trinity College, Cambridge in 1943. He received his B. A. in 1946. Between 1945 and 1947 he worked at the Bristol Aeroplane Company. He then returned to Cambridge University and was awarded his doctorate degree in mathematics in 1951. He moved to the United States of America in 1964, where he lived the rest of his life, though he retained British citizenship. Pople considered himself more of a mathematician than a chemist, but theoretical chemists consider him one of the most important of their number. Obituary by The Guardian Major scientific contributions His scientific contributions are in four different areas: Reflections on John Pople's Career and Legacy, Michael J. Frisch, 17 March 2004 Statistical mechanics of water His early paper on the statistical mechanics of water, according to Michael J. Frisch, "remained the standard for many years. This was his thesis topic for his Ph D at Cambridge supervised by John Lennard-Jones. Nuclear magnetic resonance In the early days of nuclear magnetic resonance he studied the underlying theory and coauthored a text book. Semi-Empirical Theory He made major contributions to the theory of approximate molecular orbital (MO) calculations, starting with one identical to the one developed by Rudolph Pariser and Robert G. Parr on pi electron systems, and now called the Pariser-Parr-Pople method. Pariser-Parr-Pople Subsequently, he developed the methods of Complete Neglect of Differential Overlap (CNDO) (in 1965) and Intermediate Neglect of Differential Overlap (INDO) for approximate MO calculations on three-dimensional molecules, and other developments in computational chemistry. He coauthored a book on these methods with David Beveridge. Ab Initio Electronic Structure Theory He pioneered the development of more sophisticated computational methods, called ab initio quantum chemistry methods, that use basis sets of either Slater type orbitals or Gaussian orbitals to model the wave function. While in the early days these calculations were extremely expensive to perform, the advent of high speed microprocessors has made them much more feasible today. He was instrumental in the development of one of the most widely used computational chemistry packages, the "GAUSSIAN"(tm) suite of programs, including coauthorship of the first version, Gaussian 70. Gaussian's page on John Pople One of his most important original contributions is the concept of a model chemistry whereby a method is rigorously evaluated across a range of molecules. He instigated the quantum chemistry composite methods such as Gaussian-1 (G1) and Gaussian-2 (G2). He was a founder of the Q-Chem computational chemistry program. Pople's Q-Chem page Career and honors After obtaining his Ph D, he was a research fellow at Trinity College, Cambridge and then from 1954 a lecturer in the mathematics faculty at Cambridge. In 1958, he moved to the National Physical Laboratory, near London as head of the new basics physics division. In 1964 he moved to Carnegie Mellon University in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, where he had experienced a sabbatical in 1961 to 1962. In 1993 he moved to Northwestern University in Evanston, Illinois where he was Board of Trustees Professor of Chemistry until his death. John Pople Chronology at Gaussian. He received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1998. Official homepage of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1998 He was made a fellow of the Royal Society in 1961. He was made a Knight Commander (KBE) of the Order of the British Empire in 2003. He was a founding member of the International Academy of Quantum Molecular Science. Family and death He was married to Joy Bowers from 1952 until her death from cancer in 2002. Pople died of liver cancer in Chicago in 2004. He was survived by his daughter Hilary, and sons Adrian, Mark and Andrew. Notable Biographies Trivia An IT room and a scholarship are named after him at Bristol Grammar School. He was once denied membership in the American Chemical Society, as he held no degrees in chemistry. References External links Pople's autobiography Pople's early photo (1950's) John Pople Oral history (pdf) | John_Pople |@lemmatized sir:1 john:6 anthony:1 pople:12 kbe:2 fr:1 october:1 march:2 theoretical:2 chemist:3 bear:1 burnham:1 sea:1 somerset:1 england:1 attend:1 bristol:3 grammar:2 school:2 win:1 scholarship:2 trinity:2 college:2 cambridge:5 receive:2 b:1 work:1 aeroplane:1 company:1 return:1 university:3 award:1 doctorate:1 degree:2 mathematics:2 move:4 united:1 state:1 america:1 live:1 rest:1 life:1 though:1 retain:1 british:2 citizenship:1 consider:2 mathematician:1 one:5 important:2 number:1 obituary:1 guardian:1 major:2 scientific:2 contribution:4 four:1 different:1 area:1 reflection:1 career:2 legacy:1 michael:2 j:2 frisch:2 statistical:2 mechanic:2 water:2 early:4 paper:1 accord:1 remain:1 standard:1 many:1 year:1 thesis:1 topic:1 ph:2 supervise:1 lennard:1 jones:1 nuclear:2 magnetic:2 resonance:2 day:2 study:1 underlie:1 theory:4 coauthored:2 text:1 book:2 semi:1 empirical:1 make:4 approximate:2 molecular:2 orbital:1 mo:2 calculation:3 start:1 identical:1 develop:2 rudolph:1 pariser:3 robert:1 g:1 parr:3 pi:1 electron:1 system:1 call:2 method:7 subsequently:1 complete:1 neglect:2 differential:2 overlap:2 cndo:1 intermediate:1 indo:1 three:1 dimensional:1 molecule:2 development:3 computational:4 chemistry:10 david:1 beveridge:1 ab:2 initio:2 electronic:1 structure:1 pioneer:1 sophisticated:1 quantum:3 use:2 basis:1 set:1 either:1 slater:1 type:1 orbitals:2 gaussian:7 model:2 wave:1 function:1 extremely:1 expensive:1 perform:1 advent:1 high:1 speed:1 microprocessor:1 much:1 feasible:1 today:1 instrumental:1 widely:1 package:1 tm:1 suite:1 program:2 include:1 coauthorship:1 first:1 version:1 page:2 original:1 concept:1 whereby:1 rigorously:1 evaluate:1 across:1 range:1 instigate:1 composite:1 founder:1 q:2 chem:2 honor:1 obtain:1 research:1 fellow:2 lecturer:1 faculty:1 national:1 physical:1 laboratory:1 near:1 london:1 head:1 new:1 basic:1 physic:1 division:1 carnegie:1 mellon:1 pittsburgh:1 pennsylvania:1 experience:1 sabbatical:1 northwestern:1 evanston:1 illinois:1 board:1 trustee:1 professor:1 death:3 chronology:1 nobel:2 prize:2 official:1 homepage:1 royal:1 society:2 knight:1 commander:1 order:1 empire:1 founding:1 member:1 international:1 academy:1 science:1 family:1 marry:1 joy:1 bower:1 cancer:2 die:1 liver:1 chicago:1 survive:1 daughter:1 hilary:1 son:1 adrian:1 mark:1 andrew:1 notable:1 biography:1 trivia:1 room:1 name:1 denied:1 membership:1 american:1 chemical:1 hold:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 autobiography:1 photo:1 oral:1 history:1 pdf:1 |@bigram statistical_mechanic:2 lennard_jones:1 magnetic_resonance:2 molecular_orbital:1 computational_chemistry:3 ab_initio:2 carnegie_mellon:1 pittsburgh_pennsylvania:1 evanston_illinois:1 board_trustee:1 nobel_prize:2 external_link:1 |
5,539 | Noosphere | Noosphere (; sometimes noösphere), according to the thought of Vladimir Vernadsky and Teilhard de Chardin, denotes the "sphere of human thought". The word is derived from the Greek νοῦς (nous "mind") + σφαῖρα (sphaira "sphere"), in lexical analogy to "atmosphere" and "biosphere". In the original theory of Vernadsky, the noosphere is the third in a succession of phases of development of the Earth, after the geosphere (inanimate matter) and the biosphere (biological life). Just as the emergence of life fundamentally transformed the geosphere, the emergence of human cognition fundamentally transforms the biosphere. In contrast to the conceptions of the Gaia theorists, or the promoters of cyberspace, Vernadsky's noosphere emerges at the point where humankind, through the mastery of nuclear processes, begins to create resources through the transmutation of elements. History of concept For Teilhard, the noosphere is best described as a sort of 'collective consciousness' of human-beings. It emerges from the interaction of human minds. The noosphere has grown in step with the organization of the human mass in relation to itself as it populates the earth. As mankind organizes itself in more complex social networks, the higher the noosphere will grow in awareness. This is an extension of Teilhard's Law of Complexity/Consciousness, the law describing the nature of evolution in the universe. Pierre Teilhard de Chardin added that the noosphere is growing towards an even greater integration and unification, culminating in the Omega point, which he saw as the goal of history. The goal of history, then, is an apex of thought/consciousness. One of the original aspects of the noosphere concept deals with evolution. Henri Bergson (1907) was one of the first to propose that evolution is 'creative' and cannot necessarily be explained solely by Darwinian natural selection. L'évolution créatrice is upheld, according to Bergson, by a constant vital force that animates life and fundamentally connects mind and body, an idea opposing the dualism of René Descartes. In 1923, C. Lloyd Morgan took this work further, elaborating on an 'emergent evolution' that could explain increasing complexity (including the evolution of mind). Morgan found that many of the most interesting changes in living things have been largely discontinuous with past evolution, and therefore did not necessarily take place through a gradual process of natural selection. Rather, evolution experiences jumps in complexity (such as the emergence of a self-reflective universe, or noosphere). Finally, the complexification of human cultures, particularly language, facilitated a quickening of evolution in which cultural evolution occurs more rapidly than biological evolution. Recent understanding of human ecosystems and of human impact on the biosphere have led to a link between the notion of sustainability with the "co-evolution" [Norgaard, 1994] and harmonization of cultural and biological evolution. The resulting political system has been referred to as a noocracy. American integral theorist Ken Wilber deals with this third evolution of the noosphere. In his work, Sex, Ecology, Spirituality (1995), he builds many of his arguments on the emergence of the noosphere and the continued emergence of further evolutionary structures. The noosphere concept of 'unification' was elaborated in popular science fiction by Julian May in the Galactic Milieu Series. It is also the reason Teilhard is often called the patron saint of the Internet. However, the Vatican's position is to say Isidore of Seville is the patron saint of internauts, because of his pioneering work on indexing; see :fr:Classement Alphabétique#Historique History of this expression: Henri Bergson's L'évolution créatrice (1907) Edouard Le Roy's Les origines humaines et l'évolution de l'intelligence (1928) Vladimir I. Vernadsky (1863-1945) Pierre Teilhard de Chardin (1881-1955) David Ronfeldt and John Arquilla Wilfrid Desan Instances in popular culture Ambient dance group The Orb, in the track 'O.O.B.E.' from the album U.F.Orb, use a sample from the reading of New Pathways to Psychology by Colin Wilson, who discusses the concept of the Noösphere. The Noösphere is an important element of Matthew Hughes's 2004 novel, "Black Brillion." In The Gone-Away World, a novel by Nick Harkaway, Earth is devastated in a war fought with "Go-Away Bombs" -- weapons which erase the information content of matter, causing it to disappear from reality. The fallout of these bombs, called "Stuff", subsequently draws information from the noosphere, "reifying" human ideas and thoughts into physical form and creating a fantasy landscape of monsters and horrors. In "Apocalypse: 2012", Vernadsky's thoughts on the noosphere are measured with interesting results. In Neon Gensis Evangelion the Human Instrumentality Project has the goal of achieving the state of a Noosphere. In the game S.T.A.L.K.E.R Shadow of Chernobyl, the nuclear power plant is being used for scientific experiments involving adjusting the Noosphere to remove aggression from humans. As a failed attempt at doing this, the "Zone" was created. References Paul R. Samson and David Pitt (eds.)(1999), The Biosphere and Noosphere Reader: Global Environment, Society and Change. ISBN 0-415-16644-6 "The Quest for a Unified Theory of Information", World Futures, Volumes 49 (3-4) & 50 (1-4) 1997, Special Issue Raymond, Eric (2000), "Homesteading the Noosphere", available online. Norgaard, R. B. (1994). Development betrayed: the end of progress and a coevolutionary revisioning of the future. London; New York, Routledge. ISBN 0-415-06862-2 External links "Evidence for the Akashic Field from Modern Consciousness Research" by consiousness researcher Dr. Stanislav Grof, M.D. http://www.lawoftime.org/GRI/GRI.html# The Place of the Noosphere in Cosmic Evolution (pdf) http://noosphere.princeton.edu/ Global Consciousness project at Princeton http://transhumanism.org/index.php/WTA/declaration/ http://www.odeo.com/channel/105280 "Just Say Yes to the Noosphere", a Podcast from Stanford Law School Omega Point Institute Noosphere, Global Thought, Future Studies Noosphere and Homo Noeticus | Noosphere |@lemmatized noosphere:23 sometimes:1 noösphere:3 accord:2 thought:5 vladimir:2 vernadsky:5 teilhard:6 de:4 chardin:3 denote:1 sphere:2 human:11 think:1 word:1 derive:1 greek:1 νοῦς:1 nous:1 mind:4 σφαῖρα:1 sphaira:1 lexical:1 analogy:1 atmosphere:1 biosphere:5 original:2 theory:2 third:2 succession:1 phase:1 development:2 earth:3 geosphere:2 inanimate:1 matter:2 biological:3 life:3 emergence:5 fundamentally:3 transform:2 cognition:1 contrast:1 conception:1 gaia:1 theorist:2 promoter:1 cyberspace:1 emerge:2 point:3 humankind:1 mastery:1 nuclear:2 process:2 begin:1 create:3 resource:1 transmutation:1 element:2 history:4 concept:4 best:1 describe:2 sort:1 collective:1 consciousness:5 interaction:1 grow:3 step:1 organization:1 mass:1 relation:1 populate:1 mankind:1 organize:1 complex:1 social:1 network:1 high:1 awareness:1 extension:1 law:3 complexity:3 nature:1 evolution:14 universe:2 pierre:2 add:1 towards:1 even:1 great:1 integration:1 unification:2 culminate:1 omega:2 saw:1 goal:3 apex:1 one:2 aspect:1 deal:2 henri:2 bergson:3 first:1 propose:1 creative:1 cannot:1 necessarily:2 explain:2 solely:1 darwinian:1 natural:2 selection:2 l:5 évolution:3 créatrice:2 upheld:1 constant:1 vital:1 force:1 animate:1 connects:1 body:1 idea:2 oppose:1 dualism:1 rené:1 descartes:1 c:1 lloyd:1 morgan:2 take:2 work:3 far:1 elaborate:2 emergent:1 could:1 increase:1 include:1 find:1 many:2 interesting:2 change:2 living:1 thing:1 largely:1 discontinuous:1 past:1 therefore:1 place:2 gradual:1 rather:1 experience:1 jump:1 self:1 reflective:1 finally:1 complexification:1 culture:2 particularly:1 language:1 facilitate:1 quickening:1 cultural:2 occur:1 rapidly:1 recent:1 understanding:1 ecosystem:1 impact:1 lead:1 link:2 notion:1 sustainability:1 co:1 norgaard:2 harmonization:1 result:2 political:1 system:1 refer:1 noocracy:1 american:1 integral:1 ken:1 wilber:1 sex:1 ecology:1 spirituality:1 build:1 argument:1 continued:1 evolutionary:1 structure:1 popular:2 science:1 fiction:1 julian:1 may:1 galactic:1 milieu:1 series:1 also:1 reason:1 often:1 call:2 patron:2 saint:2 internet:1 however:1 vatican:1 position:1 say:2 isidore:1 seville:1 internauts:1 pioneer:1 indexing:1 see:1 fr:1 classement:1 alphabétique:1 historique:1 expression:1 edouard:1 le:2 roy:1 origines:1 humaines:1 et:1 intelligence:1 david:2 ronfeldt:1 john:1 arquilla:1 wilfrid:1 desan:1 instance:1 ambient:1 dance:1 group:1 orb:2 track:1 b:2 e:2 album:1 u:1 f:1 use:2 sample:1 reading:1 new:2 pathway:1 psychology:1 colin:1 wilson:1 discuss:1 important:1 matthew:1 hughes:1 novel:2 black:1 brillion:1 go:2 away:2 world:2 nick:1 harkaway:1 devastate:1 war:1 fought:1 bombs:1 weapon:1 erase:1 information:3 content:1 cause:1 disappear:1 reality:1 fallout:1 bomb:1 stuff:1 subsequently:1 draw:1 reify:1 physical:1 form:1 fantasy:1 landscape:1 monster:1 horror:1 apocalypse:1 measure:1 neon:1 gensis:1 evangelion:1 instrumentality:1 project:2 achieve:1 state:1 game:1 k:1 r:3 shadow:1 chernobyl:1 power:1 plant:1 scientific:1 experiment:1 involve:1 adjust:1 remove:1 aggression:1 failed:1 attempt:1 zone:1 reference:1 paul:1 samson:1 pitt:1 ed:1 reader:1 global:3 environment:1 society:1 isbn:2 quest:1 unified:1 future:3 volume:1 special:1 issue:1 raymond:1 eric:1 homestead:1 available:1 online:1 betrayed:1 end:1 progress:1 coevolutionary:1 revisioning:1 london:1 york:1 routledge:1 external:1 evidence:1 akashic:1 field:1 modern:1 research:1 consiousness:1 researcher:1 dr:1 stanislav:1 grof:1 http:4 www:2 lawoftime:1 org:2 gri:2 html:1 cosmic:1 pdf:1 princeton:2 edu:1 transhumanism:1 index:1 php:1 wta:1 declaration:1 odeo:1 com:1 channel:1 yes:1 podcast:1 stanford:1 school:1 institute:1 study:1 homo:1 noeticus:1 |@bigram teilhard_de:3 de_chardin:3 pierre_teilhard:2 henri_bergson:2 rené_descartes:1 science_fiction:1 patron_saint:2 isidore_seville:1 instrumentality_project:1 external_link:1 http_www:2 index_php:1 |
5,540 | Help:Editing | Wikipedia is a wiki, meaning that anyone can easily edit any unprotected page, and save those changes immediately to that page, making the alterations visible to every other reader. You do not even need to register to do this. After your first edit, you will be a Wikipedia editor! Note: You can use the sandbox to experiment with page editing. Introduction Editing most Wikipedia pages is easy. Simply click on the "edit this page" tab at the top of a Wikipedia page (or on a section-edit link). This will bring you to a new page with a text box containing the editable text of the original page. If you add information to a page, please provide references, as unreferenced facts are subject to removal. When you are finished with an edit, you should write a short edit summary in the small field below the edit-box. You may use shorthand to describe your changes, as described in the legend. To see how the page looks with your edits, press the "Show preview" button. 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Wiki markup The wiki markup is the syntax system you can use to format a Wikipedia page; please see Editing for details on it, and Wikitext examples for a longer list of the possibilities of Wikitext. Links and URLs The anchor element, <a>, is not allowed. The following are used instead: [[ ]], [ ], ~~~~, ~~~, http, ISBN, RFC & {{ }}. See the table below. Article link Renamed link Blend link Other page link Section link Example renamed links Create page link Navigation links Signing comments Redirects Wikimedia linkLinked and why User edits Categorize Category page link External links Wikimedia text link Book sources RFC number “As of” tag Media link Edit links What it looks likeWhat you typeLondon has public transport. (Article link) A link to another Wiki article. Internally, the first letter of the target page is automatically capitalized and spaces are represented as underscores (typing an underscore in the link has the same effect as typing a space, but is not recommended). Thus the link above is to the URL en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_transport, which is the Wikipedia article with the name "Public transport". See also Canonicalization.London has [[public transport]].San Francisco also has public transportation. (Renamed link) Same target, different name. The target ("piped") text must be placed first, then the text to be displayed, second.San Francisco also has [[public transport|public transportation]].San Francisco also has public transportation. (Blend link) Examples include buses, taxicabs, and trams. Endings are blended into the link. Exception: a trailing apostrophe (') and any characters following the apostrophe are not blended. Preferred style is to use this instead of a piped link, if possible. Blending can be suppressed by using <nowiki></nowiki> tags, which may be desirable in some instances. Example: a micro-second.San Francisco also has [[public transport]]ation. Examples include [[bus]]es, [[taxicab]]s, and [[tram]]s. <code>a [[micro-]]<nowiki>second</nowiki></code>See the Wikipedia:Manual of Style. (Other page link) A link to another namespace.See the [[Wikipedia:Manual of Style]].Wikipedia:Manual of Style#Italics is a link to a section within another page. #Links and URLs is a link to another section on the current page. Italics is a piped link to a section within another page. The part after the number sign (#) must match a section heading on the page. Matches must be exact in terms of spelling, case, and punctuation. Links to non-existent sections are not broken; they are treated as links to the top of the page. Include "| link title" to create a stylish (piped) link title.[[Wikipedia:Manual of Style#Italics]] is a link to a section within another page. [[#Links and URLs]] is a link to another section on the current page. [[Wikipedia:Manual of Style#Italics|Italics]] is a piped link to a section within another page.(Example renamed links) Automatically hide stuff in parentheses: kingdom. Automatically hide namespace: Village pump. Or both: Manual of Style But not: The server fills in the part after the pipe character (|) when you save the page. The next time you open the edit box you will see the expanded piped link. When previewing your edits, you will not see the expanded form until you press Save and Edit again. The same applies to links to sections within the same page (see previous entry). See Pipe trick for details.Automatically hide stuff in parentheses: [[kingdom (biology)|]]. Automatically hide namespace: [[Wikipedia:Village pump|]]. Or both:[[Wikipedia:Manual of Style (headings)|]] But not:[[Wikipedia:Manual of Style#Links|]](Create page link) Links to pages that don’t exist yet look red: You can create it by clicking on the link. To create a new page: Create a link to it on some other (related) page. Save that page. Click on the link you just made. The new page will open for editing. For more information, see starting an article and check out Wikipedia's naming conventions. Please do not create a new article without linking to it from at least one other article.[[Name of page that does not exist yet]] is a red link.(Navigation links) Wikipedia:How to edit a page is a link to this page. Self links appear as bold text when the article is viewed. Do not use this technique to make the article name bold in the first paragraph; see Article titles.[[Wikipedia:How to edit a page]] is a link to this page.(Signing comments) The character tilde (~) is used when adding a comment to a Talk page. You should sign your comment by appending four tildes (~~~~) to the comment so as to add your user name plus date/time: Patricia Zhang 13:40, Jan 14, 2007 (UTC) Adding three tildes (~~~) will add just your user name: Patricia Zhang and adding five tildes (~~~~~) gives the date/time alone: 13:40, Jan 14, 2007 (UTC) The first two both provide a link to your user page.The character '''tilde''' (~) is used when adding a comment to a Talk page. You should sign your comment by appending four tildes (~~~~) to the comment so as to add your user name plus date/time: :~~~~ Adding three tildes (~~~) will add just your user name: : ~~~ and adding five tildes (~~~~~) gives the date/time alone: : ~~~~~(Redirects) Redirect one article title to another by placing a directive like the one shown to the right on the first line of the article (such as at a page titled "USA"). It is possible to redirect to a section. For example, a redirect to United States#History will redirect to the History section of the United States page, if it exists.#REDIRECT [[United States]] #REDIRECT [[United States#History]] will redirect to the [[United States]] page, to the History section, if it exists(Wikimedia link) To connect, via interwiki link, to a page on the same subject in another language, put a link of the form: [[language code:Title]] near the bottom of the article. For example, in article "Plankton", which is available on a lot of other wikis, the interwiki link to the German Wikipedia looks like: [[de:Plankton]] where the "de" is the language-code for "Deutsch" (the German language). It is recommended interwiki links be placed at the very end of the article. Interwiki links are not visible within the formatted article but, instead, appear as language links on the extreme left-margin column of a Wikipedia page (under menu section "languages"). Please see Interlanguage links and the Complete list of language wikis available.[[de:Plankton]] [[es:Plancton]] [[ru:Планктон]] [[simple:Plankton]](Linked and why) What links here and Related changes pages can be linked as: Special: Whatlinkshere/Wikipedia: How to edit a page and Special: Recentchangeslinked/Wikipedia: How to edit a page'''What links here''' and '''Related changes''' pages can be linked as: [[Special: WhatLinkshere/Wikipedia: How to edit a page]] and [[Special: RecentChangeslinked/ Wikipedia: How to edit a page]](User edits) A user's Contributions page can be linked as: Special:Contributions/UserName or Special:Contributions/192.0.2.0A user's '''Contributions''' page can be linked as: [[Special:Contributions/UserName]] or [[Special:Contributions/192.0.2.0]](Categorize) To put an article in a category, place a link like the one to the right anywhere in the article. As with interlanguage links, it does not matter where you put these links while editing as they will always show up in the same place when you save the page, but placement at the end of the edit box is recommended.[[Category:Character sets]](Category page link) To link to a category page without putting the article into the category, use a colon prefix (":Category") in the link. The formatted text link will appear as: :Category:Character sets.[[:Category:Character sets]](External links) Three ways to link to external (non-wiki) sources: Bare URL: http://www.wikipedia.org/ (bad style) Unnamed link: (only used within article body for footnotes) Named link: Wikipedia See meta:interwiki map for the list of shortcuts. Square brackets indicate an external link. Note the use of a space (not a pipe) to separate the URL from the link text in the "named" version. In the URL, all symbols must be among:A-Z a-z 0-9 . _ \ / ~ % - + & # ? ! = ( ) @ If a URL contains a character not in this list, it should be encoded by using a percent sign (%) followed by the hex code of the character, which can be found in the table of ASCII printable characters. For example, the caret character (^) would be encoded in a URL as %5E. If the "named" version contains a closing square bracket "]", then you must use the HTML special character syntax, i.e. ] otherwise the MediaWiki software will prematurely interpret this as the end of the external link. There is a class that can be used to remove the arrow image from the external link. It is used in Template:Ref to stop the URL from expanding during printing. It should never be used in the main body of an article. However, there is an exception: wikilinks in Image markup. An example of the markup is as follows: Markup: <span class="plainlinks neverexpand"> [http://www.sysinternals.com/ ntw2k/freeware/winobj.shtml WinObj]</span> Display: WinObj See External links for style issues.Three ways to link to external (non-wiki) sources: # Bare URL: http://en.wikipedia.org/ (bad style) # Unnamed link: [http://en.wikipedia.org/] (only used within article body for footnotes) # Named link: [http://en.wikipedia.org Wikipedia](Wikimedia text link) Linking to other wikis: InterWiki link: Wiktionary:Hello Interwiki link without prefix: Hello Named interwiki link: Wiktionary definition of 'Hello' All of these forms lead to the URL http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Hello Note that interwiki links use the internal link style. See MetaWikiPedia:Interwiki_map for the list of shortcuts; if the site you want to link to is not on the list, use an external link (see above). See also Wikimedia sister projects. Linking to another language's wiktionary: Wiktionary:fr:bonjour bonjour fr:bonjour All of these forms lead to the URL http://fr.wiktionary.org/wiki/bonjourLinking to other wikis: # [[InterWiki]] link: [[Wiktionary:Hello]] # Interwiki link without prefix: [[Wiktionary:Hello|]] # Named interwiki link: [[Wiktionary:Hello|Wiktionary definition of 'Hello']] Linking to another language's wiktionary: # [[Wiktionary:fr:bonjour]] # [[Wiktionary:fr:bonjour|bonjour]] # [[Wiktionary:fr:bonjour|]](Book sources) ISBN 012345678X ISBN 0-12-345678-X Link to books using their ISBN. This is preferred to linking to a specific online bookstore, because it gives the reader a choice of vendors. However, if one bookstore or online service provides additional free information, such as table of contents or excerpts from the text, then a link to that source will aid the user and is recommended. ISBN links do not need any extra markup, provided you use one of the indicated formats.ISBN 012345678X ISBN 0-12-345678-X(RFC number) Text mentioning an RFC number anywhere, e.g. RFC 4321. Link to Internet Engineering Task Force Request for Comments (RFCs).Text mentioning an RFC number anywhere, e.g. RFC 4321.(“As of” tag) “As of” tags like "As of April 2009" and "as of April 2009" categorize info that will need updating.“[[WP:As of|As of]]” tags like "{{As of|2009|4|df=us}}" and "{{As of|2009|4|df=us|lc=on}}" categorize info that will need updating.(Media link) Sound To include links to non image uploads such as sounds, use a "media" link. For images, see next section. Some uploaded sounds are listed at Commons:Sound.[[media:Classical guitar scale.ogg|Sound]](Edit links) Link directly to edit for an existing page, or apply other link attributes. use {{fullurl:}} or use {{template:edit}} which conceals the edit label for page printing {{fullurl:page name|action=edit}} Images Only images that have been uploaded to Wikipedia can be used. To upload images, use the upload page. You can find the uploaded image on the image list. What it looks like What you typeA picture: Image:wiki.pngA picture: <nowiki>[[Image:wiki.png]]</nowiki>With alternative text: Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia.With alternative text: <nowiki>[[Image:wiki.png|Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia.]]</nowiki> Alternative text, used when the image is unavailable or when the image is loaded in a text-only browser, or when spoken aloud, is strongly encouraged. See Alternative text for images for help on choosing it.Floating to the right side of the page using the frame attribute and a caption: Wikipedia EncyclopediaFloating to the right side of the page using the ''frame'' attribute and a caption: <nowiki>[[Image:wiki.png|frame|Wikipedia Encyclopedia]]</nowiki> The frame tag automatically floats the image right. The caption is also used as alternate text.Floating to the right side of the page using the thumb attribute and a caption: Wikipedia EncyclopediaFloating to the right side of the page using the ''thumb'' attribute and a caption: <nowiki>[[Image:wiki.png|thumb|Wikipedia Encyclopedia]]</nowiki> The thumb tag automatically floats the image right. The caption is also used as alternate text. An enlarge icon is placed in the lower right corner.Floating to the right side of the page without a caption: Wikipedia EncyclopediaFloating to the right side of the page ''without'' a caption: <nowiki>[[Image:wiki.png|right|Wikipedia Encyclopedia]]</nowiki> The help topic on extended image syntax explains more options.A picture resized to 30 pixels...A picture resized to 30 pixels... <nowiki>[[Image:wiki.png|30 px]]</nowiki> The help topic on extended image syntax explains more options.Linking directly to the description page of an image: :Image:wiki.pngLinking directly to the description page of an image: <nowiki>[[:Image:wiki.png]]</nowiki> Clicking on an image displayed on a page (such as any of the ones above) also leads to the description pageLinking directly to an image without displaying it: Image of the jigsaw globe logoLinking directly to an image without displaying it: <nowiki>[[:media:wiki.png|Image of the jigsaw globe logo]]</nowiki> To include links to images shown as links instead of drawn on the page, use a "media" link.Using the span and div tag to separate images from text (note that this may allow images to cover text):<nowiki>Example: <div style="display:inline; width:220px; float:right;"> Place images here </div></nowiki>Using wiki markup to make a table in which to place a vertical column of images (this helps edit links match headers, especially in Firefox browsers): <nowiki>Example: {| align=right |- | Place images here |} </nowiki> See the Wikipedia's image use policy as a guideline used on Wikipedia. For further help on images, including some more versatile abilities, see the topic on Extended image syntax. Headings For a top-level heading, put it on a separate line surrounded by '=='. For example: == Introduction == Subheadings use '===', '====', and so on. Character formatting What it looks like What you typeItalicized textBold textItalicized & Bold text<nowiki> ''Italicized text'' '''Bold text''' '''''Italicized & Bold text''''' </nowiki>Syntax highlighting for source code. Computer code has a colored background and more stringent formatting. Suppose we want to define int main(): #include <iostream> int main ( int argc, char **argv ) { std::cout << "Hello World!"; return 0; }Computer code has a colored background and more stringent formatting. Suppose we want to define int main(): <nowiki> <source lang=cpp>#include <iostream> int main ( int argc, char **argv ) { std::cout << "Hello World!"; return 0; }</source> </nowiki>You can use small text for captions.<nowiki> You can use <small>small text</small> for captions. </nowiki>Better stay away from big text, unless it's within small text. <nowiki> Better stay away from <big>big text</big>, unless <small> it's <big>within</big> small</small> text. </nowiki>You can strike out deleted material and underline new material. You can also mark deleted material and inserted material using logical markup. For backwards compatibility better combine this potentially ignored new logical with the old physical markup. When editing regular Wikipedia articles, just make your changes and do not mark them up in any special way. When editing your own previous remarks in talk pages, it is sometimes appropriate to mark up deleted or inserted material.<nowiki> You can <s>strike out deleted material</s> and <u>underline new material</u>. You can also mark <del>deleted material</del> and <ins>inserted material</ins> using logical markup. For backwards compatibility better combine this potentially ignored new <del>logical</del> with the old <s><del>physical</del></s> markup. </nowiki>Suppressing interpretation of markup: Link → (''to'') the [[Wikipedia FAQ]] Used to show literal data that would otherwise have special meaning. Escape all wiki markup, including that which looks like HTML tags. Does not escape HTML character references. To escape HTML character references such as → use →<nowiki> <nowiki>Link → (''to'') the [[Wikipedia FAQ]]</nowiki> </nowiki>Commenting page source: not shown when viewing page Used to leave comments in a page for future editors. Note that most comments should go on the appropriate Talk page.<nowiki> <!-- comment here --> </nowiki>Extra spacing within text can best be achieved using the pad template: Mary had a little lamb.<nowiki>Mary {{pad|4em}} had a little lamb.</nowiki>Diacritical marks: À Á Â Ã Ä Å Æ Ç È É Ê Ë Ì Í Î Ï Ñ Ò Ó Ô Õ Ö Ø Ù Ú Û Ü ß à á â ã ä å æ ç è é ê ë ì í î ï ñ ò ó ô œ õ ö ø ù ú û ü ÿ See special characters.<nowiki> À Á Â Ã Ä Å Æ Ç È É Ê Ë Ì Í Î Ï Ñ Ò Ó Ô Õ Ö Ø Ù Ú Û Ü ß à á â ã ä å æ ç è é ê ë ì í î ï ñ ò ó ô œ õ ö ø ù ú û ü ÿ </nowiki>Punctuation: ¿ ¡ § ¶ † ‡ • – — ‹ › « » ‘ ’ “ ”<nowiki> ¿ ¡ § ¶ † ‡ • – — ‹ › « » ‘ ’ “ ” </nowiki>Commercial symbols: ™ © ® ¢ € ¥ £ ¤<nowiki> ™ © ® ¢ € ¥ £ ¤ </nowiki>Subscripts: x1 x2 x3 or x₀ x₁ x₂ x₃ x₄ x₅ x₆ x₇ x₈ x₉ Superscripts: x1 x2 x3 or x⁰ x¹ x² x³ x⁴ x⁵ x⁶ x⁷ x⁸ x⁹ Combined: ε0 = 8.85 × 10−12 C² / J m. 1 hectare = 1 E4 m² The Manual of Style prefers the x<sub>1</sub> format. The latter methods of sub/superscripting cannot be used in the most general context, as they rely on Unicode support which may not be present on all users' machines. For the 1-2-3 superscripts, it is nevertheless preferred when possible (as with units of measurement) because most browsers have an easier time formatting lines with it.<nowiki> x<sub>1</sub> x<sub>2</sub> x<sub>3</sub> or x₀ x₁ x₂ x₃ x₄ x₅ x₆ x₇ x₈ x₉ </nowiki> <nowiki> x<sup>1</sup> x<sup>2</sup> x<sup>3</sup> or x⁰ x¹ x² x³ x⁴ x⁵ x⁶ x⁷ x⁸ x⁹ </nowiki> <nowiki> ε<sub>0</sub> = 8.85 × 10<sup>−12</sup> C² / J m. 1 [[hectare]] = [[1 E4 m²]] </nowiki>Greek characters: α β γ δ ε ζ η θ ι κ λ μ ν ξ ο π ρ σ ς τ υ φ χ ψ ω Γ Δ Θ Λ Ξ Π Σ Φ Ψ Ω<nowiki> α β γ δ ε ζ η θ ι κ λ μ ν ξ ο π ρ σ ς τ υ φ χ ψ ω Γ Δ Θ Λ Ξ Π Σ Φ Ψ Ω </nowiki>Mathematical characters: ∫ ∑ ∏ √ − ± ∞ ≈ ∝ ≡ ≠ ≤ ≥ × · ÷ ∂ ′ ″ ∇ ‰ ° ∴ ℵ ø ∈ ∉ ∩ ∪ ⊂ ⊃ ⊆ ⊇ ¬ ∧ ∨ ∃ ∀ ⇒ ⇐ ⇓ ⇑ ⇔ → ↓ ↑ ← ↔ See also WikiProject Mathematics and TeX.<nowiki> ∫ ∑ ∏ √ − ± ∞ ≈ ∝ ≡ ≠ ≤ ≥ × · ÷ ∂ ′ ″ ∇ ‰ ° ∴ ℵ ø ∈ ∉ ∩ ∪ ⊂ ⊃ ⊆ ⊇ ¬ ∧ ∨ ∃ ∀ ⇒ ⇐ ⇓ ⇑ ⇔ → ↓ ↑ ← ↔ </nowiki>Mathematical formulae: Complex formulae should use [[Help:Displaying a formula|<code> </nowiki></pre>Spacing in simple math formulae: Obviously, is true when is a real number. Using to prevent linebreak is not needed; the template will prevent line breaks anyway; you can use if you need an explicit line break inside a formula. <nowiki> Obviously, {{math|''x<''<sup>2</sup> ≥ 0}} is true when {{math|<VAR >x</VAR >}} is a real number. </nowiki>Complicated formulae: See Help:Displaying a formula for how to use <tt> </nowiki></pre> (see also: Chess symbols in Unicode) No or limited formatting—showing exactly what is being typed A few different kinds of formatting will tell the Wiki to display things as you typed them—what you see, is what you get! What it looks likeWhat you type tag:'''<br/> <nowiki> The nowiki tag ignores [[Wiki]] ''markup''. It reformats text by removing newlines and multiple spaces. It still interprets special characters: → |<nowiki> <nowiki> The nowiki tag ignores [[Wiki]] ''markup''. It reformats text by removing newlines and multiple spaces. It still interprets special characters: → </nowiki> </nowiki> |- | tag:'''</br> <pre> The pre tag ignores [[Wiki]] ''markup''. It also doesn't reformat text. It still interprets special characters: →<pre><nowiki> The pre tag ignores [[Wiki]] ''markup''. It also doesn't reformat text. It still interprets special characters: → </nowiki></pre>Leading space: Leading spaces are another way to preserve formatting. Putting a space at the beginning of each line stops the text from being reformatted. It still interprets Wiki markup and special characters: →<nowiki> Leading spaces are another way to preserve formatting. Putting a space at the beginning of each line stops the text from being reformatted. It still interprets [[Wiki]] ''markup'' and special characters: → </nowiki> Invisible text (comments) It's uncommon, but on occasion acceptable, to add a hidden comment within the text of an article. The format is this: <!-- This is an example of text that won't normally be visible except in "edit" mode. --> Table of contents At the current status of the wiki markup language, having at least four headers on a page triggers the table of contents (TOC) to appear in front of the first header (or after introductory sections). Putting __TOC__ anywhere forces the TOC to appear at that point (instead of just before the first header). Putting __NOTOC__ anywhere forces the TOC to disappear. See also Compact TOC for alphabet and year headings. Tables There are two ways to build tables: in special Wiki-markup (see Table) with the usual HTML elements: <table>, , or . For the latter, and a discussion on when tables are appropriate, see When to use tables. Variables (See also Variable) Code Effect {{CURRENTWEEK}} {{CURRENTDOW}} {{CURRENTMONTH}} {{CURRENTMONTHNAME}} {{CURRENTMONTHNAMEGEN}} {{CURRENTDAY}} {{CURRENTDAYNAME}} {{CURRENTYEAR}} {{CURRENTTIME}} {{NUMBEROFARTICLES}} {{NUMBEROFUSERS}} {{PAGENAME}} {{NAMESPACE}} {{REVISIONID}} {{localurl:pagename}} {{localurl:Wikipedia:Sandbox|action=edit}} {{fullurl:pagename}} {{fullurl:pagename|query_string}} {{SERVER}} {{ns:1}} {{ns:2}} {{ns:3}} {{ns:4}} {{ns:5}} {{ns:6}} {{ns:7}} {{ns:8}} {{ns:9}} {{ns:10}} {{ns:11}} {{ns:12}} {{ns:13}} {{ns:14}} {{ns:15}} {{SITENAME}} NUMBEROFARTICLES is the number of pages in the main namespace which contain a link and are not a redirect, in other words number of articles, stubs containing a link, and disambiguation pages. CURRENTMONTHNAMEGEN is the genitive (possessive) grammatical form of the month name, as used in some languages; CURRENTMONTHNAME is the nominative (subject) form, as usually seen in English. In languages where it makes a difference, you can use constructs like {{grammar:case|word}} to convert a word from the nominative case to some other case. For example, {{grammar:genitive|{{CURRENTMONTHNAME}}}} means the same as {{CURRENTMONTHNAMEGEN}}. Templates The MediaWiki software used by Wikipedia has support for templates. This means standardized text chunks (such as boilerplate text), can be inserted into articles. For example, typing will appear as "This article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it." when the page is saved. See Template messages for the complete list. Other commonly used templates are: for disambiguation pages and like an article stub but for a section. There are many subject-specific stubs for example: , , and . For a complete list of stubs see Stub types. More information on editing wiki pages You may also want to learn about: Getting started Starting an article Policies and guidelines Helpful tips Contributing to Wikipedia FAQ/Editing Cheatsheet If you have problems editing a long article Naming and moving Moving a page Naming conventions Namespace Style and layout Layout Manual of Style Annotated article Tools Text editor support See also WikiProjects, if you are writing an article about something that belongs to a group of objects, check here first! be-x-old:Вікіпэдыя:Як рэдагаваць існуючы артыкул | Help:Editing |@lemmatized wikipedia:51 wiki:31 mean:3 anyone:1 easily:1 edit:51 unprotected:1 page:94 save:8 change:12 immediately:2 make:8 alteration:1 visible:4 every:1 reader:2 even:2 need:6 register:2 first:9 editor:7 note:5 use:58 sandbox:2 experiment:1 introduction:2 easy:2 simply:1 click:6 tab:3 top:3 section:20 link:120 bring:1 new:10 text:46 box:5 contain:6 editable:1 original:1 add:13 information:4 please:4 provide:4 reference:3 unreferenced:1 fact:1 subject:5 removal:1 finish:1 write:2 short:1 summary:2 small:9 field:1 may:7 shorthand:1 describe:2 legend:1 see:38 look:8 edits:10 press:4 show:8 preview:2 button:3 difference:3 previous:4 version:6 satisfy:1 bold:7 user:17 command:1 also:22 discussion:3 corresponding:1 talk:7 comment:16 start:4 way:8 article:38 remember:1 sign:8 message:2 special:20 purpose:1 project:2 four:4 tilde:9 regular:2 history:5 mediawiki:3 software:3 automatically:8 keep:1 track:1 minor:5 check:3 signifies:1 superficial:1 exist:5 typo:1 correction:1 format:12 presentational:1 rearranging:1 without:10 modify:1 content:5 etc:1 believe:1 require:1 review:2 could:1 never:2 dispute:1 option:4 one:9 several:2 available:3 major:7 encourage:2 thing:2 ensure:3 perform:2 smoothly:1 engage:1 consider:1 discuss:1 propose:1 extended:4 period:1 inuse:1 tag:16 reduce:1 likelihood:2 conflict:1 complete:4 inclusion:1 assist:1 document:1 step:1 help:9 well:4 receive:1 community:1 confirm:1 consensual:1 concern:1 therefore:1 affect:1 meaning:2 single:1 word:4 necessary:1 term:2 agree:1 recommendation:1 become:1 best:2 practice:1 reedited:1 high:1 occasionally:1 browser:5 crash:2 large:1 suggest:1 copy:1 code:11 work:3 place:10 preferably:1 notepad:1 periodically:1 case:5 lose:1 good:2 idea:1 substantial:1 amount:1 additional:2 markup:21 syntax:6 system:1 detail:2 wikitext:2 example:16 longer:1 list:10 possibility:1 urls:2 anchor:1 element:2 allow:2 follow:4 instead:5 http:8 isbn:7 rfc:7 table:12 rename:3 blend:4 create:7 navigation:2 redirect:9 wikimedia:5 linklinked:1 categorize:4 category:9 external:9 book:3 source:9 number:9 medium:6 likewhat:2 typelondon:1 public:8 transport:5 another:14 internally:1 letter:1 target:3 capitalize:1 space:11 represent:1 underscore:2 type:7 effect:2 recommended:1 thus:1 url:11 en:5 org:7 name:16 canonicalization:1 london:1 san:4 francisco:4 transportation:3 renamed:1 different:2 pip:2 must:5 display:9 second:3 examples:1 include:9 bus:2 taxicab:2 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5,541 | Icosahedron | In geometry, an icosahedron (, from eikosi twenty + hedron seat; ; plural: -drons, -dra ) is any polyhedron having 20 faces, but usually a regular icosahedron is implied, which has equilateral triangles as faces. The regular icosahedron is one of the five Platonic solids. It is a convex regular polyhedron composed of twenty triangular faces, with five meeting at each of the twelve vertices. It has 30 edges and 12 vertices. Its dual polyhedron is the dodecahedron. Dimensions If the edge length of a regular icosahedron is , the radius of a circumscribed sphere (one that touches the icosahedron at all vertices) is and the radius of an inscribed sphere (tangent to each of the icosahedron's faces) is while the midradius, which touches the middle of each edge, is where (also called ) is the golden ratio. Area and volume The surface area A and the volume V of a regular icosahedron of edge length a are: . Cartesian coordinates Golden rectangles in an icosahedron The following Cartesian coordinates define the vertices of an icosahedron with edge-length 2, centered at the origin: (0, ±1, ±φ) (±1, ±φ, 0) (±φ, 0, ±1) where φ = (1+√5)/2 is the golden ratio (also written τ). Note that these vertices form five sets of three concentric, mutually orthogonal golden rectangles, whose edges form Borromean rings. The 12 edges of a regular octahedron can be partitioned in the golden ratio so that the resulting vertices define a regular icosahedron. This is done by first placing vectors along the octahedron's edges such that each face is bounded by a cycle, then similarly partitioning each edge into the golden mean along the direction of its vector. The five octahedra defining any given icosahedron form a regular polyhedral compound, as do the two icosahedra that can be defined in this way from any given octahedron. Construction by a system of equiangular lines The following construction of the icosahedron avoids tedious computations in the number field necessary in more elementary approaches. Existence of the icosahedron amounts to the existence of six equiangular lines in . Indeed, intersecting such a system of equiangular lines with an Euclidean sphere centered at their common intersection yields the twelve vertices of a regular icosahedron as can easily be checked. Conversely, supposing the existence of a regular icosahedron, lines defined by its six pairs of opposite vertices form an equiangular system. In order to construct such an equiangular system, we start with this square matrix: A straightforward computation yields . This implies that has eigenvalues and , both with multiplicity 3 since is symmetric and of trace zero. The matrix induces thus an Euclidean structure on the quotient space which is isomorphic to since the kernel of has dimension 3. The image under the projection of the six coordinate axes in forms thus a system of six equiangular lines in intersecting pairwise at a common acute angle of . Orthogonal projection of onto the -eigenspace of yields thus the twelve vertices of the icosahedron. A second straightforward construction of the icosahedron uses representation theory of the alternating group acting by direct isometries on the icosahedron. Stellations According to specific rules defined in the book The fifty nine icosahedra, 59 stellations were identified for the regular icosahedron. The first form is the icosahedron itself. One is a regular Kepler-Poinsot solid. Three are regular compound polyhedra. (1st Edn University of Toronto (1938)) + 21 of 59 stellationsThe faces of the icosahedron extended outwards as planes intersect, defining regions in space as shown by this stellation diagram of the intersections in a single plane. Geometric relations Icosahedron as a snub tetrahedron.Image:CDW hole.pngImage:CDW 3.pngImage:CDW hole.pngImage:CDW 3.pngImage:CDW hole.pngIcosahedron as an alternated truncated octahedron.Image:CDW dot.pngImage:CDW 4.pngImage:CDW hole.pngImage:CDW 3.pngImage:CDW hole.png There are distortions of the icosahedron that, while no longer regular, are nevertheless vertex-uniform. These are invariant under the same rotations as the tetrahedron, and are somewhat analogous to the snub cube and snub dodecahedron, including some forms which are chiral and some with Th-symmetry, i.e. have different planes of symmetry from the tetrahedron. The icosahedron has a large number of stellations, including one of the Kepler-Poinsot polyhedra and some of the regular compounds, which could be discussed here. The icosahedron is unique among the Platonic solids in possessing a dihedral angle not less than 120°. Its dihedral angle is approximately 138.19°. Thus, just as hexagons have angles not less than 120° and cannot be used as the faces of a convex regular polyhedron because such a construction would not meet the requirement that at least three faces meet at a vertex and leave a positive defect for folding in three dimensions, icosahedra cannot be used as the cells of a convex regular polychoron because, similarly, at least three cells must meet at an edge and leave a positive defect for folding in four dimensions (in general for a convex polytope in n dimensions, at least three facets must meet at a peak and leave a positive defect for folding in n-space). However, when combined with suitable cells having smaller dihedral angles, icosahedra can be used as cells in semi-regular polychora (for example the snub 24-cell), just as hexagons can be used as faces in semi-regular polyhedra (for example the truncated icosahedron). Finally, non-convex polytopes do not carry the same strict requirements as convex polytopes, and icosahedra are indeed the cells of the icosahedral 120-cell, one of the ten non-convex regular polychora. An icosahedron can also be called a gyroelongated pentagonal bipyramid. It can be decomposed into a gyroelongated pentagonal pyramid and a pentagonal pyramid or into a pentagonal antiprism and two equal pentagonal pyramids. The icosahedron can also be called a snub tetrahedron, as snubification of a regular tetrahedron gives a regular icosahedron. Alternatively, using the nomenclature for snub polyhedra that refers to a snub cube as a snub cuboctahedron (cuboctahedron = rectified cube) and a snub dodecahedron as a snub icosidodecahedron (icosidodecahedron = rectified dodecahedron), one may call the icosahedron the snub octahedron (octahedron = rectified tetrahedron). A rectified icosahedron forms an icosidodecahedron. Icosahedron vs dodecahedron When an icosahedron is inscribed in a sphere, it occupies less of the sphere's volume (60.54%) than a dodecahedron inscribed in the same sphere (66.49%). Also, as these are duals, it is possible to transform one into the other(See below). Icosahedron Truncated icosahedron Icosidodecahedron Truncated dodecahedron Dodecahedron Uses and natural forms thumb | Electron micrograph of Herpes simplex virus. Many viruses, e.g. herpes virus, have the shape of an icosahedron. Viral structures are built of repeated identical protein subunits and the icosahedron is the easiest shape to assemble using these subunits. A regular polyhedron is used because it can be built from a single basic unit protein used over and over again; this saves space in the viral genome. In 1904, Ernst Haeckel described a number of species of Radiolaria, including Circogonia icosahedra, whose skeleton is shaped like a regular icosahedron. A copy of Haeckel's illustration for this radiolarian appears in the article on regular polyhedra. thumb | Twenty-sided die. In some roleplaying games, the twenty-sided die (for short, d20) is used in determining success or failure of an action. This die is in the form of a regular icosahedron. It may be numbered from "0" to "9" twice (in which form it usually serves as a ten-sided die, or d10), but most modern versions are labeled from "1" to "20". See d20 System. An icosahedron is the three-dimensional game board for Icosagame, formerly known as the Ico Crystal Game. An icosahedron is used in the board game Scattergories to choose a letter of the alphabet. Six little-used letters, such as X, Q, and Z, are omitted. Inside a Magic 8-Ball, various answers to yes-no questions are printed on a regular icosahedron. The icosahedron displayed in a functional form is seen in the Sol de la Flor light shade. The rosette formed by the overlapping pieces show a resemblance to the Frangipani flower. If each edge of an icosahedron is replaced by a one ohm resistor, the resistance between opposite vertices is 0.5 ohms, and that between adjacent vertices 11/30 ohms. The symmetry group of the icosahedron is isomorphic to the alternating group on five letters. This nonabelian simple group is the only nontrivial normal subgroup of the symmetric group on five letters. Since the Galois group of the general quintic equation is isomorphic to the symmetric group on five letters, and the fact that the icosahedral group is simple and nonabelian means that quintic equations need not have a solution in radicals. The proof of the Abel-Ruffini theorem uses this simple fact, and Felix Klein wrote a book that made use of the theory of icosahedral symmetries to derive an analytical solution to the general quintic equation. See also Truncated icosahedron Regular polyhedron Geodesic grids use an iteratively bisected icosahedron to generate grids on a sphere Jessen's icosahedron References External links Paper models of the icosahedron The Uniform Polyhedra K.J.M. MacLean, A Geometric Analysis of the Five Platonic Solids and Other Semi-Regular Polyhedra Interactive Icosahedron model - works right in your web browser Virtual Reality Polyhedra The Encyclopedia of Polyhedra Tulane.edu A discussion of viral structure and the icosahedron Paper Models of Polyhedra Many links Origami Polyhedra - Models made with Modular Origami video of icosahedral mirror sculpture | Icosahedron |@lemmatized geometry:1 icosahedron:57 eikosi:1 twenty:4 hedron:1 seat:1 plural:1 drons:1 dra:1 polyhedron:14 face:9 usually:2 regular:29 imply:2 equilateral:1 triangle:1 one:8 five:8 platonic:3 solid:4 convex:7 compose:1 triangular:1 meeting:1 twelve:3 vertex:13 edge:11 dual:1 dodecahedron:8 dimension:5 length:3 radius:2 circumscribed:1 sphere:7 touch:2 inscribed:2 tangent:1 midradius:1 middle:1 also:6 call:4 golden:6 ratio:3 area:2 volume:3 surface:1 v:2 cartesian:2 coordinate:3 rectangle:2 following:2 define:7 center:2 origin:1 φ:4 write:2 τ:1 note:1 form:13 set:1 three:7 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5,542 | Anus | Diagram of rectum and anus. The anus is an opening at the opposite end of an animal's digestive tract from the mouth. Its function is to expel feces, unwanted semi-solid matter produced during digestion, which, depending on the type of animal, may be one or more of: matter which the animal cannot digest, such as bones; Summary at food material after all the nutrients have been extracted, for example cellulose or lignin; ingested matter which would be toxic if it remained in the digestive tract; and dead or excess gut bacteria and other endosymbionts. Amphibians, reptiles, and birds use the same orifice for excreting liquid and solid wastes, and for copulation and egg-laying; this orifice is known as the cloaca. Monotreme mammals also have a cloaca, which is thought to be a feature inherited from the earliest amniotes via the therapsids. Marsupials have two nether orifices: one for excreting both solids and liquids; the other for reproduction, which appears as a vagina in females and a penis in males. Female placental mammals have completely separate orifices for defecation, urination, and reproduction; males have one opening for defecation and another for both urination and reproduction, although the channels flowing to that orifice are almost completely separate. The development of the anus was an important stage in the evolution of multicellular animals. In fact it appears to have happened at least twice, following different paths in protostomes and deuterostomes. This accompanied or facilitated other important evolutionary developments: the bilaterian body plan; the coelom, an internal cavity that provided space for a circulatory system and, in some animals, formed a hydrostatic skeleton which enables worm-like animals to burrow; metamerism, in which the body was built of repeated "modules" which could later specialize, for example the heads of most arthropods are composed of fused, specialized segments. Development In animals at least as complex as an earthworm, the embryo forms a dent on one side, the blastopore, which deepens to become the archenteron, the first phase in the growth of the gut. In deuterostomes, the original dent becomes the anus while the gut eventually tunnels through to make another opening, which forms the mouth. The protostomes were so named because it used to be thought that in their embryos the dent formed the mouth while the anus was formed later, at the opening made by the other end of the gut. More recent research, however, shows that in protostomes the edges of the dent close up in the middle, leaving openings at the ends which become the mouth and anus. Physiology Flow of substance through the anus is typically controlled by the anal sphincter muscle. Notes | Anus |@lemmatized diagram:1 rectum:1 anus:7 opening:5 opposite:1 end:3 animal:7 digestive:2 tract:2 mouth:4 function:1 expel:1 feces:1 unwanted:1 semi:1 solid:3 matter:3 produce:1 digestion:1 depend:1 type:1 may:1 one:4 cannot:1 digest:1 bone:1 summary:1 food:1 material:1 nutrient:1 extract:1 example:2 cellulose:1 lignin:1 ingest:1 would:1 toxic:1 remain:1 dead:1 excess:1 gut:4 bacteria:1 endosymbionts:1 amphibian:1 reptile:1 bird:1 use:2 orifice:5 excrete:2 liquid:2 waste:1 copulation:1 egg:1 laying:1 know:1 cloaca:2 monotreme:1 mammal:2 also:1 think:2 feature:1 inherit:1 early:1 amniote:1 via:1 therapsid:1 marsupial:1 two:1 nether:1 reproduction:3 appear:2 vagina:1 female:2 penis:1 male:2 placental:1 completely:2 separate:2 defecation:2 urination:2 another:2 although:1 channel:1 flow:2 almost:1 development:3 important:2 stage:1 evolution:1 multicellular:1 fact:1 happen:1 least:2 twice:1 follow:1 different:1 path:1 protostomes:3 deuterostomes:2 accompany:1 facilitate:1 evolutionary:1 bilaterian:1 body:2 plan:1 coelom:1 internal:1 cavity:1 provide:1 space:1 circulatory:1 system:1 form:5 hydrostatic:1 skeleton:1 enable:1 worm:1 like:1 burrow:1 metamerism:1 build:1 repeat:1 module:1 could:1 later:2 specialize:1 head:1 arthropod:1 compose:1 fused:1 specialized:1 segment:1 complex:1 earthworm:1 embryo:2 dent:4 side:1 blastopore:1 deepen:1 become:3 archenteron:1 first:1 phase:1 growth:1 original:1 eventually:1 tunnel:1 make:2 name:1 recent:1 research:1 however:1 show:1 edge:1 close:1 middle:1 leave:1 physiology:1 substance:1 typically:1 control:1 anal:1 sphincter:1 muscle:1 note:1 |@bigram digestive_tract:2 cellulose_lignin:1 amphibian_reptile:1 egg_laying:1 male_female:1 placental_mammal:1 anal_sphincter:1 |
5,543 | Muslim | <noinclude>: Muslims are found throughout various parts of the world including the People's Republic of China A Muslim (), , is an adherent of the religion of Islam. The feminine form is Muslimah WordNet Search - 3.0 (). Literally, the word means "one who submits (to God)". Muslim is the participle of the same verb of which Islam is the infinitive. Burns & Ralph, World Civilizations, 5th ed., p. 371 Muslims believe that there is only one God, translated in Arabic as Allah. Muslims believe that Islam existed long before Muhammad and that the religion had evolved with time from the time of Adam until the time of Muhammad and was completed with the revelation of verse 3 of Surah al-Maeda:This day have I perfected your religion for you, completed My favour upon you, and have chosen for you Islam as your religion.The Qur'an describes many Biblical prophets and messengers as Muslim: Adam, Noah (Arabic: Nuh), Moses and Jesus and his apostles. The Qur'an states that these men were Muslims because they submitted to God, preached his message and upheld his values. Thus, in Surah 3:52 of the Qur'an, Jesus’ disciples tell Jesus, "We believe in God; and you be our witness that we submit and obey (wa ashahadu bil-muslimūna)." Muslims consider making ritual prayer five times a day a religious duty (fard) (see the section on Ismāˤīlīs below for exceptions); these five prayers are known as fajr, dhuhr, ˤasr, maghrib and ˤishā'. There is also a special Friday prayer called jumuˤah. Currently, the number of Muslims is estimated to be between 1.25 and 1.84 billion. Etymology Arabic muslimun is the stem IV participle also known as "infinitive", c.f. Burns & Ralph, World Civilizations, 5th ed., p. 371 of the triliteral S-L-M "to be whole, intact". A literal translation would be "one who wants or seeks wholeness", where "wholeness" translates islāmun. In a religious sense, Al-Islām translates to "faith, piety", and Muslim to "one who has (religious) faith or piety". The feminine form of muslimun is muslimatun (). Other words for Muslim The ordinary word in English is "Muslim", pronounced /'mʊs.lɪm/ or /'mʌz.ləm/. The word is pronounced /'mʊslɪm/ in Arabic. It is sometimes transliterated "Moslem", which some regard as offensive. http://www.communities.gov.uk/publications/communities/cohesionreportingdiversity Reporting Diversity guide for journalists Until at least the mid-1960s, many English-language writers used the term Mohammedans or Mahometans. See for instance the second edition of A Dictionary of Modern English Usage by H. W. Fowler, revised by Ernest Gowers (Oxford, 1965)). Muslims argue that the terms are offensive because they allegedly imply that Muslims worship Muhammad rather than God. English writers of the 19th century and earlier sometimes used the words Mussulman, Musselman, or Mussulmaun. Variant forms of this word are still used by many Indo-European languages. These words are similar to the Turkish, Bosnian, Kurdish, Persian, French, Russian, Spanish, Italian, Hindi and Portuguese words for "Muslim". Islam Most Muslims accept as a Muslim anyone who has publicly pronounced the Shahadah (declaration of faith) which states, Ash-hadu an laa ilaha illa-lah Wa ash-hadu anna Muhammadan rasulullah "I bear witness there is no deity worthy of worship except Allah and I bear witness, Muhammad is His final messenger". Currently, there are between one and two billion Muslims, making it the second largest religion in the world. Teece (2003), p.10 Muslim and mu'min One of the verses in the Qur'an makes a distinction between a mu'min, a believer, and a Muslim: The Arabs of the desert say, "We believe." (tu/minu) Say thou: Ye believe not; but rather say, "We profess Islam;" (aslamna) for the faith (al-imanu) hath not yet found its way into your hearts. But if ye obey [God] and His Apostle, he will not allow you to lose any of your actions: for [God] is Indulgent, Merciful ('The Koran 49:14, Rodwell). According to the academician Carl Ernst, contemporary usage of the terms "Islam" and "Muslim" for the faith and its adherents is a modern innovation. As shown in the Quranic passage cited above, early Muslims distinguished between the Muslim, who has "submitted" and does the bare minimum required to be considered a part of the community, and the mu'min, the believer, who has given himself or herself to the faith heart and soul. Ernst writes: "The Arabic term Islam itself was of relatively minor importance in classical theologies based on the Qur'an. If one looks at the works of theologians such as the famous al-Ghazali (d. 1111), the key term of religious identity is not Islam but iman (faith), and the one who possesses it is the mu'min (believer). Faith is one of the major topics of the Qur'an; it is mentioned hundreds of times in the sacred text. In comparison, Islam is a relatively less common term of secondary importance; it only occurs eight times in the Qur'an. Since, however, the term Islam'' had a derivative meaning relating to the community of those who have submitted to God, it has taken on a new political significance, especially in recent history." Ernst, Carl, Following Muhammad, University of North Carolina Press, 2003, p. 63 For another term in Islam for a non-Muslim who is a monotheist believer (usually applied historically in a pre-Islamic context), see hanif. See also Demographics of Islam Allah Hadith Islam Islam by country List of Muslims Muhammad Muslim World Mussulman Qur'an Ramadan Sahih Muslim References External links Islamic directory for Muslims Find Muslim Owned businesses, Masjids (Mosques) and Islamic Centers all over the world. Variety of Islamic Softwares for Muslims Quran, Hadith and Athan (Azan) with Prayer times on Ms Windows and Mobile Phones. Muslim Population in Countries with different Alphabets Giving Zakath indispensable in completing fasting | Muslim |@lemmatized noinclude:1 muslim:29 find:3 throughout:1 various:1 part:2 world:6 include:1 people:1 republic:1 china:1 adherent:2 religion:5 islam:15 feminine:2 form:3 muslimah:1 wordnet:1 search:1 literally:1 word:8 mean:1 one:9 submit:5 god:8 participle:2 verb:1 infinitive:2 burn:2 ralph:2 civilization:2 ed:2 p:4 believe:5 translate:3 arabic:5 allah:3 exist:1 long:1 muhammad:6 evolve:1 time:7 adam:2 complete:3 revelation:1 verse:2 surah:2 al:4 maeda:1 day:2 perfect:1 favour:1 upon:1 choose:1 qur:8 describes:1 many:3 biblical:1 prophet:1 messenger:2 noah:1 nuh:1 moses:1 jesus:3 apostle:2 state:2 men:1 preach:1 message:1 uphold:1 value:1 thus:1 disciple:1 tell:1 witness:3 obey:2 wa:2 ashahadu:1 bil:1 muslimūna:1 muslims:2 consider:2 make:3 ritual:1 prayer:4 five:2 religious:4 duty:1 fard:1 see:4 section:1 ismāˤīlīs:1 exception:1 know:2 fajr:1 dhuhr:1 ˤasr:1 maghrib:1 ˤishā:1 also:3 special:1 friday:1 call:1 jumuˤah:1 currently:2 number:1 estimate:1 billion:2 etymology:1 muslimun:2 stem:1 iv:1 c:1 f:1 triliteral:1 l:1 whole:1 intact:1 literal:1 translation:1 would:1 want:1 seek:1 wholeness:2 islāmun:1 sense:1 islām:1 faith:8 piety:2 muslimatun:1 ordinary:1 english:4 pronounce:3 mʊs:1 lɪm:1 mʌz:1 ləm:1 mʊslɪm:1 sometimes:2 transliterated:1 moslem:1 regard:1 offensive:2 http:1 www:1 community:4 gov:1 uk:1 publication:1 cohesionreportingdiversity:1 reporting:1 diversity:1 guide:1 journalist:1 least:1 mid:1 language:2 writer:2 use:3 term:8 mohammedans:1 mahometans:1 instance:1 second:2 edition:1 dictionary:1 modern:2 usage:2 h:1 w:1 fowler:1 revise:1 ernest:1 gowers:1 oxford:1 argue:1 allegedly:1 imply:1 worship:2 rather:2 century:1 early:2 mussulman:2 musselman:1 mussulmaun:1 variant:1 still:1 indo:1 european:1 similar:1 turkish:1 bosnian:1 kurdish:1 persian:1 french:1 russian:1 spanish:1 italian:1 hindi:1 portuguese:1 accept:1 anyone:1 publicly:1 shahadah:1 declaration:1 ash:2 hadu:2 laa:1 ilaha:1 illa:1 lah:1 anna:1 muhammadan:1 rasulullah:1 bear:2 deity:1 worthy:1 except:1 final:1 two:1 large:1 teece:1 mu:4 min:4 distinction:1 believer:4 arab:1 desert:1 say:3 tu:1 minu:1 thou:1 ye:2 profess:1 aslamna:1 imanu:1 hath:1 yet:1 way:1 heart:2 allow:1 lose:1 action:1 indulgent:1 merciful:1 koran:1 rodwell:1 accord:1 academician:1 carl:2 ernst:3 contemporary:1 innovation:1 show:1 quranic:1 passage:1 cite:1 distinguish:1 bare:1 minimum:1 require:1 give:2 soul:1 write:1 relatively:2 minor:1 importance:2 classical:1 theology:1 base:1 look:1 work:1 theologian:1 famous:1 ghazali:1 key:1 identity:1 iman:1 possess:1 major:1 topic:1 mention:1 hundred:1 sacred:1 text:1 comparison:1 less:1 common:1 secondary:1 occur:1 eight:1 since:1 however:1 derivative:1 meaning:1 relate:1 take:1 new:1 political:1 significance:1 especially:1 recent:1 history:1 follow:1 university:1 north:1 carolina:1 press:1 another:1 non:1 monotheist:1 usually:1 apply:1 historically:1 pre:1 islamic:4 context:1 hanif:1 demographic:1 hadith:2 country:2 list:1 ramadan:1 sahih:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 directory:1 business:1 masjid:1 mosque:1 center:1 variety:1 software:1 quran:1 athan:1 azan:1 window:1 mobile:1 phone:1 population:1 different:1 alphabet:1 zakath:1 indispensable:1 fasting:1 |@bigram wordnet_search:1 literal_translation:1 http_www:1 indo_european:1 verse_qur:1 bare_minimum:1 al_ghazali:1 north_carolina:1 sahih_muslim:1 external_link:1 mobile_phone:1 |
5,544 | Burnt-in_timecode | Color bars with burnt-in timecode Burnt-in timecode (often abbreviated to BITC by analogy to VITC) is a human-readable on-screen version of the timecode information for a piece of material superimposed on a video image. BITC is sometimes used in conjunction with "real" machine-readable timecode, but more often used in copies of original material on to a non-broadcast format such as VHS, so that the VHS copies can be traced back to their master tape and the original time codes easily located. Many professional VTRs can "burn" (overlay) the tape timecode onto one of their composite outputs. This output (which usually also displays the setup menu or on-screen display) is known as the super out or monitor out. The character switch or menu item turns this behaviour on or off. The character function is also used to display the timecode on the preview monitors in linear editing suites. Videotapes that are recorded with timecode numbers overlaid on the video are referred to as window dubs, named after the "window" that displays the burnt-in timecode on-screen. Timecode can also be superimposed on video using a dedicated overlay device, often called a "window dub inserter". This inputs a video signal and its separate timecode audio signal, reads the timecode, superimposes the timecode display over the video, and outputs the combined display (usually via composite), all in real time. Stand-alone timecode generator / readers often have the window dub function built-in. Some consumer cameras, in particular DV cameras, can "burn" (overlay) the tape timecode onto the composite output. This output typically is semi-transparent and may include other tape information. It is usually activated by turning on the 'display' info in one of the camera's sub-menus. While not as 'professional' as an overlay as created by a professional VCRs, it is a cheap alternative that is just as accurate. Timecode is stored in the metadata areas of captured DV AVI files, and some software is able to "burn" (overlay) this into the video frames. For example, DVMP Pro DVMP Pro - Software for burning in timecode and other items of metadata for DV AVI files. is able to "burn" timecode or other items of DV metadata (such as date and time, iris, shutter speed, gain, white balance mode etc) into DV AVI files. Some modern editing systems can use OCR techniques to read BITC in situations where other forms of timecode are not available. See also Linear timecode Vertical interval timecode SMPTE time code MIDI timecode CTL timecode AES-EBU embedded timecode Rewritable consumer timecode References | Burnt-in_timecode |@lemmatized color:1 bar:1 burnt:3 timecode:24 often:4 abbreviate:1 bitc:3 analogy:1 vitc:1 human:1 readable:2 screen:3 version:1 information:2 piece:1 material:2 superimpose:3 video:6 image:1 sometimes:1 use:5 conjunction:1 real:2 machine:1 copy:2 original:2 non:1 broadcast:1 format:1 vhs:2 trace:1 back:1 master:1 tape:4 time:4 code:2 easily:1 locate:1 many:1 professional:3 vtrs:1 burn:5 overlay:6 onto:2 one:2 composite:3 output:5 usually:3 also:4 display:7 setup:1 menu:3 know:1 super:1 monitor:2 character:2 switch:1 item:3 turn:2 behaviour:1 function:2 preview:1 linear:2 edit:2 suite:1 videotape:1 record:1 number:1 refer:1 window:4 dub:3 name:1 dedicated:1 device:1 call:1 inserter:1 input:1 signal:2 separate:1 audio:1 read:2 combined:1 via:1 stand:1 alone:1 generator:1 reader:1 build:1 consumer:2 camera:3 particular:1 dv:5 typically:1 semi:1 transparent:1 may:1 include:1 activate:1 info:1 sub:1 create:1 vcr:1 cheap:1 alternative:1 accurate:1 store:1 metadata:3 area:1 captured:1 avi:3 file:3 software:2 able:2 frame:1 example:1 dvmp:2 pro:2 date:1 iris:1 shutter:1 speed:1 gain:1 white:1 balance:1 mode:1 etc:1 modern:1 system:1 ocr:1 technique:1 situation:1 form:1 available:1 see:1 vertical:1 interval:1 smpte:1 midi:1 ctl:1 aes:1 ebu:1 embed:1 rewritable:1 reference:1 |@bigram dv_camera:1 midi_timecode:1 |
5,545 | Beatmatching | Beatmatching is a disc jockey technique of pitch shifting or timestretching a track to match its tempo to that of the currently playing track i.e. the kicks and snares in two house records hit at the same time when both records are played simultaneously. Beatmatching is a component of Mixing which employs beatmatching combined with equalization, attention to phrasing and track selection in an attempt to make a single mix that flows together and has a meta structure. The technique was developed to keep the people from leaving the dancefloor at the end of the song. These days it is considered basic among DJs in electronic dance music genres, and it is standard practice in clubs to keep the constant beat through the night, even if DJs change in the middle. Beatmatching is no longer considered as a novelty, and new digital mixers have made the technique much easier to master. Technique The beatmatching technique consists of the following steps: While a record is playing, beatmatch a new record to it, using headphones for monitoring. Use gain (or trim) control on the mixer to match the levels of the two records. Restart and slip-cue the new record at the right time. Pay attention to track structures; careful phrasing can make the mix seamless. Before fading in the new track, check that the beats of two tracks match by listening to both channels together in the headphones, as the sound from the speakers can reach you with a delay. Gradually, fade in parts of the new track while fading out the old track. While in the mix, ensure that the tracks are still synchronized, adjusting the records if needed. Pitch and tempo The pitch and tempo of a track are normally linked together: spin a disc 5% faster and both pitch and tempo will be 5% higher. However, some modern DJ software can change pitch and tempo independently using time-stretching and pitch-shifting, allowing harmonic mixing. This technique is referred to as beatmatching. History Beatmatching was invented by Francis Grasso in the late 1960s and early 1970s. Initially he was counting the tempo with a metronome and looking for records with the same tempo. Later a mixer was built for him by Alex Rosner which let him listen to any channel in the headphones independently of what was playing on the speakers; this became the defining feature of DJ mixers. That and turntables with pitch control enabled him to mix tracks with different tempo by changing the pitch of the cued (redirected to headphones) track to match its tempo with the track being played by ear. Essentially, the technique he originated hasn't changed since. These days beatmatching is considered central to DJing, and features making it possible are a requirement for DJ-oriented players. In 1978, the Technics SL-1200MK2 turntable was released, whose comfortable and precise sliding pitch control and high torque direct drive motor made beatmatching easier and it became the standard among DJs. With the advent of the compact disc, DJ-oriented Compact Disc players with pitch control and other features enabling beatmatching (and sometimes scratching), dubbed CDJs, were introduced by various companies. More recently, software with similar capabilities has been developed to allow manipulation of digital audio files stored on computers using turntables with special vinyl records (e.g. Final Scratch, M-Audio Torq, Serato Scratch Live) or computer interface (e.g. Traktor DJ Studio, Mixxx, Virtual Dj). Other software including algorithmic beatmatching is Ableton Live, which allows for realtime music manipulation and deconstruction, or Mixmeister, a DJ Mixset creation tool. Freeware software such as Rapid Evolution can detect the beats per minute and determine the percent BPM difference between songs. The change from pure hardware to software is on the rise, and big DJs are introducing new equipment to their kits such as the laptop, and dropping the difficulty of carrying hundreds of CDs with them. The creation of the mp3-player allowed DJs to have an alternative tool for DJIng. Limitations with mp3-player DJing equipment has meant that only second generation equipment such as the IDJ2 or the Cortex Dmix-300 have the pitch control that alters tempo and allows for beatmatching on a digital music player. However, recent additions to the Pioneer CDJ family, such as the CDJ-400, allow mp3-player and other digital storage devices (such as external hard drives and USB memory sticks) to be connected to the CDJ device via USB. This allows the DJ to make use of the beatmatching capabilities of the CDJ unit whilst playing digital music files from the mp3-player or other storage device. References See also Harmonic mixing Beatmixing Segue | Beatmatching |@lemmatized beatmatching:13 disc:4 jockey:1 technique:7 pitch:11 shifting:2 timestretching:1 track:13 match:4 tempo:10 currently:1 play:6 e:3 kick:1 snare:1 two:3 house:1 record:9 hit:1 time:3 simultaneously:1 component:1 mix:6 employ:1 combine:1 equalization:1 attention:2 phrasing:2 selection:1 attempt:1 make:6 single:1 flow:1 together:3 meta:1 structure:2 develop:2 keep:2 people:1 leave:1 dancefloor:1 end:1 song:2 day:2 consider:3 basic:1 among:2 dj:15 electronic:1 dance:1 music:4 genre:1 standard:2 practice:1 club:1 constant:1 beat:3 night:1 even:1 djs:1 change:5 middle:1 longer:1 novelty:1 new:6 digital:5 mixer:4 much:1 easy:2 master:1 consist:1 following:1 step:1 beatmatch:1 use:5 headphone:4 monitoring:1 gain:1 trim:1 control:5 level:1 restart:1 slip:1 cue:1 right:1 pay:1 careful:1 seamless:1 fade:3 check:1 listen:2 channel:2 sound:1 speaker:2 reach:1 delay:1 gradually:1 part:1 old:1 ensure:1 still:1 synchronize:1 adjust:1 need:1 normally:1 link:1 spin:1 faster:1 high:2 however:2 modern:1 software:5 independently:2 stretching:1 allow:7 harmonic:2 mixing:1 refer:1 history:1 invent:1 francis:1 grasso:1 late:1 early:1 initially:1 count:1 metronome:1 look:1 later:1 build:1 alex:1 rosner:1 let:1 become:2 define:1 feature:3 turntable:3 enable:2 different:1 cued:1 redirect:1 ear:1 essentially:1 originate:1 since:1 central:1 possible:1 requirement:1 orient:2 player:7 technics:1 sl:1 release:1 whose:1 comfortable:1 precise:1 slide:1 torque:1 direct:1 drive:2 motor:1 advent:1 compact:2 sometimes:1 scratch:3 dub:1 cdjs:1 introduce:2 various:1 company:1 recently:1 similar:1 capability:2 manipulation:2 audio:2 file:2 store:1 computer:2 special:1 vinyl:1 g:2 final:1 torq:1 serato:1 live:2 interface:1 traktor:1 studio:1 mixxx:1 virtual:1 include:1 algorithmic:1 ableton:1 realtime:1 deconstruction:1 mixmeister:1 mixset:1 creation:2 tool:2 freeware:1 rapid:1 evolution:1 detect:1 per:1 minute:1 determine:1 percent:1 bpm:1 difference:1 pure:1 hardware:1 rise:1 big:1 equipment:3 kit:1 laptop:1 drop:1 difficulty:1 carry:1 hundred:1 cd:1 alternative:1 limitation:1 mean:1 second:1 generation:1 cortex:1 dmix:1 alters:1 recent:1 addition:1 pioneer:1 cdj:4 family:1 storage:2 device:3 external:1 hard:1 usb:2 memory:1 stick:1 connect:1 via:1 unit:1 whilst:1 reference:1 see:1 also:1 beatmixing:1 segue:1 |@bigram disc_jockey:1 compact_disc:2 |
5,546 | Alkane | Chemical structure of methane, the simplest alkane Alkanes, also known as paraffins, are chemical compounds that consist only of the elements carbon (C) and hydrogen (H) (i.e., hydrocarbons), wherein these atoms are linked together exclusively by single bonds (i.e., they are saturated compounds) without any cyclic structure (i.e. loops). Alkanes belong to a homologous series of organic compounds in which the members differ by a constant relative atomic mass of 14. Each carbon atom must have 4 bonds (either C-H or C-C bonds), and each hydrogen atom must be joined to a carbon atom (H-C bonds). A series of linked carbon atoms is known as the carbon skeleton or carbon backbone. In general, the number of carbon atoms is often used to define the size of the alkane (e.g., C2-alkane). An alkyl group is a functional group or side-chain that, like an alkane, consists solely of singly-bonded carbon and hydrogen atoms, for example a methyl or ethyl group. Saturated hydrocarbons can be linear (general formula CnH2n+2) wherein the carbon atoms are joined in a snake-like structure, branched (general formula CnH2n+2, n>3) wherein the carbon backbone splits off in one or more directions, or cyclic (general formula CnH2n, n>2) wherein the carbon backbone is linked so as to form a loop. According to the definition by IUPAC, the former two are alkanes, whereas the third group is called cycloalkanes. Saturated hydrocarbons can also combine any of the linear, cyclic (e.g., polycyclic) and branching structures, and they are still alkanes (no general formula) as long as they are acyclic (i.e., having no loops). The simplest possible alkane (the parent molecule) is methane, CH4. There is no limit to the number of carbon atoms that can be linked together, the only limitation being that the molecule is acyclic, is saturated, and is a hydrocarbon. Saturated oils and waxes are examples of larger alkanes where the number of carbons in the carbon backbone tends to be greater than 10. Alkanes are not very reactive and have little biological activity. Alkanes can be viewed as a molecular scaffold upon which can be hung the interesting biologically-active/reactive portions (functional groups) of the molecule. Isomerism Different C4-alkanes and -cycloalkanes (left to right): n-butane and isobutane are the two C4H10 isomers; cyclobutane and methylcyclopropane are the two C4H8 isomers; bicyclo[1.1.0]butane is the only C4H6 isomer; tetrahedrane (not shown) is the only C4H4 isomer. Alkanes with more than three carbon atoms can be arranged in a multiple number of ways, forming different structural isomers. An isomer is like a chemical anagram, in which the atoms of a chemical compound are arranged or joined together in a different order. The simplest isomer of an alkane is the one in which the carbon atoms are arranged in a single chain with no branches. This isomer is sometimes called the n-isomer (n for "normal", although it is not necessarily the most common). However the chain of carbon atoms may also be branched at one or more points. The number of possible isomers increases rapidly with the number of carbon atoms . For example: C1: 1 isomer—methane C2: 1 isomer—ethane C3: 1 isomer—propane C4: 2 isomers—n-butane, isobutane C12: 355 isomers C32: 27,711,253,769 isomers C60: 22,158,734,535,770,411,074,184 isomers, many of which are not stable. Branched alkanes can be chiral: 3-Methylhexane and its higher homologues are chiral due to their stereogenic center at carbon atom number 3. Chiral alkanes are of certain importance in biochemistry, as they occur as sidechains in chlorophyll and tocopherol (vitamin E). Chiral alkanes can be resolved into their enantiomers by enantioselective chromatography. In addition to these isomers, the chain of carbon atoms may form one or more loops. Such compounds are called cycloalkanes. Nomenclature The IUPAC nomenclature (systematic way of naming compounds) for alkanes is based on identifying hydrocarbon chains. Unbranched, saturated hydrocarbon chains are named systematically with a Greek numerical prefix denoting the number of carbons and the suffix "-ane". August Wilhelm von Hofmann suggested systematizing nomenclature by using the whole sequence of vowels a, e, i, o and u to create suffixes -ane, -ene, -ine (or -yne), -one, -une, for the hydrocarbons. The first three name hydrocarbons with single, double and triple bonds; "-one" represents a ketone; "-ol" represents an alcohol or OH group; "-oxy-" means an ether and refers to oxygen between two carbons, so that methoxy-methane is the IUPAC name for dimethyl ether. It is difficult or impossible to find compounds with more than one IUPAC name. This is because shorter chains attached to longer chains are prefixes and the convention includes brackets. Numbers in the name, referring to which carbon a group is attached to, should be as low as possible, so that 1- is implied and usually omitted from names of organic compounds with only one side-group; "1-" is implied in Nitro-octane. Symmetric compounds will have two ways of arriving at the same name. Linear alkanes Straight-chain alkanes are sometimes indicated by the prefix n- (for normal) where a non-linear isomer exists. Although this is not strictly necessary, the usage is still common in cases where there is an important difference in properties between the straight-chain and branched-chain isomers, e.g., n-hexane or 2- or 3-methylpentane. The first four members of the series (in terms of number of carbon atoms) are named as follows: methane, CH4 ethane, C2H6 propane, C3H8 butane, C4H10 These names were derived from methanol, ether, propionic acid and butyric acid, respectively. Alkanes with five or more carbon atoms are named by adding the suffix -ane to the appropriate numerical multiplier prefix with elision of any terminal vowel (-a or -o) from the basic numerical term. Hence, pentane, C5H12; hexane, C6H14; heptane, C7H16; octane, C8H18; etc. The prefix is generally Greek, with the exceptions of nonane which has a Latin prefix, and undecane and tridecane which have mixed-language prefixes. For a more complete list, see List of alkanes. Branched alkanes Ball-and-stick model of isopentane (common name) or 2-methylbutane (IUPAC systematic name) Simple branched alkanes often have a common name using a prefix to distinguish them from linear alkanes, for example n-pentane, isopentane, and neopentane. IUPAC naming conventions can be used to produce a systematic name. The key steps in the naming of more complicated branched alkanes are as follows: Identify the longest continuous chain of carbon atoms Name this longest root chain using standard naming rules Name each side chain by changing the suffix of the name of the alkane from "-ane" to "-yl" Number the root chain so that sum of the numbers assigned to each side group will be as low as possible Number and name the side chains before the name of the root chain If there are multiple side chains of the same type, use prefixes such as "di-" and "tri-" to indicate it as such, and number each one. + Comparison of nomenclatures for three isomers of C5H12 Common name n-pentane isopentane neopentane IUPAC name pentane 2-methylbutane 2,2-dimethylpropane Structure Cyclic alkanes So-called cyclic alkanes are, in the technical sense, not alkanes, but cycloalkanes. They are hydrocarbons just like alkanes, but contain one or more rings. Simple cycloalkanes have a prefix "cyclo-" to distinguish them from alkanes. Cycloalkanes are named as per their acyclic counterparts with respect to the number of carbon atoms, e.g., cyclopentane (C5H10) is a cycloalkane with 5 carbon atoms just like pentane (C5H12), but they are joined up in a five-membered ring. In a similar manner, propane and cyclopropane, butane and cyclobutane, etc. Substituted cycloalkanes are named similar to substituted alkanes — the cycloalkane ring is stated, and the substituents are according to their position on the ring, with the numbering decided by Cahn-Ingold-Prelog rules. Trivial names The trivial (non-systematic) name for alkanes is "paraffins." Together, alkanes are known as the paraffin series. Trivial names for compounds are usually historical artifacts. They were coined before the development of systematic names, and have been retained due to familiar usage in industry. Cycloalkanes are also called naphthenes. It is almost certain that the term paraffin stems from the petrochemical industry. Branched-chain alkanes are called isoparaffins. The use of the term "paraffin" is a general term and often does not distinguish between a pure compounds and mixtures of isomers with the same chemical formula (i.e., like a chemical anagram), e.g., pentane and isopentane. Examples The following trivial names are retained in the IUPAC system: isobutane for 2-methylpropane isopentane for 2-methylbutane neopentane for 2,2-dimethylpropane Occurrence Occurrence of alkanes in the Universe Methane and ethane make up a large proportion of Jupiter's atmosphere Extraction of oil, which contains many different hydrocarbons including alkanes Alkanes form a significant portion of the atmospheres of the outer gas planets such as Jupiter (0.1% methane, 0.0002% ethane), Saturn (0.2% methane, 0.0005% ethane), Uranus (1.99% methane, 0.00025% ethane) and Neptune (1.5% methane, 1.5 ppm ethane). Titan (1.6% methane), a satellite of Saturn, was examined by the Huygens probe, which indicate that Titan's atmosphere periodically rains liquid methane onto the moon's surface. Titan: Arizona in an Icebox?, Emily Lakdawalla, 2004-01-21, verified 2005-03-28 Also on Titan, a methane-spewing volcano was spotted and this volcanism is believed to be a significant source of the methane in the atmosphere. There also appear to be Methane/Ethane lakes near the north polar regions of Titan, as discovered by Cassini's radar imaging. Methane and ethane have also been detected in the tail of the comet Hyakutake. Chemical analysis showed that the abundances of ethane and methane were roughly equal, which is thought to imply that its ices formed in interstellar space, away from the Sun, which would have evaporated these volatile molecules. Alkanes have also been detected in meteorites such as carbonaceous chondrites. Occurrence of alkanes on Earth Traces of methane gas (about 0.0001% or 1 ppm) occur in the Earth's atmosphere, produced primarily by organisms such as Archaea, found for example in the gut of cows. The most important commercial sources for alkanes are natural gas and oil. Natural gas contains primarily methane and ethane, with some propane and butane: oil is a mixture of liquid alkanes and other hydrocarbons. These hydrocarbons were formed when dead marine animals and plants (zooplankton and phytoplankton) died and sank to the bottom of ancient seas and were covered with sediments in an anoxic environment and converted over many millions of years at high temperatures and high pressure to their current form. Natural gas resulted thereby for example from the following reaction: C6H12O6 → 3CH4 + 3CO2 These hydrocarbons collected in porous rocks, located beneath an impermeable cap rock and so are trapped. Unlike methane, which is constantly reformed in large quantities, higher alkanes (alkanes with 9 or more carbon atoms) rarely develop to a considerable extent in nature. These deposits, e.g., oil fields, have formed over millions of years and once exhausted cannot be readily replaced. The depletion of these hydrocarbons is the basis for what is known as the energy crisis. Solid alkanes are known as tars and are formed when more volatile alkanes such as gases and oil evaporate from hydrocarbon deposits. One of the largest natural deposits of solid alkanes is in the asphalt lake known as the Pitch Lake in Trinidad and Tobago. Methane is also present in what is called biogas, produced by animals and decaying matter, which is a possible renewable energy source. Alkanes have a low solubility in water, so the content in the oceans is negligible; however, at high pressures and low temperatures (such as at the bottom of the oceans), methane can co-crystallize with water to form a solid methane hydrate. Although this cannot be commercially exploited at the present time, the amount of combustible energy of the known methane hydrate fields exceeds the energy content of all the natural gas and oil deposits put together;methane extracted from methane hydrate is considered therefore a candidate for future fuels. Biological occurrence Although alkanes occur in nature in various way, they do not rank biologically among the essential materials. Cycloalkanes with 14 to 18 carbon atoms occur in musk, extracted from deer of the family Moschidae. All further information refers to (acyclic) alkanes. Bacteria and archaea Methanogenic archaea in the gut of this cow are responsible for some of the methane in Earth's atmosphere. Certain types of bacteria can metabolise alkanes: they prefer even-numbered carbon chains as they are easier to degrade than odd-numbered chains. On the other hand, certain archaea, the methanogens, produce large quantities of methane by the metabolism of carbon dioxide or other oxidised organic compounds. The energy is released by the oxidation of hydrogen: CO2 + 4H2 → CH4 + 2H2O Methanogens are also the producers of marsh gas in wetlands, and release about two billion tonnes of methane per year—the atmospheric content of this gas is produced nearly exclusively by them. The methane output of cattle and other herbivores, which can release up to 150 litres per day, and of termites, is also due to methanogens. They also produce this simplest of all alkanes in the intestines of humans. Methanogenic archaea are, hence, at the end of the carbon cycle, with carbon being released back into the atmosphere after having been fixed by photosynthesis. It is probable that our current deposits of natural gas were formed in a similar way. Fungi and plants Alkanes also play a role, if a minor role, in the biology of the three eukaryotic groups of organisms: fungi, plants and animals. Some specialised yeasts, e.g., Candida tropicale, Pichia sp., Rhodotorula sp., can use alkanes as a source of carbon and/or energy. The fungus Amorphotheca resinae prefers the longer-chain alkanes in aviation fuel, and can cause serious problems for aircraft in tropical regions. In plants, the solid long-chain alkanes are found in the plant cuticle and epicuticular wax of many species, but are only rarely major constituents. EA Baker (1982) Chemistry and morphology of plant epicuticular waxes. pp139-165. In "The Plant Cuticle". edited by DF Cutler, KL Alvin and CE Price. Academic Press, London. ISBN 0 12 199920 3 They protect the plant against water loss, prevent the leaching of important minerals by the rain, and protect against bacteria, fungi, and harmful insects. The carbon chains in plant alkanes are usually odd-numbered, between twenty-seven and thirty-three carbon atoms in length and are made by the plants by decarboxylation of even-numbered fatty acids. The exact composition of the layer of wax is not only species-dependent, but changes also with the season and such environmental factors as lighting conditions, temperature or humidity. Animals Alkanes are found in animal products, although they are less important than unsaturated hydrocarbons. One example is the shark liver oil, which is approximately 14% pristane (2,6,10,14-tetramethylpentadecane, C19H40). Their occurrence is more important in pheromones, chemical messenger materials, on which above all insects are dependent for communication. With some kinds, as the support beetle Xylotrechus colonus, primarily pentacosane (C25H52), 3-methylpentaicosane (C26H54) and 9-methylpentaicosane (C26H54), they are transferred by body contact. With others like the tsetse fly Glossina morsitans morsitans, the pheromone contains the four alkanes 2-methylheptadecane (C18H38), 17,21-dimethylheptatriacontane (C39H80), 15,19-dimethylheptatriacontane (C39H80) and 15,19,23-trimethylheptatriacontane (C40H82), and acts by smell over longer distances, a useful characteristic for pest control. Waggle-dancing honeybees produce and release two alkanes, tricosane and pentacosane. Thom et al. (21 August 2007) The Scent of the Waggle Dance. PLoS Biology. Vol. 5, No. 9, e228 doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0050228 Ecological relations Early spider orchid (Ophrys sphegodes) One example, in which both plant and animal alkanes play a role, is the ecological relationship between the sand bee (Andrena nigroaenea) and the early spider orchid (Ophrys sphegodes); the latter is dependent for pollination on the former. Sand bees use pheromones in order to identify a mate; in the case of A. nigroaenea, the females emit a mixture of tricosane (C23H48), pentacosane (C25H52) and heptacosane (C27H56) in the ratio 3:3:1, and males are attracted by specifically this odour. The orchid takes advantage of this mating arrangement to get the male bee to collect and disseminate its pollen; parts of its flower not only resemble the appearance of sand bees, but also produce large quantities of the three alkanes in the same ratio as female sand bees. As a result numerous males are lured to the blooms and attempt to copulate with their imaginary partner: although this endeavour is not crowned with success for the bee, it allows the orchid to transfer its pollen, which will be dispersed after the departure of the frustrated male to different blooms. Production Petroleum refining An oil refinery at Martinez, California. As stated earlier, the most important source of alkanes is natural gas and crude oil. Alkanes are separated in an oil refinery by fractional distillation and processed into many different products Fischer-Tropsch The Fischer-Tropsch process is a method to synthesize liquid hydrocarbons, including alkanes, from carbon monoxide and hydrogen. This method is used to produce substitutes for petroleum distillates. Laboratory preparation There is usually little need for alkanes to be synthesized in the laboratory, since they are usually commercially available. Also, alkanes are generally non-reactive chemically or biologically, and do not undergo functional group interconversions cleanly. When alkanes are produced in the laboratory, it is often a side-product of a reaction. For example, the use of n-butyllithium as a strong base gives the conjugate acid, n-butane as a side-product: C4H9Li + H2O → C4H10 + LiOH However, at times it may be desirable to make a portion of a molecule into an alkane like functionality (alkyl group) using the above or similar methods. For example, an ethyl group is an alkyl group; when this is attached to a hydroxy group, it gives ethanol, which is not an alkane. To do so, the best-known methods are hydrogenation of alkenes: RCH=CH2 + H2 → RCH2CH3 (R = alkyl) Alkanes or alkyl groups can also be prepared directly from alkyl halides in the Corey-House-Posner-Whitesides reaction. The Barton-McCombie deoxygenation Barton, D. H. R.; McCombie, S. W. J. Chem. Soc., Perkin Trans. 1 1975, 16, 1574-1585 Crich, D.; Quintero, L. Chem. Rev. 1989, 89, 1413-1432. removes hydroxyl groups from alcohols e.g. Barton-McCombie deoxygenation scheme and the Clemmensen reduction Martin, E. L. Org. React. 1942, 1, 155. (Review) Buchanan, J. G. St. C.; Woodgate, P. D. Quart. Rev. 1969, 23, 522. (Review) Vedejs, E. Org. React. 1975, 22, 401. (Review) Yamamura, S.; Nishiyama, S. Comp. Org. Syn. 1991, 8, 309-313.(Review) removes carbonyl groups from aldehydes and ketones to form alkanes or alkyl-substituted compounds e.g.: Clemmensen Reduction Applications The applications of a certain alkane can be determined quite well according to the number of carbon atoms. The first four alkanes are used mainly for heating and cooking purposes, and in some countries for electricity generation. Methane and ethane are the main components of natural gas; they are normally stored as gases under pressure. It is, however, easier to transport them as liquids: This requires both compression and cooling of the gas. Propane and butane can be liquefied at fairly low pressures, and are well known as liquified petroleum gas (LPG). Propane, for example, is used in the propane gas burner, butane in disposable cigarette lighters. The two alkanes are used as propellants in aerosol sprays. From pentane to octane the alkanes are reasonably volatile liquids. They are used as fuels in internal combustion engines, as they vaporise easily on entry into the combustion chamber without forming droplets, which would impair the uniformity of the combustion. Branched-chain alkanes are preferred as they are much less prone to premature ignition, which causes knocking, than their straight-chain homologues. This propensity to premature ignition is measured by the octane rating of the fuel, where 2,2,4-trimethylpentane (isooctane) has an arbitrary value of 100, and heptane has a value of zero. Apart from their use as fuels, the middle alkanes are also good solvents for nonpolar substances. Alkanes from nonane to, for instance, hexadecane (an alkane with sixteen carbon atoms) are liquids of higher viscosity, less and less suitable for use in gasoline. They form instead the major part of diesel and aviation fuel. Diesel fuels are characterised by their cetane number, cetane being an old name for hexadecane. However, the higher melting points of these alkanes can cause problems at low temperatures and in polar regions, where the fuel becomes too thick to flow correctly. Alkanes from hexadecane upwards form the most important components of fuel oil and lubricating oil. In latter function, they work at the same time as anti-corrosive agents, as their hydrophobic nature means that water cannot reach the metal surface. Many solid alkanes find use as paraffin wax, for example, in candles. This should not be confused however with true wax, which consists primarily of esters. Alkanes with a chain length of approximately 35 or more carbon atoms are found in bitumen, used, for example, in road surfacing. However, the higher alkanes have little value and are usually split into lower alkanes by cracking. Some synthetic polymers such as polyethylene and polypropylene are alkanes with chains containing hundreds of thousands of carbon atoms. These materials are used in innumerable applications, and billions of kilograms of these materials are made and used each year. Physical properties Boiling point Melting (blue) and boiling (pink) points of the first 14 n-alkanes in °C. Alkanes experience inter-molecular van der Waals forces. Stronger inter-molecular van der Waals forces give rise to greater boiling points of alkanes. There are two determinants for the strength of the van der Waals forces: the number of electrons surrounding the molecule, which increases with the alkane's molecular weight the surface area of the molecule Under standard conditions, from CH4 to C4H10 alkanes are gaseous; from C5H12 to C17H36 they are liquids; and after C18H38 they are solids. As the boiling point of alkanes is primarily determined by weight, it should not be a surprise that the boiling point has almost a linear relationship with the size (molecular weight) of the molecule. As a rule of thumb, the boiling point rises 20 - 30 °C for each carbon added to the chain; this rule applies to other homologous series. A straight-chain alkane will have a boiling point higher than a branched-chain alkane due to the greater surface area in contact, thus the greater van der Waals forces, between adjacent molecules. For example, compare isobutane and n-butane, which boil at -12 and 0 °C, and 2,2-dimethylbutane and 2,3-dimethylbutane which boil at 50 and 58 °C, respectively. For the latter case, two molecules 2,3-dimethylbutane can "lock" into each other better than the cross-shaped 2,2-dimethylbutane, hence the greater van der Waals forces. On the other hand, cycloalkanes tend to have higher boiling points than their linear counterparts due to the locked conformations of the molecules, which give a plane of intermolecular contact. Melting point The melting points of the alkanes follow a similar trend to boiling points for the same reason as outlined above. That is, (all other things being equal) the larger the molecule the higher the melting point. There is one significant difference between boiling points and melting points. Solids have more ridged and fixed structure than liquids. This rigid structure requires energy to break down. Thus the stronger better put together solid structures will require more energy to break apart. For alkanes, this can be seen from the graph above (i.e., the blue line). The odd-numbered alkanes have a lower trend in melting points than even numbered alkanes. This is because even numbered alkanes pack well in the solid phase, forming a well-organised structure, which requires more energy to break apart. The odd-number alkanes pack less well and so the "looser" organised solid packing structure requires less energy to break apart. The melting points of branched-chain alkanes can be either higher or lower than those of the corresponding straight-chain alkanes, again depending on the ability of the alkane in question to packing well in the solid phase: This is particularly true for isoalkanes (2-methyl isomers), which often have melting points higher than those of the linear analogues. Conductivity Alkanes do not conduct electricity, nor are they substantially polarized by an electric field. For this reason they do not form hydrogen bonds and are insoluble in polar solvents such as water. Since the hydrogen bonds between individual water molecules are aligned away from an alkane molecule, the coexistence of an alkane and water leads to an increase in molecular order (a reduction in entropy). As there is no significant bonding between water molecules and alkane molecules, the second law of thermodynamics suggests that this reduction in entropy should be minimised by minimising the contact between alkane and water: Alkanes are said to be hydrophobic in that they repel water. Their solubility in nonpolar solvents is relatively good, a property that is called lipophilicity. Different alkanes are, for example, miscible in all proportions among themselves. The density of the alkanes usually increases with increasing number of carbon atoms, but remains less than that of water. Hence, alkanes form the upper layer in an alkane-water mixture. Molecular geometry sp3-hybridisation in methane. The molecular structure of the alkanes directly affects their physical and chemical characteristics. It is derived from the electron configuration of carbon, which has four valence electrons. The carbon atoms in alkanes are always sp3 hybridised, that is to say that the valence electrons are said to be in four equivalent orbitals derived from the combination of the 2s orbital and the three 2p orbitals. These orbitals, which have identical energies, are arranged spatially in the form of a tetrahedron, the angle of cos−1(−⅓) ≈ 109.47° between them. Bond lengths and bond angles An alkane molecule has only C – H and C – C single bonds. The former result from the overlap of a sp³-orbital of carbon with the 1s-orbital of a hydrogen; the latter by the overlap of two sp³-orbitals on different carbon atoms. The bond lengths amount to 1.09×10−10 m for a C – H bond and 1.54×10−10 m for a C – C bond. The tetrahedral structure of methane. The spatial arrangement of the bonds is similar to that of the four sp³-orbitals—they are tetrahedrally arranged, with an angle of 109.47° between them. Structural formulae that represent the bonds as being at right angles to one another, while both common and useful, do not correspond with the reality. Conformation The structural formula and the bond angles are not usually sufficient to completely describe the geometry of a molecule. There is a further degree of freedom for each carbon – carbon bond: the torsion angle between the atoms or groups bound to the atoms at each end of the bond. The spatial arrangement described by the torsion angles of the molecule is known as its conformation. Newman projections of the two conformations of ethane: eclipsed on the left, staggered on the right. Ball-and-stick models of the two rotamers of ethane Ethane forms the simplest case for studying the conformation of alkanes, as there is only one C – C bond. If one looks down the axis of the C – C bond, one will see the so-called Newman projection. The hydrogen atoms on both the front and rear carbon atoms have an angle of 120° between them, resulting from the projection of the base of the tetrahedron onto a flat plane. However, the torsion angle between a given hydrogen atom attached to the front carbon and a given hydrogen atom attached to the rear carbon can vary freely between 0° and 360°. This is a consequence of the free rotation about a carbon – carbon single bond. Despite this apparent freedom, only two limiting conformations are important: eclipsed conformation and staggered conformation. The two conformations, also known as rotamers, differ in energy: The staggered conformation is 12.6 kJ/mol lower in energy (more stable) than the eclipsed conformation (the least stable). This difference in energy between the two conformations, known as the torsion energy, is low compared to the thermal energy of an ethane molecule at ambient temperature. There is constant rotation about the C-C bond. The time taken for an ethane molecule to pass from one staggered conformation to the next, equivalent to the rotation of one CH3-group by 120° relative to the other, is of the order of 10−11 seconds. The case of higher alkanes is more complex but based on similar principles, with the antiperiplanar conformation always being the most favoured around each carbon-carbon bond. For this reason, alkanes are usually shown in a zigzag arrangement in diagrams or in models. The actual structure will always differ somewhat from these idealised forms, as the differences in energy between the conformations are small compared to the thermal energy of the molecules: Alkane molecules have no fixed structural form, whatever the models may suggest. NAMEFormulaB.P./oCM.P./oCDensity/g cm -3(20oC)MethaneCH4 -162 -183 gasEthaneC2H6 -89 -172 gasPropaneC3H8 -42 -188 gasButaneC4H10 -0.5 -135 gasPentaneC5H12 36 -130 0.626HexaneC6H14 69 -95 0.659HeptaneC7H16 98 -91 0.684OctaneC8H18 126 -57 0.703NonaneC9H20 151 -54 0.718DecaneC10H22 174 -30 0.730UndecaneC11H24 196 -26 0.740DodecaneC12H26 216 -10 0.749TriacontaneC30H62 343 37 solid Spectroscopic properties Virtually all organic compounds contain carbon – carbon and carbon – hydrogen bonds, and so show some of the features of alkanes in their spectra. Alkanes are notable for having no other groups, and therefore for the absence of other characteristic spectroscopic features. Infrared spectroscopy The carbon–hydrogen stretching mode gives a strong absorption between 2850 and 2960 cm−1, while the carbon–carbon stretching mode absorbs between 800 and 1300 cm−1. The carbon–hydrogen bending modes depend on the nature of the group: methyl groups show bands at 1450 cm−1 and 1375 cm−1, while methylene groups show bands at 1465 cm−1 and 1450 cm−1. Carbon chains with more than four carbon atoms show a weak absorption at around 725 cm−1. NMR spectroscopy The proton resonances of alkanes are usually found at δH = 0.5 – 1.5. The carbon-13 resonances depend on the number of hydrogen atoms attached to the carbon: δC = 8 – 30 (primary, methyl, -CH3), 15 – 55 (secondary, methylene, -CH2-), 20 – 60 (tertiary, methyne, C-H) and quaternary. The carbon-13 resonance of quaternary carbon atoms is characteristically weak, due to the lack of Nuclear Overhauser effect and the long relaxation time, and can be missed in weak samples, or sample that have not been run for a sufficiently long time. Mass spectrometry Alkanes have a high ionisation energy, and the molecular ion is usually weak. The fragmentation pattern can be difficult to interpret, but, in the case of branched chain alkanes, the carbon chain is preferentially cleaved at tertiary or quaternary carbons due to the relative stability of the resulting free radicals. The fragment resulting from the loss of a single methyl group (M−15) is often absent, and other fragment are often spaced by intervals of fourteen mass units, corresponding to sequential loss of CH2-groups. Chemical properties In general, alkanes show a relatively low reactivity, because their C bonds are relatively stable and cannot be easily broken. Unlike most other organic compounds, they possess no functional groups. They react only very poorly with ionic or other polar substances. The acid dissociation constant (pKa) values of all alkanes are above 60, hence they are practically inert to acids and bases (see: carbon acids). This inertness is the source of the term paraffins (with the meaning here of "lacking affinity"). In crude oil the alkane molecules have remained chemically unchanged for millions of years. However redox reactions of alkanes, in particular with oxygen and the halogens, are possible as the carbon atoms are in a strongly-reduced condition; in the case of methane, the lowest possible oxidation state for carbon (−4) is reached. Reaction with oxygen leads to combustion without any smoke; with halogens, substitution. In addition, alkanes have been shown to interact with, and bind to, certain transition metal complexes in (See: carbon-hydrogen bond activation). Free radicals, molecules with unpaired electrons, play a large role in most reactions of alkanes, such as cracking and reformation where long-chain alkanes are converted into shorter-chain alkanes and straight-chain alkanes into branched-chain isomers. In highly-branched alkanes, the bond angle may differ significantly from the optimal value (109.5°) in order to allow the different groups sufficient space. This causes a tension in the molecule, known as steric hindrance, and can substantially increase the reactivity. Reactions with oxygen All alkanes react with oxygen in a combustion reaction, although they become increasingly difficult to ignite as the number of carbon atoms increases. The general equation for complete combustion is: CnH2n+2 + (1.5n+0.5)O2 → (n+1)H2O + nCO2 In the absence of sufficient oxygen, carbon monoxide or even soot can be formed, as shown below: CnH(2n+2) + ½ nO2 → (n+1)H2 + nCO for example methane: 2CH4 + 3O2 → 2CO + 4H2O CH4 + O2 → C + 2H2O See the alkane heat of formation table for detailed data. The standard enthalpy change of combustion, ΔcHo, for alkanes increases by about 650 kJ/mol per CH2 group. Branched-chain alkanes have lower values of ΔcHo than straight-chain alkanes of the same number of carbon atoms, and so can be seen to be somewhat more stable. Reactions with halogens Alkanes react with halogens in a so-called free radical halogenation reaction. The hydrogen atoms of the alkane are progressively replaced by halogen atoms. Free-radicals are the reactive species that participate in the reaction, which usually leads to a mixture of products. The reaction is highly exothermic, and can lead to an explosion. These reactions are an important industrial route to halogenated hydrocarbons. There are three steps: Initiation the halogen radicals form by homolysis. Usually, energy in the form of heat or light is required. Chain reaction or Propagation then takes place—the halogen radical abstracts a hydrogen from the alkane to give an alkyl radical. This reacts further. Chain termination where step the radicals recombine. Experiments have shown that all halogenation produces a mixture of all possible isomers, indicating that all hydrogen atoms are susceptible to reaction. The mixture produced, however, is not a statistical mixture: Secondary and tertiary hydrogen atoms are preferentially replaced due to the greater stability of secondary and tertiary free-radicals. An example can be seen in the monobromination of propane: Monobromination of propane Cracking Cracking breaks larger molecules into smaller ones. This can be done with a thermal or catalytic method. The thermal cracking process follows a homolytic mechanism with formation of free-radicals. The catalytic cracking process involves the presence of acid catalysts (usually solid acids such as silica-alumina and zeolites), which promote a heterolytic (asymmetric) breakage of bonds yielding pairs of ions of opposite charges, usually a carbocation and the very unstable hydride anion. Carbon-localized free-radicals and cations are both highly unstable and undergo processes of chain rearrangement, C-C scission in position beta (i.e., cracking) and intra- and intermolecular hydrogen transfer or hydride transfer. In both types of processes, the corresponding reactive intermediates (radicals, ions) are permanently regenerated, and thus they proceed by a self-propagating chain mechanism. The chain of reactions is eventually terminated by radical or ion recombination. Isomerization and reformation Isomerization and reformation are processes in which straight-chain alkanes are heated in the presence of a platinum catalyst. In isomerization, the alkanes become branched-chain isomers. In reformation, the alkanes become cycloalkanes or aromatic hydrocarbons, giving off hydrogen as a by-product. Both of these processes raise the octane number of the substance. Other reactions Alkanes will react with steam in the presence of a nickel catalyst to give hydrogen. Alkanes can be chlorosulfonated and nitrated, although both reactions require special conditions. The fermentation of alkanes to carboxylic acids is of some technical importance. In the Reed reaction, sulfur dioxide, chlorine and light convert hydrocarbons to sulfonyl chlorides. Hazards Methane is explosive when mixed with air (1 – 8% CH4) and is a strong greenhouse gas: Other lower alkanes can also form explosive mixtures with air. The lighter liquid alkanes are highly flammable, although this risk decreases with the length of the carbon chain. Pentane, hexane, heptane, and octane are classed as dangerous for the environment and harmful. The straight-chain isomer of hexane is a neurotoxin. Halogen-rich alkanes, like chloroform, can be carcinogenic as well. See also Alkene Alkyne Cracking (chemistry) Cycloalkane Functional group List of n-alkanes References Further reading Virtual Textbook of Organic Chemistry | Alkane |@lemmatized chemical:10 structure:13 methane:36 simple:6 alkane:154 also:21 know:13 paraffin:7 compound:15 consist:3 element:1 carbon:81 c:27 hydrogen:23 h:7 e:20 hydrocarbon:20 wherein:4 atom:47 link:4 together:6 exclusively:2 single:6 bond:29 saturated:2 without:3 cyclic:5 loop:3 belong:1 homologous:2 series:5 organic:6 member:2 differ:4 constant:3 relative:3 atomic:1 mass:3 must:2 either:2 join:4 skeleton:1 backbone:4 general:8 number:27 often:7 use:22 define:1 size:2 g:11 alkyl:8 group:30 functional:5 side:8 chain:51 like:9 solely:1 singly:1 example:17 methyl:5 ethyl:2 saturate:4 linear:8 formula:7 snake:1 branch:15 n:17 split:2 one:21 direction:1 form:26 accord:3 definition:1 iupac:8 former:3 two:16 whereas:1 third:1 call:10 cycloalkanes:11 combine:1 polycyclic:1 still:2 long:9 acyclic:4 loops:1 possible:8 parent:1 molecule:27 limit:1 limitation:1 oil:14 wax:6 large:9 tend:2 great:6 reactive:5 little:3 biological:2 activity:1 view:1 molecular:9 scaffold:1 upon:1 hang:1 interest:1 biologically:3 active:1 portion:3 isomerism:1 different:9 leave:1 right:3 butane:10 isobutane:4 isomer:27 cyclobutane:2 methylcyclopropane:1 bicyclo:1 tetrahedrane:1 show:11 three:8 arrange:5 multiple:2 way:5 structural:4 anagram:2 order:5 sometimes:2 normal:2 although:9 necessarily:1 common:6 however:10 may:5 point:19 increase:8 rapidly:1 ethane:17 propane:9 many:6 stable:5 chiral:4 methylhexane:1 high:14 homologues:2 due:8 stereogenic:1 center:1 certain:6 importance:2 biochemistry:1 occur:4 sidechains:1 chlorophyll:1 tocopherol:1 vitamin:1 resolve:1 enantiomer:1 enantioselective:1 chromatography:1 addition:2 nomenclature:4 systematic:5 name:30 base:5 identify:3 unbranched:1 systematically:1 greek:2 numerical:3 prefix:10 denote:1 suffix:4 ane:4 august:2 wilhelm:1 von:1 hofmann:1 suggest:3 systematizing:1 whole:1 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5,547 | Opium | Opium is a narcotic formed from the latex released by lacerating (or "scoring") the immature seed pods of opium poppies (Papaver somniferum). It contains up to 12% morphine, an opiate alkaloid, which is most frequently processed chemically to produce heroin for the illegal drug trade. The resin also includes codeine and non-narcotic alkaloids, such as papaverine, thebaine and noscapine. Meconium historically referred to related, weaker preparations made from other parts of the poppy or different species of poppies. Modern opium production is the culmination of millennia of production, in which the source poppy, methods of extraction and processing, and methods of consumption have become increasingly potent. Cultivation of opium poppies for food, anesthesia, and ritual purposes dates back to at least the Neolithic Age. The Sumerian, Assyrian, Egyptian, Minoan, Greek, Roman, Persian and Arab Empires each made widespread use of opium, which was the most potent form of pain relief then available, allowing ancient surgeons to perform prolonged surgical procedures. Opium is mentioned in the most important medical texts of the ancient world, including the Ebers Papyrus and the writings of Dioscorides, Galen, and Avicenna. Widespread medical use of unprocessed opium continued through the American Civil War before giving way to morphine and its successors, which could be injected at a precisely controlled dosage. American morphine is still produced primarily from poppies grown and processed in India in the traditional manner and remains the standard of pain relief for casualties of war. In China recreational use of the drug began in the fifteenth century but was limited by its rarity and expense. Opium trade became more regular by the seventeenth century, when it was mixed with tobacco for smoking, and addiction was first recognized. Opium prohibition in China began in 1729 yet was followed by nearly two centuries of increasing opium use. China had a positive balance sheet in trading with the British, which led to a decrease of the British silver stocks. Therefore, the British tried to encourage Chinese opium use to enhance their balance, and they delivered it from Indian provinces under British control. A massive confiscation of opium by the Chinese emperor, who tried to stop the opium deliveries, led to two Opium Wars in 1839 and 1858, in which Britain suppressed China and traded opium all over the country. After 1860, opium use continued to increase with widespread domestic production in China, until more than a quarter of the male population was addicted by 1905. Recreational or addictive opium use in other nations remained rare into the late nineteenth century, recorded by an ambivalent literature that sometimes praised the drug. Global regulation of opium began with the stigmatization of Chinese immigrants and opium dens, leading rapidly from town ordinances in the 1870s to the formation of the International Opium Commission in 1909. During this period, the portrayal of opium in literature became squalid and violent, British opium trade was largely supplanted by domestic Chinese production, purified morphine and heroin became widely available for injection, and patent medicines containing opiates reached a peak of popularity. Opium was prohibited in many countries during the early twentieth century, leading to the modern pattern of opium production as a precursor for illegal recreational drugs or tightly regulated legal prescription drugs. Illicit opium production, now dominated by Afghanistan, was decimated in 2000 when production was banned by the Taliban, but has increased steadily since the fall of the Taliban in 2001 and over the course of the War in Afghanistan Victorious warlords set to open the opium floodgates UN World Drug Report 2007 - Afghanistan . Worldwide production in 2006 was 6610 metric tonnes UN World Drug Report 2007 - nearly one-fifth the level of production in 1906. Opium for illegal use is often converted into heroin, which multiplies its potency to approximately twice that of morphine, can be taken by intravenous injection, and is easier to smuggle. History Ancient use (4200 BC - 800 AD) Poppy crop from the Malwa India (probably Papaver somniferum var. album. ) At least seventeen finds of Papaver somniferum from Neolithic settlements have been reported throughout Switzerland, Germany, and Spain, including the placement of large numbers of poppy seed capsules at a burial site (the Cueva de los Murciélagos, or "Bat cave," in Spain), which have been carbon-14 dated to 4200 B.C. Numerous finds of Papaver somniferum or Papaver setigerum from Bronze Age and Iron Age settlements have also been reported. (citing Andrew Sherratt) The first known cultivation of opium poppies was in Mesopotamia, approximately 3400 B.C., by Sumerians who called the plant Hul Gil, the "joy plant." Tablets found at Nippur, a Sumerian spiritual center south of Baghdad, described the collection of poppy juice in the morning and its use in production of opium. Cultivation continued in the Middle East by the Assyrians, who also collected poppy juice in the morning after scoring the pods with an iron scoop; they called the juice aratpa-pal, possibly the root of Papaver. Opium production continued under the Babylonians and Egyptians. Opium was used with poison hemlock to put people quickly and painlessly to death, but it was also used in medicine. The Ebers Papyrus, ca. 1500 B.C., describes a way to "stop children" using grains of the poppy-plant strained to a pulp. Spongia somnifera, sponges soaked in opium, were used during surgery. The Egyptians cultivated opium thebaicum in famous poppy fields around 1300 B.C. Opium was traded from Egypt by the Phoenicians and Minoans to destinations around the Mediterranean Sea, including Greece, Carthage, and Europe. By 1100 B.C., opium was cultivated on the Mediterranean island of Cyprus, where surgical-quality knives were used to score the poppy pods, and opium was cultivated, traded, and smoked. Opium was also mentioned after the Persian conquest of Assyria and Babylonia in the sixth century B.C. From the earliest finds, opium has appeared to have ritual significance, and anthropologists have speculated that ancient priests may have used the drug as a proof of healing power. In Egypt, the use of opium was generally restricted to priests, magicians, and warriors, its invention credited to Thoth, and it was said to have been given by Isis to Ra as treatment for a headache. A figure of the Minoan "goddess of the narcotics," wearing a crown of three opium poppies, ca. 1300 B.C., was recovered from the Sanctuary of Gazi, Crete, together with a simple smoking apparatus. (includes image) The Greek gods Hypnos (Sleep), Nyx (Night), and Thanatos (Death) were depicted wreathed in poppies or holding poppies. Poppies also frequently adorned statues of Apollo, Asklepios, Pluto, Demeter, Aphrodite, Kybele and Isis, symbolizing nocturnal oblivion. Islamic Societies (600-1500 A.D.) As the power of the Roman Empire declined, the lands to the south, and east of the Mediterranean sea became incorporated into the Islamic Empire, which assembled the finest libraries and the most skilled physicians of the era. Many Muslims believe that the hadith of al-Bukhari prohibits every intoxicating substance as haraam, but the use of intoxicants in medicine has been widely permitted by Scholars, even though it is prohibited under Islamic Law. Dioscorides' five-volume De Materia Medica, the precursor of pharmacopoeias, remained in use (with some improvements in Arabic versions ) from the 1st to 16th centuries and described opium, meconium and the wide range of uses prevalent in the ancient world. Somewhere between 400 and 1200 AD, Arab traders introduced opium to China. The Persian physician Abu Bakr Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi Rhazes (845-930 A.D.) maintained a laboratory and school in Baghdad, and was a student and critic of Galen, made use of opium in anesthesia and recommended its use for the treatment of melancholy in Fi ma-yahdara al-tabib (In the Absence of a Physician) , a home medical manual directed toward ordinary citizens for self-treatment if a doctor was not available. The renowned ophthalmologic surgeon Abu al-Qasim Ammar (936-1013 AD) relied on opium and mandrake as surgical anaesthetics and wrote a treatise, al-Tasrif, that influenced medical thought well into the sixteenth century. The Persian physician Abū ‘Alī al-Husayn ibn Sina (Avicenna) described opium as the most powerful of the stupefacients, by comparison with mandrake and other highly effective herbs, in The Canon of Medicine. This classic text was translated into Latin in 1175 and later into many other languages and remained authoritative into the seventeenth century. Şerafeddin Sabuncuoğlu used opium in the fourteenth century Ottoman Empire to treat migraine headaches, sciatica, and other painful ailments. Reintroduction to Western medicine Latin translation of Avicenna's Canon of Medicine, 1483 Opium became stigmatized in Europe during the Inquisition as a Middle Eastern influence and became a taboo subject in Europe from approximately 1300 to 1500 A.D. Manuscripts of Pseudo-Apuleius's fifth-century work from the tenth and eleventh centuries refer to the use of wild poppy Papaver agreste or Papaver rhoeas (identified as Papaver silvaticum) instead of Papaver somniferum for inducing sleep and relieving pain. The use of Paracelsus' laudanum was introduced to Western medicine in 1527, when Philip Aureolus Theophrastus Bombast von Hohenheim, better known by the name Paracelsus, returned from his wanderings in Arabia with a famous sword, within the pommel of which he kept "Stones of Immortality" compounded from opium thebaicum, citrus juice, and "quintessence of gold." The name "Paracelsus" was a pseudonym signifying him the equal or better of Aulus Cornelius Celsus, whose text, which described the use of opium or a similar preparation, had recently been translated and reintroduced to medieval Europe. The Canon of Medicine, the standard medical textbook that Paracelsus burned in a public bonfire three weeks after being appointed professor at the University of Basel, also described the use of opium, though many Latin translations were of poor quality. Laudanum was originally the sixteenth-century term for a medicine associated with a particular physician that was widely well-regarded, but became standardized as "tincture of opium," a solution of opium in ethyl alcohol, which Paracelsus has been credited with developing. During his lifetime, Paracelsus was viewed as an adventurer who challenged the theories and mercenary motives of contemporary medicine with dangerous chemical therapies, but his therapies marked a turning point in Western medicine. In the seventeenth century laudanum was recommended for pain, sleeplessness, and diarrhea by Thomas Sydenham, the renowned "father of English medicine" or "English Hippocrates," to whom is attributed the quote, "Among the remedies which it has pleased Almighty God to give to man to relieve his sufferings, none is so universal and so efficacious as opium." Use of opium as a cure-all was reflected in the formulation of mithridatium described in the 1728 Chambers Cyclopedia, which included true opium in the mixture. Subsequently, laudanum became the basis of many popular patent medicines of the nineteenth century. The standard medical use of opium persisted well into the nineteenth century. U.S. president William Henry Harrison was treated with opium in 1841, and in the American Civil War, the Union Army used 2.8 million ounces of opium tincture and powder and about 500,000 opium pills. During this time of popularity, users called opium "God's Own Medicine." The most important reason for the increase in opiate consumption in the United States during the 19th century was the prescribing and dispensing of legal opiates by physicians and pharmacist to women with ”female problems” (mostly to relieve painful menstruation. Between 150,000 and 200,000 opiate addicts lived in the United States in the late 19th century and between two-thirds and three-quarters of these addicts were women. Stephen R. Kandall, M.D.:Women and Addiction in the United States—1850 to 1920 Recreational use in Islamic Societies An imaginary view of an Ottoman opium seller. In Islamic societies, opium is said to have been used for recreational purposes from the 14th century onwards. Testimonies of historians, diplomats, religious scholars, intellectuals and travellers, Ottoman and European, confirm that, from the 16th to the 19th century, Anatolian opium was eaten in Constantinople as much as it was exported to Europe. From eating it, dervishes drew ecstasy, soldiers courage, dignitaries and people bliss and voluptuousness. It is not only to the pleasures of coffee and tulips that the Ottomans initiated Europe. It was also Turkey which, long before China, supplied the West with opium. Michot, Yahya. L’opium et le café. Traduction d’un texte arabe anonyme et exploration de l'opiophagie ottomane (Beirut: Albouraq, 2008) [ISBN 978-2-84161-373] According to Fynes Moryson, who travelled in Turkey in 1595–7, “The Turkish Souldiers being to fight, if they can find no wine, drinke the juyce of blacke poppy, called Opium, to raise their spirits to a kind of fury, thinking themselves made more valiant thereby; For howsoever we thinke this hearbe, especially taken largely, to be dangerous for the health, yet there is not a Turke from the higehst to the lowest, who doth not as it were daily use it, nothing being more frequently sowed, nothing more plentifully growing, especially in Natolia, nothing more easily finding a buyer; yea, if their Cammels and Dromidaries faile by the way, or upon necessity must goe further than they use to journey, as sometimes it fals out in Armies and other Journeys, then they give them this hearbe, by which they report their spirits so to be stirred up, as they will goe till they fall downe dead.” Moryson, Fynes. An Itinerary. Containing His Ten Yeeres Travell through the Twelve Dominions of Germany, Bohmerland, Sweitzerland, Netherland, Denmarke, Poland, Italy, Turky, France, England, Scotland & Ireland, 3 parts (London: John Beale, 1617). Reprint in 4 vols., Glasgow: James MacLehose and Sons, 1907-1908, iv, 129-130 In his “Confessions of an English Opium-eater” (1821, p. 188), it is still about Ottoman, not Chinese, addicts that Thomas de Quincey writes: “I question whether any Turk, of all that ever entered the paradise of opium-eaters, can have had half the pleasure I had". Extensive textual and pictural sources also show that poppy cultivation and opium consumption were widespread in Safavid Iran Matthee, Rudi. The Pursuit of Pleasure. Drugs and Stimulants in Iranian History, 1500-1900 (Washington: Mage Publishers, 2005), pp. 97-116 [ISBN 0-934211-64-7]. Van de Wijngaart, G., Trading in Dreams, in P. Faber & al. (eds.), Dreaming of Paradise: Islamic Art from the Collection of the Museum of Ethnology, Rotterdam, Rotterdam, Martial & Snoeck, 1993, p. 186-191. and Moghol India. Habighorst, Ludwig V., Reichart, Peter A., Sharma, Vijay, Love for Pleasure: Betel, Tobacco, Wine and Drugs in Indian Miniatures (Koblenz: Ragaputra Edition, 2007) Recreational use in China An opium den in 18th-century China through the eyes of a Western artist. A typical depiction of an opium smoking scene in London's Limehouse district based on fictional accounts of the day. The earliest clear description of the use of opium as a recreational drug in China came from Xu Boling, who wrote in 1483 that opium was "mainly used to aid masculinity, strengthen sperm and regain vigor," and that it "enhances the art of alchemists, sex and court ladies." He described an expedition sent by the Chenghua Emperor in 1483 to procure opium for a price "equal to that of gold" in Hainan, Fujian, Zhejiang, Sichuan and Shaanxi where it is close to Xiyu. A century later, Li Shizhen listed standard medical uses of opium in his renowned Compendium of Materia Medica (1578), but also wrote that "lay people use it for the art of sex," in particular the ability to "arrest seminal emission." This association of opium with sex continued in China until the twentieth century. Opium smoking began as a privilege of the elite and remained a great luxury into the early nineteenth century, but by 1861, Wang Tao wrote that opium was used even by rich peasants, and even a small village without a rice store would have a shop where opium was sold. Smoking of opium came on the heels of tobacco smoking and may have been encouraged by a brief ban on the smoking of tobacco by the Ming emperor, ending in 1644 with the Qing dynasty, which had encouraged smokers to mix in increasing amounts of opium. In 1705, Wang Shizhen wrote that "nowadays, from nobility and gentlemen down to slaves and women, all are addicted to tobacco." Tobacco in that time was frequently mixed with other herbs (this continues with clove cigarettes to the modern day), and opium was one component in the mixture. Tobacco mixed with opium was called madak (or madat) and became popular throughout China and its seafaring trade partners (such as Taiwan, Java and the Philippines) in the seventeenth century. In 1712, Engelbert Kaempfer described addiction to madak: "No commodity throughout the Indies is retailed with greater profit by the Batavians than opium, which [its] users cannot do without, nor can they come by it except it be brought by the ships of the Batavians from Bengal and Coromandel." Fueled in part by the 1729 ban on madak, which at first effectively exempted pure opium as a potentially medicinal product, the smoking of pure opium became more popular in the eighteenth century. In 1736, the smoking of pure opium was described by Huang Shujing, involving a pipe made from bamboo rimmed with silver, stuffed with palm slices and hair, fed by a clay bowl in which a globule of molten opium was held over the flame of an oil lamp. This elaborate procedure, requiring the maintenance of pots of opium at just the right temperature for a globule to be scooped up with a needle-like skewer for smoking, formed the basis of a craft of "paste-scooping" by which servant girls could become prostitutes as the opportunity arose. Beginning in eighteenth-century China, famine and political upheaval, as well as rumors of wealth to be had in nearby Southeast Asia, led to the Chinese Diaspora. Chinese emigrants to cities such as San Francisco, London, and New York brought with them the Chinese manner of opium smoking and the social traditions of the opium den. The Indian Diaspora distributed opium-eaters in the same way, and both social groups survived as "lascars" (seamen) and "coolies" (manual laborers). French sailors provided another major group of opium smokers, having contracted the habit in French Indochina, where the drug was promoted by the colonial government as a monopoly and source of revenue. Among white Europeans, opium was more frequently consumed as laudanum or in patent medicines. Britain's All-India Opium Act of 1878 formalized social distinctions, limiting recreational opium sales to registered Indian opium-eaters and Chinese opium-smokers and prohibiting its sale to workers from Burma. Likewise, American law sought to contain addiction to immigrants by prohibiting Chinese from smoking opium in the presence of a white man. Because of the low social status of immigrant workers, contemporary writers and media had little trouble portraying opium dens as seats of vice, white slavery, gambling, knife and revolver fights, a source for drugs causing deadly overdoses, with the potential to addict and corrupt the white population. By 1919, anti-Chinese riots attacked Limehouse, the Chinatown of London. Chinese men were deported for playing puck-apu, a popular gambling game, and sentenced to hard labor for opium possession. Both the immigrant population and the social use of opium fell into decline. Yet despite lurid literary accounts to the contrary, nineteenth-century London was not a hotbed of opium smoking. The total lack of photographic evidence of opium smoking in Britain, as opposed to the relative abundance of historical photos depicting opium smoking in North America and France, indicates that the infamous Limehouse opium smoking scene was little more than fantasy on the part of British writers of the day who were intent on scandalizing their readers while drumming up the threat of the "yellow peril." "Opium in the West." Opium Museum. 2007. Retrieved on September 21, 2007. "Brilliant Chang in Limehouse." EastLondonHistory.com. Retrieved on September 21, 2007. Prohibition and conflict in China Destruction of opium in China Opium prohibition began in 1729, when Emperor Yongzheng of the Qing Dynasty, disturbed by madak smoking at court and carrying out the government's role of upholding Confucian virtue, officially prohibited the import of opium, except for a small amount for medicinal purposes. The ban punished sellers and opium den keepers, but not users of the drug. Opium prohibition in China continued until 1860 and was later resumed. English opium ships Under the Qing Dynasty, China opened itself to foreign trade under the Canton System through the port of Guangzhou (Canton), and traders from the British East India Company began visiting the port by the 1690s. Due to the growing British demand for Indian tea and the Chinese lack of interest in British commodities other than silver, the British became interested in opium as a high-value commodity for which China was not self-sufficient. The British traders had been purchasing small amounts of opium from India for trade since Ralph Fitch first visited in the mid-sixteenth century. Trade in opium was standardized, with production of balls of raw opium, 1.1 to 1.6 kilograms, 30% water content, wrapped in poppy leaves and petals, and shipped in chests of 60-65 kilograms (one picul). Chests of opium were sold in auctions in Calcutta with the understanding that the independent purchasers would then smuggle it into China (see Opium Wars). After the 1757 Battle of Plassey and 1764 Battle of Buxar, the British East India Company gained the power to act as diwan of Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa (See company rule in India). This allowed the company to pursue a monopoly on opium production and export in India, to encourage ryots to cultivate the cash crops of indigo and opium with cash advances, and to prohibit the "hoarding" of rice. This strategy led to the increase of the land tax to 50% of the value of crops, the starvation of ten million people in the Bengal famine of 1770, and the doubling of East India Company profits by 1777. Beginning in 1773, the British government began enacting oversight of the company's operations, culminating in the establishment of British India in response to the Indian Rebellion of 1857. Bengal opium was highly prized, commanding twice the price of the domestic Chinese product, which was regarded as inferior in quality. The Sassoon family was heavily involved in the opium trade in both China and India. India is also an opium producing nation. In India, Nimach, Mandsour (Madhya Pradesh), and Chittorgarh (Rajasthan) are major centers for opium production because these areas are suitable for the opium crop i.e. climate, soil. It is the major crop of this region. Nimach has a opium & alkaloid factory which is the organisation of Govt. of India producing alkaloids from opium for pharmaceutical medicine. Some competition came from the newly independent United States, which began to compete in Guangzhou (Canton) selling Turkish opium in the 1820s. Portuguese traders also brought opium from the independent Malwa states of western India, although by 1820, the British were able to restrict this trade by charging "pass duty" on the opium when it was forced to pass through Bombay to reach an entrepot. Despite drastic penalties and continued prohibition of opium until 1860, opium importation rose steadily from 200 chests per year under Yongzheng to 1,000 under Qianlong, 4,000 under Jiaqing, and 30,000 under Daoguang. Wertz, Richard R. "Qing Era (1644-1912)." iBiblio. 1998. Retrieved on September 21, 2007. The illegal sale of opium became one of the world's most valuable single commodity trades and has been called "the most long continued and systematic international crime of modern times." John K. Fairbanks, "The Creation of the Treaty System' in John K. Fairbanks, ed. The Cambridge History of China vol. 10 Part 1 (Cambridge University Press, 1992) p. 213. cited in In response to the ever-growing number of Chinese people becoming addicted to opium, Daoguang of the Qing Dynasty took strong action to halt the import of opium, including the seizure of cargo. In 1838, the Chinese Commissioner Lin Zexu destroyed 20,000 chests of opium in Guangzhou (Canton). Given that a chest of opium was worth nearly $1,000 in 1800, this was a substantial economic loss. The British, not willing to replace the cheap opium with costly silver, began the First Opium War in 1840, winning Hong Kong and trade concessions in the first of a series of Unequal Treaties. Map showing the amount of Opium produced in China in 1908 Following China's defeat in the Second Opium War in 1858, China was forced to legalize opium and began massive domestic production. Importation of opium peaked in 1879 at 6,700 tons, and by 1906, China was producing 85% of the world's opium, some 35,000 tons, and 27% of its adult male population was addicted—13.5 million addicts consuming 39,000 tons of opium yearly. From 1880 to the beginning of the Communist era, the British attempted to discourage the use of opium in China, but this effectively promoted the use of morphine, heroin, and cocaine, further exacerbating the problem of addiction. Dikotter, Frank, Lars Laamann, and Zhou Xun Narcotic Culture: A History of Drugs in China. Co-published with C. Hurst & Co. ISBN 978-0-226-14905-9 (ISBN 0-226-14905-6) Spring 2004. Scientific evidence of the pernicious nature of opium use was largely undocumented in the 1890s when Protestant missionaries in China decided to strengthen their opposition to the trade by compiling data which would demonstrate the harm the drug did. Faced with the problem that many Chinese associated Christianity with opium, partly due to the arrival of early Protestant missionaries on opium clippers, at the 1890 Shanghai Missionary Conference, they agreed to establish the Permanent Committee for the Promotion of Anti-Opium Societies in an attempt to overcome this problem and to arouse public opinion against the opium trade. The members of the committee were John G. Kerr, MD, American Presbyterian Mission in Canton; B.C. Atterbury, MD, American Presbyterian Mission in Peking; Archdeacon Arthur E. Moule, Church Missionary Society in Shanghai; Henry Whitney, MD, American Board of Commissioners for foreign Missions in Foochow; the Rev. Samuel Clarke, China Inland Mission in Kweiyang; the Rev. Arthur Shorrock, English Baptist Mission in Taiyuan; and the Rev. Griffith John, London Mission Society in Hankow. Lodwick, Kathleen L. Crusaders Against Opium: Protestant Missionaries in China 1874-1917 (University Press of Kentucky) Online version at Google Books [ISBN 0813119243] These missionaries were generally outraged over the British government's Royal Commission on Opium visiting India but not China. Accordingly, the missionaries first organized the Anti-Opium League in China among their colleagues in every mission station in China. American missionary Hampden Coit DuBose acted as first president. This organization, which had elected national officers and held an annual national meeting, was instrumental in gathering data from every Western-trained medical doctor in China, which was then published as William Hector Park compiled Opinions of Over 100 Physicians on the Use of Opium in China (Shanghai: American Presbyterian Mission Press, 1899). The vast majority of these medical doctors were missionaries; the survey also included doctors who were in private practices, particularly in Shanghai and Hong Kong, as well as Chinese who had been trained in medical schools in Western countries. In England, the home director of the China Inland Mission, Benjamin Broomhall, was an active opponent of the Opium trade, writing two books to promote the banning of opium smoking: The Truth about Opium Smoking and The Chinese Opium Smoker. In 1888, Broomhall formed and became secretary of the Christian Union for the Severance of the British Empire with the Opium Traffic and editor of its periodical, National Righteousness. He lobbied the British Parliament to stop the opium trade. He and James Laidlaw Maxwell appealed to the London Missionary Conference of 1888 and the Edinburgh Missionary Conference of 1910 to condemn the continuation of the trade. When Broomhall was dying, his son Marshall read to him from The Times the welcome news that an agreement had been signed ensuring the end of the opium trade within two years. Official Chinese resistance to opium was renewed on September 20, 1906, with an anti-opium initiative intended to eliminate the drug problem within ten years. The program relied on the turning of public sentiment against opium, with mass meetings at which opium paraphernalia was publicly burned, as well as coercive legal action and the granting of police powers to organizations such as the Fujian Anti-Opium Society. Smokers were required to register for licenses for gradually reducing rations of the drug. Addicts sometimes turned to missionaries for treatment for their addiction, though many associated these foreigners with the drug trade. The program was counted as a substantial success, with a cessation of direct British opium exports to China (but not Hong Kong ) and most provinces declared free of opium production. Nonetheless, the success of the program was only temporary, with opium use rapidly increasing during the disorder following the death of Yuan Shikai in 1916. Beginning in 1915, Chinese nationalist groups came to describe the period of military losses and Unequal Treaties as the "Century of National Humiliation," later defined to end with the conclusion of the Chinese Civil War in 1949. The Mao Zedong government is generally credited with eradicating both consumption and production of opium during the 1950s using unrestrained repression and social reform. Ten million addicts were forced into compulsory treatment, dealers were executed, and opium-producing regions were planted with new crops. Remaining opium production shifted south of the Chinese border into the Golden Triangle region, at times with the involvement of Western intelligence agencies. The remnant opium trade primarily served Southeast Asia, but spread to American soldiers during the Vietnam War, with 20% of soldiers regarding themselves as addicted during the peak of the epidemic in 1971. In 2003, China was estimated to have four million regular drug users and one million registered drug addicts. Prohibition outside China There were no legal restrictions on the importation or use of opium in the United States until the San Francisco, California, Opium Den Ordinance, which banned dens for public smoking of opium in 1875, a measure fueled by anti-Chinese sentiment and the perception that whites were starting to frequent the dens. This was followed by an 1891 California law requiring that narcotics carry warning labels and that their sales be recorded in a registry, amendments to the California Pharmacy and Poison Act in 1907 making it a crime to sell opiates without a prescription, and bans on possession of opium or opium pipes in 1909. At the U.S. federal level, the legal actions taken reflected constitutional restrictions under the Enumerated powers doctrine prior to reinterpretation of the Commerce clause, which did not allow the federal government to enact arbitrary prohibitions but did permit arbitrary taxation. Beginning in 1883, opium importation was taxed at $6 to $300 per pound, until the Opium Exclusion Act of 1909 prohibited the importation of opium altogether. In a similar manner the Harrison Narcotics Tax Act of 1914, passed in fulfillment of the International Opium Convention of 1912, nominally placed a tax on the distribution of opiates, but served as a de facto prohibition of the drugs. Today, opium is regulated by the Drug Enforcement Administration under the Controlled Substances Act. Following passage of a regional law in 1895, Australia's Aboriginal Protection and restriction of the sale of opium act 1897 addressed opium addiction among Aborigines, though it soon became a general vehicle for depriving them of basic rights by administrative regulation. Opium sale was prohibited to the general population in 1905, and smoking and possession was prohibited in 1908. Hardening of Canadian attitudes toward Chinese opium users and fear of a spread of the drug into the white population led to the effective criminalization of opium for non-medical use in Canada between 1908 and the mid-1920s. In 1909, the International Opium Commission was founded, and by 1914, thirty-four nations had agreed that the production and importation of opium should be diminished. In 1924, sixty-two nations participated in a meeting of the Commission. Subsequently, this role passed to the League of Nations, and all signatory nations agreed to prohibit the import, sale, distribution, export, and use of all narcotic drugs, except for medical and scientific purposes. This role was later taken up by the International Narcotics Control Board of the United Nations under Article 23 of the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, and subsequently under the Convention on Psychotropic Substances. Opium-producing nations are required to designate a government agency to take physical possession of licit opium crops as soon as possible after harvest and conduct all wholesaling and exporting through that agency. Obsolescence Bayer heroin bottle Opium has gradually been superseded by a variety of purified, semi-synthetic, and synthetic opioids with progressively stronger effect, and by other general anesthetics. This process began in 1817, when Friedrich Wilhelm Adam Sertürner reported the isolation of pure morphine from opium after at least thirteen years of research and a nearly disastrous trial on himself and three boys. Ryan J Huxtable and Stephen K W Schwartz, Molecular Interventions 1:189-191, 2001 The great advantage of purified morphine was that a patient could be treated with a known dose—whereas with raw plant material, as Gabriel Fallopius once lamented, "if soporifics are weak they do not help; if they are strong they are exceedingly dangerous." Morphine was the first pharmaceutical isolated from a natural product, and this success encouraged the isolation of other alkaloids: by 1820, isolations of narcotine, strychnine, veratrine, colchicine, caffeine, and quinine were reported. Morphine sales began in 1827, by Heinrich Emanuel Merck of Darmstadt, and helped him expand his family pharmacy into the massive Merck KGaA pharmaceutical company. Codeine was isolated in 1832 by Robiquet. The use of diethyl ether and chloroform for general anesthesia began in 1846-1847, and rapidly displaced the use of opiates and tropane alkaloids from Solanaceae due to their relative safety. Heroin, the first semi-synthetic opiate, was first synthesized in 1874, but was not pursued until its rediscovery in 1897 by Felix Hoffmann at the Bayer pharmaceutical company in Elberfeld, Germany. From 1898 to 1910 heroin was marketed as a non-addictive morphine substitute and cough medicine for children. By 1902, sales made up 5% of the company's profits, and "heroinism" had attracted media attention. Oxycodone, a thebaine derivative similar to codeine, was introduced by Bayer in 1916 and promoted as a less-addictive analgesic. Preparations of the drug such as Percocet and OxyContin remain popular to this day. A range of synthetic opioids such as methadone (1937), pethidine (1939), fentanyl (late 1950s), and derivatives thereof have been introduced, and each is preferred for certain specialized applications. Nonetheless, morphine remains the drug of choice for American combat medics, who carry packs of syrettes containing 16 milligrams each for use on severely wounded soldiers. No drug has yet been found that can match the painkilling effect of opioids without also duplicating much of its addictive potential. Modern production and usage Papaver somniferum Scored poppy pod showing latex exudate. Raw opium In South American countries, opium poppies (Papaver somniferum) are technically illegal, but nonetheless appear in some nurseries as ornamentals. They are popular and attractive garden plants, whose flowers vary greatly in color, size and form. A modest amount of domestic cultivation in private gardens is not usually subject to legal controls. In part, this tolerance reflects variation in addictive potency: a cultivar for opium production, Papaver somniferum L. elite, contains 92% morphine, codeine, and thebaine in its latex alkaloids, whereas the condiment cultivar "Marianne" has only one-fifth this total, with the remaining alkaloids made up mostly of narcotoline and noscapine. Seed capsules can be dried and used for decorations, but they also contain morphine, codeine, and other alkaloids. These pods can be boiled in water to produce a bitter tea that induces a long-lasting intoxication (See Poppy tea). If allowed to mature, poppy pods can be crushed into "poppy straw" and used to produce lower quantities of morphinans. In poppies subjected to mutagenesis and selection on a mass scale, researchers have been able to use poppy straw to obtain large quantities of oripavine, a precursor to opioids and antagonists such as naltrexone. Poppyseeds are a common and flavorsome topping for breads and cakes. One gram of poppy seeds contains up to 33 micrograms of morphine and 14 micrograms of codeine, and the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration formerly mandated that all drug screening laboratories use a standard cutoff of 300 nanograms per milliliter in urine samples. A single poppy seed roll (0.76 grams of seeds) usually did not produce a positive drug test, but a positive result was observed from eating two rolls. A slice of poppy seed cake containing nearly five grams of seeds per slice produced positive results for 24 hours. Such results are viewed as false positive indications of drug abuse and were the basis of a legal defense. Trafkowski J, Madea B, Musshoff F, "The significance of putative urinary markers of illicit heroin use after consumption of poppy seed products.," Ther Drug Monit 2006 Aug;28(4):552-8. PMID 16885724 On November 30, 1998, the standard cutoff was increased to 2000 nanograms (two micrograms) per milliliter. During the Communist era in Eastern Europe, poppy stalks sold in bundles by farmers were processed by users with household chemicals to make kompot ("Polish heroin"), and poppy seeds were used to produce koknar, an opiate. Harvesting and processing When grown for opium production, the skin of the ripening pods of these poppies is scored by a sharp blade at a time carefully chosen so that neither rain, wind, nor dew can spoil the exudation of white, milky latex, usually in the afternoon. Incisions are made while the pods are still raw, with no more than a slight yellow tint, and must be shallow to avoid penetrating hollow inner chambers or loculi while cutting into the lactiferous vessels. In Indian Subcontinent, Afghanistan, Central Asia and Iran, the special tool used to make the incisions is called a nushtar or "nishtar" (from Persian, meaning a lancet) and carries three or four blades three millimeters apart, which are scored upward along the pod. Incisions are made three or four times at intervals of two to three days, and each time the "poppy tears," which dry to a sticky brown resin, are collected the following morning. One acre harvested in this way can produce three to five kilograms of raw opium. In the Soviet Union, pods were typically scored horizontally, and opium was collected three times, or else one or two collections were followed by isolation of opiates from the ripe capsules. Oil poppies, an alternative strain of P. somniferum, were also used for production of opiates from their capsules and stems. Black tar opium seized in Afghanistan, spring 2005 Raw opium may be sold to a merchant or broker on the black market, but it usually does not travel far from the field before it is refined into morphine base, because pungent, jelly-like raw opium is bulkier and harder to smuggle. Crude laboratories in the field are capable of refining opium into morphine base by a simple acid-base extraction. A sticky, brown paste, morphine base is pressed into bricks and sun-dried, and can either be smoked, prepared into other forms or processed into heroin. Other methods of preparation (besides smoking), include processing into regular opium tincture (tinctura opii), laudanum, paregoric (tinctura opii camphorata), herbal wine (eg vinum opii), opium powder (pulvis opii), opium sirup (sirupus opii) and opium extract (extractum opii) Belgische Farmacopee, 5de uitgave, 1966; part 3 . Vinum opii is made by combining sugar, white wine, cinnamon, and cloves. Opium sirup is made by combining 997.5 part sugar sirup with 2.5 parts opium extract. Opium extract (extractum opii) finally can be made by macerating raw opium with water. To make opium extract, 20 parts water are combined with 1 part raw opium which has been boiled for 5 minutes (the latter to ease mixing). Heroin is widely preferred because of increased potency. One study in postaddicts found heroin to be approximately 2.2 times more potent than morphine by weight with a similar duration; at these relative quantities, they could distinguish the drugs subjectively but had no preference. Heroin was also found to be twice as potent as morphine in surgical anesthesia. Morphine is converted into heroin by a simple chemical reaction with acetic anhydride, followed by a varying degree of purification. Especially in Mexican production, opium may be converted directly to "black tar heroin" in a simplified procedure. This form predominates in the U.S. west of the Mississippi. Relative to other preparations of heroin, it has been associated with a dramatically decreased rate of HIV transmission among intravenous drug users (4% in Los Angeles vs. 40% in New York) due to technical requirements of injection, although it is also associated with greater risk of venous sclerosis and necrotizing fasciitis. Illegal production Approximate global opium production for recreational purposes Opium production has fallen greatly since 1906, when 41,000 tons were produced, but because 39,000 tons of that year's opium were consumed in China, overall usage in the rest of the world was much lower. In 1980, 2,000 tons of opium supplied all legal and illegal uses. Recently, opium production has increased considerably, surpassing 5,000 tons in 2002. In 2002, the price for one kilogram of opium was $300 for the farmer, $800 for purchasers in Afghanistan, and $16,000 on the streets of Europe before conversion into heroin. Following documented trends of increasing availability mirroring increased American military and geo-political regional involvement, Afghanistan is currently the primary producer of the drug. After regularly producing 70% of the world's opium, Afghanistan decreased production to 74 tons per year under a ban by the Taliban in 2000, a move which cut production by 94 per cent. A year later, after American and British troops invaded Afghanistan, removed the Taliban and installed the interim government, the land under cultivation leapt back to 285 square miles, with Afghanistan supplanting Burma to become the world's largest opium producer once more. Opium production in that country has increased rapidly since, reaching an all-time high in 2006. According to DEA statistics, Afghanistan's production of oven-dried opium increased to 1,278 tons in 2002, more than doubled by 2003, and nearly doubled again during 2004. In late 2004, the U.S. government estimated that 206,000 hectares were under poppy cultivation, 4.5% of the country's total cropland, and produced 4,200 metric tons of opium, 76% of the world's supply, yielding 60% of Afghanistan's gross domestic product. In 2006, the UN Office on Drugs and Crime estimated production to have risen 59% to in cultivation, yielding 6,100 tons of opium, 82% of the world's supply. The value of the resulting heroin was estimated at $3.5 billion, of which Afghan farmers were estimated to have received $700 million in revenue (of which the Taliban have been estimated to have collected anywhere from tens of millions to $140 million in taxes). For farmers, the crop can be up to ten times more profitable than wheat. An increasingly large fraction of opium is processed into morphine base and heroin in drug labs in Afghanistan. Despite an international set of chemical controls designed to restrict availability of acetic anhydride, it enters the country, perhaps through its Central Asian neighbors which do not participate. A counternarcotics law passed in December 2005 requires Afghanistan to develop registries or regulations for tracking, storing, and owning acetic anhydride. Besides Afghanistan, smaller quantities of opium are produced in Pakistan, the Golden Triangle region of Southeast Asia (particularly Myanmar), Colombia and Mexico. 200 gr Spanish opium ball Legal production Legal opium production is allowed under the United Nations Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs and other international drug treaties, subject to strict supervision by the law enforcement agencies of individual countries. The leading legal production method is the Gregory process, whereby the entire poppy, excluding roots and leaves, is mashed and stewed in dilute acid solutions. The alkaloids are then recovered via acid-base extraction and purified. This process was developed in the UK during World War II, when wartime shortages of many essential drugs encouraged innovation in pharmaceutical processing. Legal opium production in India is much more traditional. As of 2008, opium was collected by farmers who were licensed to grow 0.1 hectare of opium poppies (0.24 acre), who to maintain their licenses needed to sell 56 kilograms of unadulterated raw opium paste. The price of opium paste is fixed by the government according to the quality and quantity tendered. The average is around 1500 rupees ($29 US) per kilogram. www.cbn.nic.in|accessdate=2009-03-16 . Some additional money is made by drying the poppy heads and collecting poppy seeds, and a small fraction of opium beyond the quota may be consumed locally or diverted to the black market. The opium paste is dried and processed in two government opium and alkaloid factories before it is packed into cases of 60 kilograms for export. Purification of chemical constituents is done in India for domestic production, but typically done abroad by foreign importers. Legal opium importation from India and Turkey is conducted by Mallinckrodt, Noramco, Abbott Laboratories, and Purdue Pharma in the United States, and legal opium production is conducted by GlaxoSmithKline, Johnson and Johnson, Johnson Matthey, and Mayne in Tasmania, Australia; Sanofi Aventis in France; Shionogi Pharmaceutical in Japan; and MacFarlan Smith in the United Kingdom. The UN treaty requires that every country submit annual reports to the International Narcotics Control Board, stating that year's actual consumption of many classes of controlled drugs as well as opioids and projecting required quantities for the next year. This is to allow trends in consumption to be monitored and production quotas allotted. A recent proposal from the European Senlis Council hopes to solve the problems caused by the massive quantity of opium produced illegally in Afghanistan, most of which is converted to heroin and smuggled for sale in Europe and the USA. This proposal is to license Afghan farmers to produce opium for the world pharmaceutical market, and thereby solve another problem, that of chronic underuse of potent analgesics where required within developing nations. Part of the proposal is to overcome the "80-20 rule" that requires the U.S. to purchase 80% of its legal opium from India and Turkey to include Afghanistan, by establishing a second-tier system of supply control that complements the current INCB regulated supply and demand system by providing poppy-based medicines to countries who cannot meet their demand under the current regulations. Senlis arranged a conference in Kabul that brought drug policy experts from around the world to meet with Afghan government officials to discuss internal security, corruption issues, and legal issues within Afghanistan. In June 2007, the Council launched a "Poppy for Medicines" project that provides a technical blueprint for the implementation of an integrated control system within Afghan village-based poppy for medicine projects: the idea promotes the economic diversification by redirecting proceeds from the legal cultivation of poppy and production of poppy-based medicines (See Senlis Council). "Poppy for Medicine: Licensing poppy for the production of essential medicines: an integrated counter-narcotics, development, and counter-insurgency model for Afghanistan." Senlis Council. June 2007. Retrieved on September 21, 2007. Cultivation in the UK In late 2006, the British government permitted the pharmaceutical company Macfarlan Smith (a Johnson Matthey company) to cultivate opium poppies in England for medicinal reasons, after Macfarlan Smith's primary source, India, decided to increase the price of export opium latex. This move is well received by British farmers, with a major opium poppy field based in Didcot, England. The British government has contradicted the Home Office's suggestion that opium cultivation can be legalized in Afghanistan for exports to the United Kingdom, helping lower poverty and internal fighting whilst helping NHS to meet the high demand for morphine and heroin. Opium poppy cultivation in the United Kingdom does not need a licence; however, a licence is required for those wishing to extract opium for medicinal products. The painkilling fields: England's opium poppies that tackle the NHS morphine crisis, Press release, 2007-15-09. Consumption In the industrialized world, the USA is the world's biggest consumer of prescription opioids, with Italy one of the lowest. Most opium imported into the United States is broken down into its alkaloid constituents, and whether legal or illegal, most current drug use occurs with processed derivatives such as heroin rather than with pure and untouched opium. Intravenous injection of opiates is most used: by comparison with injection, "dragon chasing" (heating of heroin with barbital on a piece of foil) and "ack ack" (smoking of cigarettes containing heroin powder) are only 40% and 20% efficient, respectively. One study of British heroin addicts found a 12-fold excess mortality ratio (1.8% of the group dying per year). Most heroin deaths result not from overdose per se, but combination with other depressant drugs such as alcohol or benzodiazepines. An Akha man smokes a pipe. Although this pipe was described as an opium pipe by the photographer, a true opium pipe requires an external heat source. Still, opium can be smoked by mixing it with tobacco, as in madak and ack ack. The smoking of opium does not involve the pyrolysis of the material as might be imagined. Rather, the prepared opium is indirectly heated to temperatures at which the active alkaloids, chiefly morphine, are vaporized. In the past, smokers would utilize a specially designed opium pipe which had a removable knob-like pipe-bowl of fired earthenware attached by a metal fitting to a long, cylindrical stem. A small "pill" of opium about the size of a pea would be placed on the pipe-bowl, which was then heated by holding it over an opium lamp, a special oil lamp with a distinct funnel-like chimney to channel heat into a small area. The smoker would lie on his or her side in order to guide the pipe-bowl and the tiny pill of opium over the stream of heat rising from the chimney of the oil lamp and inhale the vaporized opium fumes as needed. Several pills of opium were smoked at a single session depending on the smoker's tolerance to the drug. The effects could last up to twelve hours. In Eastern culture, opium is more commonly used in the form of paregoric to treat diarrhea. This is a weaker solution than laudanum, an alcoholic tincture which was prevalently used as a pain medication and sleeping aid. Tincture of opium has been prescribed for, among other things, severe diarrhea. Taken thirty minutes prior to meals, it significantly slows intestinal motility, giving the intestines greater time to absorb fluid in the stool. Chemical and physiological properties Morphine is the primary biologically active chemical constituent of opium. Opium contains two main groups of alkaloids. Phenanthrenes include morphine, codeine, and thebaine are the main narcotic constituents. Isoquinolines such as papaverine have no significant central nervous system effects and are not regulated under the Controlled Substances Act. Morphine is by far the most prevalent and important alkaloid in opium, consisting of 10%-16% of the total, and is responsible for most of its harmful effects such as lung edema, respiratory difficulties, coma, or cardiac or respiratory collapse, with a normal lethal dose of 120 to 250 milligrams —the amount found in approximately two grams of opium. Morphine binds to and activates μ-opioid receptors in the brain, spinal cord, stomach and intestine. Regular use leads to physical tolerance and dependence. Chronic opium addicts in 1906 China or modern-day Iran consume an average of eight grams daily. Both analgesia and drug addiction are functions of the mu opioid receptor, the class of opioid receptor first identified as responsive to morphine. Tolerance is associated with the superactivation of the receptor, which may be affected by the degree of endocytosis caused by the opioid administered, and leads to a superactivation of cyclic AMP signalling. Long-term use of morphine in palliative care and management of chronic pain cannot be managed without the development of drug tolerance or physical dependence. However, it is important to note that "physical dependence" is the expected clinical outcome of using opioids in pain management; it should not be confused with addiction or other forms of "dependence" that are associated with the disease of addiction. Just as a diabetic is physically dependent on insulin to treat the disease of diabetes, so a chronic pain patient will become physically dependent on opioids such as morphine to treat the disease of chronic pain or to palliate end-of-life pain. With respect to drug tolerance, the distinction between chronic pain patients and drug abusers is that the former will ultimately find that at an appropriate dose of medication, tolerance develops to the euphoric and other side-effects of opioid use while pain is successfully controlled for years at the same dose. A drug abuser or addict posing as a pain patient will quickly develop tolerance to the euphoric side-effects of the opioids he is prescribed for pain. As a result, such patients will demand an increase in their dose at every opportunity (because as explained previously, tolerance to euphoria develops much more quickly than tolerance to analgesia). Many techniques of drug treatment exist, including pharmacologically based treatments with naltrexone, methadone, or ibogaine . However, it should be emphasized that these treatments are for those suffering from true opioid addiction, and not from physical dependence resulting from the appropriate use of opioids for chronic pain. In the event that a patient with chronic pain no longer suffers from the same degree of pain, it is not difficult for the patient and treating physician to gradually taper down the prescribed opioids until the patient has entirely discontinued opioids use. Of course this is only possible if the patient's underlying pain has been mitigated, successfully treated, or otherwise been resolved. Cultural references There is a longstanding literary history by and about opium users. Thomas de Quincey's 1822 Confessions of an English Opium-Eater is one of the first and most famous literary accounts of opium addiction written from the point of view of an addict and details both the pleasures and the dangers of the drug. De Quincey writes about the great English Romantic poet Samuel Taylor Coleridge (1772-1834), whose poem "Kubla Khan" is also widely considered to be a poem of the opium experience. Coleridge began using opium in 1791 after developing jaundice and rheumatic fever and became a full addict after a severe attack of the disease in 1801, requiring 80-100 drops of laudanum daily. George Crabbe is another early writer who wrote about opium. "The Lotos-Eaters," an 1832 poem by Alfred Lord Tennyson, reflects the generally favorable British attitude toward the drug. In The Count of Monte Cristo (1844) by Alexandre Dumas, père, the Count is assuaged by an edible form of opium, and his experience with it is depicted vividly. Edgar Allan Poe presents opium in a more disturbing context in his 1838 short story "Ligeia," in which the narrator, deeply distraught for the loss of his beloved, takes solace in opium until he "had become a bounden slave in the trammels of opium," unable to distinguish fantasy from reality after taking immoderate doses of opium. In music, Hector Berlioz' 1830 Symphony Fantastique tells the tale of an artist who has poisoned himself with opium while in the depths of despair for a hopeless love. Each of the symphony's five movements takes place at a different setting and with increasingly audible effects from the drug. For example, in the fourth movement, "Marche au Supplice," the artist dreams that he is walking to his own execution. In the fifth movement, "Songe d’une Nuit du Sabbat," he dreams that he is at a witch's orgy, where he witnesses his beloved dancing wildly along to the demented Dies Irae. Towards the end of the nineteenth century, references to opium and opium addiction in the context of crime and the foreign underclass abound within English literature, such as in Wilkie Collins' The Moonstone (1868), where it is used to attempt to uncover the jewel thief. Opium features in the opening paragraphs of Charles Dickens's 1870 serial The Mystery of Edwin Drood and in Arthur Conan Doyle's 1891 Sherlock Holmes short story "The Man with the Twisted Lip." In Oscar Wilde's 1890 The Picture of Dorian Gray, the protagonist visits an opium den "for forgetfulness," unable to bear the guilt and shame of committing murder. Opium likewise underwent a transformation in Chinese literature, becoming associated with indolence and vice by the early twentieth century. Perhaps the best-known literary reference to opium is Karl Marx's metaphor in his "Contribution to the Critique of Hegel's 'Philosophy of Right'," where he refers to religion as "the opium of the people." (This phrase is more commonly quoted as "the opiate of the masses.") In the twentieth century, as the use of opium was eclipsed by morphine and heroin, its role in literature became more limited, and often focused on issues related to its prohibition. In The Good Earth by Pearl S. Buck, Wang Lung, the protagonist, gets his troublesome uncle and aunt addicted to opium in order to keep them out of his hair. William S. Burroughs autobiographically describes the use of opium beside that of its derivatives. His associate Jack Black's memoir You Can't Win chronicles one man's experience both as an onlooker in the opium dens of San Francisco, and later as a "hop fiend" himself. The book and subsequent movie The Wonderful Wizard of Oz may allude to opium at one point in the story, when Dorothy and her friends are drawn into a field of poppies, in which they fall asleep. See also Forbes family Imperialism in Asia Jardine Matheson Holdings Laudanum Nabidh Opium den Opium lamp Opium of the masses Opium pipe Opium poppy Opium production in Afghanistan Opium wars Protocol for Limiting and Regulating the Cultivation of the Poppy Plant, the Production of, International and Wholesale Trade in, and Use of Opium Psychoactive drug Sir Thomas Browne References Further reading Ahmad, Diana L. The Opium Debate and Chinese Exclusion Laws in the Nineteenth-century American West (University of Nevada Press, 2007). Drugs and Racism in the Old West. Armero and Rapaport. The Arts of an Addiction. Qing Dynasty Opium Pipes and Accessories (privately printed, 2005) Booth, Martin. Opium: A History. London: Simon & Schuster, Ltd., 1996. Fairbank, J.K. (1978) The Cambridge History of China: volume 10 part I, Cambridge, CUP Franck Daninos, L'opium légal produit en France, La Recherche, May 2005 Furek, Maxim W. (2008) The Death Proclamation of Generation X: A Self-Fulfilling Prophesy of Goth, Grunge and Heroin, i-Universe. ISBN 978-0-595-46319-0 Hideyuki Takano; The Shore Beyond Good and Evil: A Report from Inside Burma's Opium Kingdom (2002, Kotan, ISBN 0970171617) Latimer, Dean, and Jeff Goldberg with an Introduction by William Burroughs. Flowers in the Blood: The Story of Opium. New York: Franklin Watts, 1981 Martin, Steven. The Art of Opium Antiques. Chiang Mai: Silkworm Books, 2007. Photographs and history of Chinese and Vietnamese opium-smoking paraphernalia. McCoy, Alfred W. The Politics of Heroin: CIA Complicity in the Global Drug Trade. New York: Lawrence Hill Books, 1991. Musto, David F. The American Disease: Origins of Narcotic Control. New York: Oxford University Press, 1987. External links National Institute on Drug Abuse: Heroin and related topics Iowa Substance Abuse Information Center: Heroin and other opiates DEA drug information: Opium, morphine, and heroin Erowid: Opiates / Opioids Hall of Opium Virtual museum (Macromedia Flash presentation) Opium Museum: Opium paraphernalia and historical photos of opium smokers The New Yorker Magazine: photos of Opium production and eradication in Afghanistan Opium Made Easy by Michael Pollan (originally appeared in Harper's.) Confessions of a Poppy Tea addict Geopium: Opium politics, geography, and photos (site mostly in ) Opium in India From Flowers to Heroin, CIA publication BLTC Research: Speculations on the future of opioids Thailex photo: Traditional method of using opium in Thailand Aaron Huey, photographer: Photo Essay on Poppy Eradication in Afghanistan Israel's Dr. Wash claims to cure opiate addiction in 36 hours Tsur Shezaf, Witer, The Opium Growers of Sinai | Opium |@lemmatized opium:325 narcotic:14 form:10 latex:5 release:2 lacerate:1 score:7 immature:1 seed:11 pod:10 poppy:59 papaver:13 somniferum:9 contain:11 morphine:34 opiate:17 alkaloid:15 frequently:5 process:10 chemically:1 produce:20 heroin:33 illegal:8 drug:60 trade:24 resin:2 also:20 include:12 codeine:7 non:3 papaverine:2 thebaine:4 noscapine:2 meconium:2 historically:1 refer:3 relate:2 weak:3 preparation:5 make:18 part:13 different:2 specie:1 modern:6 production:45 culmination:1 millennium:1 source:6 method:5 extraction:3 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5,548 | Batman_Returns | Batman Returns is a 1992 superhero film directed by Tim Burton. Based on the DC Comics character Batman, the film is a sequel to 1989's Batman, with Michael Keaton reprising the lead role. Batman Returns tells the story of a corrupt businessman (Christopher Walken) and the grotesque Penguin (Danny DeVito) plotting to take control of Gotham City. At the same time Batman must deal with the emergence of Catwoman (Michelle Pfeiffer). Burton originally did not want to direct a sequel because of his mixed emotions of the previous film. Daniel Waters delivered a script that satisfied Burton. Wesley Strick did an uncredited rewrite, deleting characterizations of Harvey Dent and Robin and rewriting the climax. Filming started at Burbank, California in June 1991. Batman Returns was released with financial and critical success, but caused parental backlash controversy. Plot A deformed baby boy is thrown into Gotham City's river by his horrified parents. Thirty-three years later, the child, Oswald Cobblepot, has been transformed into the hideous Penguin (Danny DeVito), who blackmails Max Shreck (Christopher Walken) into helping him discover the identity of his parents. When the Penguin's plight becomes news, he's propelled into running for Mayor. Batman (Michael Keaton) is unconvinced by the Penguin, believing that he and his gang are responsible for several child murders. Meanwhile, Shreck throws his secretary, Selina Kyle (Michelle Pfeiffer), from the top of his company's building when she discovers his plan to build a super power station and drain Gotham of its electricity. Resuscitated by a group of cats, Selina returns home and designs a new costume, becoming Catwoman. Selina, meanwhile, is being romanced by Batman's alter-ego Bruce Wayne, a situation complicated by Catwoman's teaming with the Penguin in an effort to rid Gotham of Batman. When Batman exposes the Penguin's villainous ways, thereby ruining his political chances, the Penguin mounts an attack to kill all of Gotham's first-born infants. Batman foils his scheme and Catwoman, after killing Shreck, is presumed dead. The Penguin, having been wounded during his fight with Batman, does not survive his injuries, and dies. Some time later, Bruce is driving around the city at night with butler Alfred Pennyworth (Michael Gough), thinking he sees Selina's shadow on a wall. Alfred stops the car and Bruce searches for Selina in vain. He does find Selina's cat, however, which he takes with him and leaves. The camera then pans up to the top of the city, amidst the sky scrapers. As the Bat-Signal lights up the night sky, Catwoman appears. Cast Michael Keaton as Bruce Wayne / Batman: Continuing his quest as Gotham City's sole protector, in his wake he meets Selina Kyle, and clashes with new anti-heroine Catwoman. His situation becomes complicated due to the arrival of a mysterious "Penguin-like Man" spotted throughout Gotham. Danny DeVito as Oswald Cobblepot / The Penguin: Abandoned at birth due to his hideous appearance by his aristocratic parents, he spends his life living in the sewers of Gotham City. His real intentions are to dispose of every first born son in Gotham City out of vengeance against his parents for abandoning him as a child. Michelle Pfeiffer as Selina Kyle / Catwoman: Former quiet and shy secretary for Max Shreck, Selina transforms into Catwoman after an attempt on her life. She becomes a romantic interest for Bruce Wayne and a deadly adversary for Batman. She has nine lives, manifesting as a supernatural ability to live through mortal injuries eight times. Christopher Walken as Max Shreck: A powerful business mogul who serves as the boss of Selina Kyle and unusual ally to the Penguin. Michael Gough as Alfred Pennyworth: Bruce Wayne's faithful butler. Pat Hingle as Commissioner Gordon: Police Commissioner of Gotham City. Michael Murphy as The Mayor: Gotham's unpopular Mayor whose position is challenged by The Penguin at the urging of Max Shreck. Andrew Bryniarski as Chip Shreck: Max Shreck's son and right hand man. Cristi Conaway as The Ice Princess: A holiday themed beauty queen who is kidnapped and eventually killed by the Penguin. Vincent Schiavelli and Anna Katarina portray The Penguin's assistants. Paul Reubens and Diane Salinger, who appeared in Burton's Pee-wee's Big Adventure have cameo appearances as the Penguin's parents, while Elizabeth Sanders, the wife of Batman co-creator Bob Kane, cameos as a Gotham citizen. Production Development After the success of Batman, Warner Bros. was hoping for a sequel to start filming in May 1990 at Pinewood Studios. They spent $250,000 storing the sets from the first film. Tim Burton had mixed emotions from the previous film. "I will return if the sequel offers something new and exciting," he said in 1989. "Otherwise it's a most-dumbfounded idea." Alan Jones (November 1989). "Batman in Production", Cinefantastique, pp. 75—88. Retrieved on 2008-08-14. Burton decided to direct Edward Scissorhands for 20th Century Fox. Meanwhile, Sam Hamm from the previous film delivered the first two drafts of the script, while Bob Kane was brought back as a creative consultant. Tim Burton, Sam Hamm, Denise Di Novi, Daniel Waters, Shadows of the Bat: The Cinematic Saga of the Dark Knight—The Dark Side of the Knight, 2005, Warner Home Video Hamm's script had Penguin and Catwoman going after hidden treasure. Burton was impressed with Daniel Waters' work on Heathers; Burton originally brought Waters aboard on a sequel to Beetlejuice. Warner Bros. then granted Burton a large amount of creative control, demoting producers Jon Peters and Peter Guber to executive producers. Dissatisfied with the Hamm script, Burton commissioned a rewrite from Waters. Judy Sloane (August 1995). "Daniel Waters on Writing", Film Review, pp. 67—69. Retrieved on 2008-08-14. Waters "came up with a social satire that had an evil mogul backing a bid for the Mayor's office by the Penguin," Waters reported. "I wanted to show that the true villains of our world don't necessarily wear costumes." The plot device of Penguin running for Mayor came from the 1960s TV series episodes "Hizzoner the Penguin" and "Dizzoner the Penguin". Jeffrey Resner (August 1992). "Three Go Mad in Gotham", Empire, pp. 39—46. Retrieved on 2008-08-14. Waters wrote a total of five drafts. On the characterization of Catwoman, Waters explained "Sam Hamm went back to the way comic books in general treat women, like fetishy sexual fantasy. I wanted to start off just at the lowest point in society, a very beaten down secretary." Harvey Dent appeared in early drafts of the script, but was deleted. Waters quoted, "Sam Hamm definitely planned that. I flirted with it, having Harvey start to come back and have one scene of him where he flips a coin and it's the good side of the coin, deciding not to do anything, so you had to wait for the next movie." In early scripts Max Shreck was the "golden boy" of the Cobblepot family, whereas Penguin was the deformed outsider. It turned out that Shreck would be the Penguin's long-lost brother. Max Shreck was also a reference to actor Max Schreck, known for his role as Count Orlok in Nosferatu. Burton hired Wesley Strick to do an uncredited rewrite. Strick recalled, "When I was hired to write Batman Returns (Batman II at the time), the big problem of the script was Penguin's lack of a 'master plan'." Warner Bros. presented Strick with warming or freezing Gotham City (later to be used in Batman & Robin). Strick gained inspiration from a Moses parallel that had Penguin killing the firstborn sons of Gotham. A similar notion was used when the Penguin's parents threw him into a river as a baby. Robin appeared in the script, but was deleted due to too many characters. Waters and Burton feel Robin is "the most worthless character in the world, especially with [Batman as] the loner of loners." Robin started out as a juvenile gang leader, who becomes an ally to Batman. Robin was later changed to a black teenager who's also a garage mechanic. Waters explained, "He's wearing this old-fashioned garage mechanic uniform and it has an 'R' on it. He drives the Batmobile, which I notice they used in the third film!" Marlon Wayans was cast, and signed for a sequel. Wayans had attended a wardrobe fitting, but it was decided to save the character for a third installment. Michael Keaton returned after a significant increase in his salary at $10 million. Annette Benning was cast as Catwoman after Burton saw her performance in The Grifters. Benning dropped out due to pregnancy. Raquel Welch, Jennifer Jason Leigh, Lena Olin, Ellen Barkin, Cher, Bridget Fonda and Susan Sarandon were then in competition for the role. Sean Young, who was originally cast as Vicki Vale in the first film, believed the role should have gone to her. Young visited production offices dressed in a homemade Catwoman costume, demanding an audition. Burton was unfamiliar with Pfeiffer's work, but was convinced to cast her after one meeting. Pfeiffer received a $3 million salary ($2 million more than Benning) and a percentage of the box office. Pfeiffer took kickboxing lessons for the role. Kathy Long served as Pfeiffer's body double. On Danny DeVito's casting, Waters explained, "I kind of knew that DeVito was going to play The Penguin. We didn't really officially cast it, but for a short nasty little guy, it's a short list! I ended up writing the character for Danny DeVito." Filming In early-1991, two of Hollywood's largest sound stages (Stage 16 at Warner Bros. and Stage 12 at Universal Studios) were being prepared for the filming of Batman Returns. Filming started in June 1991. Stage 16 held Gotham Plaza, based on Rockefeller Center. Universal's Stage 12 housed Penguin's underground lair. A half-a-million gallon tank filled with water was used. Burton wanted to make sure that the penguins felt comfortable. Eight other locations on the Warner Bros. lot were used, over 50% of their property was occupied by Gotham City sets. Animal rights groups started protesting the film after finding out that penguins would have rockets strapped on their backs. Richard Hill, the curator of the penguins explained that Warner Bros. was very helpful in making sure the penguins were comfortable. "On the flight over the plane was refrigerated down to 45 degrees," recalls Hill. "In Hollywood, they were given a refrigerated trailer, their own swimming pool, half-a-ton of ice each day, and they had fresh fish delivered daily straight from the docks. Even though it was 100 degrees outside, the entire set was refrigerated down to 35 degrees." Owain Yolland (August 1992). "Two minutes, Mr Penguin", Empire, pp. 89—90. Retrieved on 2008-08-14. Warner Bros. devoted a large amount of secrecy for Batman Returns. The art department was required to keep their office blinds pulled down. Cast and crew had to have photo ID badges with the movie's fake working title Dictel to go anywhere near the sets. Kevin Costner was refused a chance to visit the set. An entertainment magazine leaked the first photos of Danny DeVito as the Penguin; in response Warner Bros. employed a private investigator to track down the accomplice. $65 million was spent during the production of Batman Returns, while $15 million was used for marketing, coming to a total cost of $80 million. The final shot of Catwoman looking at the Bat-Signal was completed during post-production and was not part of the shooting script. After Batman Returns was completed Warner Bros. felt it was best for Catwoman to survive, saving more characterizations in a future installment. Pfeiffer was unavailable and a body double was chosen. Danny Elfman had great enthusiasm for returning because "I didn't have to prove myself from the first film. I remember Jon Peters was very skeptical at first to hire me." Danny Elfman, Inside the Elfman Studios: The Music of Batman Returns, 2005, Warner Home Video Elfman's work schedule was 12 hours a day, 7 days a week. "When completing this movie I realized it was something of a film score and an opera. It was 95 minutes long, twice the amount of the average of film score." Elfman co-orchestrated and wrote the lyrics for Face to Face, performed by Siouxsie & the Banshees. The song can be heard in one scene during the film and in the end credits. Design and effects Bo Welch, Burton's collaborator on Beetlejuice and Edward Scissorhands, replaced Anton Furst as production designer. Welch blended "Fascist architecture with World's Fair architecture" for Gotham City. Judy Sloane (August 1995). "Bo Welch Interview", Film Review, pp. 66. Retrieved on 2008-08-14. Russian architecture and German Expressionism were also studied. An iron maiden was used for Bruce Wayne's entry into the batcave. Bo Welch, Tim Burton, Gotham City Revisited: The Production Design of Batman Returns, 2005, Warner Home Video Stan Winston, who worked with Burton on Edward Scissorhands, designed Danny DeVito's prosthetic makeup, which took two hours to apply. Brian D. Johnson (1992-06-22). "Batman's Return", Maclean's. Retrieved on 2008-08-14. DeVito put a combination of mouthwash and red/green food coloring in his mouth "to create a grotesque texture of some weird ooze." Danny DeVito, Stan Winston, Making-Up the Penguin, 2005, Warner Home Video More than 60 Catsuits were designed in the six-month shoot at $1,000 each. Tim Fennell (August 1992). "The Catsuit", Empire, pp. 47—49. Retrieved on 2008-08-14. The Batsuit was updated, which was made out of a thinner, slightly more flexible foam rubber material than the suit from Batman. DeVito was uncomfortable with his costume, but this made it easy for him to get into character. J. P. Morgan's wardrobe was used for inspiration on Max Shreck's costume design. Bob Ringwood, Michelle Pfeiffer, Sleek, Sexy and Sinister: The Costumes of Batman Returns, 2005, Warner Home Video The bats were entirely composed of computer-generated imagery since it was decided directing real bats on set would be problematic. The Penguin's "bird army" was a combination of CGI, robotic creatures, men in suits and even real penguins. Robotic penguin puppets were commissioned by Stan Winston. In total 30 African Penguins and 12 King Penguins were used. Stan Winston, Assembling the Arctic Army, 2005, Warner Home Video A miniature effect was used for the exteriors of the Cobblepot Mansion in the opening scene and for Wayne Manor. The same method was used for the The Bat Ski-boat. Stan Winston, Mike Fink, Bats, Mattes and Dark Knights: The Visual Effects of Batman Returns, 2005, Warner Home Video Reception Reaction Batman Returns was released in America on June 19, 1992, earning $45.69 million in 2,644 theaters on its opening weekend. This was the highest opening weekend in 1992. The film went on to gross $162.83 million in North America, and $104 million in foreign countries, coming to a worldwide total of $266.83 million. Batman Returns was the third highest grossing film in America of 1992, and sixth highest in worldwide totals. The film was declared a financial success, but Warner Bros. felt the film should have been more successful. A "parental backlash" criticized Batman Returns with violence and sexual references that were unsuitable for children. McDonald's shut down their Happy Meal tie-in for the film. Olly Richards (September 1992). "Trouble in Gotham", Empire, pp. 21—23. Retrieved on 2008-08-14. Burton responded, "I like Batman Returns better than the first one. There was this big backlash that it was too dark, but I found this movie much less dark." Based on 44 reviews collected by Rotten Tomatoes, 77% of reviewers enjoyed the film, with the consensus of "Director Tim Burton's dark, brooding atmosphere, Michael Keaton's work as the tormented hero, and the flawless casting of Danny DeVito as The Penguin and Christopher Walken, make this sequel better than the first." Batman Returns was criticized in some counts for developing more screen time for the villains. It was actually Keaton's idea to give himself less screen time. Peter Travers gave a largely positive review, "Burton uses the summer's most explosively entertaining movie to lead us back into the liberating darkness of dreams." Desson Thomson was mostly pleased with the tragic storylines concerning Catwoman, the Penguin and Max Shreck. However, he felt Keaton deserved more screentime, but still gave a positive review. Todd McCarthy of Variety believed Stan Winston, Danny Elfman, Bo Welch and cinematographer Stefan Czapsky mostly contributed the best elements of the film. McCarthy felt Burton was too obsessed with the visuals and not the storyline, but McCarthy still enjoyed Batman Returns. Roger Ebert stated, "I give the movie a negative review, and yet I don't think it's a bad movie; it's more misguided, made with great creativity, but denying us what we more or less deserve from a Batman story. No matter how hard you try, superheroes and film noir don't go together; the very essence of noir is that there are no more heroes." Jonathan Rosenbaum called DeVito "a pale substitute for Jack Nicholson from the first film" and felt "there's no suspense in Batman Returns whatsoever". Batman comic book writer/artist Matt Wagner quoted, "I hated how Batman Returns made Batman little more than just another costumed creep, little better than the villains he’s pursuing. Additionally, Burton is so blatantly not an action director. That aspect of both his films just sucked." Paul Dini enjoyed the characterization of Bruce Wayne. Common criticisms from comic book fans had Batman killing people. Co-writer Daniel Waters responded "We live in dark times. You can't just drop bad guys off in a spider web in front of city hall." Batman Returns: Heroes, 2005, Warner Home Video Mike Mignola liked Batman Returns''' version of Penguin, while Bruce Timm felt Michelle Pfeiffer was perfectly cast as Catwoman. Alex Ross called Max Shreck "the most exciting character in the script". Daniel Waters, Alex Ross, Batman Returns: Villains, 2005, Warner Home Video Legacy At the 65th Academy Awards, Batman Returns was nominated for Makeup and Visual Effects. The same categories received nominations at the 46th British Academy Film Awards. The makeup department won a Saturn Award. Burton, DeVito and the costume designers also received nominations. Batman Returns was also nominated for Best Fantasy Film. The film was nominated the Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation. DeVito was given Golden Raspberry Award nomination for Worst Supporting Actor. Batman Returns would be the last film in the Batman film series that featured Tim Burton and Michael Keaton as director and leading actor. With Batman Forever, Warner Bros. decided to go in a "lighter" direction to be more mainstream in the process of a family film. Burton had no interest in returning to direct a sequel, but he did serve as a producer. Tim Burton, Michael Keaton, Joel Schumacher, Shadows of the Bat: The Cinematic Saga of the Dark Knight—Reinventing a Hero, 2005, Warner Home Video With Warner Bros. moving on development for Batman Forever in June 1993, a Catwoman spin-off was announced. Michelle Pfeiffer was to reprise her role, with the character not to appear in Forever because of "her own little movie". Burton became attached as director, while producer Denise Di Novi and writer Daniel Water also returned to the Catwoman spin-off with Burton. In January 1994, Burton was unsure of his plans to direct Catwoman or an adaptation of The Fall of the House of Usher. On June 6, 1995, Waters turned in his Catwoman script to Warner Bros., the same day Batman Forever was released. Burton was still being courted to direct. Waters joked, "turning it in the day Batman Forever opened may not have been my best logistical move, in that it's the celebration of the fun-for-the-whole-family Batman. Catwoman is definitely not a fun-for-the-whole-family script. The film labored in development hell for years, with Pfeiffer getting replaced by Ashley Judd. The film ended up becoming the critically-panned Catwoman'' (2004) starring Halle Berry. References External links http://www.variety.com/article/VR103029.html?categoryid=13&cs=1 | Batman_Returns |@lemmatized batman:56 return:33 superhero:1 film:35 direct:7 tim:8 burton:32 base:3 dc:1 comic:4 character:8 sequel:8 michael:10 keaton:9 reprise:2 lead:3 role:6 tell:1 story:2 corrupt:1 businessman:1 christopher:4 walken:4 grotesque:2 penguin:42 danny:12 devito:15 plotting:1 take:4 control:2 gotham:20 city:13 time:7 must:1 deal:1 emergence:1 catwoman:22 michelle:6 pfeiffer:12 originally:3 want:4 mixed:2 emotion:2 previous:3 daniel:7 water:20 deliver:3 script:12 satisfy:1 wesley:2 strick:5 uncredited:2 rewrite:4 delete:3 characterization:4 harvey:3 dent:2 robin:6 climax:1 filming:3 start:7 burbank:1 california:1 june:5 release:3 financial:2 critical:1 success:3 cause:1 parental:2 backlash:3 controversy:1 plot:2 deformed:2 baby:2 boy:2 throw:3 river:2 horrified:1 parent:6 thirty:1 three:2 year:2 later:4 child:4 oswald:2 cobblepot:4 transform:1 hideous:2 blackmail:1 max:11 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5,549 | Greenwich_Village | Greenwich Village (), often simply called "the Village", is a largely residential area on the lower west side of southern Manhattan in New York City. A large majority of the district is home to upper middle class families. Greenwich Village, however, was known in the late 19th – earlier to mid 20th centuries as the bohemian capital and the birthplace of the Beat movement. Ironically, what provided the initial attractive character of the community eventually contributed to its gentrification and commercialization. The Village was seemingly named after Greenwich, London, England. However, it was called Noortwijck ("Noort" or "North" because of its location north of the original settlement on Manhattan Island) or Groenwijck by the Dutch founders before the British takeover. Location Street in Greenwich Village The neighborhood is bounded by Broadway on the east, the Hudson River on the west, Houston Street on the south, and 14th Street on the north. The neighborhoods surrounding it are the East Village to the east, SoHo to the south, and Chelsea to the north. The East Village was formerly considered part of the Lower East Side and never associated with Greenwich Village.F.Y.I., "When did the East Village become the East Village and stop being part of the Lower East Side?", Jesse McKinley, New York Times, June 1, 1995; accessed August 26, 2008. The West Village is the part of Greenwich Village west of 7th Avenue, though Realtors say the dividing line is 6th Avenue. The neighborhood is located in New York's 8th congressional district, New York's 25th State Senate district, New York's 66th State Assembly district, and New York City Council's 3rd district. Greenwich Village was better known as Washington Square based on the major landmark Washington Square Park or Empire Ward in the 19th century. Encyclopedia Britannica's 1956 article on "New York (City)" (subheading "Greenwich Village") states that the southern border of the Village is Spring Street, reflecting an earlier understanding. The newer district of SoHo has since encroached on the Village's historic border. Grid plan The intersection of West 4th and West 12th Streets As Greenwich Village was once a rural hamlet, to the North of the earliest European settlement on Manhattan Island, its street layout is more haphazard than the grid pattern of the 19th-century grid plan (based on the Commissioners' Plan of 1811). Greenwich Village was allowed to keep its street pattern in areas west of Greenwich Lane (now Greenwich Avenue) and Sixth Avenue that were already built up when the plan was implemented, which has resulted in a neighborhood whose streets are dramatically different, in layout, from the ordered structure of newer parts of town. Many of the neighborhood's streets are narrow and some curve at odd angles. Additionally, unlike most of Manhattan above Houston Street, streets in the Village typically are named rather than numbered. While some of the formerly named streets (including Factory, Herring and Amity Streets) are now numbered, even they do not always conform to the usual grid pattern when they enter the neighborhood. For example, West 4th Street, which runs east-west outside of the Village, turns and runs north, crossing West 10th, 11th, 12th, and 13th Streets. A large section of Greenwich Village, made up of more than 50 northern and western blocks in the area up to 14th Street, is considered part of a Historic District by the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission. The District's convoluted borders run no farther south than 4th Street or St. Luke's Place, and no farther east than Washington Square East or University Place. Landmark Maps: Historic District Maps: Manhattan Redevelopment in that area is severely restricted, and developers must preserve the main facade and aesthetics of the buildings even during renovation. Most parts of Greenwich Village comprise mid-rise apartments, 19th-century row houses and the occasional one-family walk-up, a sharp contrast to the hi-rise landscape in Mid- and Downtown Manhattan, due to the lack of shallow bedrock. History Map of old Greenwich Village. A section of Bernard Ratzer's map of New York and its suburbs, made circa 1766 for Henry Moore, Royal Governor of New York, when Greenwich was more than two miles from the city. Greenwich Village is located on what was once marshland. In the 16th century Native Americans referred to it as Sapokanikan ("tobacco field"). The land was cleared and turned into pasture by Dutch and freed African settlers in the 1630s, who named their settlement Noortwyck. The English conquered the Dutch settlement of New Netherland in 1664 and Greenwich Village developed as a hamlet separate from the larger (and fast-growing) New York City to the south. It officially became a village in 1712 and is first referred to as Grin'wich in 1713 Common Council records. In 1822, a yellow fever epidemic in New York encouraged residents to flee to the healthier air of Greenwich Village, and afterwards many stayed. Greenwich Village is generally known as an important landmark on the map of bohemian culture. The neighborhood is known for its colorful, artistic residents and the alternative culture they propagate. Due in part to the progressive attitudes of many of its residents, the Village has traditionally been a focal point of new movements and ideas, whether political, artistic, or cultural. This tradition as an enclave of avant-garde and alternative culture was established by the beginning of the 20th century when small presses, art galleries, and experimental theater thrived. In 1914, in one of the many Manhattan properties Gertrude Vanderbilt Whitney and her husband owned, Gertrude Whitney established the Whitney Studio Club at 8 West 8th Street in Greenwich Village as a facility where young artists could exhibit their works. The place would evolve to become her greatest legacy, the Whitney Museum of American Art, on the site of today's New York Studio School of Drawing, Painting and Sculpture. The Whitney was founded in 1931, as an answer to the then newly founded (1928) Museum of Modern Art's collection of mostly European modernism and its neglect of American Art. Gertrude Whitney decided to put the time and money into the museum after the New York Metropolitan Museum of Art turned down her offer to contribute her twenty-five-year collection of modern art works. Cherry Lane Theatre is also located in Greenwich Village In 1924 the Cherry Lane Theatre was established. Located at 38 Commerce Street it is New York City's oldest continuously running off-Broadway theater. A landmark in Greenwich Village’s cultural landscape, it was built as a farm silo in 1817, and also served as a tobacco warehouse and box factory before Edna St. Vincent Millay and other members of the Provincetown Players converted the structure into a theatre they christened the Cherry Lane Playhouse, which opened on March 24, 1924, with the play The Man Who Ate the Popomack. During the 1940s The Living Theatre, Theatre of the Absurd, and the Downtown Theater movement all took root there, and it developed a reputation as a place where aspiring playwrights and emerging voices could showcase their work. In 1936 the renowned Abstract Expressionist artist and teacher Hans Hofmann moved his art school from E. 57th Street to 52 West 9th Street. In 1938 Hofmann moved again to a more permanent home at 52 West 8th Street. The school remained active until 1958 when Hofmann retired from teaching. Hans Hofmann Estate, retrieved December 19, 2008 During the golden age of bohemianism, Greenwich Village became famous for such eccentrics as Joe Gould (profiled at length by Joseph Mitchell) and Maxwell Bodenheim, the dancer Isadora Duncan, as well as greats on the order of Eugene O'Neill. Political rebellion also made its home here, whether serious (John Reed) or frivolous (Marcel Duchamp and friends set off balloons from atop Washington Square arch, proclaiming the founding of "The Independent Republic of Greenwich Village"). In Christmas 1949, The Weavers played at the Village Vanguard. The Village again became important to the bohemian scene during the 1950s, when the Beat Generation focused their energies there. Fleeing from what they saw as oppressive social conformity, a loose collection of writers, poets, artists, and students (later known as the Beats) and the Beatniks, moved to Greenwich Village, and to North Beach in San Francisco; in many ways creating the east coast-west coast predecessor to the Haight-Ashbury-East Village hippie scene of the next decade. The Village (and surrounding New York City) would later play central roles in the writings of, among others, Jack Kerouac, Allen Ginsberg, William S. Burroughs, and Dylan Thomas, who collapsed while drinking at the White Horse Tavern on November 5, 1953. Off-Off-Broadway began in Greenwich Village in 1958 as a reaction to Off-Broadway, and a "complete rejection of commercial theatre". Viagas (2004, 72) Among the first venues for what would soon be called "Off-Off-Broadway" (a term supposedly coined by critic Jerry Tallmer of the Village Voice) were coffeehouses in Greenwich Village, particularly the Caffe Cino at 31 Cornelia Street, operated by the eccentric Joe Cino, who early on took a liking to actors and playwrights and agreed to let them stage plays there without bothering to read the plays first, or to even find out much about the content. Also integral to the rise of Off-Off-Broadway were Ellen Stewart at La MaMa, and Al Carmines at the Judson Poets' Theater, located at Judson Memorial Church. Greenwich Village played a major role in the development of the folk music scene of the 1960s. Three of the four members of The Mamas and the Papas met there. Guitarist and folk singer Dave Van Ronk lived there for many years. Village resident Bob Dylan was one of the foremost popular songwriters in the country, and often developments in New York City would influence the simultaneously occurring folk rock movement in San Francisco, and vice versa. Dozens of other cultural and popular icons got their start in the Village's nightclub, theater, and coffeehouse scene during the 1950s, 1960s, and early 1970s, notably Barbra Streisand, Peter, Paul, and Mary, Simon and Garfunkel, Jackson Browne, James Taylor, Eric Andersen, Joan Baez, The Velvet Underground, The Kingston Trio, Richie Havens, Maria Muldaur, Tom Paxton, Phil Ochs, Joni Mitchell, Laura Nyro, Jimi Hendrix and Nina Simone. The Greenwich Village of the 1950s and 1960s was at the center of Jane Jacobs's book The Death and Life of Great American Cities, which defended it and similar communities, while critiquing common urban renewal policies of the time. Founded by New York based artist Mercedes Matter and her students the New York Studio School of Drawing, Painting and Sculpture is an art school formed in the mid 1960s. The school officially opened September 23 1964, it is still currently active and it is housed at 8 W. 8th Street, the site of the original Whitney Museum of American Art. History of the NY Studio School, retrieved December 19, 2008 Greenwich Village was also home to one of the many safe houses used by the radical anti-war movement known as the Weather Underground. On March 6, 1970, however, their safehouse was destroyed when an explosive they were constructing was accidentally detonated, costing three Weathermen (Ted Gold, Terry Robbins, and Diana Oughton) their lives. In recent days, the Village has maintained its role as a center for movements which have challenged the wider American culture: for example, its role in the gay liberation movement. It contains Christopher Street and the Stonewall Inn, important landmarks, as well as the world's oldest gay and lesbian bookstore, Oscar Wilde Bookshop, founded in 1967. In 2006, the Village was the scene of an assault involving seven lesbians and a straight man that sparked appreciable media attention, with strong statements both defending and attacking the parties. Since the 1960s Jefferson Market Library, once a courthouse, now serves as a branch of the New York Public Library. Currently, artists and local historians bemoan the fact that the bohemian days of Greenwich Village are long gone, because of the extraordinarily high housing costs in the neighborhood. The artists have fled to first to SoHo then to TriBeCa and finally Williamsburg and Bushwick in Brooklyn, Long Island City, and DUMBO. Nevertheless, residents of Greenwich Village still possess a strong community identity and are proud of their neighborhood's unique history and fame, and its well-known liberal live-and-let-live attitudes. Greenwich Village George Segal's 1980 sculptures commemorating the gay liberation movement on Sheridan square in Greenwich Village. Greenwich Village is now home to many celebrities, including actresses/actors Julianne Moore, Liv Tyler, Uma Thurman, Philip Seymour Hoffman, Leontyne Price, Amy Sedaris, and Barbara Pierce Bush, the daughter of former U.S. President George W. Bush; Thurman and Bush both live on West Ninth Street. Alt-country/folk musician Steve Earle moved to the neighborhood in 2005, and his album Washington Square Serenade is primarily about his experiences in the Village. The Village also serves as home to Anna Wintour, the imperious editor-in-chief of Vogue Magazine. Greenwich Village includes the primary campus for New York University (NYU), The New School, and Yeshiva University's Benjamin N. Cardozo School of Law. The Cooper Union is also located in Greenwich Village, at Astor Place, near St. Mark's Place on the border of the East Village. The historic Washington Square Park is the center and heart of the neighborhood, but the Village has several other, smaller parks: Father Fagan, Minetta Triangle, Petrosino Square, Little Red Square, and Time Landscape. There are also city playgrounds, including Desalvio, Minetta, Thompson Street, Bleecker Street, Downing Street, Mercer Street, and William Passannante Ballfield. Perhaps the most famous, though, is "The Cage", officially known as the West 4th Street Courts. Sitting on top of the West Fourth Street–Washington Square subway station at Sixth Avenue, the courts are easily accessible to basketball and American handball players from all over New York. The Cage has become one of the most important tournament sites for the city-wide "Streetball" amateur basketball tournament. The Village also has a bustling performing arts scene. It is still home to many Off-Broadway and Off-Off-Broadway theaters; for instance, Blue Man Group has taken up residence in the Astor Place Theater. The Village Vanguard and The Blue Note hosts some of the biggest names in jazz on a regular basis. Other music clubs include The Bitter End, Cafe Wha? and Lion's Den. The village also has its own orchestra aptly named the Greenwich Village Orchestra. Comedy clubs dot the Village as well, including The Boston and Comedy Cellar, where many American stand-up comedians got their start. Each year on October 31, it is home to New York's Village Halloween Parade, the largest Halloween event in the country, drawing an audience of two million from throughout the region. Several publications have offices in the Village, most notably the newsweekly The Village Voice. In media 90 Bedford Street, Winter 2006-2007 From 1948-1950, Village Barn, the first country music show on network television (NBC) originated from a nightclub of the same name in the basement of 52 West 8th Street. The 1970s television comedy Barney Miller was set at a fictional police station in Greenwich Village. The cover of Bob Dylan's hit album The Freewheelin' Bob Dylan with his then-girlfriend Suze Rotolo is taken on Jones Street in Greenwich Village. The 1994–2004 NBC sitcom Friends is set in the Village (Central Perk was apparently on Mercer or Houston Street, down the block from the Angelika Film Center, The Angelika Film Center was said to be "up the block" from Central Perk in "The One Where Ross Hugs Rachel", the sixth season's second episode, placing the coffee house on Mercer Street or Houston. and Phoebe lived at 5 Morton Street This address was given "The One With All The Kissing", the fifth season's second episode. ), though it was filmed and produced in Burbank, California. The exterior shot of Chandler, Joey, Rachel, and Monica's apartment building is actually located at the corner of Grove Street and Bedford Street in the West Village. One of the working titles of Friends was Once Upon a Time in the West Village. In the 1967 Audrey Hepburn movie Wait Until Dark, the main character, Susy, lives in an apartment located at 4 St. Luke's Place in Greenwich Village. The short story The Last Leaf by O'Henry is entirely set in Greenwich Village. In the Marvel Comics universe, Master of the Mystic Arts and Sorcerer Supreme, Doctor Strange, lives in a brownstone mansion in Greenwich Village. Doctor Strange’s Sanctum Sanctorum is located at 177A Bleecker Street. In the musical comedy, Wonderful Town, the main characters, Ruth and Eileen Sherwood, move from Columbus, Ohio to Greenwich Village to pursue their dreams. The apartment that they move into is located on Christopher Street. The building used for exterior shots of Carrie Bradshaw's apartment in Sex and the City is located at 66 Perry St (even though her address in the series is the fictional address of 245 East 73rd Street on the Upper East Side). The 1984 Mickey Rourke film The Pope of Greenwich Village centers on a restaurant maître d' in the Italian section of the Village. The Real World: Back to New York, the 2001 season of the MTV reality television series The Real World, was filmed in the Village. Hudson Street Loft at realworldhouses.com The Greenwich Village KFC/Taco Bell infested with rats appeared on many TV networks worldwide. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qvLDFtaL5HI Education Greenwich Village residents are zoned to schools in the New York City Department of Education. Residents are jointly zoned to two elementary schools: PS3 Melser Charrette School and PS41 Greenwich Village School. Residents are zoned to Baruch Middle School 104. Residents must apply to New York City high schools. Notable residents Sullivan St. was home to Genovese crime family godfather Vincent "The Chin" Gigante. Born and raised in the Village he would spend most of his adult life there during the day. According to F.B.I. surveillance reports, after midnight, he would be driven to a townhouse at East 77th Street near Park Avenue where he actually lived. Popularly known as the "Oddfather," Gigante allegedly feigned senility by walking around the area in a bathrobe, in the hopes of eventually entering an insanity plea. Vincent Gigante, Mafia Leader Who Feigned Insanity, Dies at 77, by Selwyn Raab, The New York Times, December 19, 2005 Judge Sonia Sotomayor, former judge on the U.S. District Court for the Southern District of New York, current judge on the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit, and appointee to the U.S. Supreme Court. Sotomayor, a Trailblazer and a Dreamer, N.Y. Times, May 26, 2009, http://www.nytimes.com/2009/05/27/us/politics/27websotomayor.html See also Cedar Tavern Gay Street, Manhattan The Church of the Ascension Village Care of New York Greenwich Village Society for Historic Preservation Village People Notes and references External links Greenwich Village Society for Historic Preservation Village Voice Official Tourist map (controversially showing Greenwich Village to include the East Village Greenwich Village Historic District - map from the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission Greenwich Village, by Anna Alice Chapin, 1919, from Project Gutenberg | Greenwich_Village |@lemmatized greenwich:54 village:94 often:2 simply:1 call:3 largely:1 residential:1 area:5 low:3 west:20 side:4 southern:3 manhattan:8 new:35 york:30 city:17 large:4 majority:1 district:12 home:9 upper:2 middle:2 class:1 family:3 however:3 know:9 late:1 earlier:1 mid:4 century:6 bohemian:4 capital:1 birthplace:1 beat:3 movement:8 ironically:1 provide:1 initial:1 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5,550 | Chaos_theory | |A plot of the Lorenz attractor for values , , In mathematics, chaos theory describes the behavior of certain dynamical systems – that is, systems whose states evolve with time – that may exhibit dynamics that are highly sensitive to initial conditions (popularly referred to as the butterfly effect). As a result of this sensitivity, which manifests itself as an exponential growth of perturbations in the initial conditions, the behavior of chaotic systems appears to be random. This happens even though these systems are deterministic, meaning that their future dynamics are fully defined by their initial conditions with no random elements involved. This behavior is known as deterministic chaos, or simply chaos. Chaotic behavior is also observed in natural systems, such as the weather. This may be explained by a chaos-theoretical analysis of a mathematical model of such a system, embodying the laws of physics that are relevant for the natural system. Overview Chaotic behavior has been observed in the laboratory in a variety of systems including electrical circuits, lasers, oscillating chemical reactions, fluid dynamics, and mechanical and magneto-mechanical devices. Observations of chaotic behavior in nature include the dynamics of satellites in the solar system, the time evolution of the magnetic field of celestial bodies, population growth in ecology, the dynamics of the action potentials in neurons, and molecular vibrations. Everyday examples of chaotic systems include weather and climate. Raymond Sneyers (1997) "Climate Chaotic Instability: Statistical Determination and Theoretical Background", Environmetrics, vol. 8, no. 5, pages 517-532. There is some controversy over the existence of chaotic dynamics in plate tectonics and in economics. Apostolos Serletis and Periklis Gogas,Purchasing Power Parity Nonlinearity and Chaos, in: Applied Financial Economics, 10, 615-622, 2000. Apostolos Serletis and Periklis Gogas , in: The Energy Journal, 20, 83-103, 1999. Apostolos Serletis and Periklis Gogas, Chaos in East European Black Market Exchange Rates, in: Research in Economics, 51, 359-385, 1997. Systems that exhibit mathematical chaos are deterministic and thus orderly in some sense; this technical use of the word chaos is at odds with common parlance, which suggests complete disorder. However, even though they are deterministic, chaotic systems show a strong kind of unpredictability not shown by other deterministic systems. Werndl, Charlotte (2009). What are the New Implications of Chaos for Unpredictability?. The British Journal for the Philosophy of Science 60, 195-220. A related field of physics called quantum chaos theory studies systems that follow the laws of quantum mechanics. Recently, another field, called relativistic chaos, A. E. Motter, Relativistic chaos is coordinate invariant, in: Phys. Rev. Lett. 91, 231101 (2003). has emerged to describe systems that follow the laws of general relativity. This article tries to describe limits on the degree of disorder that computers can model with simple rules that have complex results. For example, the Lorenz system pictured is chaotic, but has a clearly defined structure. Bounded chaos is a useful term for describing models of disorder. History Fractal fern created using chaos game. Natural forms (ferns, clouds, mountains, etc.) may be recreated through an Iterated function system (IFS). The first discoverer of chaos was Henri Poincaré. In the 1880s, while studying the three-body problem, he found that there can be orbits which are nonperiodic, and yet not forever increasing nor approaching a fixed point. Jules Henri Poincaré (1890) "Sur le problème des trois corps et les équations de la dynamique. Divergence des séries de M. Lindstedt," Acta Mathematica, vol. 13, pages 1–270. Florin Diacu and Philip Holmes (1996) Celestial Encounters: The Origins of Chaos and Stability, Princeton University Press. In 1898 Jacques Hadamard published an influential study of the chaotic motion of a free particle gliding frictionlessly on a surface of constant negative curvature. In the system studied, "Hadamard's billiards," Hadamard was able to show that all trajectories are unstable in that all particle trajectories diverge exponentially from one another, with a positive Lyapunov exponent. Much of the earlier theory was developed almost entirely by mathematicians, under the name of ergodic theory. Later studies, also on the topic of nonlinear differential equations, were carried out by G.D. Birkhoff, George D. Birkhoff, Dynamical Systems, vol. 9 of the American Mathematical Society Colloquium Publications (Providence, Rhode Island: American Mathematical Society, 1927) , Kolmogorov, A. N. (1941a). “Local structure of turbulence in an incompressible fluid for very large Reynolds numbers,” Doklady Akademii Nauk SSSR, vol. 30, no. 4, pages 301–305. Reprinted in: Proceedings of the Royal Society of London: Mathematical and Physical Sciences (Series A), vol. 434, pages 9–13 (1991). Kolmogorov, A. N. (1941b) “On degeneration of isotropic turbulence in an incompressible viscous liquid,” Doklady Akademii Nauk SSSR, vol. 31, no. 6, pages 538–540. Reprinted in: Proceedings of the Royal Society of London: Mathematical and Physical Sciences (Series A), vol. 434, pages 15–17 (1991). Andrey N. Kolmogorov (1954) "Preservation of conditionally periodic movements with small change in the Hamiltonian function," Doklady Akademii Nauk SSSR, vol. 98, pages 527–530. See also Kolmogorov–Arnold–Moser theorem M.L. Cartwright and J.E. Littlewood, Mary L. Cartwright and John E. Littlewood (1945) "On non-linear differential equations of the second order,I: The equation y" + k(1−y2)y' + y = bλkcos(λt + a), k large," Journal of the London Mathematical Society, vol. 20, pages 180–189. See also: Van der Pol oscillator and Stephen Smale. Stephen Smale (January 1960) "Morse inequalities for a dynamical system," Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society, vol. 66, pages 43–49. Except for Smale, these studies were all directly inspired by physics: the three-body problem in the case of Birkhoff, turbulence and astronomical problems in the case of Kolmogorov, and radio engineering in the case of Cartwright and Littlewood. Although chaotic planetary motion had not been observed, experimentalists had encountered turbulence in fluid motion and nonperiodic oscillation in radio circuits without the benefit of a theory to explain what they were seeing. Despite initial insights in the first half of the twentieth century, chaos theory became formalized as such only after mid-century, when it first became evident for some scientists that linear theory, the prevailing system theory at that time, simply could not explain the observed behaviour of certain experiments like that of the logistic map. What had been beforehand excluded as measure imprecision and simple "noise" was considered by chaos theories as a full component of the studied systems. The main catalyst for the development of chaos theory was the electronic computer. Much of the mathematics of chaos theory involves the repeated iteration of simple mathematical formulas, which would be impractical to do by hand. Electronic computers made these repeated calculations practical, while figures and images made it possible to visualize these systems. One of the earliest electronic digital computers, ENIAC, was used to run simple weather forecasting models. Turbulence in the tip vortex from an airplane wing. Studies of the critical point beyond which a system creates turbulence was important for Chaos theory, analyzed for example by the Soviet physicist Lev Landau who developed the Landau-Hopf theory of turbulence. David Ruelle and Floris Takens later predicted, against Landau, that fluid turbulence could develop through a strange attractor, a main concept of chaos theory. An early pioneer of the theory was Edward Lorenz whose interest in chaos came about accidentally through his work on weather prediction in 1961. Edward N. Lorenz, "Deterministic non-periodic flow," Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences, vol. 20, pages 130–141 (1963). Lorenz was using a simple digital computer, a Royal McBee LGP-30, to run his weather simulation. He wanted to see a sequence of data again and to save time he started the simulation in the middle of its course. He was able to do this by entering a printout of the data corresponding to conditions in the middle of his simulation which he had calculated last time. To his surprise the weather that the machine began to predict was completely different from the weather calculated before. Lorenz tracked this down to the computer printout. The computer worked with 6-digit precision, but the printout rounded variables off to a 3-digit number, so a value like 0.506127 was printed as 0.506. This difference is tiny and the consensus at the time would have been that it should have had practically no effect. However Lorenz had discovered that small changes in initial conditions produced large changes in the long-term outcome. Lorenz's discovery, which gave its name to Lorenz attractors, proved that meteorology could not reasonably predict weather beyond a weekly period (at most). The year before, Benoît Mandelbrot found recurring patterns at every scale in data on cotton prices. Beforehand, he had studied information theory and concluded noise was patterned like a Cantor set: on any scale the proportion of noise-containing periods to error-free periods was a constant – thus errors were inevitable and must be planned for by incorporating redundancy. J.M. Berger and B. Mandelbrot (July 1963) "A new model for error clustering in telephone circuits," I.B.M. Journal of Research and Development, vol 7, pages 224–236. Mandelbrot described both the "Noah effect" (in which sudden discontinuous changes can occur, e.g., in a stock's prices after bad news, thus challenging normal distribution theory in statistics, aka Bell Curve) and the "Joseph effect" (in which persistence of a value can occur for a while, yet suddenly change afterwards). B. Mandelbrot, The Fractal Geometry of Nature (N.Y., N.Y.: Freeman, 1977), page 248. See also: Benoît B. Mandelbrot and Richard L. Hudson, The (Mis)behavior of Markets: A Fractal View of Risk, Ruin, and Reward (N.Y., N.Y.: Basic Books, 2004), page 201. In 1967, he published "How long is the coast of Britain? Statistical self-similarity and fractional dimension," showing that a coastline's length varies with the scale of the measuring instrument, resembles itself at all scales, and is infinite in length for an infinitesimally small measuring device. Benoît Mandelbrot (5 May 1967) "How Long Is the Coast of Britain? Statistical Self-Similarity and Fractional Dimension," Science, Vol. 156, No. 3775, pages 636–638. Arguing that a ball of twine appears to be a point when viewed from far away (0-dimensional), a ball when viewed from fairly near (3-dimensional), or a curved strand (1-dimensional), he argued that the dimensions of an object are relative to the observer and may be fractional. An object whose irregularity is constant over different scales ("self-similarity") is a fractal (for example, the Koch curve or "snowflake", which is infinitely long yet encloses a finite space and has fractal dimension equal to circa 1.2619, the Menger sponge and the Sierpiński gasket). In 1975 Mandelbrot published The Fractal Geometry of Nature, which became a classic of chaos theory. Biological systems such as the branching of the circulatory and bronchial systems proved to fit a fractal model. Chaos was observed by a number of experimenters before it was recognized; e.g., in 1927 by van der Pol B. van der Pol and J. van der Mark (1927) "Frequency demultiplication," Nature, vol. 120, pages 363–364. See also: Van der Pol oscillator and in 1958 by R.L. Ives. R.L. Ives (10 October 1958) "Neon oscillator rings," Electronics, vol. 31, pages 108–115. See p. 83 of Lee W. Casperson, "Gas laser instabilities and their interpretation," pages 83–98 in: N. B. Abraham, F. T. Arecchi, and L. A. Lugiato, eds., Instabilities and Chaos in Quantum Optics II: Proceedings of the NATO Advanced Study Institute, Il Ciocco, Italy, June 28–July 7, 1987 (N.Y., N.Y.: Springer Verlag, 1988). However, Yoshisuke Ueda seems to have been the first experimenter to have recognized chaos as such while using an analog computer on November 27, 1961. Ueda's supervising professor, Hayashi, did not believe in chaos, and thus he prohibited Ueda from publishing his findings until 1970. Ralph H. Abraham and Yoshisuke Ueda, eds., The Chaos Avant-Garde: Memoirs of the Early Days of Chaos Theory (Singapore: World Scientific Publishing Co., 2001). See Chapters 3 and 4. In December 1977 the New York Academy of Sciences organized the first symposium on Chaos, attended by David Ruelle, Robert May, James Yorke (coiner of the term "chaos" as used in mathematics), Robert Shaw (a physicist, part of the Eudaemons group with J. Doyne Farmer and Norman Packard who tried to find a mathematical method to beat roulette, and then created with them the Dynamical Systems Collective in Santa Cruz, California), and the meteorologist Edward Lorenz. The following year, Mitchell Feigenbaum published the noted article "Quantitative Universality for a Class of Nonlinear Transformations", where he described logistic maps. Mitchell Feigenbaum (July 1978) "Quantitative universality for a class of nonlinear transformations," Journal of Statistical Physics, vol. 19, no. 1, pages 25–52. Feigenbaum had applied fractal geometry to the study of natural forms such as coastlines. Feigenbaum notably discovered the universality in chaos, permitting an application of chaos theory to many different phenomena. In 1979, Albert J. Libchaber, during a symposium organized in Aspen by Pierre Hohenberg, presented his experimental observation of the bifurcation cascade that leads to chaos and turbulence in convective Rayleigh–Benard systems. He was awarded the Wolf Prize in Physics in 1986 along with Mitchell J. Feigenbaum "for his brilliant experimental demonstration of the transition to turbulence and chaos in dynamical systems". Then in 1986 the New York Academy of Sciences co-organized with the National Institute of Mental Health and the Office of Naval Research the first important conference on Chaos in biology and medicine. Bernardo Huberman thereby presented a mathematical model of the eye tracking disorder among schizophrenics. Bernardo Huberman, "A Model for Dysfunctions in Smooth Pursuit Eye Movement" Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, Vol. 504 Page 260 July 1987, Perspectives in Biological Dynamics and Theoretical Medicine Chaos theory thereafter renewed physiology in the 1980s, for example in the study of pathological cardiac cycles. In 1987, Per Bak, Chao Tang and Kurt Wiesenfeld published a paper in Physical Review Letters Per Bak, Chao Tang, and Kurt Wiesenfeld, "Self-organized criticality: An explanation of the 1/f noise," Physical Review Letters, vol. 59, no. 4, pages 381–384 (27 July 1987). However, the conclusions of this article have been subject to dispute. See: http://www.nslij-genetics.org/wli/1fnoise/1fnoise_square.html . See especially: Lasse Laurson, Mikko J. Alava, and Stefano Zapperi, "Letter: Power spectra of self-organized critical sand piles," Journal of Statistical Mechanics: Theory and Experiment, 0511, L001 (15 September 2005). describing for the first time self-organized criticality (SOC), considered to be one of the mechanisms by which complexity arises in nature. Alongside largely lab-based approaches such as the Bak–Tang–Wiesenfeld sandpile, many other investigations have centered around large-scale natural or social systems that are known (or suspected) to display scale-invariant behaviour. Although these approaches were not always welcomed (at least initially) by specialists in the subjects examined, SOC has nevertheless become established as a strong candidate for explaining a number of natural phenomena, including: earthquakes (which, long before SOC was discovered, were known as a source of scale-invariant behaviour such as the Gutenberg–Richter law describing the statistical distribution of earthquake sizes, and the Omori law F. Omori (1894) "On the aftershocks of earthquakes," Journal of the College of Science, Imperial University of Tokyo, vol. 7, pages 111-200. describing the frequency of aftershocks); solar flares; fluctuations in economic systems such as financial markets (references to SOC are common in econophysics); landscape formation; forest fires; landslides; epidemics; and biological evolution (where SOC has been invoked, for example, as the dynamical mechanism behind the theory of "punctuated equilibria" put forward by Niles Eldredge and Stephen Jay Gould). Worryingly, given the implications of a scale-free distribution of event sizes, some researchers have suggested that another phenomenon that should be considered an example of SOC is the occurrence of wars. These "applied" investigations of SOC have included both attempts at modelling (either developing new models or adapting existing ones to the specifics of a given natural system), and extensive data analysis to determine the existence and/or characteristics of natural scaling laws. The same year, James Gleick published Chaos: Making a New Science, which became a best-seller and introduced general principles of chaos theory as well as its history to the broad public. At first the domains of work of a few, isolated individuals, chaos theory progressively emerged as a transdisciplinary and institutional discipline, mainly under the name of nonlinear systems analysis. Alluding to Thomas Kuhn's concept of a paradigm shift exposed in The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (1962), many "chaologists" (as some self-nominated themselves) claimed that this new theory was an example of such as shift, a thesis upheld by J. Gleick. The availability of cheaper, more powerful computers broadens the applicability of chaos theory. Currently, chaos theory continues to be a very active area of research, involving many different disciplines (mathematics, topology, physics, population biology, biology, meteorology, astrophysics, information theory, etc.). Chaotic dynamics For a dynamical system to be classified as chaotic, it must have the following properties: Assign z to z² minus the conjugate of z, plus the original value of the pixel for each pixel, then count how many cycles it took when the absolute value of z exceeds two; inversion (borders are inner set), so that you can see that it threatens to fail that third condition, even if it meets condition two. it must be sensitive to initial conditions, it must be topologically mixing, and its periodic orbits must be dense. Sensitivity to initial conditions means that each point in such a system is arbitrarily closely approximated by other points with significantly different future trajectories. Thus, an arbitrarily small perturbation of the current trajectory may lead to significantly different future behaviour. However, it has been shown that the first two conditions in fact imply this one. Saber N. Elaydi, Discrete Chaos, Chapman & Hall/CRC, 1999, page 117. Sensitivity to initial conditions is popularly known as the "butterfly effect," so called because of the title of a paper given by Edward Lorenz in 1972 to the American Association for the Advancement of Science in Washington, D.C. entitled Predictability: Does the Flap of a Butterfly’s Wings in Brazil set off a Tornado in Texas? The flapping wing represents a small change in the initial condition of the system, which causes a chain of events leading to large-scale phenomena. Had the butterfly not flapped its wings, the trajectory of the system might have been vastly different. Sensitivity to initial conditions is often confused with chaos in popular accounts. It can also be a subtle property, since it depends on a choice of metric, or the notion of distance in the phase space of the system. For example, consider the simple dynamical system produced by repeatedly doubling an initial value. This system has sensitive dependence on initial conditions everywhere, since any pair of nearby points will eventually become widely separated. However, it has extremely simple behaviour, as all points except 0 tend to infinity. If instead we use the bounded metric on the line obtained by adding the point at infinity and viewing the result as a circle, the system no longer is sensitive to initial conditions. For this reason, in defining chaos, attention is normally restricted to systems with bounded metrics, or closed, bounded invariant subsets of unbounded systems. Even for bounded systems, sensitivity to initial conditions is not identical with chaos. For example, consider the two-dimensional torus described by a pair of angles (x,y), each ranging between zero and 2π. Define a mapping that takes any point (x,y) to (2x, y + a), where a is any number such that a/2π is irrational. Because of the doubling in the first coordinate, the mapping exhibits sensitive dependence on initial conditions. However, because of the irrational rotation in the second coordinate, there are no periodic orbits, and hence the mapping is not chaotic according to the definition above. Topologically mixing means that the system will evolve over time so that any given region or open set of its phase space will eventually overlap with any other given region. Here, "mixing" is really meant to correspond to the standard intuition: the mixing of colored dyes or fluids is an example of a chaotic system. Linear systems are never chaotic; for a dynamical system to display chaotic behaviour it has to be nonlinear. Also, by the Poincaré–Bendixson theorem, a continuous dynamical system on the plane cannot be chaotic; among continuous systems only those whose phase space is non-planar (having dimension at least three, or with a non-Euclidean geometry) can exhibit chaotic behaviour. However, a discrete dynamical system (such as the logistic map) can exhibit chaotic behaviour in a one-dimensional or two-dimensional phase space. Attractors Some dynamical systems are chaotic everywhere (see e.g. Anosov diffeomorphisms) but in many cases chaotic behaviour is found only in a subset of phase space. The cases of most interest arise when the chaotic behaviour takes place on an attractor, since then a large set of initial conditions will lead to orbits that converge to this chaotic region. An easy way to visualize a chaotic attractor is to start with a point in the basin of attraction of the attractor, and then simply plot its subsequent orbit. Because of the topological transitivity condition, this is likely to produce a picture of the entire final attractor. Phase diagram for a damped driven pendulum, with double period motion For instance, in a system describing a pendulum, the phase space might be two-dimensional, consisting of information about position and velocity. One might plot the position of a pendulum against its velocity. A pendulum at rest will be plotted as a point, and one in periodic motion will be plotted as a simple closed curve. When such a plot forms a closed curve, the curve is called an orbit. Our pendulum has an infinite number of such orbits, forming a pencil of nested ellipses about the origin. Strange attractors While most of the motion types mentioned above give rise to very simple attractors, such as points and circle-like curves called limit cycles, chaotic motion gives rise to what are known as strange attractors, attractors that can have great detail and complexity. For instance, a simple three-dimensional model of the Lorenz weather system gives rise to the famous Lorenz attractor. The Lorenz attractor is perhaps one of the best-known chaotic system diagrams, probably because not only was it one of the first, but it is one of the most complex and as such gives rise to a very interesting pattern which looks like the wings of a butterfly. Another such attractor is the Rössler map, which experiences period-two doubling route to chaos, like the logistic map. Strange attractors occur in both continuous dynamical systems (such as the Lorenz system) and in some discrete systems (such as the Hénon map). Other discrete dynamical systems have a repelling structure called a Julia set which forms at the boundary between basins of attraction of fixed points - Julia sets can be thought of as strange repellers. Both strange attractors and Julia sets typically have a fractal structure. The Poincaré-Bendixson theorem shows that a strange attractor can only arise in a continuous dynamical system if it has three or more dimensions. However, no such restriction applies to discrete systems, which can exhibit strange attractors in two or even one dimensional systems. The initial conditions of three or more bodies interacting through gravitational attraction (see the n-body problem) can be arranged to produce chaotic motion. Minimum complexity of a chaotic system Bifurcation diagram of a logistic map, displaying chaotic behaviour past a threshold Simple systems can also produce chaos without relying on differential equations. An example is the logistic map, which is a difference equation (recurrence relation) that describes population growth over time. Another example is the Ricker model of population dynamics. Even the evolution of simple discrete systems, such as cellular automata, can heavily depend on initial conditions. Stephen Wolfram has investigated a cellular automaton with this property, termed by him rule 30. A minimal model for conservative (reversible) chaotic behavior is provided by Arnold's cat map. Mathematical theory Sharkovskii's theorem is the basis of the Li and Yorke (1975) proof that any one-dimensional system which exhibits a regular cycle of period three will also display regular cycles of every other length as well as completely chaotic orbits. Mathematicians have devised many additional ways to make quantitative statements about chaotic systems. These include: fractal dimension of the attractor, Lyapunov exponents, recurrence plots, Poincaré maps, bifurcation diagrams, and transfer operator. Distinguishing random from chaotic data It can be difficult to tell from data whether a physical or other observed process is random or chaotic, because in practice no time series consists of pure 'signal.' There will always be some form of corrupting noise, even if it is present as round-off or truncation error. Thus any real time series, even if mostly deterministic, will contain some randomness. Provenzale A. et al.: "Distinguishing between low-dimensional dynamics and randomness in measured time-series", in: Physica D, 58:31-49, 1992 All methods for distinguishing deterministic and stochastic processes rely on the fact that a deterministic system always evolves in the same way from a given starting point. Sugihara G. and May R.: "Nonlinear forecasting as a way of distinguishing chaos from measurement error in time series", in: Nature, 344:734-41, 1990 Thus, given a time series to test for determinism, one can: pick a test state; search the time series for a similar or 'nearby' state; and compare their respective time evolutions. Define the error as the difference between the time evolution of the 'test' state and the time evolution of the nearby state. A deterministic system will have an error that either remains small (stable, regular solution) or increases exponentially with time (chaos). A stochastic system will have a randomly distributed error. Casdagli, Martin. "Chaos and Deterministic versus Stochastic Non-linear Modelling", in: Journal Royal Statistics Society: Series B, 54, nr. 2 (1991), 303-28 Essentially all measures of determinism taken from time series rely upon finding the closest states to a given 'test' state (i.e., correlation dimension, Lyapunov exponents, etc.). To define the state of a system one typically relies on phase space embedding methods. Broomhead D. S. and King G. P.: "Extracting Qualitative Dynamics from Experimental Data", in: Physica 20D, 217-36, 1986 Typically one chooses an embedding dimension, and investigates the propagation of the error between two nearby states. If the error looks random, one increases the dimension. If you can increase the dimension to obtain a deterministic looking error, then you are done. Though it may sound simple it is not really. One complication is that as the dimension increases the search for a nearby state requires a lot more computation time and a lot of data (the amount of data required increases exponentially with embedding dimension) to find a suitably close candidate. If the embedding dimension (number of measures per state) is chosen too small (less than the 'true' value) deterministic data can appear to be random but in theory there is no problem choosing the dimension too large – the method will work. When a non-linear deterministic system is attended by external fluctuations, its trajectories present serious and permanent distortions. Furthermore, the noise is amplified due to the inherent non-linearity and reveals totally new dynamical properties. Statistical tests attempting to separate noise from the deterministic skeleton or inversely isolate the deterministic part risk failure. Things become worse when the deterministic component is a non-linear feedback system. Kyrtsou, C., (2008). Re-examining the sources of heteroskedasticity: the paradigm of noisy chaotic models, Physica A, 387, pp. 6785-6789. In presence of interactions between nonlinear deterministic components and noise the resulting nonlinear series can display dynamics that traditional tests for nonlinearity are sometimes not able to capture. Kyrtsou, C., (2005). Evidence for neglected linearity in noisy chaotic models, International Journal of Bifurcation and Chaos, 15(10), pp. 3391-3394. Applications Chaos theory is applied in many scientific disciplines: mathematics, biology, computer science, economics, Kyrtsou, C. and W. Labys, (2006). Evidence for chaotic dependence between US inflation and commodity prices, Journal of Macroeconomics, 28(1), pp. 256-266. Kyrtsou, C. and W. Labys, (2007). Detecting positive feedback in multivariate time series: the case of metal prices and US inflation, Physica A, 377(1), pp. 227-229. Kyrtsou, C., and Vorlow, C., (2005). Complex dynamics in macroeconomics: A novel approach, in New Trends in Macroeconomics, Diebolt, C., and Kyrtsou, C., (eds.), Springer Verlag. engineering, finance, Hristu-Varsakelis, D., and Kyrtsou, C., (2008): Evidence for nonlinear asymmetric causality in US inflation, metal and stock returns, Discrete Dynamics in Nature and Society, Volume 2008, Article ID 138547, 7 pages, doi:10.1155/2008/138547. Kyrtsou, C. and M. Terraza, (2003). Is it possible to study chaotic and ARCH behaviour jointly? Application of a noisy Mackey-Glass equation with heteroskedastic errors to the Paris Stock Exchange returns series, Computational Economics, 21, 257-276. philosophy, physics, politics, population dynamics, psychology, and robotics. Metaculture.net, metalinks: Applied Chaos, 2007. One of the most successful applications of chaos theory has been in ecology, where dynamical systems such as the Ricker model have been used to show how population growth under density dependence can lead to chaotic dynamics. Chaos theory is also currently being applied to medical studies of epilepsy, specifically to the prediction of seemingly random seizures by observing initial conditions. Comdig.org, Complexity Digest 199.06 See also Examples of chaotic systems Arnold's cat map Bouncing Ball Simulation System Chua's circuit Double pendulum Dynamical billiards Economic bubble Hénon map Horseshoe map Logistic map Rössler attractor Standard map Swinging Atwood's machine Tilt A Whirl Other related topics Anosov diffeomorphism Bifurcation theory Butterfly effect Chaos theory in organizational development Complexity Control of chaos Edge of chaos Fractal Mandelbrot set Julia set Predictability Santa Fe Institute Synchronization of chaos People Mitchell Feigenbaum Brosl Hasslacher Michel Hénon Edward Lorenz Aleksandr Lyapunov Benoît Mandelbrot Henri Poincaré Otto Rössler David Ruelle Oleksandr Mikolaiovich Sharkovsky Floris Takens James A. Yorke References Scientific literature Articles A.N. Sharkovskii, "Co-existence of cycles of a continuous mapping of the line into itself", Ukrainian Math. J., 16:61-71 (1964) Li, T. Y. and Yorke, J. A. "Period Three Implies Chaos." American Mathematical Monthly 82, 985–92, 1975. Kolyada, S. F. "Li-Yorke sensitivity and other concepts of chaos", Ukrainian Math. J. 56 (2004), 1242–1257. C.E. Shannon, "A Mathematical Theory of Communication", Bell System Technical Journal, vol. 27, pp. 379–423, 623–656, July, October, 1948 Textbooks Semitechnical and popular works Ralph H. Abraham and Yoshisuke Ueda (Ed.), The Chaos Avant-Garde: Memoirs of the Early Days of Chaos Theory, World Scientific Publishing Company, 2001, 232 pp. Michael Barnsley, Fractals Everywhere, Academic Press 1988, 394 pp. Richard J Bird, Chaos and Life: Complexity and Order in Evolution and Thought, Columbia University Press 2003, 352 pp. John Briggs and David Peat, Turbulent Mirror: : An Illustrated Guide to Chaos Theory and the Science of Wholeness, Harper Perennial 1990, 224 pp. John Briggs and David Peat, Seven Life Lessons of Chaos: Spiritual Wisdom from the Science of Change, Harper Perennial 2000, 224 pp. Lawrence A. Cunningham, From Random Walks to Chaotic Crashes: The Linear Genealogy of the Efficient Capital Market Hypothesis, George Washington Law Review, Vol. 62, 1994, 546 pp. Leon Glass and Michael C. Mackey, From Clocks to Chaos: The Rhythms of Life, Princeton University Press 1988, 272 pp. James Gleick, Chaos: Making a New Science, New York: Penguin, 1988. 368 pp. John Gribbin, Deep Simplicity, L Douglas Kiel, Euel W Elliott (ed.), Chaos Theory in the Social Sciences: Foundations and Applications, University of Michigan Press, 1997, 360 pp. Arvind Kumar, Chaos, Fractals and Self-Organisation ; New Perspectives on Complexity in Nature , National Book Trust, 2003. Hans Lauwerier, Fractals, Princeton University Press, 1991. Edward Lorenz, The Essence of Chaos, University of Washington Press, 1996. Chapter 5 of Alan Marshall (2002) The Unity of nature, Imperial College Press: London Heinz-Otto Peitgen and Dietmar Saupe (Eds.), The Science of Fractal Images, Springer 1988, 312 pp. Clifford A. Pickover, Computers, Pattern, Chaos, and Beauty: Graphics from an Unseen World , St Martins Pr 1991. Ilya Prigogine and Isabelle Stengers, Order Out of Chaos, Bantam 1984. Heinz-Otto Peitgen and P. H. Richter, The Beauty of Fractals : Images of Complex Dynamical Systems, Springer 1986, 211 pp. David Ruelle, Chance and Chaos, Princeton University Press 1993. Ivars Peterson, Newton's Clock: Chaos in the Solar System, Freeman, 1993. David Ruelle, Chaotic Evolution and Strange Attractors, Cambridge University Press, 1989. Peter Smith, Explaining Chaos, Cambridge University Press, 1998. Ian Stewart, Does God Play Dice?: The Mathematics of Chaos , Blackwell Publishers, 1990. Steven Strogatz, Sync: The emerging science of spontaneous order, Hyperion, 2003. Yoshisuke Ueda, The Road To Chaos, Aerial Pr, 1993. M. Mitchell Waldrop, Complexity : The Emerging Science at the Edge of Order and Chaos, Simon & Schuster, 1992. External links Nonlinear Dynamics Research Group with Animations in Flash The Chaos group at the University of Maryland The Chaos Hypertextbook. An introductory primer on chaos and fractals. Society for Chaos Theory in Psychology & Life Sciences Interactive live chaotic pendulum experiment, allows users to interact and sample data from a real working damped driven chaotic pendulum Nonlinear dynamics: how science comprehends chaos, talk presented by Sunny Auyang, 1998. Nonlinear Dynamics. Models of bifurcation and chaos by Elmer G. Wiens Gleick's Chaos (excerpt) Systems Analysis, Modelling and Prediction Group at the University of Oxford. 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5,551 | John_Jay | John Jay (December 12, 1745 May 17,1829) was an American politician, statesman, revolutionary, diplomat, a Founding Father of the United States, President of the Continental Congress from 1778 to 1779 and, from 1789 to 1795, the first Chief Justice of the United States. During and after the American Revolution, he was a minister (ambassador) to Spain and France, helping to fashion American foreign policy and to secure favorable peace terms from the British (the Jay Treaty) and French. He co-wrote the Federalist Papers with Alexander Hamilton and James Madison. As leader of the new Federalist Party, Jay was Governor of New York from 1795 to 1801 and became the state's leading opponent of slavery. His first two attempts to pass emancipation legislation failed in 1777 and 1785, but the third succeeded in 1799. The new law he signed into existence eventually saw the emancipation of all New York slaves before his death. Early life Birth Jay was born on December 12, 1745, to a wealthy family of merchants in New York City. He was the eighth child and the sixth son in his family. Pellew p.1 The Jay family was of French Huguenot origin and was prominent in New York City. In 1685 the Edict of Nantes was revoked, thereby abolishing the rights of Protestants and confiscating their property. In the affected class were Jay's paternal grandfather, Augustus Jay, which caused Augustus to move from France to New York to establish the Jay family. Pellew, George: "American Statesman John Jay", page 1. Houghton Mifflin, 1890 Peter, Augustus's son, and John's father, was a merchant and had ten children with his wife, Mary Van Cortlandt. Only seven of the ten children survived. After Jay was born, his family moved from Manhattan to Rye for a healthier environment; two of his siblings were blinded by the smallpox epidemic of 1739 and two suffered from mental handicaps. Education Jay spent his childhood in Rye, New York, and took the same political stand as his father, who was a staunch Whig. Pellew p.6 . He was educated there by private tutors until he was eight years old, when he was sent to New Rochelle to study under Anglican pastor Pierre Stoupe. In 1756, after three years, he would return to homeschooling under the tutelage of George Murray. In 1760, Jay continued his studies at King's College, the then-sixteen-year-old forerunner of Columbia University. Stahr, page 9 In 1764 he graduated Barnard edu retrieved August 31, 2008 and became a law clerk for Benjamin Kissam. Entrance into lawyering and politics In 1768, after being admitted to the bar of New York, Jay, with Robert Livingston, established a legal practice and worked there until he created his own law office in 1771. He was a member of the New York Committee of Correspondence in 1774. His first public role came as secretary to the New York committee of correspondence, where he represented the conservative faction that was interested in protecting property rights and in preserving the rule of law while resisting British violations of American rights. This faction feared the prospect of "mob rule". He believed the British tax measures were wrong and thought Americans were morally and legally justified in resisting them, but as a delegate to the First Continental Congress in 1774 he sided with those who wanted conciliation with Parliament. Events such as the burning of Norfolk, Virginia, by British troops in January 1776 pushed Jay to support independence. With the outbreak of war, he worked tirelessly for the revolutionary cause and acted to suppress the Loyalists. Thus Jay evolved into first a moderate and then an ardent Patriot once he decided that all the colonies' efforts at reconciliation with Britain were fruitless and that the struggle for independence which became the American Revolution was inevitable. Klein (2000) During the American Revolution Having established a reputation as a "reasonable moderate" in New York, Jay was elected to serve as delegate to the First and Second Continental Congresses which debated whether the colonies should declare independence. He attempted to reconcile America with Britain, up until the Declaration of Independence. Jay's views became more radical as events unfolded; he became an ardent Patriot and attempted to move New York towards independence. The Treaty of Paris, Jay stands farthest to the left. In 1774, at the close of the Continental Congress, Jay returned to New York. There he served on the New York City's Committee of Sixty, Stahr, page 443 where he attempted to enforce a nonimportation agreement passed by the First Continental Congress. Jay was elected to the third New York Provincial Congress, where he drafted the Constitution of New York, 1777; his duties as a New York Congressman prevented him from voting on or signing the Declaration of Independence. Jay served on the committee to detect and defeat conspiracies, which monitored British Actions. New York's Provincial Congress elected Jay the Chief Justice of the New York Supreme Court on May 8, 1777, which he served on for two years. Jay served as President of the Continental Congress from December 10, 1778, to September 28, 1779. The Continental Congress turned to John Jay, an adversary of the previous president Henry Laurens, only three days after Jay become a delegate and elected him President of the Continental Congress. Eight states voted for Jay and four for Laurens. As a Diplomat On September 27, 1779, Jay resigned his office as President and was appointed Minister to Spain. In Spain, he was assigned to get financial aid, commercial treaties and recognition of American independence. The royal court of Spain refused to officially receive Jay as the Minister of the United States, United States Department of State: Chiefs of Mission to Spain having refused to recognize American Independence until 1783, fearing that such recognition could spark revolution in their own colonies. Jay, however, convinced Spain to loan $170,000 to the US government. He departed Spain on May 20, 1782. On June 23, 1782, Jay reached Paris, where negotiations to end the American Revolutionary War would take place. Pellew p.166 Benjamin Franklin was the most experienced diplomat of the group, and thus Jay wished to lodge near him, in order to learn from him. Pellew p.170 The United States agreed to negotiate with Britain separately, then with France. In July 1782, Earl of Shelburne offered the Americans independence, but Jay rejected the offer on the grounds that it did not recognize American independence during the negotiations; Jay's dissent halted negotiations until the fall. The final treaty dictated that the United States would have Newfoundland fishing rights (extending its Western border), Britain would acknowledge the United States as independent and would withdraw its troops in exchange for the United States ending the seizure of Loyalist property and honoring private debts. The treaty granted the United States independence, but left many border regions in dispute, and many of its provisions were not enforced. Secretary of Foreign Affairs Jay served as the second Secretary of Foreign Affairs from 1784-1789, when in September, Congress passed a law giving certain additional domestic responsibilities to the new Department and changing its name to the Department of State. Jay served as acting Secretary of State until March 22, 1790. Jay sought to establish a strong and durable American foreign policy: to seek the recognition of the young independent nation by powerful and established foreign European powers; to establish a stable American currency and credit supported at first by financial loans from European banks; to pay back America's creditors and to quickly pay off the country's heavy War-debt; to secure the infant nation's territorial boundaries under the most-advantageous terms possible and against possible incursions by the Indians, Spanish, the French and the English; to solve regional difficulties among the colonies themselves; to secure Newfoundland fishing rights; to establish a robust maritime trade for American goods with new economic trading partners; to protect American trading vessels against piracy; to preserve America's reputation at home and abroad; and to hold the country together politically under the fledgling Articles of Confederation. Whitelock p.181 Jay believed his responsibility was not matched by a commensurate level of authority, so he joined Alexander Hamilton and James Madison in advocating for a stronger government than the one dictated by the Articles of Confederation. He argued in his Address to the People of the State of New-York, on the Subject of the Federal Constitution that the Articles of Confederation were too weak and ineffective a form of government. He contended that: The Congress under the Articles of Confederation] may make war, but are not empowered to raise men or money to carry it on—they may make peace, but without power to see the terms of it observed—they may form alliances, but without ability to comply with the stipulations on their part—they may enter into treaties of commerce, but without power to [e]nforce them at home or abroad...—In short, they may consult, and deliberate, and recommend, and make requisitions, and they who please may regard them. Federalist Papers 1788 Jay did not attend the Constitutional Convention but joined Hamilton and Madison in aggressively arguing in favor of the creation of a new and more powerful, centralized but balanced system of government. Writing under the shared pseudonym of "Publius," WSU retrieved August 31, 2008 they articulated this vision in the Federalist Papers, a series of eighty-five articles written to persuade the citizenry to ratify the proposed Constitution of the United States. Jay wrote the second, third, fourth, fifth and sixty-fourth articles. All except the sixty-fourth concerned the "[d]angers from [f]oreign [f]orce and [i]nfluence". The Jay Court In 1789, Jay was offered the new position of Secretary of State by George Washington; he declined. Washington nominated Jay as the first Chief Justice of the United States. Washington also nominated John Blair, William Cushing, James Wilson, James Iredell and John Rutledge as Associate Judges; Jay would later serve with Thomas Johnson, who took Rutledge's seat, and William Paterson, who took Johnson's seat. The court had little business through its first three years and its first decision was West v. Barnes (1791) strictly interpreting statutory procedural requirements. In Chisholm v. Georgia, the Jay Court had to answer the question: "Was the state of Georgia subject to the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court and the federal government?" In a 4-1 ruling (Iredell dissented), the Jay Court ruled in favor of two South Carolinan Loyalists who had had their land seized by Georgia. This ruling sparked debate, as it implied that old debts must be paid to Loyalists. The ruling was overturned by the Senate when the Eleventh Amendment was ratified, as it ruled that the judiciary could not rule on cases where a state was being sued by a citizen of another state or foreign country. The case was brought again to the Supreme Court in Georgia v. Brailsford, and the Court reversed its decision. However, Jay's original Chisholm decision established that states were subject to judicial review. Johnson (2000) In Hayburn's Case, the Jay Court ruled that courts could not comply with a federal statute that required the courts to decide whether individual petitioning American Revolution veterans qualified for pensions. The Jay Court ruled that determining whether petitioners qualified was an "act ... not of a judicial nature". and that because the statute allowed the legislature and the executive branch to revise the courts ruling, the statute violated the separation of powers as dictated by the United States Constitution. Jury nullification In 1794 in Georgia v. Brailsford (1794), Supreme Court Justice John Jay upheld jury instructions stating "you [jurors] have ...a right to take upon yourselves to ...determine the law as well as the fact in controversy." Jay noted for the jury the "good old rule, that on questions of fact, it is the province of the jury, on questions of law, it is the province of the court to decide," but this amounted to no more than a presumption that the judges were correct about the law. Ultimately, 'both objects [the law and the facts] are lawfully within your power of decision." We the Jury by Jefferey B Abramson pp.75-76 Mann, Neighbors and Strangers, pp. 75,71 1792 campaign for Governor of New York In 1792, Jay was the Federalist candidate for governor of New York, but was defeated by Democratic-Republican George Clinton. Jay received more votes than George Clinton, but on technicalities the votes of Otsego, Tioga and Clinton counties were disqualified and therefore not counted, giving George Clinton a slight majority. The state constitution said that the cast votes shall be delivered to the secretary of state "by the sheriff or his deputy," but, for example, Otsego County Sheriff Smith's term had expired, so at the time of the election, the sheriff's office had been legally vacant, and the votes could not be brought to the state capital by anybody legally authorized. Clinton partisans in the state legislature, in state courts and federal offices were adamant not to accept any argument that this would in practice subtract the constitutional right to vote from the voters in these counties, and these votes were disqualified. Jay Treaty Relations with Britain verged on war in 1794. British exports dominated the U.S. market, while American exports were blocked by British trade restrictions and tariffs. Britain still occupied northern forts that it had agreed to surrender in the Treaty of Paris. Britain’s impressment of American sailors and seizure of naval and military supplies bound to enemy ports on neutral ships also created conflict. Madison proposed a trade war, "A direct system of commercial hostility with Great Britain," assuming that Britain was so weakened by its war with France that it would agree to American terms and not declare war. Elkins and McKitrick p 405 Washington rejected that policy and sent Jay as a special envoy to Great Britain to negotiate a new treaty; Jay remained Chief Justice. Washington had Alexander Hamilton write instructions for Jay that were to guide him in the negotiations. Kafer p.87 In March 1795, the resulting treaty, known as the Jay Treaty, was brought to Philadelphia. When Hamilton, in an attempt to maintain good relations, informed Britain that the United States would not join the Danish and Swedish governments to defend their neutral status, Jay lost most of his leverage. The treaty eliminated Britain's control of northwestern posts and granted the United States "most favored nation" status, and the U.S. agreed to restricted commercial access to the British West Indies. Washington signed the treaty, and the Senate approved it on a 20-10 vote. The treaty did not resolve American grievances about neutral shipping rights and impressment, and the Republicans denounced it, but Jay, as Chief Justice, decided not to take part in the debates. Estes (2002) The failure to get compensation for slaves taken by the British during the Revolution "was a major reason for the bitter Southern opposition". quoting Don Fehrenbacher, The Slaveholding Republic (2002) p. 93; Frederick A. Ogg, "Jay's Treaty and the Slavery Interests of the United States." Annual Report of the American Historical Association for the Year 1901 (1902) 1:275-86 in JSTOR. Jefferson and Madison, fearing a commercial alliance with aristocratic Britain might undercut republicanism, led the opposition. Jay complained he could travel from Boston to Philadelphia solely by the light of his burning effigies. However, led by Hamilton's newly created Federalist party and support from Washington, strongly backed Jay and thus won the battle of public opinion. Todd Estes, "Shaping the Politics of Public Opinion: Federalists and the Jay Treaty Debate". Journal of the Early Republic (2000) 20(3): 393-422. ISSN 0275-1275; online at JSTOR Washington put his prestige on the line behind the treaty and Hamilton and the Federalists mobilized public opinion. The Senate ratified the treaty by a 20-10 vote (just enough to meet the 2/3 requirement.) Graffiti appeared near Jay's house after the treaty's ratification, reading, "Damn John Jay. Damn everyone that won't damn John Jay. Damn everyone that won't put up the lights in the windows and sit up all nights damning John Jay." In 1812, relations between Britain and the U.S. faltered. The desire of a group of members in the House of Representatives, known as the War Hawks, to acquire land from Canada and the British impressment of American ships led, in part, to the War of 1812. Governor of New York While in Britain, Jay was elected in May, 1795, as the second governor of New York State (following George Clinton) as a Federalist. He resigned from the Supreme Court and served six years as governor until 1801. As Governor, he received a proposal from Hamilton to gerrymander New York for the Presidential election of that year; he marked the letter "Proposing a measure for party purposes which it would not become me to adopt," and filed it without replying. Monaghan, pp.419-21; President John Adams then renominated him to the Supreme Court; the Senate quickly confirmed him, but he declined, citing his own poor health and the court's lack of "the energy, weight and dignity which are essential to its affording due support to the national government." Laboratory of Justice, The Supreme Court's 200 Year Struggle to Integrate Science and the Law, by David L. Faigman, First edition, 2004, p. 34; Smith, Republic of Letters, 15, 501 Jay declined the Federalist renomination for governor in 1801 and retired to the life of a farmer in Westchester County, New York. Soon after his retirement, his wife died. Whitelock p.327 Jay remained in good health, continued to farm and stayed out of politics. Whitelock p.329 On the night of May 14, 1829, Jay was stricken with palsy, probably due to a stroke. He lived for three more days, dying on May 17. Whitelock p.335 He chose to be buried in a private family plot which he had defined on the Rye property where he grew up. This estate, overlooking Long Island Sound, remained in the Jay family through 1904. A portion of it is managed (and its buildings are being restored for educational use) by the "Jay Heritage Center". Personal Views As an abolitionist Jay was a leader against slavery after 1777, when he drafted a state law to abolish slavery; it failed as did a second attempt in 1785. John Jay and Sarah Livingston Jay, Selected Letters of John Jay and Sarah Livingston Jay (2005) pp 297-99; online at Jay was the founder and president of the New York Manumission Society, in 1785, which organized boycotts against newspapers and merchants in the slave trade and provided legal counsel for free blacks claimed as slaves. Roger G. Kennedy, Burr, Hamilton, and Jefferson: A Study in Character (2000) p. 92 The Society helped enact the gradual emancipation of slaves in New York in 1799, which Jay signed into law as governor. Jay was pushing at an open door; every member of the New York legislature (but one) had voted for some form of emancipation in 1785; they had differed on what rights to give the free blacks afterwards. Aaron Burr both supported this bill and introduced an amendment calling for immediate abolition. The 1799 bill settled the matter by guaranteeing no rights at all. The 1799 "An Act for the Gradual Abolition of Slavery" provided that, from July 4 of that year, all children born to slave parents would be free (subject only to apprenticeship) and that slave exports would be prohibited. These same children would be required to serve the mother’s owner until age twenty-eight for males and age twenty-five for females. The law thus defined a type of indentured servant while slating them for eventual freedom. Edgar J. McManus, History of Negro Slavery in New York All slaves were emancipated by July 4, 1827; the process may perhaps have been the largest emancipation in North America before 1861, except for the British Army's recruitment of runaway slaves during the American Revolution. Gordon S. Wood, American Revolution, p. 114 In the close 1792 election, Jay's antislavery work hurt his election chances in upstate New York Dutch areas, where slavery was still practiced. Herbert S. Parmet and Marie B. Hecht, Aaron Burr (1967) p. 76 In 1794, in the process of negotiating the Jay Treaty with the British, Jay angered Southern slave-owners when he dropped their demands for compensation for slaves who had been captured and carried away during the Revolution. He made a practice of buying slaves and then freeing them when they were adults and he judged their labors had been a reasonable return on their price; he owned eight in 1798, the year before the emancipation act was passed. Religion Jay's home, near Katonah, New York, is a New York State Historic Site and National Historic Landmark. Jay was Anglican, a denomination renamed the Protestant Episcopal Church in America after the American Revolution. Since 1785 Jay had been a warden of Trinity Church, New York. As Congress's Secretary for Foreign Affairs, he supported the proposal after the Revolution that the Archbishop of Canterbury approve the ordination of bishops for the Episcopal Church in the United States. He argued unsuccessfully in the provincial convention for a prohibition against Catholics holding office. In a letter addressed to Pennsylvania House of Representatives member John Murray, dated October 12, 1816, Jay wrote, "Providence has given to our people the choice of their rulers, and it is the duty, as well as the privilege and interest, of our Christian nation to select and prefer Christians for their rulers." Legacy John Jay College of Criminal Justice in New York City Several geographical locations have adopted John Jay's name, including: Jay, Maine; Jay, New York; Jay, Vermont; Jay County, Indiana and Jay Street in Brooklyn. In 1964, the City University of New York's College of Police Science was officially renamed the John Jay College of Criminal Justice. There are also high schools named after Jay located in Cross River, New York; Hopewell Junction, New York and San Antonio, Texas. The Best Western Hotel chain named several of their colonial motif hotels the John Jay Inn. Exceptional undergraduates at Columbia University are designated John Jay Scholars, and one of that university's undergraduate dormitories is known as John Jay Hall. The John Jay Center on the campus of Robert Morris University and the John Jay Institute for Faith, Society & Law are also named for him. Jay's house, located near Katonah, New York, is preserved as a National Historic Landmark and as the John Jay Homestead State Historic Site. Notes References Brecher, Frank W. Securing American Independence: John Jay and the French Alliance. Praeger, 2003. 327 pp. Casto, William R. The Supreme Court in the Early Republic: The Chief Justiceships of John Jay and Oliver Ellsworth. U. of South Carolina Press, 1995. 267 pp. Combs, Jerald. A. The Jay Treaty: Political Background of Founding Fathers (1970) (ISBN 0-520-01573-8); concludes the Federalists "followed the proper policy" because the treaty preserved peace with Britain Elkins, Stanley M. and Eric McKitrick, The Age of Federalism: The Early American Republic, 1788-1800. (1994), detailed political history Estes, Todd. "John Jay, the Concept of Deference, and the Transformation of Early American Political Culture." Historian (2002) 65(2): 293-317. ISSN 0018-2370 Fulltext in Swetswise, Ingenta and Ebsco Ferguson, Robert A. "The Forgotten Publius: John Jay and the Aesthetics of Ratification." Early American Literature (1999) 34(3): 223-240. ISSN 0012-8163 Fulltext: in Swetswise and Ebsco Johnson, Herbert A. "John Jay and the Supreme Court." New York History 2000 81(1): 59-90. ISSN 0146-437X Kaminski, John P. "Honor and Interest: John Jay's Diplomacy During the Confederation." New York History (2002) 83(3): 293-327. ISSN 0146-437X Kaminski, John P. "Shall We Have a King? John Jay and the Politics of Union." New York History (2000) 81(1): 31-58. ISSN 0146-437X Klein, Milton M. "John Jay and the Revolution." New York History (2000) 81(1): 19-30. ISSN 0146-437X Littlefield, Daniel C. "John Jay, the Revolutionary Generation, and Slavery" New York History 2000 81(1): 91-132. ISSN 0146-437X Michael, William Henry History of the Department of State of the United States (1901) United States Dept Monaghan, Frank. John Jay: Defender of Liberty 1972. on abolitionism Morris, Richard B. The Peacemakers: The Great Powers and American Independence 1965. Morris, Richard B. Seven Who Shaped Our Destiny: The Founding Fathers as Revolutionaries 1973. chapter on Jay Morris, Richard B. Witness at the Creation; Hamilton, Madison, Jay and the Constitution 1985. Morris, Richard B. ed. John Jay: The Winning of the Peace 1980. 9780060130480 Pellew, George John Jay 1890. Houghton Mifflin Company Perkins, Bradford. The First Rapprochement; England and the United States: 1795-1805 Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1955. Primary sources Landa M. Freeman, Louise V. North, and Janet M. Wedge, eds. Selected Letters of John Jay and Sarah Livingston Jay: Correspondence by or to the First Chief Justice of the United States and His Wife (2005) Morris, Richard B. ed. John Jay: The Making of a Revolutionary; Unpublished Papers, 1745-1780 1975. Further reading See also List of Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States List of United States Chief Justices by time in office List of U.S. Supreme Court Justices by time in office New York Manumission Society United States Supreme Court cases during the Jay Court External links Digitized Collection of 217 John Jay Letters, 1776 thru 1827. Essay: John Jay and the Constitution Online exhibition for Constitution Day 2005, based on the notes of Professor Richard B. Morris (1904-1989) and his staff, originally prepared for volume 3 of the Papers of John Jay. History of the Court, the Jay Court 1789-1795, Supreme Court Historical Society. John Jay, Supreme Court Historical Society. John Jay bust, by John Frazee (1790-1852), Marble, circa 1831, Size: 24" h., Catalog No. 21.00010, S-141, Old Supreme Court Chamber, U.S. Senate Collection, Office of Senate Curator. The Papers of John Jay An image database and indexing tool comprising some 13,000 documents scanned chiefly from photocopies of original documents from the Rare Book & Manuscript Library, Columbia University in the City of New York and approximately 90 other institutions. Jay Heritage Center Jay's Treaty, Library of Congress Oyez Project U.S. Supreme Court media on John Jay. John Jay at MetaLibri John Jay's Federalist Papers on Federalist #2 Concerning Dangers from Foreign Force and Influence Federalist #3 Concerning Dangers from Foreign Force and Influence (continued) Federalist #4 Concerning Dangers from Foreign Force and Influence (continued) Federalist #5 Concerning Dangers from Foreign Force and Influence (continued) Federalist #64 The Powers of the Senate | John_Jay |@lemmatized john:49 jay:135 december:3 may:13 american:32 politician:1 statesman:2 revolutionary:6 diplomat:3 found:3 father:5 united:22 state:45 president:7 continental:8 congress:14 first:14 chief:9 justice:13 revolution:12 minister:3 ambassador:1 spain:7 france:4 help:2 fashion:1 foreign:11 policy:4 secure:4 favorable:1 peace:4 term:5 british:12 treaty:23 french:4 co:1 write:6 federalist:17 paper:7 alexander:3 hamilton:10 james:4 madison:6 leader:2 new:54 party:3 governor:9 york:46 become:7 lead:4 opponent:1 slavery:8 two:5 attempt:6 pass:4 emancipation:6 legislation:1 fail:2 third:3 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5,552 | John_Bardeen | John Bardeen (May 23, 1908 – January 30, 1991) was an American physicist and electrical engineer, who won the Nobel Prize in Physics twice: first in 1956 with William Shockley and Walter Brattain for the invention of the transistor; and again in 1972 with Leon Neil Cooper and John Robert Schrieffer for a fundamental theory of conventional superconductivity known as the BCS theory. The transistor revolutionized the electronics industry, allowing the Information Age to occur, and made possible the development of almost every modern electronical device, from telephones to computers to missiles. Bardeen's developments in superconductivity, which won him his second Nobel, are used in medical advances such as CAT scans and MRI. In 1990, John Bardeen appeared on LIFE Magazine 's list of "100 Most Influential Americans of the Century." Early life John Bardeen was born in Madison, Wisconsin on May 23, 1908. He was the second son of Dr. Charles Russell Bardeen and Althea Harmer Bardeen. He was one of five children. His father, Charles Bardeen, was Professor of Anatomy and the first Dean of the Medical School of the University of Wisconsin-Madison. Althea Bardeen, before marrying, had taught at the Dewey Laboratory School and run an interior decorating business; after marriage she was an active figure in the art world. Bardeen's talent for mathematics was recognized early. His seventh grade mathematics teacher encouraged Bardeen in pursuing advanced work, and years later, Bardeen credited him for "first exciting [his] interest in mathematics." Althea Bardeen became seriously ill with cancer when John was 12 years old. Charles Bardeen downplayed the seriousness of her illness so that it would not affect his children. John was stunned when his mother died. Charles Bardeen married Ruth Hames, who was his secretary, to give his children the family he thought they needed. However, this did not help young John and he barely passed French that year. Bardeen attended the University High School at Madison for several years, but graduated from Madison Central High School in 1923. He graduated from high school at age fifteen, even though he could have graduated several years earlier. His graduation was postponed due to taking additional courses at another high school and also partly because of his mother's death. He entered the University of Wisconsin-Madison in 1923. While in college he joined the Zeta Psi fraternity. He raised the needed membership fees partly by playing billiards. He was initiated as a member of Tau Beta Pi engineering honor society. He chose engineering because he didn't want to be an academic like his father and also because it is mathematical. He also felt that engineering had good job prospects. Bardeen received his B.S. in electrical engineering in 1928 from the University of Wisconsin-Madison. He graduated in 1928 despite also having taken a year off during his degree to work in Chicago. He had taken all the graduate courses in physics and mathematics that had interested him, and, in fact, graduated in five years, one more than usual; this allowed him time to also complete a Master's thesis, supervised by Leo J. Peters. He received his M.S. in electrical engineering in 1929 from Wisconsin. His mentors in mathematics were Warren Weaver and Edward Van Vleck. His primary physics mentor was John Hasbrouck van Vleck, but he was also much influenced by visiting scholars such as Paul Dirac, Werner Heisenberg, and Arnold Sommerfeld. Bardeen was unsuccessful in his 1929 application to Trinity College, Cambridge, for one of their coveted fellowships. Bardeen stayed on for some time at Wisconsin furthering his studies, but he eventually went to work for Gulf Research Laboratories, the research arm of the Gulf Oil Company, based in Pittsburgh. From 1930 to 1933, Bardeen worked there on the development of methods for the interpretation of magnetic and gravitational surveys. He worked as a geophysicist. After the work failed to keep his interest, he applied and was accepted to the graduate program in mathematics at Princeton University. Bardeen studied both mathematics and physics as a graduate student, ending up writing his thesis on a problem in solid-state physics, under Nobel laureate physicist Eugene Wigner. Before completing his thesis, he was offered a position as Junior Fellow of the Society of Fellows at Harvard University in 1935. He spent there the next three years, from 1935 to 1938, working with Nobel laureate physicist John Hasbrouck van Vleck and Bridgman on problems in cohesion and electrical conduction in metals, and also did some work on level density of nuclei. He received his Ph.D. in mathematical physics from Princeton University in 1936. Academic career In the fall of 1938, Bardeen started in his new role as assistant professor at the University of Minnesota. In 1941, the world was embroiled in war, and Bardeen was convinced by his colleagues to take a leave of absence and work for the Naval Ordnance Laboratory. He would stay there for four years. In 1943 he was invited to join the Manhattan Project, but he refused, since he did not want to uproot his family. He received the Meritorious Civilian Service Award for his service at the NOL. After the end of World War II, Bardeen started seeking a return to academia, but the University of Minnesota did not realize the importance of the young field of solid-state physics. They offered him only a small raise. Bardeen's expertise in solid-state physics made him invaluable to Bell Labs, which was just starting a solid-state division. Remembering the lack of support he had received previously from the university to pursue his research, he decided to take a lucrative offer from Bell Labs in 1945. Bell Labs In October 1945, John Bardeen began work at Bell Labs. Bardeen was a member of a Solid State Physics Group, led by William Shockley and chemist Stanley Morgan. Other personnel working in the group were Walter Brattain, physicist Gerald Pearson, chemist Robert Gibney, electronics expert Hilbert Moore and several technicians. He moved his family to Summit, New Jersey. John Bardeen had met William Shockley when they were both in school in Massachusetts. He rekindled his friendship with Walter Brattain. Bardeen knew Walter Brattain from his graduate school days at Princeton. He had previously met Brattain through Brattain's brother, Bob Brattain. Bob Brattain was also a Princeton graduate student. Over the years the friendship of Bardeen and Brattain grew, both in the lab, where Brattain put together the experiments and Bardeen wove theories to explain the results and also on the golf course where they spent time on the weekends. The assignment of the group was to seek a solid-state alternative to fragile glass vacuum tube amplifiers. Their first attempts were based on Shockley's ideas about using an external electrical field on a semiconductor to affect its conductivity. These experiments mysteriously failed every time in all sorts of configurations and materials. The group was at a standstill until Bardeen suggested a theory that invoked surface states that prevented the field from penetrating the semiconductor. The group changed its focus to study these surface states, and they met almost daily to discuss the work. The rapport of the group was excellent, and ideas were freely exchanged. Brattain quoted in Crystal Fire p. 127 By the winter of 1946 they had enough results that Bardeen submitted a paper on the surface states to Physical Review. Brattain started experiments to study the surface states through observations made while shining a bright light on the semiconductor's surface. This led to several more papers (one of them co-authored with Shockley), which estimated the density of the surface states to be more than enough to account for their failed experiments. The pace of the work picked up significantly when they started to surround point contacts between the semiconductor and the conducting wires with electrolytes. Moore built a circuit that allowed them to vary the frequency of the input signal easily and suggested that they use glycol borate (gu), a viscous chemical that didn't evaporate. Finally they began to get some evidence of power amplification when Pearson, acting on a suggestion by Shockley, Crystal Fire p. 132 put a voltage on a droplet of gu placed across a P-N junction. The invention of the transistor A stylized replica of the first transistor invented at Bell Labs on December 23, 1947. In the spring of 1947, William Shockley set Brattain and Bardeen to a task to explain why an amplifier he had devised didn't work. At the heart of the amplifier was a crystal of silicon. They would switch to germanium after some months. To figure out what was going on, Bardeen had to remember some of the quantum mechanics research that he had done on semiconductors while he was completing his Ph.D. at Princeton University. Bardeen had also come up with some new theories himself. By observing Brattain's experiments, Bardeen realized that everyone had been falsely assuming electrical current traveled through all parts of the germanium in a similar way. The electrons behaved differently at the surface of the metal. If they could control what was happening at the surface, the amplifier should work. On December 23, 1947, Bardeen and Brattain—working without Shockley—succeeded in creating a point-contact transistor that achieved amplification. By the next month, Bell Labs' patent attorneys started to work on the patent applications. Bell Labs' attorneys soon discovered that Shockley's field effect principle had been anticipated and patented in 1930 by Julius Lilienfeld, who filed his MESFET-like patent in Canada already on October 22, 1925. Although the patent appeared "breakable" (it could not work) the patent attorneys based one of its four patent applications only on the Bardeen-Brattain point contact design. Three others submitted at the same time covered the electrolyte-based transistors with Bardeen, Gibney and Brattain as the inventors. Shockley's name was not on any of these patent applications. This angered Shockley, who thought his name should also be on the patents because the work was based on his field effect idea. He even made efforts to have the patent written only in his name, and told Bardeen and Brattain of his intentions. At the same time Shockley secretly continued his own work to build a different sort of transistor based on junctions instead of point contacts; he expected this kind of design would be more likely to be viable commercially. Shockley worked furiously on his magnum opus, Electrons and Holes in Semiconductors which was finally published as a 558-page treatise in 1950. In it, Shockley worked out the critical ideas of drift and diffusion and the differential equations that govern the flow of electrons in solid state crystals. Shockley's diode equation is also described. This seminal work became the "bible" for an entire generation of scientists working to develop and improve new variants of the transistor and other devices based on semiconductors. Shockley was dissatisfied with certain parts of the explanation for how the point contact transistor worked and conceived of the possibility of minority carrier injection. This led Shockley to ideas for what he called a "sandwich transistor." This resulted in the junction transistor, which was announced at a press conference on July 4, 1951. Shockley obtained a patent for this invention on September 25, 1951. Different fabrication methods for this device were developed but the "diffused-base" method became the method of choice for many applications. It soon eclipsed the point contact transistor, and it and its offspring became overwhelmingly dominant in the marketplace for many years. Shockley continued as a group head to lead much of the effort at Bell Labs to improve it and its fabrication for two more years. Shockley took the lion's share of the credit in public for the invention of transistor, which led to a deterioration of Bardeen's relationship with Shockley. Diane Kormos Buchwald. American Scientist 91.2 (Mar.-Apr. 2003): 185-86. Bell Labs management, however, consistently presented all three inventors as a team. Shockley eventually infuriated and alienated Bardeen and Brattain, and he essentially blocked the two from working on the junction transistor. Bardeen began pursuing a theory for superconductivity and left Bell Labs in 1951. Brattain refused to work with Shockley further and was assigned to another group. Neither Bardeen nor Brattain had much to do with the development of the transistor beyond the first year after its invention. Crystal Fire p. 278 The "transistor" (a combination of "transfer" and "resistor") was 1/50 as large as the vacuum tubes it replaced in televisions and radios and allowed electrical devices to become more compact. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign A commemorative plaque remembering John Bardeen and the theory of superconductivity, at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. By 1951, Bardeen was looking for a new job. Fred Seitz, a friend of Bardeen, convinced the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign to make Bardeen an offer of $10,000 a year. Bardeen accepted the offer and left Bell Labs. He joined the engineering faculty and the physics faculty at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign in 1951. He was Professor of Electrical Engineering and of Physics at Illinois. His first Ph.D. student was Nick Holonyak (1954), the inventor of the first LED in 1962. At Illinois, he established two major research programs, one in the Electrical Engineering Department and one in the Physics Department. The research program in the Electrical Engineering Department dealt with both experimental and theoretical aspects of semiconductors, and the research program in the Physics Department dealt with theoretical aspects of macroscopic quantum systems, particularly superconductivity and quantum liquids. He was an active professor at Illinois from 1951 to 1975 and then became Professor Emeritus. The Nobel Prize in Physics in 1956 In 1956, John Bardeen shared the Nobel Prize in Physics with William Shockley of Semiconductor Laboratory of Beckman Instruments and Walter Brattain of Bell Telephone Laboratories "for their researches on semiconductors and their discovery of the transistor effect". Bardeen first heard the news that the Nobel Prize in Physics had been awarded to him, Brattain, and Shockley when he was making breakfast and listening to the radio on the morning of Thursday, November 1, 1956. The Nobel Prize ceremony took place in Stockholm, Sweden on the evening of Monday, December 10. Bardeen, Brattain, and Shockley received their awards that night from King Gustav VI and then adjourned for a great banquet in their honor. On that night the three men were together, and they remembered the days when they had been friends and a great research team. Bardeen brought only one of his three children to the Nobel Prize ceremony. His two sons were studying at Harvard University, and Bardeen didn't wanted to disrupt their studies. King Gustav scolded Bardeen because of this, and Bardeen assured the King that the next time he would bring all his children to the ceremony. BCS theory In 1957, John Bardeen, in collaboration with Leon Cooper and his doctoral student John Robert Schrieffer, proposed the standard theory of superconductivity known as the BCS theory (named for their initials). BCS theory explains conventional superconductivity, the ability of certain metals at low temperatures to conduct electricity without electrical resistance. BCS theory views superconductivity as a macroscopic quantum mechanical effect. It proposes that electrons with opposite spin can become paired, forming Cooper pairs. Independently and at the same time, superconductivity phenomenon was explained by Nikolay Bogoliubov by means of the so-called Bogoliubov transformations. In many superconductors, the attractive interaction between electrons (necessary for pairing) is brought about indirectly by the interaction between the electrons and the vibrating crystal lattice (the phonons). Roughly speaking the picture is the following: An electron moving through a conductor will attract nearby positive charges in the lattice. This deformation of the lattice causes another electron, with opposite "spin", to move into the region of higher positive charge density. The two electrons are then held together with a certain binding energy. If this binding energy is higher than the energy provided by kicks from oscillating atoms in the conductor (which is true at low temperatures), then the electron pair will stick together and resist all kicks, thus not experiencing resistance. The Nobel Prize in Physics in 1972 In 1972, John Bardeen shared the Nobel Prize in Physics with Leon Neil Cooper of Brown University and John Robert Schrieffer of the University of Pennsylvania for their jointly developed theory of superconductivity, usually called the BCS-theory. Bardeen did bring all his children to the Nobel Prize ceremony in Stockholm, Sweden. This was Bardeen's second Nobel Prize in Physics. He became the first person to win two Nobel Prizes in the same field. He also became the third person out of only four to win two Nobel Prizes. The first two were Marie Curie, who received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1903 and Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1911, and Linus Pauling, who received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1954 and Nobel Peace Prize in 1962. In 1980, Frederick Sanger won his second Nobel Prize in Chemistry and became the fourth person to win two Nobel Prizes. Bardeen gave much of his Nobel Prize money to fund the Fritz London Memorial Lectures at Duke University. Other awards In 1971, Bardeen received the IEEE Medal of Honor for "his profound contributions to the understanding of the conductivity of solids, to the invention of the transistor, and to the microscopic theory of superconductivity." Bardeen was one of 11 recipients given the Third Century Award from President George H.W. Bush in 1990 for "exceptional contributions to American society" and was granted a gold medal from the Soviet Academy of Sciences in 1988. Xerox Bardeen was also an important advisor to Xerox Corporation. Though quiet by nature, he took the uncharacteristic step of urging Xerox executives to keep their California research center, Xerox PARC, afloat when the parent company was suspicious that its research center would amount to little. Death Bardeen died of cardiac arrest at Brigham and Women's Hospital in Boston, Massachusetts on January 30, 1991. While he lived in Champaign-Urbana, he was in Boston for medical consultation. Bardeen and his wife Jane had three children, James and William Bardeen and Elizabeth Greytak, and six grandchildren when he died. Personal life Bardeen married Jane Maxwell on July 18, 1938. While at Princeton, he met Jane during a visit to his old friends in Pittsburgh. Bardeen was a man with a very unassuming personality. While he served as a professor for almost 40 years at the University of Illinois, he was best remembered by neighbors for hosting cookouts where he would cook for his friends, many of whom were unaware of his accomplishments at the university. He enjoyed playing golf and going on picnics with his family. It has been said that Bardeen proves wrong the stereotype of the "crazy scientist." Lillian Hoddeson, a University of Illinois historian who wrote a book on Bardeen, said that because he "differed radically from the popular stereotype of genius and was uninterested in appearing other than ordinary, the public and the media often overlooked him." Legacy In honor of Professor Bardeen, the engineering quadrangle at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign is named the Bardeen Quad. Also in honor of Bardeen, Sony Corporation endowed a $53 million John Bardeen professorial chair at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, beginning in 1990. The current John Bardeen Professor is Nick Holonyak, Bardeen's first doctoral student and protege. At the time of Bardeen's death, then-University of Illinois chancellor Morton Weir said, "It is a rare person whose work changes the life of every American; John's did." Bardeen was honored on a March 6, 2008 United States Postage Stamp as part of the "American Scientists" series. The $0.41 stamp was unveiled in a ceremony at the University of Illinois. His citation reads: "Theoretical physicist John Bardeen (1908-1991) shared the Nobel Prize in Physics twice -- in 1956, as co-inventor of the transistor and in 1972, for the explanation of superconductivity. The transistor paved the way for all modern electronics, from computers to microchips. Diverse applications of superconductivity include infrared sensors and medical imaging systems." The other scientists on the "American Scientists" sheet include Gerty Cori, biochemist; Linus Pauling, chemist; and Edwin Hubble, astronomer. References Cited references General references Hoddeson, Lillian and Vicki Daitch. True Genius: the Life and Science of John Bardeen. National Academy Press, 2002. ISBN 0-309-08408-3 External links The Bardeen Archives at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign Biography from the Nobel Foundation Biography from Nobel-Winners.com IEEE History Center biography IEEE 2nd Int. Conference on Computers, Communications and Control (ICCCC 2008), an event dedicated to the Centenary of John Bardeen (1908-1991) Associated Press Obituary of John Bardeen as printed in The Boston Globe Oral History interview transcript with John Bardeen 12 May 1977, American Institute of Physics, Niels Bohr Library and Archives Oral History interview transcript with John Bardeen 13 February 1980, American Institute of Physics, Niels Bohr Library and Archives | John_Bardeen |@lemmatized john:26 bardeen:86 may:3 january:2 american:9 physicist:5 electrical:11 engineer:1 win:6 nobel:25 prize:20 physic:23 twice:2 first:12 william:6 shockley:26 walter:5 brattain:24 invention:6 transistor:20 leon:3 neil:2 cooper:4 robert:4 schrieffer:3 fundamental:1 theory:15 conventional:2 superconductivity:13 know:3 bcs:6 revolutionize:1 electronics:3 industry:1 allow:4 information:1 age:2 occur:1 make:6 possible:1 development:4 almost:3 every:3 modern:2 electronical:1 device:4 telephone:2 computer:3 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5,553 | Lleida | Lleida (Standard Central Catalan or North-Western Catalan ; Spanish Lérida (after the Spanish spelling, it is often spelt Lerida in English, especially up until the 20th century) is a city in the west of Catalonia, Spain. It had 131,731 inhabitants , including the contiguous municipalities of Raïmat and Sucs. It is the central city of the province of the same name. Lleida is the capital city of the Segrià comarca and the province that takes its name. Its economy is mostly based on commerce and services, with an important agricultural factor as well. Lleida is the biggest city in the inland part of Catalonia. Languages It is a traditionally Catalan-speaking town and province, with a characteristic dialect (known as Western or, more specifically, North-Western Catalan, or colloquially lleidatà). Most of the population is actively bilingual in Spanish. History In ancient times the city, named Iltrida and Ilerda, was the chief city of the Ilergetes, an Iberian tribe. Indíbil, king of the Ilergetes, and Mandoni, king of the Ausetanes, defended it against the Roman invasion. Under the Romans, the city was incorporated into the Roman province of Hispania Tarraconensis, and was a place of considerable importance, historically as well as geographically. It stood upon an eminence, on the right (west) bank of the river Sicoris (the modern Segre), the principal tributary of the Ebro, and some distance above its confluence with the Cinga (modern Cinca); thus commanding the country between those rivers, as well as the great road from Tarraco (modern Tarragona), the provincial capital, to the northwest of Spain, which here crossed the Sicoris. Antonine Itinerary pp. 391, 452. Its situation To quote Julius Caesar, "propter ipsius loci opportunitatem", Commentarii de Bello Civili i. 38. induced the legates of Pompey in Spain to make it the key of their defense against Caesar, in the first year of the Civil War (49 BCE). Afranius and Marcus Petreius threw themselves into the place with five legions; and their siege by Caesar himself (Battle of Ilerda), as narrated in his own words, forms one of the most interesting passages of military history. The resources exhibited by the great general, in a contest where the formation of the district and the very elements of nature seemed in league with his enemies, have been frequently extolled; but no epitome can do justice to the campaign. It ended by the capitulation of Afranius and Petreius, who were conquered as much by Caesar's generosity as by his strategy. Julius Caesar Commentarii de Bello Civili i. 38, et seq.; Florus iv. 12; Appian, B.C. ii. 42; Velleius Paterculus ii. 42; Suetonius Caes. 34; Lucan, Pharsal. iv. 11, 144. In consequence of the battle, the Latin phrase Ilerdam videas is said to have been used by people who wanted to cast bad luck on someone else. Under the Roman empire, Ilerda was a very flourishing city, and a municipium. It minted its own coins. It had a fine stone bridge over the Sicoris, (the bridge was so sturdy that its foundations support a bridge to this today). In the time of Ausonius the city had fallen into decay; but it rose again into importance in the Middle Ages. Strabo iii. p. 161; Horat. Epist. i. 20. 13; coins, ap. Florez, Med. ii. pp. 451, 646, iii. p. 73; Théodore Edme Mionnet, vol. i. p. 44, Suppl. vol. i. p. 89; Sestini, pp. 161, 166; Eckhel, vol. i. p. 51. It was part of Visigothic and Muslim Hispania until it was conquered from the Moors by the Count Ramon Berenguer IV of Barcelona in 1148. It used to be the seat of a major university, the oldest in the Crown of Aragon, until 1717, when it was moved by Philip V to the nearby town of Cervera. The University of Lleida is nowadays active again. Lleida served as a key defense point for Barcelona during the Spanish Civil War, and fell to the Insurgents, whose air forces bombed it extensively, in 1937 and 1938. The November 2, 1937 Legion Kondor attacks against Lleida became especially infamous since they were aimed to the school known as Liceu Escolar de Lleida. 48 children and several teachers died in it that day. After some decades without any kind of population growth, it met a massive migration of Andalusians who helped the town undergo a relative demographic growth. Nowadays it's home to immigrants of 146 different nationalities . Districts and neighbourhoods Lleida is divided in the following districts by the Observatori Socioeconòmic de Lleida: Balàfia Pardinyes Butsènit Camp d'Esports Cap Pont Centre Històric Humbert Torres Instituts-Templers Joc de la Bola La Bordeta Les Basses d'Alpicat Llívia Magraners Mariola Príncep de Viana-Clot Rambla Ferran-Estació Secà de Sant Pere Torres de Sanuí Universitat Ciutat Jardí Communications Lleida-Pirineus train station. Lleida is served by the Spanish state railway's Madrid-Barcelona high-speed rail line, serving Barcelona, Zaragoza, Calatayud, Guadalajara, and Madrid. Lleida has a minor airfield located in Alfès and as of 2006, the construction of an airport is due to be finished in 2009. Also, the town is the western terminus of the Eix Transversal Lleida-Girona, and a railway covering the same distance (Eix Transversal Ferroviari) is currently under planning. Culture Traditional celebrations include Festa Major, Aplec del Cargol and Fira de Sant Miquel. A Latin-American cinema festival is held yearly in the town ("Mostra de Cinema Llatinoamericà de Lleida"), and an animation film festival called Animac also takes place there every May. Also, the international rock festival Senglar Rock is held in Les Basses d'Alpicat, in the outskirts of Lleida, each July since 2005 - it used to be held in Montblanc before that year. Lleida was the Capital of Catalan Culture in 2007. People from Lleida The following names are sorted alphabetically. Antoni Abad - artist (born 1956) Jaume Balagueró - filmmaker (born 1960) Josep Borrell - Politician, president of the European Parliament 2004-2007. (born 1947) Francesc Claverol - 18th century religious scholar, author of De ineffabile misae sacrificio y Libellum de Adventu Anti Christi. Pep Coll - writer (born 1949) Albert Costa - tennis player, olympic contestant in 2000, winner of the 2002 French Open, (born 1975) Leandre Cristòfol - artist, pioneer of Surrealist sculpture in Catalonia (1908-1998) José Espasa Anguera - founder of the precursor of Espasa-Calpe and Enciclopedia Espasa (1840-1911) Adolf Florensa - architect, urban planner who worked for various governments during the 20th century directing the restoration of Ciutat Vella in Barcelona. Javier Galitó-Cava Official Site - actor, dancer born in Barcelona but raised in Lleida for most of his childhood years. He resides in the U.S since 1989. Miguel Ángel Gallardo - underground comic book artist, especially known for his controversial comic series Makoki, published in the Spanish magazine El Víbora. Indíbil (Indibilis, Andobales) king of the Ilergetes (3rd century BC). Lorena, singer, winner of the 5th series of Spanish Fame Academy, Operación Triunfo. Enrique Granados - Romantic composer (1867-1917) Mari Pau Huguet - Catalan TV personality, TV3 presenter. Kílian Jornet Burgada (born 1987), ski mountaineer, long-distance runner, mountain biker and duathlete Bojan Krkic - (born 1990) football player. Josep Lladonosa - historian (1907-1990) Mercè Mor - dancer. Jaume Morera - Artist (1854-1927) Joan Oró - biochemist whose research has been of importance in understanding the origin of life, received several international honours for his work. (1923–2004) Manuel del Palacio - Satirist, journalist (1831-1906) Josep Pernau - journalist, satyrist (born 1930) Araceli Segarra - mountaineer and model (born 1970) Salvador Seguí, "El Noi del Sucre" - Anarchist, secretary general of CNT in Catalonia, assassinated (1896-1923). Humbert Torres - Physician and politician, vicepresident of the Generalitat de Catalunya, member of the Spanish Parliament. Màrius Torres - Symbolist poet (1910-1942) Jaume Ulled - stage actor (born 1978) Josep Vallverdú - writer (born 1923) Salvador Vázquez de Parga - essayist, comic book historian (born 1934) Ricardo Viñes - Classical pianist and composer (1875-1943) Landmarks River Segre in Lleida Seu Vella - a Cathedral built in a blend of Romanesque and Gothic styles over the time, and made a military fortress in the 18th century and the older Palau de la Suda, both over the so-called Turó de la Seu, a medium-sized hill. Seu Nova - the baroque Cathedral used since Bourbon rule. It was burnt during the Spanish Civil War by the anarchists commanded by Durruti. Institut d'Estudis Ilerdencs, used to be a hospital (Antic Hospital de Santa Maria) built in a Gothic style, but nowadays it is an historical museum and research centre open to visitors. La Paeria - the city council and also, a historical site with remains and pieces of art from Roman times, to the Moorish rule, to Mediaeval and Modern times, including a prison. Gardeny - A hill that hosts a fortress built between the 12th and 13th centuries. Used by the Knights Templar in the Middle Ages after the area was given to them by Ramon Berenguer IV. The gardens known as Camps Elisis, already used by the Romans. It has the fountain of the mermaid. The Bishop of Lleida's Palace on Rambla d'Aragó also serves as an art museum showing pieces included in the styles spanning from Romanesque to Baroque. El Roser Lleida Public Library, on Rambla d'Aragó, hosted in the building previously known as La Maternitat, a mid-19th century orphanage. Museum of Lleida Other museums: Sala Cristòfol, Sala Mercat del Pla, Museu Morera, Centre d'Art de la Panera, Museu de l'Aigua. Sports Lleida has been always a city with great sport tradition. Probably the most famous sport at the present time is basketball, because the club of basketball of the city a few years ago ascended to the ACB, being the revelation team in the league, this caused a lot of boys and girls to become fond of this little well-known sport. Unió Esportiva Lleida Club Esportiu Lleida Basquetbol Lleida Llista Blava Sister cities Lleida has sister relationships with many places worldwide: University of Lleida Ferrara, Italy. Foix, France. Hefei, China. Lérida, Colombia. Perpignan, Northern Catalonia, France See also University of Lleida Diocese of Lleida, Bishop of Lleida. Talarn Dam Volta a Lleida Battle of Ilerda References External links Official web site of the city council of Lleida Video of the Seu Vella of Lleida Website of the University of Lleida Tourism information of Lleida Internet Portal of the town Unió Esportiva Lleida. The most important Football Club in the city. 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5,554 | Gossip | Gossip is idle talk or rumour, especially about the personal or private affairs of others. It forms one of the oldest and most common means of sharing (unproven) facts and views, but also has a reputation for the introduction of errors and other variations into the information transmitted. The term also carries implications that the news so transmitted (usually) has a personal or trivial nature, as opposed to normal conversation. In the last decade, gossip has been researched in terms of its evolutionary psychology origins. This has found gossip is an important means by which people can monitor cooperative reputations and so maintain widespread indirect reciprocity Sommerfeld RD, Krambeck HJ, Semmann D, Milinski M. (2007). Gossip as an alternative for direct observation in games of indirect reciprocity. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 104(44):17435-40. PMID 17947384 Indirect reciprocity is defined here as "I help you and somebody else helps me". Gossip has also been identified by Robin Dunbar an evolutionary biologist as aiding social bonding in large groups. Dunbar RI. (2004). Gossip in evolutionary perspective. Review of general psychology 8: 100-110. abstract The term is sometimes used to specifically refer to the spreading of dirt and misinformation, as (for example) through excited discussion of scandals. Some newspapers carry "gossip columns" which detail the social and personal lives of celebrities or of élite members of certain communities. Etymology The word is from Old English godsibb, from god and sibb, the term for godparents, i.e. a child's godfather or godmother. In the 16th century, the word assumed the meaning of a person, mostly a woman, one who delights in idle talk, a newsmonger, a tattler. OED In the early 19th century, the term was extended from the talker to the conversation of such persons. The verb to gossip, meaning "to be a gossip", first appears in Shakespeare. One popular etymology (or folk-etymology) connects the word "gossip" with "to sip": See for example the popular-cultural account and discussion of the phenomenon as an Internet urban legend at http://www.word-detective.com/060704.html ; retrieved 2007-02-15. the tale tells how politicians would send assistants to bars to sit and listen to general public conversations. The assistants had instructions to sip a beer and listen to opinions; they responded to the command to "go sip", which allegedly turned into "gossip". Functions of gossip This Soviet war poster conveys the message: "Don't chatter! Gossiping borders on treason" (1941). Gossip can serve to: normalise and reinforce moral boundaries in a speech-community foster and build a sense of community with shared interests and information build structures of social accountability further mutual social grooming (like many other uses of language, only more so) provide a mating tool that allows (for example) women to mutually identify socially desirable men and compare notes on which men are better than others. be used as a form of passive aggression, as a tool to isolate and harm others provide a peer-to-peer mechanism for disseminating information in organizations Workplace gossip Peter Vajda identifies gossip as a form of workplace violence, noting that it is "essentially a form of attack." Accordingly, many companies have formal policies in their employee handbooks against gossip. New Jersey Hearsay Evidence, Human Resource Blog. Sometimes there is room for disagreement on exactly what constitutes unacceptable gossip, since workplace gossip may take the form of offhand remarks about someone's tendencies such as "He always takes a long lunch," or "Don’t worry, that’s just how she is." The Culture Shock, Tami Kyle, TLK Connections, Summer 2005. TLK Healthcare cites as examples of gossip, "tattletailing to the boss without intention of furthering a solution or speaking to co-workers about something someone else has done to upset us." Corporate email can be a particularly dangerous method of gossip delivery, as the medium is semi-permanent and messages are easily forwarded to unintended recipients; accordingly, a Mass High Tech article advised employers to instruct employees against using company email networks for gossip. Companies must spell out employee e-mail policies, Warren E. Agin, Swiggart & Agin, LLC, Mass High Tech, November 18, 1996. Low self-esteem and a desire to "fit in" are frequently cited as motivations for workplace gossip. Some negative consequences of workplace gossip may include: Workplace Gossip, Kit Hennessy, LPC, CEAP. Lost productivity and wasted time, Erosion of trust and morale, Increased anxiety among employees as rumors circulate without any clear information as to what is fact and what isn’t, Growing divisiveness among employees as people “take sides," Hurt feelings and reputations, Jeopardized chances for the gossipers' advancement as they are perceived as unprofessional, and Attrition as good employees leave the company due to the unhealthy work atmosphere. Turner and Weed theorize that among the three main types of responders to workplace conflict are attackers who cannot keep their feelings to themselves and express their feelings by attacking whatever they can. Attackers are further divided into up-front attackers and behind-the-back attackers. Turner and Weed note that the latter "are difficult to handle because the target person is not sure of the source of any criticism, nor even always sure that there is criticism." Conflict in organizations: Practical solutions any manager can use; Turner, Stephen P. (University of South Florida); Weed, Frank; 1983. It is possible however, that there may be illegal, unethical, or disobedient behavior happening at the workplace and this may be a case where reporting the behavior may be viewed as gossip. It is then left up to the authority in charge to fully investigate the matter and not simply look past the report and assume it to be workplace gossip. All illegal, unethical, or disobedient behavior that is reported to the appropriate personal should be taken seriously until otherwise proven innocent. Informal networks through which communication occurs in an organization are sometimes called the grapevine. A recent study found that lying takes longer than telling the truth. Roy Britt, "Lies Take Longer Than Truths," LiveScience.com, January 26, 2009, found at Yahoo News. Accessed January 26, 2009. Various views on gossip Some see gossip as trivial, hurtful and socially and/or intellectually unproductive. Some people view gossip as a lighthearted way of spreading information. A feminist definition of gossip presents it as "a way of talking between women, intimate in style, personal and domestic in scope and setting, a female cultural event which springs from and perpetuates the restrictions of the female role, but also gives the comfort of validation." (Jones, 1990:243) In early modern England In Early Modern England the word "gossip" referred to companions in childbirth, not limited to the midwife. It also became a term for women-friends generally, with no necessary derogatory connotations. (OED n. definition 2. a. "A familiar acquaintance, friend, chum", supported by references from 1361 to 1873). It commonly referred to an informal local sorority or social group, who could enforce socially-acceptable behaviour through private censure or through public rituals, such as "rough music" and the skimmington ride. These include accounts of the rituals that shamed or celebrated women’s sexuality: women washing a neighbour’s private parts with soap and water, or ‘polling’ pubic hair. In Thomas Harman’s Caveat for Common Cursitors 1566 a ‘walking mort’ relates how she was forced to agree to meet a man in his barn, but informed his wife. The wife arrived with her “five furious, sturdy, muffled gossips” who catch the errant husband with “his hosen about his legs” and give him a sound beating. The story clearly functions as a morality tale in which the gossips uphold the social order. Bernard Capp, When Gossips Meet: Women, Family and Neighbourhood in Early Modern England, Oxford University Press, 2003. ISBN 0199255989 Gossip in Judaism Judaism considers gossip spoken without a constructive purpose (known in Hebrew as lashon hara) as a sin. Speaking negatively about people, even if retelling true facts, counts as sinful, as it demeans the dignity of man — both the speaker and the subject of the gossip. According to Proverbs 18:8: "The words of a gossip are like choice morsels: they go down to a man's innermost parts." Gossip in Islam Islam considers backbiting the equivalent of eating the flesh of one's dead brother. According to Muslims, backbiting harms its victims without offering them any chance of defence, just as dead people cannot defend against their flesh being eaten. Muslims are expected to treat each other like brothers, deriving from Islam's concept of brotherhood amongst its believers and non believers. Gossip in Christianity Christianity condemns all kinds of gossip that seeks to use information to harm another person. The Epistle to the Romans associates gossips ("backbiters") with a list of sins including sexual immorality and with murder: 28 And even as they did not like to retain God in their knowledge, God gave them over to a reprobate mind, to do those things which are not convenient; 29 Being filled with all unrighteousness, fornication, wickedness, covetousness, maliciousness; full of envy, murder, debate, deceit, malignity; whisperers, 30 Backbiters, haters of God, despiteful, proud, boasters, inventors of evil things, disobedient to parents, 31 Without understanding, covenantbreakers, without natural affection, implacable, unmerciful: 32 Who knowing the judgment of God, that they which commit such things are worthy of death, not only do the same, but have pleasure in them that do them. (Romans 1:28-32) Jesus also taught, in Matthew 18, that conflict resolution among church members ought to begin with the aggrieved party attempting to resolve their dispute with the offending party alone. Only if this did not work would the process escalate to the next step, in which other church members would become involved. In no case did Jesus authorize exposing faults to other people besides the person at fault. Since "all have sinned and fall short of the glory of God" (Romans 3:23), Christians are called to loving forgiveness and the spread of positive information rather than evil gossip that destroys relationships. Gossip in Hindu Jain and Budhism Gossip is Hinsa (violence) as even a thought against some See also Gossip magazines Libel Rumor Scandal Misinformation Word of mouth Yenta Label References Bibliography Niko Besnier, 2009: Gossip and the Everyday Production of Politics. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. ISBN 978-0824833381 Niko Besnier, 1996: Gossip. In Encyclopedia of Cultural Anthropology. David Levinson and Melvin Ember, eds. Vol. 2, pp. 544–547. New York: Henry Holt. Niko Besnier, 1994: The Truth and Other Irrelevant Aspects of Nukulaelae Gossip. Pacific Studies 17(3):1-39. Niko Besnier, 1989: Information Withholding as a Manipulative and Collusive Strategy in Nukulaelae Gossip. Language in Society 18:315-341. Robert F. Goodman and Aaron Ben-Zeev, editors: Good Gossip. Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas, 1993. ISBN 0700606696 Deborah Jones, 1990: 'Gossip: notes on women's oral culture'. In: Cameron, Deborah. (editor) The Feminist Critique of Language: A Reader. London/New York: Routledge, 1990, pp. 242–250. ISBN 0415042593. Cited online in Rash, 1996. Felicity Rash, 1996: "Rauhe Männer - Zarte Frauen: Linguistic and Stylistic Aspects of Gender Stereotyping in German Advertising Texts 1949-1959" in The Web Journal of Modern Language Linguistics, Issue 1, 1996. Retrieved from http://wjmll.ncl.ac.uk/issue01/rashb.rtf on 2006-08-11 Patricia Ann Meyer Spacks. Gossip. New York: Knopf, 1985. ISBN 0394540247 External links Ronald de Sousa (U Toronto) on Gossip "Go Ahead. Gossip May Be Virtuous" New York Times article by Patricia Cohen 2002-08-10 (requires registration) Emrys Westacott (Alfred U) The Ethics of Gossiping Perspectives on Gossip The theme of gossip in three literary pieces Robin Dunbar, Coevolution of neocortical size, group size and language in humans (pre-publication version) "Analysis of a sample of human conversations shows that about 60% of time is spent gossiping about relationships and personal experiences." | Gossip |@lemmatized gossip:60 idle:2 talk:3 rumour:1 especially:1 personal:6 private:3 affair:1 others:3 form:5 one:4 old:2 common:2 mean:3 share:1 unproven:1 fact:3 view:4 also:7 reputation:3 introduction:1 error:1 variation:1 information:8 transmit:1 term:6 carry:2 implication:1 news:2 transmitted:1 usually:1 trivial:2 nature:1 oppose:1 normal:1 conversation:4 last:1 decade:1 research:1 evolutionary:3 psychology:2 origin:1 find:3 important:1 people:6 monitor:1 cooperative:1 maintain:1 widespread:1 indirect:3 reciprocity:3 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5,555 | Glasnevin | Glasnevin (Glas Naíon, Glas Na’on - Stream of the Infants; also known as Glas Naedhe - O'Naeidhe’s Stream (after an ancient Chieftain) - in Irish) is a largely residential neighbourhood of Dublin, Ireland. Geography A mainly residential neighbourhood, it is located on the Northside of the city of Dublin (about 3 km north of Dublin City centre). It was originally established on the northern bank of the River Tolka. It is bordered to the northwest by Ballygall, northeast by Ballymun, Whitehall to the east, Phibsboro and Drumcondra to the south and Cabra to the west. History Foundation Glasnevin seems to have been founded by Saint Mobhi (sometimes known as St Berchan) in the sixth (or perhaps fifth) century as a monastery. His monastery continued to be used for many years afterwards - St. Colman is recorded as having paid homage to its founder when he returned from abroad to visit Ireland a century after St Mobhi's death in 544. St. Columba of Iona is thought to have studied under St. Mobhi, but left Glasnevin following an outbreak of plague and journeyed north to open the House at Derry. There is a long street (Iona Road) in Glasnevin named in his honour. The church on Iona Road is called Saint Columba's. Middle Ages A settlement grew up around this monastery, which survived until the Viking invasions in the eighth century. After raids on monasteries at Glendalough and Clondalkin, the monasteries at Glasnevin and Finglas were attacked and destroyed. By 822 Glasnevin had become the farm for Christ Church Cathedral and it seems to have maintained this connection up to the time of the Reformation. The Battle of Clontarf was fought on the banks of the River Tolka in 1014 (a field called the bloody acre is supposed to be part of the site). The Irish defeated the Danes in a battle, in which 7,000 Danes and 4,000 Irish died. The 12th century saw the Normans (who had conquered Great Britain in the eleventh century) invade Ireland. As local rulers continued fighting amongst themselves the Norman King of England Henry II was invited to intervene. He arrived in 1171, took control of much land, and then parcelled it out amongst his supporters. Glasnevin ended up under the jurisdiction of Finglas Abbey. Laurence O'Toole, Archbishop of Dublin, took responsibility for Glasnevin. It became the property the Holy Trinity (Christ Church Cathedral). In 1240 a church and tower was reconstructed on the site of the Church of St. Mobhi in the monastery. The returns of the church for 1326 stated that 28 tenants resided in Glasnevin. The church was enlarged in 1346, along with a small hall known as the Manor Hall. Late Middle Ages When Henry VIII broke from Rome an era of religious repression began. All Catholic church property and land was appropriated to the new Church, and monasteries (including the one at Glasnevin) were forcibly closed and fell into ruin. Glasnevin had at this stage developed as a village, with its principal landmark and focal point being its "bull-ring" noted in 1542. By 1667 Glasnevin had expanded - but not by very much; it is recorded as containing 24 houses. The development of the village was given a fresh impetus when Sir John Rogerson built his country residence, "The Glen" or "Glasnevin House" outside the village. A Protestant church, St. Mobhi's, was built in the mid 17th century and most of it was rebuilt in the mid 18th century. It was part of a site where the ancient monastery of St. Mobhi once stood. It is said that Robert Emmet is buried there. This claim is made because once somebody working in the graveyard there dug up a headless body. Early modern times The plantations of Ireland saw the settlement of Protestant English families on land previously held by Catholics. Lands at Glasnevin were leased to such families and a Protestant church was erected there in 1707. It was built on the site of the old Catholic Church and was named after St. Mobhi. The attached churchyard became a graveyard for both Protestants and Catholics. By now Glasnevin was an area for families of distinction - in spite of a comment attributed to the Protestant Archbishop King of Dublin that "when any couple had a mind to be wicked, they would retire to Glasnevin". In a letter, dated 1725 he described Glasnevin as "the receptacle for thieves and rogues. The first search when anything was stolen, was there, and when any couple had a mind to retire to be wicked there was their harbour. But since the church was built, and service regularly settled, all these evils are banished. Good houses are built in it, and the place civilised." Mant's History of the Church of Ireland 19th and 20th Centuries Glasnevin became a township in 1878 and became part of the City of Dublin in 1900. The parish population was recorded as 1,001, of whom 559 resided in the village. Glasnevin was described as a parish in the barony of Coolock, pleasantly situated and the residence of many families of distinction. Topographical Dictionary of Ireland, Lewis (1837) When Drumcondra began to rapidly expand in the 1870’s, the residents of Glasnevin sought to protect their district and opposed being merged with the neighbouring suburb. One of the objectors was the property-owner, Dr Gogarty, the father of the Irish poet, Oliver St. John Gogarty. On 1 June 1832, Charles Lindsay, Bishop of Kildare and Leighlin and the William John released their holdings of Sir John Rogerson's lands at Glasnevin, (including Glasnevin House) to George Hayward Lindsay. This transfer included the sum of 1,500 Pounds Sterling. Although this does not specifically cite the marriage of George Hayward Lindsay to Lady Mary Catherine Gore, George Lindsay almost certainly came into the lands at Glasnevin as a result of his marriage. George Hayward Lindsay’s eldest son, Lieutenant Colonel Henry Gore Lindsay, was in possession of his father’s lands at Glasnevin when the area began to be developed at the beginning of the twentieth-century. The development of his lands after 1903/04 marked the start of the gradual development of the area. Glasnevin remained relatively undeveloped until the opening up of the Carroll Estate in 1914, which saw the creation of the redbrick residential roads running down towards Drumcondra. The process was accelerated by Dublin Corporation in the 1920s and the present shape of the suburb was firmly in place by 1930. Nevertheless, until comparatively recent years, a short stroll up the Old Finglas Road brought you rapidly into open countryside. The start of the 20th century also saw the opening of a short lived railway station on the Drumcondra and North Dublin Link Railway line from Glasnevin Junction to Connolly Station (then Amiens Street). It opened in 1906 and closed at the end of 1907. Glasnevin railway station opened on 1 April 1901 and closed on 1 December 1910. Village of Glasnevin The village has changed a lot over the years, and is now part of Dublin City. Some of its old charm remains, and can be readily seen in the area's old-world gardens, with their wealth of flowering shrubs and climbing plants. Glasnevin has a vibrant community, largely comprising of a mix of young families and their more senior counterparts from the middle of the last century, as well as students attending the University. As well as the amenities of the Botanic Gardens and local parks, the national meteorological office Met Éireann, the Fisheries Board, the National Standards Authority of Ireland, Sustainable Energy Ireland, the National Metrology Laboratory (NML), the Department of Defence and the national enterprise and trade board Enterprise Ireland are all located in the area. Botanic Gardens The Curvilinear Range of glasshouses at the Irish National Botanic Gardens The house and lands of the poet Thomas Tickell were sold in 1790 to the Irish Parliament and given to the Royal Dublin Society for them to establish Ireland's first Botanic Gardens. The gardens were the first location in Ireland where the infection responsible for the 1845–1847 potato famine was identified. Throughout the famine research to stop the infection was undertaken at the gardens. The which border the River Tolka also adjoin the Prospect Cemetery. In 2002 the Botanic Gardens gained a new multistorey complex which included a new cafe and a large lecture theatre. The Irish National Herbarium is also located at the botanic gardens. Prospect Cemetery Crosses at Glasnevin Cemetery Prospect Cemetery is located in Glasnevin, although better known as Glasnevin Cemetery, the most historically notable burial place in the country and the last resting place, among a host of historical figures, of Michael Collins, Charles Stewart Parnell and also Arthur Griffith. This graveyard led to Glasnevin being known as "the dead centre of Dublin". It opened in 1832 and is the final resting place for thousands of ordinary citizens, as well as many Irish patriots. Hart's Corner Approaching Glasnevin via Phibsboro is what is known as Hart's Corner but which about a 200 years ago was called Glasmanogue, and was then a well-known stage on the way to Finglas. At an earlier date the name possessed a wider signification and was applied to a considerable portion of the adjoining district. Delville At the start of the 18th century a large house, called Delville - known at first as The Glen - was built on the site of the present Bons Secours hospital. Its name was an amalgamation of the surnames of two of its tenants, Dr. Helsam and Dr. Patrick Delany (as Heldeville), both Fellows of Trinity College). When Delany married his first wife he acquired sole ownership, but it became famous as the home of Delany and his second wife - Mary Pendarves. She was a widow whom Delany married in 1743, and was an accomplished letter writer. They couple were friends of Dean Jonathan Swift and, through him, of Alexander Pope. Pope encouraged the Delaneys to develop a garden in a style then becoming popular in England - moving away from the very formal, geometric layout that was common. He redesigned the house in the style of a villa and had the gardens laid out in the latest Dutch fashion creating what was almost certainly Ireland's first naturalistic garden. The house was, under Mrs Delany, a centre of Dublin's intellectual life. Swift is said to have composed many of his campaigning pamphlets while staying there. He and his life - long companion Stella were both in the habit of visiting, and Swift satirised the grounds which he considered too small for the size of the house. Through her correspondence with her sister, Mrs Dewes, Mary wrote of Swift in 1733: "he calls himself my master and corrects me when I speak bad English or do not pronounce my words distinctly". Patrick Delany died in 1768 at the age of 82, prompting his widow to sell Delville and return to her native England until her death twenty years later. The Pyramid Church A timber church, which originally stood on Berkeley Road, was moved to a riverside site on Botanic Avenue early in the twentieth century. The altar in this church was from Newgate prison in Dublin. It served as the parish church until it was replaced, in 1972, by a structure resembling a pyramid when viewed from Botanic Avenue. The previous church was known locally as "The Woodener" or "The Wooden" and the new building is still known to older residents as "The new Woodener" or "The Wigwam". Its official name is Our Lady of Dolours. Met Éireann Met Éireann headquarters In 1975 the new headquarters of Met Éireann, the Irish Meteorological Office, opened just off Glasnevin Hill. It, too, was built in a somewhat pyramidal shape and is recognised as one of the most significant, smaller commercial buildings, to be erected in Dublin in the 1970s. Griffith Avenue Griffith Avenue, which runs through Glasnevin, Drumcondra and Marino, is the longest tree lined Avenue in the Northern Hemisphere with no retail outlets. The Avenue spans 3 electoral constituencies. It was named after Arthur Griffith who was the founder and third leader of Sinn Féin and also served as President of Dáil Éireann. Arthur Griffith also was buried in Glasnevin Cemetery. Community and sport The Gaelic games of Gaelic football, hurling, camogie and Gaelic handball are all organised locally by Na Fianna CLG, while soccer is played by local clubs Iona F.C., Tolka Rovers and Glasnevin F.C. They celebrated their 125th anniversary in 2006. Basketball is organised by Tolka Rovers. There are several schools in Glasnevin, including Lindsay Road National School, Glasnevin National School, an "Educate Together" national school, St Vincent's (Christian Brothers) School, St Columba's Convent School and St Mary's Secondary School. Notable natives Saint Canice Bono Saint Comgall Patrick Denis O'Donnell Michael O'Riordan John J. O'Kelly David P. Tyndall Mona Tyndall Damien McCaul - Television presenter and Dublin's Q102 disc jockey Thomas Tickell Francis Martin O'Donnell Celia Lynch Michael O'Hehir Margaret Buckley John O'Connell Robbie Kelleher The Parnell family, as well as the family of Richard Brinsley Sheridan were also associated with Glasnevin. Jonathan Swift once lived across the road from the Glasnevin Model School, which is now the Glasnevin Educate Together School. References Weston St. John Joyce, "The Neighbourhood of Dublin" (third and enlarged edition 1920). CHAPTER XXVI, "Glasnevin, Finglas and the adjacent district" (scanned in by Ken Finlay). See also List of towns and villages in Ireland External links Met Éireann Central Fisheries Board A History of Glasnevin from Egan's House A History of Glasnevin from Glasnevin Cemmetary The Botanic Gardens Monuments in Glasnevin Cemetery The Parish of Glasnevin from F.E. Ball's A History of the County Dublin (1920) Account of Glasnevin from D'Alton's History of the County Dublin (1838) The Battle of Glasnevin Graveyard Glasnevin, Finglas and the adjacent district from The Neighbourhood of Dublin by Weston St. John Joyce (third and enlarged edition 1920). The Tolka, Glasnevin and the Naul Road from North Dublin by Dillon Cosgrove. 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5,556 | Non-disclosure_agreement | A non-disclosure agreement (NDA), also known as a confidentiality agreement, confidential disclosure agreement (CDA), proprietary information agreement (PIA), or secrecy agreement, is a legal contract between at least two parties that outlines confidential materials or knowledge the parties wish to share with one another for certain purposes, but wish to restrict access to. It is a contract through which the parties agree not to disclose information covered by the agreement. An NDA creates a confidential relationship between the parties to protect any type of confidential and proprietary information or a trade secret. As such, an NDA protects non-public business information. NDAs are commonly signed when two companies or individuals are considering doing business and need to understand the processes used in each others business for the purpose of evaluating the potential business relationship. NDAs can be "mutual", meaning both parties are restricted in their use of the materials provided, or they can restrict the use of material by a single party. It is also possible for an employee to sign an NDA or NDA-like agreement with an employer. In fact, some employment agreements will include a clause restricting employees use and dissemination of company-owned "confidential information." NDAs are used in the IT field, and are often given directly prior to taking a certification exam. In rare cases, the contract may state that the existence of the NDA itself cannot be disclosed. Content The first step to determining the appropriate content for a non-disclosure agreement is to determine the type of agreement that you need. Most agreements tend to be one-way agreements, or unilateral agreements, where one party wants to disclose certain information to another party but needs the information to remain secret for some reason, perhaps due to secrecy requirements required to satisfy patent laws Understanding Confidentiality Agreements by David V. Radack ("Second, the use of confidentiality agreements can prevent the forfeiture of valuable patent rights.") or to make sure that the other party does not take and use the disclosed information without compensating the discloser. You can use a non-disclosure agreement to protect any type of information that is not generally known, and there are a number of places where you can find royalty free unilateral agreements for use. Another type of non-disclosure agreement is one that is a mutual agreement. Mutual agreements are much like unilateral agreements, but both parties will be supplying information that is intended to remain secret The $70 Million NDA by Jamie Wodetzki . This type of agreement is far more common when businesses are considering some kind of joint venture or merger. Much of what will go into a non-disclosure agreement are clauses that will protect the person receiving the information so that if they lawfully obtained the information through other sources they would not be obligated to keep the information secret. Intellectual Property: Using Confidentiality Agreements published by Yahoo! Small Business In other words, the non-disclosure agreement typically only requires the receiving party to maintain information in confidence when that information has been directly supplied by the disclosing party. Ironically, however, it is sometimes easier to get a receiving party to sign a simple agreement that is shorter, less complex and does not contain safety provisions protecting the receiver. Some common issues addressed in an NDA include: Overview of Confidentiality Agreements by Mark J. Hanson, Joe R. Thompson and Joel J. Dahlgren outlining the parties to the agreement; the definition of what is confidential, i.e. the information to be held confidential. Modern NDAs will typically include a laundry-list of types of items which are covered, including unpublished patent applications, know-how, schema, financial information, verbal representations, customer lists, vendor lists, business practices/strategies, etc; the exclusions from what must be kept confidential. Typically, the restrictions on the disclosure or use of the confidential data will be invalid if the recipient had prior knowledge of the materials; the recipient gained subsequent knowledge of the materials from another source; the materials are generally available to the public; or the materials are subject to a subpoena. In any case, a subpoena would more likely than not override a contract of any sort; provisions restricting the transfer of data in violation of national security; the term (in years) of the confidentiality, i.e. the time period of confidentiality; the term (in years) the agreement is binding; permission to obtain ex-parte injunctive relief; the obligations of the recipient regarding the confidential information, typically including some version of obligations: to use the information only for enumerated purposes; to disclose it only to persons with a need to know the information for those purposes; to use appropriate efforts (not less than reasonable efforts) to keep the information secure. Reasonable efforts is often defined as a standard of care relating to confidential information that is no less rigorous than that which the recipient uses to keep its own similar information secure; and to ensure that anyone to whom the information is disclosed further abides by obligations restricting use, restricting disclosure, and ensuring security at least as protective as the agreement; and types of permissible disclosure - such as those required by law or court order. References See also Business broker Form SF-312 classified information NDA Glossary of legal terms in technology Invention Secrecy Act (United States, 1951) Non-compete agreement External links Confidentiality and Confidential Disclosure Agreements (CDA) booklet edited by the UK Intellectual Property Office (300 KB pdf file) Confidentiality Agreements in IPR-Helpdesk, a web site sponsored by the European Commission | Non-disclosure_agreement |@lemmatized non:8 disclosure:11 agreement:33 nda:9 also:3 know:4 confidentiality:9 confidential:12 cda:2 proprietary:2 information:25 pia:1 secrecy:3 legal:2 contract:4 least:2 two:2 party:14 outline:2 material:7 knowledge:3 wish:2 share:1 one:4 another:4 certain:2 purpose:4 restrict:7 access:1 agree:1 disclose:6 cover:2 create:1 relationship:2 protect:4 type:7 trade:1 secret:4 protects:1 public:2 business:8 ndas:4 commonly:1 sign:3 company:2 individual:1 consider:2 need:4 understand:2 process:1 use:15 others:1 evaluate:1 potential:1 mutual:3 mean:1 provide:1 single:1 possible:1 employee:2 like:2 employer:1 fact:1 employment:1 include:5 clause:1 dissemination:1 field:1 often:2 give:1 directly:2 prior:2 take:2 certification:1 exam:1 rare:1 case:2 may:1 state:2 existence:1 cannot:1 content:2 first:1 step:1 determine:2 appropriate:2 tend:1 way:1 unilateral:3 want:1 remain:2 reason:1 perhaps:1 due:1 requirement:1 require:3 satisfy:1 patent:3 law:2 david:1 v:1 radack:1 second:1 prevent:1 forfeiture:1 valuable:1 right:1 make:1 sure:1 disclosed:1 without:1 compensate:1 discloser:1 generally:2 number:1 place:1 find:1 royalty:1 free:1 much:2 supply:2 intend:1 million:1 jamie:1 wodetzki:1 far:2 common:2 kind:1 joint:1 venture:1 merger:1 go:1 clauses:1 person:2 receive:3 lawfully:1 obtain:2 source:2 would:2 obligate:1 keep:4 intellectual:2 property:2 publish:1 yahoo:1 small:1 word:1 typically:4 maintain:1 confidence:1 ironically:1 however:1 sometimes:1 easy:1 get:1 simple:1 short:1 less:3 complex:1 contain:1 safety:1 provision:2 receiver:1 issue:1 address:1 overview:1 mark:1 j:2 hanson:1 joe:1 r:1 thompson:1 joel:1 dahlgren:1 definition:1 e:2 hold:1 modern:1 laundry:1 list:3 item:1 unpublished:1 application:1 schema:1 financial:1 verbal:1 representation:1 customer:1 vendor:1 practice:1 strategy:1 etc:1 exclusion:1 must:1 restriction:1 data:2 invalid:1 recipient:4 gain:1 subsequent:1 available:1 subject:1 subpoena:2 likely:1 override:1 sort:1 transfer:1 violation:1 national:1 security:2 term:3 year:2 time:1 period:1 bind:1 permission:1 ex:1 parte:1 injunctive:1 relief:1 obligation:3 regard:1 version:1 enumerated:1 effort:3 reasonable:2 secure:2 define:1 standard:1 care:1 relate:1 rigorous:1 similar:1 ensure:2 anyone:1 abides:1 protective:1 permissible:1 court:1 order:1 reference:1 see:1 broker:1 form:1 sf:1 classified:1 glossary:1 technology:1 invention:1 act:1 united:1 compete:1 external:1 link:1 booklet:1 edit:1 uk:1 office:1 kb:1 pdf:1 file:1 ipr:1 helpdesk:1 web:1 site:1 sponsor:1 european:1 commission:1 |@bigram joint_venture:1 ex_parte:1 injunctive_relief:1 external_link:1 |
5,557 | Earned_run | In baseball, an earned run is any run for which the pitcher is held accountable (i.e., the run scored as a result of normal pitching, and not due to a fielding error or a passed ball). Any runner(s) who tags his base and reaches home plate is scored against the pitcher as an earned run(s). An error made by the pitcher in fielding at his position is counted the same as an error by any other player. Earned runs are specially denoted because of their use in calculating a pitcher's earned run average – the number of earned runs allowed per 9 innings (regulation game) pitched. Earned runs proceed from the theory that the pitcher has sole responsibility to earn strikes against opposing batter(s) until at least three batters are retired in each inning of play, and nine innings (a complete game) are pitched. To determine whether a run is earned, the official scorer must reconstruct the inning as it would have occurred without the errors (for purposes of this rule, the "errors" also include passed balls). The benefit of the doubt is always given to the pitcher in determining which bases would have been reached by errorless play. If no errors and no passed balls occur during the inning, all runs scored are automatically earned (assigned responsible to the pitcher). In a few cases, an error can be rendered harmless while the inning is still going on. For example, a runner on first base advances to second on a passed ball. The next batter walks. Since the runner would now have been at second anyway, the passed ball no longer has any impact on the earned/unearned calculation. A run is counted as unearned when: A batter reaches base on an error (including catcher's interference), and later scores a run in that inning. A baserunner remains on base as the result of an error on a fielder's choice play that would put the baserunner out except for an error, and subsequently scores. A batter reaches base on a fielder's choice which removes a baserunner who has reached base safely on an error or has remained on base as the result of an error, reaching first base on a passed ball on a called or swinging third strike, or remained on base on an error on a fielders' choice play that should have retired him, and subsequently scores. A batter or runner advances one or more bases on an error or passed ball and scores on a play that would otherwise not have provided the opportunity to score. A baserunner scores after the third out would have been made. In the first two cases above, "on an error" includes situations where the batter makes a clean hit (or walks, is hit by pitch, reaches base on a fielder's choice in which no out is made, or reaches base on a wild pitch on a called or swinging third strike), but should have been out earlier in his at bat on a foul fly ball which was dropped by a fielder for an error. This also includes any run (or any subsequent run) that scores on plays that result in outs with one out or a double play with none out if an error has extended the inning. While the inning is still being played, this last scenario can cause a temporary situation where a run has already scored, but its earned/unearned status is not yet certain. For example, with two outs, a runner on third base scores on a passed ball. For the time being, the run is unearned since the runner should still be at third. If the batter strikes out to end the inning, it will stay that way. If the batter gets a base hit, which would have scored the runner anyway, the run now becomes earned. A runner who reaches on catcher's interference and subsequently scores with two outs scores an unearned run, but baserunners who subsequently score after the runner who has reached on catcher's interference exclusively on clean plays score earned runs; the baserunner cannot be assumed to have been put out except for the error. (Rule 10.16(4)). Neither the use of a pinch-runner to replace a baserunner who represents an unearned run nor the use of a pinch-hitter to continue the turn at bat of a batter who would be out except for an error transforms a run scored by such a person or his successors on base from an unearned run to an earned run. When pitchers are changed in the middle of an inning, and one or more errors have already occurred, it is possible to have a run charged as earned against a specific pitcher, but unearned to the team. The simplest example is when the defensive team records two outs and makes an error on a play that would have been the third out. A new pitcher comes into the game, and the next batter hits a home run. The runner who reached on the error comes around to score, and his run is unearned to both the prior pitcher and the team. However, the run scored by the batter is counted as earned against the relief pitcher, but unearned to the team (since there should have already been three outs). Had the team not switched pitchers, neither run would be counted as an earned run because that pitcher should have already been out of that inning. A pitcher is only charged with the number of runners that reached base while he was pitching, and this does not include baserunners who reach base as the result of a fielder's choice play that removes an existing runner; such a runner is charged to the pitcher whose baserunner has been removed by the fielder's choice play. When a pitching change occurs, the new pitcher is said to "inherit" any runners that are on base at the time, and if they later score, those runs are charged (earned or unearned) to the prior pitcher. Most box scores now list inherited runners, and the number that scored, as a statistic for the relief pitcher. Historical differences In the early history of major league baseball, the difference between the number of earned runs given up by a pitcher and the total number of runs given up was much more significant than today. For instance, Jim Devlin in 1876 pitched 66 complete games (662 innings pitched) with a 1.46 ERA but managed to record only five shutouts. The seeming discrepancy comes from the difference in the number of allowed runs (309) versus earned runs (108). External links Major League Baseball Rule 10.16 - Determining Earned Runs See also Baseball statistics Earned run average Run average | Earned_run |@lemmatized baseball:4 earned:7 run:37 pitcher:20 hold:1 accountable:1 e:1 score:23 result:5 normal:1 pitching:2 due:1 fielding:1 error:22 pass:7 ball:9 runner:16 tag:1 base:19 reach:13 home:2 plate:1 make:5 field:1 position:1 count:4 player:1 earn:15 specially:1 denote:1 use:3 calculate:1 average:3 number:6 allow:2 per:1 inning:13 regulation:1 game:4 pitch:7 proceed:1 theory:1 sole:1 responsibility:1 strike:4 oppose:1 batter:12 least:1 three:2 retire:2 play:12 nine:1 complete:2 determine:2 whether:1 official:1 scorer:1 must:1 reconstruct:1 would:10 occur:4 without:1 purpose:1 rule:3 also:3 include:5 benefit:1 doubt:1 always:1 give:3 errorless:1 passed:1 automatically:1 assign:1 responsible:1 case:2 render:1 harmless:1 still:3 go:1 example:3 first:3 advance:2 second:2 next:2 walk:2 since:3 anyway:2 longer:1 impact:1 unearned:11 calculation:1 catcher:3 interference:3 later:2 baserunner:7 remain:3 fielder:7 choice:6 put:2 except:3 subsequently:4 remove:3 safely:1 call:2 swing:2 third:6 one:3 otherwise:1 provide:1 opportunity:1 two:4 situation:2 clean:2 hit:4 wild:1 earlier:1 bat:2 foul:1 fly:1 drop:1 subsequent:1 double:1 none:1 extend:1 last:1 scenario:1 cause:1 temporary:1 already:4 status:1 yet:1 certain:1 time:2 end:1 stay:1 way:1 get:1 become:1 baserunners:2 exclusively:1 cannot:1 assume:1 neither:2 pinch:2 replace:1 represent:1 hitter:1 continue:1 turn:1 transform:1 person:1 successor:1 change:2 middle:1 possible:1 charge:4 specific:1 team:5 simple:1 defensive:1 record:2 new:2 come:3 around:1 prior:2 however:1 relief:2 switch:1 exist:1 whose:1 say:1 inherit:1 box:1 list:1 inherited:1 statistic:2 historical:1 difference:3 early:1 history:1 major:2 league:2 total:1 much:1 significant:1 today:1 instance:1 jim:1 devlin:1 era:1 manage:1 five:1 shutout:1 seem:1 discrepancy:1 versus:1 external:1 link:1 determining:1 see:1 |@bigram earned_run:6 fielding_error:1 catcher_interference:3 fielder_choice:6 batter_runner:1 pinch_runner:1 pinch_hitter:1 relief_pitcher:2 league_baseball:2 inning_pitch:1 external_link:1 |
5,558 | Division_algebra | In the field of mathematics called abstract algebra, a division algebra is, roughly speaking, an algebra over a field in which division is possible. Definitions Formally, we start with an algebra D over a field, and assume that D does not just consist of its zero element. We call D a division algebra if for any element a in D and any non-zero element b in D there exists precisely one element x in D with a = bx and precisely one element y in D such that a = yb. For associative algebras, the definition can be simplified as follows: an associative algebra over a field is a division algebra if and only if it has a multiplicative identity element 1≠0 and every non-zero element a has a multiplicative inverse (i.e. an element x with ax = xa = 1). Associative division algebras The best-known examples of associative division algebras are the finite-dimensional real ones (that is, algebras over the field R of real numbers, which are finite-dimensional as a vector space over the reals). The Frobenius theorem states that up to isomorphism there are three such algebras: the reals themselves (dimension 1), the field of complex numbers (dimension 2), and the quaternions (dimension 4). Wedderburn's little theorem states that if D is a finite division algebra, then D is a finite field. (T. Y. Lam, A First Course in Noncommutative Rings.) Over an algebraically closed field K (for example the complex numbers C), there are no finite-dimensional associative division algebras, except K itself of course. Associative division algebras have no zero divisors. A finite-dimensional unital associative algebra (over any field) is a division algebra if and only if it has no zero divisors. Whenever A is an associative unital algebra over the field F and S is a simple module over A, then the endomorphism ring of S is a division algebra over F; every associative division algebra over F arises in this fashion. The center of an associative division algebra D over the field K is a field containing K. The dimension of such an algebra over its center, if finite, is a perfect square: it is equal to the square of the dimension of a maximal subfield of D over the center. Given a field F, equivalence classes of simple (contains only trivial two-sided ideals) associative division algebras whose center is F and which are finite-dimensional over F can be turned into a group, the Brauer group of the field F. One way to construct finite-dimensional associative division algebras over arbitrary fields is given by the quaternion algebras (see also quaternions). For infinite-dimensional associative division algebras, the most important cases are those where the space has some reasonable topology. See for example normed division algebras and Banach algebras. Not necessarily associative division algebras If the division algebra is not assumed to be associative, usually some weaker condition (such as alternativity or power associativity) is imposed instead. See algebra over a field for a list of such conditions. Over the reals there are (up to isomorphism) only two unitary commutative finite-dimensional division algebras: the reals themselves, and the complex numbers. These are of course both associative. For a non-associative example, consider the complex numbers with multiplication defined by taking the complex conjugate of the usual multiplication: This is a commutative, non-associative division algebra of dimension 2 over the reals, and has no unit element. There are infinitely many other non-isomorphic commutative, non-associative, finite-dimensional real divisional algebras, but they all have dimension 2. In fact, every finite-dimensional real commutative division algebra is either 1 or 2 dimensional. This is known as Hopf's theorem, and was proved in 1940. The proof uses methods from topology. Although a later proof was found using algebraic geometry, no direct algebraic proof is known. The fundamental theorem of algebra is a corollary of Hopf's theorem. Dropping the requirement of commutativity, Hopf generalized his result: Any finite-dimensional real division algebra must have dimension a power of 2. Later work showed that in fact, any finite-dimensional real division algebra must be of dimension 1, 2, 4, or 8. This was independently proved by Michel Kervaire and John Milnor in 1958, again using techniques of algebraic topology, in particular K-theory. Adolf Hurwitz had shown in 1898 that the identity held only for dimensions 1, 2, 4 and 8. (See Hurwitz's theorem.) While there are infinitely many non-isomorphic real division algebras of dimensions 2, 4 and 8, one can say the following: any real finite-dimensional division algebra over the reals must be isomorphic to R or C if unitary and commutative (equivalently: associative and commutative) isomorphic to the quaternions if non-commutative but associative isomorphic to the octonions if non-associative but alternative. The following is known about the dimension of a finite-dimensional division algebra A over a field K: dim A= 1 if K is algebraically closed, dim A= 1, 2, 4 or 8 if K is real closed, and If K is neither algebraically nor real closed, then there are infinitely many dimensions in which there exist division algebras over K. See also normed division algebra division (mathematics) division ring References | Division_algebra |@lemmatized field:17 mathematics:2 call:2 abstract:1 algebra:42 division:31 roughly:1 speak:1 possible:1 definition:2 formally:1 start:1 assume:2 consist:1 zero:5 element:9 non:9 b:1 exist:2 precisely:2 one:5 x:2 bx:1 yb:1 associative:22 simplify:1 follow:1 multiplicative:2 identity:2 every:3 inverse:1 e:1 ax:1 xa:1 best:1 know:4 example:4 finite:16 dimensional:15 real:16 algebras:1 r:2 number:5 vector:1 space:2 frobenius:1 theorem:6 state:2 isomorphism:2 three:1 dimension:13 complex:5 quaternion:4 wedderburn:1 little:1 lam:1 first:1 course:3 noncommutative:1 ring:3 algebraically:3 closed:2 k:10 c:2 except:1 divisor:2 unital:2 whenever:1 f:7 simple:2 module:1 endomorphism:1 arises:1 fashion:1 center:4 contain:2 perfect:1 square:2 equal:1 maximal:1 subfield:1 give:2 equivalence:1 class:1 trivial:1 two:2 side:1 ideal:1 whose:1 turn:1 group:2 brauer:1 way:1 construct:1 arbitrary:1 see:5 also:2 infinite:1 important:1 case:1 reasonable:1 topology:3 normed:2 banach:1 necessarily:1 usually:1 weak:1 condition:2 alternativity:1 power:2 associativity:1 impose:1 instead:1 list:1 unitary:2 commutative:7 consider:1 multiplication:2 define:1 take:1 conjugate:1 usual:1 unit:1 infinitely:3 many:3 isomorphic:5 divisional:1 fact:2 either:1 hopf:3 prove:2 proof:3 use:3 method:1 although:1 late:1 find:1 algebraic:3 geometry:1 direct:1 fundamental:1 corollary:1 drop:1 requirement:1 commutativity:1 generalize:1 result:1 must:3 later:1 work:1 show:2 independently:1 michel:1 kervaire:1 john:1 milnor:1 technique:1 particular:1 theory:1 adolf:1 hurwitz:2 hold:1 say:1 following:2 equivalently:1 octonions:1 alternative:1 dim:2 close:2 neither:1 reference:1 |@bigram abstract_algebra:1 associative_algebra:3 multiplicative_identity:1 multiplicative_inverse:1 finite_dimensional:13 algebraically_closed:1 endomorphism_ring:1 infinite_dimensional:1 algebra_banach:1 banach_algebra:1 multiplication_commutative:1 algebraic_geometry:1 algebraic_topology:1 associative_commutative:1 commutative_associative:1 algebraically_close:1 |
5,559 | Knights_of_Labor | The Knights of Labor, also known as Noble and Holy Order of the Knights of Labor, was one of the most important American labor organizations of the 19th century. Founded by nine Philadelphia tailors in 1869 and led by Uriah Stephens Perlman, Selig, A History of Trade Unionism in the United States, The MacMullin Company, New York, 1922. , its ideology may be described as producerist, demanding an end to child and convict labor, equal pay for women, a progressive income tax, and the cooperative employer-employee ownership of mines and factories. Knights of Labor - factmonster.com General Interest Business and Industry Knights of Labor - u-s-history.com Origins The Knights of Labor had a reputation for being all-inclusive. Women, blacks (after 1878), and employers were accepted as members. The Knights' leadership advocated the admission of blacks into local assemblies, but turned a blind eye to the segregation of assemblies in the South. Mary Harris Jones, known as "Mother Jones", helped recruit thousands of women to the Knights of Labor. She was greatly feared by factory owners, but loved and respected by union members and workers, which is how she earned her nickname "Mother Jones". Bankers, doctors, lawyers, gamblers, stockholders, and liquor manufacturers were excluded because they were considered unproductive members of society. Asians were also excluded, and, in November 1885, a branch of the Knights in Tacoma, Washington worked to expel the city's Chinese, which amounted to nearly a tenth of the overall city population at the time. The Knights strongly supported the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 and the Contract Labor Law of 1885, as did many other labor groups. But other than that, the Knights of Labor accepted many people: skilled and unskilled women and men of any profession. The Knights of Labor grew rapidly after the collapse of the National Labor Union in 1873, and especially after the replacement of Uriah Stephens with Terence V. Powderly. As membership expanded, the Knights began to function more as a labor union, and less like a fraternal organization. Local assemblies began to emphasize not only cooperative enterprises, but to initiate strikes to win concessions from non-Knights employers. Powderly opposed strikes as a "relic of barbarism", but the size and the diversity of the Knights afforded local assemblies a great deal of autonomy. The Knights found that secrecy interfered with the organization's public work and inhibited its response to critics. Carroll Wright, U.S. Commissioner of the Bureau of Labor, characterized the Knights of Labor as a "purely and deeply secret organization" that drew heavily on Freemasonry for its ideas and procedures. In 1881, the Order's General Assembly agreed to make its name and objects public and to abolish its initiating oaths. Most rituals associated with the order continued, and the Knights entered its period of greatest growth. Though initially afraid of the strike as a method to advance their goals, the Knights aided various strikes and boycotts. Arguably their greatest victory was in the Union Pacific Railroad strike in 1884. The Wabash Railroad strike in 1885 was also a significant success, as Powderly did not follow his usual practice and supported what became a crippling strike on Jay Gould's Wabash Line. Gould met with Powderly and agreed to call off his campaign against the Knights of Labor, which had caused the turmoil originally. These positive developments encouraged new membership, and by 1886, the Knights had over 700,000 members. While the Knights were in no way involved, the Haymarket Riot nonetheless significantly tarnished their reputation. The Order was brought to Australia around 1890. The Freedom Assembly, which operated in Sydney during the tumultuous period of 1891-93, had as members well known Australian labour movement people such as William Lane, Ernie Lane, WG Spence, Arthur Rae and George Black. A similar assembly operated in Melbourne. Ernie Lane was shot in her home and bled to death. Decline Membership declined with the problems of an autocratic structure, mismanagement, and unsuccessful strikes. Disputes between the skilled trade unionists (also known as craft unionists) and the industrial unionists weakened the organization. There was widespread repression of labor unions in the late 1880s, such as the violence against strikers in the Haymarket Riot of 1886. The Knights were unsuccessful in the Missouri Pacific strike in 1886. The Knights lost many craft unionists that year when the rival American Federation of Labor was founded. Foner, History of the Labor Movement in the United States. Vol. 2: From the Founding of the American Federation of Labor to the Emergence of American Imperialism, 1955, pp. 160-161. In 1890, it had fewer than 100,000 members. At the same time, the Knights received political support from the People's Party. Terence Powderly was replaced as Grand Master Workman by James Sovereign in 1893. Two years later, members of the Socialist Labor Party left the Knights to found the Socialist Trade & Labor Alliance as a Marxist rival. Membership was reduced to 17,000. The majority of New York City's District Assembly 49 joined the Industrial Workers of the World at its 1905 foundation. Although, by 1900, it was virtually nonexistent as a labor union, the Knights maintained a central office until 1917 and held conventions until 1932. At least a few local assemblies lasted until 1949. Weir, Beyond Labor's Veil, p. 322. Leaders Uriah S. Stephens led 1869 - 1879 Terence V. Powderly led 1879 - 1893 James Soveriegn led 1893 - 1901 John Hayes led 1901 - 1917 See also Labor unions in the United States List of trade unions Labor federation competition in the U.S. Further reading Books Foner, Philip S. History of the Labor Movement in the United States. Vol. 2: From the Founding of the American Federation of Labor to the Emergence of American Imperialism. New York: International Publishers, 1955. Cloth ISBN 0-7178-0092-X; Paperback ISBN 0-7178-0388-0 Articles </div> Contemporary accounts by Knights by others References External links | Knights_of_Labor |@lemmatized knight:27 labor:29 also:5 know:4 noble:1 holy:1 order:4 one:1 important:1 american:6 organization:5 century:1 found:2 nine:1 philadelphia:1 tailor:1 lead:5 uriah:3 stephen:3 perlman:1 selig:1 history:4 trade:4 unionism:1 united:4 state:4 macmullin:1 company:1 new:4 york:3 ideology:1 may:1 describe:1 producerist:1 demand:1 end:1 child:1 convict:1 equal:1 pay:1 woman:4 progressive:1 income:1 tax:1 cooperative:2 employer:3 employee:1 ownership:1 mine:1 factory:2 factmonster:1 com:2 general:2 interest:1 business:1 industry:1 u:3 origins:1 reputation:2 inclusive:1 black:3 accept:2 member:7 leadership:1 advocate:1 admission:1 local:4 assembly:9 turn:1 blind:1 eye:1 segregation:1 south:1 mary:1 harris:1 jones:3 mother:2 help:1 recruit:1 thousand:1 greatly:1 fear:1 owner:1 love:1 respect:1 union:8 worker:2 earn:1 nickname:1 banker:1 doctor:1 lawyer:1 gambler:1 stockholder:1 liquor:1 manufacturer:1 exclude:2 consider:1 unproductive:1 society:1 asian:1 november:1 branch:1 tacoma:1 washington:1 work:2 expel:1 city:3 chinese:2 amount:1 nearly:1 tenth:1 overall:1 population:1 time:2 strongly:1 support:3 exclusion:1 act:1 contract:1 law:1 many:3 group:1 people:3 skilled:2 unskilled:1 men:1 profession:1 grow:1 rapidly:1 collapse:1 national:1 especially:1 replacement:1 terence:3 v:2 powderly:6 membership:4 expand:1 begin:2 function:1 less:1 like:1 fraternal:1 emphasize:1 enterprise:1 initiate:2 strike:9 win:1 concession:1 non:1 opposed:1 relic:1 barbarism:1 size:1 diversity:1 afford:1 great:3 deal:1 autonomy:1 find:2 secrecy:1 interfere:1 public:2 inhibit:1 response:1 critic:1 carroll:1 wright:1 commissioner:1 bureau:1 characterize:1 purely:1 deeply:1 secret:1 draw:1 heavily:1 freemasonry:1 idea:1 procedure:1 agree:2 make:1 name:1 object:1 abolish:1 oath:1 ritual:1 associate:1 continue:1 enter:1 period:2 growth:1 though:1 initially:1 afraid:1 method:1 advance:1 goal:1 aid:1 various:1 boycott:1 arguably:1 victory:1 pacific:2 railroad:2 wabash:2 significant:1 success:1 follow:1 usual:1 practice:1 become:1 crippling:1 jay:1 gould:2 line:1 meet:1 call:1 campaign:1 cause:1 turmoil:1 originally:1 positive:1 development:1 encourage:1 way:1 involve:1 haymarket:2 riot:2 nonetheless:1 significantly:1 tarnish:1 bring:1 australia:1 around:1 freedom:1 operate:2 sydney:1 tumultuous:1 well:1 australian:1 labour:1 movement:3 william:1 lane:3 ernie:2 wg:1 spence:1 arthur:1 rae:1 george:1 similar:1 melbourne:1 shoot:1 home:1 bleed:1 death:1 decline:2 problem:1 autocratic:1 structure:1 mismanagement:1 unsuccessful:2 dispute:1 unionist:4 craft:2 industrial:2 weaken:1 widespread:1 repression:1 late:1 violence:1 striker:1 missouri:1 lose:1 year:2 rival:2 federation:4 foner:2 vol:2 founding:2 emergence:2 imperialism:2 pp:1 receive:1 political:1 party:2 replace:1 grand:1 master:1 workman:1 james:2 sovereign:1 two:1 later:1 socialist:2 leave:1 alliance:1 marxist:1 reduce:1 majority:1 district:1 join:1 world:1 foundation:1 although:1 virtually:1 nonexistent:1 maintain:1 central:1 office:1 hold:1 convention:1 least:1 last:1 weir:1 beyond:1 veil:1 p:1 leader:1 soveriegn:1 john:1 hayes:1 see:1 list:1 competition:1 reading:1 book:1 philip:1 international:1 publisher:1 cloth:1 isbn:2 x:1 paperback:1 article:1 div:1 contemporary:1 account:1 others:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram income_tax:1 employer_employee:1 tacoma_washington:1 fraternal_organization:1 jay_gould:1 tarnish_reputation:1 virtually_nonexistent:1 external_link:1 |
5,560 | La_Espero | "La Espero" ("The Hope") is a poem written by L. L. Zamenhof (1859-1917), the initiator of the Esperanto language. The song is often used as the anthem of Esperanto, and is now usually sung to music composed by Félicien Menu de Ménil. La Espero En la mondon venis nova sento, tra la mondo iras forta voko; per flugiloj de facila vento nun de loko flugu ĝi al loko. Ne al glavo sangon soifanta ĝi la homan tiras familion: al la mond' eterne militanta ĝi promesas sanktan harmonion. Sub la sankta signo de l' espero kolektiĝas pacaj batalantoj, kaj rapide kreskas la afero per laboro de la esperantoj. Forte staras muroj de miljaroj inter la popoloj dividitaj; sed dissaltos la obstinaj baroj, per la sankta amo disbatitaj. Sur neŭtrala lingva fundamento, komprenante unu la alian, la popoloj faros en konsento unu grandan rondon familian. Nia diligenta kolegaro en laboro paca ne laciĝos, ĝis la bela sonĝo de l' homaro por eterna ben' efektiviĝos. The Hope Into the world came a new feeling, through the world goes a powerful call; by means of wings of a gentle wind now let it fly from place to place. Not to the sword thirsting for blood does it draw the human family: to the world eternally fighting it promises sacred harmony. Under the sacred sign of the hope the peaceful fighters gather, and this affair quickly grows by the labours of those who hope. The walls of millennia stand firm between the divided peoples; but the stubborn barriers will jump apart, knocked apart by the sacred love. On a neutral language basis, understanding one another, the people will make in agreement one great family circle. Our diligent set of colleagues in peaceful labor will never tire, until the beautiful dream of humanity for eternal blessing is realized. | La_Espero |@lemmatized la:15 espero:3 hope:4 poem:1 write:1 l:4 zamenhof:1 initiator:1 esperanto:2 language:2 song:1 often:1 use:1 anthem:1 usually:1 sing:1 music:1 compose:1 félicien:1 menu:1 de:7 ménil:1 en:3 mondon:1 venis:1 nova:1 sento:1 tra:1 mondo:1 ira:1 forta:1 voko:1 per:3 flugiloj:1 facila:1 vento:1 nun:1 loko:2 flugu:1 ĝi:3 al:3 ne:2 glavo:1 sangon:1 soifanta:1 homan:1 tiras:1 familion:1 mond:1 eterne:1 militanta:1 promesas:1 sanktan:1 harmonion:1 sub:1 sankta:2 signo:1 kolektiĝas:1 pacaj:1 batalantoj:1 kaj:1 rapide:1 kreskas:1 afero:1 laboro:2 esperantoj:1 forte:1 staras:1 muroj:1 miljaroj:1 inter:1 popoloj:2 dividitaj:1 sed:1 dissaltos:1 obstinaj:1 baroj:1 amo:1 disbatitaj:1 sur:1 neŭtrala:1 lingva:1 fundamento:1 komprenante:1 unu:2 alian:1 faro:1 konsento:1 grandan:1 rondon:1 familian:1 nia:1 diligenta:1 kolegaro:1 paca:1 laciĝos:1 ĝis:1 bela:1 sonĝo:1 homaro:1 por:1 eterna:1 ben:1 efektiviĝos:1 world:3 come:1 new:1 feeling:1 go:1 powerful:1 call:1 mean:1 wing:1 gentle:1 wind:1 let:1 fly:1 place:2 sword:1 thirst:1 blood:1 draw:1 human:1 family:2 eternally:1 fight:1 promise:1 sacred:3 harmony:1 sign:1 peaceful:2 fighter:1 gather:1 affair:1 quickly:1 grows:1 labour:1 wall:1 millennium:1 stand:1 firm:1 divided:1 people:2 stubborn:1 barrier:1 jump:1 apart:2 knock:1 love:1 neutral:1 basis:1 understand:1 one:2 another:1 make:1 agreement:1 great:1 circle:1 diligent:1 set:1 colleague:1 labor:1 never:1 tire:1 beautiful:1 dream:1 humanity:1 eternal:1 blessing:1 realize:1 |@bigram la_espero:2 |
5,561 | Jon_Postel | Jonathan Bruce Postel (; August 6, 1943 – October 16, 1998) made many significant contributions to the development of the Internet, particularly in the area of standards. He is principally known for being the Editor of the Request for Comment (RFC) document series, and for administering the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority until his death. The Internet Society's Postel Award is named in his honor, as is the Postel Center at Information Sciences Institute. His obituary was written by Vint Cerf and published as RFC 2468 in remembrance of Postel and his work. Career Postel attended UCLA, where he earned both his B.S. (1966) and M.S. (1968) in engineering, and a Ph.D. in computer science in 1974. While at UCLA, he was involved in early work on the ARPANET; he later moved to the Information Sciences Institute at the University of Southern California, where he spent the rest of his career. Postel was the RFC Editor from 1969 until his death, and wrote and edited many important RFCs, including RFCs 791-793, which define the basic protocols of the Internet protocol suite, and RFC 2223, Instructions to RFC Authors. He wrote or co-authored more than 200 RFCs. Postel served on the Internet Architecture Board and its predecessors for many years. He was the Director of the names and number assignment clearinghouse, the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA), from its inception. He was the first member of the Internet Society, and was on the Board of Trustees of the Internet Society. He was the original and long-time .us Top-Level Domain administrator. He also managed the Los Nettos Network. All of the above were part-time activities he assumed in conjunction with his primary position as Director of the Computer Networks Division ("Division 7") of the Information Sciences Institute at the University of Southern California. Home page Biography USC/ISI Computer Networks Division ("Div 7") IANA RFC-Editor Remembering Jonathan B. Postel at the Postel Center In Memory of Jon Postel at the Internet Society Jonathan B. Postel 1943–1998 About the Postel Award The Postel Center Los Nettos 'God of the Internet' is dead Domain Name Handbook The US takeover of the DNS Root Authority On January 28, 1998, Postel, on his own authority, emailed eight of the twelve operators of Internet's regional root nameservers and instructed them to change the root zone server from then SAIC subsidiary Network Solutions (NSI)'s A.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. (198.41.0.4) to DNSROOT.IANA.ORG (198.32.1.98). The operators complied with Postel's instructions, thus splitting control of Internet naming between IANA and the four remaining U.S. Government roots at NASA, the .mil server, BRL and NSI. He soon received a telephone call from a furious Ira Magaziner, President Clinton's senior science advisor, who instructed him to undo this change - which he did. Within a week, the US NTIA issued its "Green Paper" asserting the US government's definitive authority over the Internet DNS root zone. Death Postel died of complications following heart valve replacement surgery in Los Angeles, on October 16, 1998, 9 months after the DNS Root Authority incident. Legacy The significance of Jon Postel's contributions to building the Internet, both technical and personal, were such that a memorial recollection of his life forms part of the core technical literature sequence of the Internet in the form of RFC 2468 "I Remember IANA", written by Vinton Cerf. (This is no trivial thing given that between 1969 and February 2002, only 3,240 RFCs were published.) Postel's Law Perhaps his most famous legacy is from RFC 793, which includes a Robustness Principle which is often quoted as "Postel's Law": "be conservative in what you do, be liberal in what you accept from others" (often reworded as "be conservative in what you send, be liberal in what you receive"). See also History of the Internet ARPANET Computer Networks: The Heralds of Resource Sharing (1972 documentary w/Postel cameo) STD 8 Jonathan B. Postel Service Award Notes External links | Jon_Postel |@lemmatized jonathan:4 bruce:1 postel:21 august:1 october:2 make:1 many:3 significant:1 contribution:2 development:1 internet:16 particularly:1 area:1 standard:1 principally:1 know:1 editor:3 request:1 comment:1 rfc:8 document:1 series:1 administer:1 assign:2 number:3 authority:6 death:3 society:4 award:3 name:4 honor:1 center:3 information:3 science:5 institute:3 obituary:1 write:4 vint:1 cerf:2 publish:2 remembrance:1 work:2 career:2 attend:1 ucla:2 earn:1 b:4 engineering:1 ph:1 computer:4 involve:1 early:1 arpanet:2 later:1 move:1 university:2 southern:2 california:2 spend:1 rest:1 edit:1 important:1 rfcs:4 include:2 define:1 basic:1 protocol:2 suite:1 instruction:2 author:2 co:1 serve:1 architecture:1 board:2 predecessor:1 year:1 director:2 assignment:1 clearinghouse:1 iana:5 inception:1 first:1 member:1 trustee:1 original:1 long:1 time:2 u:5 top:1 level:1 domain:2 administrator:1 also:2 manage:1 los:3 nettos:2 network:5 part:2 activity:1 assume:1 conjunction:1 primary:1 position:1 division:3 home:1 page:1 biography:1 usc:1 isi:1 div:1 remember:2 memory:1 jon:2 god:1 dead:1 handbook:1 takeover:1 dns:3 root:7 january:1 email:1 eight:1 twelve:1 operator:2 regional:1 nameservers:1 instruct:2 change:2 zone:2 server:3 saic:1 subsidiary:1 solution:1 nsi:2 net:1 dnsroot:1 org:1 comply:1 thus:1 split:1 control:1 four:1 remain:1 government:2 nasa:1 mil:1 brl:1 soon:1 receive:2 telephone:1 call:1 furious:1 ira:1 magaziner:1 president:1 clinton:1 senior:1 advisor:1 undo:1 within:1 week:1 ntia:1 issue:1 green:1 paper:1 assert:1 definitive:1 die:1 complication:1 follow:1 heart:1 valve:1 replacement:1 surgery:1 angeles:1 month:1 incident:1 legacy:2 significance:1 build:1 technical:2 personal:1 memorial:1 recollection:1 life:1 form:2 core:1 literature:1 sequence:1 vinton:1 trivial:1 thing:1 give:1 february:1 law:2 perhaps:1 famous:1 robustness:1 principle:1 often:2 quote:1 conservative:2 liberal:2 accept:1 others:1 reword:1 send:1 see:1 history:1 herald:1 resource:1 sharing:1 documentary:1 w:1 cameo:1 std:1 service:1 note:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram vint_cerf:1 protocol_suite:1 board_trustee:1 iana_rfc:1 jon_postel:2 dns_root:3 los_angeles:1 vinton_cerf:1 external_link:1 |
5,562 | Czech_language | Czech (; čeština ) is a West Slavic language with about 12 million native speakers; it is the majority language in the Czech Republic and spoken by Czechs worldwide. Czech is similar to and mutually intelligible with Slovak and, to a lesser extent, to Polish and Sorbian. Official status Czech is widely spoken by most inhabitants of the Czech Republic. As given by appropriate laws, courts and authorities act and make out documents and executions in the Czech language (financial authorities also in the Slovak language). People who do not speak Czech have the right to get an interpreter. Instructions for use in Czech must be added to all marketed goods. The right to one's own language is guaranteed by the Constitution for all national and ethnic minorities. Czech is also one of the 23 official languages in the European Union (since May 2004). Mutual intelligibility Speakers of Czech and Slovak usually understand both languages in their written and spoken form, thus constituting a language diasystem, though some dialects or heavily accented speech in either language might present difficulties to speakers of the other (in particular, Eastern Slovak dialects to Czech speakers are seen as difficult to comprehend). Younger generations of Czechs living after the dissolution of Czechoslovakia in 1993 (therefore generally less familiar with Slovak) might also have some problems with a certain number of words and expressions which differ considerably in the two languages, and with false friends. Nevertheless, these differences do not impede mutual intelligibility significantly. Name The name "čeština", Czech, is derived from a Slavic tribe of Czechs ("Čech", pl. "Češi") that inhabited Central Bohemia and united neighbouring Slavic tribes under the reign of the Přemyslid dynasty ("Přemyslovci"). The etymology is unclear. According to a legend, it is derived from the Forefather Čech, who brought the tribe of Czechs into its land. History The Czech language developed from the Proto-Slavic language at the close of the 1st millennium. Phonology The phonology of Czech may also be very difficult for speakers of other languages. For example, some words do not appear to have vowels: zmrzl (frozen solid), ztvrdl (hardened), scvrkl (shrunk), čtvrthrst (quarter-handful), blb (fool), vlk (wolf), or smrt (death). A popular example of this is the phrase "strč prst skrz krk" meaning "stick a finger through your throat" or "Smrž pln skvrn zvlhl z mlh." meaning "Morel full of spots dampened from fogs". The consonants l and r can function as the nucleus of a syllable in Czech, since they are sonorant consonants. A similar phenomenon also occurs in American English, where the reduced syllables at the ends of "butter" and "bottle" are pronounced and , with syllabic consonants as syllable nuclei. It also features the consonant ř, a phoneme that is said to be unique to Czech. To a foreign ear, it sounds very similar to zh, though a better approximation could be rolled (trilled) r combined with zh, which was incidentally sometimes used as an orthography for this sound (rž) for example in the royal charter of Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor from 1609. The phonetic description of the sound is a raised alveolar non-sonorant trill which can be either voiceless (terminally or next to a voiceless consonant) or voiced (elsewhere), the IPA transcription being [ ], however this is contested as not representing the ř sound properly. Vowels There are 10 vowels in Czech which are regarded as individual phonemes. There are 5 short and 5 long vowels. Long vowels are indicated by an acute accent or a ring. is represented by letters í and ý is represented by letters ú and ů is represented by letter é is represented by letter á is represented by letter ó Short vowels is represented by letters i and y is represented by letter u is represented by letter e (and sometimes ě) (actually an open central unrounded vowel ) is represented by letter a (actually a mid back rounded vowel ) is represented by letter o There have been some disputes as to whether there are really ten or only five vowels in Czech. These can however be settled by a simple list of minimal pairs: sad ~ sát bal ~ bál kaž ~ káš lek ~ lék len ~ lén sled ~ slét' bor ~ bór chor ~ chór mot ~ mód sir ~ sýr Žid ~ žít kil ~ kýl dul ~ důl nuž ~ nůž ruš ~ růž Note that ě is not a separate vowel. Analogous to y, ý and ů, it is a grapheme kept for historical reasons (see Czech orthography). and (and sometimes also and ) can be syllabic, i.e. they can take the vowel's role as the nucleus of a syllable, e.g. vlk (wolf). Diphthongs There are three diphthongs in Czech: represented by au (almost exclusively in words of foreign origin) represented by eu (in words of foreign origin only) represented by ou When these groups come together at morpheme boundaries, they do not form diphthongs in standard Czech; for instance naučit, neučit, poučit ( or ). Vowel groups ia, ie, ii, io, and iu in foreign words are likewise not regarded as diphthongs; they may also pronounced with between the vowels . Consonants Place of articulation → Labial Coronal Dorsal Glottal Manner of articulation ↓ Bilabial Labio‐dental Alveolar Post‐alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal Nasal () ()</span> Plosive () Fricative () () Approximant Trill * Lateral Approximant * [] is a specific raised alveolar non-sonorant trill which can be pronounced both voiced and voiceless (regarded as two allophones of one phoneme). Consonants in the parentheses are regarded as allophones of other consonants: is an allophone of preceding labiodental consonants ( and ). is an allophone of preceding velar consonants( and ). is a voiced allophone of preceding a voiced consonant is an allophone of preceding a voiceless consonant Glottal stop is not regarded as an individual phoneme. There are also 4 affricates: voiceless alveolar affricate voiced alveolar affricate voiceless postalveolar affricate voiced postalveolar affricate is represented by letter š is represented by letter ž is represented by letter ň is represented by letter ť is represented by letter ď is represented by letter h is represented by digraph ch is represented by letter c is represented by digraph is represented by letter č is represented by digraph dž is represented by letter ř Other consonants are represented by the same characters (letters) as in the IPA. (See also: Czech alphabet) Stress The primary stress is always fixed to the first syllable of a stressed unit, which is usually identical to a word. The exceptions are: Monosyllabic prepositions form a unit with following words (if the following word is not longer than three syllables). The stress is placed on the preposition: e.g. Praha (Prague) --> do Prahy (to Prague). This does not apply to long words, e.g. na kolonádě (on the (spa) walk). Some monosyllabic words (e.g. mi (me), ti ((to) you), to (it), se, si (oneself), jsem (am), jsi (are), etc.) are clitics — they are not stressed and form a unit with preceding words. A clitic cannot be the first word in a sentence, because it requires a preceding word to form a unit with. Example: Napsal jsem ti ten dopis, I have written the letter to you. Long words have secondary stress, which is usually placed on every odd syllable, e.g. nej.krás.něj.ší (the most beautiful). Stress in Czech denotes boundaries between words, but does not distinguish word meanings. It also has no influence on the quality or quantity of vowels. Vowels are not reduced in unstressed syllables and both long and short vowels can occur in either stressed or unstressed syllables. Basic phrases Dobrý den – Good day, general salutation, widely used Dobré ráno – Good morning (used only during the early morning) Dobrý večer – Good evening Dobrou noc – Good night Na shledanou – Goodbye / See you later (formal) Nashle – Bye / See you (informal) Ahoj – Hello / Bye (informal; used amongst friends, colleagues or after clarification - improper when addressing people in the street, shop, etc.) Čau / Nazdar - Hello / Bye (even more informal) Děkuji – Thank you (formal) Díky - Thanks (informal) Prosím - Please / You're welcome Vítejte – Welcome (formal; plural) Jak se máš? – How are you? (familiar singular) Jak se máte? - How are you? (formal or familiar plural) Mám se dobře. – I'm fine. Jak se jmenuješ / jmenujete? - What's your name? (informal singular / formal or familiar plural) Jmenuji se... - My name is... Syntax and Morphology As in most Slavic languages, many words (especially nouns, verbs and adjectives) have many forms (inflections). In this regard, Czech and the Slavic languages are closer to their Indo-European origins than other languages in the same family that have lost much inflection. Moreover, in Czech the rules of morphology are extremely irregular and many forms have official, colloquial and sometimes semi-official variants. Word order The word order in Czech serves similar function as emphasis and articles in English. Often all the permutations of words in a clause are possible. While the permutations mostly share the same meaning, they differ in the topic-focus articulation. For example: Češi udělali revoluci (The Czechs made a revolution), Revoluci udělali Češi (It was the Czechs who made the revolution), and Češi revoluci udělali (The Czechs did make a revolution). Parts of speech Noun (podstatné jméno) Adjective (přídavné jméno) Pronoun (zájmeno) Numeral (číslovka) Verb (sloveso) Adverb (příslovce) Preposition (předložka) Conjunction (spojka) Particle (částice) Interjection (citoslovce) Nouns, adjectives, pronouns and numbers are declined (7 cases over a number of declension models) and verbs are conjugated; the other parts of speech are not inflected (with the exception of comparative formation in adverbs). Dialects In the Czech Republic two distinct variants or interdialects of spoken Czech can be found, both corresponding more or less to geographic areas within the country. The first, and most widely used, is "Common Czech", spoken especially in Bohemia. It has some grammatical differences from "standard" Czech, along with some differences in pronunciation. The most common pronunciation changes include -ý becoming -ej in some circumstances, -é becoming -ý- in some circumstances (-ej- in others). Also, noun declension is changed, most notably the instrumental case. Instead of having various endings (depending on gender) in the instrumental, Bohemians will just put -ama or -ma at the end of all plural instrumental declensions. Currently, these forms are very common throughout the entire Czech republic, including Moravia and Silesia. Also pronunciation changes slightly, as the Bohemians tend to have more open vowels than Moravians. This is said to be especially prevalent among people from Prague. The second major variant is spoken in Moravia and Silesia. Nowadays it is very close to the Bohemian form of Common Czech. This variant has some words different from its standard Czech equivalents. For example in Brno, tramvaj (streetcar or tram) is šalina (originating from German "ElektriSCHELINIE"). Unlike in Bohemia, Moravia and Silesia tend to have more local dialects varying from place to place, however just as in Bohemia, most have been already heavily influenced and mostly replaced by Common Czech. Everyday spoken form in Moravia and Silesia would be a mixture of remnants of old local dialect, some Standard Czech forms and especially Common Czech. The most notable difference is a shift in used prepositions and case of noun, for example k jídlu (to eat - dative) (as in German zum Essen) becomes na jídlo (accusative), as it is in Slovak na jedlo. It is a common misconception that the use of Standard Czech in everyday situations is more frequent than in Bohemia. The Standard Czech became standardized by the Czech national revivalists in the 19th century, based on an already two hundred years old translation of the Bible (Bible of Kralice) using an older variant of the then-current language (for example, preferring -ý- to -ej-). These Standard forms are still common in spoken language both in Moravia and Silesia. Some Moravians and Silesians therefore tend to say that they use "proper" language, unlike their Bohemian compatriots. A special case is the Cieszyn Silesian dialect, spoken in the microregion of Cieszyn Silesia. It is spoken generally by the ethnic Polish minority. The dialect itself is a dialect of Polish but with strong Czech and German influences. It should be noted that some south Moravian dialects are also sometimes, although rarely, considered (also by Czech linguists in the 90's or later, e.g. Václav Machek in his "Etymologický slovník jazyka českého", 1997, ISBN 80-7106-242-1, p.8, who speaks about a "Moravian-Slovak" dialect from the region of Moravian "Slovácko") to be actually dialects of the Slovak language, which has its roots in the Moravian empire when Slovaks and Moravians were one nation (without Bohemians) with one language. Those dialects still have the same suffixes (for inflected substantives and pronouns and for conjugated verbs) as Slovak. The minor dialect spoken in Pilsen and parts of Western Bohemia and in wester parts of former Prachens region differs, among other things, by intonation of questions: all the words except for the last word of a sentence have a high pitch. This is the reason why the people from Pilsen are said to be "singing". Words that start questions are often given an additional "-pa": "Kolipa je hodin?" (regular Czech: "Kolik je hodin?"; English: "What time is it?"). The words like "this" (regular Czech: "tento/tato/toto") are often replaced by "tuten/tuta/tuto"); some examples: "What is this? or "What's happening?" is "Copato?" instead of "Co se stalo? / Co je to?" or "Why?" is "Pročpa?" instead of "Proč?". The region of Chodsko is the home of a very special Czech-Polish dialect of the Chods people who were displaced in about the 10th century from Silesia owing to the protection of the western border of Bohemia. Declension The noun cases are typically referred to by number, and learned by means of the question to which they are the answer. When learning a new word, children recite the cases using a set of example phrases, shown as follows: 1. kdo/co? (who/what?) nominative2. bez koho/čeho? (without whom/what?) genitive3. komu/čemu? (to whom/what?) dative4. vidím koho/co? (I see whom/what?) accusative5. oslovujeme/voláme (we address/call) vocative6. o kom/čem? (about whom/what?) locative7. s kým/čím? (with whom/what?) instrumental The case used depends on a number of variables, and for foreigners can be very confusing. Prepositions with certain cases The simplest of the rules governing noun declension is the use of prepositions (předložky). Excepting expressions and common phrases, each preposition is matched with a certain noun declension case depending on use. The following are basic examples of common prepositions and their corresponding noun cases (note: these examples represent only one circumstance. Often each preposition can be used with two or more noun cases depending on the sentence). Genitive: během (during), podle/dle (according to/along), vedle (beside), kolem (around), okolo (around), do (into), od(e) (away from), z(e) (out of/from), bez(e) (without), místo (instead of). Dative: k(e) (towards), proti (against), díky (thanks to), naproti (opposite). Accusative: skrz(e) (through), pro (for), na (to/for). Locative/Prepositional: o (around, about), na (on), při (into, in, around), v (in), po (after, around). Instrumental: za (behind), před (in front of), mezi (between), pod(e) (below), s(e) (with), nad(e) (above). Many of the above prepositions are used in different circumstances. For instance, when motion or a change of position is expressed, prepositions like nad, mezi, na, pod, etc. are used with the accusative case. The second factor affecting noun declension is the verb used. In Czech grammar, the accusative case serves as the direct object, and the dative case serves as the indirect object. Some verbs require the genitive case to be used. For example, the verb "zeptat se" (to ask) requires that the person being asked the question be in the genitive case (Zeptat se koho/čeho), and that the thing being asked about follow the preposition "na" and be in the accusative case (Zeptat se koho/čeho na koho/co). Counting and declension The third factor affecting noun declension is number. The Czech language has a very complex counting system, explained as follows with the example masculine animate noun muž (man): For the number one, the singular number is used: jeden muž. For the numbers 2, 3, and 4, any case may be used, depending on the function of the noun in the sentence: dva muži (nominative). "Vidím dva muže" (accusative). For all numbers from 5 on, the genitive plural is used when the noun would normally be in the nominative, accusative or vocative case: pět mužů. "Pět mužů je tam." Five men are over there. "Vidím pět mužů." I see five men. For other cases, however, the noun is not placed in the genitive. "Nad pěti muži." Above the five men (instrumental). The example above shows colloquial use. In literary use, there is an additional rule: The above system is based only on the last word of the number. Thus a number like 101 uses the singular (sto jeden muž) and 102 uses the ordinary plural (sto dva muži). For numbers that can be read in two ways, such as 21, the grammar may depend on which one is chosen (dvacet jeden muž or jednadvacet mužů). This system is becoming less common and is not used in everyday speech, as well as becoming harder to find in modern literature. Numbers have declension patterns in Czech. The number two, for instance, declines as follows: Nominative dva/dvěGenitive dvouDative dvěmaAccusative dva/dvěVocative dva/dvěLocative (o) dvou Instrumental dvěma The numbers are singular (jednotné číslo), plural (množné číslo), and remains of dual. The number two, as declined above, is an example of the now-diminished dual number. The dual number is used for only certain human body parts: hands, shoulders, eyes, ears, knees, legs, and breasts. In all but two of the above body parts (eyes and ears) the dual number is only vestigial and affects very few aspects of declension (mostly the genitive and prepositional cases). However, in Bohemian Czech it has become a common part of slang to use the dual ending of the instrumental case for all plural instrumental declensions, for example, s kluky (with the boys) becomes s klukama, and so on for all nouns. Gender The three genders are masculine, feminine, and neuter, with masculine further subdivided into animate and inanimate. Words for individuals with biological gender usually have the corresponding grammatical gender, with only a few exceptions; similarly, among the masculine nouns, the distinction between animate and inanimate also follows meaning. Other words have arbitrary grammatical genders. Thus, for instance, pes (dog) is masculine animate, stůl (table) is masculine inanimate, kočka (cat) and židle (chair) are feminine, and morče (guinea-pig) and světlo (light) are neuter. Tenses and conditionals Compared to English or Romance languages, Czech has a rather simple set of tenses. They are present, past, and future. Past is used in almost all instances of past action, and replaces every past tense in English (past perfect, imperfect, pluperfect, etc.). The past tense is usually formed by affixing an -l- on the end of the verb, sometimes with a minor (rarely significant) stem change. After adding the -l-, letters are added in order to agree with the subject (-a for feminine, -i or -y for plural). The present tense is precisely the same as in English. It is also used in cases where one would say, for instance, "I have been doing this for three hours". In Czech, the present indicative is used and is directly translated as "I do this for three hours". There are also sometimes second forms of certain verbs (like to go, to do, etc.) that indicate a habitual or repeated action. These are known as iterative forms. For instance, the verb jít (to go by foot) has the iterative form chodit (to go regularly). There is also no tense shifting (as in reported speech). E.g. "He loves her" -> "He said he loved her", the time is shifted from present to past. In Czech it is "Má ji rád" -> "Řekl, že ji má rád". The "má rád" implies present tense in both cases. The conditional is something of an oddity, with no real indication of time. It is the same regardless of whether the action discussed is a future, present, or past action. The conditional is formed by using the auxiliary "conditional marker" and the past tense of the root verb. The condition marker appears as follows: I would have: bych you would have: bys he would have: by she would have: by we would have: bychom you (plural) would have: byste they would have: by So, "I would have gone" would be translated as "Já bych šel" (or, more usually, "Šel bych"). The future tense is another fickle part of Czech grammar. Often, verbs that appear to be present tense are actually future tense. For instance, the verb "vyhodit" (throw out) appears like a normal present tense, but actually indicates a future action. This form of the verb has no present tense — it indicates a completed action (perfective aspect), so a present tense wouldn't make sense: either the action is already completed (past) or yet to be completed (future). A different form, "vyhazovat", indicates an ongoing action (imperfective aspect) and has all three tenses. Maps See also Czech alphabet Czech Centers Czech declension Czech name Czech orthography Orthographia bohemica Czech phonology Czech verb Czech word order Háček Swadesh list of Slavic words References External links Milotice.com Free Czech Language Resource Archive Czech language - Official Website of the Czech Republic Bohemica.com, Resource website for Czech language and culture, including reference grammar and learning materials Online multilanguage Czech dictionary Czech language, alphabet and pronunciation at Omniglot Ethnologue report for Czech Reference grammar of Czech, written by Laura Janda and Charles Townsend List of Czech language learning material be-x-old:Чэская мова | Czech_language |@lemmatized czech:75 čeština:2 west:1 slavic:7 language:28 million:1 native:1 speaker:5 majority:1 republic:5 speak:10 czechs:1 worldwide:1 similar:4 mutually:1 intelligible:1 slovak:10 less:4 extent:1 polish:4 sorbian:1 official:5 status:1 widely:3 inhabitant:1 give:2 appropriate:1 law:1 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5,563 | Atlantic_Ocean | The Atlantic Ocean is the second-largest of the world's oceanic divisions; with a total area of about 106.4 million square kilometres (41.1 million square miles). It covers approximately one-fifth of the Earth's surface. The first part of its name refers to the Atlas of Greek mythology, making the Atlantic the "Sea of Atlas". The oldest known mention of this name is contained in The Histories of Herodotus around 450 BC (I 202); see also: Atlas Mountains. Another name historically used was the ancient term Ethiopic Ocean, derived from Ethiopia, whose name was sometimes used as a synonym for all of Africa and thus for the ocean. Before Europeans discovered other oceans, the term "ocean" itself was to them synonymous with the waters beyond Western Europe that we now know as the Atlantic and which the Greeks had believed to be a gigantic river encircling the world; see Oceanus. The Atlantic Ocean occupies an elongated, S-shaped basin extending longitudinally between the Americas to the west, and Eurasia and Africa to the east. A component of the all-encompassing World Ocean, it is connected in the north to the Arctic Ocean (which is sometimes considered a sea of the Atlantic), to the Pacific Ocean in the southwest, the Indian Ocean in the southeast, and the Southern Ocean in the south. (Alternatively, in lieu of it connecting to the Southern Ocean, the Atlantic may be reckoned to extend southward to Antarctica.) The equator subdivides it into the North Atlantic Ocean and South Atlantic Ocean but for physical purposes the division is rotated slightly counter-clockwise to a line roughly from the Bolama region, Guinea-Bissau to Rio Grande do Norte state, Brazil to include the Gulf of Guinea with the South Atlantic and the north coast of South America with the North Atlantic. The Atlantic Ocean, not including Arctic and Antarctic regions. __TOC__ Geography The Atlantic Ocean is bounded on the west by North and South America. In the north and northeast, it is separated from the Arctic Ocean by the Canadian Arctic Archipelago, Greenland, Iceland, Jan Mayen, Svalbard, and mainland Europe. It connects to the Arctic Ocean through the Denmark Strait, Greenland Sea, Norwegian Sea, and Barents Sea. To the east, the boundaries of the ocean proper are Europe, the Strait of Gibraltar (where it connects with the Mediterranean Sea, one of its marginal seas, and, in turn, the Black Sea), and Africa. In the southeast, the Atlantic merges into the Indian Ocean, the border being defined by the 20° East meridian, running south from Cape Agulhas to Antarctica. While some authorities show the Atlantic Ocean extending south to Antarctica, others show it as bounded at the 60° parallel by the Southern Ocean. Limits of Oceans and Seas. International Hydrographic Organization Special Publication No. 23, 1953. In the southwest, the Drake Passage connects it to the Pacific Ocean. A man-made link between the Atlantic and Pacific is provided by the Panama Canal. Beside those mentioned, other large bodies of water adjacent to the Atlantic are the Caribbean Sea, the Gulf of Mexico, Hudson Bay, the Arctic Ocean, the Mediterranean Sea, the North Sea, the Baltic Sea, and the Celtic Sea. Covering approximately 22% of Earth's surface, the Atlantic Ocean is second to the Pacific Ocean in size. With its adjacent seas it occupies an area of about 106,400,000 square kilometers (41,100,000 sq mi); without them, it has an area of 82,400,000 square kilometres (31,800,000 sq mi). The land area that drains into the Atlantic is four times that of either the Pacific or Indian oceans. The volume of the Atlantic Ocean with its adjacent seas is 354,700,000 cubic kilometers (85,100,000 cu mi) and without them 323,600,000 cubic kilometres (77,640,000 cu mi). The average depths of the Atlantic, with its adjacent seas, is 3,339 meters (10,936 ft); without them it is 3,926 metres (12,881 ft). The greatest depth, 8,605 metres (28,232 ft), is in the Puerto Rico Trench. The width of the Atlantic varies from 2,848 kilometers (1,770 mi) between Brazil and Sierra Leone to over in the south. Cultural significance Transatlantic travel played a major role in the expansion of Western civilization into the Americas. Today, it can be referred to as the Pond in idioms, in reference to the geographical and cultural divide between North America and Europe (some Americans refer to Europeans, especially British people, as being from "across the pond"). Likewise some British people refer to the USA as "across the pond". Example: BBC Click - Episode 04 April 2009 Ocean bottom Atlantic bathymetry The principal feature of the bathymetry (bottom topography) of the Atlantic Ocean is a submarine mountain range called the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. It extends from Iceland in the north to approximately 58° South latitude, reaching a maximum width of about 1,600 kilometres (1,000 mi). A great rift valley also extends along the ridge over most of its length. The depth of water over the ridge is less than 2,700 m (8,900 ft) in most places, and several mountain peaks rise above the water and form islands. The South Atlantic Ocean has an additional submarine ridge, the Walvis Ridge. The Mid-Atlantic Ridge separates the Atlantic Ocean into two large troughs with depths averaging between 3,700 and 5,500 metres (12,000 and 18,000 ft). Transverse ridges running between the continents and the Mid-Atlantic Ridge divide the ocean floor into numerous basins. Some of the larger basins are the Blake, Guiana, North American, Cape Verde, and Canaries basins in the North Atlantic. The largest South Atlantic basins are the Angola, Cape, Argentina, and Brazil basins. The deep ocean floor is thought to be fairly flat, although numerous seamounts and some guyots exist. Several deeps or trenches are also found on the ocean floor. The Puerto Rico Trench, in the North Atlantic, is the deepest at 8,605 meters (28,232 ft). The Laurentian Abyss is found off the eastern coast of Canada. In the South Atlantic, the South Sandwich Trench reaches a depth of 8,428 metres (27,651 ft). A third major trench, the Romanche Trench, is located near the equator and reaches a depth of about 7,454 metres (24,455 ft). The shelves along the margins of the continents constitute about 11% of the bottom topography. Several deep channels cut across the continental rise. Ocean sediments are composed of terrigenous, pelagic, and authigenic material. Terrigenous deposits consist of sand, mud, and rock particles formed by erosion, weathering, and volcanic activity on land and then washed to sea. These materials are found mostly on the continental shelves and are thickest off the mouths of large rivers or off desert coasts. Pelagic deposits, which contain the remains of organisms that sink to the ocean floor, include red clays and Globigerina, pteropod, and siliceous oozes. Covering most of the ocean floor and ranging in thickness from 60 to 3,300 metres (200 to 11,000 ft), they are thickest in the convergence belts and in the zones of upwelling. Authigenic deposits consist of such materials as manganese nodules. They occur where sedimentation proceeds slowly or where currents sort the deposits Water characteristics Path of the thermohaline circulation. Purple paths represent deep-water currents, while blue paths represent surface currents Map of the five major ocean gyres On average, the Atlantic is the saltiest of the world's major oceans; the salinity of the surface waters in the open ocean ranges from 33 to 37 parts per thousand (3.3 - 3.7%) by mass and varies with latitude and season. Surface salinity values are influenced by evaporation, precipitation, river inflow, and melting of sea ice. Although the minimum salinity values are found just north of the equator (because of heavy tropical rainfall), in general the lowest values are in the high latitudes and along coasts where large rivers flow into the ocean. Maximum salinity values occur at about 25° north and south of the equator, in subtropical regions with low rainfall and high evaporation. Surface water temperatures, which vary with latitude, current systems, and season and reflect the latitudinal distribution of solar energy, range from less than −2 °C to 29 °C (28 °F to 84 °F). Maximum temperatures occur north of the equator, and minimum values are found in the polar regions. In the middle latitudes, the area of maximum temperature variations, values may vary by 7 °C to 8 °C (13 °F to 14 °F). The Atlantic Ocean consists of four major water masses. The North and South Atlantic central waters constitute the surface waters. The sub-Antarctic intermediate water extends to depths of 1,000 metres (3,300 ft). The North Atlantic Deep Water reaches depths of as much as 4,000 metres (13,200 ft). The Antarctic Bottom Water occupies ocean basins at depths greater than 4,000 metres (13,200 ft). Within the North Atlantic, ocean currents isolate a large elongated body of water known as the Sargasso Sea, in which the salinity is noticeably higher than average. The Sargasso Sea contains large amounts of seaweed and is also the spawning ground for both the European eel and the American eel. Because of the Coriolis effect, water in the North Atlantic circulates in a clockwise direction, whereas water circulation in the South Atlantic is counter-clockwise. The south tides in the Atlantic Ocean are semi-diurnal; that is, two high tides occur during each 24 lunar hours. The tides are a general wave that moves from south to north. In latitudes above 40° North some east-west oscillation occurs. Climate Waves in the trade winds in the Atlantic Ocean—areas of converging winds that move along the same track as the prevailing wind—create instabilities in the atmosphere that may lead to the formation of hurricanes The climate of the Atlantic Ocean and adjacent land areas is influenced by the temperatures of the surface waters and water currents as well as the winds blowing across the waters. Because of the ocean's great capacity for retaining heat, maritime climates are more moderate and have less tendency toward extreme seasonal variations than inland climates. Precipitation can be approximated from coastal weather data and air temperature from the water temperatures. The oceans are the major source of the atmospheric moisture that is obtained through evaporation. Climatic zones vary with latitude; the warmest climatic zones stretch across the Atlantic north of the equator. The coldest zones are in the high latitudes, with the coldest regions corresponding to the areas covered by sea ice. Ocean currents contribute to climatic control by transporting warm and cold waters to other regions. Adjacent land areas are affected by the winds that are cooled or warmed when blowing over these currents. The Gulf Stream and its northern extension towards Europe, the North Atlantic Drift, for example, warms the atmosphere of the British Isles and north-western Europe, and the cold water currents contribute to heavy fog off the coast of eastern Canada (the Grand Banks area) and the north-western coast of Africa. In general, winds tend to transport moisture and warm or cool air over land areas. Hurricanes develop in the southern part of the North Atlantic Ocean. History Pangaea separation animation, which formed the Atlantic Ocean known today. The Atlantic Ocean appears to be the second youngest of all five oceans. Evidence indicates that it did not exist prior to 130 million years ago, when the continents that formed from the breakup of the ancestral super continent, Pangaea, were being rifted apart by the process of seafloor spreading. The Atlantic has been extensively explored since the earliest settlements were established along its shores. The Vikings, the Portuguese, and Christopher Columbus were the most famous among its early explorers. After Columbus, European exploration rapidly accelerated, and many new trade routes were established. As a result, the Atlantic became and remains the major artery between Europe and the Americas (known as transatlantic trade). Numerous scientific explorations have been undertaken, most famously the Challenger expedition, but also including those by the German Meteor expedition, Columbia University's Lamont Geological Observatory, and the United States Navy Hydrographic Office. Here are some important recent events in relation to the Atlantic: In 1000, Leif Eriksson is the first European to discover the Atlantic coast of North America, including Vinland. The Norse discovery is documented in the 13th century Icelandic Sagas and is corroborated by recent archeological evidence. In 1003, Thorfinnr Karlsefni leads an attempted Viking settlement in North America but is driven off by the natives. In 1004, Snorri Thorfinnsson is the first European born on the American continent. In 1419 and 1427, Portuguese navigators reach Madeira and Azores, respectively. From 1415 to 1488, Portuguese navigators sail along the Western African coast, reaching the Cape of Good Hope. In 1492, Christopher Columbus lands somewhere in the Bahamas. From 1499 to 1502, Amerigo Vespucci maps the east coast of South America, proving that the Americas are not the east edge of Asia but continentally separate. In 1500, Pedro Álvares Cabral reaches Brazil. In 1524, Italian explorer Giovanni da Verrazzano discovers the Atlantic coast of what is today the United States of America. In 1764 William Harrison (the son of John Harrison) sailed aboard the HMS Tartar, with the H-4 time piece. The voyage became the basis for the invention of the global system of Longitude. In 1858, the first transatlantic telegraph cable was laid by Cyrus West Field, though it rapidly failed. In 1865 the first successful transatlantic telegraph cable was laid by Brunel's ship the Great Eastern. On April 15, 1912 the RMS Titanic sank after hitting an iceberg with a loss of more than 1,500 lives. http://ap.google.com/article/ALeqM5gtFxhb2bKIQLIxaRF0qB0x7k4yvgD93RLE680 1914-1918, the First Battle of the Atlantic. In 1919, the American NC-4 became the first fixed-wing aircraft (seaplane) to cross the Atlantic (though it made a couple of landings on islands and the sea along the way, and taxied several hundred miles on the surface). Later in 1919, a British aeroplane piloted by Alcock and Brown made the first non-stop transatlantic flight, from Newfoundland to Ireland. In 1921, the British were the first to cross the North Atlantic in an airship. In 1922, Sacadura Cabral and Gago Coutinho were the first to cross the South Atlantic in an airship. The first transatlantic telephone call was made on January 7, 1927. In 1927, Charles Lindbergh made the first solo non-stop transatlantic flight in an aircraft (between New York City and Paris). 1939-1945, the Second Battle of the Atlantic In 1952, Ann Davison was the first woman to single-handedly sail the Atlantic Ocean. In 1980, Gérard d'Aboville is the first man to cross the Atlantic Ocean rowing. In 1994, Guy Delage was the first man to swim across the Atlantic Ocean (with the help of a kick board, from the Cape Verde islands to Barbados. In 1998, Benoit Lecomte was the first man to swim across the northern Atlantic Ocean without the help of a kick board, stopping for only one week in the Azores. In 1999, after rowing for 81 days and 4,767 kilometres (2,962 mi), Tori Murden became the first woman to cross the Atlantic Ocean by rowboat alone when she reached Guadeloupe from the Canary Islands. Economy The ocean has also contributed significantly to the development and economy of the countries around it. Besides its major transatlantic transportation and communication routes, the Atlantic offers abundant petroleum deposits in the sedimentary rocks of the continental shelves and the world's richest fishing resources, especially in the waters covering the shelves. The major species of fish caught are cod, haddock, hake, herring, and mackerel. The most productive areas include the Grand Banks of Newfoundland, the shelf area off Nova Scotia, Georges Bank off Cape Cod, the Bahama Banks, the waters around Iceland, the Irish Sea, the Dogger Bank of the North Sea, and the Falkland Banks. Eel, lobster, and whales have also been taken in great quantities. All these factors, taken together, tremendously enhance the Atlantic's great commercial value. Because of the threats to the ocean environment presented by oil spills, marine debris, and the incineration of toxic wastes at sea, various international treaties exist to reduce some forms of pollution. Terrain The surface is usually covered with sea ice in the Labrador Sea, Denmark Strait, and Baltic Sea from October to June. There is a clockwise warm-water gyre in the northern Atlantic, and a counter-clockwise warm-water gyre in the southern Atlantic. The ocean floor is dominated by the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, a rugged north-south centerline for the entire Atlantic basin, first discovered by the Challenger Expedition. This was formed by the vulcanism that also formed the floor of the Atlantic, and the islands rising from it. The Atlantic Ocean has irregular coasts indented by numerous bays, gulfs, and seas. These include the Norwegian Sea, Baltic Sea, North Sea, Labrador Sea, Black Sea, Gulf of St. Lawrence, Bay of Fundy, Gulf of Maine, Mediterranean Sea, Gulf of Mexico, and Caribbean Sea. Islands in the Atlantic Ocean include Greenland, Iceland, Faroe Islands, Great Britain (including numerous surrounding islands), Ireland, Rockall, Newfoundland, Sable Island, Azores, Madeira, Bermuda, Canary Islands, Caribbean, Cape Verde, Sao Tome e Principe, Annobon Province, St. Peter Island, Fernando de Noronha, Rocas Atoll, Ascension Island, Saint Helena, The Islands of Trindad, Tristan da Cunha, Gough Island (Also known as Diego Alvarez), Falkland Islands, Tierra del Fuego, South Georgia Island, South Sandwich Islands, and Bouvet Island. Elevation extremes lowest point: Milwaukee Deep in the Puerto Rico Trench −8,605 metres (-28,232 ft) highest point: sea level, 0 m (0 ft) Natural resources Petroleum and gas fields, fish, marine mammals (seals and whales), sand and gravel aggregates, placer deposits, polymetallic nodules, precious stones Natural hazards Icebergs are common in the Davis Strait, Denmark Strait, and the northwestern Atlantic Ocean from February to August and have been spotted as far south as Bermuda and the Madeira Islands. Ships are subject to superstructure icing in extreme northern Atlantic from October to May Persistent fog can be a maritime hazard from May to September, as can hurricanes north of the equator (May to December). The Bermuda Triangle is popularly believed to be the site of numerous aviation and shipping incidents because of unexplained and supposedly mysterious causes, but coast guard records do not support this belief. Current environmental issues Endangered marine species include the manatee, seals, sea lions, turtles, and whales. Drift net fishing is killing dolphins, albatrosses and other seabirds (petrels, auks), hastening the decline of fish stocks and contributing to international disputes. animallaw.info: Problems and Prospects for the Pelagic Driftnet There is municipal sludge pollution off the eastern United States, southern Brazil, and eastern Argentina; oil pollution in the Caribbean Sea, Gulf of Mexico, Lake Maracaibo, Mediterranean Sea, and North Sea; and industrial waste and municipal sewage pollution in the Baltic Sea, North Sea, and Mediterranean Sea. In 2005, there was some concern that the currents warming northern Europe were slowing down, but no scientific consensus was formed based on the reported evidence. Atlantic Ocean's 'Heat Engine' Chills Down by Christopher Joyce. All Things Considered, National Public Radio, 30 Nov, 2005. On June 7, 2006, Florida's wildlife commission voted to take the manatee off the state's endangered species list. Some environmentalists worry that this could erode safeguards for the popular sea creature. Marine pollution Marine pollution is a generic term for the harmful entry into the ocean of chemicals or particles. The biggest culprit are rivers that empty into the Ocean, and with it the many chemicals used as fertilizers in agriculture as well as waste from livestock and humans. The excess of oxygen depleting chemicals in the water leads to hypoxia and the creation of a dead zone. Gerlach: Marine Pollution, Springer, Berlin (1975) Marine debris, also known as marine litter, is a term used to describe human-created waste that has found itself floating in a lake, sea, ocean or waterway. Oceanic debris tends to accumulate at the centre of gyres and coastlines, frequently washing aground where it is known as beach litter. Major ports and harbours See also Transatlantic Transatlantic flight Middle passage Atlantic slave trade List of islands in the Atlantic Ocean :Category:Shipwrecks in the Atlantic Ocean :Category:Atlantic hurricanes Ocean Highway Age of Discovery Gulf Stream shutdown Seven seas References Much of this article comes from the public domain site http://oceanographer.navy.mil/atlantic.html (dead link). It is now accessible from the Internet Archive at http://web.archive.org/web/20020221215514/http%3a//oceanographer.navy.mil/atlantic.html. Disclaimers for this website, including its status as a public domain resource, are recorded on the Internet Archive at http://web.archive.org/web/20020212021049/http%3a//oceanographer.navy.mil/warning.html. External links LA Times special Altered Oceans Oceanography Image of the Day, from the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution NOAA In-situ Ocean Data Viewer Plot and download ocean observations be-x-old:Атлянтычны акіян | Atlantic_Ocean |@lemmatized atlantic:80 ocean:77 second:4 large:9 world:5 oceanic:2 division:2 total:1 area:13 million:3 square:4 kilometre:5 mile:2 cover:6 approximately:3 one:3 fifth:1 earth:2 surface:10 first:18 part:3 name:4 refers:1 atlas:3 greek:2 mythology:1 make:6 sea:48 old:2 known:1 mention:2 contain:2 history:2 herodotus:1 around:3 bc:1 see:3 also:11 mountain:3 another:1 historically:1 use:4 ancient:1 term:4 ethiopic:1 derive:1 ethiopia:1 whose:1 sometimes:2 synonym:1 africa:4 thus:1 european:6 discover:4 synonymous:1 water:28 beyond:1 western:5 europe:8 know:7 believe:2 gigantic:1 river:5 encircle:1 oceanus:1 occupy:2 elongated:2 shape:1 basin:8 extend:6 longitudinally:1 america:11 west:4 eurasia:1 east:6 component:1 encompassing:1 connect:5 north:35 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5,564 | Branch_Davidians | The Branch Davidian Seventh Day Adventists (also known as "The Branch") are a Protestant sect that originated in 1955 from a schism in the Davidian Seventh Day Adventists ("Davidians"), a reform movement that began within the Seventh-day Adventist Church ("SDA") around 1930. The majority of those who accepted the reform message have been disfellowshipped (excommunicated) due to many in the leadership of the SDAs rejecting it. From its inception in 1930, the reform movement inherited Adventism's apocalypticism, in that they believed themselves to be living in a time when Bible prophecies of a final divine judgment were coming to pass as a prelude to Christ's second coming. The name "Branch Davidian" is most widely known for the 1993 siege on their property near Waco, Texas, by the ATF and the FBI, which resulted in the deaths of 82 http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&id=64mkTaGV4o4C&dq=the+branch+davidians+of+waco&printsec=frontcover&source=web&ots=SkrS6bMT28&sig=dZJYvV6wIlyKiVqMdHFw-_xs7CE&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=3&ct=result The Branch Davidians of Waco. of the followers of David Koresh (formerly known as Vernon Howell). There is an ongoing controversy concerning whether or not David Koresh and his followers truly represented the reform movement that had been in existence for over 60 years at the time of the siege, and whether or not they had a right to use the name and property of the church. Though his followers numbered around 140 at the time of the siege, only about 20 of them and their children were associated with the church before he drew them away to follow his unique teachings and practices. A much greater number of the loosely organized church rejected his claims. By the time of the siege, Koresh had encouraged his followers to think of themselves as "students of the Seven Seals" rather than as "Branch Davidians." During the standoff one of his followers publicly announced that he wanted them to thereafter be identified by the name "Koreshians". "Mr. Ricks [FBI negotiator] said today that Ms. Schroeder had told him that members of the sect, a renegade offshoot of the Seventh-day Adventist Church, henceforth wanted to be known as Koreshians." By Robert Reinhold, Published: March 15, 1993 New York Times [brackets added]. Other of his followers said they didn't want to use that new name, and the vast majority of the media continued to use the name "Branch Davidian," in spite of protests from other church members who didn't leave the church to join Koresh's distinct offshoot. The SDA church was able to persuade the media to not use their name in conjunction with the Branch Davidians because they had not long before trademarked their name, despite the fact that the Branch Davidians had legally used the words "Seventh Day Adventists" in their name for decades before the SDAs had trademarked the name. Protests against the use of the name "Davidian" for Koresh and his followers were also raised by the Davidian groups who were not affiliated with the Branch, but also to no avail. It appears that the major media powers were determined to paint Koresh and his followers as truly representatives of the Branch church, regardless of the facts. Due to overwhelming evidence that Koresh's teachings and practices were grossly divergent from those of the historic Branch Davidians, and that there are significant facts that his group was actually a separate and distinct association, this article addresses the church's identity independent of his teachings and the events of the 1993 siege. Those matters are addressed in the articles David Koresh and the Waco Siege. History In 1929 Victor Houteff, a Bulgarian immigrant, and a Seventh-day Adventist Sabbath School teacher, claimed that he had a new message for the Church. It was submitted in the form of a book titled, The Shepherd's Rod, The 144,000, A Call for Reformation. http://www.the-branch.org/Shepherds_Rod_Volume_1_Houteff His reform message was not accepted and was considered divisive by the leadership because it pointed out what he saw as their departures from basic church teachings and standards. As a result, he was disfellowshipped (excommunicated), along with others who embraced the message. In 1935 Houteff established his headquarters outside of Waco, Texas, to the west of it. Until 1942 his movement was known as the Shepherd's Rod Seventh Day Adventists, but when Houteff found it necessary to formally organize for legal purposes, he named the association the "General Association of Davidian Seventh Day Adventists." The term "Davidian" reflects their belief in the restoration of the Davidic kingdom Jeremiah 30; Ezekiel 37:21-28; Hosea 3:1 5. in Israel before Christ's second coming (advent) in the clouds of heaven. Houteff directed Davidians to work for the reforming of SDAs exclusively, in preparation for a large influx of converts when the church would be in a purer state. One of the Davidian tenets is the belief that the president of the church must be endowed with the Spirit of prophecy by which to bring increasing Bible truth to the movement. Thus, in 1955, after Houteff's death, a split developed due to a controversy over who had the qualifications to lead the reform movement. This disputation brought about the General Association of Branch Davidian Seventh Day Adventists, headed initially by Benjamin L. Roden, who was Jewish. The name "Branch" reflects their belief that that is Jesus' new name. Zechariah 3:8-10; 6:12, 13; Revelation 2:17, 3:12. In the late 1960s, the group established its headquarters outside Waco, Texas, to the east of it, on the property previously occupied by the Davidian group after they sold their property on the west of Waco in the early 1960s. In 1958-9, The Branch became the first group of Christians to be granted landed immigrant status in Israel. "For the first time in the history of Zionist colonization, an organized Christian group has been granted official status in Israel as recognized immigrants and land settlers, with all the rights of material and moral aid involved. A year and a half ago, five families of Seventh-day Adventists from the United States and Canada immigrated to Israel to till the land and build new homes. They joined the cooperative village of Amirim in Galilee, where they were welcomed by Jewish peasants. The newcomers have now been recognized by the Settlement Department of the Jewish Agency...." The Ministry, Sept. 1960. They were given permission to settle three villages there, though they lost two of them due to the lack of people coming to inhabit them. Due to their efforts, along with those of others (mostly Jews), the remaining one, Amirim, became the first vegetarian village in Israel, and remains such today. Being strict vegetarians, they established "The Branch Organic Agricultural Association", one of the first organizations to encourage organic gardening in Israel, which produces an abundance of crops for the area and for Europe. At around the same time, Ben Roden called for the church to keep the Lord's Supper and all of the Biblical feast days. In 1976, he called for the General Conference of SDAs to keep the Lord's Supper daily, at the same times of worship that were designated in ancient Israel (the 3rd and 9th hours of the day). In 1981, Lois Roden, Ben's wife, called for all members of the Branch to keep the Lord's Supper daily at those same times. Although under the leadership of Victor T. Houteff the reform movement strictly confined its work among SDAs, under Ben Roden the work was extended outside the mother church, especially in regards to informing the public in regards to the efforts being made by many to bring in blue laws, http://www.the-branch.org/Energy_Crisis_Sunday_Sacredness_Laws_Pope_Ben_Roden http://www.the-branch.org/Protest_Sunday_Laws_Liberty_Of_Conscience_Ben_Roden http://www.the-branch.org/Sunday_Laws_Constitutional_Convention_Catholics_Lois_Roden http://www.the-branch.org/Church_State_Separate_Sunday_Laws_Pope_Lois_Roden http://www.the-branch.org/Church_State_666_America_Energy_Bill_Communist_Christianity which Adventists identify as being an aspect of the "mark of the beast". In 1977, Ben Roden's wife, Lois, claimed to have a new message of her own, one element of which was the doctrine that the Holy Spirit is feminine in gender, causing much controversy in the group. That new message entitled her to a place in the leadership of the church, which her husband and others accepted. When Ben Roden died the next year, their son George tried to assume the leadership, claiming that he was the rightful prophet of the group. But Lois overcame his attempt, and a permanent injunction was issued against George, prohibiting him from attempting to act as president of the church. http://www.the-branch.org/Page6.html In 1979, Lois Roden began publishing Shekinah magazine, which was a "sounding board" in which she presented articles from people of many different Christian, Jewish, and other backgrounds exploring the issue of the femininity of the Holy Spirit, and women in the ministry of the church. During the next several years she was written about in national and international newspapers, was on radio talk shows, and appeared on TV discussing her message. She distributed her literature at many different large religious meetings, including those held in various places when Pope John Paul II came to America in 1979. Because she was teaching that the Holy Spirit should be recognized as our heavenly Mother, and that women should be in the church ministry, her message did not sit well with many masculine orientated churches. In late 1982, and early 1983, she won an award from Religion in Media, and from another international Christian group for her work and for her magazine. A couple of months later, the Administrative building at their church headquarters which contained their printing department was destroyed by fire. Vernon Howell (who changed his name to David Koresh in 1990) later admitted starting the fire. He said he did it because God had told him to do so, and that he was instructed to tell Lois that, "the LORD hath given a commandment concerning thee, that no more of thy name be sown." Nahum 1:14. Doctrines While the SDAs, the Davidians, and The Branch hold many fundamental beliefs in common with most Christian denominations, there are a few additional doctrines which give each of them their distinct identities and names. The ones which the three groups hold in common are: 1) Saturday is the 7th day of the week, and, thus, the Sabbath of the Bible. That it is both a memorial of creation and a sign of sanctification, a sign of the believer's rest from his own works of sin, and his entrance into the rest of the soul which Jesus promises to those who come to Him. Gen. 2:1-3; 1; Ex. 20:8-11; 31:12-17; Heb. 4:1-10. 2) Jesus Christ is to soon personally return to earth to gather together his elect and take them to heaven for 1000 years, after which he will return with them to this earth to dwell with them for eternity in his kingdom. Luke 21:25-27; 17:26-30; John 14:1-3; Acts 1:9-11; Rev. 1:7; Heb. 9:28; James 5:1-8; Joel 3:9-16; 2 Tim. 3:1-5; Dan. 7:27; Matt. 24:36, 44. 3) The non-immortality of the soul. That is, the dead have no consciousness, nor being. Eccl. 9:5, 6; Ps. 146:3, 4; John 5:28, 29. 4) There shall be a resurrection of both the just and of the unjust. The resurrection of the just will take place at the second coming of Christ; the resurrection of the unjust will take place 1000 years later, at the close of the millennium. John 5:28, 29; 1 Thess. 4:13-18; Rev. 20:5-10. 5) There is a sanctuary in heaven in which Christ is ministering on behalf of mankind. Heb, 6:19, 20; 9:1-28. 6) There is an investigative judgment going on in the heavenly sanctuary that began on October 22, 1844 (at the end of the 2300 "days" of Daniel 8:14). to determine who will come forth in each of the resurrections, and who will be translated without seeing death at the second coming of Christ. 1 Thessalonians 4:13-17. That said judgment began with the records of those who had died, and would eventually pass to the living. 7) That the "mark of the beast"(Rev. 13:16-18) will be a universal decree enforcing the commandments and doctrines of men in opposition to those of the Bible, being primarily Sunday laws (Blue laws). 8) The believer should recognize his body as the temple of the Holy Spirit, and thus the believer will be led to abstain from all intoxicating drinks, tobacco, and all other narcotics, and from unclean meats – vegetarianism being the optimal dietary practice. 9) One identifying feature of the true church is the presence of the Spirit of Prophecy. Amos 3:7; Rev. 12:17; 19:10. Though the SDAs believe that the said gift was manifested in a special way through Ellen G. White, they haven't acknowledged any one as having the gift since she died in 1915. The doctrines that distinguish the Davidian http://www.the-branch.org/Fundamental_Beliefs_Davidian_Seventh_Day_Adventists_Houteff and Branch reform movements from the mainline SDAs are: 1) The Davidian and The Branch messages both teach that the gift of prophecy is so important in the church that the president of the association must be endowed with it. Though the Davidians recognize that Victor T. Houteff possessed the said gift, they teach that no one will come with that gift until again until the "special resurrection" Daniel 12:1, 2. at which time both Ellen White and he will take up their work again. Yet that belief is contrary to Houteff's own teaching on the matter. "...without the living Spirit of Prophecy in our midst there can be no success in any revival and reformation, and the sooner we know it the quicker we shall achieve our goal." Timely Greetings, Vol. 1, No. 10, p. 27. http://www.the-branch.org/Success_In_Revival_And_Reformation_Nehemiah_Haggai_Houteff Those Davidians who believed that the gift of prophecy was given to Ben Roden after Houteff's death became part of the Branch. 2) The church will be purified by the removal of the "tares", Matt. 13:30, 48, 49; Ezek. 9:6, 7. fitting her for the final work of evangelism. 3) After the purification of the church, the saints will return to the promised land where Christ will establish his kingdom (Dan. 2:44; Isa. 2:1-4; Mic. 4; Ezek. 37). wherein the 144,000, Rev. 7:1-8. those who follow the Lamb "withersoever He goeth", (Rev. 14:4). shall stand with Him on Mt. Zion, (Rev. 14:1). and bring in "a great multitude, which no man could number", Rev. 7:9. and there "receive the forces of the GentiIes." Isa. 60:5,11. The kingdom there will exist for a short period of time as a final witness to the world before Christ comes in the clouds of heaven to take the great multitude of living and resurrected saints with him for 1000 years, during which time the saints will determine the degree of punishment due the unrepentant. Re 20:1-7. 4) Total abstinence from all flesh foods, in preparation for the return to the Edenic state of the kingdom. Genesis 1:29; Isa 11:9, 65:25. 5) All of the Biblical feast days and practices the early church kept, 1 Corinthians 5:7, 8. and which were taken away from her in the centuries following the death of the apostles through the influence of pagan thinking supplanting the simplicity of the Gospel will be restored to the church, include the true keeping of the Lord's Supper. The Branch teaches that the time has come for the restoration of those feasts, the Davidians don't. The doctrines that distinguish the Branch from the mainline SDAs and Davidians are: 1) The judgment of the living began in the heavenly sanctuary in 1955. 2) Daily worship should be kept at the 3rd and 9th hours of the natural day, in harmony with Christ's intercession in the heavenly sanctuary. This includes partaking in the Lord's Supper. 3) The family is the literal image and likeness of the Godhead. The feminine aspects thereof being understood to be the Holy Spirit and Holy Ghost. Romans 1:19, 20; Genesis 1:26, 27. Vernon Howell's (David Koresh's) Affiliation With The Branch In 1981 Vernon Wayne Howell (later renamed David Koresh) connected himself with the group after being disfellowshipped (excommunicated) from the SDA church in Tyler, Texas, for moral reasons. Shortly after that time he said that he had a new message for the church, but it was not received by anyone then. Rejected in his attempts to gain a following at that time, he came and went over the next year or so, only to return in early 1983, and then again in the fall of 1983 to try again. When there, he would offer Mrs. Roden his services in fixing cars and other mechanical problems, thereby gaining her trust. Never at any time did he actually accept any of the basic moral teachings and practices of the Branch Davidian Seventh Day Adventists, as time has well proven. The same type of things that caused him to be disfellowshipped from the SDA church would have disqualified him from membership in the Branch. The fact that he later had multiple "wives," used alcohol and flesh foods (and taught his followers to do so), dealt in firearms, and used various questionable techniques to compel the consciences of his followers and breakdown their physical and mental powers, further disqualified him from membership in the church and its leadership. In September 1983 Lois Roden allowed Howell to teach his own message, opening the door for him to build a following before their split in early 1984. It is the church's practice to allow most anyone the freedom to present a study, so as not to stifle the spirit of investigation. There was a general meeting at Mount Carmel Center of many Branch Davidians in 1984 during Passover, and the end result was that the group split into a few factions, one of which was loyal to Howell. At this time George Roden forced Howell and his group, and some others, to leave the property. Shortly before that time Howell named his faction the "Davidian Branch Davidian Seventh-Day Adventist Association." Within about a year after leaving Mt. Carmel Center, Howell and his followers ended up in Palestine, Texas, which was his headquarters for the next couple of years. At Howell's command, his followers stopped distributing any of the Davidian and Branch literature after they joined him. In March 28, 1985, Lois was in court again, enforcing the injunction against George. At that time she swore that she was the "President of the Branch Davidian Seventh-Day Adventist Association." http://www.the-branch.org/Page8.html About 2 1/2 months later, Vernon Howell was involved in a separate court case in which he swore that he was the "President of the Davidian Branch Davidian Seventh-Day Adventist Association", http://www.the-branch.org/Page5.html and named nine of his followers who were members of the Branch before they left it to join his new faction under its new name. That case was initiated by George Roden. He was claiming that Vernon and numerous others were preventing him from being the President of the Branch church. Vernon's defense against George's complaint was that he was actually the President of a different association, i.e., the "Davidian Branch Davidian Seventh-Day Adventist Association." While Howell and his followers claimed that Lois Roden had passed on, or had lost, her presidency to him, he never challenged her in court, nor did he attempt to exercise his purported right to the presidency and to the church's name and property until after she died in November, 1986. Though George had used his office of Trustee of the association to have Howell banned from the church's headquarters in 1984, Howell never used his alleged right to the leadership of the church to overturn George's action against him until after Lois died. Neither was he a party in the probate of Lois' estate in January 1987. Lois, as president of the church, held much of the church's property in her name in accordance with the church's Constitution and By-laws, yet Howell was not at the probate proceedings to protect the church's property, which he could have, and should have, done if he were her lawful successor. Instead, in the following summer Howell began to file numerous documents http://www.the-branch.org/Page9.html in the County Records office, which he and his followers were to later use to exert their claim to the right to use the church's identity and property. In all of those document he assumed the church's name, rather than using the new name of his distinct faction, which he dropped at around that time. Many of those nine persons named in Howell's statement regarding his being president of an association ("Davidian Branch Davidian...") different from The Branch had been members of the church's Executive Council under Lois. But, it wasn't until after Lois died that they and Vernon used that fact to make it appear that they were still members of the association which Lois was president of in order to gain use of the church's identity and property, and to bring contempt charges against George, causing him to leave the church's property. Their names appeared on the original 1979 court order against George, so, in spite of the fact that they left the church under Lois to join with Howell, they, under the guise of still being members of the "Executive Council," took legal actions against George after Lois died. In early November, 1987, Vernon and seven of his followers made what the authorities described as a military style assault upon George in order to gain control of Mt. Carmel Center. It was reported that Vernon and his followers said that they were just trying to get some photographs of a dead body which George had dug up. They claimed that the District Attorney had requested that they get the pictures in order to prosecute George. That claim is questionable, due to the fact that the sheriffs were well aware that George had dug up the body, for they had investigated the matter nearly nine months before that time when it was reported to them by Doug Mitchell (one of Lois' remaining followers) during the time of the probate of Lois' estate. http://www.the-branch.org/Page10.html It was reported that during their assault Vernon and his followers had more ammunition than "a Vietnam patrol." They had hid out in the ruins of the Administration building that Vernon burned down in 1983 until the morning when they were discovered and a shootout started between them and George. It reportedly went on for around 45 minutes before the sheriffs arrived. The sheriffs were conveniently met by Perry Jones (Vernon's father-in-law) outside of Mt. Carmel who said that they were just trying to take some pictures of the deceased woman. Vernon and those with him were put in jail, awaiting their trial on attempted murder charges. Vernon was bailed out while the others remained in jail. One of the officers who testified at the trial said that it appeared to him that Vernon and his followers were attempting to use the sheriffs in order to gain control of Mt. Carmel Center. While waiting for the trial, George was put in jail under contempt of court charges on March 21, 1988 because of his use of foul language in some court pleadings. The very next day, Perry Jones and a number of Vernon's other followers moved from their headquarters in Palestine, Texas to Mt. Carmel Center. At the trial, Vernon's group came with their children and gained much sympathy from the jury. The jury acquitted Vernon's followers. There was a mistrial declared for Vernon, and the charges against him were later dropped. All of their guns were given back to them. Mitchell, the last church member in Waco to work with Lois before she died, had left there a week or so before that shootout, so there were no members of the church under Lois Roden in Waco who could testify at the trial in 1988 as to what was going on, other than George. Therefore, neither the jury nor the general public knew that Howell's leadership was of a completely different nature than that of Victor Houteff, and that of Ben and Lois Roden, who were well respected in the Waco community, or that he was actually the leader of a different association under a different name. Lois Roden's Successor Dispute Lois also faced discord from Canadian Charles Pace, who joined the church in the early 1970s, and who, in 1981, also said he had a special message for the church. After examining Pace's message, and finding some errors in it, Lois asked him to stop teaching it among them. When he refused to do so, she put him under a "censure," which meant that he could attend meetings of the church, but not teach at them. At the pivotal Passover, 1984 meeting, Pace presented his special message at a meeting held by George Roden. While Lois and others accepted the key point of Pace's teachings, the significant errors in it precluded Lois from publishing anything of his as he had presented it. At that meeting, Pace announced that he believed that George was to be the next president of the church, and gave him around $14,000 so that he (Pace) could open a health center there. That, in spite of the fact that Lois had asked people to not give financial support to George who was still under the court order that enjoined him from acting as the church's president, and, thus, George had no authority to authorize Pace to open a health center. Shortly thereafter, Pace had a falling out with George, and he threw Pace off of the property. After Lois' death in late 1986, Pace moved from Canada to Gadsen, Alabama, and set up his own faction which he at first named "The Living Waters Branch of Righteousness," then later changed the name to "The Branch, The Lord (YHVH) Our Righteousness." Though he claimed to be Lois' successor, he did not take part in the probate of Lois' estate, and thus allowed the church's property and identity to fall into the hands of George Roden, and then, eventually, Howell's. In 1990, one of the first things Pace published under his new name was called It Is Finished. Shortly before Lois died in November, 1986, he declared that the church no longer needed to keep the daily hours of worship which Ben and Lois had labored hard to restore to the church. In that 1990 study he taught that it was an "abomination" to keep wine (grape juice) as an emblem of the Lord's Supper daily (as the Roden's had taught) because Jesus was no longer interceding for us, but only the Holy Ghost was. In Lois' unattested will she named "Irmine Sampson, Teresa Moore, and the New York group" to lead out in republishing her and Ben's literature. Teresa took that to mean that she was anointed to be the next president of the church, though the others didn't assume the same about their being mentioned. Teresa attended the hearing on the probate of Lois' estate in early 1987, but not as a party to it. After the hearing she told Doug Mitchell (who was a party to the proceedings for the purpose of preserving the church's assets from abuse until the members could meet together) that it was her opinion that the church members should just let George Roden have control of Mt. Carmel Center and the other church assets. Therefore, she went back home and established her own faction, naming it The Lords of Sabbaoth, Our Righteous Branches, and abandoned the church's identity and property. Amo Bishop became associated with George Roden in 1987, and later was married to him for a few months by "contract." George's mental condition was greatly deteriorating during that time, and not long afterwards he ended up in a mental institution until his death in 1998. Amo claims to represent the church, though she rejects many of the church's fundamental teachings. Even though she managed to get permission from George to represent his interests, he, not long afterwards, formerly withdrew that permission. In spite of that, Amo continues to put herself forward as a member of the church with a right to speak and act for the church, even using George's last name (Roden). She then began publishing her own studies, which, according to Mitchell and others, greatly misrepresent the church's teachings. Some say that she is part of a group whose purpose is to disrupt and manipulate the church's image for nefarious reasons. They say that she has been taking advantage of the church's turmoil by repeatedly moving on to the church's property and passing out her literature under the supposed auspices of the church. Doug Mitchell joined the movement in 1978, and worked closely with Lois until her death. He became a party in the probate proceedings of Lois' estate for the purpose of preserving the church's assets from abuse until the members could meet together, but to no avail as the judge wouldn't recognize that much of Lois' estate was things held in trust by her for the church, and appointed two of her other sons who were not active in the church as executors of her estate. About six months before she died, Mitchell presented her with some "new light" he said he was receiving on the true nature of the Lord's Supper. That being, that in the early church that which is known as the Agape or Love Feast (the communal meal ) was the only Lord's Supper they practiced. Lois accepted that belief and practiced it with Mitchell when they met together, and even with Pace when they visited him shortly before she died. Land dispute and Status of the Church Today Due to the secrecy under which Koresh operated, and due to the fact that some of his original followers were using their former membership on the church's Executive Council to portray themselves as still a part of the Branch, those who never left the church under Lois Roden's leadership were not able to easily challenge Koresh's group until after their deeds and teachings were known publicly after the 1993 incident. The revelation of those things gave others the opportunity to dispute their hold on the Mount Carmel property and the church's identity. Within months Amo Bishop moved onto the land to begin a one-woman occupation. After Koresh's death, most of his survivors and supporters recognized Clive Doyle as the spokesman of their organization. But, according to the church's Constitution and By-Laws, the Trustees of the church's property must be appointed to said positions by the president thereof, and Koresh had made no such appointments, nor did they even have a president since he died in 1993, and they announce publicly that they weren't expecting another one to come after him. This situation has existed until today. Therefore, in 1996, they filed a document in the County Records Office stating that they were reorganizing themselves outside of the parameters of the church's laws, and named 11 individuals as co-Trustees. After the 1993 incident, some of Koresh's survivors filed a law suit in order to obtain their personal property that had been confiscated after the end of the standoff. In that suit they, almost incidentally, attempted to gain title to the church's property, Mt. Carmel Center. In 1996 the court ruled that the land belongs to the Branch Davidian Seventh Day Adventist Church, but refused to rule on who exactly constitutes "the church." Therefore, in 1996, a number of Koresh's remaining followers filed an action to quiet title to the church's property under a claim of adverse possession. Adverse possession requires that the claimant file it against a party that holds title to the property. They filed that suit claiming to be the "Trustees" of the church, while contradictorily claiming that they possessed the property in adversity to the trustees of the church. The only defendants they named in the suit were George Roden, who was confined in a mental institution, and Amo Bishop. They also tried to conceal the fact that they were making a claim for the property by attempting to meet the public notification requirements by publishing their claim in the Waco Farm and Labor Journal that had only 1200 subscribers, and no general circulation at all. Charles Pace and one of his followers joined the suit, alleging that they had rights to the property along with Koresh's followers because they had contributed to the church's "2nd tithe fund," which had been used to acquire and maintain the property. He was petitioning the court to have it recognize all of the different factions and set up a board with representatives of the various groups to work together to determine how the property would be used. In 1998, Doug Mitchell, joined the case in opposition to all of the parties. He says that he told Pace that since he was not a follower of Koresh's, that he would not file against him if he would withdraw from the case. Pace then withdrew from the case, but then signed a document in which he stated that he was fully recognizing Koresh's follower's claim to the property, and joined with them in their opposition to Mitchell. Mitchell contends that when Koresh left Mount Carmel in 1984 and adopted the new name "Davidian Branch Davidian Seventh Day Adventist" for his group, they formally left the church, forfeiting their claim as true Branch Davidians. And even more so, considering that during the property trial Koresh's surviving followers formally reorganized themselves outside of, and with specific disregard for the church's governing laws. He says the same is true of Pace when he formed his own group under its new name(s) and began to teach doctrines that are in direct opposition to the fundamental Branch teachings. Teresa Moore chose not to be a party to the suit, but during the proceedings she linked up with Amo Bishop in opposition to Mitchell. During the pre-trial proceedings, Mitchell's attempts to obtain an injunction against Koresh's remaining followers that would have prohibited them from using the church's name and property was dismissed for "lack of jurisdiction." Judge Alan Mayfield felt that the matter involved church issues which the court could not rightly consider. Mitchell asserts that none of the Judge's conclusions of law in his order were applicable to the case before him. He says that he was unable to appeal the judge's ruling at that time due to personal hardships and to harassment and violence he was subjected to by some of Koresh's followers and from Pace. Koresh's survivors dropped their claim for adverse possession the day before the trial began, proceeding only on their claims of being the Trustees of the Church. Mitchell's claim to be the rightful Trustee of the church's property was not allowed to be heard by the jury when Koresh's followers' and Amo Roden's claims were considered, but he was allowed to defend himself against the others' claims. Even though Koresh's followers presented the numerous documents that they and Howell had filed in the County Records office in 1987 and later, in 2000 a jury ruled against them and Amo Roden. http://www.the-branch.org/Page12.html http://www.the-branch.org/Page13.html However, they continued to use the property, along with Charles Pace. Approximately fifty CESNUR 2005 International Conference - The Davidians, The Branch Davidians and Globalization, by Bill Pitts. to seventy http://bdsda.tripod.com/newsletters/april_2005.html people attended the yearly memorial service on April 19, 2005. At that time, survivor Clive Doyle was living at the Mount Carmel Center with supporter Ron Goins, operating a small visitor museum as well as holding weekly Bible studies on the Sabbath. Charles Pace and his family also lived on the property and held worship services. However, relations began to break down. In August, Pace held a baptism for his members at Mount Carmel, joined by Goins. This left Doyle as the only Koresh follower on the property, and he says he came under increasing pressure to convert or leave. In February, 2006, he decided to move into town, emptying the visitor museum as well. This has left Pace's group in questionable control of Mount Carmel Center. Pace had opposed the planting of the grove of memorial trees calling it paganism, and his group has chopped down David Koresh's tree and smashed his plaque, to prevent it from being used for idolatry. They have also removed the plaques from the other trees, with plans to incorporate the stones into their own memorial to the dead. Pace, a naturopathic doctor, also plans to make a wellness center out of Doyle's repossessed house and a health food/herb shop out of the visitors' center. Meanwhile, Koresh's survivors nurse hopes of reclaiming the property. In 2003, Mitchell set up a web site http://www.the-branch.org/index.php on which he posted most all of the publications of Victor T. Houteff, Ben and Lois Roden, and his own new studies, including a detailed presentation of what he callsThe Warfare of Vernon Howell (a.k.a. David Koresh) and others against the Branch Davidian Seventh Day Adventists, http://www.the-branch.org/Koresh's_Warfare_Against_True_Branch_Davidians_Doug_Mitchell in which he gives a detailed and documented overview of the controversy regarding the church and its adversaries. Mitchell says that numerous people who have examined his teachings and those of Koresh's and his followers, Charles Pace, and Teresa Moore, and have found their teachings to be divergent from the fundamental doctrines of the church, and have sided with him. He says that the matter is far from resolved, and that certain facts may soon come to light which will clear up the matter. References External links The General Association of Branch Davidian Seventh Day Adventists Original Publications of Ben and Lois Roden, Victor T. 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5,565 | Interpolation | In the mathematical subfield of numerical analysis, interpolation is a method of constructing new data points within the range of a discrete set of known data points. In engineering and science one often has a number of data points, as obtained by sampling or experimentation, and tries to construct a function which closely fits those data points. This is called curve fitting or regression analysis. Interpolation is a specific case of curve fitting, in which the function must go exactly through the data points. A different problem which is closely related to interpolation is the approximation of a complicated function by a simple function. Suppose we know the function but it is too complex to evaluate efficiently. Then we could pick a few known data points from the complicated function, creating a lookup table, and try to interpolate those data points to construct a simpler function. Of course, when using the simple function to calculate new data points we usually do not receive the same result as when using the original function, but depending on the problem domain and the interpolation method used the gain in simplicity might offset the error. It should be mentioned that there is another very different kind of interpolation in mathematics, namely the "interpolation of operators". The classical results about interpolation of operators are the Riesz-Thorin theorem and the Marcinkiewicz theorem. There also are many other subsequent results. An interpolation of a finite set of points on an epitrochoid. Points through which curve is splined are red; the blue curve connecting them is interpolation. Definition From inter meaning between and pole, the points or nodes. Any means of calculating a new point between two or more existing data points is interpolation. There are many methods for doing this, many of which involve fitting some sort of function to the data and evaluating that function at the desired point. This does not exclude other means such as statistical methods of calculating interpolated data. One of the simplest forms of interpolation is to take the arithmetic mean of the value of two adjacent points to find the mid point. This will give the same result as a linear function evaluated at the midpoint. Given a sequence of n distinct numbers xk called nodes and for each xk a second number yk, we are looking for a function f so that A pair xk,yk is called a data point and f is called an interpolant for the data points. When the numbers yk are given by a known function f, we sometimes write fk. Example For example, suppose we have a table like this, which gives some values of an unknown function f. Plot of the data points as given in the table. x f(x) 0 0 1 0 . 8415 2 0 . 9093 3 0 . 1411 4 −0 . 7568 5 −0 . 9589 6 −0 . 2794 Interpolation provides a means of estimating the function at intermediate points, such as x = 2.5. There are many different interpolation methods, some of which are described below. Some of the concerns to take into account when choosing an appropriate algorithm are: How accurate is the method? How expensive is it? How smooth is the interpolant? How many data points are needed? Piecewise constant interpolation Piecewise constant interpolation, or nearest-neighbor interpolation. The simplest interpolation method is to locate the nearest data value, and assign the same value. In one dimension, there are seldom good reasons to choose this one over linear interpolation, which is almost as cheap, but in higher dimensions, in multivariate interpolation, this can be a favourable choice for its speed and simplicity. Linear interpolation Plot of the data with linear interpolation superimposed One of the simplest methods is linear interpolation (sometimes known as lerp). Consider the above example of determining f(2.5). Since 2.5 is midway between 2 and 3, it is reasonable to take f(2.5) midway between f(2) = 0.9093 and f(3) = 0.1411, which yields 0.5252. Generally, linear interpolation takes two data points, say (xa,ya) and (xb,yb), and the interpolant is given by: at the point (x,y) Linear interpolation is quick and easy, but it is not very precise. Another disadvantage is that the interpolant is not differentiable at the point xk. The following error estimate shows that linear interpolation is not very precise. Denote the function which we want to interpolate by g, and suppose that x lies between xa and xb and that g is twice continuously differentiable. Then the linear interpolation error is In words, the error is proportional to the square of the distance between the data points. The error of some other methods, including polynomial interpolation and spline interpolation (described below), is proportional to higher powers of the distance between the data points. These methods also produce smoother interpolants. Polynomial interpolation Plot of the data with polynomial interpolation applied Polynomial interpolation is a generalization of linear interpolation. Note that the linear interpolant is a linear function. We now replace this interpolant by a polynomial of higher degree. Consider again the problem given above. The following sixth degree polynomial goes through all the seven points: Substituting x = 2.5, we find that f(2.5) = 0.5965. Generally, if we have n data points, there is exactly one polynomial of degree at most n−1 going through all the data points. The interpolation error is proportional to the distance between the data points to the power n. Furthermore, the interpolant is a polynomial and thus infinitely differentiable. So, we see that polynomial interpolation solves all the problems of linear interpolation. However, polynomial interpolation also has some disadvantages. Calculating the interpolating polynomial is computationally expensive (see computational complexity) compared to linear interpolation. Furthermore, polynomial interpolation may not be so exact after all, especially at the end points (see Runge's phenomenon). These disadvantages can be avoided by using spline interpolation. Spline interpolation Plot of the data with Spline interpolation applied Remember that linear interpolation uses a linear function for each of intervals [xk,xk+1]. Spline interpolation uses low-degree polynomials in each of the intervals, and chooses the polynomial pieces such that they fit smoothly together. The resulting function is called a spline. For instance, the natural cubic spline is piecewise cubic and twice continuously differentiable. Furthermore, its second derivative is zero at the end points. The natural cubic spline interpolating the points in the table above is given by In this case we get f(2.5)=0.5972. Like polynomial interpolation, spline interpolation incurs a smaller error than linear interpolation and the interpolant is smoother. However, the interpolant is easier to evaluate than the high-degree polynomials used in polynomial interpolation. It also does not suffer from Runge's phenomenon. Interpolation via Gaussian processes Gaussian process is a powerful non-linear interpolation tool. Many popular interpolation tools are actually equivalent to particular Gaussian processes. Gaussian processes can be used not only for fitting an interpolant that passes exactly through the given data points but also for regression, i.e. for fitting a curve through noisy data. In the geostatistics community Gaussian process regression is also known as Kriging. Other forms of interpolation Other forms of interpolation can be constructed by picking a different class of interpolants. For instance, rational interpolation is interpolation by rational functions, and trigonometric interpolation is interpolation by trigonometric polynomials. The discrete Fourier transform is a special case of trigonometric interpolation. Another possibility is to use wavelets. The Whittaker–Shannon interpolation formula can be used if the number of data points is infinite. Multivariate interpolation is the interpolation of functions of more than one variable. Methods include bilinear interpolation and bicubic interpolation in two dimensions, and trilinear interpolation in three dimensions. Sometimes, we know not only the value of the function that we want to interpolate, at some points, but also its derivative. This leads to Hermite interpolation problems. Related concepts The term extrapolation is used if we want to find data points outside the range of known data points. In curve fitting problems, the constraint that the interpolant has to go exactly through the data points is relaxed. It is only required to approach the data points as closely as possible. This requires parameterizing the potential interpolants and having some way of measuring the error. In the simplest case this leads to least squares approximation. Approximation theory studies how to find the best approximation to a given function by another function from some predetermined class, and how good this approximation is. This clearly yields a bound on how well the interpolant can approximate the unknown function. References David Kidner, Mark Dorey and Derek Smith (1999). What's the point? Interpolation and extrapolation with a regular grid DEM. IV International Conference on GeoComputation, Fredericksburg, VA, USA. Chapter 6. Chapters 4 and 6. External links DotPlacer applet : Applet showing various interpolation methods, with movable points | Interpolation |@lemmatized mathematical:1 subfield:1 numerical:1 analysis:2 interpolation:66 method:12 construct:4 new:3 data:32 point:42 within:1 range:2 discrete:2 set:2 know:8 engineering:1 science:1 one:7 often:1 number:5 obtain:1 sample:1 experimentation:1 try:2 function:26 closely:3 fit:5 call:5 curve:6 fitting:3 regression:3 specific:1 case:4 must:1 go:4 exactly:4 different:4 problem:6 relate:2 approximation:5 complicate:2 simple:6 suppose:3 complex:1 evaluate:4 efficiently:1 could:1 pick:2 create:1 lookup:1 table:4 interpolate:6 simpler:1 course:1 use:11 calculate:4 usually:1 receive:1 result:5 original:1 depend:1 domain:1 gain:1 simplicity:2 might:1 offset:1 error:8 mention:1 another:4 kind:1 mathematics:1 namely:1 operator:2 classical:1 riesz:1 thorin:1 theorem:2 marcinkiewicz:1 also:7 many:6 subsequent:1 finite:1 epitrochoid:1 splined:1 red:1 blue:1 connect:1 definition:1 inter:1 meaning:1 pole:1 node:2 mean:4 two:4 exist:1 involve:1 sort:1 desired:1 exclude:1 statistical:1 form:3 take:4 arithmetic:1 value:5 adjacent:1 find:4 mid:1 give:10 linear:18 midpoint:1 sequence:1 n:4 distinct:1 xk:6 second:2 yk:3 look:1 f:11 pair:1 interpolant:12 sometimes:3 write:1 fk:1 example:3 like:2 unknown:2 plot:4 x:6 provide:1 estimate:2 intermediate:1 describe:2 concern:1 account:1 choose:3 appropriate:1 algorithm:1 accurate:1 expensive:2 smooth:2 need:1 piecewise:3 constant:2 near:2 neighbor:1 locate:1 assign:1 dimension:4 seldom:1 good:2 reason:1 almost:1 cheap:1 high:4 multivariate:2 favourable:1 choice:1 speed:1 superimpose:1 lerp:1 consider:2 determine:1 since:1 midway:2 reasonable:1 yield:2 generally:2 say:1 xa:2 ya:1 xb:2 yb:1 quick:1 easy:2 precise:2 disadvantage:3 differentiable:4 following:2 show:2 denote:1 want:3 g:2 lie:1 twice:2 continuously:2 word:1 proportional:3 square:2 distance:3 include:2 polynomial:18 spline:9 power:2 produce:1 interpolants:3 apply:2 generalization:1 note:1 replace:1 degree:5 sixth:1 seven:1 substitute:1 furthermore:3 thus:1 infinitely:1 see:3 solve:1 however:2 computationally:1 computational:1 complexity:1 compare:1 may:1 exact:1 especially:1 end:2 runge:2 phenomenon:2 avoid:1 remember:1 interval:2 low:1 piece:1 smoothly:1 together:1 instance:2 natural:2 cubic:3 derivative:2 zero:1 get:1 incur:1 small:1 smoother:1 suffer:1 via:1 gaussian:5 process:5 powerful:1 non:1 tool:2 popular:1 actually:1 equivalent:1 particular:1 pass:1 e:1 noisy:1 geostatistics:1 community:1 kriging:1 class:2 rational:2 trigonometric:3 fourier:1 transform:1 special:1 possibility:1 wavelet:1 whittaker:1 shannon:1 formula:1 infinite:1 variable:1 bilinear:1 bicubic:1 trilinear:1 three:1 lead:2 hermite:1 concepts:1 term:1 extrapolation:2 outside:1 constraint:1 relaxed:1 require:2 approach:1 possible:1 parameterizing:1 potential:1 way:1 measure:1 least:1 theory:1 study:1 best:1 predetermined:1 clearly:1 bound:1 well:1 approximate:1 reference:1 david:1 kidner:1 mark:1 dorey:1 derek:1 smith:1 regular:1 grid:1 dem:1 iv:1 international:1 conference:1 geocomputation:1 fredericksburg:1 va:1 usa:1 chapter:2 external:1 link:1 dotplacer:1 applet:2 various:1 movable:1 |@bigram curve_fitting:3 regression_analysis:1 closely_relate:1 xk_yk:1 linear_interpolation:14 continuously_differentiable:2 polynomial_interpolation:9 spline_interpolation:6 infinitely_differentiable:1 computational_complexity:1 xk_xk:1 cubic_spline:2 trigonometric_interpolation:2 discrete_fourier:1 fourier_transform:1 external_link:1 applet_applet:1 |
5,566 | Inclusion_body_myositis | Sporadic inclusion body myositis (sIBM) is an inflammatory muscle disease, characterized by slowly progressive weakness and wasting of both distal and proximal muscles, most apparent in the muscles of the arms and legs. In sporadic inclusion body myositis [MY-oh-sigh-tis] muscle, two processes, one autoimmune and the other degenerative, appear to occur in the muscle cells in parallel. The inflammation aspect is characterized by the cloning of T cells that appear to be driven by specific antigens to invade muscle fibers. The degeneration aspect is characterized by the appearance of holes in the muscle cell (vacuole)s, deposits of abnormal proteins within the cells and in filamentous inclusions (hence the name inclusion body myositis). sIBM is a rare disease, the most recent research, done in Australia, indicates that the incidence of IBM varies and is different in different populations and different ethnic groups. The authors found that the current prevalence was 14.9 per million in the overall population, with a prevalence of 51.3 per million population in people over 50 years of age. As seen in these numbers, sIBM is an age-related disease - its incidence increases with age and symptoms usually begin after 50 years of age. It is the most common acquired muscle disorder seen in people over 50, although about 20% of cases display symptoms before the age of 50. Weakness comes on slowly (over months or years) and progresses steadily and usually leads to severe weakness and wasting of arm and leg muscles. It is slightly more common in men than women. Patients may become unable to perform daily living activities and most require assistive devices within 5 to 10 years of symptom onset. sIBM is not considered a fatal disorder - barring complications, all things being equal, sIBM will not kill you (but the risk of serious injury due to falls is increased). One common and potentially fatal complication is dysphagia. There is no effective treatment for the disease. Classification The common type is sIBM (sporadic Inclusion Body Myositis): it strikes individuals apparently at random. There is a type that has been observed in multiple siblings in the same generation in several families: termed familial inflammatory sIBM, but it is not passed on from generation to generation. There are also several very rare forms of hereditary inclusion body myopathy (hIBM) that are linked to specific genetic defects and that are passed on from generation to generation, each inherited in different ways. See hereditary inclusion body myopathy. Signs and Symptoms How sIBM affects individuals is quite variable as is the age of onset (which generally varies from the forties upwards). Because sIBM affects different people in different ways and at different rates, there is no "textbook case." Eventually, sIBM results in general, progressive muscle weakness. The muscles in the thighs called the quadriceps and the muscles in the arms that control finger flexion-- making a fist -- are usually affected early on. Common early symptoms include frequent tripping and falling, weakness going up stairs and trouble manipulating the fingers -- turning doorknobs, gripping keys, etc. During the course of the illness, the patient's mobility is progressively restricted as it becomes hard for him or her to bend down, reach for things, walk quickly and so on. Many patients say they have balance problems and fall easily, as the muscles cannot compensate for an off-balanced posture. Because sIBM makes the leg muscles weak and unstable, patients are very vulnerable to serious injury from tripping or falling down. Although pain has not been traditionally part of the "textbook" description, many patients report severe muscle pain, especially in the thighs. When present, dysphagia is a progressive condition in patients with inclusion body myositis and often leads to death from aspiration pneumonia. Dysphagia is present in from 40 to 85% of IBM cases. Patients with sIBM usually eventually need to resort to a cane or a walker and in most cases, a wheelchair eventually becomes a necessity. From a recent article: "The progressive course of s-IBM leads slowly to severe disability. Finger functions can become very impaired, such as for manipulating pens, keys, buttons, and zippers, pulling handles, and firmly grasping handshakes. Arising from a chair becomes difficult. Walking becomes more precarious. Sudden falls, sometimes resulting in major injury to the skull or other bones, can occur, even from walking on minimally-irregular ground or from other minor imbalances outside or in the home, due to weakness of quadriceps and gluteus muscles depriving the patient of automatic posture maintenance. A foot-drop can increase the likelihood of tripping. Dysphagia can occur, usually caused by upper esophageal constriction that often can be symptomatically improved, for several months to years, by bougie dilation per a GI or ENT physician. Respiratory muscle weakness can sometimes eventuate." Causes The causes, of sIBM are currently unknown, though it is likely that it results from the interaction of a number of factors, both genetic and environmental. The understanding of sIBM is slowly maturing and evolving. Currently, there are two major theories about how sIBM is caused: 1) Some researchers (e.g., Dr. Dalakas) advocate the theory that the inflammation / immune reaction, caused by an unknown trigger - likely an undiscovered virus or an autoimmune disorder, is the primary, proximal cause of sIBM and that the degeneration of muscle fibres and protein abnormalities are secondary features. Despite the arguments "in favor of an adaptive immune response in s-IBM, a purely autoimmune hypothesis for s-IBM is untenable because of the disease's resistance to most immunotherapy." 2) Some researchers (e.g., Engel and Askanas) advocate the theory that sIBM is a degenerative disorder related to aging of the muscle fibres and that abnormal, potentially pathogenic protein accumulations in myofibers play a key causative role in s-IBM (apparently before the immune system comes into play). This theory emphasizes the abnormal intracellular accumulation of many proteins, protein aggregation and misfolding, proteosome inhibition, and endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress. A recent review by Greenberg (2009) discusses the "limitations in the beta-amyloid-mediated theory of IBM myofiber injury," Dalakas (2006) said: "we can say that two processes, one autoimmune and the other degenerative, occur in the muscle cells in parallel." Dalakas (2006) suggested that a chain of events causes IBM -- some sort of virus, likely a retrovirus, triggers the cloning of T cells. These T cells appear to be driven by specific antigens to invade muscle fibers. In people with sIBM, the muscle cells display “flags” telling the immune system that they are infected or damaged (the muscles ubiquitously express MHC class I antigens) and this immune process leads to the death of muscle cells. The chronic stimulation of these antigens also causes stress inside the muscle cell in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and this ER stress may be enough to cause a self-sustaining T cell response (even after a virus has dissipated). In addition, this ER stress may cause the misfolding of protein. The ER is in charge of processing and folding molecules carrying antigens. In IBM, muscle fibers are overloaded with these major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules that carry the antigen protein pieces, leading to more ER stress and more protein misfolding. A self-sustaining T cell response would make sIBM a type of autoimmune disorder. One confusing aspect is that medications that lower the immune response do not improve sIBM symptoms, as would be expected in the case of an autoimmune disorder. When studied carefully, it has not been impossible to detect an ongoing viral infection in the muscles. One theory is that a chronic viral infection might be the initial triggering factor setting IBM in motion. There have been a handful of IBM cases -- about 15 or so -- that have shown clear evidence of a virus called HTLV-1. This is a complex virus that can cause leukemia but in most cases, lays dormant and people end up being lifelong carriers of the virus. It's too early to say that this is the particular virus directly involved in causing IBM. The Dalakas article says that the best evidence points towards a connection with some type of retrovirus and that a retroviral infection combined with immune recognition of the retrovirus is enough to trigger the inflammation process. As mentioned above, in the past, some researchers have suggested that it is the protein changes that are primary and that precede or trigger the abnormal immune response. From an article by Askanas and Engel: "Two hypotheses predominate regarding the key pathogenic mechanisms involved in s-IBM: an amyloid-beta-related degenerative process and an immune dysregulation. Ultimately, both may be considered important, and their possible interrelationship may be clarified. An intriguing feature is the accumulation within s-IBM muscle fibers of amyloid-beta (Ab), phosphorylated tau protein, and at least 20 other proteins that are also accumulated in the brain of Alzheimer's disease patients. In the s-IBM muscle fibers, there is evidence of misfolding of proteins, pathologic proteinaceous inclusions including aggresomes, abnormalities of the two protein-disposal systems involving the ubiquitin proteasome pathway and the lysosomes, mitochondrial dysfunctions, and oxidative stress. The pronounced T-cell inflammation can be striking, and it is characterized by activated, antigen-driven, cytotoxic CD8+ T-cells. amyloid protein The hypothesis that beta amyloid protein is key to IBM has been confirmed in a mouse model using an Aβ vaccine that was found to be effective against inclusion body myositis in mouse models. Although this vaccine is likely not safe for human use, it still shows that attacking Aβ has efficacy in mice against IBM. Genetic Aspects of sIBM sIBM is not inherited and is not passed on to the children of IBM patients. There are genetic features that do not directly cause IBM but that appear to predispose a person to getting IBM - having this particular combination of genes increases one's susceptibility to getting IBM. Some 67% of IBM patients have a particular combination of human leukocyte antigen genes in a section of the 8.1 ancestral haplotype in the center of the MHC class II region. sIBM is not passed on from generation to generation, although the susceptibility region of genes may be. There are also several very rare forms of hereditary inclusion body myopathy (myopathies) that are linked to specific genetic defects and that are passed on from generation to generation. Because these forms do not show inflammation, they are classified as myopathies and not myositis types. Because they do not display inflammation as a primary symptom, they may in fact be similar, but different diseases than sporadic inclusion body myositis. There are several different types, each inherited in different ways. See hereditary inclusion body myopathy. A 2007 review that summarized current understanding of the contribution of genetic susceptibility factors to the development of sIBM concluded there is no indication that the genes responsible for the familial or hereditary conditions are involved in sIBM. Differential Diagnosis IBM is often initially misdiagnosed as polymyositis. A course of prednisone is typically completed with no improvement and eventually sIBM is confirmed. sIBM weakness comes on over months or years and progresses steadily, whereas polymyositis has an onset of weeks or months. Other forms of muscular dystrophy (e.g. limb girdle) must be considered as well. Diagnosis Elevated creatine kinase CK levels (at most ~10 times normal) are typical in sIBM but patients can also present with normal CK levels. Electromyography (EMG) studies usually display abnormalities. Muscle biopsy may display several common findings including; inflammatory cells invading muscle cells, vacuolar degeneration, inclusions or plaques of abnormal proteins. sIBM is a challenge to the pathologist and even with a biopsy, diagnosis can be ambiguous. Treatment There is no standard course of treatment to slow or stop the progression of the disease. sIBM patients do not reliably respond to the anti-inflammatory, immunosuppressant, or immunomodulatory drugs that have been tried. Management is symptomatic. Prevention of falls is an important consideration. People with sIBM Dick Edell, former coach of the University of Maryland, United States Military Academy, and University of Baltimore's men's lacrosse teams. Other Related Disorders When sIBM was originally described, the major feature noted was muscle inflammation. Two other disorders were also known to display muscle inflammation, and sIBM was classified along with them. They are dermatomyositis (DM) and polymyositis (PM) and all three illnesses were called idiopathic inflammatory myositis or inflammatory myopathies (idiopathic means they don’t know what causes it). It appears that sIBM and polymyositis share some common features, especially the initial sequence of immune system activation, however, polmyositis comes on over weeks or months, does not display the subsequent muscle degeneration and protein abnormalities as seen in IBM, and as well, polymyositis tends to respond well to treatments, IBM does not. IBM is often confused with (misdiagnosed as) polymyositis and polymyositis that does not respond to treatment is likely IBM. Dermatomyositis appears to be a different disease altogether with different root causes unrelated to either PM or sIBM. References External links Information and links to resources by Bill Tillier Polymyositis and Dermatomyositis Discussion group Information from The Myositis Association | Inclusion_body_myositis |@lemmatized sporadic:4 inclusion:14 body:11 myositis:10 sibm:35 inflammatory:6 muscle:34 disease:9 characterize:4 slowly:4 progressive:4 weakness:8 wasting:2 distal:1 proximal:2 apparent:1 arm:3 leg:3 oh:1 sigh:1 ti:1 two:6 process:5 one:6 autoimmune:6 degenerative:4 appear:6 occur:4 cell:16 parallel:2 inflammation:8 aspect:4 cloning:2 drive:2 specific:4 antigen:8 invade:3 fiber:5 degeneration:4 appearance:1 hole:1 vacuole:1 deposit:1 abnormal:5 protein:17 within:3 filamentous:1 hence:1 name:1 rare:3 recent:3 research:1 australia:1 indicate:1 incidence:2 ibm:27 varies:1 different:12 population:3 ethnic:1 group:2 author:1 find:2 current:2 prevalence:2 per:3 million:2 overall:1 people:6 year:6 age:7 see:5 number:2 related:3 increase:4 symptom:6 usually:6 begin:1 common:7 acquire:1 disorder:8 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5,567 | Marilyn_Monroe | Marilyn Monroe, She obtained an order from the City Court of the State of New York and legally changed her name to Marilyn Monroe on February 23, 1956. Marilyn Monroe's Official Web site .::. Fast Facts (1 June 1926 – 5 August 1962), born Norma Jeane Mortenson but baptized Norma Jeane Baker, was an American actress, singer and model. After spending much of her childhood in foster homes, Monroe began a career as a model, which led to a film contract in 1946. Her early roles were minor, but her performances in The Asphalt Jungle and All About Eve (both 1950) were well received. She was praised for her comedic ability in such films as Gentlemen Prefer Blondes, How to Marry a Millionaire and The Seven Year Itch, and became one of Hollywood's most popular and glamorous performers. The typecasting of Monroe's "dumb blonde" persona limited her career prospects, so she broadened her range. She studied at the Actors Studio and formed Marilyn Monroe Productions. Her dramatic performance in William Inge's Bus Stop was hailed by critics, and she won a Golden Globe Award for her performance in Some Like it Hot. The final years of Monroe's life were marked by illness, personal problems, and a reputation for being unreliable and difficult to work with. The circumstances of her death, from an overdose of barbiturates, have been the subject of conjecture. Though officially classified as a "probable suicide", the possibility of an accidental overdose has not been ruled out, while conspiracy theorists argue that she was murdered. In 1999, Monroe was ranked as the sixth greatest female star of all time by the American Film Institute. Family and early life Monroe was born in the Los Angeles County Hospital, Churchwell, pp. 150-151 the third child born to Gladys Pearl Baker (1902–1984). Riese and Hitchens, p. 33 Monroe's birth certificate names the father as Edward Mortenson, a Norwegian, Summers, p. 5 with his residence stated as "unknown", Churchwell, p. 151 Gladys Baker had married a Martin E. Mortenson in 1924, but they had separated before Gladys' pregnancy. Summers, p. 5 Several of Monroe's biographers suggest that Gladys Baker used his name to avoid the stigma of illegitimacy. Churchwell, p. 150, citing previous biographers Anthony Summers, Donald Spoto and Fred Guiles When Mortenson died, at the age of 85, Monroe's birth certificate together with her parents' marriage and divorce documents were discovered. These documents showed that Mortenson filed for divorce from Gladys on March 5, 1927, and the case was finalized on October 15, 1928, thus proving that Marilyn was born legitimate. L.A.County Hall of Records Case No. D-53720, 05MAR1927 Mortensen's Death and documents Throughout her life, Marilyn Monroe denied that Mortenson was her father. She said that when she was a child, she had been shown a photograph of a man that Gladys Baker identified as her father. She remembered that he had a thin moustache and somewhat resembled Clark Gable, and that she had amused herself by pretending that Gable was her father, but never determined her father's true identity. Churchwell, p. 154 Mentally unstable and financially unable to care for Norma Jeane, Gladys placed her with foster parents Albert and Ida Bolender of Hawthorne, California, where she lived until she was seven. In her autobiography My Story (co-authored with screenwriter and novelist Ben Hecht) Kovan, Florice Whyte, A Ghost Materialized - Ben Hecht Finally Credited on Marilyn Monroe's Memoir, (2001) Snickersnee Press Monroe stated she believed that the Bolenders were her parents until Ida corrected her. After that Norma Jeane referred to them as Aunt & Uncle. During one of her weekly visits, Gladys told Norma Jeane that she had bought a house for them, and Norma Jeane was allowed to move in with her mother. A few months after moving in, Gladys suffered a breakdown. In My Story, Monroe recalls her mother "screaming and laughing", as she was forcibly removed to the State Hospital in Norwalk. Monroe was declared a ward of the state, and Gladys's best friend, Grace McKee, became her guardian. It was Grace who had told Monroe that someday she would become "...an important woman... a movie star". Grace was captivated by Jean Harlow, and would let Norma Jeane wear makeup and take her out to get her hair curled. They would go to the movies together, forming the basis for Norma Jeane's fascination with the cinema and the stars on screen. After Grace McKee married Ervin Silliman Goddard in 1935, the 9 year-old Monroe was sent to the Los Angeles Orphans Home, (later renamed Hollygrove), and then to a succession of foster homes. Two years later Grace took Norma Jeane back to live with herself, Goddard and one of Goddard's daughters from a previous marriage. When Goddard tried to molest Norma Jeane, Grace sent her to live with her great aunt, Olive Brunings. Norma Jeane was assaulted by one of Olive's sons at the age of 12 and then went on to live with Grace's aunt, Ana Lower. When Ana developed health problems, Norma Jeane went back to live with Grace and Ervin Goddard, where she met a neighbor's son, Jim Dougherty, and soon began a relationship with him. Grace and her husband were about to move East and could not take Norma Jeane. Another family wanted to adopt Norma Jeane, but Gladys would not allow it. Grace then approached a neighbor suggesting that her son, James Dougherty, could marry Norma Jeane so that she would not have to return to an orphanage or foster care, and in June 1942, they were married. Monroe would state in her autobiography that she did not feel like a wife; she enjoyed playing with the neighborhood children until her husband would call her home. The marriage lasted until 1946 when Monroe decided to pursue her career. Career Modeling and early film work Mrs. Norma Jeane Dougherty, Yank Magazine, 1945 While Dougherty was in the Merchant Marine during World War II, Monroe moved in with her mother-in-law, and found employment in the Radioplane Munitions Factory. She sprayed airplane parts with fire retardant and inspected parachutes. During this time, Army photographer David Conover snapped a photograph of her for a Yank magazine article. He encouraged her to apply to The Blue Book modeling agency. She signed with the agency and began researching the work of Jean Harlow and Lana Turner. She was told that they were looking for models with lighter hair, so Marilyn dyed her brunette hair to a golden blonde. Norma Jeane Dougherty became one of Blue Book's most successful models, appearing on dozens of magazine covers. In 1946, she came to the attention of Ben Lyon, a 20th Century Fox executive, who arranged a screen test for her. Lyon was impressed and commented, "It's Jean Harlow all over again". Riese and Hitchen, p. 288 She was offered a standard six-month contract with a starting salary of $125 per week. It was agreed that she would change her name. Lyon told her that she reminded him of the actress Marilyn Miller and she took her grandmother's name of Monroe as her surname. Summers, p. 27 She appeared in Scudda Hoo! Scudda Hay! and Dangerous Years (both 1947), but when her contract was not renewed, she returned to modeling. She attempted to find opportunities for film work, and while unemployed she posed for nude photographs. In 1948 Monroe signed a six-month contract with Columbia Pictures, and was introduced to the studio's head drama coach, Natasha Lytess, who became her acting coach for several years. Summers, p. 38 She starred in the low-budget musical, Ladies of the Chorus, but the film was not a success, and her contract was not renewed. Summers, p. 43 She appeared in a small role in the Marx Brothers film Love Happy (1949) and impressed the producers, who sent her to New York to feature in the film's promotional campaign. Summers, p. 45 in The Asphalt Jungle (1950) Love Happy brought Monroe to the attention of the agent, Johnny Hyde, who agreed to represent her. He arranged for her to audition for John Huston, who cast her in the drama The Asphalt Jungle, as the young mistress of an aging criminal. Her performance brought strong reviews, and was seen by the writer and director, Herman Mankiewicz. He accepted Hyde's suggestion of Monroe for a small comedic role in All About Eve, as Miss Caswell, an aspiring actress, described by another character as a student of "The Copacabana School of Dramatic Art". Mankiewicz later commented that he had seen an innocence in her that he found appealing, and that this had confirmed his belief in her suitability for the role. Staggs, p. 92 Following Monroe's success in these roles, Hyde negotiated a seven-year contract for her with 20th Century Fox, shortly before his death in December 1950. Riese and Hitchens, p. 228 Monroe enrolled at the University of California, Los Angeles studying literature and art appreciation, Summers, p. 50 and appeared in several minor films playing opposite such long-established performers as Mickey Rooney, Constance Bennett, June Allyson, Dick Powell and Claudette Colbert. Evans, pp 98-109 In March 1951, she appeared as a presenter at the 23rd Academy Awards ceremony. Wiley and Bona, p. 208 In the early 1950s, Monroe and Gregg Palmer both unsuccessfully auditioned for roles as Daisy Mae and Abner in a proposed Li'l Abner television series based on the Al Capp cartoon, but the effort never materialized. Career Development In March 1952, Monroe faced a possible scandal when one of her nude photographs from 1949 was featured in a calendar. The press speculated about the identity of the anonymous model and commented that she closely resembled Monroe. As the studio discussed how to deal with the problem, Monroe suggested that she should simply admit that she had posed for the photograph but that she should emphasize that she had done so only because she had no money to pay her rent. Summers, p. 58 She gave an interview in which she discussed the circumstances that led to her posing for the photographs, and the resulting publicity elicited a degree of sympathy for her plight as a struggling actress. She made her first appearance on the cover of Life in April 1952, where she was described as "The Talk of Hollywood". Evans, p. 112 Stories of her childhood and upbringing portrayed her in a sympathetic light; a cover story for the May 1952 edition of True Experiences magazine showed a smiling and wholesome Monroe beside a caption that read, "Do I look happy? I should — for I was a child nobody wanted. A lonely girl with a dream — who awakened to find that dream come true. I am Marilyn Monroe. Read my Cinderella story." Evans, p. 128-129 It was also during this time that she began dating the baseball player, Joe DiMaggio. A photograph of DiMaggio visiting Monroe at the 20th Century Fox studio, was printed in newspapers throughout the United States, and reports of a developing romance between them generated further interest in Monroe. Summers, p. 67 with Keith Andes in Clash by Night (1952) Over the following months, four films in which Monroe featured were released. She had been loaned to RKO Studios to appear in a supporting role in Clash by Night, a Barbara Stanwyck drama, directed by Fritz Lang. Jewell and Harbin, p. 266 Released in June 1952, the film was popular with audiences, with much of its success credited to curiosity about Monroe, who received generally favorable reviews from critics. Riese and Hitchens, p. 93 This was followed by two films released in July, the comedy We're Not Married, and the drama Don't Bother to Knock; We're Not Married featured Monroe as a beauty pageant contestant, and while Variety described the film as "lightweight", its reviewer commented that Monroe was featured to full advantage in a bathing suit, but that some of her scenes suggested a degree of exploitation. Riese and Hitchens, p. 545 In "Don't Bother to Knock", she played a starring role, Riese and Hitchens, p. 132 as a babysitter who threatens to attack the child in her care. The downbeat melodrama was poorly reviewed, although Monroe commented that it contained some of her strongest dramatic acting. Monkey Business, a Howard Hawks directed comedy, costarring Cary Grant and Ginger Rogers, was released in September, and achieved good ticket sales despite weak reviews. Riese and Hitchens, p. 336 As Rose in Niagara. Darryl F. Zanuck considered that Monroe's film potential was worth developing, and cast her in "Niagara", as a femme fatale scheming to murder her husband, played by Joseph Cotten. Churchwell, p. 233 During filming, Monroe's make-up artist, Whitey Snyder noticed the stage fright that was to mark her behavior on film sets throughout her career, and was assigned by the director to spend hours gently coaxing and comforting Monroe as she prepared to film her scenes. Summers, p. 74 Much of the critical comment following the release of the film was in relation to Monroe's overtly sexual performance, and a scene which shows Monroe from the back, making a long walk towards Niagara Falls was frequently referred to in reviews. Churchwell, p. 62 After seeing the film, Constance Bennett reportedly quipped, "There's a broad with her future behind her." Riese and Hitchens, p. 340 Whitey Snyder also commented that it was during preparation for this film, after much experimentation, that Monroe achieved "the look, and we used that look for several pictures in a row... the look was established." While the film was a success, and Monroe's performance was reviewed positively, her conduct at promotional events sometimes drew negative comments. Her appearance at the Photoplay awards dinner in a skin-tight gold lamé dress was criticized. Joan Crawford was quoted in Louella Parsons' newspaper column, discussing Monroe's "vulgarity" and describing her behavior as "unbecoming an actress and a lady". Churchwell, p. 234 She had previously received criticism for wearing a dress with a neckline cut almost to her navel, when she acted as Grand Marshall at the Miss America Parade in September 1952. Summers, p. 71 A photograph from this event was used on the cover of the first edition of Playboy in December 1953, with a nude photograph of Monroe, taken in 1949, inside the magazine. Summers, p.59 Mainstream success Performing "Diamonds Are a Girl's Best Friend" in Gentlemen Prefer Blondes (1953) Her next film was Gentlemen Prefer Blondes (1953) co-starring Jane Russell and directed by Howard Hawks. Playing Lorelei Lee, a gold-digging showgirl, she was required to sing and dance. The two stars became friends, with Russell describing Monroe as "very shy and very sweet and far more intelligent than people gave her credit for." Russell, p. 137 She later recalled that Monroe showed her dedication by rehearsing her dance routines each evening after most of the crew had left, but was habitually late on set for filming. Realizing that Monroe remained in her dressing room due to stage fright, and that Hawks was growing impatient with her tardiness, Russell started escorting her to the set. Russell, p. 138 At the Los Angeles premiere of the film, Monroe and Russell pressed their hand- and foot prints in the cement in the forecourt of Grauman's Chinese Theatre. Monroe received positive reviews and the film grossed more than double its production costs. Churchwell, p. 63 Her rendition of "Diamonds Are a Girl's Best Friend" became associated with her. Gentlemen Prefer Blondes also marked one of the earliest films in which Monroe was dressed by William Travilla, a designer who would go on to dress Monroe in eight of her films including Bus Stop, Don't Bother to Knock, How to Marry a Millionaire, River of No Return, There’s No Business Like Show Business, Monkey Business, and The Seven Year Itch. http://www.palmspringslife.com/Blogs/The-Life/January-2009/The-Man-Who-Dressed-Marilyn-Monroe-the-legendary-William-Travilla/ How to Marry a Millionaire, a comedy about three models scheming to attract a wealthy husband, teamed Monroe with Betty Grable and Lauren Bacall, directed by Jean Negulesco. Riese and Hitchens, p. 222 The producer and scriptwriter, Nunnally Johnson, said that it was the first film in which audiences "liked Marilyn for herself [and that] she diagnosed the reason very shrewdly. She said that it was the only picture she'd been in, in which she had a measure of modesty... about her own attractiveness." Summers, p. 86 Monroe's films of this period established her "dumb blonde" persona and contributed to her popularity. In 1953 and 1954, she was listed in the annual "Quigley Poll of the Top Ten Money Making Stars", which was compiled from the votes of movie exhibitors throughout the United States for the stars that had generated the most revenue in their theaters over the previous year. During this time, Monroe discussed her acting ambitions, telling the New York Times, "I want to grow and develop and play serious dramatic parts. My dramatic coach, Natasha Lytess, tells everybody that I have a great soul, but so far nobody's interested in it". Summers, pp. 85-86 She saw a possibility in 20th Century Fox's upcoming film, The Egyptian, but was rebuffed by Darryl F. Zanuck who refused to screen test her. Riese and Hitchens, p. 139 Instead, she was assigned to the western River of No Return, opposite Robert Mitchum. It was directed by Otto Preminger who resented Monroe's reliance on Natasha Lytess, who coached her and gave her verdict at the end of each scene. Eventually Monroe refused to speak to Preminger, and Mitchum was required to mediate. Server, p. 249 On the finished product, she commented, "I think I deserve a better deal than a grade Z cowboy movie in which the acting finished second to the scenery and the CinemaScope process. Churchwell, p. 65 In late 1953, Monroe was scheduled to begin filming The Girl in Pink Tights with Frank Sinatra, and when she failed to appear for work, she was suspended by 20th Century Fox. Summers, p. 92 She and DiMaggio were married in San Francisco on January 14, 1954, and travelled to Japan soon after, combining a honeymoon with a business trip previously arranged by DiMaggio. For two weeks she took a secondary role to DiMaggio as he conducted his business, and said to a reporter, "Marriage is my main career from now on". Summers, pp 93-95 She then travelled alone to Korea where she performed for 13,000 American Marines over a three-day period, and later commented that the experience had helped her overcome a fear of performing in front of large crowds. Summers, p. 96 Returning to Hollywood in March 1954, Monroe settled her disagreement with 20th Century Fox and appeared in There's No Business Like Show Business, a musical which failed to recover its production costs. The film was received poorly; Ed Sullivan described Monroe's performance of the song "Heat Wave" as "one of the most flagrant violations of good taste" he had witnessed, Riese and Hitchen, p. 338 Time compared her unfavourably to co-star Ethel Merman, while Bosley Crowther for The New York Times said that Mitzi Gaynor had surpassed Monroe's "embarrassing to behold" performance. Riese and Hitchens, p. 440 The reviews echoed Monroe's opinion of the film, which she had made reluctantly, with the assurance that she would be given the starring role in the film adaption of the Broadway hit The Seven Year Itch. Summers, p. 101 In September 1954, Monroe filmed one of the key scenes for The Seven Year Itch in New York City. In it, she stands with her co-star, Tom Ewell, while the air from a subway grating blows her skirt over her head. A large crowd watched as director Billy Wilder ordered the scene to be refilmed many times. Among the crowd was Joe DiMaggio, who was reported to have been infuriated by the spectacle. Summers, p. 103 After a quarrel, witnessed by journalist Walter Winchell, the couple returned to California where they avoided the press for two weeks, until Monroe announced that they had separated. Summers, pp 103-105 Their divorce was granted in November 1954. Riese and Hitchens, p. 129 The filming was completed in early 1955, and after refusing what Monroe considered to be inferior parts in The Girl in the Red Velvet Swing and How to Be Very, Very Popular, she decided to leave Hollywood, at the advice of Milton Greene. The Actors Studio and formation of Marilyn Monroe Productions Greene had first met Monroe in 1953 when he was assigned to photograph her for Look magazine. While many photographers tried to emphasize her sexy image, Greene presented her in more modest poses, and she was pleased with his work. As a friendship developed between them, she confided in him her frustration with her 20th Century Fox contract, and the roles she was offered. Her salary for Gentlemen Prefer Blondes amounted to $18,000, while freelancer Jane Russell was paid more than $100,000. Summers, p. 119-120 Greene agreed that she could earn more by breaking away from 20th Century Fox. He gave up his job in 1954, mortgaged his home to finance Monroe, and allowed her to live with his family as they determined the future course of her career. Truman Capote introduced Monroe to Constance Collier, who gave her acting lessons. She felt that Monroe was not suited to stage acting, but possessed a "lovely talent" that was "so fragile and subtle, it can only be caught by the camera". After only a few weeks of lessons, Collier died. Summers, p. 128 Monroe had met Paula Strasberg and her daughter Susan on the set of There's No Business Like Show Business, Strasberg, p. 54 and had previously said that she would like to study with Lee Strasberg at the Actors Studio. In March 1955, Monroe met with Cheryl Crawford, one of the founders of the Actors Studio, and convinced her to introduce her to Lee Strasberg, who interviewed her the following day, and agreed to accept her as a student. Summers, p. 129 Monroe's dramatic performance as Chérie, a saloon singer with little talent, marked a departure from her earlier comedies. In May 1955, Monroe started dating the playwright, Arthur Miller; they had met in Hollywood in 1950 and when Miller discovered she was in New York, he arranged for a mutual friend to reintroduce them. Riese and Hitchens, p. 325 On June 1, 1955, Monroe's birthday, Joe DiMaggio accompanied Monroe to the premiere of The Seven Year Itch in New York City. He later hosted a birthday party for her, but the evening ended with a public quarrel, and Monroe left the party without him. A lengthy period of estrangement followed. Summers, p. 142 Riese and Hitchens, p. 124 Throughout 1955, Monroe studied with the Actors Studio, and found that one of her biggest obstacles was her severe stage fright. She was befriended by the actors, Kevin McCarthy and Eli Wallach who each recalled her as studious and sincere in her approach to her studies, and noted that she tried to avoid attention by sitting quietly in the back of the class. Summers, p. 130 When Strasberg felt Monroe was ready to give a performance in front of her peers, Monroe and Maureen Stapleton chose the opening scene from Eugene O'Neill's Anna Christie, and although she had faltered during each rehearsal, she was able to complete the performance without forgetting her lines. Summers, p. 145 Kim Stanley later recalled that students were discouraged from applauding, but that Monroe's performance had resulted in spontaneous applause from the audience. While Monroe was a student, Lee Strasberg commented, "I have worked with hundreds and hundreds of actors and actresses, and there are only two that stand out way above the rest. Number one is Marlon Brando, and the second is Marilyn Monroe." The Seven Year Itch was released and became a success, earning an estimated $8 million. Riese and Hitchens, p. 475 Monroe received positive reviews for her performance, and was in a strong position to negotiate with 20th Century Fox. On New Year's Eve 1955, they signed a new contract which required Monroe to make four films over a seven-year period. The newly formed Marilyn Monroe Productions would be paid $100,000 plus a share of profits for each film. In addition to being able to work for other studios, Monroe had the right to reject any script, director or cinematographer she did not approve of. Summers, p. 146 Riese and Hitchens, p. 309 The first film to be made under the contract and production company was Bus Stop directed by Joshua Logan. Logan had studied under Konstantin Stanislavsky, approved of method acting, and was supportive of Monroe. Riese and Hitchens, p. 275 Monroe severed contact with her drama coach, Natasha Lytess, replacing her with Paula Strasberg, who became a constant presence during the filming of Monroe's subsequent films. Summers, p. 151 In The Prince and the Showgirl (1957), Monroe co-starred with Sir Laurence Olivier, who also directed the film. Marilyn Monroe, appearing with the USO, poses for Soldiers in Korea after a performance at the 3rd U.S. Inf. Div. area during the Korean War. February 17, 1954. In Bus Stop Monroe played Chérie, a saloon bar singer with little talent, who falls in love with a cowboy. Her costumes, make-up and hair reflected a character who lacked sophistication, and Monroe provided deliberately mediocre singing and dancing. Bosley Crowther of The New York Times proclaimed: "Hold on to your chairs, everybody, and get set for a rattling surprise. Marilyn Monroe has finally proved herself an actress." In his autobiography, Movie Stars, Real People and Me, director Logan wrote: "I found Marilyn to be one of the great talents of all time... she struck me as being a much brighter person than I had ever imagined, and I think that was the first time I learned that intelligence and, yes, brilliance have nothing to do with education." Logan championed Monroe for an Academy Award nomination and complimented her professionalism until the end of his life. Riese and Hitchens, p. 276 Though not nominated for an Academy Award, Summers, p. 154 she received a Golden Globe nomination. During this time, the relationship between Monroe and Miller had developed, and although the couple were able to maintain their privacy for almost a year, the press began to write about them as a couple, Summers, p. 139 often referred to as "The Egghead and The Hourglass". Riese and Hitchens, p. 326 The reports of their romance were soon overtaken by news that Miller had been called to testify before the House Un-American Activities Committee to explain his supposed communist affiliations. Called upon to identify communists he was acquainted with, Miller refused and was charged with contempt of Congress. He was acquitted on appeal. Summers. p 157 During the investigation, Monroe was urged by film executives to abandon Miller, rather than risk her career but she refused, later branding them as "born cowards". The press began to discuss an impending marriage, but Monroe and Miller refused to confirm the rumor. In June 1956, a reporter was following them by car, and as they attempted to elude him, the reporter's car crashed, killing a female passenger. Monroe became hysterical upon hearing the news, and their engagement was announced, partly in the expectation that it would reduce the excessive media interest they were being subjected to. They were married on June 29, 1956. Bus Stop was followed by The Prince and the Showgirl directed by Laurence Olivier, who also co-starred. Prior to filming, Olivier praised Monroe as "a brilliant comedienne, which to me means she is also an extremely skilled actress". During filming he resented Monroe's dependence on her drama coach, Paula Strasberg, regarding Strasberg as a fraud whose only talent was the ability to "butter Marilyn up". He recalled his attempts at explaining a scene to Monroe, only to hear Strasberg interject, "Honey - just think of Coca-Cola and Frank Sinatra". Olivier, pp 211-212 Despite Monroe and Olivier clashing, Olivier later commented that in the film "Marilyn was quite wonderful, the best of all". Olivier, p. 213 Monroe's performance was hailed by critics, especially in Europe, where she won the David di Donatello, the Italian equivalent of the Academy Award, as well as the French Crystal Star Award. She was also nominated for a BAFTA. Later years It was more than a year before Monroe began her next film; during her hiatus she lived with Miller in Amagansett, Long Island and suffered a miscarriage on August 1, 1957. Churchwell, p. 261 Moberly Monitor-Index, Moberly MO, Friday, 2 Aug 1957, p. 6, cols 6-7, article: "Marilyn Monroe Loses Her Baby By Miscarriage." With Miller's encouragement she returned to Hollywood in August 1958, and filmed Some Like it Hot directed by Billy Wilder, and co-starring Jack Lemmon and Tony Curtis. Although Wilder had experienced Monroe's tardiness, stage fright, and inability to remember lines during production of The Seven Year Itch, her behavior was more hostile, and was marked by refusals to participate in filming, and occasional outbursts of profanity. Churchwell, p. 262 She consistently refused to take direction from Wilder, or insisted on numerous retakes of simple scenes until she was satisfied. Churchwell, p. 264 She developed a rapport with Lemmon, but she disliked Curtis after hearing that he had described their love scenes as "like kissing Hitler". Riese and Hitchens, p. 111 Curtis later stated that the comment was intended as a joke. During filming, Monroe discovered that she was pregnant, but suffered another miscarriage in December 1958, as filming was completed. Churchwell, p. 265 in Some Like It Hot (1959) The film became a resounding success, and was nominated for five Academy Awards. Monroe was acclaimed for her performance and won the Golden Globe Award for Best Actress - Motion Picture Musical or Comedy. Wilder commented that the film was the biggest success he had ever been associated with. Riese and Hitchens, p. 489 He discussed the problems he encountered during filming, saying "Marilyn was so difficult because she was totally unpredictable. I never knew what kind of day we were going to have... would she be cooperative or obstructive?" Summers, p. 178 He had little patience with her method acting technique and said that instead of going to the Actors Studio "she should have gone to a train-engineer's school ... to learn something about arriving on schedule." Riese and Hitchens, p. 2 Wilder had become ill during filming, and explained, "We were in mid-flight – and there was a nut on the plane." Summers, p. 177 In hindsight, he discussed Monroe's "certain indefinable magic" and "absolute genius as a comic actress", and after Some Like it Hot was completed, he discussed other projects with her, including Irma La Douce which he later filmed with Shirley MacLaine. Riese and Hitchens, p. 552 By this time, Monroe had only completed one film, Bus Stop, under her four picture contract with 20th Century Fox. She agreed to appear in Let's Make Love, which was to be directed by George Cukor, but she was not satisfied with the script, and Arthur Miller rewrote it. Riese and Hitchens, p. 269 Gregory Peck was originally cast in the male lead role, but he refused the role after Miller's rewrite; Cary Grant, Charlton Heston, Yul Brynner and Rock Hudson also refused the role before it was offered to Yves Montand. Summers, p. 183 Monroe and Miller befriended Montand and his wife, actress Simone Signoret, and filming progressed well until Miller was required to travel to Europe on business. Monroe began to leave the film set early and on several occasions failed to attend, but her attitude improved after Montand confronted her. Signoret returned to Europe to make a film, and Monroe and Montand began a brief affair that ended when Montand refused to leave Signoret. Summers, p. 186 The film was not a critical or commercial success. Riese and Hitchens, p. 270 Monroe's health deteriorated during this period, and she began to see a Los Angeles psychiatrist, Dr. Ralph Greenson. He later recalled that during this time she frequently complained of insomnia, and told Greenson that she visited several medical doctors to obtain what Greenson considered an excessive variety of drugs. He concluded that she was progressing to the point of addiction, but also noted that she could give up the drugs for extended periods, without suffering any withdrawal symptoms. Summers, p. 188 According to Greenson, the marriage between Miller and Monroe was strained; he said that Miller appeared to genuinely care for Monroe and was willing to help her, but that Monroe rebuffed while also expressing resentment towards him for not doing more to help her. Summers, p.189 Greenson stated that his main objective at the time was to enforce a drastic reduction in Monroe's drug intake. Summers, p. 190 In 1956 Arthur Miller had lived briefly in Nevada and wrote a short story about some of the local people he had become acquainted with, a divorced woman and some aging cowboys. By 1960 he had developed the short story into a screenplay, and envisioned it as a suitable role for Monroe. It became her last completed film, The Misfits, directed by John Huston and costarring Clark Gable, Montgomery Clift and Thelma Ritter. Filming commenced in July 1960, with most of it taking place in the hot Northern Nevada Black Rock Desert. Monroe was frequently ill and unable to perform, and away from the influence of Dr. Greenson, had resumed her consumption of sleeping pills and alcohol. A visitor to the set, Susan Strasberg, later described Monroe as "mortally injured in some way," Strasberg, p. 134 and in August, Monroe was rushed to Los Angeles where she was hospitalized for ten days. Newspapers reported that she had been near death, although the nature of her illness was not disclosed. Summers, p. 194 Louella Parsons wrote in her newspaper column that Monroe was "a very sick girl, much sicker than at first believed", and disclosed that she was being treated by a psychiatrist. Monroe returned to Nevada and completed the film, but she became hostile towards Arthur Miller, and public arguments were reported by the press. Summers, pp 192 & 194 Making the film had proved to be an arduous experience for the actors; in addition to Monroe's distress, Montgomery Clift had frequently been unable to perform due to illness, and by the final day of shooting, Thelma Ritter was in hospital suffering from exhaustion. Gable, commenting that he felt unwell, left the set without attending the wrap party. Goode, p. 284 Monroe and Miller returned to New York on separate flights. Summers, p. 195 Monroe in her final completed film, The Misfits (1961) Within ten days Monroe had announced her separation from Miller, and Gable had died from a heart attack. Goode, pp 284-285 Gable's widow, Kay, commented to Louella Parsons that it had been the "eternal waiting" on the set of The Misfits that had contributed to his death, though she did not name Monroe. When reporters asked Monroe if she felt guilty about Gable's death, she refused to answer, Harris, p. 379 but the journalist, Sidney Skolsky, recalled that privately she expressed regret for her poor treatment of Gable during filming and described her as being in "a dark pit of despair". Summers, p. 196 Monroe later attended the christening of the Gables' son, at the invitation of Kay Gable. The Misfits was the subject of mediocre reviews, and was not a commercial success, though some praised the performances of Monroe and Gable. Huston later commented that Monroe's performance was not acting in the true sense, and that she had drawn from her own experiences to show herself, rather than a character. "She had no techniques. It was all the truth. It was only Marilyn." During the following months, Monroe's dependence on alcohol and prescription medications began to take a toll on her health, and friends such as Susan Strasberg later spoke of her illness. Summers, p. 198 Her divorce from Arthur Miller was finalized in January 1961, with Monroe citing "incompatibility of character", and in February she voluntarily entered the Payne Whitney Psychiatric Clinic. Later describing the experience as a "nightmare", Summers, p. 199 she was able to phone Joe Di Maggio from the clinic, and he immediately traveled from Florida to New York to facilitate her transfer to the Columbia Presbyterian Medical Center, where she remained for three weeks. Illness prevented her from working for the remainder of the year; she underwent surgery to correct a blockage in her Fallopian tubes in May, and the following month underwent gall bladder surgery. Summers, p. 202 She returned to California and lived in a rented apartment as she convalesced. In 1962 Monroe began filming Something's Got to Give, which was to be the third film of her four-film contract with 20th Century Fox. It was to be directed by George Cukor, and co-starred Dean Martin and Cyd Charisse. She was ill with a virus as filming commenced, and suffered from high temperatures and recurrent sinusitis. On one occasion she refused to perform with Martin as he had a cold, and the producer Henry Weinstein recalled seeing her on several occasions being physically ill as she prepared to film her scenes, and attributed it to her dread of performing. He commented, "Very few people experience terror. We all experience anxiety, unhappiness, heartbreaks, but that was sheer primal terror." Summers, p. 268 On May 9, 1962, she attended the birthday celebration of President John F. Kennedy at Madison Square Garden, at the suggestion of Kennedy's brother-in-law, actor Peter Lawford. Monroe performed "Happy Birthday" along with a specially written verse based on Bob Hope's "Thanks for the Memory". Kennedy responded to her performance with the remark, "Thank you. I can now retire from politics after having had "Happy Birthday" sung to me in such a sweet, wholesome way." Summers, p. 271 Monroe returned to the set of Something's Got to Give, and filmed a sequence in which she appeared nude in a swimming pool. Commenting that she wanted to "push Liz Taylor off the magazine covers", she gave permission for several partially nude photographs to be published by Life. Having only reported for work on twelve occasions out of a total of 35 days of production, Monroe was dismissed. 20th Century Fox filed a lawsuit against her for half a million dollars, Summers, p. 274 and the studio's vice president, Peter Levathes, issued a statement saying "The star system has gotten way out of hand. We've let the inmates run the asylum, and they've practically destroyed it." Monroe was replaced by Lee Remick, and when Dean Martin refused to work with any other actress, he was also threatened with a lawsuit. Following her dismissal, Monroe engaged in several high-profile publicity ventures. She gave an interview to Cosmopolitan and was photographed at Peter Lawford's beach house sipping champagne and walking on the beach. Summers, p. 275 She next posed for Bert Stern for Vogue in a series of photographs that included several nudes. Published after her death, they became known as The Last Sitting. Richard Meryman interviewed her for Life, in which Monroe reflected upon her relationship with her fans and her uncertainties in identifying herself as a "star" and a "sex symbol". She referred to the events surrounding Arthur Miller's appearance before the House Un-American Activities Committee in 1956, and her studio's warning that she would be "finished" if she showed public support for him, and commented, "You have to start all over again. But I believe you're always as good as your potential. I now live in my work and in a few relationships with the few people I can really count on. Fame will go by, and, so long, I've had you fame. If it goes by, I've always known it was fickle. So at least it's something I experienced, but that's not where I live." In the final weeks of her life, Monroe engaged in discussions about future film projects, and firm arrangements were made to continue negotiations. Summers, p. 301 Among the projects was a biography of [Jean Harlow] later filmed unsuccessfully with Caroll Baker. Starring roles in Billy Wilder's Irma La Douce and What a Way to Go! were also discussed; Shirley MacLaine eventually played her role in both films. Kim Novak replaced her in Kiss Me, Stupid, a comedy in which she was to star opposite Dean Martin. A film version of the Broadway musical, A Tree Grows In Brooklyn, and an unnamed World War I themed musical co-starring Gene Kelly were also discussed, but the projects did not eventuate. Her dispute with 20th Century Fox was resolved, and her contract renewed into a million dollar two picture deal, and filming of Something's Got to Give was scheduled to resume in early fall 1962. Also on the table was an Italian film offer worth several million giving her script, director and co-star approval. Riese and Hitchens, p. 491 Allan "Whitey" Snyder who saw her during the last week of her life, said Monroe was pleased by the opportunities available to her, and that she "never looked better [and] was in great spirits". Death and aftermath On August 5, 1962, LAPD police sergeant Jack Clemmons received a call at 4:25AM from Dr. Ralph Greenson, her psychiatrist, proclaiming that Monroe was dead at her home in Brentwood, Los Angeles, California. Sergeant Clemmons was the first police officer to arrive at the death scene. Wolfe, Donald H. The Last Days of Marilyn Monroe. (1998) ISBN 0787118079 Many questions remain unanswered about the circumstances of her death and the timeline after Monroe's body was found. The official cause of Monroe's death was classified by Dr. Thomas Noguchi of the Los Angeles County Coroners office as "acute barbiturate poisoning", which he recorded as an accidental overdose. Summers, pp. 319, 320 Eight milligram percent of chloral hydrate and 4.5 milligram percent of Nembutal were found in her system after the autopsy. Clayton, p. 361 Her death was rumored to be a "probable suicide", but because of a lack of evidence, investigators could not classify her death as suicide or homicide. Also, some conspiracy theories involve John and Robert Kennedy with her death, while other theories suggest CIA or mafia complicity. Reed, Jonathan M. & Squire, Larry R. The Journal of Neuroscience, May 15, 1998, 18(10):3943-3954. On August 8, 1962, Monroe was interred in a crypt at Corridor of Memories, #24, at the Westwood Village Memorial Park Cemetery in Los Angeles, California. Lee Strasberg delivered the eulogy. Marriages James Dougherty Monroe married James Dougherty on June 19, 1942. In The Secret Happiness of Marilyn Monroe and To Norma Jeane with Love, Jimmie, he claimed they were in love, but dreams of stardom lured her away. In 1953, he wrote a piece called "Marilyn Monroe Was My Wife" for Photoplay, in which he claimed that she threatened to jump off the Santa Monica Pier if he left her. In the 2004 documentary Marilyn's Man, Dougherty made three new claims: that he invented the "Marilyn Monroe" persona; studio executives forced her to divorce him; and that he was her true love and her "dedicated friend for life". Dougherty's actions seem to contradict these claims: he remarried months after Monroe divorced him; his sister told the December 1952 Modern Screen Magazine that he left Monroe because she wanted to pursue modeling, after he initially gave her permission to do so; he confirmed Monroe's version of the beginning of their relationship in an A&E Network Monroe documentary that his mother had asked him to marry her so that she would not be returned to an orphanage. Most telling, on August 6, 1962, The New York Times reported that, on being informed of her death, Dougherty replied "I'm sorry", and continued his LAPD patrol. He did not attend Monroe's funeral. Joe DiMaggio Joe DiMaggio and Marilyn Monroe staying at Imperial Hotel in Tokyo on their honeymoon. In 1951, Joe DiMaggio saw a picture of Monroe with Chicago White Sox players Joe Dobson and Gus Zernial, but did not ask the man who arranged the stunt to set up a date until 1952. Monroe wrote in My Story that she did not want to meet him, fearing a stereotypical jock. They eloped on January 14, 1954. During their honeymoon in Japan, she was asked to visit Korea as part of the USO. She performed ten shows in four days for over 100,000 servicemen. DiMaggio biographer Maury Allen quoted New York Yankees PR man Arthur Richman that Joe told him that the marriage went wrong from then. On September 14, 1954, Monroe filmed the skirt-blowing scene for The Seven Year Itch in front of New York's Trans-Lux Theater. Bill Kobrin, then Fox's east coast correspondent, told the Palm Springs Desert Sun in 1956 that it was Billy Wilder's idea to turn the shoot into a media circus, and that the couple had a "yelling battle" in the theater lobby. She filed for divorce on grounds of mental cruelty 274 days after the wedding. In February 1961, Monroe was admitted to the Payne Whitney Psychiatric Clinic. She contacted DiMaggio, who secured her release. She later joined him in Florida, where he was serving as a batting coach at the New York Yankees' training camp. Bob Hope jokingly dedicating Best Song nominee The Second Time Around to them at the 1961 Academy Awards. According to Allen, on August 1, 1962, DiMaggio alarmed by how Monroe had fallen in with people he considered detrimental to her well-being quit his job with a PX supplier to ask her to remarry him. After Monroe's death, DiMaggio claimed her body and arranged her funeral. For 20 years, he had a half-dozen red roses delivered to her crypt three times a week. Unlike her other two husbands or those who claimed to have known her, he never talked about her publicly or otherwise exploited their relationship. In 2006, DiMaggio's adopted granddaughters auctioned the bulk of his estate, which featured two letters Monroe penned to him and a photograph signed "I love you, Joe, Marilyn." Arthur Miller On June 29, 1956, Monroe married playwright Arthur Miller, whom she first met in 1950, in a civil ceremony in White Plains, New York. City Court Judge Seymour Robinowitz presided over the hushed ceremony in the law office of Sam Slavitt (the wedding had been kept secret from both the press and the public). In reflecting on his courtship of Monroe, Miller wrote, "She was a whirling light to me then, all paradox and enticing mystery, street-tough one moment, then lifted by a lyrical and poetic sensitivity that few retain past early adolescence." Arthur Miller, Timebends, 1987, New York, Grove Press, p. 359, ISBN 0-8021-0015-5 Nominally raised as a Christian, she converted to Judaism before marrying Miller. After she finished shooting The Prince and the Showgirl with Laurence Olivier, the couple returned to the United States from England and discovered she was pregnant. Miller's screenplay for The Misfits, a story about a despairing divorcée, was meant to be a Valentine gift for his wife, but by the time filming started in 1960 their marriage was beyond repair. A Mexican divorce was granted on January 24, 1961 in Ciudad Juarez by Francisco Jose Gomez Fraire. On February 17, 1962, Miller married Inge Morath, one of the Magnum photographers recording the making of The Misfits. In January 1964, Miller's play After The Fall opened, featuring a beautiful and devouring shrew named Maggie. Simone Signoret noted in her autobiography the morbidity of Miller and Elia Kazan resuming their professional association "over a casket". In interviews and in his autobiography, Miller insisted that Maggie was not based on Monroe. However, he never pretended that his last Broadway-bound work, Finishing the Picture, was not based on the making of The Misfits. He appeared in the documentary The Century of the Self, lamenting the psychological work being done on her before her death. From President Kennedy's birthday gala where Monroe sang "Happy Birthday, Mr. President". The Kennedys On May 19, 1962, Monroe made her last significant public appearance, singing "Happy Birthday, Mr. President" at a televised birthday party for President John F. Kennedy at Madison Square Garden. The dress that she wore to the event, specially designed and made for her by Jean Louis, sold at an auction in 1999 for USD $1.26 million. Rumors have existed since the 1960s that Monroe had affairs with John or Robert Kennedy, or both. While reports of an affair with President Kennedy were covered up until the 1970s, a pamphlet published after Monroe's death in 1964 entitled The Strange Death of Marilyn Monroe, by investigator Frank Cappell, alleged a relationship between Monroe and Robert Kennedy. JFK's mistress Judith Exner also wrote about an affair that she says the president and Monroe had in her 1977 autobiography. Administration of estate In her will, Monroe left Lee Strasberg her personal effects, which amounted to just over half of her residuary estate. She expressed her desire that he "distribute [the effects] among my friends, colleagues and those to whom I am devoted". Instead, he stored them in a warehouse, and willed them to his widow, Anna. After successfully suing Los Angeles-based Odyssey Auctions in 1994 to prevent the sale of items taken by Monroe's former business manager, Inez Melson, in October 1999, Christie's auctioned the bulk of the items, including those recovered from Melson's family, netting US $13,405,785. Strasberg then sued the children of four photographers to determine rights of publicity, which permits the licensing of images of deceased personages for commercial purposes. The decision as to whether Monroe was a resident of California, where she died, or New York, where her will was probated, was worth millions. On May 4, 2007, a judge in New York ruled that Monroe's rights of publicity ended at death. Photographer's Heirs Prevail in Dispute over Marilyn Monroe Images, et al. In October 2007, Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger signed Senate Bill 771, info.sen.ca.gov SB 771 Accessed 31 December 2008 The legislation, which was supported by Strasberg and the Screen Actors Guild, Screen Actors Guild on SB 771 Accessed 31 December 2008 established that non-family members may inherit rights of publicity through the residuary clause of the deceased's will provided that the person was a resident of California at the time of death. Long-Dead Celebrities Can Now Breathe Easier New York Times October 24, 2007 Accessed 31 December 2008 In March 2008, the United States District Court in Los Angeles ruled that Monroe was a resident of New York at the time of her death, citing that the executor of her estate told California tax authorities as such, and that a 1966 sworn affidavit by her housekeeper quoted Monroe as saying that she considered New York City to be her primary residence. Marilyn Monroe Estate Takes a Hit The Wall Street Journal Online April 1, 2008 Accessed 31 December 2008 The decision was reaffirmed by the United States District Court of New York in September 2008. Indiana Company Loses Marilyn Monroe Lawsuit Inside Indiana Business September 4, 2008 Accessed 31 December 2008 In popular culture Filmography ! Year ! Movie Title ! Role ! Director |- | 1947 | The Shocking Miss Pilgrim | Telephone Operator (uncredited) | George Seaton |- | 1947 | Dangerous Years | Evie | Arthur Pierson |- | 1948 | You Were Meant for Me | Flapper (uncredited) | Lloyd Bacon |- | 1948 | Scudda Hoo! Scudda Hay! | Betty (uncredited) | Hugh Herbert |- | 1948 | Green Grass of Wyoming | Square Dancer (uncredited) | Louis King |- | 1948 | Ladies of the Chorus | Peggy Martin | Phil Karfson |- | 1949 | Love Happy | Grunion's Client (uncredited) | David Miller |- | 1950 | A Ticket to Tomahawk | Clara (uncredited) | Richard Sale |- | 1950 | Right Cross | Dusky Ledoux (uncredited) | John Sturges |- | 1950 | The Fireball | Polly | Tay Garnett |- | 1950 | The Asphalt Jungle | Angela Phinlay | John Huston |- | 1950 | All About Eve | Miss Claudia Caswell | Joseph L. Mankiewicz |- | 1951 | Love Nest | Roberta Stevens | Joseph M. Newman |- | 1951 | Let's Make It Legal | Joyce Mannering | Richard Sale |- | 1951 | Home Town Story | Iris Martin | Arthur Pierson |- | 1951 | As Young as You Feel | Harriet | Harman Jones |- | 1952 | O. Henry's Full House | Streetwalker | Henry Koster |- | 1952 | Monkey Business | Lois Laurel | Howard Hawks |- | 1952 | Clash by Night | Peggy | Fritz Lang |- | 1952 | We're Not Married! | Anabel Norris | Edmund Goulding |- | 1952 | Don't Bother to Knock | Nell Forbes | Roy Baker |- | 1953 | Niagara | Rose Loomis | Henry Hathaway |- | 1953 | Gentlemen Prefer Blondes | Lorelei Lee | Howard Hawks |- | 1953 | How to Marry a Millionaire | Pola Debevoise | Jean Negulesco |- | 1954 | River of No Return | Kay Weston | Otto Preminger |- | 1954 | There's No Business Like Show Business | Vicky | Walter Lang |- | 1955 | The Seven Year Itch | The Girl | Billy Wilder |- | 1956 | Bus Stop | Cherie | Joshua Logan |- | 1957 |The Prince and the Showgirl | Elsie Marina | Laurence Olivier |- | 1959 | Some Like It Hot | Sugar Kane Kowalczyk | Billy Wilder |- | 1960 | Let's Make Love | Amanda Dell | George Cukor |- | 1961 | The Misfits | Roslyn Taber | John Huston |- | 1962 | Something's Got to Give (Unfinished) | Ellen Wagstaff Arden | George Cukor |- |} Songs 1948 Ladies Of The Chorus (film) : "Every Baby Needs A Da Da Daddy", "Anyone Can See I Love You", "Ladies Of The Chorus". 1953 Niagara: "Kiss" Gentlemen Prefer Blondes: "Two Little Girls From Little Rock", "When Love Goes Wrong", "Bye Bye Baby", "Diamonds Are a Girl's Best Friend" 1954 River of No Return: "I'm Gonna File My Claim", "One Silver Dollar", "Down In The Meadow", "River Of No Return" There's No Business Like Show Business: "Heatwave", "Lazy", "After You Get What You Want", "A Man Chases a Girl". 1956 Bus Stop: "That Old Black Magic" 1959 Some Like It Hot: "Some Like It Hot", "Runnin' Wild", "I Wanna Be Loved By You", "I'm Through With Love" 1960 Let's Make Love: "My Heart Belongs To Daddy", "Specialization", "Let's Make Love" Awards and nominations in The Seven Year Itch (1955) 1952 Photoplay Award: Special Award 1953 Golden Globe Henrietta Award: World Film Favorite Female. 1953 Photoplay Award: Most Popular Female Star 1956 BAFTA Film Award nomination: Best Foreign Actress for The Seven Year Itch 1956 Golden Globe nomination: Best Motion Picture Actress in Comedy or Musical for Bus Stop 1958 BAFTA Film Award nomination: Best Foreign Actress for The Prince and the Showgirl 1958 David di Donatello Award (Italian): Best Foreign Actress for The Prince and the Showgirl 1959 Crystal Star Award (French): Best Foreign Actress for The Prince and the Showgirl 1960 Golden Globe, Best Motion Picture Actress in Comedy or Musical for Some Like It Hot 1962 Golden Globe, World Film Favorite: Female Star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame 6104 Hollywood Blvd. 1999 she was ranked as the sixth greatest female star of all time by the American Film Institute in their list AFI's 100 Years... 100 Stars. Sweetheart of The Month 1953 (Playboy) Art (selection) Willem de Kooning: Marilyn Monroe (Oil on canvas, 1954) Andy Warhol: Marilyn Diptych (Print on canvas, 1962) James Rosenquist: Marilyn Monroe I (Oil on canvas, 1962) Mimmo Rotella: Marilyn Monroe (Handcoloured decollage), 1962) Richard Hamilton: My Marilyn (Photo and oil on canvas, 1966) Salvador Dali: Mao Monroe (Oil on Perspex, 1967) Robert Rauschenberg: Test Stone #1 (Lithography on paper, 1967) George Segal: The Film Poster (Paperprint, 1967) Ray Johnson: Dear Marilyn Monroe (Collage, 1972−1994) and Dear Marilyn Monroe, To Chuck Close (Collage, 1980−1994) Audrey Flack: Marilyn: Golden Girl (Oil on acrylic glass, 1978) Richard Serra: Marilyn Monroe–Greta Garbo (Steal-sculpture and lithography, 1981) Peter Blake: Marilyn Monroe Over a Painting No 1 (Photo on painting, 1989-1990), Marilyn Monroe Wall No 2 (Assemblage, 1990), MM Red Yellow (Collage, 1990), M for Marilyn Monroe (Screenprint, 1991) and H.O.M.A.G.E. – JJ MM RR KS (Collage, 1991) Susan Dorothea White: The Crowning with Sexism (Acrylic on panel, 1994) Douglas Gordon: As Kurt Cobain, as Andy Warhol, as Myra Hindley, as Marilyn Monroe (Photography, 1996) Barbara Kruger: Not Stupid Enough (Lettered photography, 1997) Charles Fazzino: Forever Marilyn (Silkscreen serigraph , 1998) Mel Ramos: Peek-a-boo Marilyn (Coloured lithography, 2002) Gina Lollobrigida: My Friend Marilyn Monroe (Bronze-sculpture, 2003) Charles Fazzino: Love and Kisses, Marilyn (Silkscreen, 2008) See also Berniece Baker Miracle, Monroe's half-sister Death of Marilyn Monroe Lookalike contests Monroe's popularity of impersonators Johnny Hyde, a talent agent who helped guide her early career References Notes External links The Official Website of Marilyn Monroe tribute site to Monroe & Greene "Before" and "After" Photos of Rhinoplasty Bratcher, Drew (December 1, 2006.) "Marilyn Monroe's First Nude Photos", Washingtonian. The Marilyn Monroe Collection Marilyn Monroe's 1952 interview with Parade Marilyn's ancestry Marilyn Monroe, Frank Sinatra, Joe DiMaggio and the 1954 "Wrong Door Raid." New York Times, August 6, 1962 The Marilyn Story Documentary by John Huston Marilyn Sings Happy Birthday to JFK with introduction by Peter Lawford. 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5,568 | Community | A community of interest gathers at Stonehenge, England, for the summer solstice. In biological terms, a community is a group of interacting organisms sharing an environment. In human communities, intent, belief, resources, preferences, needs, risks, and a number of other conditions may be present and common, affecting the identity of the participants and their degree of cohesiveness. In sociology, the concept of community has caused infinite debate, and sociologists are yet to reach agreement on a definition of the term. There were ninety-four discrete definitions of the term by the mid-1950s. Traditionally a "community" has been defined as a group of interacting people living in a common location. The word is often used to refer to a group that is organized around common values and social cohesion within a shared geographical location, generally in social units larger than a household. The word can also refer to the national community or global community. Communis comes from a combination of the Latin prefix com- (which means "together") and the word munis probably originally derived from the Etruscan word munis- (meaning "to have the charge of"). Etruscan Etymological Glossary Since the advent of the Internet, the concept of community no longer has geographical limitations, as people can now virtually gather in an online community and share common interests regardless of physical location. Perspectives from various disciplines Sociology Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft German sociologist Ferdinand Tönnies distinguished between two types of human association: Gemeinschaft (usually translated as "community") and Gesellschaft ("society" or "association"). In his 1887 work, Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft, Tönnies argued that Gemeinschaft is perceived to be a tighter and more cohesive social entity, due to the presence of a "unity of will." Tönnies, F. 1887. Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft, p. 22. He added that family and kinship were the perfect expressions of Gemeinschaft, but that other shared characteristics, such as place or belief, could also result in Gemeinschaft. Gesellschaft, on the other hand, is a group in which the individuals who make up that group are motivated to take part in the group purely by self-interest. He also proposed that in the real world, no group was either pure Gemeinschaft or pure Gesellschaft, but, rather, a mixture of the two. Social capital If community exists, both freedom and security may exist as well. The community then takes on a life of its own, as people become free enough to share and secure enough to get along. The sense of connectedness and formation of social networks comprise what has become known as social capital. Putnam, D. 2000. Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of the American Community, p. 19. Social capital is defined by Robert D. Putnam as "the collective value of all social networks (who people know) and the inclinations that arise from these networks to do things for each other (norms of reciprocity)." eat more chicken Social capital in action can be seen in no groups what so ever, including neighbours keeping an eye on each others' homes. However, as Putnam notes in Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community (2000), social capital has been falling in the United States. Putnam found that over the past 25 years, attendance at club meetings has fallen 58 percent, family dinners are down 33 percent, and having friends visit has fallen 45 percent. The same patterns are also evident in several other western countries. Western cultures are thus said to be losing the spirit of community that once were found in institutions including churches and community centers. Sociologist Ray Oldenburg states in The Great Good Place that people need three places: 1) the home, 2) the office, and, 3) the community hangout or gathering place. Project for Public Spaces. 2006. Ray Oldenburg. With this philosophy in mind, many grassroots efforts such as The Project for Public Spaces are being started to create this "Third Place" in communities. They are taking form in independent bookstores, coffeehouses, local pubs, and through many innovative means to create the social capital needed to foster the sense and spirit of community. University of Florida. 2006. Social Capital in Tampa Bay: An Update Report. Psychology Sense of community [[Image:Bigdayout crowd2.jpg||thumb|To what extent do participants in joint activities experience a sense of community?]] In a seminal 1986 study, McMillan and Chavis identify four elements of "sense of community": 1) membership, 2) influence, 3) integration and fulfillment of needs, and 4) shared emotional connection. They give the following example of the interplay between these factors: Someone puts an announcement on the dormitory bulletin board about the formation of an intramural dormitory basketball team. People attend the organizational meeting as strangers out of their individual needs (integration and fulfillment of needs). The team is bound by place of residence (membership boundaries are set) and spends time together in practice (the contact hypothesis). They play a game and win (successful shared valent event). While playing, members exert energy on behalf of the team (personal investment in the group). As the team continues to win, team members become recognized and congratulated (gaining honor and status for being members), Influencing new members to join and continue to do the same. Someone suggests that they all buy matching shirts and shoes (common symbols) and they do so (influence). McMillan, D.W., & Chavis, D.M. 1986. "Sense of community: A definition and theory," p. 16. A Sense of Community Index (SCI) has been developed by Chavis and colleagues and revised and adapted by others. Although originally designed to assess sense of community in neighborhoods, the index has been adapted for use in schools, the workplace, and a variety of types of communities. Perkins, D.D., Florin, P., Rich, R.C., Wandersman, A. & Chavis, D.M. (1990). Participation and the social and physical environment of residential blocks: Crime and community context. American Journal of Community Psychology, 18, 83-115. Chipuer, H. M., & Pretty, G. M. H. (1999). A review of the Sense of Community Index: Current uses, factor structure, reliability, and further development. Journal of Community Psychology, 27(6), 643-658. Long, D.A., & Perkins, D.D. (2003). Confirmatory Factor Analysis of the Sense of Community Index and Development of a Brief SCI. Journal of Community Psychology, 31, 279-296. Studies conducted by the APPA show substantial evidence that young adults who feel a sense of belonging in a community, particularly small communities, develop fewer physchiatric and depressive disorders than those who do not have the feeling of love and belonging. Anthropology Community and its features are central to anthropological research. Some of the ways community is addressed in anthropology include the following: Cultural or social anthropology Cultural (or social) anthropology has traditionally looked at community through the lens of ethnographic fieldwork and ethnography continues to be an important methodology for study of modern communities. Other anthropological approaches that deal with various aspects of community include cross-cultural studies and the anthropology of religion. Cultures in modern society are also studied in the fields of urban anthropology, ethnic studies, ecological anthropology, and psychological anthropology. Since the 1990s, internet communities have increasingly been the subject of research in the emerging field of cyber anthropology. Archaeology Archaeological studies of social communities. The term “community” is used in two ways in archaeology, paralleling usage in other areas. The first is an informal definition of community as a place where people used to live. In this sense it is synonymous with the concept of an ancient settlement, whether a hamlet, village, town, or city. The second meaning is similar to the usage of the term in other social sciences: a community is a group of people living near one another who interact socially. Social interaction on a small scale can be difficult to identify with archaeological data. Most reconstructions of social communities by archaeologists rely on the principle that social interaction is conditioned by physical distance. Therefore a small village settlement likely constituted a social community, and spatial subdivisions of cities and other large settlements may have formed communities. Archaeologists typically use similarities in material culture—from house types to styles of pottery—to reconstruct communities in the past. This is based on the assumption that people or households will share more similarities in the types and styles of their material goods with other members of a social community than they will with outsiders. �Canuto, Marcello A. and Jason Yaeger (editors) (2000) The Archaeology of Communities. Routledge, New York. Hegmon, Michelle (2002) Concepts of Community in Archaeological Research. In Seeking the Center: Archaeology and Ancient Communities in the Mesa Verde Region, edited by Mark D. Varien and Richard H. Wilshusen, pp. 263-279. University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City. Social philosophy Communitarianism Communitarianism as a group of related but distinct philosophies (or ideologies) began in the late 20th century, opposing classical liberalism and capitalism while advocating phenomena such as civil society. Not necessarily hostile to social liberalism, communitarianism rather has a different emphasis, shifting the focus of interest toward communities and societies and away from the individual. The question of priority, whether for the individual or community, must be determined in dealing with pressing ethical questions about a variety of social issues, such as health care, abortion, multiculturalism, and hate speech. Gad Barzilai has critically examined both liberalism and communitarianism and has developed the theory of critical communitarianism. Barzilai has explicated how non-ruling communities are constructing legal cultures while interacting with various facets of political power. Being venues of identity construction justifies collective protections of communities in law, while the boundaries with other communities, states, and global forces should be sensitive to preservation of various cultures. Gad Barzilai has accordingly offered how to protect human rights, individual rights, and multiculturalism in inter-communal context that allows to generating cultural relativism. Business and communications Organizational communication Effective communication practices in group and organizational settings are very important to the formation and maintenance of communities. How ideas and values are communicated within communities are important to the induction of new members, the formulation of agendas, the selection of leaders and many other aspects. Organizational communication is the study of how people communicate within an organizational context and the influences and interactions within organizational structures. Group members depend on the flow of communication to establish their own identity within these structures and learn to function in the group setting. Although organizational communication, as a field of study, is usually geared toward companies and business groups, these may also be seen as communities. The principles of organizational communication can also be applied to other types of communities. Gristology In ecology, a community is an assemblage of populations of different species, interacting with one another. Community ecology is the branch of ecology that studies interactions between and among species. It considers how such interactions, along with interactions between species and the abiotic environment, affect community structure and species richness, diversity and patterns of abundance. Species interact in three ways: competition, predation and mutualism. Competition typically results in a double negative—that is both species lose in the interaction. Predation is a win/lose situation with one species winning. Mutualism, on the other hand, involves both species cooperating in some way, with both winning. Interdisciplinary perspectives Socialization |Lewes Bonfire Night procession commemorating 17 Protestant martyrs burnt at the stake from 1555 to 1557. The process of learning to adopt the behavior patterns of the community is called socialization. The most fertile time of socialization is usually the early stages of life, during which individuals develop the skills and knowledge and learn the roles necessary to function within their culture and social environment. Newman, D. 2005. Chapter 5. "Building Identity: Socialization" pp. 134-140. For some psychologists, especially those in the psychodynamic tradition, the most important period of socialization is between the ages of one and ten. But socialization also includes adults moving into a significantly different environment, where they must learn a new set of behaviors. Newman, D. 2005, p. 141. Socialization is influenced primarily by the family, through which children first learn community norms. Other important influences include school, peer groups, mass media, the workplace, and government. The degree to which the norms of a particular society or community are adopted determines one's willingness to engage with others. The norms of tolerance, reciprocity, and trust are important "habits of the heart," as de Tocqueville put it, in an individual's involvement in community. Smith, M. 2001. Community. Community development Azadi Tower is a town square in modern Iran Community development, often linked with Community Work or Community Planning, is often formally conducted by non-government organisations (NGOs), universities or government agencies to progress the social well-being of local, regional and, sometimes, national communities. Less formal efforts, called community building or community organizing, seek to empower individuals and groups of people by providing them with the skills they need to effect change in their own communities. Kelly, Anthony, "With Head, Heart and Hand: Dimensions of Community Building" (Boolarong Press) [ISBN 978086439076] These skills often assist in building political power through the formation of large social groups working for a common agenda. Community development practitioners must understand both how to work with individuals and how to affect communities' positions within the context of larger social institutions. Formal programs conducted by universities are often used to build a knowledge base to drive curricula in sociology and community studies. The General Social Survey from the National Opinion Research Center at the University of Chicago and the Saguaro Seminar at the John F. Kennedy School of Government at Harvard University are examples of national community development in the United States. In The United Kingdom, Oxford University has led in providing extensive research in the field through its Community Development Journal, Community Development Journal, Oxford University Press used worldwide by sociologists and community development practitioners. At the intersection between community development and community building are a number of programs and organizations with community development tools. One example of this is the program of the Asset Based Community Development Institute of Northwestern University. The institute makes available downloadable tools ABCD Institute, in cooperation with the W.K. Kellogg Foundation. 2006. Discovering Community Power: A Guide to Mobilizing Local Assets and Your Organization's Capacity. to assess community assets and make connections between non-profit groups and other organizations that can help in community building. The Institute focuses on helping communities develop by "mobilizing neighborhood assets" — building from the inside out rather than the outside in. ABCD Institute. 2006. Welcome to ABCD. Community building and organizing In The Different Drum: Community-Making and Peace, Scott Peck argues that the almost accidental sense of community that exists at times of crisis can be consciously built. Peck believes that conscious community building is a process of deliberate design based on the knowledge and application of certain rules. M. Scott Peck, (1987). The Different Drum: Community-Making and Peace, pp. 83-85. He states that this process goes through four stages: Peck (1987), pp. 86-106. Pseudo-community: Where participants are "nice with each other", playing-safe, and presenting what they feel is the most favourable sides of their personalities. Chaos: When people move beyond the inauthenticity of pseudo-community and feel safe enough to present their "shadow" selves. This stage places great demands upon the facilitator for greater leadership and organization, but Peck believes that "organizations are not communities", and this pressure should be resisted. Emptiness: This stage moves beyond the attempts to fix, heal and convert of the chaos stage, when all people become capable of acknowledging their own woundedness and brokenness, common to us all as human beings. Out of this emptiness comes True community: the process of deep respect and true listening for the needs of the other people in this community. This stage Peck believes can only be described as "glory" and reflects a deep yearning in every human soul for compassionate understanding from one's fellows. More recently Peck remarked that building a sense of community is easy but maintaining this sense of community is difficult in the modern world. M. Scott Peck (1991). "The Joy of Community". An interview with M. Scott Peck by Alan Atkisson. In Context #29, p. 26. Community building can use a wide variety of practices, ranging from simple events such as potlucks and small book clubs to larger–scale efforts such as mass festivals and construction projects that involve local participants rather than outside contractors. Community building that is geared toward citizen action is usually termed "community organizing." Wells, David (1994) Power to the People: Thirty-five Years of Community Organizing. From The Workbook, Summer 1994, pp. 52-55. Retrieved on: June 22, 2008. In these cases, organized community groups seek accountability from elected officials and increased direct representation within decision-making bodies. Where good-faith negotiations fail, these constituency-led organizations seek to pressure the decision-makers through a variety of means, including picketing, boycotting, sit-ins, petitioning, and electoral politics. The ARISE Detroit! coalition and the Toronto Public Space Committee are examples of activist networks committed to shielding local communities from government and corporate domination and inordinate influence. Community organizing is sometimes focused on more than just resolving specific issues. Organizing often means building a widely accessible power structure, often with the end goal of distributing power equally throughout the community. Community organizers generally seek to build groups that are open and democratic in governance. Such groups facilitate and encourage consensus decision-making with a focus on the general health of the community rather than a specific interest group. The three basic types of community organizing are grassroots organizing, coalition building, and "institution-based community organizing," (also called "broad-based community organizing," an example of which is faith-based community organizing, or "congregation-based community organizing"). Jacoby Brown, Michael, (2006), "Building Powerful Community Organizations: A Personal Guide To Creating Groups That Can Solve Problems and Change the World" (Long Haul Press) Community currencies Some communities have developed their own "Local Exchange Trading Systems" (LETS) Local Exchange Trading Systems were first developed by Michael Linton, in Courtenay, BC, see "LETSystems - new money". Retrieved: 2006-08-01. and local currencies, such as the Ithaca Hours system, The Ithaca Hours system, developed by Paul Glover is outlined in "Creating Community Economics with Local Currency". Retrieved: 2006-08-01. to encourage economic growth and an enhanced sense of community. Community Currencies have recently proven valuable in meeting the needs of people living in various South American nations, particularly Argentina, that recently suffered as a result of the collapse of the Argentinian national currency. Conversely, at least one community, The Los Angeles Skills Pool, Los Angeles Skills Pool website is built around the sharing of services without the use of any currency. The anti-war affinity group "Collateral Damage" protesting the Iraq war Community service Community service is usually performed in connection with a nonprofit organization, but it may also be undertaken under the auspices of government, one or more businesses, or by individuals. It is typically unpaid and voluntary. However, it can be part of alternative sentencing approaches in a justice system and it can be required by educational institutions. Types of community Participants in Diana Leafe Christian's "Heart of a Healthy Community" seminar circle during an afternoon session at O.U.R. Ecovillage A number of ways to categorize types of community have been proposed; one such breakdown is: Geographic communities: range from the local neighbourhood, suburb, village, town or city, region, nation or even the planet as a whole. These refer to communities of location. Communities of culture: range from the local clique, sub-culture, ethnic group, religious, multicultural or pluralistic civilisation, or the global community cultures of today. They may be included as communities of need or identity, such as disabled persons, or frail aged people. Community organizations: range from informal family or kinship networks, to more formal incorporated associations, political decision making structures, economic enterprises, or professional associations at a small, national or international scale. Communities are nested; one community can contain another—for example a geographic community may contain a number of ethnic communities. Tropman John E., Erlich, John L. and Rothman, Jack (2006), "Tactics and Techniques of Community Intervention" (Wadsworth Publishing) Location Possibly the most common usage of the word "community" indicates a large group living in close proximity. Examples of local community include: A municipality is an administrative local area generally composed of a clearly defined territory and commonly referring to a town or village. Although large cities are also municipalities, they are often thought of as a collection of communities, due to their diversity. A neighborhood is a geographically localized community, often within a larger city or suburb. A planned community is one that was designed from scratch and grew up more or less following the plan. Several of the world's capital cities are planned cities, notably Washington, D.C., in the United States, Canberra in Australia, and Brasília in Brazil. It was also common during the European colonization of the Americas to build according to a plan either on fresh ground or on the ruins of earlier Amerindian cities. Identity In some contexts, "community" indicates a group of people with a common identity other than location. Members often interact regularly. Common examples in everyday usage include: A "professional community" is a group of people with the same or related occupations. Some of those members may join a professional society, making a more defined and formalized group. These are also sometimes known as communities of practice. A virtual community is a group of people primarily or initially communicating or interacting with each other by means of information technologies, typically over the Internet, rather than in person. These may be either communities of interest, practice or communion. Research interest is evolving in the motivations for contributing to online communities. Overlaps Some communities share both location and other attributes. Members choose to live near each other because of one or more common interests. A retirement community is designated and at least usually designed for retirees and seniors—often restricted to those over a certain age, such as 55. It differs from a retirement home, which is a single building or small complex, by having a number of autonomous households. An intentional community is a deliberate residential community with a much higher degree of social communication than other communities. The members of an intentional community typically hold a common social, political or spiritual vision and share responsibilities and resources. Intentional communities include Amish villages, ashrams, cohousing, communes, ecovillages, housing cooperatives, kibbutzim, and land trusts. Special nature of human community Music in Central Park, a public space Definitions of community as "organisms inhabiting a common environment and interacting with one another," Australian Academy of Science. Nova: Science in the News. Retrieved: 2006-07-21. while scientifically accurate, do not convey the richness, diversity and complexity of human communities. Their classification, likewise is almost never precise. Untidy as it may be, community is vital for humans. M. Scott Peck expresses this in the following way: "There can be no vulnerability without risk; there can be no community without vulnerability; there can be no peace, and ultimately no life, without community." Peck (1987), p. 233. See also Communitarianism Communitas (Victor Turner's theories) Community art Community theatre Historian Benedict Anderson's Imagined Communities Mobile community Original affluent society hunter-gatherer aspects of Marshall Sahlins (1966) Sustainable community Tragedy of the commons and Tragedy of the anticommons Notes References Barzilai, Gad. 2003. Communities and Law: Politics and Cultures of Legal Identities. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. Beck, U. 1992. Risk Society: Towards a New Modernity. London: Sage — 2000. What is globalization? Cambridge: Polity Press. Canuto, Marcello A. and Jason Yaeger, eds. (2000) The Archaeology of Communities. Routledge, New York. Chavis, D.M., Hogge, J.H., McMillan, D.W., & Wandersman, A. 1986. "Sense of community through Brunswick's lens: A first look." Journal of Community Psychology, 14(1), 24-40. Chipuer, H. M., & Pretty, G. M. H. (1999). A review of the Sense of Community Index: Current uses, factor structure, reliability, and further development. Journal of Community Psychology, 27(6), 643-658. Christensen, K., et al. (2003). Encyclopedia of Community. 4 volumes. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Cohen, A. P. 1985. The Symbolic Construction of Community. Routledge: New York. Durkheim, Emile. 1950 [1895] The Rules of Sociological Method. Translated by S. A. Solovay and J. H. Mueller. New York: The Free Press. Cox, F., J. Erlich, J. Rothman, and J. Tropman. 1970. Strategies of Community Organization: A Book of Readings. Itasca, IL: F. E. Peacock Publishers. Effland, R. 1998. The Cultural Evolution of Civilizations Mesa Community College. Giddens, A. 1999. “Risk and Responsibility” Modern Law Review 62(1): 1-10. Lenski, G. 1974. Human Societies: An Introduction to Macrosociology. New York: McGraw- Hill, Inc. Long, D.A., & Perkins, D.D. (2003). Confirmatory Factor Analysis of the Sense of Community Index and Development of a Brief SCI. Journal of Community Psychology, 31, 279-296. McMillan, D.W., & Chavis, D.M. 1986. "Sense of community: A definition and theory." American Journal of Community Psychology, 14(1), 6-23. Nancy, Jean-Luc. La Communauté désœuvrée - philosophical questioning of the concept of community and the possibility of encountering a non-subjective concept of it Newman, D. 2005. Sociology: Exploring the Architecture of Everyday Life, Chapter 5. "Building Identity: Socialization" Pine Forge Press. Retrieved: 2006-08-05. Peck, M.S. 1987. The Different Drum: Community-Making and Peace. New York: Simon and Schuster. ISBN 0-684-84858-9 Perkins, D.D., Florin, P., Rich, R.C., Wandersman, A. & Chavis, D.M. (1990). Participation and the social and physical environment of residential blocks: Crime and community context. American Journal of Community Psychology, 18, 83-115. Putnam, R. D. 2000. Bowling Alone: The collapse and revival of American community. New York: Simon and Schuster Sarason, S.B. 1974. The psychological sense of community: Prospects for a community psychology. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. — 1986. "Commentary: The emergence of a conceptual center." Journal of Community Psychology, 14, 405-407. Smith, M. K. 2001. Community. Encyclopedia of informal education. Last updated: January 28, 2005. Retrieved: 2006-07-15. Tönnies, F. 1887. Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft, Leipzig: Fues's Verlag, 2nd ed. 1912, 8th edition, Leipzig: Buske, 1935; translated in 1957 as Community and Society. ISBN 0-88738-750-0 External links "Community", an article in American Conservatism: An Encyclopedia "Community", an article in Encyclopedia of Informal Education Subdivided A documentary film about community featuring Robert Putnam Online Community Building: Three Critical Ingredients An article about building online communities be-x-old:Грамада | Community |@lemmatized community:202 interest:8 gather:3 stonehenge:1 england:1 summer:2 solstice:1 biological:1 term:6 group:31 interact:9 organisms:1 share:9 environment:7 human:9 intent:1 belief:2 resource:2 preference:1 need:10 risk:4 number:5 condition:2 may:10 present:3 common:15 affect:3 identity:9 participant:5 degree:3 cohesiveness:1 sociology:4 concept:6 cause:1 infinite:1 debate:1 sociologist:4 yet:1 reach:1 agreement:1 definition:6 ninety:1 four:3 discrete:1 mid:1 traditionally:2 define:3 people:20 live:5 location:7 word:5 often:11 use:9 refer:4 organize:12 around:2 value:3 social:33 cohesion:1 within:9 shared:1 geographical:2 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5,569 | Amazing_Grace | "Amazing Grace" is a well-known Christian hymn by Englishman John Newton and first appeared in print in Newton's Olney Hymns (1779). John Newton and the lyrics to Amazing Grace John Newton, the author of the lyrics to Amazing Grace, was born in 1725 in Wapping, London, United Kingdom. "The Creation of 'Amazing Grace'". Performing Arts Encyclopedia. Library of Congress. This article incorporates text from this source, which (as a US government publication) is in the public domain. Despite the powerful message of "Amazing Grace," Newton's religious beliefs initially lacked conviction; his youth was marked by religious confusion and a lack of moral self-control and discipline. After a brief time in the Royal Navy, Newton began his career in slave trading. The turning point in Newton's spiritual life was a violent storm that occurred one night while at sea. Moments after he left the deck, the crewman who had taken his place was swept overboard. Although he manned the vessel for the remainder of the tempest, he later commented that, throughout the tumult, he realized his helplessness and concluded that only the grace of God could save him. Prodded by what he had read in Thomas à Kempis' Imitation of Christ, Newton took the first step toward accepting faith. These incidents and his 1750 marriage to Mary Catlett changed Newton significantly. On his slave voyages, he encouraged the sailors under his charge to pray. He also began to ensure that every member of his crew treated their human cargo with gentleness and concern. Nevertheless, it would be another 40 years until Newton openly challenged the trafficking of slaves. Some three years after his marriage, Newton suffered a stroke that prevented him from returning to sea; in time, he interpreted this as another step in his spiritual voyage. He assumed a post in the Customs Office in the port of Liverpool and began to explore Christianity more fully. As Newton attempted to experience all the various expressions of Christianity, it became clear that he was being called to the ministry. Since Newton lacked a university degree, he could not be ordained through normal channels. However, the landlord of the parish at Olney was so impressed with the letters Newton had written about his conversion that he offered the church to Newton; he was ordained in June 1764. In Olney, the new curate met the poet William Cowper, also a newly-converted Christian. Their friendship led to a spiritual collaboration that completed the inspiration for "Amazing Grace," the poem Newton most likely wrote in Kineton, Warwickshire around Christmas 1772. The lyrics are based on his reflections on an Old Testament text he was preparing to preach on, adding his perspective about his own conversion while on his slave ship, the Greyhound, in 1748. Newton's lyrics have become a favourite for Christians, largely because the hymn vividly and briefly sums up the doctrine of divine grace. The lyrics are based on , a prayer of King David in which he marvels at God's choosing him and his house. Newton apparently wrote this for use in a sermon he preached on this passage on New Year's Day 1773, and for which he left his sermon notes, which correspond to the flow of the lyrics The John Newton Project has posted online the sermon notes that Newton wrote to go along with the hymn: "Amazing Grace: The Sermon Notes". Transcribed from Princeton University Library, John Newton Diary, CO199 © Marylynn Rouse (2000) website url: http://www.johnnewton.org/Group/Group.aspx?id=32665 (Accessed April 10, 2007) . (He entitled the piece "Faith's review and expectation.") The song has also become known as a favorite with supporters of freedom and human rights, both Christian and non-Christian, in part because many assume it to be Newton's testimony about his slave trading past. The hymn was quite popular on both sides in the American Civil War. Extra verses In her novel Uncle Tom's Cabin, Harriet Beecher Stowe quoted three stanzas as seemingly from one hymn, two of them corrupt versions of Amazing Grace stanzas, and one reading: Despite its relatively poor mesh with the rest of the hymn (the change from "I" to "we," change of subject, no reference for "there"), a form of this stanza became common as part of Amazing Grace in hymnals in the early twentieth century, due in large part to the influential hymnodist and publisher Edwin Othello Excell. While the stanza is often credited to John P. Rees (1828-1900), Catholic Book of Worship III. Canadian Conference of Catholic Bishops, Ottawa, Canada, (1986) it antedates his birth. It was in print by 1790, added to an old and widely-varied hymn most usually beginning "Jerusalem, my happy home" Richard and Andrew Broadus (or Broaddus), A Collection of Sacred Ballads (Virginia, 1790) , and was still appearing as part of this hymn in books published around the time of Stowe's book, John Putnam, Conference Melodies, or Songs of Zion (New York, Edward H. Fletcher, 1853), "Jerusalem my happy Home" . Cherokee lyrics While on the "Trail of Tears," the Cherokee were not always able to give their dead a full burial. Instead, they sang a translation (or rather, paraphrase) previously made by Samuel Worcester. Walela - Walela Lyrics & Translations For this reason, many contemporary Native American musicians have recorded the song. Music As with other hymns of this period, the words were sung to a number of tunes before and after they first became linked to the now familiar variant of the tune "New Britain" of which the composer is unknown and which is in William Walker's shape-note tunebook Southern Harmony, 1835. Mark Rhoads maintains a brief review of the early melodies at his website, Amazing Grace: Some Early Tunes, which can be found at the url: http://www.markrhoads.com/amazingsite/index.htm (accessed April 10, 2007) Shape Note version from 1835. "New Britain" first appears in a shape note hymnal from 1829 called Columbian Harmony. The melody is believed to be Scottish or Irish in origin; it is pentatonic and suggests a bagpipe tune; the hymn is frequently performed on bagpipes and has become associated with that instrument. This tune seems to have been firmly established as the 'standard' for this hymn after an arrangement of it appeared in a series of popular hymnbooks in the early twentieth century. (See also the versions in the Sacred Harp article.) Another tune to which it has sometimes been sung is the so-called "Old Regular Baptist" tune. It was sung by the Congregation of the Little Zion Church, Jeff, Kentucky, on the album The Ritchie Family of Kentucky on the Folkways label (1958). The Blind Boys of Alabama have also helped to popularise a long-standing association to the tune House of the Rising Sun. Bagpipes The association with Highland bagpipes is relatively modern; for over a century, the tune was nearly forgotten in the British Isles until the folk revival of the 1960s began carrying traditional musicians back and forth between the British Isles and the United States (where "Amazing Grace" had remained a very popular hymn). It was little known outside church congregations or folk festivals until Arthur Penn's film Alice's Restaurant (1969), in which Lee Hays of The Weavers leads worshipers in singing "Amazing Grace." Performances and recordings Owing to its ability to be adapted easily, the song is a popular recording choice. In essence, it has a very basic tune. Singers can then very easily add melismatic phrases, and alter the melody to make it match their own style/genre of singing. It has been recorded by many artists over the last century; Allmusic lists over 1800 recordings. Allmusic search (allmusic.com), accessed 21 August 2007 (this site is not linkable. "Amazing Grace" was not recorded until 1922, reflecting the penchant of record companies to record marches, standard popular tunes, classical music, and comedic songs and sketches in the years before World War I. "Sound Recordings of 'Amazing Grace' in the LC Collections". Encyclopedia of the Arts. Library of Congress. This article incorporates text from this source, which (as a US government publication) is in the public domain. By the 1920s, however, many in the recording industry became convinced that traditional music could be profitably marketed to immigrant groups, African-American communities, and white rural southerners. The commercially recorded versions of "Amazing Grace" fit neatly into what the companies at the time termed either their "race" catalogs, or their "hillbilly" and "old-time" catalogs. The first company to record "Amazing Grace" was Brunswick Records which in 1922 released a small series of recordings of Sacred Harp songs. Brunswick created a special label for this series that incorporated shape-note notation in its design. Other recordings in the Sacred Harp tradition include J. T. Allison's Sacred Harp Singers, Denson-Parris Sacred Harp Singers, and Dye's Sacred Harp Singers. Several early recordings of "Amazing Grace" feature African-American "singing preachers," the most popular of whom was Reverend J. M. Gates. Gates viewed the song as "one of the good old familiar hymns" that would help his listeners return to the traditional religious values of the past. Gates' first recording for Columbia proved quite popular--dealers ordered 3,400 advanced copies and requested more than ten times that number for his second release. Owing largely to the popularity of Gates' recordings, dozens of other black preachers made recordings of religious songs and sermons. Other black preachers who recorded "Amazing Grace" included J. C. Burnett (with a more fiery delivery than Gates'), Reverend M. L. Thrasher, and Reverend H. R. Tomlin. These performances usually were preceded by a short statement on the religious significance of the song. As well, the performances often included the practice of lining out the song, a traditional method of delivery in both the African- and Anglo-American religious traditions in which the preacher spoke a line of the song and the congregation sang it back. At the same time that commercial companies were recording "Amazing Grace" with an eye toward profit, folklorists were documenting the song for scholarly purposes. From its inception in 1928 the Library of Congress' Archive of American Folk-Song sent collectors into the field first with wax cylinder recorders, then instantaneous disc recorders. Though somewhat limited in fidelity compared to the equipment used by the commercial companies, these recorders had the advantage of being portable. As such, field recordings could capture a performance in its intended physical and cultural context and often were accompanied by interviews documented on the recording or through field notes. Collectors such as the Lomax Family (John A., Alan, and Ruby T.), Herbert Halpert, Sydney Robertson, and John Henry Faulk made recordings that demonstrate the wide diffusion of "Amazing Grace" through many different communities. Judy Collins - 1970-1972. UK Singles Chart: 67 weeks, a record for a female artist; peaked at number five. Crystal Gayle for the album "Someday (Crystal Gayle album)" (1995). Kylie Minogue performed the song on her VHS release "Kylie: Live in Dublin" (1991). Pipes and Drums and Military Band of the Royal Scots Dragoon Guards - 1972 instrumental version. UK Singles Chart: five weeks at number one; also top spot in Australia. Aretha Franklin - 1972 gospel album Amazing Grace Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan (1982 film) - Mr. Scott plays 'Amazing Grace' on the bagpipes during the funeral of Mr. Spock. Joan Baez - 1985, to open the U.S. portion of Live Aid Dropkick Murphys - 1999 album "The Gang's All Here". Béla Fleck & The Flecktones - 2002 album (DVD) Live at the Quick Hayley Westenra - 2003 album Pure Faryl Smith - 2009 album Faryl Sarah Brightman- In The New Album "A Winter Symphony", 2008 Album KOKIA - 2008 Christmas album Christmas gift Mika Nakashima - 2nd single CRESCENT MOON Jerry Garcia, Tony Rice, and David Grisman - The Pizza Tapes References Further reading Turner, Steve. Amazing Grace: The Story of America's Most Beloved Song. HarperCollins (2002). ISBN 0060002190. External links Library of Congress timeline of notable Amazing Grace sheet music and recordings, with audio samples Brief history and lyrics to Amazing Grace at WikiChristian Amazing Grace:The True Story Broadway musical Amazing Grace lyrics in suitable-for-framing PDF format | Amazing_Grace |@lemmatized amaze:15 grace:29 well:2 know:2 christian:5 hymn:14 englishman:1 john:9 newton:22 first:7 appear:4 print:2 olney:3 lyric:10 author:1 bear:1 wapping:1 london:1 united:2 kingdom:1 creation:1 amazing:12 performing:1 art:2 encyclopedia:2 library:5 congress:4 article:3 incorporate:3 text:3 source:2 u:3 government:2 publication:2 public:2 domain:2 despite:2 powerful:1 message:1 religious:6 belief:1 initially:1 lack:3 conviction:1 youth:1 mark:2 confusion:1 moral:1 self:1 control:1 discipline:1 brief:3 time:7 royal:2 navy:1 begin:5 career:1 slave:5 trading:2 turn:1 point:1 spiritual:3 life:1 violent:1 storm:1 occur:1 one:5 night:1 sea:2 moment:1 leave:2 deck:1 crewman:1 take:2 place:1 sweep:1 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5,570 | Economy_of_Kazakhstan | The economy of Kazakhstan is the largest economy in Central Asia. It possesses enormous fossil fuel reserves as well as minerals and metals. It also has considerable agricultural potential with its vast steppe lands accommodating both livestock and grain production, as well as developed space infrastructure, which took over all launches to the International Space Station from the Space Shuttle. The mountains in the south are important for apples and walnuts; both species grow wild there. Kazakhstan's industrial sector rests on the extraction and processing of these natural resources and also on a relatively large machine building sector specializing in construction equipment, tractors, agricultural machinery, and some military items. The breakup of the USSR and the collapse of demand for Kazakhstan's traditional heavy industry products have resulted in a sharp contraction of the economy since 1991, with the steepest annual decline occurring in 1994. In 1995-97 the pace of the government program of economic reform and privatization quickened, resulting in a substantial shifting of assets into the private sector. The December 1996 signing of the Caspian Pipeline Consortium agreement to build a new pipeline from western Kazakhstan's Tengiz Field to the Black Sea increases prospects for substantially larger oil exports in several years. Kazakhstan's economy turned downward in 1998 with a 2.5% decline in GDP growth due to slumping oil prices and the August financial crisis in Russia. A bright spot in 1999 was the recovery of international petroleum prices, which, combined with a well-timed tenge devaluation and a bumper grain harvest, pulled the economy out of recession. Current GDP per capita shrank by 26% in the Nineties. http://earthtrends.wri.org/text/economics-business/variable-638.html However since 2000, Kazakhstan's economy grew sharply, aided by increased prices on world markets for Kazakhstan's leading exports--oil, metals and grain. GDP grew 9.6% in 2000, up from 1.7% in 1999. Since 2001, GDP has been among the highest in the world. In 2006, extremely high GDP growth had been sustained, and grew by 10.6%. Business with booming Russia and China, as well as neighboring Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) nations have helped to propel this amazing growth. The increased economic growth also led to a turn-around in government finances, with the budget moving from a cash deficit of 3.7% of GDP in 1999 to 0.1% surplus in 2000. Macro-economic trend This is a chart of trend of gross domestic product of Kazakhstan at market prices estimated by the International Monetary Fund with figures in millions of Kazakhstani Tenges. http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2006/01/data/dbcselm.cfm?G=2001 Year Gross Domestic Product US Dollar Exchange Inflation Index (2000=100) 1995 1,014,200 61.11 Tenges 64 2000 2,599,902 142.26 Tenges 100 2005 7,453,000 132.88 Tenges 140 For purchasing power parity comparisons, the US Dollar is exchanged at 59.95 Tenges only. Average wages in 2007 hover around $31-38 per day. Kazakhstan's monetary policy has been well-managed. Its principal challenges in 2001 are to manage strong foreign currency inflows without sparking inflation. Inflation has, in fact, stayed under control, registering 9.8% in 2000, and appears likely to be under 10% in 2001. Because of its strong economic performance and financial health, Kazakhstan became the first former Soviet republic to repay all of its debt to the IMF by paying back $400 million in 2000; 7 years ahead of schedule. Overall foreign debt is about $12.5 billion, $4 billion of which is owed by the government. This amounts to 69% of GDP, well within manageable levels. The upturn in economic growth, combined with the results of earlier tax and financial sector reforms, dramatically improved government finances from the 1998 budget deficit level of 4.2% of GDP to a slight surplus in 2000. Government tax revenues grew from 16.4% of GDP in 1999 to 20.6% of GDP in 2000. In 2000, Kazakhstan adopted a new Tax Code in an effort to consolidate these gains. Its strong financial position also allowed the government to reduce the value-added tax (VAT) from 20% to 16% and reduce social (payroll) taxes as of July 2001. Kazakhstan's stronger budget position and strong export earnings earned it credit ratings upgrades from Moody's, S&P, and Fitch during 2001. Kazakhstan instituted a pension reform program in 1998 that was partly based on the model of the Chilean pension system but enclosed modifications. By July 2001, Kazakhstanis had contributed more than $1 billion to their own personal pension accounts, most of which is managed by the private sector. The National Bank oversees and regulates the pension funds. The pension funds' growing demand for quality investment outlets triggered rapid development of the debt securities market. Pension fund capital is being invested almost exclusively in corporate and government bonds, including Government of Kazakhstan Eurobonds. The Kazakhstani banking system is developing rapidly. Banking systems capitalization now exceeds $1 billion. The National Bank has introduced deposit insurance in its campaign to strengthen the banking sector. Several major foreign banks have branches in Kazakhstan, including ABN AMRO, Citibank, and HSBC. Kazakhstan is also a member of the Economic Cooperation Organization (ECO). Mining Oil and gas is the leading economic sector. In 2000, Kazakhstan produced 35,252,000 metric tons of oil (700,000 barrels per day), a 17.4% increase over 1999's 30,025,000 tons. It exported 28,883,000 tons of oil in 2000, up 38.8% from 20,813,000 tons in 1999. Production in 2001 has been growing at roughly 20%, on target to meet the government's forecast of 40,100,000 tons of oil (800,000 barrels per day). In 2000, production reached 11.5 km³ of natural gas, up from 8.2 km³ in 1999. Kazakhstan has the potential to be a world-class oil exporter in the medium term. The landmark foreign investment in Kazakhstan is the TengizChevroil joint venture, owned 50% by ChevronTexaco, 25% by ExxonMobil, 20% by the Government of Kazakhstan, and 5% by Lukarco of Russia. The Karachaganak natural gas and gas condensate field is being developed by BG, Agip, ChevronTexaco, and Lukoil. The Agip-led Offshore Kazakhstan Consortium has discovered potentially huge Kashagan oil field in the northern Caspian. Kazakhstan's economic future is linked to oil and gas development. GDP growth will depend on the price of oil, as well as the ability to develop new deposits. Kazakhstan is the third country in the world for uranium production volumes, and it owns the world second biggest uranium reserves after Australia. Uranium production in Kazakhstan as a potential source for covering the world uranium shortage, by Moukhtar Dzhakishev, World Nuclear Association Annual Symposium 2004 It has also the largest silver, zinc and nickel markets in West Asia. Trade Kazakh exports in 2006 Sherin Suzhikova, Counselor of Kazakhstan's Chamber of Commerce and Industry and Chao yon-chuan, Secretary-General of the Taiwan External Trade Development Council, signed an agreement on 13 October 2006 in Taipei to improve economic relations through "exchanges of market information and visits by trade professionals." TAITRA has an office in Almaty, Kazakhstan. Taiwan, Kazakhstan sign agreement on economic cooperation Taiwan Headlines North Dakotan Lieutenant Governor Jack Dalrymple led an 18-member delegation of the North Dakota Trade Office representing seven North Dakota companies and Dickinson State University on a trip to Kazakhstan, Ukraine and Russia from 22 October to 4 November. Governor John Hoeven said the trip is "part of a larger effort to increase North Dakota's export volume." North Dakota's "total export value is growing at a rate of nearly 18% a year, and companies working with the trade office are seeing export sales grow at an even higher rate." Lt. Gov. Dalrymple, N.D. Companies To Attend Trade Mission To Kazakhstan, Ukraine And Russia KX North Dakota Trade Office Executive Director Susan Geib said, "Agricultural and industrial equipment is in high demand in Kazakhstan, Ukraine and Russia." North Dakota exports mostly machinery to Kazakhstan, the eighth largest destination for North Dakotan exports. North Dakota machinery exports amounted to only $22,000 in 2000, but rose to $25 million in 2005. See also Aslan Musin, Minister of Economy and Budget Planning Vladimir Shkolnik, Minister of Industry and Trade Baktykozha Izmukhambetov, Minister of Energy and Mineral Resources Akhmetzhan Yesimov, Minister of Agriculture References External links U.S. Department of Energy Country Analysis Brief Kazakhstan Plans to Build Highway Connecting China and Europe Kazakh central bank misspells 'bank' on money International Business; China Pays Dearly for Kazakhstan Oil Kazakh President's Daughter Chides Steel Baron Mittal Commercial gold and copper discoveries in Kazakhstan Kazakhstan Changes Energy Strategy on the Way to WTO Kazakhstan to be top oil producer by 2011: Nazarbayev | Economy_of_Kazakhstan |@lemmatized economy:7 kazakhstan:36 large:6 central:2 asia:2 possess:1 enormous:1 fossil:1 fuel:1 reserve:2 well:7 mineral:2 metal:2 also:7 considerable:1 agricultural:3 potential:3 vast:1 steppe:1 land:1 accommodate:1 livestock:1 grain:3 production:5 developed:1 space:3 infrastructure:1 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5,571 | On_War | Title page of the original German edition Vom Kriege, published in 1832. Vom Kriege () is a book on and military strategy by Prussian general Carl von Clausewitz, written mostly after the Napoleonic wars, between 1816 and 1830, and published posthumously by his wife in 1832. It has been translated into English several times as On War. On War is actually an unfinished work; Clausewitz had set about revising his accumulated manuscripts in 1827, but did not live to finish the task. His wife eventually compiled all the work and the final two chapters Clausewitz never finished. Clausewitz integrates politics and social and economic issues as some of the most important factors in deciding the outcomes of a war. It is one of the most important treatises on strategy ever written, and is prescribed at various military academies to this day. History Carl von Clausewitz was a Prussian officer among those baffled by how the armies of the French Revolution and Napoleon had changed the nature of war through their ability to motivate the populace and thus unleash war on a greater scale than had previously been the case in Europe. Clausewitz was well educated and had a strong interest in art, science, and education, but he was a professional soldier who spent a considerable part of his life fighting against Napoleon. There is no doubt that the insights he gained from his experiences, combined with a solid grasp of European history, provided much of the raw material for the book. On War represents the compilation of his most cogent observations. Note: Clausewitz states that Napoleon's tactics were not revolutionary at all and that Napoleonic Warfare did not change anything greatly in military history. The technology of weaponry for the most part remained static, and new strategies weren't developed, but rather Napoleon refurbished old ones, mixing them into one grand strategy. Synopsis The book contains a wealth of historical examples used to illustrate its various concepts. Frederick II of Prussia (the Great) figures prominently for having made very efficient use of the limited forces at his disposal. Napoleon also is a central figure. Among many strands of thought, three stand out as essential to Clausewitz' concept: War must never be seen as a purpose to itself, but as a means of physically forcing one's will on an opponent ("War is not merely a political act, but also a real political instrument, a continuation of political commerce, a carrying out of the same by other means." On War, Book I, Chapter 1, 24., Carl von Clausewitz, translated by J.J. Graham, p. 18 ISBN 9568356207 ). The military objectives in war that support one's political objectives fall into two broad types: "war to achieve limited aims" and war to "disarm” the enemy: “to render [him] politically helpless or militarily impotent." The course of war will tend to favor the party employing more force and resources (a notion extended by Germany's leaders in World War One into "total war"—the pursuit of complete military victory regardless of the political consequences). Some of the key ideas (not necessarily original to Clausewitz or even to his mentor Gerhard von Scharnhorst) discussed in On War include (in no particular order of importance): the dialectical approach to military analysis the methods of "critical analysis" the uses and abuses of historical studies the nature of the balance-of-power mechanism The relationship between political objectives and military objectives in war the asymmetrical relationship between attack and defense the nature of "military genius" the "fascinating trinity" (Wunderliche Dreifaltigkeit) of war philosophical distinctions between "absolute or ideal war," and "real war" in "real war," the distinctive poles of a) limited war and b) war to "render the enemy helpless" "War" belongs fundamentally to the social realm—rather than the realms of art or science "strategy" belongs primarily to the realm of art "tactics" belongs primarily to the realm of science the essential unpredictability of war the "fog of war" "friction" strategic and operational "centers of gravity" the "culminating point of the offensive" the "culminating point of victory" Clausewitz used a dialectical method to construct his argument, leading to frequent modern misinterpretation. The West's modern perception of war is based on the concepts Clausewitz put forth in On War, though these have been very diversely interpreted by various leaders, thinkers, armies, and peoples. Western military doctrine, organization, and norms are all based on Napoleonic premises, even to this day--though whether these premises are necessarily also "Clausewitzian" is debatable. The "dualism" of Clausewitz's view of war (i.e., that wars can vary a great deal between the two "poles" he proposed, based on the political objectives of the opposing sides and the context) seems simple enough, but few commentators have proved willing to accept this crucial variability—they insist that Clausewitz "really" argued for one end of the scale or the other. On War has been seen by some prominent critics as the place where the concept of total war was made explicit and it has been blamed For example, writing in his introduction to Sun Tzu's Art of War, B.H. Liddell Hart stated that "Civilization might have been spared much of the damage suffered in the world wars of this century if the influence of Clausewitz's monumental tomes On War, which molded European military thought in the era preceding the First World War, had been blended with and balanced by a knowledge of Sun Tzu's exposition on The Art of War". This comment is tempered by the comment that the "ill-effects of Clausewitz's teaching arose largely from his disciples' too shallow and too extreme interpretation of it", but it remains an influential criticism. Extracted from The Art of War (UNESCO Collection of Representative Works), Samuel B. Griffith http://www.kw.igs.net/~tacit/artofwar/suntzu.htm for the level of destruction involved in the First and Second World Wars, whereas it seems rather that Clausewitz had merely foreseen the inevitable development that started with the huge, patriotically motivated armies of the Napoleonic wars. These resulted (though war's evolution has not yet ended) in the atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, with all the forces and capabilities of the state devoted to destroying forces and capabilities of the enemy state (thus "total war"). Conversely, Clausewitz has also been seen as "The preeminent military and political strategist of limited war in modern times." (Robert Osgood, 1979) Clausewitz and his proponents have been severely criticized, perhaps quite unfairly, by competing theorists--Antoine-Henri Jomini in the 19th century, B.H. Liddell Hart in the mid-20th, and Martin van Creveld and John Keegan more recently. On War is a work rooted solely in the world of the state, says historian Martin Van Creveld, who alleges that Clausewitz takes the state "almost for granted" as he rarely looks at anything previous to Westphalia. He alleges that Clausewitz does not address any form of intra/supra-state conflict, such as rebellion, because he could not theoretically account for warfare before the existence of the state. Previous kinds of conflict were demoted to criminal activities without legitimacy and not worthy of the label "war." Van Creveld argues that "Clausewitzian war" requires the state to act in conjunction with the people and the army, the state becoming a massive engine built to exert military force against an identical opponent. He supports this statement by pointing to the conventional armies in existence throughout the 20th century. On the other hand, Clausewitz never saw these 20th-century states and armies--the states with which he himself was familiar were quite different. In any case, the "Clausewitzian Trinity" that Van Creveld condemns as consisting of a rigid statistic hierarchy of "People, Army, and Government," does not in fact consist of those three concrete actors. In fact, the words people, army, and government appear nowhere in the paragraph in which Clausewitz defines his famous Trinity. Rather, the Trinity of forces that drive the course of real-world war in Clausewitz's view are 1) violent emotion, 2) the interplay of chance and probability, and 3) political motive acting on reason. It seems unlikely that emotion, chance, and rationality will cease to play a role in war any time soon, whatever the fate of the state. English translations 1873. Graham, J.J. translator. Republished 1908. Project Gutenberg eBook, a partial version 1943. O. J. Matthijs Jolles, translator. 1968. Edited with introduction by Anatol Rapoport. Viking Penguin. ISBN 0-14-044427-0 1984. Howard, Michael, and Peter Paret, editors and translators. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-05657-9 See also The Art of War by Sun Tzu The Prince by Niccolò Machiavelli The Art of War by Niccolò Machiavelli The 33 Strategies of War The Book of Five Rings Philosophy of war References Notes Explanatory notes Citations Bibliography Bassford, Christopher, 1994. Clausewitz in English: The Reception of Clausewitz in Britain and America. Oxford University Press. Bernard Brodie, 1976. A guide to the reading of "On War." Princeton University Press. External links The Clausewitz Homepage Online version of Vom Kriege - the 1832 German original Online version of On War - the 1873 English translation Bassford, Christopher, 2002, "Clausewitz and His Works." Describes the author's intent, and discusses interpretations and common misunderstandings. 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5,572 | Ninon_de_l'Enclos | Anne "Ninon" de l'Enclos also spelled Ninon de Lenclos and Ninon de Lanclos (November 10, 1620 – October 17, 1705) was a French author, courtesan and patron of the arts. At the time of her death, in 1705, Saint-Simon primly summed up her career: "A shining example of the triumph of vice, when directed with intelligence and redeemed by a little virtue." Early life Born Anne de Lenclos in Paris, she was nicknamed "Ninon" by her father at an early age. In 1632 her father was exiled from France after a duel, and when her mother died ten years later the unmarried Ninon entered a convent only to leave the next year. Based on the remainder of her life, the choice of a convent would seem surprising, but it was really only an aspect of the clear idea that drove her actions: she was determined to remain unmarried and independent. Influenced by Epicureanism in general and Montaigne in particular, she devoted her life to pleasure, both physical and mental. Life as a courtesan and author Returning to Paris, she became a popular figure in the salons, and her own drawing room became a centre for the discussion and consumption of the literary arts. In her early thirties she was responsible for encouraging the young Molière, and when she died she left money for the son of her accountant, a nine-year old named François Marie Arouet, later to become better known as Voltaire, so he could buy books. It was during this period that her life as a courtesan began. Ninon took a succession of notable and wealthy lovers, including the king's cousin the Great Condé, Gaspard de Coligny, and François, duc de La Rochefoucauld. "Ninon always had crowds of adorers but never more than one lover at a time, and when she tired of the present occupier, she said so frankly and took another. Yet such was the authority of this wanton, that no man dared fall out with his successful rival; he was only too happy to be allowed to visit as a familiar friend," Saint-Simon wrote. This life (not as acceptable in those days as it would become in later years) and her opinions on organized religion caused her some trouble, and she was imprisoned in the Madelonnettes Convent in 1656 at the behest of Anne of Austria, Queen of France and regent for her son Louis XIV. Not long after, however, she was visited by Christina, former queen of Sweden. Impressed, Christina wrote to Cardinal Mazarin on Ninon's behalf and arranged for her release. In response, as an author she defended the possibility of living a good life in the absence of religion, notably in 1659's La coquette vengée ("The Flirt Avenged"). She was also noted for her wit; among her numerous sayings and quips are "Much more genius is needed to make love than to command armies" and "We should take care to lay in a stock of provisions, but not of pleasures: these should be gathered day by day." Starting in the late 1660s she retired from her courtesan lifestyle and concentrated more on her literary friends — from 1667, she hosted her gatherings at l'hôtel Sagonne, which was considered "the" location of the salon of Ninon de l'Enclos despite other locales in the past. During this time she was a friend of Jean Racine, the great French playwright. Later she would become a close friend with the devout Françoise d'Aubigné, better known as Madame de Maintenon, the lady-in-waiting who would later become the second wife of Louis XIV. "The lady did not like her to be mentioned in her presence, but dared not disown her, and wrote cordial letters to her from time to time, to the day of her death" (Saint-Simon). Ninon eventually died at the age of (at least) 82, a very wealthy woman. At one point in her life, Cardinal Richelieu offered fifty thousand crowns for a night in his bed. Ninon took the money, and sent a friend instead. "Ninon made friends among the great in every walk of life, had wit and intelligence enough to keep them, and, what is more, to keep them friendly with one another." (Saint-Simon). Ninon de l'Enclos is a relatively obscure figure in the English-speaking world, but is much better known in France where her name is synonymous with wit and beauty. See Dorothy Parker's poem Ninon De Lenclos, On Her Last Birthday. External links Ninon de l'Enclos Essay on Ninon de l'Enclos and the fable of Noctambule Lucy Norton, Saint-Simon at Versailles, 1958 p. 100f. | Ninon_de_l'Enclos |@lemmatized anne:3 ninon:16 de:12 l:6 enclos:5 also:2 spell:1 lenclos:3 lanclos:1 november:1 october:1 french:2 author:3 courtesan:4 patron:1 art:2 time:5 death:2 saint:5 simon:5 primly:1 sum:1 career:1 shining:1 example:1 triumph:1 vice:1 direct:1 intelligence:2 redeem:1 little:1 virtue:1 early:3 life:9 bear:1 paris:2 nickname:1 father:2 age:2 exile:1 france:3 duel:1 mother:1 die:3 ten:1 year:4 later:4 unmarried:2 enter:1 convent:3 leave:2 next:1 base:1 remainder:1 choice:1 would:4 seem:1 surprising:1 really:1 aspect:1 clear:1 idea:1 drive:1 action:1 determine:1 remain:1 independent:1 influence:1 epicureanism:1 general:1 montaigne:1 particular:1 devote:1 pleasure:2 physical:1 mental:1 return:1 become:6 popular:1 figure:2 salon:2 drawing:1 room:1 centre:1 discussion:1 consumption:1 literary:2 thirty:1 responsible:1 encourage:1 young:1 molière:1 money:2 son:2 accountant:1 nine:1 old:1 name:2 françois:2 marie:1 arouet:1 well:1 know:3 voltaire:1 could:1 buy:1 book:1 period:1 begin:1 take:4 succession:1 notable:1 wealthy:2 lover:2 include:1 king:1 cousin:1 great:3 condé:1 gaspard:1 coligny:1 duc:1 la:2 rochefoucauld:1 always:1 crowd:1 adorer:1 never:1 one:3 tire:1 present:1 occupier:1 say:1 frankly:1 another:2 yet:1 authority:1 wanton:1 man:1 dare:2 fall:1 successful:1 rival:1 happy:1 allow:1 visit:2 familiar:1 friend:6 write:3 acceptable:1 day:4 late:2 opinion:1 organize:1 religion:2 cause:1 trouble:1 imprison:1 madelonnettes:1 behest:1 austria:1 queen:2 regent:1 louis:2 xiv:2 long:1 however:1 christina:2 former:1 sweden:1 impressed:1 cardinal:2 mazarin:1 behalf:1 arrange:1 release:1 response:1 defend:1 possibility:1 live:1 good:3 absence:1 notably:1 coquette:1 vengée:1 flirt:1 avenge:1 note:1 wit:3 among:2 numerous:1 saying:1 quip:1 much:2 genius:1 need:1 make:2 love:1 command:1 army:1 care:1 lay:1 stock:1 provision:1 gather:1 start:1 retire:1 lifestyle:1 concentrate:1 host:1 gathering:1 hôtel:1 sagonne:1 consider:1 location:1 despite:1 locale:1 past:1 jean:1 racine:1 playwright:1 close:1 devout:1 françoise:1 aubigné:1 madame:1 maintenon:1 lady:2 waiting:1 second:1 wife:1 like:1 mention:1 presence:1 disown:1 cordial:1 letter:1 eventually:1 least:1 woman:1 point:1 richelieu:1 offer:1 fifty:1 thousand:1 crown:1 night:1 bed:1 send:1 instead:1 every:1 walk:1 enough:1 keep:2 friendly:1 relatively:1 obscure:1 english:1 speaking:1 world:1 synonymous:1 beauty:1 see:1 dorothy:1 parker:1 poem:1 last:1 birthday:1 external:1 link:1 essay:1 fable:1 noctambule:1 lucy:1 norton:1 versailles:1 p:1 |@bigram l_enclos:5 louis_xiv:2 cardinal_mazarin:1 jean_racine:1 de_maintenon:1 lady_waiting:1 cardinal_richelieu:1 dorothy_parker:1 external_link:1 |
5,573 | Faster-than-light | Faster-than-light (also superluminal or FTL) communications and travel refer to the propagation of information or matter faster than the speed of light. Under the special theory of relativity, a particle (that has mass) with subluminal velocity needs infinite energy to accelerate to the speed of light, although special relativity does not forbid the existence of particles that travel faster than light at all times (tachyons). On the other hand, what some physicists refer to as "apparent" or "effective" FTL http://arxiv.org/pdf/gr-qc/0107097 PDF for gr-qc/9810026 PDF for gr-qc/9908023 is the hypothesis that unusually distorted regions of spacetime might permit matter to reach distant locations faster than what it would take light in the "normal" route (though still moving subluminally through the distorted region). Apparent FTL is not excluded by general relativity. Examples of apparent FTL proposals are the Alcubierre drive and the traversable wormhole, although the physical plausibility of these solutions is uncertain. Outside of mainstream physics, others have speculated on mechanisms that might allow FTL travel to be achieved, often relying on new conjectures of physics of their own invention, but their ideas have not gained significant acceptance in the physics research community. Fictional depictions of superluminal travel and the mechanisms of achieving it are also a staple of the science fiction genre. Travel In the context of this article, FTL is transmitting information or matter faster than c, a constant equal to the speed of light in a vacuum, 299,792,458 meters per second, or about 186,282 miles per second. This is not quite the same as traveling faster than light, since: Some processes propagate faster than c, but cannot carry information (See below). Light travels at speed c/n when not in a vacuum but traveling through a medium with refractive index = n (causing refraction), and in some materials other particles can travel faster than c/n (but still slower than c), leading to Cherenkov radiation Neither of these phenomena violates special relativity or creates problems with causality, and thus neither qualifies as FTL as described here. Possibility Faster-than-light communication is, by Einstein's theory of relativity, equivalent to time travel. According to Einstein's theory of special relativity, what we measure as the speed of light in a vacuum is actually the fundamental physical constant c. This means that all observers, regardless of their relative velocity, will always measure zero-mass particles such as photons traveling at c in a vacuum. This result means that measurements of time and velocity in different frames are no longer related simply by constant shifts, but are instead related by Poincaré transformations. These transformations have important implications: The relativistic momentum of a massive particle would increase with speed in such a way that at the speed of light an object would have infinite momentum. To accelerate an object of non-zero rest mass to c would require infinite time with any finite acceleration, or infinite acceleration for a finite amount of time. Either way, such acceleration requires infinite energy. Going beyond the speed of light in a homogeneous space would hence require more than infinite energy, which is not generally considered to be a sensible notion. Some observers with sub-light relative motion will disagree about which occurs first of any two events that are separated by a space-like interval. Einstein, A, Relativity:the special and the general theory, pp25-27, Methuen & Co, 1927. In other words, any travel that is faster-than-light will be seen as traveling backwards in time in some other, equally valid, frames of reference, or need to assume the speculative hypothesis of possible Lorentz violations at a presently unobserved scale (for instance the Planck scale). Therefore any theory which permits "true" FTL also has to cope with time travel and all its associated paradoxes, pp82-83 or else to assume the Lorentz invariance to be a symmetry of thermodynamical statistical nature (hence a symmetry broken at some presently unobserved scale). Justifications Despite the established conclusion that relativity precludes FTL travel, some have proposed ways to justify FTL behaviour: Ignore special relativity This option is popular particularly in science fiction. However, empirical and theoretical evidence strongly supports Einstein's theory of special relativity as the correct description of high-speed motion, What is the experimental basis of Special Relativity? which generalizes the more familiar Galilean relativity, which is actually an approximation at conventional (much less than c) speeds. Similarly, general relativity is an overwhelmingly supported and experimentally verified theory of gravitation, except in the regime of very high energy densities over very short distances, where an as-yet-undeveloped theory of quantum gravity is necessary. Special relativity, however, is incorporated easily into quantum field theories. Therefore, even in the broader contexts of general relativity and quantum mechanics, conventional acceleration from subluminal to superluminal speeds is not possible. Faster light (Casimir vacuum and quantum tunnelling) Einstein's equations of special relativity postulate that the speed of light is invariant in inertial frames. That is, it will be the same from any frame of reference moving at a constant speed. The equations do not specify any particular value for the speed of the light, which is an experimentally determined quantity for a fixed unit of length. Since 1983, the unit of length (the meter) has been defined using the speed of light. The experimental determination has been made in vacuum. However, the vacuum we know is not the only possible vacuum which can exist. The vacuum has energy associated with it, called the vacuum energy. This vacuum energy can perhaps be changed in certain cases . When vacuum energy is lowered, light itself has been predicted to go faster than the standard value 'c'. This is known as the Scharnhorst effect. Such a vacuum can be produced by bringing two perfectly smooth metal plates together at near atomic diameter spacing. It is called a Casimir vacuum. Calculations imply that light will go faster in such a vacuum by a minuscule amount: a photon traveling between two plates that are 1 micrometer apart would increase the photon's speed by only about one part in 1036. Accordingly there has as yet been no experimental verification of the prediction. A recent analysis argued out that the Scharnhorst effect cannot be used to send information backwards in time with a single set of plates since the plates' rest frame would define a "preferred frame" for FTL signalling. However, with multiple pairs of plates in motion relative to one another the authors noted that they had no arguments that could "guarantee the total absence of causality violations", and invoked Hawking's speculative chronology protection conjecture which suggests that feedback loops of virtual particles would create "uncontrollable singularities in the renormalized quantum stress-energy" on the boundary of any potential time machine, and thus would require a theory of quantum gravity to fully analyze (with the hope that such a theory would guarantee the impossibility of a true time machine ever forming). Other authors argue that Scharnhorst's original analysis which seemed to show the possibility of faster-than-c signals involved approximations which may be incorrect, so that it is not clear whether this effect could actually increase signal speed at all. [0706.0553] Can Light Signals Travel Faster than c in Nontrivial Vacuua in Flat space-time? Relativistic Causality II The physicists Günter Nimtz and Alfons Stahlhofen, of the University of Koblenz, claim to have violated relativity experimentally by transmitting photons faster than the speed of light. Macroscopic experiments with virtual photons They say they have conducted an experiment in which microwave photons - relatively low energy packets of light - travelled "instantaneously" between a pair of prisms that had been moved up to 3 ft apart, using a phenomenon known as quantum tunnelling. Nimtz told New Scientist magazine: "For the time being, this is the only violation of special relativity that I know of." However, other physicists say that this phenomenon does not allow information to be transmitted faster than light. Aephraim Steinberg, a quantum optics expert at the University of Toronto, Canada, uses the analogy of a train traveling from Chicago to New York, but dropping off train cars at each station along the way, so that the center of the train moves forward at each stop; in this way, the center of the train exceeds the speed of any of the individual cars. Give up causality Another approach is to accept special relativity, but to posit that mechanisms allowed by general relativity (e.g., wormholes) will allow traveling between two points without going through the intervening space. While this gets around the infinite acceleration problem, it still would lead to closed timelike curves (i.e., time travel) and causality violations. Causality is not required by special or general relativity, but is nonetheless generally considered a basic property of the universe that cannot be sensibly dispensed with. Because of this, most physicists expect (or perhaps hope) that quantum gravity effects will preclude this option. An alternative is to conjecture that, while time travel is possible, it never leads to paradoxes; this is the Novikov self-consistency principle. An important point to note is that in general relativity it is possible for objects to be moving apart faster than light because of the expansion of the universe, in some reasonable choice of cosmological coordinates. This is understood to be due to the expansion of the space between the objects, and general relativity still reduces to special relativity in a "local" sense, meaning that two objects passing each other in a small local region of spacetime cannot have a relative velocity greater than c, and will move more slowly than a light beam passing through the region. (See Option F below) Give up (absolute) relativity Because of the strong empirical support for special relativity, any modifications to it must necessarily be quite subtle and difficult to measure. The best-known attempt is doubly-special relativity, which posits that the Planck length is also the same in all reference frames, and is associated with the work of Giovanni Amelino-Camelia and João Magueijo. One consequence of this theory is a variable speed of light, where photon speed would vary with energy, and some zero-mass particles might possibly travel faster than c. While recent evidence casts doubt on this theory, some physicists still consider it viable. However, even if this theory is accurate, it is still very unclear whether it would allow information to be communicated, and appears not in any case to allow massive particles to exceed c. There are speculative theories that claim inertia is produced by the combined mass of the universe (e.g., Mach's principle), which implies that the rest frame of the universe might be preferred by conventional measurements of natural law. If confirmed, this would imply special relativity is an approximation to a more general theory, but since the relevant comparison would (by definition) be outside the observable universe, it is difficult to imagine (much less construct) experiments to test this hypothesis. Non-physical realms A very popular option in space opera is to assume the existence of some other realm (typically called hyperspace, subspace, or slipspace) which is accessible from this universe, in which the laws of relativity are usually distorted, bent, or nonexistent, facilitating rapid transport between distant points in this universe, sometimes with acceleration differences - that is, not requiring as much energy or thrust to go faster. To accomplish rapid transport between points in hyperspace/subspace, special relativity is often assumed not to apply in this other realm, or that the speed of light is higher. Another solution is to posit that distant points in the mundane universe correspond to points that are close together in hyperspace. This method of faster-than-light travel does not correspond to anything seriously proposed by mainstream science. Space-time distortion Although the theory of special relativity forbids objects to have a relative velocity greater than light speed, and general relativity reduces to special relativity in a local sense (in small regions of spacetime where curvature is negligible), general relativity does allow the space between distant objects to expand in such a way that they have a "recession velocity" which exceeds the speed of light, and it is thought that galaxies which are at a distance of more than about 14 billion light years from us today have a recession velocity which is faster than light. Miguel Alcubierre theorized that it would be possible to create an Alcubierre drive, in which a ship would be enclosed in a "warp bubble" where the space at the front of the bubble is rapidly contracting and the space at the back is rapidly expanding, with the result that the bubble can reach a distant destination much faster than a light beam moving outside the bubble, but without objects inside the bubble locally traveling faster than light. However, several objections raised against the Alcubierre drive appear to rule out the possibility of actually using it in any practical fashion. Another possibility predicted by general relativity is the traversable wormhole, which could create a shortcut between arbitrarily distant points in space. As with the Alcubierre drive, travelers moving through the wormhole would not locally move faster than light which travels through the wormhole alongside them, but they would be able to reach their destination (and return to their starting location) faster than light traveling outside the wormhole. Dr. Gerald Cleaver, associate professor of physics at Baylor University, and Richard Obousy, a Baylor graduate student, theorize that by manipulating the extra spatial dimensions of string theory around a spaceship with an extremely large amount of energy, it would create a “bubble” that could cause the ship to travel faster than the speed of light. To create this bubble, the physicists believe manipulating the 10th spatial dimension would alter the dark energy in three large spatial dimensions: height, width and length. Cleaver said positive dark energy is currently responsible for speeding up the expansion rate of our universe as time moves on, just like it did after the Big Bang, when the universe expanded much faster than the speed of light for a very brief time. Traveling Faster Than the Speed of Light: A New Idea That Could Make It Happen Newswise, Retrieved on August 24, 2008. Quantized space and time As given by the planck length, there is a minimum amount of 'space' that can exist in this universe (1.616×10−35 meters). This limit can be used to determine a minimum time quantisation of 5.391×10−44 seconds, which corresponds to a beam of light with a wavelength approaching the planck length. This means that there is a physical limit to how much blue shift a beam of light can endure. According to general relativity there is no limit to this shift, and an infinitesimally small space can exist, but according to well accepted quantum theory these limits do exist. This is precisely what happens towards the center of a black hole; the incoming light becomes blue shifted past the planck length as it approaches the region of discontinuity within our universe. The argument is: if a black hole with finite mass can create such a discontinuity in the fabric of space and time, why would people be unable to do the same thing using a finite amount of energy and acceleration? (According to general relativity, the space-time distortions caused by gravity are fundamentally identical to space-time distortions caused simply by accelerating your reference frame). Tachyons In special relativity, while it is impossible to accelerate an object to the speed of light, or for a massive object to move at the speed of light, it is not impossible for an object to exist which always moves faster than light. The hypothetical elementary particles that have this property are called tachyons. Their existence has neither been proven nor disproven, but even so, attempts to quantise them show that they may not be used for faster-than-light communication. Physicists sometimes regard the existence of mathematical structures similar to Tachyons arising from theoretical models and theories as signs of an inconsistency or that the theory needs further refining. General relativity General relativity was developed after special relativity to include concepts like gravity. It maintains the principle that no object can accelerate to the speed of light in the reference frame of any coincident observer. However, it permits distortions in spacetime that allow an object to move faster than light from the point of view of a distant observer. One such distortion is the Alcubierre drive, which can be thought of as producing a ripple in spacetime that carries an object along with it. Another possible system is the wormhole, which connects two distant locations as though by a shortcut. Both distortions would need to create a very strong curvature in a highly localized region of space-time and their gravity fields would be immense. To counteract the unstable nature, and prevent the distortions from collapsing under their own 'weight', one would need to introduce hypothetical exotic matter or negative energy. General relativity also agrees that any technique for faster-than-light travel could also be used for time travel. This raises problems with causality. Many physicists believe that the above phenomena are in fact impossible, and that future theories of gravity will prohibit them. One theory states that stable wormholes are possible, but that any attempt to use a network of wormholes to violate causality would result in their decay. In string theory Eric Gimon and Petr Hořava have argued that in a supersymmetric five-dimensional Gödel universe quantum corrections to general relativity effectively cut off regions of spacetimes with causality-violating closed timelike curves. In particular, in the quantum theory a smeared supertube is present that cuts the spacetime in such a way that, although in the full spacetime a closed timelike curve passed through every point, no complete curves exist on the interior region bounded by the tube. FTL phenomena In these examples, certain influences may appear to travel faster than light, but they do not convey energy or information faster than light, so they do not violate special relativity. Light spots and shadows If a laser is swept across a distant object, the spot of light can easily be made to move at a speed greater than c. Similarly, a shadow projected onto a distant object can be made to move faster than c. In neither case does any matter or information travel faster than light. Closing speeds An observer may conclude that two objects are moving faster than the speed of light relative to each other, by adding their velocities according to the principle of Galilean relativity. For example, two fast-moving particles approaching each other from opposite sides of a particle accelerator will appear to be moving at slightly less than twice the speed of light, relative to each other, from the point of view of an observer standing at rest relative to the accelerator. This correctly reflects the rate at which the distance between the two particles is decreasing, from the observer's point of view and is called the closing speed. However, it is not the same as the velocity of one of the particles as would be measured by a hypothetical fast-moving observer traveling alongside the other particle. To obtain this, the calculation must be done according to the principle of special relativity. If the two particles are moving at velocities v and -v, or expressed in units of c, and , where then this relative velocity (again in units of the speed of light c) is , which is less than the speed of light. Proper speeds If a spaceship travels to a planet one light year (as measured in the Earth's rest frame) away from Earth at high speed, the time taken to reach that planet could be less than one year as measured by the traveller's clock (although it will always be more than one year as measured by a clock on Earth). The value obtained by dividing the distance travelled, as determined in the Earth's frame, by the time taken, measured by the traveller's clock, is known as a proper speed or a proper velocity. There is no limit on the value of a proper speed as a proper speed does not represent a speed measured in a single inertial frame. A light signal that left the Earth at the same time as the traveller would always get to the destination before the traveller. Phase velocities above c The phase velocity of an electromagnetic wave, when traveling through a medium, can routinely exceed c, the vacuum velocity of light. For example, this occurs in most glasses at X-ray frequencies . However, the phase velocity of a wave corresponds to the propagation speed of a theoretical single-frequency (purely monochromatic) component of the wave at that frequency. Such a wave component must be infinite in extent and of constant amplitude (otherwise it is not truly monochromatic), and so cannot convey any information . Thus a phase velocity above c does not imply the propagation of signals with a velocity above c. Group velocities above c The group velocity of a wave (e.g. a light beam) may also exceed c in some circumstances. In such cases, which typically at the same time involve rapid attenuation of the intensity, the maximum of the envelope of a pulse may travel with a velocity above c. However, even this situation does not imply the propagation of signals with a velocity above c, even though one may be tempted to associate pulse maxima with signals. The latter association has been shown to be misleading, basically because the information on the arrival of a pulse can be obtained before the pulse maximum arrives. For example, if some mechanism allows the full transmission of the leading part of a pulse while strongly attenuating the pulse maximum and everything behind, the pulse maximum is effectively shifted forward in time, while the information on the pulse does not come faster than without this effect. Universal expansion The expansion of the universe causes distant galaxies to recede from us faster than the speed of light, if comoving distance and cosmological time are used to calculate the speeds of these galaxies. However, in general relativity, velocity is a local notion, so velocity calculated using comoving coordinates does not have any simple relation to velocity calculated locally. Cosmology Tutorial - Part 2 Rules that apply to relative velocities in special relativity, such as the rule that relative velocities cannot increase past the speed of light, do not apply to relative velocities in comoving coordinates, which are often described in terms of the "expansion of space" between galaxies. This expansion rate is thought to have been at its peak during the inflationary epoch thought to have occurred in a tiny fraction of the second after the Big Bang (models suggest the period would have been from around 10-36 seconds after the Big Bang to around 10-33 seconds), when the universe may have rapidly expanded by a factor of around 1020 – 1030. Inflationary Period from HyperPhysics Astronomical observations Apparent superluminal motion is observed in many radio galaxies, blazars, quasars and recently also in microquasars. The effect was predicted before it was observed by Martin Rees and can be explained as an optical illusion caused by the object partly moving in the direction of the observer, Rees, M. J., "Appearance of relativistically expanding radio sources", Nature 211, 468, 1966. when the speed calculations assume it does not. The phenomenon does not contradict the theory of special relativity. Interestingly, corrected calculations show these objects have velocities close to the speed of light (relative to our reference frame). They are the first examples of large amounts of mass moving at close to the speed of light. R. D. Blandford, C. F. McKee and M. J. Rees, "Super-luminal expansion in extragalactic radio sources", Nature 267, 211, 1977. Earth-bound laboratories have only been able to accelerate small numbers of elementary particles to such speeds. Quantum mechanics Certain phenomena in quantum mechanics, such as quantum entanglement, appear to transmit information faster than light. According to the No-communication theorem these phenomena do not allow true communication; they only let two observers in different locations see the same event simultaneously, without any way of controlling what either sees. Wavefunction collapse can be viewed as an epiphenomenon of quantum decoherence, which in turn is nothing more than an effect of the underlying local time evolution of the wavefunction of a system and all of its environment. Since the underlying behaviour doesn't violate local causality or allow FTL it follows that neither does the additional effect of wavefunction collapse, whether real or apparent. The uncertainty principle implies that individual photons may travel for short distances at speeds somewhat faster (or slower) than c, even in a vacuum; this possibility must be taken into account when enumerating Feynman diagrams for a particle interaction. To quote Richard Feynman: However, macroscopically these fluctuations average out, so that photons do travel in straight lines over long (i.e. non-quantum) distances, and they do travel at the speed of light on average. Therefore, this does not imply the possibility of superluminal information transmission. There have been various reports in the popular press of experiments on faster-than-light transmission in optics—most often in the context of a kind of quantum tunneling phenomenon. Usually, such reports deal with a phase velocity or group velocity faster than the vacuum velocity of light. But, recall from above, that a superluminal phase velocity cannot be used for faster-than-light transmission of information. There has sometimes been confusion concerning the latter point. Quantum teleportation transmits quantum information at whatever speed is used to transmit the same amount of classical information, likely the speed of light. This quantum information may theoretically be used in ways that classical information can not, such as in quantum computations involving quantum information only available to the recipient. In science fiction, quantum teleportation is either used as a basis for teleportation of physical objects at the speed of light, presumably preserving some important aspect of the entanglement between the particles of the object, or else is misrepresented as allowing faster-than-light communication. Hartman effect The Hartman effect is the tunnelling effect through a barrier where the tunnelling time tends to a constant for large barriers. J.C. Martinez, and E. Polatdemir, "Origin of the Hartman effect", Physics Letters A, Vol 351, Iss 1-2, 20 February 2006, pp31-36. This was first described by Thomas Hartman in 1962. T. E. Hartman, "Tunneling of a wave packet", J. Appl. Phys. 33, 3427 (1962). This could, for instance, be the gap between two prisms. When the prisms are in contact, the light passes straight through, but when there is a gap, the light is refracted. There is a finite probability that the photon will tunnel across the gap rather than follow the refracted path. For large gaps between the prisms the tunnelling time approaches a constant and thus the photons appear to have crossed with a superluminal speed. G. Nimtz, A. A. Stahlhofen, "Macroscopic violation of special relativity", 5 August 2007 available as eprint However, an analysis by Herbert Winful from the University of Michigan suggests that the Hartman effect cannot actually be used to violate relativity by transmitting signals faster than c, because the tunnelling time "should not be linked to a velocity since evanescent waves do not propagate". Winful, H, "Tunneling time, the Hartman effect, and superluminality: A proposed resolution of an old paradox", Physics Reports, Vol 436, Iss 1-2, December 2006, pp1-69. Winful means by this that the photons crossing the barrier are virtual photons only existing in the interaction and could not be propagated into the outside world. Casimir effect In physics, the Casimir effect or Casimir-Polder force is a physical force exerted between separate objects due to resonance of vacuum energy in the intervening space between the objects. This is sometimes described in terms of virtual particles interacting with the objects, due to the mathematical form of one possible way of calculating the strength of the effect. Because the strength of the force falls off rapidly with distance, it is only measurable when the distance between the objects is extremely small. Energy appears suddenly as if it came from the vacuum. See Option B above for a discussion of whether or not this effect could actually be used to send signals faster than c or violate causality. EPR Paradox We can also quote the spectacular case of the thought experiment of Einstein, Podolski and Rosen (EPR paradox) which could be realized in experiments for the first time by Alain Aspect in 1981 and 1982. In this case, the measurement of the state on one of the quantum systems of an entangled pair forces the other system to be measured in the complementary state. Thus functions quantum teleportation. An experiment performed in 1997 by Nicolas Gisin at the University of Geneva has demonstrated nonlocal quantum correlations between particles separated by over 10 kilometers. History But as noted earlier, the nonlocal correlations seen in entanglement cannot actually be used to transmit classical information faster than light, so that relativistic causality is preserved; see no-communication theorem for further information. Delayed choice quantum eraser Delayed choice quantum eraser (The experiment of Marlan Scully) is an alternative of the EPR paradox in which the observation or not of interference after the passage of a photon through a double slit experiment depends on the conditions of observation of a second photon entangled with the first. The characteristic of this experiment is that the observation of the second photon can take place at a later time than the observation of the first photon, Delayed Choice Quantum Eraser which may give the impression that the measurement of the later photons "retroactively" determines whether the earlier photons show interference or not, although the interference pattern can only be seen by correlating the measurements of both members of every pair and so it can't be observed until both photons have been measured, ensuring that an experimenter watching only the photons going through the slit does not obtain information about the other photons in an FTL or backwards-in-time manner (see the delayed choice quantum eraser article for further information). Variable speed of light In conventional physics, the speed of light in a vacuum is assumed to be a constant. There exist theories which postulate that the speed of light is not a constant. The interpretation of this statement is as follows. The speed of light is a dimensional quantity and so, as has been emphasized in this context by João Magueijo, it cannot be measured. Measurable quantities in physics are, without exception, dimensionless, although they are often constructed as ratios of dimensional quantities. For example, when you measure the height of a mountain you really measure the ratio of its height to the length of a meterstick. The conventional SI system of units is based on seven basic dimensional quantities, namely distance, mass, time, electric current, thermodynamic temperature, amount of substance, and luminous intensity . These units are defined to be independent and so cannot be described in terms of each other. As an alternative to using a particular system of units, one can reduce all measurements to dimensionless quantities expressed in terms of ratios between the quantities being measured and various fundamental constants such as Newton's constant, the speed of light and Planck's constant; physicists can define at least 26 dimensionless constants which can be expressed in terms of these sorts of ratios and which are currently thought to be independent of one another. By manipulating the basic dimensional constants one can also construct the Planck time, Planck length and Planck energy which make a good system of units for expressing dimensional measurements, known as Planck units. Magueijo's proposal used a different set of units, a choice which he justifies with the claim that some equations will be simpler in these new units. In the new units he fixes the fine structure constant, a quantity which some people, using units in which the speed of light is fixed, have claimed is time dependent. Thus in the system of units in which the fine structure constant is fixed, the observational claim is that the speed of light is time-dependent. While it may be mathematically possible to construct such a system, it is not clear what additional explanatory power or physical insight such a system would provide, assuming that it does indeed accord with existing empirical data. Notes References D F Falla and M J Floyd, "Superluminal motion in astronomy", Eur. J. Phys. 23 69-81, 2002 Michio Kaku: Faster than Light; in Physics of the impossible. pages 197 - 215, Allen Lane, London 2008, ISBN 978-0-7139-9992-1, Günter Nimtz (et al.): Zero time space - how quantum tunneling broke the light speed barrier. Wiley-VCH, Weinheim 2008, ISBN 978-3-527-40735-4 John G. Cramer: Faster-than-Light Implications of Quantum Entanglement and Nonlocality. in: Marc G. Millis (et al.): Frontiers of Propulsion Science. pages 509 - 529, American Inst. of Aeronautics & Astronautics, Reston 2009, ISBN 1-56347-956-7 See also :Category:Faster-than-light travel :Category:Faster-than-light communication Günter Nimtz Intergalactic travel Fiction Hyperspace (science fiction) Jump drive Jumpgate Warp drive (Star Trek) Starburst (Farscape) Slipstream (science fiction) Skip drive Infinite Improbability Drive Quantum tunnelling Inertialess drive Stargate (device) Ansible Ultrawave Mass Effect Relay Macross#Themes FTL (Battlestar Galactica) Interdimensional Drive (Earth Final Conflict) External links Scientific links Encyclopedia of laser physics and technology on "superluminal transmission", with more details on phase and group velocity, and on causality July 22, 1997, The New York Times Company: Signal Travels Farther and Faster Than Light Markus Pössel: Faster-than-light (FTL) speeds in tunneling experiments: an annotated bibliography The Warp Drive: Hyper-Fast Travel Within General Relativity, Miguel Alcubierre Class. Quantum Grav. 11 (1994), L73-L77 Usenet Physics FAQ: is FTL travel or communication Possible? Superluminal Relativity, FTL and causality Subluminal - Java applet demonstrating group velocity information limits Proposed FTL Methods links conical-and-paraboloidal-superluminal-particle-accelerators/ Relativity and FTL (=Superluminal motion) Travel Homepage Advanced Interstellar Propulsion How to Travel Extreme Distances in Space. 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5,574 | Economies_of_scale | The increase in output from Q to Q2 causes a decrease in the average cost of each unit from c to C1. Economies of scale, in microeconomics, are the cost advantages that a business obtains due to expansion. They are factors that cause a producer’s average cost per unit to fall as scale is increased. Economies of scale is a long run concept and refers to reductions in unit cost as the size of a facility, or scale, increases. Diseconomies of scale are the opposite. Economies of scale may be utilized by any size firm expanding its scale of operation. The common ones are purchasing (bulk buying of materials through long-term contracts), managerial (increasing the specialization of managers), financial (obtaining lower-interest charges when borrowing from banks and having access to a greater range of financial instruments), and marketing (spreading the cost of advertising over a greater range of output in media markets). Each of these factors reduces the long run average costs (LRAC) of production by shifting the short-run average total cost (SRATC) curve down and to the right. Overview Economies of scale is a practical concept that is important for explaining real world phenomena such as patterns of international trade, the number of firms in a market, and how firms get "too big to fail". Economies of scale is related to and can easily be confused with the theoretical economic notion of "returns to scale". Where economies of scale refer to a firm's costs, returns to scale describe the relationship between inputs and outputs in a long-run (all inputs variable) production function. A production function has constant returns to scale if increasing all inputs by some proportion results in output increasing by that same proportion. Returns are decreasing if, say, doubling inputs results in less than double the output, and increasing if more than double the output. If a mathematical function is used to represent the production function, returns to scale are represented by the degree of homogeneity of the function. Production functions with constant returns to scale are first degree homogeneous; increasing returns to scale are represented by degrees of homogeneity greater than one, and decreasing returns to scale by degrees of homogeneity less than one. The confusion between the practical concept of economies of scale and the theoretical notion of returns to scale arises from the fact that large fixed costs, such as occur from investment in a factory or from research and development, are an important source of real world economies of scale. In conventional microeconomic theory there can be no increasing returns to scale when there are fixed costs, since this implies at least one input that cannot be increased. A natural monopoly is often defined as a firm which enjoys economies of scale for all reasonable firm sizes; because it is always more efficient for one firm to expand than for new firms to be established, the natural monopoly has no competition. Because it has no competition, it is likely the monopoly has significant market power. Hence, some industries that have been claimed to be characterized by natural monopoly have been regulated or publicly-owned. In the short run at least one factor of production is fixed. Therefore the SRAC curve will fall and then rise as diminishing returns sets in. In the long run however all factors of production vary and therefore the LRAC curve will fall and then rise according to economies and diseconomies of scale. There are two typical ways to achieve economies of scale: High fixed cost and constant marginal cost Low or no fixed cost and declining marginal cost Economies of scale refers to the decreased per unit cost as output increases. More clearly, the initial investment of capital is diffused (spread) over an increasing number of units of output, and therefore, the marginal cost of producing a good or service is less than the average total cost per unit (note that this is only in an industry that is experiencing economies of scale). An example will clarify. AFC is average fixed cost. If a company is currently in a situation with economies of scale, for instance, electricity, then as their initial investment of $1000 is spread over 100 customers, their AFC is . If that same utility now has 200 customers, their AFC becomes ... their fixed cost is now spread over 200 units of output. In economies of scale this results in a lower average total cost. The advantage is that "buying bulk is cheaper on a per-unit basis." Hence, there is economy (in the sense of "efficiency") to be gained on a larger scale. Economies of scale tend to occur in industries with high capital costs in which those costs can be distributed across a large number of units of production (both in absolute terms and, especially, relative to the size of the market). A common example is a factory. An investment in machinery is made, and one worker, or unit of production, begins to work on the machine and produces a certain number of goods. If another worker is added to the machine he or she is able to produce an additional amount of goods without adding significantly to the factory's cost of operation. The amount of goods produced grows significantly faster than the plant's cost of operation. Hence, the cost of producing an additional good is less than the good before it, and an economy of scale emerges. Economies of scale are also derived partially from learning by doing. The exploitation of economies of scale helps explain why companies grow large in some industries. It is also a justification for free trade policies, since some economies of scale may require a larger market than is possible within a particular country — for example, it would not be efficient for Liechtenstein to have its own car maker, if they would only sell to their local market. A lone car maker may be profitable, however, if they export cars to global markets in addition to selling to the local market. Economies of scale also play a role in a "natural monopoly." Typically, because there are fixed costs of production, economies of scale are initially increasing, and as volume of production increases, eventually diminishing, which produces the standard U-shaped cost curve of economic theory. In some economic theory (e.g., "perfect competition") there is an assumption of constant returns to scale. Examples Economies of scale — As a firm doubles output, the total cost of inputs less than doubles Diseconomies of scale — As a firm doubles its output, the total cost of inputs more than doubles. References Joaquim Silvestre (1987). "economies and diseconomies of scale," The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics, v. 2, pp. 80–84. See also Diseconomies of scale Economies of scope Ideal firm size Returns to scale The Long Tail External links Economies of Scale Definition by The Linux Information Project (LINFO) | Economies_of_scale |@lemmatized increase:14 output:11 q:1 cause:2 decrease:4 average:7 cost:29 unit:10 c:1 economy:27 scale:43 microeconomics:1 advantage:2 business:1 obtains:1 due:1 expansion:1 factor:4 producer:1 per:4 fall:3 long:6 run:6 concept:3 refers:2 reduction:1 size:5 facility:1 diseconomies:5 opposite:1 may:3 utilize:1 firm:11 expand:2 operation:3 common:2 one:7 purchase:1 bulk:2 buying:2 material:1 term:2 contract:1 managerial:1 specialization:1 manager:1 financial:2 obtain:1 low:3 interest:1 charge:1 borrow:1 bank:1 access:1 great:3 range:2 instrument:1 marketing:1 spread:4 advertising:1 medium:1 market:8 reduce:1 lrac:2 production:11 shift:1 short:2 total:5 sratc:1 curve:4 right:1 overview:1 practical:2 important:2 explain:2 real:2 world:2 phenomenon:1 pattern:1 international:1 trade:2 number:4 get:1 big:1 fail:1 relate:1 easily:1 confuse:1 theoretical:2 economic:3 notion:2 return:13 refer:1 describe:1 relationship:1 input:7 variable:1 function:6 constant:4 proportion:2 result:3 say:1 double:7 less:5 mathematical:1 use:1 represent:3 degree:4 homogeneity:3 first:1 homogeneous:1 confusion:1 arises:1 fact:1 large:5 fixed:5 occur:2 investment:4 factory:3 research:1 development:1 source:1 conventional:1 microeconomic:1 theory:3 fix:3 since:2 implies:1 least:2 cannot:1 natural:4 monopoly:5 often:1 define:1 enjoy:1 reasonable:1 always:1 efficient:2 new:2 establish:1 competition:3 likely:1 significant:1 power:1 hence:3 industry:4 claim:1 characterize:1 regulate:1 publicly:1 therefore:3 srac:1 rise:2 diminish:2 set:1 however:2 vary:1 accord:1 two:1 typical:1 way:1 achieve:1 high:2 marginal:3 decline:1 clearly:1 initial:2 capital:2 diffuse:1 produce:6 good:6 service:1 note:1 experience:1 example:3 clarify:1 afc:3 company:2 currently:1 situation:1 instance:1 electricity:1 customer:2 utility:1 becomes:1 cheap:1 basis:1 sense:1 efficiency:1 gain:1 tend:1 distribute:1 across:1 absolute:1 especially:1 relative:1 machinery:1 make:1 worker:2 begin:1 work:1 machine:2 certain:1 another:1 add:2 able:1 additional:2 amount:2 without:1 significantly:2 grows:1 faster:1 plant:1 emerges:1 also:4 derive:1 partially:1 learn:1 exploitation:1 help:1 grow:1 justification:1 free:1 policy:1 require:1 possible:1 within:1 particular:1 country:1 would:2 liechtenstein:1 car:3 maker:2 sell:2 local:2 lone:1 profitable:1 export:1 global:1 addition:1 play:1 role:1 typically:1 initially:1 volume:1 eventually:1 standard:1 u:1 shape:1 e:1 g:1 perfect:1 assumption:1 examples:1 reference:1 joaquim:1 silvestre:1 palgrave:1 dictionary:1 economics:1 v:1 pp:1 see:1 scope:1 ideal:1 tail:1 external:1 link:1 definition:1 linux:1 information:1 project:1 linfo:1 |@bigram diseconomies_scale:5 input_output:1 microeconomic_theory:1 palgrave_dictionary:1 external_link:1 |
5,575 | Aarau | Aarau is the capital of the northern Swiss canton of Aargau. The city is also the capital of the district of Aarau. It is German-speaking and predominantly Protestant. Aarau is situated on the Swiss plateau, in the valley of the Aar, on the river's right bank, and at the southern foot of the Jura mountains, Bridgwater, W. & Beatrice Aldrich. (1966) The Columbia-Viking Desk Encyclopedia. Columbia University. p. 11. and is west of Zurich. "Aarau." Encyclopædia Britannica, 20 December 2006. The municipality borders directly on the Canton of Solothurn to the west. It is the third-largest city in Aargau after Wettingen and Baden. Geography and Geology Aarau The old city of Aarau is situated on a rocky outcropping at a narrowing of the Aar river valley, at the southern foot of the Jura mountains. Newer districts of the city lie to the south and east of the outcropping, as well as higher up the mountain, and in the valley on both sides of the Aar. The neighboring municipalities are Küttigen to the north, Rohr and Buchs to the east, Suhr to the south-east, Unterentfelden to the south, and Eppenberg-Wöschnau and Erlinsbach to the west. Aarau and the nearby neighboring municipalities have grown together and now form an interconnected agglomeration. The only exceptions are Unterentfelden and Eppenberg-Wöschnau to the south, whose settlements are divided from Aarau by the expansive forests of Gönhard and Zelgli. Approximately nine tenths of the city is south of the Aar, and one tenth is to the north. The area of the municipality is 894 hectares, of which 301 are forested and 491 are developed. The lowest elevation, 365 meters, is found at the banks of the Aar, and the highest elevation, at 471 meters, is the Hungerberg on the border with Küttigen. History Prehistory Schlössli City Hall Rore Tower Town Church Tower Upper Gate Tower A few artifacts from the Neolithic period were found in Aarau. Near the location of the present train station, the ruins of a settlement from the Bronze Age (about 1000 BC) have been excavated. The Roman road between Salodurum (Solothurn) and Vindonissa passed through the area, along the route now covered by the Bahnhofstrasse. In 1976 divers in the Aar found part of a seven-meter wide wooden bridge from the late Roman times. Middle Ages Aarau was founded around AD 1240 by the counts of Kyburg. "Aarau." Encyclopædia Britannica, 20 December 2006. The first certain reference to the city dates to 1256. The town was ruled from the "Rore" tower, which has been incorporated into the modern city hall. In 1273 the counts of Kyburg died out. Agnes of Kyburg, who had no male relations, sold the family's lands to King Rudolf I von Habsburg. He granted Aarau its city rights in 1283. In the 14th Century the city was expanded in two stages, and a second defesive wall was constructed. A deep ditch separated the city from its "suburb;" its location is today marked by a wide street named "Graben" (meaning Ditch). In 1415 Bern invaded lower Aargau with the help of Solothurn. Aarau capitulated after a short resistance, and was forced to swear allegiance to the new rulers. In the 16th Century, the rights of the lower classes were abolished. In March 1528 the citizens of Aarau allowed the introduction of Protestantism at the urging of the Bernese. A growth in population during the 16th Century led to taller buildings and denser construction methods. Early forms of industry developed at this time; however, unlike in other cities, no guilds were formed in Aarau. Starting in the early 18th century, the textile industry was established in Aarau. German immigration contributed to the city's favorable conditions, in that they introduced the cotton and silk factories. These highly educated immigrants were also responsible for education reform and the enlightened, revolutionary spirit that developed in Aarau. 1798: Capital of the Helvetic Republic On December 27, 1797, the last Tagsatzung of the Old Swiss Confederacy was held in Aarau. Two weeks later a French envoy continued to foment the revolutionary opinions of the city. The contrast between a high level of education and a low level of political rights was particularly great in Aarau, and the city refused to send troops to defend the Bernese border. By Mid-March 1798 Aarau was occupied by French troops. On March 22, 1798 Aarau was declared the capital of the Helvetic Republic. It is therefore the first capital of a unified Switzerland. Parliament met in the city hall. On September 20, the capital was moved to Lucerne. Aarau as canton capital In 1803, Napoleon ordered the fusion of the cantons of Aargau, Baden and Fricktal. Aarau was declared the capital of the new, enlarged canton of Aargau. In 1820 the city wall was torn down, with exception of the individual towers and gates, and the defensive ditches were filled in. The wooden bridge, dating from the Middle Ages, across the Aar was destroyed by floods three times in thirty years, and was replaced with a steel suspension bridge in 1851. This was replaced by a concrete bridge in 1952. The city connected to the Swiss Central Railroad in 1856. The textile industry in Aarau broke down in about 1850 because of the protectionist tariff policies of neighboring states. Other industries had developed by that time to replace it, including the production of mathematical instruments, shoes and cement. Beginning in 1900, numerous electrical enterprises developed. By the 1960s, more citizens worked in service industries or for the canton-level government than in manufacturing. During the 1980s many of the industries left Aarau completely. In 1802 the Canton School was established; it was the first non-parochial high school in Switzerland. It developed a good reputation, and was home to Nobel Prize winners Albert Einstein, Paul Karrer, and Werner Arber, as well as several Swiss politicians and authors. The purchase of a manuscript collection in 1803 laid the foundation for what would become the Cantonal Library, which contains a Bible annotated by Huldrych Zwingli. More newspapers developed in the city, maintaining the revolutionary atmosphere of Aarau. Beginning in 1820, Aarau has been a refuge for political refugees. The urban educational and cultural opportunities of Aarau have been extended through numerous new institutions. A Theater and Concert Hall was constructed in 1883, which was renovated and expanded in 1995-96. The Aargau Nature Museum opened in 1922. A former cloth warehouse was transformed into a small theater in 1974, and the alternative culture center KIFF (Culture in the fodder factory) was established in a former animal fodder factory. Origin of the name The earliest use of the place name was in 1248 (in the form Arowe), and probably referred to the settlement in the area before the founding of the city. It comes, along with the name of the River Aar (which was called Arula, Arola, and Araris in early times), from the German Au, meaning floodplain. Old town Painted Gable The historic old town forms an irregular square, consisting of four parts (called Stöcke). To the south lies the Laurenzenvorstadt, that is, the part of the town formerly outside the city wall. One characteristic of the city is its painted gables, for which Aarau is sometimes called the "City of beautiful Gables". The old town, Laurenzenvorstadt, government building, cantonal library, state archive and art museum are all listed as heritage sites of national significance. Swiss inventory of cultural property of national and regional significance, p. 33. The buildings in the old city originate, on the whole, from building projects during the 16th century, when nearly all the Middle Age period buildings were replaced or expanded. The architectural development of the city ended in the 18th century, when the city began to expand beyond its (still existing) wall. Most of the buildings in the "suburb" date from this time. The "Schlössli" (small Castle), Rore Tower and the upper gate tower have remained nearly unchanged since the 13th century. The "Schlössli" is the oldest building in the city. It was already founded at the time of the establishment of the city shortly after 1200; the exact date is not known. City hall was built around Rore Tower in 1515. View of Aarau from 1612 The upper gate tower stands beside the southern gate in the city wall, along the road to Lucerne and Bern. The jail has been housed in it since the Middle Ages. A Carillon was erected in the tower in the middle of the 20th century, the bells for which were provided by the centuries-old bell manufacturers of Aarau. The town church was built between 1471 and 1478. During the Reformation, in 1528, its twelve altars and accompanying pictures were destroyed. The "Justice fountain" (Gerechtskeitbrunnen) was built in 1634, and is made of french limestone; it includes a statue of Lady Justice made of sandstone, hence the name. It was originally in the street in front of city hall, but was moved to its present location in front of the town church in 1905 due to increased traffic. Economy The largest employer in Aarau is the Canton government, the offices of which are distributed across the entire city at numerous locations. There are approximately 1600 employers in the city, offering a total of 23,000 jobs, of which 0.3% are agricultural, 18% are industrial, and 81% are service industries. This means that Aarau has more jobs than inhabitants. One of the two head offices of the Aargauer Zeitung, Switzerland's fifth largest newspaper, is located in Aarau, as are the Tele M1 television channel studios, and several radio stations. Kern & Co., founded in 1819, was an internationally known geodetic instrument manufacturer based in Aarau. However, it was taken over by Wild Leitz in 1988, and was closed in 1991. More than half of the workers in Aarau live in the city's suburbs, or farther away in the surrounding area. This leads to a busy rush hour, and regular traffic jams. Statistically, Aarau has the most jobs per capita of any Swiss city. The small scale of Aarau causes it to continually expand the borders of its growth. The urban center lies in the middle of the "Golden Triangle" between Zurich, Bern, and Basel, and Aarau is having increasing difficulty in maintaining the independence of its economic base from the neighboring large cities. The idea of merging Aarau with its neighboring suburbs has been recently discussed in hopes of stopping the slowly progressing losses. Manufacture include bells, mathematical instruments, electrical goods, cotton textiles, chemicals, shoes, and other products. Markets and fairs Every Saturday morning there is a vegetable market in the Graben at the edge of the Old City. It is supplied with regional products. In the last week of September the MAG (Market of Aarauer Tradesmen) takes place there, at which regional companies sell their products. The "Rüeblimärt" is held in the same place on the first Wednesday in November, which is a Carrot fair. The Aarau fair is held at the ice skating rink during the Spring. Population Population GrowthYearPopulation1358 ca. 12001764 18681798 24581850 46571880 59141910 95931930 11,6661950 14,2801960 17,0451970 16,8811980 15,7881990 16,4812000 15,470 The population of Aarau grew continuously from 1800 until about 1960, when the city reached a peak population of 17,045, more than five times its population in 1800. However, since 1960 the population has fallen by 8%. There are three reasons for this population loss: firstly, since the completion of Telli (a large apartment complex), the city has not had any more considerable land developments. Secondly, the number of people per household has fallen; thus, the existing dwellings do not hold as many people. Third, population growth was absorbed by neighboring municipalities in the regional urban area, and numerous citizens of Aarau moved into the countryside. This trend might have stopped since the turn of the century. Existing industrial developments are being used for new purposes instead of standing empty. According to the December 2000 census, 20.4% of the population is made up of foreigners, which is just over the Canton average of 19.3%. Approximately one third of the foreign population come from the former Yugoslavia; other major immigrant groups are Germans and Italians. 84.5% speak German, 3.3% speak Italian, 2.9% Serbian, 1.4% Spanish, 1.1% French, 1% Albanian, 1% Turkish, 0.5% English, and 0.5% Portuguese. The population of Aarau was formerly predominately Protestant. Through immigration from other regions in Switzerland, and more so from foreign countries, the Protestant portion of the population has continually decreased, and stands at 43.5% as of 2000. 29.2% were Roman Catholic, 4.8% Muslim, 3.2% Orthodox Christian. Slightly more than 17% of the population indicated that they are not religious. The population has shrunk slightly from 17,045 in 1966 to 15,619 in 2005. Government Legislative In place of a town meeting, a town assembly (Einwohnerrat) of 50 members is elected by the citizens, and follows the policy of proportional representation. It is responsible for approving tax levels, preparing the annual account, and the business report. In addition, it can issue regulations. The term of office is four years. In the last two elections the parties had the following representation: Party 2001 2005 FDP 13 12 SP 12 12 SVP 11 9 CVP 4 4 Pro Aarau 4 4 Green 2 4 EVP 3 3 JETZT! 1 2 At the district level, some elements of the government remain a direct democracy. There are optional and obligatory referendums, and the population retains the right to establish an initiative. Executive The executive authority is the town council (Stadtrat). The term of office is four years, and its members are elected by a plurality voting system. It leads and represents the municipality. It carries out the resolutions of the assembly, and those requested by the canton and national level governments. The seven members (and their party) for the period 2006-2009 are: Dr. Marcel Guignard (FDP) (City President) Beat Blattner (SP) (City Vice President) Jolanda Urech (SP) Rudolf Zinniker (FDP) Lukas Pfisterer (FDP) Carlo Mettauer (CVP) Michael Ganz (Pro Aarau) Notable residents Johann Kaspar Riesbeck (1754-1786), author and actor Johann Rudolf Dolder (1753-1807), politician Sebastian Fahrländer (1768-1841), politician, physician Johann Heinrich Daniel Zschokke (1771-1848), writer Ignaz Paul Vitalis Troxler (1780-1866), physician, politician, philosopher Carl Feer-Herzog (1820-1880), politician Albert Einstein (1879-1955) Charles Tschopp (1899-1982), writer Born in Aarau: Eugen Bircher (1882-1956), politician Ferdinand Rudolph Hassler, (1770-1843), first director of the United States Coast Survey. Maximilian Oskar Bircher-Benner Urs Faes, author Friedrich Frey-Herosé (1801-1873), member of the Swiss Federal Council Hans Herzog (1819-1894), general Paul Hubschmid, actor Klaus Merz, author Nicolas Hunziker, Automotive Fine Artist See also Lenzburg (boasts a historical museum) References External links http://www.aarau.ch | Aarau |@lemmatized aarau:48 capital:8 northern:1 swiss:8 canton:10 aargau:6 city:41 also:3 district:3 german:5 speaking:1 predominantly:1 protestant:3 situate:2 plateau:1 valley:3 aar:8 river:3 right:5 bank:2 southern:3 foot:2 jura:2 mountain:3 bridgwater:1 w:1 beatrice:1 aldrich:1 columbia:2 viking:1 desk:1 encyclopedia:1 university:1 p:2 west:3 zurich:2 encyclopædia:2 britannica:2 december:4 municipality:6 border:4 directly:1 solothurn:3 third:3 large:5 wettingen:1 baden:2 geography:1 geology:1 old:9 rocky:1 outcropping:2 narrowing:1 new:5 lie:3 south:6 east:3 well:2 high:4 side:1 neighboring:2 küttigen:2 north:2 rohr:1 buchs:1 suhr:1 unterentfelden:2 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5,576 | Joseph_Goebbels | Paul Joseph Goebbels (, ; 29 October 1897 1 May 1945) was a German politician and Reich Minister of Propaganda in Nazi Germany from 1933 to 1945. He was one of German dictator Adolf Hitler's closest associates and most devout followers, eventually succeeding him as Chancellor of Germany, an office he held for only one day, carrying out one official act: sending a delegation to seek a ceasefire with the Russians. Goebbels was known for his zealous oratory and anti-Semitism. He was the chief architect of the Kristallnacht attack on the German Jews, which historians consider to be the commencement of the Nazi violence culminating in the Holocaust. Goebbels earned a Ph.D. from Heidelberg University in 1921, writing his doctoral thesis on 18th-century romantic drama; he then went on to work as a journalist and later a bank clerk and caller on the stock exchange. He also wrote novels and plays, but they were refused by publishers. Goebbels came into contact with the Nazi Party in 1923 during the French occupation of the Ruhr and became a member in 1924. He was appointed Gauleiter (regional party leader) of Berlin. In this position, he put his propaganda skills to full use, combating the local socialist and communist parties with the help of Nazi papers and the paramilitary SA. By 1928 he had risen in the party ranks to become one of its most prominent members. Goebbels rose to power in 1933 along with Hitler and the Nazi party, and he was appointed propaganda minister. One of his first acts was the burning of books rejected by the Nazis. He exerted totalitarian control over the media, arts, and information in Germany. In that position, he perfected the "Big Lie" technique of propaganda, which is based on the principle that a lie, if audacious enough and repeated enough times, will be believed by the masses. From the beginning of his tenure, Goebbels organized attacks on German Jews, commencing with the boycott of 1933. His attacks on the Jewish population culminated in the Kristallnacht assault of 1938, an open and unrestrained pogrom unleashed by the Nazis all across Germany, in which scores of Synagogues were burned and hundreds of Jews were assaulted and murdered. ("Kristallnacht" refers to the broken glass spread on the streets, as the Nazis smashed the windows of thousands of Jewish businesses.) Goebbels used modern propaganda techniques to manipulate and psychologically prepare the German people for aggressive war and the annihilation of civilian populations. Among other propaganda devices, he accused Germany's victims (such as the Poles, the Jews, the French) of trying to destroy Germany, claiming that Germany's belligerent actions were taken in self-defense. During World War II, Goebbels increased his power and influence through shifting alliances with other Nazi leaders. By late 1943, the tide of the war was turning against the Axis powers, but this only spurred Goebbels to intensify the propaganda by urging the Germans to accept the idea of total war and mobilization. Goebbels remained with Hitler in Berlin to the end, and following the Führer's suicide he was the second person to serve as the Third Reich's Chancellor — albeit for one day. In his final hours, Goebbels and his wife, Magda, killed their six young children. Shortly after, Goebbels and his wife Magda both committed suicide. Early life Goebbels was born in Rheydt, an industrial town south of Mönchengladbach (of which it is now part) on the edge of the Ruhr district. There are currently no really reliable biographical sources for Goebbels in English. Older biographies have been rendered obsolete by the discovery of the complete Goebbels Diaries in the Moscow archives in 1992. Since then the only full biography in English has been David Irving’s Goebbels: Mastermind of the Third Reich (1996). There are biographical sketches in Joachim Fest, The Face of the Third Reich (Weidenfeld and Nicholson 1970), 83–97, and Richard J. Evans, The Coming of the Third Reich (Penguin 2003), 203–205. His family were Catholics of modest means, his father a factory clerk, his mother originally a farmhand. He had four siblings: Hans (1893–1947), Konrad (1895–1949), Elisabeth (1901–1915) and Maria (born 1910, later married to the German filmmaker Max W. Kimmich). Goebbels was educated at a Christian Gymnasium, or secondary school, where he completed his Abitur (university entrance examination) in 1916. Beginning in childhood, he had a deformed right leg, the result either of club foot or osteomyelitis. Goebbels is commonly said to have had club foot (talipes equinovarus), a congenital condition. But William L. Shirer, who spent the 1930s in Berlin as a journalist and was acquainted with Goebbels, wrote in The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich (Simon and Schuster 1960) that the deformity arose from a childhood attack of osteomyelitis and a botched operation to correct it. Osteomyelitis, an infection within the bone marrow, can cause the destruction of one or more of the growing points in the long bones of the leg, a condition known as septic osteoblastic dysgenesis. This will result in a shortened leg. He wore a metal brace and special shoe to compensate for his shortened leg, but nevertheless walked with a limp all his life. As a result of these conditions, he was rejected for military service in World War I, which he bitterly resented. He later frequently misrepresented himself as a war veteran and misrepresented his disability as a war wound. Fest, The Face of the Third Reich, 88 The nearest he came to military service was as an "office soldier" from June 1917 to October 1917 in Rheydt's "Patriotic Help Unit". Axis History link Goebbels compensated for his severe physical frailty with intellectual accomplishments. Goebbels attended the boarding school of German Franciscan brothers in Bleijerheide, Kerkrade (in the Netherlands). After growing distant from his Catholic faith Richard J. Evans, The Third Reich in Power (Allen Lane 2005), 249, says that "Goebbels’s religious beliefs retained a residual element of Christianity" as opposed to the outright paganism of Alfred Rosenberg and Richard Walther Darré. In one of his last articles, on the occasion of Hitler’s birthday in April 1945, he described Hitler as God’s implement. ("Our Hitler," Völkischer Beobachter, 20 April 1945, online here) he studied literature and philosophy at universities in Bonn, Würzburg, Freiburg im Breisgau and Heidelberg, where he wrote his doctoral thesis on the 18th century romantic novelist Wilhelm von Schütz. His two most influential teachers, Friedrich Gundolf and his doctoral supervisor at Heidelberg, Max Freiherr von Waldberg, were Jews. His intelligence and political astuteness were generally acknowledged even by his enemies. Michael H. Kater, Hitler Youth (Harvard University Press 2004), says that his "intelligent insights into policy matters were second to none in Hitler's entourage." (12) Kater credits Goebbels with persuading Hitler in 1930 to take the recruitment of young supporters into the Hitler Youth seriously. (11) After completing his doctorate in 1921, Goebbels worked as a journalist and tried for several years to become a published author. He wrote a semi-autobiographical novel, Michael, two verse plays, and quantities of romantic poetry. In these works, he revealed the psychological damage his physical limitations had caused. "The very name of the hero, Michael, to whom he gave many autobiographical features, suggests the way his self-identification was pointing: a figure of light, radiant, tall, unconquerable," and above all "'To be a soldier! To stand sentinel! One ought always to be a soldier,' wrote Michael-Goebbels." Fest, The Face of the Third Reich, 88 Goebbels found another form of compensation in the pursuit of women, a lifelong compulsion which he indulged "with extraordinary vigor and a surprising degree of success." Evans, The Coming of the Third Reich, 204 His diaries reveal a long succession of affairs, before and after his marriage in 1931 to Magda Quandt, with whom he had 6 children. Goebbels was embittered by the frustration of his literary career; his novel did not find a publisher until 1929 and his plays were never staged. He found an outlet for his desire to write in his diaries, which he began in 1923 and continued for the rest of his life. In 1992, the missing sections of the diaries were found in the Moscow archives by Dr Elke Fröhlich. A multi-volume edition of the diaries is in preparation. He later worked as a bank clerk and a caller on the stock exchange. Fest, The Face of the Third Reich, 89 During this period, he read avidly and formed his political views. Major influences were Friedrich Nietzsche, Oswald Spengler and, most importantly, Houston Stewart Chamberlain, the British-born German writer who was one of the founders of "scientific" anti-Semitism, and whose book The Foundations of the Nineteenth Century (1899) was one of the standard works of the extreme right in Germany. Goebbels spent the winter of 1919–20 in Munich, where he witnessed and admired the violent nationalist reaction against the attempted communist revolution in Bavaria. His first political hero was Anton Graf von Arco auf Valley, the man who assassinated the Bavarian prime minister Kurt Eisner. Evans, The Coming of the Third Reich, 204 Hitler was in Munich at the same time and entered politics as a result of similar experiences. The culture of the German extreme right was violent and anti-intellectual, which posed a challenge to the physically frail University graduate. Joachim Fest writes: This was the source of his hatred of the intellect, which was a form of self-hatred, his longing to degrade himself, to submerge himself in the ranks of the masses, which ran curiously parallel with his ambition and his tormenting need to distinguish himself. He was incessantly tortured by the fear of being regarded as a ‘bourgeois intellectual’… It always seemed as if he were offering blind devotion (to Nazism) to make up for his lack of all those characteristics of the racial elite which nature had denied him. Fest, The Face of the Third Reich, 87 Nazi Activist Goebbels's 1938 ticket for public transport by the Reichspost, identitifying him as a member of the Reichstag. Like others who were later prominent in the Third Reich, Goebbels came into contact with the Nazi Party in 1923, during the campaign of resistance to the French occupation of the Ruhr. Hitler’s imprisonment following the failed November 1923 "Beer Hall Putsch" left the party temporarily leaderless, and when the 27-year-old Goebbels joined the party in late 1924 the most important influence on his political development was Gregor Strasser, who became Nazi organizer in northern Germany in March 1924. Strasser ("the most able of the leading Nazis" of this period) Ian Kershaw, Hitler, Volume I (W.W. Norton 1999), 270 took the "socialist" component of National Socialism far more seriously than did Hitler and other members of the Bavarian leadership of the party. "National and socialist! What goes first, and what comes afterwards?" Goebbels asked rhetorically in a debate with Theodor Vahlen, Gauleiter (regional party head) of Pomerania, in the Rhineland party newspaper National-sozialistische Briefe (National-Socialist Letters), of which he was editor, in mid 1925. "With us in the west, there can be no doubt. First socialist redemption, then comes national liberation like a whirlwind… Hitler stands between both opinions, but he is on his way to coming over to us completely." Ian Kershaw, Hitler, I, 272 Goebbels, with his journalistic skills, thus soon became a key ally of Strasser in his struggle with the Bavarians over the party program. The conflict was not, so they thought, with Hitler, but with his lieutenants, Rudolf Hess, Julius Streicher and Hermann Esser, who, they said, were mismanaging the party in Hitler’s absence. In 1925, Goebbels published an open letter to "my friends of the left," urging unity between socialists and Nazis against the capitalists. "You and I," he wrote, "we are fighting one another although we are not really enemies." Fest, The Face of the Third Reich, 89. These sentiments were reciprocated by some on the left. Richard F. Hamilton, Who Voted for Hitler?, Princeton University Press 1982, 570 quotes strikingly anti-Semitic statements made by some German Communist leaders in their efforts to create a common front between Communist and National Socialist workers. In February 1926, Hitler, having finished working on Mein Kampf, made a sudden return to party affairs and soon disabused the northerners of any illusions about where he stood. He summoned about sixty gauleiters and other activists, including Goebbels, to a meeting at Bamberg, in Streicher’s Gau of Franconia, where he gave a two-hour speech repudiating the political program of the "socialist" wing of the party. For Hitler, the real enemy of the German people was always the Jews, not the capitalists. Goebbels was bitterly disillusioned. "I feel devastated," he wrote. "What sort of Hitler? A reactionary?" He was horrified by Hitler’s characterization of socialism as "a Jewish creation," his declaration that the Soviet Union must be destroyed, and his assertion that private property would not be expropriated by a Nazi government. "I no longer fully believe in Hitler. That’s the terrible thing: my inner support has been taken away." Ian Kershaw, Hitler, I, 275 Hitler, however, recognized Goebbels’s talents, and he was a shrewd judge of character; he knew that Goebbels craved recognition above all else. In April, he brought Goebbels to Munich, sending his own car to meet him at the railway station, and gave him a long private audience. Hitler berated Goebbels over his support for the "socialist" line, but offered to "wipe the slate clean" if Goebbels would now accept his leadership. Goebbels capitulated completely, offering Hitler his total loyalty — a pledge which was clearly sincere, and which he adhered to until the end of his life. "I love him… He has thought through everything," Goebbels wrote. "Such a sparkling mind can be my leader. I bow to the greater one, the political genius. Later he wrote: "Adolf Hitler, I love you because you are both great and simple at the same time. What one calls a genius." Ian Kershaw, Hitler, I, 277 Fest writes: From this point on he submitted himself, his whole existence, to his attachment to the person of the Führer, consciously eliminating all inhibitions springing from intellect, free will and self-respect. Since this submission was an act less of faith than of insight, it stood firm through all vicissitudes to the end. ‘He who forsakes the Führer withers away,’ he would later write. Propagandist in Berlin In October 1926, Hitler rewarded Goebbels for his new loyalty by making him the party "Gauleiter" for the Berlin section of the National Socialists. Goebbels was then able to use the new position to indulge his literary aspirations in the German capital, which he perceived to be a stronghold of the socialists and communists. Here, Goebbels discovered his talent as a propagandist, writing such tracts as 1926's The Second Revolution and Lenin or Hitler. Current Biography 1941, pp.323-26 Here, he was also able to indulge his heretofore latent taste for violence, if only vicariously through the actions of the street fighters under his command. History, he said, "is made in the street," and he was determined to challenge the dominant parties of the left — the Social Democrats and Communists — in the streets of Berlin. Anthony Read and David Fisher, Berlin: The Biography of a City (Pimlico 1994), 187–189 Working with the local S.A. (stormtrooper) leaders, he deliberately provoked beer-hall battles and street brawls, frequently involving firearms. "Beware, you dogs," he wrote to his former "friends of the left": "When the Devil is loose in me you will not curb him again." When the inevitable deaths occurred, he exploited them for the maximum effect, turning the street fighter Horst Wessel, who was killed at his home by enemy political activists, into a martyr and hero. Fest, The Face of the Third Reich, 90 In Berlin, Goebbels was able to give full expression to his genius for propaganda, as editor of the Berlin Nazi newspaper Der Angriff (The Attack) and as the author of a steady stream of Nazi posters and handbills. "He rose within a few months to be the city’s most feared agitator." Fest, The Face of the Third Reich, 90 His propaganda techniques were totally cynical: "That propaganda is good which leads to success, and that is bad which fails to achieve the desired result," he wrote. "It is not propaganda’s task to be intelligent, its task is to lead to success." Fest, The Face of the Third Reich, 90 Among his favorite targets were socialist leaders such as Hermann Müller and Carl Severing, and the Jewish Berlin Police President, Bernhard Weiss {1880-1951}, whom he subjected to a relentless campaign of Jew-baiting in the hope of provoking a crackdown which he could then exploit. The Social Democrat city government obliged in 1927 with an eight-month ban on the party, which Goebbels exploited to the limit. When a friend criticized him for denigrating Weiss, a man with an exemplary military record, "he explained cynically that he wasn’t in the least interested in Weiss, only in the propaganda effect." Fest, The Face of the Third Reich, 90 Goebbels also discovered a talent for oratory, and was soon second in the Nazi movement only to Hitler as a public speaker. Where Hitler’s style was hoarse and passionate, Goebbels’s was cool, sarcastic and often humorous: he was a master of biting invective and insinuation, although he could whip himself into a rhetoric frenzy if the occasion demanded. Unlike Hitler, however, he retained a cynical detachment from his own rhetoric. He openly acknowledged that he was exploiting the lowest instincts of the German people — racism, xenophobia, class envy and insecurity. He could, he said, play the popular will like a piano, leading the masses wherever he wanted them to go. "He drove his listeners into ecstasy, making them stand up, sing songs, raise their arms, repeat oaths — and he did it, not through the passionate inspiration of the moment, but as the result of sober psychological calculation." Fest, The Face of the Third Reich, 92 Goebbels’s words and actions made little impact on the political loyalties of Berlin. Hamilton, Who Voted for Hitler?, discusses Goebbels's record as an election campaigner. Hamilton notes: "In National Socialist literature, as well as in the writings of the party's opponents, much attention has been given to the masterly demagogic efforts of the Berlin Gauleiter, Joseph Goebbels, showing an extraordinary appreciation of crowd psychology, so it is said, he manipulated audiences with unequaled skill. Goebbels's accomplishment, however, as measured by... voting results, was at all times inferior to that of his less well known colleagues in Hamburg." (109) At the 1928 Reichstag elections, the Nazis polled less than two percent of the vote in Berlin compared with 33 percent for the Social Democrats and 25 percent for the Communists. At this election Goebbels was one of the 10 Nazis elected to the Reichstag, which brought him a salary of 750 Reichsmarks a month and immunity from prosecution. Read and Fisher, Berlin, 189 Even when the impact of the Great Depression led to an enormous surge in support for the Nazis across Germany, Berlin resisted the party’s appeal more than any other part of Germany: at its peak in 1932, the Nazi Party polled 28 percent in Berlin to the combined left’s 55 percent. Wahlen in der Weimarer Republik website But his outstanding talents, and the obvious fact that he stood high in Hitler’s regard, earned Goebbels the grudging respect of the anti-intellectual brawlers of the Nazi movement, who called him "our little doctor" with a mixture of affection and amusement. By 1928, still aged only 31, he was acknowledged to be one of the inner circle of Nazi leaders. "The S.A. would have let itself be hacked to bits for him," wrote Horst Wessel in 1929. Evans, The Coming of the Third Reich, 208 Goebbels speaking at a political rally against the Lausanne Conference (1932) The Great Depression led to a new resurgence of "left" sentiment in some sections of the Nazi Party, led by Gregor Strasser’s brother Otto, who argued that the party ought to be competing with the Communists for the loyalties of the unemployed and the industrial workers by promising to expropriate the capitalists. Hitler, whose dislike of working-class militancy reflected his social origins in the small-town lower-middle class, was thoroughly opposed to this line. He recognized that the growth in Nazi support at the 1930 elections had mainly come from the middle class and from farmers, and he was now busy building bridges to the upper middle classes and to German business. In April 1930, he fired Strasser as head of the Nazi Party national propaganda apparatus and appointed Goebbels to replace him, giving him control of the party’s national newspaper, the Völkischer Beobachter (People’s Observer), as well as other Nazi papers across the country. Goebbels, although he continued to show "leftish" tendencies in some of his actions (such as co-operating with the Communists in supporting the Berlin transport workers' strike in November 1932), Hamilton, Who Voted for Hitler, 389. Hamilton notes that Der Angriff struck a noticeably "anti-bourgeois" tone in the last years of the Weimar Republic (416). was totally loyal to Hitler in his struggle with the Strassers, which culminated in Otto’s expulsion from the party in July 1930. Gregor lost all his power but remained nominal head of the party organisation until 1932: he was murdered in 1934 in the Night of the Long Knives. Otto went into exile. Despite his revolutionary rhetoric, Goebbels’s most important contribution to the Nazi cause between 1930 and 1933 was as the organizer of successive election campaigns: The Reichstag elections of September 1930, July and November 1932 and March 1933, and Hitler’s presidential campaign of March–April 1932. He proved to be an organizer of genius, choreographing Hitler’s dramatic airplane tours of Germany and pioneering the use of radio and cinema for electoral campaigning. The Nazi Party’s use of torchlight parades, brass bands, massed choirs, and similar techniques caught the imagination of many voters, particularly young people. "His propaganda headquarters in Munich sent out a constant stream of directives to local and regional party sections, often providing fresh slogans and fresh material for the campaign." Evans, The Coming of the Third Reich, 259. Evans notes that many Nazi voters in the party’s breakthrough election in 1930 were young or other first-time voters, brought to the polls by the excitement generated by Goebbels’s campaign techniques. Although the spectacular rise in the Nazi vote in 1930 and July 1932 was caused mainly by the effects of the Depression, Goebbels as party campaign manager was naturally given much of the credit. Propaganda Minister When Hitler was appointed Reich Chancellor of Germany on 30 January 1933, Goebbels was initially given no office: the coalition cabinet which Hitler headed contained only a minority of Nazis as part of the deal he had negotiated with President Paul von Hindenburg and the conservative parties. But as the propaganda head of the ruling party, a party which had no great respect for the law, he immediately began to behave as though he were in power. He commandeered the state radio to produce a live broadcast of the torchlight parade which celebrated Hitler’s assumption of office. On 13 March, Goebbels had his reward for his part in bringing the Nazis to power by being appointed Reich Minister of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda (Volksaufklärung und Propaganda), with a seat in the Cabinet. The role of the new ministry, which took over palatial accommodation in the 18th century Leopold Palace on Wilhelmstrasse, just across from Hitler’s offices in the Reich Chancellery, was to centralize Nazi control of all aspects of German cultural and intellectual life, particularly the press, radio and the visual and performing arts. Part of the building had long housed the German government press office, other parts of it were occupied by the Prussian Finance Ministry. Goebbels soon occupied the whole building. The Palace was destroyed by Allied bombs, but some of Goebbels's extensions at the rear of the Palace survived and are still in use, although now obscured from view from Wilhelmstrasse by a postwar building. On 1 May, Goebbels organised the massive demonstrations and parades to mark the "Day of National Labor" which preceded the Nazi takeover and destruction of the German trade union movement. By 3 May, he was able to boast in his diary: "We are the masters of Germany." Evans, The Coming of the Third Reich, 358 On 10 May, he supervised an even more symbolic event in the establishment of Nazi cultural power: the burning of up to 20,000 books by Jewish or anti-Nazi authors in the Opernplatz next to the university. Read and Fisher, Berlin, 205 With Leni Riefenstahl in 1937 The hegemonic ambitions of the Propaganda Ministry were shown by the divisions which Goebbels soon established: press, radio, film, theater, music, literature, and publishing. In each of these, a Reich Chamber (Reichskammer) was established, co-opting leading figures from the field (usually not known Nazis) to head each Chamber, and requiring them to supervise the purge of Jews, socialists and liberals, as well as practitioners of "degenerate" art forms such as abstract art and atonal music. The chambers were the Reich Chamber of Film, the Reich Chamber of the Visual Arts, the Reich Chamber of Theater, the Reich Chamber of Radio, the Reich Chamber of the Press, the Reich Chamber of Music, and the Reich Chamber of Literature. They were grouped into the Reich Chamber of Culture. (Hans Fritzsche, "Dr. Goebbels and his Ministry," originally published as "Dr. Goebbels und sein Ministerium," in Hans Heinz Mantau-Sadlia, Deutsche Führer Deutsches Schicksal (Verlag Max Steinebach, 1934), available online here The respected composer Richard Strauss, for example, became head of the Reich Music Chamber. Goebbels’ orders were backed by the threat of force. The many prominent Jews in the arts and the mass media emigrated in large numbers rather than risk the fists of the S.A. and the gates of the concentration camp, as did many socialists and liberals. Some non-Jewish anti-Nazis with good connections or international reputations survived until the mid 1930s, but most were forced out sooner or later. Control of the arts and media was not just a matter of personnel. Soon the content of every newspaper, book, novel, play, film, broadcast and concert, from the level of nationally-known publishers and orchestras to local newspapers and village choirs, was subject to supervision by the Propaganda Ministry, although a process of self-censorship was soon effectively operating in all these fields, leaving the Ministry in Berlin free to concentrate on the most politically sensitive areas such as major newspapers and the state radio. No author could publish, no painter could exhibit, no singer could broadcast, no critic could criticize, unless they were a member of the appropriate Reich Chamber, and membership was conditional on good behavior. Goebbels could bribe as well as threaten: he secured a large budget for his Ministry, with which he was able to offer generous salaries and subsidies to those in the arts who co-operated with him. These were inducements which most artists, theaters and orchestras, after their struggles to survive during the Depression, found hard to refuse. The process by which Goebbels established control over the German arts and mass media by a combination of co-option, bribery and coercion is described in detail in Evans, The Third Reich in Power, chapter 2 "The Mobilization of the Spirit." In The Coming of the Third Reich, 399–402, Evans describes how Goebbels used the parlous financial state of the Berlin Philharmonic to break down the resistance of its renowned conductor, Wilhelm Furtwängler, to the removal of Jewish musicians from the orchestra. As the most highly educated member of the Nazi leadership, and the one with the most authentic pretensions to high culture, Goebbels was sensitive to charges that he was dragging German culture down to the level of mere propaganda. He responded by saying that the purpose of both art and propaganda was to bring about a spiritual mobilization of the German people. He was, in fact, far from the most militant member of the Nazi leadership on cultural questions. The more philistine Nazis wanted nothing in German books but Nazi slogans, nothing on German stages and cinema screens but Nazi heroics, and nothing in German concert halls but German folk songs. Goebbels insisted that German high culture must be allowed to carry on, both for reasons of international prestige and to win the loyalty of the upper middle classes, who valued art forms such as opera and the symphony. He thus became to some extent the protector of the arts as well as their regulator. In this, he had the support of Hitler, a passionate devotee of Richard Wagner. But Goebbels always had to bow to Hitler’s views. Hitler loathed modernism of all kinds, and Goebbels (whose own tastes were sympathetic to modernism) was forced to acquiesce in imposing very traditionalist forms on the artistic and musical worlds. The music of Paul Hindemith, for example, was banned simply because Hitler did not like it. Goebbels also resisted the complete Nazification of the arts because he knew that the masses must be allowed some respite from slogans and propaganda. He ensured that film studios such as UFA at Babelsberg near Berlin continued to produce a stream of comedies and light romances, which drew mass audiences to the cinema where they would also watch propaganda newsreels and Nazi epics. His abuse of his position as Propaganda Minister and the reputation that built up around his use of the "casting couch" was well known. Many actresses wrote later of how Goebbels had tried to lure them to his home. He acquired the nickname "Bock von Babelsberg" lit: "Babelsberg Stud". He resisted considerable pressure to ban all foreign films — helped by the fact that Hitler was a big fan of Mickey Mouse. For the same reason, Goebbels worked to bring culture to the masses — promoting the sale of cheap radios, organizing free concerts in factories, staging art exhibitions in small towns and establishing mobile cinemas to bring the movies to every village. All of this served short-term propaganda ends, but also served to reconcile the German people, particularly the working class, to the regime. Evans, The Third Reich in Power, 210 Goebbels and the Jews Despite the enormous power of the Propaganda Ministry over German cultural life, Goebbels’ status began to decline once the Nazi regime was firmly established in power. Fest, The Face of the Third Reich, 93 This was because the real business of the Nazi regime was preparation for war, and although propaganda was a part of this, it was not the main game. By the mid 1930s, Hitler’s most powerful subordinates were Hermann Göring, as head of the Four Year Plan for crash rearmament, and Heinrich Himmler, head of the and police apparatus. Once the internal enemies of the Nazi Party were destroyed, as they effectively were by 1935, Goebbels’s propaganda efforts began to lose their point, and without an enemy to fight, his rhetoric began to sound hollow and unconvincing. As a man of education and culture, Goebbels had once mocked the "primitive" anti-Semitism of Nazis such as Julius Streicher. But as Joachim Fest observes: "Goebbels [found] in the increasingly unrestrained practice of anti-Semitism by the state new possibilities into which he threw himself with all the zeal of an ambitious man worried by a constant diminution of his power." Fest also suggests a psychological motive: "A man who conformed so little to the National Socialist image of the elite… may have had his reason, in the struggles for power at Hitler’s court, for offering keen anti-Semitism as a counterweight to his failure to conform to a type." Fest, The Face of the Third Reich, 93–94 Whatever his motives, Goebbels took every opportunity to attack the Jews. From 1933 onwards, he was bracketed with Streicher among the regime’s most virulent anti-Semites. Kershaw, Hitler, I, 560 "Some people think," he told a Berlin rally in June 1935, "that we haven’t noticed how the Jews are trying once again to spread themselves over all our streets. The Jews ought to please observe the laws of hospitality and not behave as if they were the same as us." The sarcastic "humor" of Goebbels’ speeches did not conceal the reality of his threat to the Jews. In his capacity as Gauleiter of Berlin, and thus as de facto ruler of the capital (although there was still officially an Oberbürgermeister and city council), Goebbels maintained constant pressure on the city’s large Jewish community, forcing them out of business and professional life and placing obstacles in the way of their being able to live normal lives, such as banning them from public transport and city facilities. There was some respite during 1936, while Berlin hosted the Olympic Games, For Goebbels’s role in organizing the Olympics, and for the temporary easing of anti-Semitic agitation during the Games, see Guy Walters, Berlin Games: How Hitler Stole the Olympic Dream (John Murray 2006) but from 1937 the intensity of his anti-Semitic words and actions began to increase again. "The Jews must get out of Germany, indeed out of Europe altogether," he wrote in his diary in November 1937. "That will take some time, but it must and will happen." Evans, The Third Reich in Power, 575 By mid 1938 Goebbels was investigating the possibility of requiring all Jews to wear an identifying mark and of confining them to a ghetto, but these were ideas whose time had not yet come. "Aim—drive the Jews out of Berlin," he wrote in his diary in June 1938, "and without any sentimentality." Evans, The Third Reich in Power, 576 In November 1938, Goebbels got the chance to take decisive action against the Jews for which he had been waiting when a Jewish youth, Herschel Grynszpan, shot a German diplomat in Paris, Ernst vom Rath, in revenge for the deportation of his family to Poland and the persecution of German Jews generally. For Grynszpan, his actions and the motives for them, see Gerald Schwab, The Day the Holocaust Began: The Odyssey of Herschel Grynszpan (Praeger 1990). On 9 November, the evening vom Rath died of his wounds, Goebbels was at the Bürgerbräu Keller in Munich with Hitler, celebrating the anniversary of the 1923 Beer Hall Putsch with a large crowd of veteran Nazis. Goebbels told Hitler that "spontaneous" anti-Jewish violence had already broken out in German cities, although in fact this was not true: this was a clear case of Goebbels manipulating Hitler for his own ends. When Hitler said he approved of what was happening, Goebbels took this as authorization to organize a massive, nationwide pogrom against the Jews. He wrote in his diary: [Hitler] decides: demonstrations should be allowed to continue. The police should be withdrawn. For once the Jews should get the feel of popular anger… I immediately gave the necessary instructions to the police and the Party. Then I briefly spoke in that vein to the Party leadership. Stormy applause. All are instantly at the phones. Now people will act. Martin Gilbert, Kristallnacht (HarperPress 2006), 29. To say that Goebbels manipulated Hitler into approving the pogrom of Kristallnacht is not to suggest that Hitler’s anti-Semitism was any less virulent than Goebbels’s. But it is clear that the idea of a state-sponsored pogrom originated with Goebbels, and that he gained Hitler’s approval for it by falsely telling Hitler that it had already begun. The result of Goebbels’ incitement was Kristallnacht, the "Night of Broken Glass," during which the S.A. and Nazi Party went on a rampage of anti-Jewish violence and destruction, killing at least 90 and maybe as many as 200 people (not counting several hundred suicides), destroying over a thousand synagogues and hundreds of Jewish businesses and homes, and dragging some 30,000 Jews off to concentration camps, where at least another thousand died before the remainder were released after several months of brutal treatment. The longer-term effect was to drive 80,000 Jews to emigrate, most leaving behind all their property in their desperation to escape. Foreign opinion reacted with horror, bringing to a sudden end the climate of appeasement of Nazi Germany in the western democracies. Goebbels’s pogrom thus moved Germany significantly closer to war, at a time when rearmament was still far from complete. Göring and some other Nazi leaders were furious at Goebbels’ actions, about which they had not been consulted. Adam Tooze, Wages of Destruction: The Making and Breaking of the Nazi Economy (Allen Lane 2006), 278. Göring estimated that Kristallnacht caused 220 million Reichsmarks of material damage. Himmler, Albert Speer and Rosenberg, for different reasons, were also highly critical of Goebbels (Kershaw, Hitler, II, 149 Goebbels, however, was delighted. "As was to be expected, the entire nation is in uproar," he wrote. "This is one dead man who is costing the Jews dear. Our darling Jews will think twice in future before gunning down German diplomats." Gilbert, Kristallnacht, 29 In 1942 Goebbels was involved in the deportation of Berlin's Jews. {Jewish Virtual Library} Man of power These events were well-timed from the point of view of Goebbels’s relations with Hitler. In 1937, he had begun an intense affair with the Czech actress Lída Baarová, causing the break-up of her marriage. When Magda Goebbels learned of this affair in October 1938, she complained to Hitler, a conservative in sexual matters who was fond of Magda and the Goebbels' young children. He ordered Goebbels to break off his affair, whereupon Goebbels offered his resignation, which Hitler refused. On 15 October, Goebbels attempted suicide. A furious Hitler then ordered Himmler to remove Baarová from Germany, and she was deported to Czechoslovakia, from where she later left for Italy. These events damaged Goebbels’ standing with Hitler, and his zeal in furthering Hitler’s anti-Semitic agenda was in part an effort to restore his reputation. This account is taken from the Wikipedia article on Lída Baarová, which is sourced to her memoirs and other Czech-language sources. The connection between the Baarová affair and Goebbels’ role in inciting Kristallnacht is made by Ian Kershaw, Hitler, Volume II (W.W. Norton 2000), 145) The Baarová affair, however, did nothing to dampen Goebbels' enthusiasm for womanizing. As late as 1943, the Hitler Youth leader Artur Axmann was ingratiating himself with Goebbels by procuring young women for him. Kater, Hitler Youth, 58 Goebbels, like all the Nazi leaders, could not afford to defy Hitler’s will in matters of this kind. By 1938, they had all become wealthy men, but their wealth was dependent on Hitler’s continuing goodwill and willingness to turn a blind eye to their corruption. Until the Nazis came to power, Goebbels had been a relatively poor man, and his main income was the salary of 750 Reichsmarks a month he had gained by election to the Reichstag in 1928. By 1936, although he was not nearly as corrupt as some other senior Nazis, such as Göring and Robert Ley, Goebbels was earning 300,000 Reichsmarks a year in "fees" for writing in his own newspaper, Der Angriff, as well as his ministerial salary and many other sources of income. These payments were in effect bribes from the papers’ publisher Max Amann. He owned a villa by the lake at Wannsee and another on Lake Constance in the south, which he spent 2.2 million Reichsmarks refurbishing. The tax office, as it did for all the Nazi leaders, gave him generous exemptions. Evans, The Third Reich in Power, 405 Hitler apparently connived at the corruption of his lieutenants because of the power it gave him over them. Whatever the loss of real power suffered by Goebbels during the middle years of the Nazi regime, he remained one of Hitler’s intimates. Since his offices were close to the Chancellery, he was a frequent guest for lunch, during which he became adept at listening to Hitler’s monologues and agreeing with his opinions. In the months leading up to the war, his influence began to increase again. He ranked along with Joachim von Ribbentrop, Göring, Himmler, and Martin Bormann as the senior Nazi with the most access to Hitler, which in an autocratic regime meant access to power. The fact that Hitler was fond of Magda Goebbels and the children also gave Goebbels entrée to Hitler’s inner circle. The Goebbelses were regular visitors to Hitler’s Bavarian mountain retreat, the Berghof. But he was not kept directly informed of military and diplomatic developments, relying on second-hand accounts to hear what Hitler was doing. Kershaw, Hitler, II, 227 Goebbels at war In the years 1936 to 1939, Hitler, while professing his desire for peace, led Germany firmly and deliberately towards a confrontation. For the most recent demonstration that Hitler fully intended leading Germany into war and that the whole policy of the regime was directed to this end, see Tooze, Wages of Destruction, particularly 206–29 and 247–60 Goebbels was one of the most enthusiastic proponents of aggressively pursuing Germany's territorial claims sooner rather than later, along with Himmler and Foreign Minister von Ribbentrop. Kershaw, Hitler, II, 226. At the time of the Reoccupation of the Rhineland in 1936, Goebbels summed up his general attitude in his diary: "Now is the time for action. Fortune favors the brave! He who dares nothing wins nothing." (Kershaw, Hitler, I, 586) He saw it as his job to make the German people accept this and if possible welcome it. At the time of the Sudetenland crisis in 1938, Goebbels was well aware that the great majority of Germans did not want a war, and used every propaganda resource at his disposal to overcome what he called this "war psychosis," by whipping up sympathy for the Sudeten Germans and hatred of the Czechs. Evans, The Third Reich in Power, 674 After the western powers conceded to Hitler's demands concerning Czechoslovakia in 1938, Goebbels soon redirected his propaganda machine against Poland. From May onwards, he orchestrated a "hate campaign" against Poland, fabricating stories about atrocities against ethnic Germans in Danzig and other cities. Even so, he was unable to persuade the majority of Germans to welcome the prospect of war. Evans, The Third Reich in Power, 696 Once war began in September 1939, Goebbels began a steady process of extending his influence over domestic policy. After 1940, Hitler made few public appearances, and even his broadcasts became less frequent, so Goebbels increasingly became the face and the voice of the Nazi regime for the German people. Kershaw, Hitler, II, 565 With Hitler preoccupied with the war, Himmler focusing on the "final solution to the Jewish question" in eastern Europe, and with Hermann Göring’s position declining with the failure of the German Air Force (Luftwaffe), Goebbels sensed a power vacuum in domestic policy and moved to fill it. Since civilian morale was his responsibility, he increasingly concerned himself with matters such as wages, rationing and housing, which affected morale and therefore productivity. He came to see the lethargic and demoralized Göring, still Germany’s economic supremo as head of the Four Year Plan Ministry, as his main enemy. To undermine Göring, he forged an alliance with Himmler, although the SS chief remained wary of him. A more useful ally was Albert Speer, a Hitler favorite who was appointed Armaments Minister in February 1942. Goebbels and Speer worked through 1942 to persuade Hitler to dismiss Göring and allow the domestic economy to be run by a revived Cabinet headed by themselves. However, in February 1943, the crushing German defeat at the Battle of Stalingrad produced a crisis in the regime. Goebbels was forced to ally himself with Göring to thwart a bid for power by Bormann, head of the Nazi Party Chancellery and Secretary to the Führer. Bormann exploited the disaster at Stalingrad, and his daily access to Hitler, to persuade him to create a three-man junta representing the State, the Army, and the Party, represented respectively by Hans Lammers, head of the Reich Chancellery, Field Marshal Wilhelm Keitel, chief of the OKW (armed forces high command), and Bormann, who controlled the Party and access to the Führer. This Committee of Three would exercise dictatorial powers over the home front. Goebbels, Speer, Göring and Himmler all saw this proposal as a power grab by Bormann and a threat to their power, and combined to block it. However, their alliance was shaky at best. This was mainly due to the fact that during this period Himmler was still cooperating with Bormann to gain more power at the expense of Göring and most of the traditional Reich administration; Göring's loss of power had resulted in an overindulgence in the trappings of power and his strained relations with Goebbels made it difficult for a unified coalition to be formed, despite the attempts of Speer and Göring's Luftwaffe deputy Field Marshal Erhard Milch, to reconcile the two Party comrades. Goebbels instead tried to persuade Hitler to appoint Göring as head of the government. His proposal had a certain logic, as Göring — despite the failures of the Luftwaffe and his own corruption — was still very popular among the German people, whose morale was waning since Hitler barely appeared in public since the defeat at Stalingrad. However, this proposal was increasingly unworkable given Göring’s increasing incapacity and, more importantly, Hitler’s increasing contempt for him due to his blaming of Göring for Germany's defeats. This was a measure by Hitler designed to deflect criticism from himself. The result was that nothing was done—the Committee of Three declined into irrelevance due to the loss of power by Keitel and Lammers and the ascension of Bormann and the situation continued to drift, with administrative chaos increasingly undermining the war effort. The ultimate responsibility for this lay with Hitler, as Goebbels well knew, referring in his diary to a "crisis of leadership," but Goebbels was too much under Hitler’s spell ever to challenge his power. The story of the Committee of Three is given by Kershaw, Hitler, II, 569–577. Sports Palace speech Goebbels launched a new offensive to place himself at the center of policy-making. On 18 February, he delivered a passionate "Total War Speech" at the Sports Palace in Berlin. Goebbels demanded from his audience a commitment to "total war," the complete mobilization of the German economy and German society for the war effort. To motivate the German people to continue the struggle, he cited three theses as the basis of this argument: If the German Armed Forces (Wehrmacht) were not in a position to break the danger from the Eastern front, then Nazi Germany would fall to Bolshevism, and all of Europe would fall shortly afterward; The German Armed Forces, the German people, and the Axis Powers alone had the strength to save Europe from this threat; Danger was a motivating force. Germany had to act quickly and decisively, or it would be too late. Goebbels concluded that "Two thousand years of Western history are in danger," and he blamed Germany's failures on the Jews. Goebbels hoped in this way to persuade Hitler to give him and his ally Speer control of domestic policy for a program of total commitment to arms production and full labor conscription, including women. But Hitler, supported by Göring, resisted these demands, which he feared would weaken civilian morale and lead to a repetition of the debacle of 1918, when the German army had been undermined (in Hitler's view) by a collapse of the home front. Nor was Hitler willing to allow Goebbels or anyone else to usurp his own power as the ultimate source of all decisions. Goebbels privately lamented "a complete lack of direction in German domestic policy," but of course he could not directly criticize Hitler or go against his wishes. Kershaw, Hitler, II, 561–563 Goebbels and the Holocaust Heinrich Himmler, one of the architects of the Holocaust, preferred that the matter not be discussed in public. Despite this, in an editorial in his newspaper Das Reich in November 1941 he quoted Hitler’s 1939 "prophecy" that the Jews would be the loser in the coming world war. Goebbels founded Das Reich in 1940 as a "quality" newspaper in which he could set out his own views for an elite readership. By 1941, it had over a million readers. Now, he said, Hitler’s prophecy was coming true: "Jewry," he said, "is now suffering the gradual process of annihilation which it intended for us… It now perishes according to its own precept of ‘an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth’!" Christopher R. Browing, The Origins of the Final Solution (University of Nebraska Press, 2004), 391. In 1939, in a speech to the Reichstag, Hitler had said: If international finance Jewry in and outside Europe should succeed in thrusting the nations once again into a world war, then the result will not be the Bolshevisation of the earth and with it the victory of Jewry, but the destruction of the Jewish race in Europe. quoted in Richard Breitman, The Architect of Genocide: Himmler and the Final Solution (Pimlico 2004), 63) The view of most historians is that the decision to proceed with the extermination of the Jews was taken at some point in late 1941, and Goebbels’ comments make it clear that he knew in general terms, if not in detail, what was planned. Browning, The Origins of the Final Solution, 371, says the decision was made in September. Others have argued for a date as late as mid December. (Christian Gerlach, "The Wannsee Conference, the Fate of German Jews, and Hitler's Decision in Principle to Exterminate All European Jews," Journal of Modern History, December 1998, 759–812). The decision in principle to deport the German and Austrian Jews to unspecified destinations "in the east" was made in September. Goebbels immediately pressed for the Berlin Jews to be deported first. He traveled to Hitler’s headquarters on the eastern front, meeting both Hitler and Reinhard Heydrich to lobby for his demands. He got the assurances he wanted: "The Führer is of the opinion," he wrote, "that the Jews eventually have to be removed from the whole of Germany. The first cities to be made Jew-free are Berlin, Vienna and Prague. Berlin is first in the queue, and I have the hope that we’ll succeed in the course of this year." Kershaw, Hitler, II, 482 Deportations of Berlin Jews to the Łódź ghetto began in October, but transport and other difficulties made the process much slower than Goebbels desired. His November article in Das Reich was part of his campaign to have the pace of deportation accelerated. In December, he was present when Hitler addressed a meeting of Gauleiters and other senior Nazis, discussing among other things the "Jewish question." He wrote in his diary afterward: With regard to the Jewish Question, the Führer is determined to make a clean sweep of it. He prophesied that, if they brought about another world war, they would experience their annihilation. That was no empty talk. The world war is here [this was the week Germany declared war on the United States]. The annihilation of Jewry must be the necessary consequence. The question is to be viewed without any sentimentality. We’re not there to have sympathy with the Jews, but only sympathy with our own German people. If the German people has again now sacrificed around 160,000 dead in the eastern campaign, the originators of this bloody conflict will have to pay for it with their lives. Kershaw, Hitler, II, 490 During 1942, Goebbels continued to press for the "final solution to the Jewish question" to be carried forward as quickly as possible now that Germany had occupied a huge swathe of Soviet territory into which all the Jews of German-controlled Europe could be deported. There they could be worked into extinction in accordance with the plan agreed on at the Wannsee Conference convened by Heydrich in January. It was a constant annoyance to Goebbels that, at a time when Germany was fighting for its life on the eastern front, there were still 40,000 Jews in Berlin. Kershaw, Hitler, II, 519 They should be "carted off to Russia," he wrote in his diary. "It would be best to kill them altogether." Kershaw, Hitler, II, 473 Once again, there is no doubt that Goebbels knew what would happen to the Jews who were to be "carted off." Although the Propaganda Ministry was not invited to the Wannsee Conference, Goebbels knew by March what had been decided there. Browning, The Origins of the Final Solution, 415 He wrote: The Jews are now being deported to the east. A fairly barbaric procedure, not to be described in any greater detail, is being used here, and not much more remains of the Jews themselves. In general, it can probably be established that 60 percent of them must be liquidated, while only 40 percent can be put to work […] A judgment is being carried out on the Jews which is barbaric, but fully deserved. Kershaw, Hitler, II, 494 Plenipotentiary for Total War Goebbels inspects members of the German home guard. For Goebbels, 1943 and 1944 were years of struggle to rally the German people behind a regime which was increasingly obviously facing military defeat. The German people’s faith in Hitler was shaken by the disaster at Stalingrad, and never fully recovered. Kershaw, Hitler, II, 551, 598 During 1943, as the Soviet armies advanced towards the borders of the Reich, the western Allies developed the ability to launch devastating air raids on most German cities, including Berlin. At the same time, there were increasingly critical shortages of food, raw materials, fuel and housing. Goebbels and Speer were among the few Nazi leaders who were under no illusions about Germany’s dire situation. Their solution was to seize control of the home front from the indecisive Hitler and the incompetent Göring. This was the agenda of Goebbels’s "total war" speech of February 1943. But they were thwarted by their inability to challenge Hitler, who could neither make decisions himself nor trust anyone else to do so. After Stalingrad, Hitler increasingly withdrew from public view, almost never appearing in public and rarely even broadcasting. By July, Goebbels was lamenting that Hitler had cut himself off from the people — it was noted, for example, that he never visited the bomb-ravaged cities of the Ruhr. "One can’t neglect the people too long," he wrote. "They are the heart of our war effort." Kershaw, Hitler, II, 566 Goebbels himself became the public voice of the Nazi regime, both in his regular broadcasts and his weekly editorials in Das Reich. As Joachim Fest notes, Goebbels seemed to take a grim pleasure in the destruction of Germany’s cities by the Allied bombing offensive: "It was, as one of his colleagues confirmed, almost a happy day for him when famous buildings were destroyed, because at such time he put into his speeches that ecstatic hatred which aroused the fanaticism of the tiring workers and spurred them to fresh efforts." Fest, The Face of the Third Reich, 95 In public, Goebbels remained confident of German victory: "We live at the most critical period in the history of the Occident," he wrote in Das Reich in February 1943. "Any weakening of the spiritual and military defensive strength of our continent in its struggle with eastern Bolshevism brings with it the danger of a rapidly nearing decline in its will to resist… Our soldiers in the East will do their part. They will stop the storm from the steppes, and ultimately break it. They fight under unimaginable conditions. But they are fighting a good fight. They are fighting not only for our own security, but also for Europe's future." "The European Crisis", Das Reich, 28 February 1943, online here In private, he was discouraged by the failure of his and Speer’s campaign to gain control of the home front. Goebbels remained preoccupied with the annihilation of the Jews, which was now reaching its climax in the extermination camps of eastern Poland. As in 1942, he was more outspoken about what was happening than Himmler would have liked: "Our state’s security requires that we take whatever measures seem necessary to protect the German community from [the Jewish] threat," he wrote in May. "That leads to some difficult decisions, but they are unavoidable if we are to deal with the threat… None of the Führer’s prophetic words has come so inevitably true as his prediction that if Jewry succeeded in provoking a second world war, the result would be not the destruction of the Aryan race, but rather the wiping out of the Jewish race. This process is of vast importance." "The War and the Jews," Das Reich, 9 May 1943, online here Following the Allied invasion of Italy and the fall of Benito Mussolini in September, he and Joachim von Ribbentrop raised with Hitler the possibility of secretly approaching Joseph Stalin and negotiating a separate peace behind the backs of the western Allies. Hitler, surprisingly, did not reject the idea of a separate peace with either side, but he told Goebbels that he should not negotiate from a position of weakness. A great German victory must occur before any negotiations should be undertaken, he reasoned. Kershaw, Hitler, II, 601 The German defeat at Kursk in July had, however, ended any possibility of this. Goebbels knew by this stage that the war was lost, but was unable to break the spell that Hitler had held over him since 1926. As Germany’s military and economic situation grew steadily worse during 1944, Goebbels renewed his push, in alliance with Speer, to wrest control of the home front away from Göring. In July, following the Allied landings in France and the huge Soviet advances in Belarus, Hitler finally agreed to grant both of them increased powers. Speer took control of all economic and production matters away from Göring, and Goebbels took the title Reich Plenipotentiary for Total War (Reichsbevollmächtigter für den totalen Kriegseinsatz an der Heimatfront). At the same time, Himmler took over the Interior Ministry. This trio — Goebbels, Himmler and Speer — became the real center of German government in the last year of the war, although Bormann used his privileged access to Hitler to thwart them when he could. In this Bormann was very successful, as the Party Gauleiter gained more and more powers, becoming Reich Defense Commissars (Reichsverteidigungskommissare) in their respective districts and overseeing all civilian administration. The fact that Himmler was Interior Minister only increased the power of Bormann, as the Gauleiters feared that Himmler, who was General Plenipotentiary for the Administration of the Reich, would curb their power and set up his higher SS and police leaders as their replacement. Goebbels saw Himmler as a potential ally against Bormann and in 1944 is supposed to have voiced the opinion that if the Reichsführer SS was granted control over the Wehrmacht and he, Goebbels, granted control over the domestic politics, the war would soon be ended in a victorious manner. However, the inability of Himmler to persuade Hitler to cease his support of Bormann, the defection of SS generals such as Obergruppenführer Ernst Kaltenbrunner, the Chief of the Reichssicherheitshauptamt and his powerful subordinate Gruppenführer Heinrich Müller, the head of the Gestapo, to Bormann, soon persuaded Goebbels to align himself with the Secretary to the Führer at the end of 1944, thus accepting his subordinate position. When elements of the army leadership tried to assassinate Hitler in the July 20 plot shortly thereafter, it was this trio that rallied the resistance to the plotters. It was Goebbels, besieged in his Berlin apartment with Speer and secretary Wilfred von Oven beside him but with his phone lines intact, who brought Otto Ernst Remer, the wavering commander of the Berlin garrison, to the phone to speak to Hitler in East Prussia, thus demonstrating that the Führer was alive and that the garrison should oppose the attempted coup. Joachim Fest, Plotting Hitler’s Death: The German Resistance to Hitler 1933–1945 (Weidenfeld and Nicolson 1996), 271 Goebbels promised Hitler that he could raise a million new soldiers by means of a reorganisation of the Army, transferring personnel from the Navy and Luftwaffe, and purging the bloated Reich Ministries which satraps like Göring had hitherto protected. As it turned out, the inertia of the state bureaucracy was too great even for the energetic Goebbels to overcome. Bormann and his puppet Lammers, keen to retain their control over the Party and State administrations respectively, placed endless obstacles in Goebbels’s way. Kershaw, Hitler, II, 709. Kershaw comments, "Nothing was ever quite what it seemed in the Third Reich." Another problem was that although Speer and Goebbels were allies, their agendas in fact conflicted: Speer wanted absolute priority in the allocation of labor to be given to arms production, while Goebbels sought to press every able-bodied male into the army. Speer, allied with Fritz Sauckel, the General Plenipotentiary for the Employment of Labor from 1942, generally won these battles. Kater, Hitler Youth, 218, discusses the conflicting demands of production and the army on young Germans. By July 1944, it was in any case too late for Goebbels and Speer’s internal coup to make any real difference to the outcome of the war. The combined economic and military power of the western Allies and the Soviet Union, now fully mobilized, was simply too great for Germany to overcome. A crucial economic indicator, the ratio of steel output, was running at 4.5 to one against Germany. The final blow was the loss of the Romanian oil fields as the Soviet Army advanced through the Balkans in September. This, combined with the U.S. air campaign against Germany’s synthetic oil production, finally broke the back of the German economy and thus its capacity for further resistance. Tooze, Wages of Destruction, 639 By this time, the best Goebbels could do to reassure the German people that victory was still possible was to make vague promises that "miracle weapons" such as the Me 262 jet airplane, the Type XXI U-boat, and the V-2 rocket could somehow retrieve the military situation. Defeat and death In the last months of the war, Goebbels’s speeches and articles took on an increasingly apocalyptic tone: "Rarely in history has a brave people struggling for its life faced such terrible tests as the German people have in this war," he wrote towards the end. "The misery that results for us all, the never ending chain of sorrows, fears, and spiritual torture does not need to be described in detail… We are bearing a heavy fate because we are fighting for a good cause, and are called to bravely endure the battle to achieve greatness." "Fighters for the Eternal Reich," Das Reich, 8 April 1945, online here By the beginning of 1945, with the Soviets on the Oder and the western Allies crossing the Rhine, Goebbels could no longer disguise the fact that defeat was inevitable. He knew what that would mean for himself: "For us," he had written in 1943, "we have burnt our bridges. We cannot go back, but neither do we want to go back. We are forced to extremes and therefore resolved to proceed to extremes."<ref>Fest, "The Face of the Third Reich, 96</ref> In his diaries, he expressed the belief that German diplomacy should find a way to exploit the emerging tensions between Stalin and the West, but he proclaimed foreign minister Joachim von Ribbentrop, whom Hitler would not abandon, incapable of such a feat. "Final Entries 1945: The Diaries of Joseph Goebbels" (English transl. by Richard Barry: New York, 1978), 312-313 When other Nazi leaders urged Hitler to leave Berlin and establish a new center of resistance in the National Redoubt in Bavaria, Goebbels opposed this, arguing for a last stand in the ruins of the Reich capital. By this time, Goebbels had gained the position he had wanted so long—at the side of Hitler, albeit only because of his subservience to Bormann, who was the Führer's de facto deputy. Göring was utterly discredited, though Hitler refused to dismiss him until 25 April. Himmler, whose appointment as commander of Army Group Vistula had led to disaster on the Oder, was also in disgrace, and Hitler rightly suspected that he was secretly trying to negotiate with the western Allies. Only Goebbels and Bormann remained totally loyal to Hitler. Kershaw, Hitler, II, 787 Goebbels knew how to play on Hitler's fantasies, encouraging him to see in the death of United States President Franklin D. Roosevelt on 12 April the hand of providence. Kershaw, Hitler, 791 On 22 April, largely as a result of Goebbels' influence, Hitler announced that he would not leave Berlin, but would stay and fight, and if necessary die, in defence of the capital. Kershaw, Hitler, 810 On 23 April, Goebbels made the following proclamation to the people of Berlin: "I call on you to fight for your city. Fight with everything you have got, for the sake of your wives and your children, your mothers and your parents. Your arms are defending everything we have ever held dear, and all the generations that will come after us. Be proud and courageous! Be inventive and cunning! Your Gauleiter is amongst you. He and his colleagues will remain in your midst. His wife and children are here as well. He, who once captured the city with 200 men, will now use every means to galvanize the defense of the capital. The battle for Berlin must become the signal for the whole nation to rise up in battle…" Dollinger, Hans. The Decline and Fall of Nazi Germany and Imperial Japan, Library of Congress Catalogue Card Number 67-27047, Page 231 Unlike many other leading Nazis at this juncture, Goebbels proved to have strong convictions, moving himself and his family into the Führerbunker under the Reich Chancellery building in central Berlin. He told Vice-Admiral Hans-Erich Voss that he would not entertain the idea of either surrender or escape: "I was the Reich Minister of Propaganda and led the fiercest activity against the Soviet Union, for which they would never pardon me," Voss quoted him as saying. "He couldn't escape also because he was Berlin's Defence Commissioner and he considered it would be disgraceful for him to abandon his post," Voss added. V.K. Vinogradov and others, Hitler's Death: Russia's Last Great Secret from the Files of the KGB (Chaucer Press 205), 154. Goebbels had assumed the title Reichs Defence Commissioner for the Greater Berlin Gau in November 1942. He also made himself City President of Berlin in April 1943. On 30 April, with the Soviets advancing to within a few hundred meters of the bunker, Hitler dictated his last will and testament. Goebbels was one of four witnesses. Not long after completing it, Hitler shot himself. Of Hitler's death, Goebbels commented: "The heart of Germany has ceased to beat. The Führer is dead." In his last will and testament, Hitler named no successor as Führer or leader of the Nazi Party. Instead, Hitler appointed Goebbels Reich Chancellor; Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz, who was at Flensburg near the Danish border, Reich President; and Martin Bormann, Hitler's long-time chief of staff, Party Minister. Goebbels knew that this was an empty title. Even if he was willing and able to escape Berlin and reach the north, it was unlikely that Dönitz, whose only concern was to negotiate a settlement with the western Allies that would save Germany from Soviet occupation, would want such a notorious figure as Goebbels heading his government. As it was, Goebbels had no intention of trying to escape. Voss later recounted: "When Goebbels learned that Hitler had committed suicide, he was very depressed and said: 'It is a great pity that such a man is not with us any longer. But there is nothing to be done. For us, everything is lost now and the only way left for us is the one which Hitler chose. I shall follow his example'." Vinogradov, Hitler's Death, 156 On 1 May, within hours of Hitler's suicide on 30 April, Goebbels completed his sole official act as Chancellor of Germany (Reichskanzler). He dictated a letter and ordered German General Hans Krebs, under a white flag, to meet with General Vasily Chuikov and to deliver his letter. Chuikov, as commander of the Soviet 8th Guards Army, commanded the Soviet forces in central Berlin. Goebbels' letter informed Chuikov of Hitler's death and requested a ceasefire, hinting that the establishment of a National Socialist government hostile to Western plutocracy would be beneficial to the Soviet Union, as the betrayal of Himmler and Göring indicated that otherwise anti-Soviet National Socialist elements might align themselves with the West. When this was rejected, Goebbels decided that further efforts were futile. Vinogradov, Hitler's Death, 324 Shortly afterward he dictated a postscript to Hitler's testament: "The Führer has given orders for me, in case of a breakdown of defense of the Capital of the Reich, to leave Berlin and to participate as a leading member in a government appointed by him. For the first time in my life, I must categorically refuse to obey a command of the Führer. My wife and my children agree with this refusal. In any other case, I would feel myself… a dishonorable renegade and vile scoundrel for my entire further life, who would lose the esteem of himself along with the esteem of his people, both of which would have to form the requirement for further duty of my person in designing the future of the German Nation and the German Reich." Death of Joseph Goebbels Later on 1 May, Vice-Admiral Hans-Erich Voss saw Goebbels for the last time: "Before the breakout [from the bunker] began, about ten generals and officers, including myself, went down individually to Goebbels's shelter to say goodbye. While saying goodbye I asked Goebbels to join us. But he replied: 'The captain must not leave his sinking ship. I have thought about it all and decided to stay here. I have nowhere to go because with little children I will not be able to make it'." At 8 p.m. on the evening of 1 May, Goebbels arranged for an SS doctor, Helmut Kunz, to kill his six children by injecting them with morphine and then, when they were unconscious, crushing an ampule of cyanide in each of their mouths. Transcript of the testimony of SS-Stürmbannführer Helmut Kunz in Soviet captivity, Vinogradov, Hitler's Death, 56. According to Kunz's testimony, he gave the children morphine injections but it was Magda Goebbels and Stumpfegger, Hitler's personal doctor, who then administered the cyanide. Shortly afterward, Goebbels and his wife went up to the garden of the Chancellery, where they killed themselves. The details of their suicides are uncertain. After the war, Rear-Admiral Michael Musmanno, a U.S. naval officer and judge, published an account apparently based on eye-witness testimony: "At about 8.15 p.m., Goebbels arose from the table, put on his hat, coat and gloves and, taking his wife's arm, went upstairs to the garden." They were followed by Goebbels's adjutant, SS-Hauptsturmführer Günther Schwägermann. "While Schwägermann was preparing the petrol, he heard a shot. Goebbels had shot himself and his wife took poison. Schwägermann ordered one of the soldiers to shoot Goebbels again because he was unable to do it himself." Michael Musmanno, "Is Hitler Alive?", published in the Swiss newspaper Die Nation, 1948 (presumably in translation from an English original), and reprinted in Vinogradov, Hitler's Death, 314. One SS officer later said they each took cyanide and were shot by an SS trooper. An early report said they were machine-gunned to death at their own request. According to another account, Joseph shot Magda and then himself. This idea is presented in the movie Downfall. The bodies of Goebbels and his wife were then burned in a shell crater, but owing to the lack of petrol the burning was only partly effective, and their bodies were easily identifiable. A few days later, Voss was brought back to the bunker by the Soviets to identify the partly burned bodies of Joseph and Magda Goebbels and the bodies of their children. "Vice-Admiral Voss, being asked how he identified the people as Goebbels, his wife and children, explained that he recognized the burnt body of the man as former Reichsminister Goebbels by the following signs: the shape of the head, the line of the mouth, the metal brace that Goebbels had on his right leg, his gold NSDAP badge and the burnt remains of his party uniform." Vinogradov, Hitler's Death, 34 The remains of the Goebbels family were secretly buried, along with those of Hitler, near Rathenow in Brandenburg. In 1970, they were disinterred and cremated, and the ashes thrown in the Elbe. Joachim Fest writes: "What he seemed to fear more than anything else was a death devoid of dramatic effects. To the end he was what he had always been: the propagandist for himself. Whatever he thought or did was always based on this one agonizing wish for self-exaltation, and this same object was served by the murder of his children... They were the last victims of an egomania extending beyond the grave. However, this deed, too, failed to make him the figure of tragic destiny he had hoped to become; it merely gave his end a touch of repulsive irony." Fest, The Face of the Third Reich, 97 References Browning, Christopher (2004) The Origins of the Final Solution: The Evolution of Nazi Jewish Policy ISBN 0-434-01227-0 Evans, Richard J. (2005) The Third Reich in Power 1933-1939 ISBN 0-7139-9649-8 Evans, Richard J. (2004) The Coming of the Third Reich ISBN 0-141-00975-6 Fest, Joachim (1970) The Face of the Third Reich ISBN 0-297-17949-7 Fest, Joachim (1996) Plotting Hitler’s Death: The German Resistance to Hitler 1933-1945 ISBN 0-297-81774-4 Gilbert, Martin (2006) Kristallnacht: the Prelude to Destruction ISBN 978-0-06-057083-5 Hamilton, Richard F. (1982) Who Voted for Hitler? ISBN 0-691-09395-4 Kater, Michael H. (2004) Hitler Youth ISBN 0-674-01496-0 Kershaw, Ian (1999) Hitler ISBN 0-393-04671-0 Read, Anthony and Fisher, David (1994) Berlin: The Biography of a City ISBN 0-09-178021-7 Tooze, Adam (2006) The Wages of Destruction: The Making and Breaking of the Nazi Economy ISBN 0-713-99566-1 Vinogradov, V.K. and others Hitler's Death: Russia's Last Great Secret from the Files of the KGB'' ISBN 1-904-44913-1 Notes External links A collection of speeches and essays by Joseph Goebbels The Man Behind Hitler Nazi Sozi a pre-1933 pamphlet. In English. Communism With The Mask Off a pamphlet of his 1935 Nuremberg Address. In English. Bolshevism in Theory and Practice a pamphlet of his 1936 Nuremberg Address. 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5,577 | Mushroom | The mushroom Amanita muscaria, commonly known as "fly agaric" A mushroom is the fleshy, spore-bearing fruiting body of a fungus, typically produced above ground on soil or on its food source. The standard for the name "mushroom" is the cultivated white button mushroom, Agaricus bisporus, hence the word mushroom is most often applied to those fungi (Basidiomycota, Agaricomycetes) that have a stem (stipe), a cap (pileus), and gills (lamellae, sing. lamella) on the underside of the cap, just as do store-bought white mushrooms. The word "mushroom" can also be used for a wide variety of gilled fungi, with or without stems, and the term is used even more generally, to describe both the fleshy fruiting bodies of some Ascomycota and the woody or leathery fruiting bodies of some Basidiomycota, depending upon the context of the word. Forms deviating from the standard morphology usually have more specific names, such as "puffball", "stinkhorn", and "morel", and gilled mushrooms themselves are often called "agarics" in reference to their similarity to Agaricus or their placement in the order Agaricales. By extension, the term "mushroom" can also designate the entire fungus when in culture or the thallus (called a mycelium) of species forming the fruiting bodies called mushrooms, or the species itself. Identification Identifying mushrooms requires a basic understanding of their macroscopic structure. Most are Basidiomycetes and gilled. Their spores, called basidiospores, are produced on the gills and fall in a fine rain of powder from under the caps as a result. At the microscopic level the basidiospores are shot off of basidia and then fall between the gills in the dead air space. As a result, for most mushrooms, if the cap is cut off and placed gill-side-down overnight, a powdery impression reflecting the shape of the gills (or pores, or spines, etc.) is formed (when the fruitbody is sporulating). The color of the powdery print, called a spore print, is used to help classify mushrooms and can help to identify them. Spore print colors include white (most common), brown, black, purple-brown, pink, yellow, and cream, but almost never blue, green, or red. While modern identification of mushrooms is quickly becoming molecular, the standard methods for identification are still used by most and have developed into a fine art harking back to medieval times and the Victorian era, combined with microscopic examination. The presence of juices upon breaking, bruising reactions, odors, tastes, shades of color, habitat, habit, and season are all considered by both amateur and professional mycologists. Tasting and smelling mushrooms carries its own hazards because of poisons and allergens. Chemical tests are also used for some genera. In general, identification to genus can often be accomplished in the field using a local mushroom guide. Identification to species, however, requires more effort; one must remember that a mushroom develops from a button stage into a mature structure, and only the latter can provide certain characteristics needed for the identification of the species. However, over-mature specimens lose features and cease producing spores. Many novices have mistaken humid water marks on paper for white spore prints, or discolored paper from oozing liquids on lamella edges for colored spored prints. Classification The genus Trichaptum, an example of a polypore, a mushroom without a stalk, fruiting on a log Typical mushrooms are the fruitbodies of members of the order Agaricales, whose type genus is Agaricus and type species is the field mushroom, Agaricus campestris. However, in modern molecularly defined classifications, not all members of the order Agaricales produce mushroom fruitbodies, and many other gilled fungi, collectively called mushrooms, occur in other orders in the class Agaricomycetes. For example, chanterelles are in the Cantharellales, false chanterelles like Gomphus are in the Gomphales, milk mushrooms (Lactarius) and russulas (Russula) as well as Lentinellus are in the Russulales, while the tough leathery genera Lentinus and Panus are among the Polyporales, but Neolentinus is in the Gloeophyllales, and the little pin-mushroom genus, Rickenella, along with similar genera, are in the Hymenochaetales. Within the main body of mushrooms, in the Agaricales, are common fungi like the common fairy-ring mushroom (Marasmius oreades), shiitake, enoki, oyster mushrooms, fly agarics, and other amanitas, magic mushrooms like species of Psilocybe, paddy straw mushrooms, shaggy manes, etc. An atypical mushroom is the Lobster mushroom, which is a deformed, cooked-lobster-colored parasitized fruitbody of a Russula or Lactarius colored and deformed by the mycoparasitic Ascomycete Hypomyces lactifluorum. Other mushrooms are non-gilled, and then the term "mushroom" is loosely used, so that it is difficult to give a full account of their classifications. Some have pores underneath (and are usually called boletes), others have spines, such as the hedgehog mushroom and other tooth fungi, and so on. "Mushroom" has been used for polypores, puffballs, jelly fungi, coral fungi, bracket fungi, stinkhorns, and cup fungi. Thus, the term mushroom is more one of common application to macroscopic fungal fruiting bodies than one having precise taxonomic meaning. There are approximately 14,000 described species of mushrooms. Mushroom vs. toadstool The relative sizes of the cap (pileus) and stalk (stipe) vary widely. Shown here is a species of Macrolepiota. The terms "Mushroom" and "Toadstool" go back centuries and were never precisely defined, nor was there consensus on application. The term "toadstool" was often, but not exclusively, applied to poisonous mushrooms or to those that have the classic umbrella-like cap-and-stem form. Between 1400 and 1600 A.D., the terms tadstoles, frogstooles, frogge stoles, tadstooles, tode stoles, toodys hatte, paddockstool, puddockstool, paddocstol, toadstoole, and paddockstooles sometimes were used synonymously with mushrom, mushrum, muscheron, mousheroms, mussheron, or musserouns. The word has apparent analogies in Dutch padde(n)stoel (toad-stool/chair, mushroom) and German Krötenschwamm (toad-fungus, alt. word for panther cap). Others have proposed a connection with German "Todesstuhl" (lit. "death's chair"). Since Tod is a direct cognate to death, in that case it would be a German borrowing. The term "mushroom" and its variations may have been derived from the French word mousseron in reference to moss (mousse). The toadstool's connection to toads may be direct, in reference to some species of poisonous toad, or may just be a case of phono-semantic matching from the German word. However, there is no clear-cut delineation between edible and poisonous fungi, so that a "mushroom" may be edible, poisonous, or unpalatable. The term "toadstool" is nowadays used in storytelling when referring to poisonous or suspect mushrooms. The classic example of a toadstool is Amanita muscaria. Growth rates Many species of mushrooms seemingly appear overnight, growing or expanding rapidly. This phenomenon is the source of several common expressions in the English language including "to mushroom" or "mushrooming" (expanding rapidly in size or scope) and "to pop up like a mushroom" (to appear unexpectedly and quickly). In actuality all species of mushrooms take several days to form primordial mushroom fruit bodies, though they do expand rapidly by the absorption of fluids. The cultivated mushroom as well as the common field mushroom initially form a minute fruiting body, referred to as the pin stage because of their small size. Slightly expanded they are called buttons, once again because of the relative size and shape. Once such stages are formed, the mushroom can rapidly pull in water from its mycelium and expand, mainly by inflating preformed cells that took several days to form in the primordia. Similarly, there are even more ephemeral mushrooms, like Parasola plicatilis (formerly Coprinus plicatlis), that literally appear overnight and may disappear by late afternoon on a hot day after rainfall. The primordia form at ground level in lawns in humid spaces under the thatch and after heavy rainfall or in dewy conditions balloon to full size in a few hours, release spores, and then collapse. They "mushroom" to full size. Not all mushrooms expand overnight; some grow very slowly and add tissue to their fruitbodies by growing from the edges of the colony or by inserting hyphae. Size and age Yellow, flower pot mushrooms (Leucocoprinus birnbaumii) at various states of development Though mushroom fruiting bodies are short-lived, the underlying mycelium can itself be long-lived and massive. A colony of Armillaria ostoyae in Malheur National Forest in the United States is estimated to be 2,400 years old, possibly older, and spans an estimated 2,200 acres. Most of the fungus is underground and in decaying wood or dying tree roots in the form of white mycelia combined with black shoelace-like rhizomorphs that bridge colonized separated woody substrates. Human use Oyster mushroom (Pleurotus ostreatus) cultivated using artificial logs made from compacted sawdust in plastic containers, harvested early morning. The button mushroom (Agaricus bisporus), one of the most widely cultivated mushrooms in the world. Edible mushrooms Edible mushrooms are used extensively in cooking, in many cuisines (notably Chinese, European, and Japanese). Though mushrooms are commonly thought to have little nutritional value, many species are high in fiber and provide vitamins such as thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, biotin, cobalamins, ascorbic acid. Though not normally a significant source of vitamin D, some mushrooms can become significant sources after exposure to ultraviolet light, though this also darkens their skin. Mushrooms are also a source of some minerals, including iron, selenium, potassium and phosphorus. Most mushrooms that are sold in super markets have been commercially grown on mushroom farms. The most popular of these, Agaricus bisporus, is generally considered safe for most people to eat because it is grown in controlled, sterilized environments, though some individuals do not tolerate it well. Several varieties of A. bisporus are grown commercially, including whites, crimini, and portobello. Other cultivated species now available at many grocers include shiitake, maitake or hen-of-the-woods, oyster, and enoki. Mushroom and Truffle output in 2005 There are a number of species of mushroom that are poisonous, and although some resemble certain edible species, eating them could be fatal. Eating mushrooms gathered in the wild is risky and should not be undertaken by individuals not knowledgeable in mushroom identification, unless the individuals limit themselves to a relatively small number of good edible species that are visually distinctive. A. bisporus contains carcinogens called hydrazines, the most abundant of which is agaritine. However, the carcinogens are destroyed by moderate heat when cooking. More generally, and particularly with gilled mushrooms, separating edible from poisonous species requires meticulous attention to detail; there is no single trait by which all toxic mushrooms can be identified, nor one by which all edible mushrooms can be identified. Additionally, even edible mushrooms may produce an allergic reaction, from a mild asthmatic response to severe anaphylaxis shock. People who collect mushrooms for consumption are known as mycophagists, and the act of collecting them for such is known as mushroom hunting, or simply "Mushrooming". Toxic mushrooms The Panther cap (Amanita pantherina) Of central interest with respect to the chemical properties of mushrooms is the fact that many species produce secondary metabolites that render them toxic, mind-altering, or even bioluminescent. Although there are only a small number of deadly species, several others can cause particularly severe and unpleasant symptoms. Toxicity likely plays a role in protecting the function of the basidiocarp: the mycelium has expended considerable energy and protoplasmic material to develop a structure to efficiently distribute its spores. One defense against consumption and premature destruction is the evolution of chemicals that render the mushroom inedible, either causing the consumer to vomit (see emetics) the meal, or to learn to avoid consumption altogether. Psychoactive mushrooms Psilocybin mushrooms possess psychedelic properties. They are commonly known as "magic mushrooms" "mushies" or "shrooms" and are available in smart shops in many parts of the world, though some countries have outlawed their sale. An article in the Journal of Psychopharmacology has made correlations between the induced hallucinations and subjects' experiences up to several months later. Because of their psychoactive properties, some mushrooms have played a role in native medicine, where they have been used in an attempt to effect mental and physical healing, and to facilitate visionary states. One such ritual is the Velada ceremony. A practitioner of traditional mushroom use is the shaman and curandera (priest-healer). Psilocybin mushrooms are not the only psychoactive fungi. Amanita muscaria pictured above is also psychoactive. The active constituents are Ibotenic acid and Muscimol. The Muscaria chemotaxonomic group of Amanitas contain no amatoxins or phallotoxins, and are not hepatoxic. Some dry these in the sun to transform the Ibotenic acid into the more psychoactive Muscimol. Medicinal mushrooms Currently, many species of mushrooms, which have been used in Asian folk medicine for thousands of years, are under intense study by ethnobotanists and medical researchers. Maitake, shiitake, Agaricus blazei, chaga, and reishi are prominent among those being researched for potential anti-cancer, anti-viral, and immunity-enhancing properties. In Europe and Japan, Polysaccharide-K (brand name Krestin), a chemical derived from Trametes versicolor, is an approved adjuvant for cancer therapy. In China a clinical drug has been developed from Trametes versicolor, it is called PSP and serves a similar purpose as Polysaccharide-K. Some countries have not embraced these chemicals as drugs, believing their power is over-stated. However, chemicals like Polysaccharide-K have well documented pharmaceutical value and are extremely safe with minimal side-effects. The shiitake mushroom has produced a clinical drug lentinan, for cancer treatment, which is approved in various countries including Japan. Human clinical studies are currently being conducted in the United States to investigate potential anti-cancer properties of the common table mushroom. Research has indicated certain mushrooms have anti-aromatase and anti-5-alpha reductase activity. Oyster mushrooms are a natural source of statin drugs, specifically, isomers of lovastatin . In 2009, a case-control study of the eating habits of 2,018 woman, revealed that women who consumed mushrooms had an approximately 50% lower incidence of breast cancer. Women who consumed mushrooms and green tea had a 90% lower incidence of breast cancer. Psilocybin, a naturally occurring chemical in certain psychedelic mushrooms like Psilocybe cubensis, is being studied for its ability to help people suffering from psychological disorders, such as obsessive-compulsive disorder. Minute amounts have been reported to stop cluster and migraine headaches. A double-blind study, done by the John Hopkins Hospital, showed that psychedelic mushrooms could provide people an experience with substantial personal meaning and spiritual significance. In the study, one third of the subjects reported that ingestion of psychedelic mushrooms was the single most spiritually significant event of their lives. Over two-thirds reported it among their five most meaningful and spiritually significant events. On the other hand, one-third of the subjects reported extreme anxiety. Ötzi the Iceman, a mummified human from 3300 BC, was found carrying Piptoporus betulinus wrapped in a leather string. Piptoporus betulinus is a fungus which has antibiotic properties. Mushroom Cultivation Cultivation is very easy, but care should be taken for three elements (1) good compost, (2) reliable spawn and (3) room temperature during budding period. Compost preparation is a very fundamental step. Mushrooms are grown in various substrates. The grain spawn is spread on the surface of the compost which is then covered with a thin layer of compost. After that the trays are covered with old newspaper sheets and water is sprayed to raise the local humidity. At a temperature of around 24 - 25 C° white cottony mycelium spreads and permeate through the compost. It takes around 12 to 15 days for the spawn to complete. www.mycogroups.page.tl Other uses Mushrooms can be used for dyeing wool and other natural fibers. The chromophores of mushrooms are organic compounds and produce strong and vivid colors, and all colors of the spectrum can be achieved with mushroom dyes. Before the invention of synthetic dyes mushrooms were the source of many textile dyes. Some fungi, types of polypores loosely called mushrooms, have been used as fire starters (known as tinder fungi). Mushrooms and other fungi play a role in the development of effective biological remediation and filtration technologies. The US Patent and Trademark Office can be searched for patents related to the latest developments in mycoremediation and mycofiltration. Further Reading References Edible Wild Mushrooms of North America: A Field-to-kitchen Guide (1992) ISBN 0-292-72080-0 Mushrooms of Northeastern North America (1997) ISBN 0-8156-0388-6 All That the Rain Promises, and More (1991) ISBN 0-89815-388-3 Growing Gourmet and Medicinal Mushrooms (2000) ISBN 1-58008-175-4 Mushroom Cultivator: A Practical Guide to Growing Mushrooms at Home (1983) ISBN 0-9610798-0-0 Mushrooms: Cultivation, Nutritional Value, Medicinal Effect, and Environmental Impact (2004) ISBN 0-8493-1043-1 Mycelium Running: How Mushrooms Will Save The World (2005) ISBN 1-58008-579-2 Mushrooms Demystified: A Comprehensive Guide to the Fleshy Fungi (1986) ISBN 0-89815-169-4 Psilocybin Mushroom Handbook: Easy Indoor and Outdoor Cultivation (2004) ISBN 0-932551-64-5 Psilocybin Mushrooms of the World (1996) ISBN 0-89815-839-7 External links Mushroom Cultivation Mycogroups Mushrooms Identification David Fischer's American Mushrooms Mushroom Expert MykoWeb An Aid to Mushroom Identification, Simon's Rock College Roger's Mushrooms Online Edible Wild Mushroom Field Guide Mushroom-Collecting.com - Fungi of the Northeastern US Images Mushroom Observer (All images are made available under a Creative Commons license.) Pictures Mushrooms Mushroom Photos Mushrooms Pictures with popular names National Research Centre For Mushroom National Research Centre for Mushroom (NRCM) is India's premier institute engaged in mushroom research Research associations Mushroom Mania; the Newsletter North American Mycological Association International Society for Mushroom Science Pacific Northwest Fungi Online Journal | Mushroom |@lemmatized mushroom:134 amanita:6 muscaria:4 commonly:3 know:5 fly:2 agaric:3 fleshy:3 spore:8 bearing:1 fruit:5 body:9 fungus:5 typically:1 produce:8 ground:2 soil:1 food:1 source:7 standard:3 name:4 cultivated:3 white:7 button:4 agaricus:7 bisporus:5 hence:1 word:7 often:4 apply:2 fungi:17 basidiomycota:2 agaricomycetes:2 stem:3 stipe:2 cap:8 pileus:2 gill:5 lamella:3 sing:1 underside:1 store:1 buy:1 also:6 use:17 wide:1 variety:2 gilled:6 without:2 term:9 even:4 generally:3 describe:1 fruiting:4 ascomycota:1 woody:2 leathery:2 depend:1 upon:2 context:1 form:10 deviate:1 morphology:1 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5,578 | Liechtenstein | The Principality of Liechtenstein (, ) is a landlocked alpine microstate in Western Europe, bordered by Switzerland to the west and by Austria to the east. Liechtenstein is the smallest German-speaking country in the world. It is a constitutional monarchy divided into 11 municipalities. Its capital is Vaduz. Much of Liechtenstein's terrain is mountainous, making it a winter sports destination. Many cultivated fields and small farms characterize its landscape both in the north (Unterland) and in the south (Oberland). The country has a strong financial sector and has been identified as a tax haven. It is a member of the European Free Trade Agreement. Liechtenstein is not part of the European Union and has shown no interest in joining. History At one time, the territory formed a part of the ancient Roman province of Raetia. For centuries this territory, geographically removed from European strategic interests, had little impact on European history. Prior to the reign of its current dynasty, the region was enfeoffed to a line of the counts of Hohenems. The Liechtenstein dynasty, from which the principality takes its name, comes from Castle Liechtenstein in faraway Lower Austria, which the family possessed from at least 1140 to the thirteenth century, and from 1807 onward. Through the centuries, the dynasty acquired vast tracts of land, predominantly in Moravia, Lower Austria, Silesia, and Styria, though in all cases, these territories were held in fief under other more senior feudal lords, particularly under various lines of the Habsburg family, to whom several Liechtenstein princes served as close advisers. Thus, and without any territory held directly under the Imperial throne, the Liechtenstein dynasty was unable to meet a primary requirement to qualify for a seat in the Imperial diet, the Reichstag. The family yearned for the added power a seat in the Imperial government would bring, and therefore sought to acquire lands that would be unmittelbar, or held without any feudal personage other than the Holy Roman Emperor himself having rights on the land. After some time, the family was able to arrange the purchase of the minuscule Herrschaft ("Lordship") of Schellenberg and county of Vaduz (in 1699 and 1712 respectively) from the Hohenems. Tiny Schellenberg and Vaduz possessed exactly the political status required; no feudal lord other than their comital sovereign and the suzerain Emperor. Thereby, on January 23, 1719, after purchase had been duly made, Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor, decreed Vaduz and Schellenberg were united, and elevated the newly-formed territory to the dignity of Fürstentum (principality) with the name "Liechtenstein" in honour of "[his] true servant, Anton Florian of Liechtenstein". It is on this date that Liechtenstein became a sovereign member state of the Holy Roman Empire. It is a testament to the pure political expediency of the purchases that the Princes of Liechtenstein did not set foot in their new principality for over 120 years. Schloss Vaduz, overlooking the capital, is still home to the prince of Liechtenstein As a result of the Napoleonic Wars, by 1806, the Holy Roman Empire was under the control of French emperor Napoleon I. Napoleon dissolved the Empire and this had broad consequences for Liechtenstein: imperial, legal and political mechanisms broke down. The state ceased owing obligations to any feudal lord beyond its borders. Modern publications generally (although incorrectly) attribute Liechtenstein's sovereignty to these events. In reality, its prince merely became suzerain, as well as remaining sovereign lord. From 25 July 1806 when the Confederation of the Rhine was founded, the prince of Liechtenstein was a member, in fact a vassal of its hegemon, styled protector, French Emperor Napoleon I, until the dissolution of the Confederation on 19 October 1813. Soon afterward, Liechtenstein joined the German Confederation (20 June 1815 24 August 1866, which was presided over by the Emperor of Austria). Johann I Josef, Prince of Liechtenstein. Then, in 1818, Johann I granted a constitution, although it was limited in its nature. 1818 also saw the first visit of a member of the house of Liechtenstein, Prince Alois; however, the first visit by a sovereign prince would not occur until 1842. Liechtenstein also had many advances in the nineteenth century, as in 1836, the first factory was opened, making ceramics. In 1861, the Savings and Loans Bank was founded, as was the first cotton-weaving mill. Two bridges over the Rhine were built in 1868, and in 1872 a railway line across Liechtenstein was constructed. When the Austro-Prussian War broke out in 1866, new pressure was placed on Liechtenstein, as, when peace was declared, Prussia accused Liechtenstein of being the cause of the war through a miscount of the votes for war with Prussia. This led to Liechtenstein refusing to sign a peace treaty with Prussia and remained at war although no actual conflict ever occurred. This was one of the arguments that were suggested to justify a possible invasion of Liechtenstein in the late 1930s. Until the end of World War I, Liechtenstein first was closely tied to the Austrian Empire and later to Austria-Hungary; the ruling princes continued to derive much of their wealth from estates in the Habsburg territories, and they spent much of their time at their two palaces in Vienna. The economic devastation caused by WWI forced the country to conclude a customs and monetary union with its other neighbour Switzerland. Liechtenstein's army was disbanded in 1868 for financial reasons. At the time of the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, it was argued that Liechtenstein as a fief of the Holy Roman Empire was no longer bound to the emerging independent state Austria, since the latter did not consider itself as the legal successor to the Empire. This is partly contradicted by the coeval Liechtenstein perception that the dethroned Austro-Hungarian Emperor still maintained an abstract heritage of the Holy Roman Empire. Franz I, Prince of Liechtenstein. In the spring of 1938, just after the annexation of Austria into Greater Germany, eighty-four year-old Prince Franz I abdicated, naming his thirty-one year-old third cousin, Prince Franz Joseph, as his successor. While Prince Franz I claimed that old age was his reason for abdicating, it is believed that he had no desire to be on the throne if Germany were to gobble up Liechtenstein. His wife, whom he married in 1929, was a wealthy Jewish woman from Vienna, and local Liechtenstein Nazis had already singled her out as their Jewish "problem". Although Liechtenstein had no official Nazi party, a Nazi sympathy movement had been simmering for years within its National Union party. Nazi Pressure? - TIME, 11 April 1938. During World War II, Liechtenstein remained neutral, while family treasures within the war zone were taken to Liechtenstein (and London) for safekeeping. At the close of the conflict, Czechoslovakia and Poland, acting to seize what they considered to be German possessions, expropriated the entirety of the Liechtenstein dynasty's hereditary lands and possessions in Bohemia, Moravia, and Silesia — the princes of Liechtenstein lived in Vienna until the Anschluss of 1938. The expropriations (subject to modern legal dispute at the World Court) included over of agricultural and forest land, also including several family castles and palaces. Citizens of Liechtenstein were also forbidden from entering Czechoslovakia during the Cold War. Liechtenstein gave asylum to approximately five hundred soldiers of the First Russian National Army (a collaborationist Russian force within the German Wehrmacht) at the close of World War II; this is commemorated by a monument at the border town of Hinterschellenberg which is marked on the country's tourist map. The act of granting asylum was no small matter as the country was poor and had difficulty feeding and caring for such a large group of refugees. Eventually, Argentina agreed to permanently resettle the asylum seekers. In contrast, the British repatriated the Russians who had fought for Germany to the USSR, and many of them perished in the Gulag. In dire financial straits following the war, the Liechtenstein dynasty often resorted to selling family artistic treasures, including, for instance, the priceless portrait "Ginevra de' Benci" by Leonardo da Vinci, which was purchased by the National Gallery of Art of the United States in 1967. Liechtenstein prospered, however, during the decades following, as it used its low corporate tax rates to draw many companies to the country. The Prince of Liechtenstein is the world's sixth wealthiest leader with an estimated wealth of USD $5 billion. D. Pendleton, C. Vorasasun, C. von Zeppelin, T. Serafin(September 01, 2008). "The Top 15 Wealthiest Royals". Forbes Magazine. The country's population enjoys one of the world's highest standards of living. Government functions The Government building in Vaduz. Liechtenstein's current constitution was adopted in October 1921. It established in Liechtenstein a constitutional monarchy headed by the reigning prince of the Princely House of Liechtenstein. It also established a parliamentary system, although the reigning prince retained substantial political authority. The reigning prince of the Princely House of Liechtenstein is the head of state and, as such, represents Liechtenstein in its international relations (although Switzerland has taken responsibility for much of Liechtenstein's diplomatic relations). The prince may veto laws adopted by parliament. The prince can call referendums, propose new legislation, and dissolve parliament, although dissolution of parliament may be subject to a referendum. Executive authority is vested in a collegial government (government) comprising the head of government (prime minister) and four government councilors (ministers). The head of government and the other ministers are appointed by the prince upon the proposal and concurrence of parliament, thus reflecting the partisan balance of parliament. The constitution stipulates that at least two members of the government be chosen from each of the two regions. The members of the government are collectively and individually responsible to parliament; parliament may ask the prince to remove an individual minister or the entire government. Legislative authority is vested in the unicameral "Landtag" (Liechtenstein Parliament) made up of 25 members elected for maximum four-year terms according to a proportional representation formula. Fifteen members are elected from the "Oberland" (Upper Country or region) and ten members are elected from the "Unterland" (Lower Country or region). Parties must receive at least eight percent of the national vote to win seats in parliament. Parliament proposes and approves a government, which is formally appointed by the prince. Parliament may also pass votes of no confidence against the entire government or against individual members. Additionally, parliament elects from among its members a "Landesausschuss" (National Committee) made up of the president of the parliament and four additional members. The National Committee is charged with performing parliamentary oversight functions. Parliament can call for referendums on proposed legislation. Parliament shares the authority to propose new legislation with the prince and with the requisite number of citizens required for an initiative referendum. Judicial authority is vested in the Regional Court at Vaduz, the Princely High Court of Appeal at Vaduz, the Princely Supreme Court, the Administrative Court, and the State Court. The State Court rules on the conformity of laws with the constitution. The State Court has five members elected by parliament. New constitution In March 2003, the results of a national referendum showed that nearly two-thirds of Liechtenstein's electorate agreed to vote in support of Hans-Adam II's proposal of a new constitution, to replace the 1921 one. The proposed constitution was criticised by many, including the Council of Europe, as expanding the powers of the monarchy (continuing the power to veto any law, and allowing the Prince to dismiss the Government or any Minister), and the criticisms were accentuated by a threat by the ruling prince that if the constitution failed, he would, among other things, convert some of the royal property for commercial use. Honorary Consuls On 1 July 2007, the Liechtenstein Ruling Prince, H.S.H. Hans-Adam II, and Liechtenstein's Prime Minister, Otmar Hasler, appointed Dr. Bruce S. Allen and Leodis C. Matthews, Esq., both in the United States of America, as the first two Honorary Consuls in history for the Principality of Liechtenstein. The U.S does not have an embassy in Liechtenstein and it is Switzerland's job to keep good relations between Switzerland, the U.S and the tiny principality. Portal of the Principality of Liechtenstein - News & Statements Geography Satellite image faintly delineating Liechtenstein - enlarge to full page for clarity. Grauspitz, the highest peak in Liechtenstein. Liechtenstein is situated in the Upper Rhine valley of the European Alps and is bordered to the east by Austria and to the west by Switzerland. The entire western border of Liechtenstein is formed by the river. Measured north to south, the country is only about long. In its eastern portion, Liechtenstein rises to higher altitudes; its highest point, the Grauspitz, is . Despite its alpine location, prevailing southerly winds make the climate of Liechtenstein comparatively mild. In winter, the mountain slopes are well suited to winter sports. New surveys using more accurate measurements of the country's borders in 2006 have set its area at , with borders of . "Tiny Liechtenstein gets a little bigger", 29 December 2006. Thus, Liechtenstein discovered in 2006 that its borders are longer than previously thought. Liechtenstein redraws Europe map, BBC News, 28 December 2006. Liechtenstein is one of only two doubly landlocked countries in the world CIA World Factbook - Liechtenstein. —being a landlocked country wholly surrounded by other landlocked countries (the other is Uzbekistan). It is the only country with a predominantly German-speaking population that does not share a border with the Federal Republic of Germany. Liechtenstein is the sixth-smallest independent nation in the world by land area. The principality of Liechtenstein is divided into 11 municipalities called Gemeinden (singular Gemeinde). The Gemeinden mostly consist only of a single town. Five of them fall within the electoral district Unterland (the lower county), and the remainder within Oberland (the upper county). Economy Looking northward at Vaduz city-centre. City-centre with Kunstmuseum (Liechtenstein Art Museum). Despite its limited natural resources, Liechtenstein is one of the few countries in the world with more registered companies than citizens; it has developed into a prosperous, highly industrialized, free-enterprise economy, and boasts a financial service sector as well as a living standard which compares favourably to those of the urban areas of Liechtenstein's large European neighbours. Relatively low business taxes—the maximum tax rate is 20% https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ls.html —as well as easy Rules of Incorporation have induced about 73,700 holding (or so-called 'letter box') companies to establish nominal offices in Liechtenstein. Such processes provide about 30% of Liechtenstein's state revenue. Liechtenstein also generates revenue from the establishment of stiftungs ("foundations"), which are financial entities created to increase the privacy of nonresident foreigners' financial holdings. The foundation is registered in the name of a Liechtensteiner, often a lawyer. Recently, Liechtenstein has shown strong determination to prosecute any international money-laundering and worked to promote the country's image as a legitimate financing center. In February 2008, the country's LGT Bank was implicated in a tax-fraud scandal in Germany, which strained the ruling family's relationship with the German government. Crown Prince Alois has accused the German government of trafficking in stolen goods for its $7.3 million purchase of private banking information illegally offered by a former employee of LGT Group. Wiesmann, Gerrit. "Lilliput's giant-slayer." The Financial Times, 23 February 2008. A Parasite's Priorities, 22 February 2008. However, the US Senate's subcommittee on tax haven banks charged that the LGT bank which is owned by the royal family, and on whose board they serve, "is a willing partner, and an aider and abettor to clients trying to evade taxes, dodge creditors or defy court orders." http://www.abc.net.au/4corners/content/2008/s2383439.htm Liechtenstein participates in a customs union with Switzerland and employs the Swiss franc as national currency. The country imports more than 90% of its energy requirements. Liechtenstein has been a member of the European Economic Area (an organization serving as a bridge between the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) and the European Union) since May 1995. The government is working to harmonize its economic policies with those of an integrated Europe. Since 2002, Liechtenstein's rate of unemployment has doubled, although it stood at only 2.2% in the third quarter of 2004. Currently, there is only one hospital in Liechtenstein, the Liechtensteinisches Landesspital in Vaduz. The GDP (PPP) is $4.16 billion, or $118,000 per person. Liechtenstein's most recognizable international company and largest employer is Hilti, a manufacturer of direct fastening systems and other high-end power tools. Liechtenstein also is the home of the Curta calculator and the principality produces a large portion of the world's false teeth. (Ivoclar Vivadent, Schaan) Taxation The government of Liechtenstein taxes both personal and business income and principal (wealth). The basic rate for the personal income tax is 1.2%. When combined with the additional income tax imposed by the communes, the combined income tax rate is 17.82%. Encyclopedia of the Nations An additional income tax of 4.3% is levied on all employees for the country's social security program. This rate is higher for self-employed, up to a maximum of 11%, making the maximum income tax rate about 29% total. Income from employment is taxed through monthly withholdings by employer. The maximum business income tax rate is 18-20%. + Estate dutyAmount (SFr) Rate The first 200,000 1%</tr> The next 400,000 2%</tr> The next 600,000 3%</tr> The next 800,000 4%</tr> On residue over 2 million 5%</tr> The basic tax rate on wealth is 0.06% and the combined total rate is 0.89%. Liechtenstein's gifts and estate taxes vary depending upon the relationship the recipient has to the giver and the amount of the inheritance. The tax ranges between 0.5% and 0.75% for spouses and children and 18% to 27% for non-related recipients. The estate tax is progressive (see table opposite). The rate above is halved if the estate passes to the spouse, children, or parents. Liechtenstein Personal Taxation The 2008 Liechtenstein tax affair is a series of tax investigations in numerous countries whose governments suspect that some of their citizens may have evaded tax obligations by using banks and trusts in Liechtenstein; the affair broke open with the biggest complex of investigations ever initiated for tax evasion in the Federal Republic of Germany. It is seen also as an attempt to put pressure on Liechtenstein, one of the remaining uncooperative tax havens along with Andorra and Monaco as identified by the Paris-based Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development in 2007. Demographics Liechtenstein is the fourth smallest country of Europe, after the Vatican City, Monaco, and San Marino. Its population is primarily Alemannic-speaking ethnic Germans, although its resident population is approximately one third foreign-born, primarily German speakers from the Federal Republic of Germany, Austria, and the Swiss Confederation, other Swiss, Italians, and Turks. Foreign-born people make up two-thirds of the country's workforce. Nationals are referred to by the plural: Liechtensteiners. The official language is German; most speak Alemannic, a dialect of German that is highly divergent from Standard German (see Middle High German), but closely related to those dialects spoken in neighbouring regions. In Triesenberg, a dialect promoted by the municipality is spoken. According to the 2000 census, 87.9% of the population is Christian, of which 76% adhere to the Roman Catholic faith, while about 7% are Protestant. The religious affiliation for most of the remainder is Islam 4.8%, undeclared 4.1% and no religion 2.8%, Publikationen zur Volkszählung 2000 - Amt für Volkswirtschaft - Landesverwaltung Liechtenstein there are around 30 Jews that live today at Liechtenstein. Liechtensteiners have an average life expectancy at birth of 79.68 years (76.1 years for males; 83.28 years for females). The infant mortality rate is 4.64 deaths per 1,000 live births, according to recent estimates. The literacy rate of Liechtenstein is 100%. The Programme for International Student Assessment, coordinated by the OECD, currently ranks Liechtenstein's education as the 10th best in the world, being significantly higher than the OECD average. Range of rank on the PISA 2006 science scale Transport Road There are about of paved roadway within Liechtenstein. Rail of railway connects Austria and Switzerland through Liechtenstein. The country's railways are administered by the Austrian Federal Railways as part of the route between Feldkirch, Austria, and Buchs SG, Switzerland. Four stations in Liechtenstein, namely Schaan-Vaduz, Forst Hilti, Nendeln, and Schaanwald, are served by an irregularly stopping train service running between Feldkirch and Buchs. While EuroCity and other long distance international trains also make use of the route, these do not call at Liechtenstein stations. Bus Liechtenstein Bus is a subsidiary of the Swiss Postbus system, but separately run, and connects to the Swiss bus network at Buchs SG and at Sargans as well as the Austrian city of Feldkirch. N.B. Incidentally, with Liechtenstein's railways being run by the Austrian Federal Railways (ÖBB) and with special agreements existing between Liechtenstein's and Austria's Government, the country falls under the Austrian Verkehrsverbund Vorarlberg tariff region. Bicycle There are of marked bicycle paths in the country. Air Liechtenstein has no airport; the nearest large airport is Zürich. There is a small heliport at Balzers in Liechtenstein Heliport Balzers FL LSXB Heliports - Balzers LSXB - Heli-Website von Matthias Vogt available for charter helicopter flights. Culture Vineyard on the outskirts of Vaduz. As a result of its small size Liechtenstein has been strongly affected by external cultural influences, most notably those originating in the southern German-speaking areas of Europe, including Austria, Bavaria, Switzerland, and Tirol. The Historical Society of the Principality of Liechtenstein plays a role in preserving the culture and history of the country. The largest museum is the Kunstmuseum Liechtenstein, an international museum of modern and contemporary art with an important international art collection. The building by the Swiss architects Morger, Degelo and Kerez is a landmark in Vaduz. It was completed in November 2000 and forms a “black box” of tinted concrete and black basalt stone. The museum collection is also the national art collection of Liechtenstein. The other important museum is the Liechtenstein National Museum (Liechtensteinisches Landesmuseum) showing permanent exhibition on the cultural and natural history of Liechtenstein as well as special exhibitions. There are also two more museums: a Stamp museum and a Ski museum. The most famous historical sites are Vaduz Castle, Gutenberg Castle, the Red House and the ruins of Schellenberg. Music and theatre are an important part of the culture. There are numerous music organizations such as the Liechtenstein Musical Company, the annual Guitar Days and the International Josef Gabriel Rheinberger Society; and two main theatres. The Private Art Collection of the Prince of Liechtenstein, one of the world's leading private art collections, is shown at the Liechtenstein Museum in Vienna. Sports Marco Büchel, skier. Liechtenstein football teams play in the Swiss football leagues. The Liechtenstein Cup allows access to one Liechtenstein team each year in the UEFA Cup; FC Vaduz, a team playing in the Swiss Axpo Super League, the first division in Swiss football, is the most successful team in the Cup, and scored their greatest success in the European Cup Winners' Cup in 1996 when they tied and defeated the Latvian team FC Universitate Riga by 1–1 and 4–2, to go on to a lucrative fixture against Paris St Germain, which they lost 0–4 and 0–3. The Liechtenstein national football team has traditionally been regarded as an easy target for any team drawn against them, a fact that served as the basis for a book about Liechtenstein's unsuccessful qualifying campaign for the 2002 World Cup by British author, Charlie Connelly. In one surprising week during autumn 2004, however, the team managed a 2–2 draw with Portugal, which only a few months earlier had been the losing finalists in the European Championships. Four days later, the Liechtenstein team traveled to Luxembourg where they defeated the home team 4-0 in a 2006 World Cup qualifying match. They are still considered by many to be an easier touch than most; however, they have been steadily improving over the last few years, and are now considered the best of the European "minnows", even though they were recently humbled 7-1 by Malta in March 2008. In the qualification stage of the European Championship 2008, Liechtenstein beat Latvia 1-0, score which prompted the resignation of the Latvian coach. They went on to beat Iceland 3-0 (October 17, 2007), which is considered one of the most dramatic losses of the Icelandic national football team. As an alpine country, the main opportunity for Liechtensteiners to excel is in winter sports such as downhill skiing: The country's single ski area is Malbun. Hanni Wenzel won two gold medals and one silver medal in the 1980 Winter Olympics (she won bronze in 1976), whereas her brother, Andreas , won one silver medal (1980) and one bronze medal 1984 in the Giant Slalom event. With nine medals overall (all in alpine skiing), Liechtenstein has won more Olympic medals per capita than any other nation. It is also the smallest nation to win a medal in any Olympics, Winter or Summer, and the only nation to win medal in the Winter Games but not in the Summer Games. Other notable skiers from Liechtenstein are Marco Büchel, Willi Frommelt, Paul Frommelt and Ursula Konzett. Vaduz, Liechtenstein, is considering a bid for either the 2018 Winter Olympics or 2022 Winter Olympics. Amateur radio is practiced by some nationals and visitors. However, unlike virtually every other sovereign nation, Liechtenstein does not have its own ITU Prefix. It uses Switzerland's callsign prefixes (typically "HB") followed by a zero. Military Liechtenstein follows a policy of neutrality and is one of few countries in the world that maintains no military. The army was abolished soon after the Austro-Prussian War in which Liechtenstein fielded an army of 80 men. The demise of the German Confederation in the war freed Liechtenstein from its international obligation to maintain an army and parliament seized this opportunity and refused to provide further funding. The prince objected, as such a move would leave the country defenseless, but relented on February 12, 1868, and disbanded the force. The last soldier to serve under the colors of Liechtenstein died in 1939 at the age of 95. Beattie, David. Liechtenstein: A Modern History. London: I.B. Tauris, 2004. pg. 30 (ISBN 185043459X). See also Liechtenstein and the European Union List of Liechtensteiners European microstates 2008 Liechtenstein tax affair Human rights in Liechtenstein References Sources Liechtenstein — A Modern History by David Beattie CMG, London, 2004, ISBN 1-85043-459-X. 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5,579 | Geography_of_China | NASA composite satellite photo The geography of China stretches some 5,026 kilometers across the East Asian landmass bordering the East China Sea, Korea Bay, Yellow Sea, and South China Sea, between North Korea RUBYand Vietnam in a changing configuration of broad plains, expansive deserts, and lofty mountain ranges, including vast areas of inhospitable terrain. The eastern half of the country, its seacoast fringed with offshore islands, is a region of fertile lowlands, foothills and mountains, deserts, steppes, and subtropical areas. The western half of China is a region of sunken basins, rolling plateaus, and towering massifs, including a portion of the highest tableland on earth. The vastness of the country and the barrenness of the western hinterland have important implications for defense strategy. In spite of many good harbors along the approximately 18,000-kilometer coastline, the nation has traditionally oriented itself not toward the sea but inland, developing as an imperial power whose center lay in the middle and lower reaches of the Yellow River on the northern plains. China also has the Tibetan Plateau, a very large, high altitude plateau, to the south. To the north of the Tibetan Plateau lie the Gobi and Taklamakan deserts, which stretch from the extreme northwest eastward through Mongolia. China is one of the world's largest countries in total area behind Russia and Canada, and very similar to the United States. Whether China or the United States is the third largest country in the world in total area is related to (a) the validity of claims by the PRC on territories such as Aksai Chin and Trans-Karakoram Tract (both territories also claimed by India), and (b) how the total size of the United States is calculated: The CIA's The World Factbook gives 9,826,630 km2, the United Nations Statistics Division gives 9,629,091 km2, and the Encyclopedia Britannica gives 9,522,055 km2. Figures for the size of China differ slightly depending on where one draws a number of ill-defined boundaries. The official figure by the People's Republic of China is 9.6 million square kilometers. The Republic of China based in Taiwan puts this figure at 11 million square kilometers, but this includes Mongolia, an independent sovereign state. China's contour is reasonably comparable to that of the United States and lies largely at the same latitudes. The total area is estimated to be 9,596,960 km2, with land accounting for 9,326,410 km2 and water for 270,550 km2 (around 3 percent). Geography The Geography of China|The Geography of China From the Tibetan Plateau and other less-elevated highlands rise rugged east-west trending mountains, and plateaus interrupted by deep depressions fanning out to the north and east. The Tibetan Plateau is a vast, elevated plateau covering most of the Tibet Autonomous Region and Qinghai Province in the People's Republic of China and Ladakh in Kashmir. With an average elevation of over 4,500 meters, the highest and biggest plateau in the world and an area of 2.5 million square kilometers. A continental scarp marks the eastern margin of this territory, a scarp that extends from the Greater Khingan Range in northeastern China, through the Taihang Mountains (a range of mountains overlooking the North China Plain) to the eastern edge of the Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau in the south. All of the low-lying areas of China, which support dense population and intensive cultivation, are to the east of this scarp line. The east-west ranges include some of Asia's greatest mountains. In addition to the Himalayas and the Kunlun Mountains, there are the Kailash (Gangdise) and the Tian Shan ranges. The latter stands between two great basins, the massive Tarim Basin to the south and the Dzungarian Basin to the north. Rich deposits of coal, oil, and metallic ores lie in the Tian Shan area. The largest inland basin in China, the Tarim Basin measures 1,500 kilometres from east to west and 600 kilometres from north to south at its widest parts. The Himalayas form a natural boundary on the southwest as the Altai Mountains do on the northwest. Lesser ranges branch out, some at sharp angles from the major ranges. The mountains give rise to all the principal rivers. The spine of the Kunlun Mountains separates into several branches as it runs eastward from the Pamir Mountains. The northernmost branches, the Altyn-Tagh and the Qilian Range, form the rim of the Tibetan Plateau in west-central China and overlook the Qaidam Basin, a sandy and swampy region containing many salt lakes. A southern branch of the Kunlun Mountains divides the watersheds of the Yellow River (Huang He) and the Yangtze River (Chang Jiang). The Gansu Corridor, west of the great bend in the Yellow River, was traditionally an important communications link with Central Asia. North of the 3,300-kilometre-long Great Wall, between Gansu Province on the west and the Greater Khingan Range on the east, lies the Mongolian Plateau, at an average elevation of 1,000 metres above sea level. The Yin Mountains, a system of mountains with average elevations of 1,400 metres, extends east-west through the center of this vast desert steppe. To the south is the largest loess plateau in the world, covering 600,000 square kilometers in Shaanxi Province, parts of Gansu and Shanxi provinces, and some of Ningxia-Hui Autonomous Region. Loess is a yellowish soil blown in from the Inner Mongolian deserts. The loose, loamy material travels easily in the wind, and through the centuries it has veneered the plateau and choked the Yellow River with silt. Because the river level drops precipitously toward the North China Plain where it sluggishly crosses the delta, it carries a heavy load of sediment in the form of sand and mud from the upper reaches, much of which is deposited on the flat plain. The flow is controlled mainly by constantly repaired man-made embankments while floods and course changes have recurred over the centuries. As a result the river flows on a raised ridge fifty metres or more above the plain, Traditionally, rulers were judged by their concern for or indifference to preservation of the embankments. Flowing from its source in the Tibetan highlands, the Yellow River courses toward the sea through the North China Plain, the historic centre of Chinese expansion and influence. Ethnic Chinese people have farmed the rich alluvial soils of the plain since ancient times, constructing the Grand Canal of China for north-south transport. The plain itself is actually a continuation of the Manchurian Plain to the northeast but is separated from it by the Bohai Gulf, an extension of the Yellow Sea. Like other densely populated areas of China, the plain is subject not only to floods but to earthquakes. For example, the mining and industrial centre of Tangshan, about 165 kilometres east of Beijing, was levelled by an earthquake in July 1976 that reportedly also killed 242,000 people and injured 164,000. The Qinling mountain range, a continuation of the Kunlun Mountains, divides the North China Plain from the Yangtze River Delta and is the major physiographic boundary between the two great parts of China Proper. It is in a sense a cultural boundary as well, influencing the distribution of custom and language. South of the Qinling divide are the densely populated and highly developed areas of the lower and middle plains of the Yangtze and, on its upper reaches, the Sichuan Basin, an area encircled by a high barrier of mountain ranges. The country's longest and most important waterway, the Yangtze River is navigable over much of its length and is now the site of the Three Gorges Dam. Rising on the Tibetan Plateau, the Yangtze River traverses 6,300 kilometers through the heart of the country, draining an area of 1.8 million square kilometers before emptying into the East China Sea. The Sichuan Basin, favoured by a mild, humid climate and a long growing season, produces a rich variety of crops; it is also a leading silk-producing area and an important industrial region with substantial mineral resources. Second only to the Qinling as an internal boundary is the Nanling, the southernmost of the east-west mountain ranges. The Nanling overlooks the part of China where a tropical climate permits two crops of rice to be grown each year. Southeast of the mountains lies a coastal, hilly region of small deltas and narrow valley plains; the drainage area of the Pearl River (Zhu Jiang) and its associated network of rivers occupies much of the region to the south. West of the Nanling, the Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau rises in two steps, averaging 1,200 and 1,800 metres in elevation, respectively, toward the precipitous mountain regions of the eastern Tibetan Plateau. The Hai River, like the Pearl and other major waterways, flows from west to east. Its upper course consists of five rivers that converge near Tianjin, then flow seventy kilometers before emptying into the Bohai Gulf. Another major river, the Huai, rises in Henan Province and flows through several lakes before joining the Yangtze near Yangzhou. Inland drainage involving a number of upland basins in the north and northeast accounts for about 40 percent of the country's total drainage area. Many rivers and streams flow into lakes or diminish in the desert. Some are useful for irrigation. China's extensive territorial waters are principally marginal seas of the western Pacific Ocean; these waters wash the shores of a long and much-indented coastline and approximately 5,000 islands. The Yellow, East China, and South China seas, too, are marginal seas of the Pacific Ocean. More than half the coastline (predominantly in the south) is rocky; most of the remainder is sandy. Hangzhou Bay roughly divides the two kinds of shoreline. Areas of China have experienced earthquakes. On 23 August 1976, a major earthquake in Tangshan killed hundreds of thousands of people. However, most regions of China do not experience earthquakes, as major population centres are a long distance from fault lines. Tangshan is one of the few places in China that is located within an earthquake zone. There are few volcanoes in China. Topography Topographic map of China The topography varies greatly in China, a vast land of lofty plateau, large plains, rolling land and big and small basins surrounded by lofty mountains. All the five basic topographic types in the world exist in China to create the conditions for developing industry and agriculture. Mountainous land and very rough terrains make up two-thirds of Chinese territory, and this has created some problems in transport and in the development of agricultural production. However such topographical features are conducive to the development of forestry, mineral and hydropower resources and tourism. With highlands in the west and plains in the east, China has a varied topography. The plane of the land may be divided into three tiers. The Qinghai-Tibet Plateau that rises more than 4000m above sea-level forms the highest tier. It is a land of peaks and valleys studded with innumerable lakes. Along the plateau's southwestern fringe is the Himalayan Range, on the eastern section of which looms the 8, 848. 13 meter-high Mt. Qomolangma, the world's highest peak. The vast area north and east of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau that drops to an elevation below 1,100-2,000m forms the second tier-a land interspersed with extensive basins and highlands. Here the Turpan Basin in Xinjiang is 154m below sea-level-the lowest depression in China. The third tier is a vast area of rolling hills and plains with an elevation below 500m lying east of the line running from the Greater Hinggan and Taihang ranges in the north to the foothills of the Wushan Mountains and the Yunnan-Guizhou Highlands in the south. Though some peaks in this area are as high as 2,000m, the plains along the coast have an elevation of less than 50m. Off the Chinese coast is an extensive continental shelf richly endowed with petroleum, natural gas and marine resources. There are many mountain ranges in China. Those extending from east to west are the Tianshan-Yinshan ranges and those in the center are the Kunlun-Qinling ranges, and those in the south are the Nanling ranges. Ranges that stretch in a northeast-southwest direction are, for the most part, located in the eastern part of China. They are the Greater Hinggan Range, Taihang, Wushan, Xuefengshan, Changbaishan and Wuyishan ranges. Those running in a NW-SE direction are the Altai mountains and Qilianshan ranges. Ranges that run in a north-south direction are the Hengduanshan and Helanshan ranges. And on the border between China and India, Nepal and other countries looms the 2400 kilometers-long Himalayan Range with an average elevation of 6,000m. Climate The average annual precipitation in different regions of China The climate of China is extremely diverse; subtropical in the south to subarctic in the north. Monsoon winds, caused by differences in the heat-absorbing capacity of the continent and the ocean, dominate the climate. Alternating seasonal air-mass movements and accompanying winds are moist in summer and dry in winter. The advance and retreat of the monsoons account in large degree for the timing of the rainy season and the amount of rainfall throughout the country. Tremendous differences in latitude, longitude, and altitude give rise to sharp variations in precipitation and temperature within China. Although most of the country lies in the temperate belt, its climatic patterns are complex. China's northernmost province Heilongjiang has a subarctic climate; its southernmost point, Hainan Island (an island away from mainland China), has a tropical climate. Temperature differences in winter are great, but in summer the diversity is considerably less. For example, the northern portions of Heilongjiang Province experience an average January mean temperature of below 0 °C, and the reading may drop to minus 30 °C; the average July mean in the same area may exceed 20 °C. By contrast, the central and southern parts of Guangdong Province experience an average January temperature of above 10 °C, while the July mean is about 28 °C. Precipitation varies regionally even more than temperature. China south of the Qinling mountains experiences abundant rainfall, most of it coming with the summer monsoons. To the north and west of the range, however, rainfall is uncertain. The farther north and west one moves, the scantier and more uncertain it becomes. The northwest has the lowest annual rainfall in the country and no precipitation at all in its desert areas. China experiences frequent typhoons (about five per year along southern and eastern coasts), damaging floods, monsoons, tsunamis, and droughts. See also: Hot summer cold winter zone Natural resources China has substantial mineral reserves and is the world’s largest producer of antimony, natural graphite, tungsten, and zinc. Other major minerals are bauxite, coal, crude petroleum, diamonds, gold, iron ore, lead, magnetite, manganese, mercury, molybdenum, natural gas, phosphate rock, tin, uranium, and vanadium. With its vast mountain ranges, China’s hydropower potential is the largest in the world. Based on 2005 estimates, 14.86% (about 1.4 million km2) of China’s total land area is arable. About 1.3% (some 116,580 km2) is planted to permanent crops and the rest planted to temporary crops. With comparatively little land planted to permanent crops, intensive agricultural techniques are used to reap harvests that are sufficient to feed the world’s largest population and still have surplus for export. An estimated 544,784 km2 of land were irrigated in 2004. 42.9% of total land area was used as pasture, and 17.5% was forest. China's water resources include 2,711.5 billion cubic meters of runoff in its rivers and 828.8 billion cubic meters which was pumped annually from shallow aquifers circa 2000. As pumping water draws water from nearby rivers, the total available resource is 2,821.4 billion cubic meters. 80.9% of these resources are in the Yangtze River basin. In 1993, 498,720 square kilometers were irrigated. Environment The scale of China's environmental problems is large. To begin with, China's 1.3 billion human population account for around a fifth of the world's population, but the nation encompasses less than one tenth of the world's arable land. Furthermore, almost the entire population lives in the well-watered eastern half of the country, where virtually every square centimeter of farmland has been developed. Indeed, China has very little land that has not been altered in some way by man. The sheer size of the population means that forests, wetlands, grasslands and agricultural fields are stretched beyond the limits of sustainable use. Dramatic growth in the economy and the continuing need to raise living standards for some of Asia's poorest people means that urban areas face a similar crisis: coal dust, untreated factory emissions, vehicle exhaust and wind-blown desert sand make Chinese cities some of the most polluted on Earth; many of the nation's rivers are polluted and virtually all water in urban areas is heavily contaminated. Air pollution (sulfur dioxide particulates) from reliance on coal is a major issue, along with water pollution from untreated wastes and use of debated standards of pollutant concentration rather than Total Maximum Daily Load. There are water shortages, particularly in the north. The eastern part of China often experiences smoke and dense fog in the atmosphere as a result of industrial pollution. Heavy deforestation with an estimated loss of one-fifth of agricultural land since 1949 to soil erosion and economic development is occurring with resulting desertification. The size of the Gobi desert has increased and now reaches the outskirts of Beijing. China is a party to the Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, the Antarctic Treaty, the Convention on Biological Diversity, the Climate Change treaty, the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification, the Endangered Species treaty, the Hazardous Wastes treaty, the Law of the Sea, the International Tropical Timber Agreements of 1983 and 1994, the International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling, and agreements on Marine Dumping, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, and Wetlands protection. China has signed, but not ratified the Kyoto Protocol (but is not yet required to reduce its carbon emission under the agreement, as is India), and the Nuclear Test Ban treaty. Habitats The world's third largest country, China rises from sea level in the east to peak of Mount Everest on the border with Nepal. The south shares tropical rainforests with Laos, Vietnam and Burma, while the Da Hinggan Mountains in Inner Mongolia have tundra vegetation on top of permafrost. China is also home to East Asia's most important wetlands and Asia's longest river (Yangtze), and is the source of two rivers of inestimable importance to hundreds of millions of people in South and Southeast Asia - the Ganges and the Mekong. Deserts make up one-fifth of China's total territory, largely in the northwest. Arid steppes cover additional areas in the Altai, Tian, and Kunlun Mountains in the far west, a region blocked from the southwestern monsoon by the Tibetan plateau and from the southeastern monsoon by its distance from the sea. This massive diversity of geography and habitats has resulted in an extraordinary range of plant and animal life. Forests China contains a variety of forest types. Both northeast and northwest reaches contain mountains and cold coniferous forests, supporting animal species which include moose and Asiatic black bear, along with some 120 types of birds. Moist conifer forests can have thickets of bamboo as an understorey, replaced by rhododendrons in higher montane stands of juniper and yew. Subtropical forests, which dominate central and southern China, support an astounding 146,000 species of flora, as well as the famous giant panda, golden monkey and South China tiger. Tropical rainforest and seasonal rainforests, though confined to Yunnan and Hainan Island, actually contain a quarter of all the plant and animal species found in China. Grasslands Grasslands make up about a third of China's total land area. The immense and productive grasslands are largely concentrated in Inner Mongolia, Ningxia, parts of Qinghai and Tibet. The natural wildlife they support includes three species on the verge of extinction: Przewalski's horse, the Asiatic wild ass and the Bactrian camel (the ancestor of domesticated camels). There is often direct competition between domestic animals and wild fauna, and herdsmen poison or trap carnivores, and sometimes set fires to increase pasture area. The government has recently stepped up efforts to control the conversion of grasslands to pasture, but lacks the manpower to enforce policy. Freshwater ecosystems Freshwater habitats are of massive importance to China, and a huge percentage of the population is directly dependent on wetlands — marshes, rivers, and lakes — for economic activity, flood control and drinking water. Seven of the most important rivers in the world begin in the highlands of western China. The Yellow River (Huang He), Yangtze River (Chang Jiang), Lancang Jiang (Mekong) and the Salween rise in the east of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. The Indus, Ganges, and Brahmaputra rise in the south. Downstream these rivers serve as sources of irrigation and drinking water, modes of transportation, and centers of cultural and religious importance for some two billion people in China, India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and throughout Southeast Asia. These rivers rise and gather strength from many of the thousands of freshwater lakes of the region. China's northeast is the focus for much of the country's freshwater marshes. An area of 20,000 square kilometres on the Sanjiang Plain of Heilongjiang is essentially a collection of shallow freshwater lakes and reed-beds where the Heilongjiang, Sungari, and Wusuli rivers come together. Jilin, Liaoning and Inner Mongolia all share these ecosystems. One of the most well-known wildlife areas in this ecosystem is Zhalong Nature Reserve, a 2,000-square-kilometer area which was created in 1979 to protect breeding areas for the red-crowned crane, and other wintering migrants. These marshes are also of great value for reed production, the bulk of which is turned into pulp for paper. Waterfowl and reed production can usually co-exist, at least at present levels, so this is a useful confluence of conservation and economic uses. In western Sichuan, marshland provides breeding grounds for the black-necked crane and bar-headed goose. China's freshwater lakes include the country's best-known wetlands: Jiangxi's Poyang Hu and Hunan's Dongting Hu. Dongting Hu, China's second largest freshwater lake, is vitally important for wildlife, including the highly endangered Yangtze river dolphin and Chinese sturgeon, as well as more wintering wildfowl. Poyang Hu is a similar complex of small lakes and marsh areas which fluctuates seasonally; summer floods give way in autumn to fertile agricultural land, attractive both to farmers and visiting birds. The importance of the area is hard to overstate, as the lakes provide a wintering habitat for almost the entire world population of two hundred Siberian Cranes, and as many as five hundred thousand birds may be on Poyang Hu at any one time during the winter months. In recent years, however, some of Poyang's larger lakes have been drained at the end of autumn, leaving waterfowl with inadequate shallow land on which to feed. In History The Central plain, visible in dark yellow. China may be divided in several strategic area. See the map on the right. Saltwater lakes About half of China's lakes are saline and, once again, are important breeding grounds for waterfowl. Most are concentrated in northwest China on the inland drainage systems of the North Tibetan Plain and in the Zaidan basin. The largest is Qinghai Lake, a 4,426-square-kilometer reserve which attracts thousands of birds each summer, including cormorants, great black-headed gulls, bar-headed geese and pied avocets. Similarly, the Tarim River basin in Xinjiang supports one of the largest breeding populations of black stork in China. The Ordos plateau area of Inner Mongolia as well as the Xinjiang's Taolimiao-Alashan Nur (lake) support breeding sites for the endangered relict gull. Most of these lakes and marshes fluctuate seasonally and are threatened by increased diversion of water for human use. Coastal wetlands China's coastline is approximately 18,000 km long, extending from the Bohai Gulf, which freezes in the winter, to the tropical waters of the South China Sea. Coastal wetlands are important as fuel stops for waterfowl on the migratory route between Siberia and Australia. Chongming Island in the Yangtze River delta near Shanghai - China's largest city and one of its fastest growing regions - is vital for these migrants. Wildlife China lies in two of the world's major ecozones, the Palearctic and the Indomalaya. In the Palearctic zone are found such important mammals as the horse, camel, tapir, and jerboa. Among the species found in the Indomalaya region are the Leopard Cat, bamboo rat, treeshrew, and various other species of monkeys and apes. Some overlap exists between the two regions because of natural dispersal and migration, and deer or antelope, bears, wolves, pigs, and rodents are found in all of the diverse climatic and geological environments. The famous giant panda is found only in a limited area along the Chang Jiang. There is a continuing problem with trade in endangered species, although there are now laws to prohibit such activities. See also Chinese geography History of human geography in China Environment of China List of cities in China List of islands of the People's Republic of China List of rivers in China Lakes in China North China Plain Geography of Hong Kong Geography of Macau Geographic information systems in China Topography of China Economy of China References Bibliography Chun Lin, Hans Hendrischke, The Territories of the People's Republic of China. Europa Publications, First edition, 2002, London. 264 pages. 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5,580 | Bean | Various type of beans Bean is a common name for large plant seeds of several genera of the family Fabaceae (alternately Leguminosae) used for human food or animal feed. The whole young pods of bean plants, if picked before the pods ripen and dry, can be tender enough to eat whole, whether cooked or raw. Thus the word "green beans" means "green" in the sense of unripe (many are in fact, not green in color), as the beans inside the pods of green beans are too small to comprise a significant part of the cooked fruit. Terminology The term "bean" originally referred to the seed of the broad bean, but was later expanded to include members of the genus Phaseolus, such as the common bean and the runner bean, and the related genus Vigna. The term is now applied in a general way to many other related plants such as soybeans, peas, lentils, kidney beans, chickpeas (garbanzos), vetches and lupins. "Bean" can be used as a near-synonym of "pulse", an edible legume, though the term "pulses" is usually reserved for leguminous crops harvested for their dry grain and usually excludes crops mainly used for oil extraction (like soybeans and peanuts) or those used exclusively for sowing purposes (such as clover and alfalfa). Leguminous crops harvested green for food, such as snap peas, snow peas, etc., are classified as vegetable crops. In English usage, the word "beans" is also sometimes used to mean the seeds or pods of plants that are not in the family Leguminosae, but which bear a superficial resemblance to true beans, for example coffee beans, castor beans and cocoa beans (which resemble bean seeds), and vanilla beans (which resemble the pods). History Beans are one of the longest-cultivated plants, broad beans having been grown at least since ancient Egypt, and the common bean for six thousand years in the Americas. Many modern dry beans come from old-world varieties of broad beans, but most of the kinds commonly eaten fresh come from the Americas, being first seen by Christopher Columbus during his conquest of a region of what may have been the Bahamas, where they were grown in fields. One especially famous use of beans by pre-Columbian people is the Three Sisters method of companion plant cultivation: On the east coast of what would come to be called the United States, some tribes would grow maize (corn), beans, and squash intermingled together, a system which had originated in Mexico. The corn would not be planted in rows as it is today, but in a checkerboard/hex fashion across a field, separate patches of one to four stalks each. Beans would be planted around the base of the developing stalks, and would vine their way up as the stalks grew. All American beans at that time were vine plants, "bush beans" having only been bred more recently. The cornstalks would work as a trellis for the beans, and the beans would provide much-needed nitrogen for the corn. Squash would then be planted in the spaces between the patches of corn in the field. They would be provided slight shelter from the sun by the corn, and would deter many animals from attacking the corn and beans, because their coarse, hairy vines and broad, stiff leaves are difficult or uncomfortable for animals like deer and raccoons to walk through, crows to land on, et cetera. Beans were an important alternative source of protein throughout old and new world history, and still are today. There are over 4,000 cultivars of bean on record in the United States, alone. An interesting modern example of the diversity of bean use is 15 bean soup, which, as the name implies, contains literally fifteen different varieties of bean. Types As illustrated by 15 bean soup, there is a great variety of beans types, including: Vicia Faba or broad beanVica faba or broad beans, known in the US as fava beans Vigna Aconitifolia or Moth bean Angularis or azuki bean mungo or urad bean radiata or mung bean umbellatta or ricebean unguiculata or cowpea (includes the black-eyed pea, yardlong bean and others) Cicer arietinum or chickpea (also known as the garbanzo bean) Pisum sativum or pea Lathyrus Lathyrus sativus (Indian pea) Lathyrus tuberosus (Tuberous pea) Lens culinaris or lentil Lentils Lablab purpureus or hyacinth bean Phaseolus acutifolius or tepary bean coccineus or runner bean lunatus or lima bean vulgaris or common bean (includes the pinto bean, kidney bean, caparrones, and many others) Glycine max or soybean Psophocarpus tetragonolobus or winged bean Psophocarpus tetragonolobus (winged bean) Cajanus cajan or pigeon pea Stizolobium spp or velvet bean Cyamopsis tetragonoloba or guar Canavalia ensiformis or jack bean gladiata or sword bean Macrotyloma M. uniflorum or horse gram Lupinus or Lupin L. mutabilis or tarwi Erythrina E. herbacea or Coral bean Cultural aspects The following traditional uses of beans refer to the broad bean. In some folk legends, such as in Estonia and the common Jack and the Beanstalk story, magical beans grow tall enough to bring the hero to the clouds. The Grimm Brothers collected a story in which a bean splits its sides laughing at the failure of others. A bowl of tomatillos and beans in the pod Pliny the Elder claimed that beans act as a laxative. He may have been referring to the seeds of the castor oil plant, which contain oils used as laxatives in ancient India. European folklore claims that planting beans on Good Friday or during the night-time is good luck. "Beans, Beans, the Magical Fruit"'' is a children's song about the flatulence often experienced after eating beans. The song is noteworthy for correctly identifying the bean as a fruit, not a vegetable. Yet beans, along with many other fruits, are regarded as vegetables due to their common usage as such. The decision to classify certain fruits as vegetables was officially resolved in 1893 when the US Supreme Court unanimously decided the tomato was a vegetable, at which time Justice Gray also clarified the status of cucumbers, squash, peas and beans as vegetables. http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?navby=CASE&court=US&vol=149&page=304 This distinction is important in planning nutritionally balanced meals and is supported in the Dietary Guidelines for Americans published by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services and U.S. Department of Agriculture in which legumes (dry beans) are designated as a subgroup within the Vegetable Group, http://www.health.gov/dietaryguidelines/dga2005/document/html/chapter5.htm and in the MyPyramid Food Plan in which dry beans and peas are part of the Vegetable Group. http://www.mypyramid.gov/pyramid/vegetables.html In Japanese, "mame" (豆, マメ = "bean") may also mean something small. "Mame Chishiki" (豆知識), a Japanese phrase, which literally means "bean knowledge" (not "knowledge of beans"), is used to indicate any random trivia or miscellaneous knowledge displayed. The Japanese name for the Japanese beetle is "mamekogane" (マメコガネ), meaning "small beetle". In many parts of the southern United States, serving a meal of black-eyed peas on New Year's Day is thought to bring good luck in the upcoming year. In Malta, eating lentils on New Year's Day is said to bring good fortune in terms of money for the coming year. In Nicaragua, newly weds are given a bowl of beans for good luck. In Aruba, boiled beans mixed with zinc phosphide are used as a means of cheap Rodenticide. In Italy, eating lentils on New Years night is said to bring good fortune in terms of money for the coming year. Toxins Some kinds of raw beans and especially red and kidney beans, contain a harmful toxin (the lectin Phytohaemagglutinin) that must be destroyed by cooking. A recommended method is to boil the beans for at least ten minutes; undercooked beans may be more toxic than raw beans. Cooking beans in a slow cooker, because of the lower temperatures often used, may not destroy toxins even though the beans do not smell or taste 'bad' Phytohaemagglutinin, US FDA's Bad Bug Book or Foodborne Pathogenic Microorganisms and Natural Toxins Handbook. Notes that toxicity may be five-fold greater if heated to 80 °C than if consumed raw. (though this should not be a problem if the food reaches boiling and stays there for some time). Fermentation is used in some parts of Africa to improve the nutritional value of beans by removing toxins. Inexpensive fermentation improves the nutritional impact of flour from dry beans and improves digestibility, according to research co-authored by Emire Shimelis, from the Food Engineering Program at Addis Ababa University. The study is published in the International Journal of Food Science & Technology. Beans are a major source of dietary protein in Kenya, Malawi, Tanzania, Uganda and Zambia. (Sub Saharan Africa page, Science and Development Network website) Flatulence Many edible beans, including broad beans and soybeans, contain oligosaccharides (particularly raffinose and stachyose), a type of sugar molecule also found in cabbage. An anti-oligosaccharide enzyme is necessary to properly digest these sugar molecules. As a normal human digestive tract does not contain any anti-oligosaccharide enzymes, consumed oligosaccharides are typically digested by bacteria in the large intestine. This digestion process produces flatulence-causing gases as a byproduct. This aspect of bean digestion is the basis for the children's rhyme "Beans, Beans, the Musical Fruit." Some species of mold produce alpha-galactosidase, an anti-oligosaccharide enzyme, which humans can take to facilitate digestion of oligosaccharides in the small intestine. This enzyme, currently sold in the U.S. under the brand-name Beano, can be added to food or consumed separately. In many cuisines beans are cooked along with natural carminatives such as anise seeds, coriander seeds and cumin. Other strategies include soaking beans in water for several hours before mixing them with other ingredients to remove the offending sugars. Sometimes vinegar is added, but only after the beans are cooked as vinegar interferes with the beans' softening. Fermented beans will not produce most of the intestinal problems that unfermented beans will, since yeast can consume the offending sugars. Production The world leader in production of Dry Bean is Brazil, followed by India and then China. In Europe, the most important producer is Germany. Top Ten Dry Bean Producers — 11 June 2008CountryProduction (Tonnes)Footnote 3330435 3000000F 1957000F 1765000F 1390000F 1150808 535000F 435000 328249 320000F 19289231 A No symbol = official figure, P = official figure, F = FAO estimate, * = Unofficial/Semi-official/mirror data, C = Calculated figure A = Aggregate(may include official, semi-official or estimates); Source: Food And Agricultural Organization of United Nations: Economic And Social Department: The Statistical Devision The world leader in production of Green Bean is China, followed by Indonesia and then Turkey. Top Ten Green Bean Producers — 11 June 2008CountryProduction (Tonnes)Footnote 2485000F 830000F 499298 420000F 225000F 215000F 187190 105000F 100000F 100000F 6371333 A No symbol = official figure, P = official figure, F = FAO estimate, * = Unofficial/Semi-official/mirror data, C = Calculated figure A = Aggregate(may include official, semi-official or estimates); Source: Food And Agricultural Organization of United Nations: Economic And Social Department: The Statistical Devision Taboo Pythagoreans did not eat beans, and exclude meat and fish, as well. http://users.ucom.net/~vegan/beans.htm See also Common bean Pulses List of edible seeds Baked beans Fassoulada References External links Everett H. Bickley Collection, 1919-1980 Archives Center, National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution. 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5,581 | Hera | In the Olympian pantheon of classical Greek Mythology, Hera ( or , Greek ) or Here ( in Ionic and Homer) was the wife and older sister of Zeus. Hera is the Goddess of Childbirth and Marriage. In Roman mythology, Juno was the equivalent mythical character. Hera, wanting to set a good example to the gods, goddesses, and mortals, chose the cow as one of her emblems, because they are the most motherly of animals. Not wanting to be viewed as plain-looking like the cow, she chose the peacock and the lion. Portrayed as majestic and solemn, often enthroned, and crowned with the polos (a high cylindrical crown worn by several of the Great Goddesses), Hera may bear a pomegranate in her hand, emblem of fertile blood and death and a substitute for the narcotic capsule of the opium poppy. Ruck, Carl A.P., and Danny Staples, The World of Classical Myth, 1994. A scholar of Greek mythology Walter Burkert writes in Greek Religion, "Nevertheless, there are memories of an earlier aniconic representation, as a pillar in Argos and as a plank in Samos." Walter Burkert, Greek Religion, Cahners Business Information, Inc., 1985, p. 131 Hera was well known for her jealous and vengeful nature, most notably against Zeus's paramours and offspring, but also against mortals who crossed her, such as Pelias. Paris offended her by choosing Aphrodite as the most beautiful goddess, earning Hera's hatred. Name "The name of Hera, the Queen of the gods, admits a variety of mutually exclusive etymologies; one possibility is to connect it with hora, season, and to interpret it as ripe for marriage." So begins the section on Hera in Walter Burkert's Greek Mythology. Burkert, p. 131. In a note, he records other scholars' arguments "for the meaning Mistress as a feminine to Heros, Master." John Chadwick, a decipherer of Linear B, remarks ""her name may be connected with hērōs 'hero', but that is no help, since it too is etymologically obscure." Chadwick, The Mycenaean World (Cambridge University Press) 1976:87. A.J. van Windekens, Windekens, in Glotta 36 (1958), pp. 309-11. offers "young cow, heifer", which is consonant with Hera's common epithet βοώπις (boôpis, cow-eyed). E-ra appears in Mycenaean tablets. Jupiter and Juno by Annibale Carracci. The cult of Hera Hera was especially worshipped as "Argive Hera" (Hera Argeia) at her sanctuary that stood between the former Mycenaean city-states of Argos and Mycenae, Her name appears, with Zeus and Hermes, in a Linear B inscription (Tn 316) at Mycenean Pylos (John Chadwick, The Mycenaean World [Cambridge University Press] 1976:89). where the festivals in her honor called Heraia were celebrated. "The three cities I love best," the ox-eyed Queen of Heaven declares (Iliad, book iv) "are Argos, Sparta and Mycenae of the broad streets." Her other main center of cult was at Samos. There were also temples to Hera in Olympia, Corinth, Tiryns, Perachora and the sacred island of Delos. In Magna Graecia, two Doric temples to Hera were constructed, about 550 BC and about 450 BC. The temple long called the Temple of Poseidon among the group at Paestum was identified in the 1950s as a second temple there of Hera. P.C. Sestieri, Paestum, the City, the Prehistoric Acropolis in Contrada Gaudo, and the Heraion at the Mouth of the Sele (Rome 1960), p. 11 etc. "It is odd that there was no temple dedicated to Poseidon in a city named for him (Paestum was originally called Poseidonia). Perhaps there was one at Sele, the settlement that preceded Paestum," Sarantis Symeonoglou suggested (Symeonoglou, "The Doric Temples of Paestum" Journal of Aesthetic Education, 19.1, Special Issue: Paestum and Classical Culture: Past and Present [Spring 1985:49-66] p. 50. |The Temple of Hera at Agrigento, Magna Graecia. Greek altars of classical times were always under the open sky. Hera may have been the first to whom an enclosed roofed temple sanctuary was dedicated, at Samos about 800 BC. (It was replaced later by the Heraion, one of the largest Greek temples anywhere.) There were many temples built on this site so evidence is somewhat confusing and archaeological dates are uncertain. We know that the temple created by the Rhoecus sculptors and architects was destroyed between 570- 60 BC. This was replaced by the Polycratean temple 540-530 BC. In one of these temples we see a forest of 155 columns. There is also no evidence of tiles on this temple suggesting either the temple was never finished or that the temple was open to the sky. Earlier sanctuaries, whose dedication to Hera is less secure, were of the Mycenaean type called "house sanctuaries". Martin Persson Nilsson, The Minoan-Mycenaean Religion and Its Survival in Greek Religion (Lund) 1950 pt. I.ii "House Sanctuaries", pp 77-116; H. W. Catling, "A Late Bronze Age House- or Sanctuary-Model from the Menelaion, Sparta," BSA 84 (1989) 171-175. Samos excavations have revealed votive offerings, many of them late 8th and 7th centuries BC, which reveal that Hera at Samos was not merely a local Greek goddess of the Aegean: the museum there contains figures of gods and suppliants and other votive offerings from Armenia, Babylon, Iran, Assyria, Egypt, testimony to the reputation which this sanctuary of Hera enjoyed and to the large influx of pilgrims. Compared to this mighty goddess, who also possessed the earliest temple at Olympia and two of the great fifth and sixth century temples of Paestum, the termagant of Homer and the myths is an "almost...comic figure" according to Burkert. Burkert, p. 132, including quote; Burkert: Orientalizing Revolution. In Euboea the festival of the Great Daedala, sacred to Hera, was celebrated on a sixty-year cycle. Hera's early importance Both Hera and Demeter had many characteristic attributes of the former Great Goddess. "The goddesses of Greek polytheism, so different and complementary," Greek mythology scholar Walter Burkert has observed, in Homo Necans (1972) 1983:79f, "are nonetheless, consistently similar at an earlier stage, with one or the other simply becoming dominant in a sanctuary or city. Each is the Great Goddess presiding over a male society; each is depicted in her attire as Mistress of the Beasts, and Mistress of the Sacrifice, even Hera and Demeter." The Minoan goddess represented in seals and other remains, whom Greeks called Potnia theron, "Mistress of the Animals", many of whose attributes were later also absorbed by Artemis, seems to have been a mother goddess type, for in some representations she suckles the animals that she holds. Sometimes this devolved role is as clear as a simple substitution can make it. According to the Homeric Hymn III to Delian Apollo, Hera detained Eileithyia to already prevent Leto from going into labor with Artemis and Apollo, since the father was Zeus. The other goddesses present at the birthing on Delos sent Iris to bring her. As she stepped upon the island, the divine birth began. In the myth of the birth of Heracles, it is Hera herself who sits at the door instead, delaying the birth of Heracles until her protegé, Eurystheus, had been born first. Hera's importance in the early archaic period is attested by the large building projects undertaken in her honor. The temples of Hera in the two main centers of her cult, the Heraion of Samos and the Heraion of Argos in the Argolid, were the very earliest monumental Greek temples constructed, in the 8th century BC. The Homeric Hymn to Pythian Apollo makes the monster Typhaon the offspring of archaic Hera in her Minoan form, produced out of herself, like a monstrous version of Hephaestus, and whelped in a cave in Cilicia. Iliad, ii. 781-783) She gave the creature to Gaia to raise. Roman copy of a Greek 5th century Hera of the "Barberini Hera" type, from the Museo Chiaramonti At Olympia, Hera's seated cult figure was older than the warrior figure of Zeus that accompanied it. Homer expressed her relationship with Zeus delicately in the Iliad, in which she declares to Zeus, "I am Cronus' eldest daughter, and am honourable not on this ground only, but also because I am your wife, and you are king of the gods." The Iliad by Homer - Project Gutenberg Though Zeus is often called Zeus Heraios ("Zeus, consort of Hera"), Homer's treatment of Hera is less than respectful, and in late anecdotal versions of the myths (see below) she appeared to spend most of her time plotting revenge on the nymphs seduced by her Consort, for Hera upheld all the old right rules of Hellene society and sorority. Matriarchy? There has been considerable scholarship, reaching back to Johann Jakob Bachofen in the mid-nineteenth century, Bachofen, Mutterrecht 1861, translated as Mother Right: An Investigation of the Religious and Juridical Character of Matriarchy in the Ancient World. Bachofen was seminal in the writings of Jane Ellen Harrison and other students of Greek myth. about the possibility that Hera, whose early importance in Greek religion is firmly established, was originally the goddess of a matriarchal people, presumably inhabiting Greece before the Hellenes. In this view, her activity as goddess of marriage established the patriarchal bond of her own subordination: her resistance to the conquests of Zeus is rendered as Hera's "jealousy", the main theme of literary anecdotes that undercut her ancient cult. Slater 1968. Emblems of the presence of Hera In Hellenistic imagery, Hera's wagon was pulled by peacocks, birds not known to Greeks before the conquests of Alexander. Alexander's tutor, Aristotle, refers to it as "the Persian bird." The peacock motif was revived in the Renaissance iconography that unified Hera and Juno, and which European painters focused on. Seznec, Jean, The Survival of the Pagan Gods : Mythological Tradition in Renaissance Humanism and Art, 1953 A bird that had been associated with Hera on an archaic level, where most of the Aegean goddesses were associated with "their" bird, was the cuckoo, which appears in mythic fragments concerning the first wooing of a virginal Hera by Zeus. Her archaic association was primarily with cattle, as a Cow Goddess, who was especially venerated in "cattle-rich" Euboea. On Cyprus, very early archaeological sites contain bull skulls that have been adapted for use as masks (see Bull (mythology)). Her familiar Homeric epithet Boôpis, is always translated "cow-eyed", for, like the Greeks of Classical times, its other natural translation "cow-faced" or at least "of cow aspect" is rejected. A cow-headed Hera, like a Minotaur would be at odds with the maternal image of the later classical period. In this respect, Hera bears some resemblance to the Ancient Egyptian deity Hathor, a maternal goddess associated with cattle. The pomegranate, an ancient emblem of the Great Goddess, remained an emblem of Hera: many of the votive pomegranates and poppy capsules recovered at Samos are made of ivory, which survived burial better than the wooden ones that must have been more common. Like all goddesses, images of Hera might show her wearing a diadem and a veil. Hebe Goddess of youth, daughter of Zeus and Hera. Sculpted 1800-1805 by Antonio Canova. Epithets Aside from the aforementioned Boôpis, Hera bore several other epithets in the mythological tradition. One was Aegophagus, "goat-eater", under which she was worshipped by the Lacedaemonians. Pausanias, iii. 15. § 7 Hera and her children Hera presides over the right arrangements of the marriage and is the archetype of the union in the marriage bed, but she is not notable as a mother. The legitimate offspring of her union with Zeus are Ares, Hebe, Eris (the goddess of discord) and Eileithyia (goddess of childbirth). Hera was jealous of Zeus' giving birth to Athena without recourse to her (actually with Metis), so she gave birth to Hephaestus without him. Hera was then disgusted with Hephaestus' ugliness and threw him from Mount Olympus. As another alternative version, Hera gave birth to all of the children usually accredited to her and Zeus together, alone by beating her hand on the Earth, a solemnizing action for the Greeks. Hephaestus gained revenge against Hera for rejecting him by making her a magical throne which, when she sat on, did not allow her to leave. The other gods begged Hephaestus to return to Olympus to let her go, but he repeatedly refused. Dionysus got him drunk and took him back to Olympus on the back of a mule. Hephaestus released Hera after being given Aphrodite as his wife. Hera, the enemy of Heracles Hera was the stepmother and enemy of Heracles, who was named "Hera-famous" Pauly-Wissowa, Realencyclopädie der Classischen Altertumswissenschaft, s.v. Hera: "Heraberühmte" in her honor; Heracles is the hero who, more than even Perseus, Cadmus or Theseus, introduced the Olympian ways in Greece. Ruck and Staples When Alcmene was pregnant with Heracles, Hera tried to prevent the birth from occurring by tying Alcmene's legs in knots. She was foiled by Galanthis, her servant, who told Hera that she had already delivered the baby. Hera turned her into a weasel. Herakles strangling the snakes sent by Hera, Attic red-figured stamnos, ca. 480–470 BC. From Vulci, Etruria. While Heracles was still an infant, Hera sent two serpents to kill him as he lay in his cot. Heracles throttled a single snake in each hand and was found by his nurse playing with their limp bodies as if they were a child's toys. The anecdote Noted by Apollonius of Rhodes in Argonautica, i.855; Pindar, Pythian Ode iv, 253 is built upon a representation of the hero gripping a serpent in each hand, precisely as the familiar Minoan snake-handling goddesses had once done. "The picture of a divine child between two serpents may have been long familiar to the Thebans, who worshiped the Cabeiri, although not represented as a first exploit of a hero". Kerenyi, The Heroes of the Greeks 1959 p 134. One account of the origin of the Milky Way is that Zeus had tricked Hera into nursing the infant Heracles: discovering who he was, she pulled him from her breast, and a spurt of her milk formed the smear across the sky that can be seen to this day. The Etruscans pictured a full-grown bearded Heracles at Hera's breast: however, this may refer to his adoption by her when he became an Immortal. He had previously wounded her severely in the breast. Some myths state that Hera befriended Heracles for saving her from a giant who tried to rape her, and that she even gave her daughter Hebe as his bride. Whatever myth-making served to account for an archaic representation of Heracles as "Hera's man" it was thought suitable for the builders of the Heraion at Paestum to depict the exploits of Heracles in bas-reliefs. Kerenyi, p 131 The Twelve Labors Hera assigned Heracles to labor for King Eurystheus at Mycenae. She attempted to make almost each of Heracles' twelve labors more difficult. When he fought the Lernaean Hydra, she sent a crab to bite at his feet in the hopes of distracting him. When Heracles took the cattle of Geryon, he shot Hera in the right breast with a triple-barbed arrow: the wound was incurable and left her in constant pain, as Dione tells Aphrodite in the Iliad, Book V. Afterwards, Hera sent a gadfly to bite the cattle, irritate them and scatter them. Hera then sent a flood which raised the water level of a river so much that Heracles could not ford the river with the cattle. He piled stones into the river to make the water shallower. When he finally reached the court of Eurystheus, the cattle were sacrificed to Hera. Eurystheus also wanted to sacrifice the Cretan Bull to Hera. She refused the sacrifice because it reflected glory on Heracles. The bull was released and wandered to Marathon, becoming known as the Marathonian Bull. The young Hera Hera was most known as the matron goddess, Hera Teleia; but she presided over weddings as well. In myth and cult, fragmentary references and archaic practices remain of the sacred marriage of Hera and Zeus, Farnell, I 191, and at Plataea, there was a sculpture of Hera seated as a bride by Callimachus, as well as the matronly standing Hera. Pausanias, 9.2.7- 9.3.3; Pausanias explains this by telling the myth of the Daedala. Hera was also worshipped as a virgin: There was a tradition in Stymphalia in Arcadia that there had been a triple shrine to Hera the Virgin, the Matron, and the Separated (Chêra, Widowed or Divorced). Farnell, I 194, citing Pausanias 8.22.2' Pindar refers to the "praises of Hera Parthenia [the Maidenly]" Olympian ode 6.88 In the region around Argos, the temple of Hera in Hermione near Argos was to Hera the Virgin; S. Casson: "Hera of Kanathos and the Ludovisi Throne" The Journal of Hellenic Studies 40.2 (1920), pp. 137-142, citing Stephanus of Byzantium sub Ernaion. at the spring of Kanathos, close to Nauplia, Hera renewed her virginity annually, in rites that were not to be spoken of (arrheton). Pausanias, 2.38. Echo For a long time, a nymph named Echo had the job of distracting Hera from Zeus' affairs by leading her away and flattering her. Two other versions state that Hera was always amused by Echo's chatter or Echo tricked Hera by telling her Zeus was waiting for her at Olympus. When Hera discovered the deception, she cursed Echo to only repeat the words of others (hence our modern word "echo"). Leto and Artemis/Apollo When Hera discovered that Leto was pregnant and that Zeus was the father, she banned Leto from giving birth on "terra-firma", or the mainland, or any island at sea. Leto found the floating island of Delos, which was surrounded by swans. The island was neither mainland nor a real island, and Leto was able to give birth to her children on the island. As a gesture of gratitude, Delos was secured with four pillars. The island later became sacred to Apollo. Alternatively, Hera kidnapped Eileithyia, the Goddess of Childbirth, to prevent Leto from going into labor. The other gods forced Hera to let her go. Either way, Artemis was born first and then assisted with the birth of Apollo. Some versions say Artemis helped her mother give birth to Apollo for nine days. Another variation states that Artemis was born one day before Apollo, on the island of Ortygia and that she helped Leto cross the sea to Delos the next day to give birth to Apollo. Leto "finally reached Delos and gave birth to Artemis, who thereupon helped her deliver Apollo. Artemis became a practised huntress and remained a virgin." (Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheke 1.21). Callisto and Arcas Hera also figures in the myth of Callisto and Arcas. A follower of Artemis, Callisto took a vow to remain a virgin. But Zeus fell in love with her and disguised himself as Artemis in order to lure her into his embrace. Hera then turned Callisto into a bear out of revenge. Later, Callisto's son with Zeus, Arcas, nearly killed her in a hunt and Zeus placed them in the heavens. An alternate version: One of Artemis' companions, Callisto lost her virginity to Zeus, who had come disguised as Artemis. Enraged, Artemis changed her into a bear. Callisto's son, Arcas, nearly killed his mother while hunting, but Zeus or Artemis stopped him and placed them both in the sky as Ursa Major and Ursa Minor. Another alternate version: Artemis killed Callisto in bear form, deliberately. Semele and Dionysus When Hera learned that Semele, daughter of Cadmus King of Thebes, was pregnant by Zeus, she disguised herself as Semele's nurse and persuaded the princess to insist that Zeus show himself to her in his true form. When he was compelled to do so, his thunder and lightning blasted her. Zeus took the child and completed its gestation sewn into his own thigh. Another variation is when Hera persuades Semele to force Zeus to show himself in his real form. Unfortunately, he must do what the princess wants, having sworn by Styx. Hamilton, Edith (1969). "Mythology". In another version, Dionysus was originally the son of Zeus by either Demeter or Persephone. Hera sent her Titans to rip the baby apart, from which he was called Zagreus ("Torn in Pieces"). Zeus rescued the heart and gave it to Semele to impregnate her; or, the heart was saved, variously, by Athena, Rhea, or Demeter. Seyffert Dictionary Zeus used the heart to recreate Dionysus and implant him in the womb of Semele--hence Dionysus became known as "the twice-born". Certain versions imply that Zeus gave Semele the heart to eat to impregnate her. Hera tricked Semele into asking Zeus to show his true form, which killed her. But Dionysus managed to rescue her from the underworld and have her live on Mount Olympus. See also Dionysus' birth for other variations. with Zeus, by Giovanni Ambrogio Figino Io Hera almost caught Zeus with a mistress named Io, a fate avoided by Zeus turning Io into a beautiful white heifer. However, Hera was not completely fooled and demanded that Zeus give her the heifer as a present. Once Io was given to Hera, she placed her in the charge of Argus to keep her separated from Zeus. Zeus then commanded Hermes to kill Argus, which he did by lulling all one hundred eyes to sleep. In Ovid's interpolation, when Hera learned of Argus' death, she took his eyes and placed them in the plumage of the peacock, accounting for the eye pattern in its tail. Ovid, Metamorphoses I.624ff and II.531. The peacock (Greek taos), not native to Greece or Western Asia, was unknown to Hellenes until the time of Alexander the Great. Hera then sent a gadfly (Greek oistros, compare oestrus)) to sting Io as she wandered the earth. Eventually Io was driven to the ends of the earth, which the Romans believed to be Egypt, where she became a priestess of the Egyptian goddess, Isis. Lamia Lamia was a queen of Libya, whom Zeus loved. Hera turned her into a monster and murdered their children. Or, alternately, she killed Lamia's children and the grief turned her into a monster. Lamia was cursed with the inability to close her eyes so that she would always obsess over the image of her dead children. Zeus gave her the gift to be able to take her eyes out to rest, and then put them back in. Lamia was envious of other mothers and ate their children. Gerana Gerana was a queen of the Pygmies who boasted she was more beautiful than Hera. The wrathful goddess turned her into a crane and proclaimed that her bird descendants should wage eternal war on the Pygmy folk. Other stories involving Hera Hera and Prometheus, tondo of a 5th-century plate from Vulci, Etruria Cydippe Cydippe, a priestess of Hera, was on her way to a festival in the goddess' honor. The oxen which were to pull her cart were overdue and her sons, Biton and Cleobis, pulled the cart the entire way (45 stadia, 8 kilometers). Cydippe was impressed with their devotion to her and her goddess and asked Hera to give her children the best gift a god could give a person. Hera ordained that the brothers would die in their sleep. This honor bestowed upon the children was later used by Solon as a proof while trying to convince Croesus that it is impossible to judge a person's happiness until they have died a fruitful death after a joyous life. Herodotus' History, Book I Tiresias Tiresias was a priest of Zeus, and as a young man he encountered two snakes mating and hit them with a stick. He was then transformed into a woman. As a woman, Tiresias became a priestess of Hera, married and had children, including Manto. After seven years as a woman, Tiresias again found mating snakes, struck them with her staff, and became a man once more. As a result of his experiences, Zeus and Hera asked him to settle the question of which sex, male or female, experienced more pleasure during intercourse. Zeus claimed it was women; Hera claimed it was men. When Tiresias sided with Zeus, Hera struck him blind. Since Zeus could not undo what she had done, he gave him the gift of prophecy. An alternative and less commonly told story has it that Tiresias was blinded by Athena after he stumbled onto her bathing naked. His mother, Chariclo, begged her to undo her curse, but Athena couldn't; she gave him prophecy instead. The Iliad According to the Iliad, during the Trojan War, Diomedes fought Hector and saw Ares fighting on the Trojans' side. Diomedes called for his soldiers to fall back slowly. Hera, Ares' mother, saw Ares' interference and asked Zeus, Ares' father, for permission to drive Ares away from the battlefield. Hera encouraged Diomedes to attack Ares and he threw his spear at the god. Athena drove the spear into Ares' body, and he bellowed in pain and fled to Mt. Olympus, forcing the Trojans to fall back. The Golden Fleece Hera hated Pelias for having murdered Sidero, his step-grandmother, in a temple to Hera. She later manipulated Jason and Medea to kill Pelias. The Metamorphoses In Thrace, Hera and Zeus turned King Haemus and Queen Rhodope into mountains, Ovid, Metamorphoses 6.87 the Balkan (Haemus Mons) and Rhodope mountain chains respectively, for their hubris in comparing themselves to the gods. See also Deception of Zeus Barberini Hera Hera Borghese Hera Farnese Notes Sources Burkert, Walter, Greek Religion 1985. Burkert, Walter, The Orientalizing Revolution: Near Eastern Influence on Greek Culture in the Early Archaic Age, 1998 Farnell, Lewis Richard, The cults of the Greek states I: Zeus, Hera Athena Oxford, 1896. Graves, Robert, The Greek Myths 1955. Use with caution. Kerenyi, Carl, The Gods of the Greeks 1951 (paperback 1980) Kerenyi, Karl, 1959. The Heroes of the Greeks Especially Heracles. Ruck, Carl A.P., and Danny Staples, The World of Classical Myth 1994 Seyffert, Oskar. Dictionary of Classical Antiquities 1894. (On-line text) Seznec, Jean, The Survival of the Pagan Gods : Mythological Tradition in Renaissance Humanism and Art, 1953 Slater, Philip E. The Glory of Hera : Greek Mythology and the Greek Family (Boston: Beacon Press) 1968 (Princeton University 1992 ISBN 0-691-00222-3 ) Concentrating on family structure in 5th-century Athens; some of the crude usage of myth and drama for psychological interpreting of "neuroses" is dated. 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5,582 | Katina_Paxinou | Katina Paxinou (December 17, 1900 - February 22, 1973) was an Academy Award- and Golden Globe-winning Greek film and theatre actress. Early life Born Aikaterini (Catherine) Konstantopoulou in Piraeus, Greece, she trained as an opera singer but changed career and joined the Greek Royal Theater in 1929. Paxinou distinguished herself on the stage. When World War II broke out, she was performing in London. Unable to return to Greece, she emigrated to the United States. Career She was selected to play "Pilár" in the 1943 film For Whom the Bell Tolls, winning an Oscar and a Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress - Motion Picture. She was the first non-american actor/actress to win an Oscar. She continued appearing in Hollywood films until 1949. She made one British film as well, the 1947 film version of Uncle Silas, starring Jean Simmons. She played mother to Tyrone Power in Prince of Foxes in 1949. After 1949, Paxinou returned to Hollywood only once more, to play, again, a gypsy woman, this time in the 1959 Technicolor religious epic, The Miracle. In 1950, Paxinou resumed her stage career. In her native Greece, she formed the Royal Theatre of Athens with Alexis Minotis, her principal director and her husband since 1940. Paxinou made several appearances on the Broadway stage and television as well, including the lead role in the first production in English of Federico Garcia Lorca's The House of Bernarda Alba, at the ANTA Playhouse in New York in 1951, and a BBC production of Lorca's Blood wedding (Bodas de sangre), broadcast on June 2, 1959. Death Paxinou from cancer in Athens, Greece in 1973 at the age of 72. She was survived by her husband, and her two children from her first marriage to Ioannis Paxinos, whose surname she had been using after their divorce. Her remains are buried at First Cemetery of Athens. Filmography Year Film Role Other notes1943For Whom the Bell Tolls PilarAcademy Award for Best Actress in a Supporting RoleGolden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress - Motion PictureHostages Maria1945The Confidential Agent Mrs. Melandez1947Mourning Becomes ElectraChristine MannonUncle SilasMadame de la Rougierre1949Prince of FoxesMona Constanza Zoppo1955Mr. ArkadinSophie1959The MiracleLa Roca1960Rocco e i suoi fratelliRosaria Parondi1961Morte di un bandito1965To Nisi tis AfroditisLambrini1968Tante ZitaAunt Zita1970Un Été SauvageMaryaThe Martlet's TaleOrsetta References External links | Katina_Paxinou |@lemmatized katina:1 paxinou:6 december:1 february:1 academy:1 award:4 golden:2 globe:3 win:3 greek:2 film:6 theatre:2 actress:5 early:1 life:1 bear:1 aikaterini:1 catherine:1 konstantopoulou:1 piraeus:1 greece:4 train:1 opera:1 singer:1 change:1 career:3 join:1 royal:2 theater:1 distinguish:1 stage:3 world:1 war:1 ii:1 break:1 perform:1 london:1 unable:1 return:2 emigrate:1 united:1 state:1 select:1 play:3 pilár:1 bell:2 toll:2 oscar:2 best:3 support:3 motion:2 picture:1 first:4 non:1 american:1 actor:1 continue:1 appear:1 hollywood:2 make:2 one:1 british:1 well:2 version:1 uncle:1 silas:1 star:1 jean:1 simmons:1 mother:1 tyrone:1 power:1 prince:1 fox:1 gypsy:1 woman:1 time:1 technicolor:1 religious:1 epic:1 miracle:1 resume:1 native:1 form:1 athens:3 alexis:1 minotis:1 principal:1 director:1 husband:2 since:1 several:1 appearance:1 broadway:1 television:1 include:1 lead:1 role:2 production:2 english:1 federico:1 garcia:1 lorca:2 house:1 bernarda:1 alba:1 anta:1 playhouse:1 new:1 york:1 bbc:1 blood:1 wedding:1 bodas:1 de:2 sangre:1 broadcast:1 june:1 death:1 cancer:1 age:1 survive:1 two:1 child:1 marriage:1 ioannis:1 paxinos:1 whose:1 surname:1 use:1 divorce:1 remains:1 bury:1 cemetery:1 filmography:1 year:1 pilaracademy:1 rolegolden:1 picturehostages:1 confidential:1 agent:1 mr:1 becomes:1 electrachristine:1 mannonuncle:1 silasmadame:1 la:1 foxesmona:1 constanza:1 miraclela:1 e:1 suoi:1 fratellirosaria:1 di:1 un:1 nisi:1 ti:1 zitaaunt:1 été:1 sauvagemaryathe:1 martlet:1 taleorsetta:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram golden_globe:2 motion_picture:1 external_link:1 |
5,583 | Albert_Einstein | Albert Einstein (; German: ; 14 March 1879 – 18 April 1955) was an ethnically Jewish German-born theoretical physicist. He is best known for his theory of relativity and specifically mass–energy equivalence, expressed by the equation E = mc2. Einstein received the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics "for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect." Einstein's many contributions to physics include: The special theory of relativity, which reconciled mechanics with electromagnetism The general theory of relativity, a new theory of gravitation obeying the equivalence principle. Founding of relativistic cosmology with a cosmological constant The first post-Newtonian expansion, explaining the perihelion advance of planet Mercury Prediction of the deflection of light by gravity and gravitational lensing An explanation for capillary action The first fluctuation dissipation theorem which explained the Brownian movement of molecules The photon theory and wave-particle duality derived from the thermodynamic properties of light The quantum theory of atomic motion in solids Zero-point energy The semiclassical version of the Schrodinger equation Relations for atomic transition probabilities which predicted stimulated emission The quantum theory of a monatomic gas which predicted Bose-Einstein condensation The EPR paradox A program for a unified field theory The geometrization of fundamental physics. Einstein published more than 300 scientific works and more than 150 non-scientific works. His non-scientific works include: About Zionism: Speeches and Lectures by Professor Albert Einstein (1930), "Why War?" (1933, co-authored by Sigmund Freud), The World As I See It (1934), Out of My Later Years (1950), and a book on science for the general reader, The Evolution of Physics (1938, co-authored by Leopold Infeld). In 1999 Time magazine named him the Person of the Century, and in the words of a biographer, "to the scientifically literate and the public at large, Einstein is synonymous with genius." Howard, Don, and Stachel, John J. Einstein: The Formative Years, 1879-1909, Springer (2000) Youth and schooling Albert Einstein was born in Ulm, in the Kingdom of Württemberg in the German Empire on March 14, 1879. His father was Hermann Einstein, a salesman and engineer. His mother was Pauline Einstein (née Koch). In 1880, the family moved to Munich, where his father and his uncle founded a company, Elektrotechnische Fabrik J. Einstein & Cie, that manufactured electrical equipment based on Direct current. The Einsteins, while of Jewish ancestry, were not observant of Jewish religious practices, and Albert attended a Catholic elementary school. Although Einstein had early speech difficulties, he was a top student in elementary school. Albert Einstein in 1893 (age 14), taken before the family moved to Italy When Einstein was five, his father showed him a pocket compass. Einstein realized that there must be something in the space, previously thought to be empty, that was moving the needle and later stated that this experience made "a deep and lasting impression". At his mother's insistence, he took violin lessons starting at age six, and although he disliked them and eventually quit, he later took great pleasure in Mozart's violin sonatas. As he grew, Einstein built models and mechanical devices for fun, and began to show a talent for mathematics. In 1889, family friend Max Talmud, a medical student, Dudley Herschbach, "Einstein as a Student," Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA, page 3, web: HarvardChem-Einstein-PDF: about Max Talmud visited on Thursdays for six years. introduced the ten-year-old Einstein to key science, mathematics, and philosophy texts, including Kant's Critique of Pure Reason and Euclid's Elements (Einstein called it the "holy little geometry book"). From Euclid, Einstein began to understand deductive reasoning, and by the age of twelve, he had learned Euclidean geometry. Soon thereafter he began to investigate infinitesimal calculus. In his early teens, Einstein attended the Luitpold Gymnasium. His father intended for him to pursue electrical engineering, but Einstein clashed with authorities and resented the school regimen. He later wrote that the spirit of learning and creative thought were lost in strict rote learning. In 1894, when Einstein was fifteen, his father's business failed, as DC had lost the War of Currents to alternating current (AC). In search of business, the Einstein family moved to Italy, first to Milan and then, after a few months, to Pavia. During this time, Einstein wrote his first scientific work, "The Investigation of the State of Aether in Magnetic Fields". Einstein had been left behind in Munich to finish high school, but in the spring of 1895, he withdrew to join his family in Pavia, convincing the school to let him go by using a doctor's note. Rather than completing high school, Einstein decided to apply directly to the Eidgenössische Polytechnische Schule (later Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule (ETH)) in Zürich, Switzerland. Lacking a school certificate, he was required to take an entrance examination, which he did not pass, although he got exceptional marks in mathematics and physics. Einstein wrote that it was in that same year, at age 16, that he first performed his famous thought experiment visualizing traveling alongside a beam of light . The Einsteins sent Albert to Aarau, Switzerland to finish secondary school. While lodging with the family of Professor Jost Winteler, he fell in love with the family's daughter, Marie. (Albert's sister Maja later married Paul Winteler.) In Aarau, Einstein studied Maxwell's electromagnetic theory. At age 17 he graduated, and, with his father's approval, renounced his citizenship in the German Kingdom of Württemberg to avoid military service, finally enrolling in 1896 in the mathematics and physics program at the Polytechnic in Zurich. Marie Winteler moved to Olsberg, Switzerland for a teaching post. In the same year, Einstein's future wife, Mileva Marić, also entered the Polytechnic to study mathematics and physics, being the only woman in the group. During the next few years, Einstein and Marić's friendship developed into romance. Einstein graduated in 1900 from the Polytechnic with a diploma in mathematics and physics, whereas Marić failed her final exams. That same year, Einstein's friend Michele Besso introduced him to the work of Ernst Mach. The next year, Einstein published a paper in the prestigious Annalen der Physik on the capillary forces of a straw . He gained Swiss citizenship on 21 February 1901. Patent office The 'Einsteinhaus' on the Kramgasse in Berne where Einstein lived with Mileva on the first floor during his Annus Mirabilis Following graduation, Einstein could not find a teaching post. After almost two years of searching, a former classmate's father helped him get a job in Berne, at the Federal Office for Intellectual Property, Now the . See also their the patent office, as an assistant examiner. His responsibility was evaluating patent applications for electromagnetic devices. In 1903, Einstein's position at the Swiss Patent Office was made permanent, although he was passed over for promotion until he "fully mastered machine technology". Peter Galison, "Einstein's Clocks: The Question of Time" Critical Inquiry 26, no. 2 (Winter 2000): 355–389. With friends he met in Berne, Einstein formed a weekly discussion club on science and philosophy, jokingly named "The Olympia Academy". Their readings included Poincaré, Mach, and Hume, who influenced Einstein's scientific and philosophical outlook. During this period Einstein had almost no personal contact with the physics community. E.g. Much of his work at the patent office related to questions about transmission of electric signals and electrical-mechanical synchronization of time: two technical problems that show up conspicuously in the thought experiments that eventually led Einstein to his radical conclusions about the nature of light and the fundamental connection between space and time. Marriage and family life Einstein and Mileva Marić had a daughter they called Lieserl, who was born in early 1902, probably in Novi Sad. This conclusion is from Einstein's correspondence with Marić. Lieserl is first mentioned in a letter from Einstein to Marić (who was staying with her family in or near Novi Sad at the time of Lieserl's birth) dated 4 February 1902 (Collected papers Vol. 1, document 134). Her fate is uncertain after 1903. Einstein married Mileva on 6 January 1903, although his mother had objected to the match because she had a prejudice against Serbs and thought Marić "too old" and "physically defective." : "she did not seem to care that Mileva was not Jewish" This web site, companion to the controversial Geraldine Hilton documentary of the same name, is currently under review for historical accuracy. (See .) Their relationship was for a time a personal and intellectual partnership. In a letter to her, Einstein called Marić "a creature who is my equal and who is as strong and independent as I am." Letter Einstein to Marić on 3 October 1900 (Collected Papers Vol. 1, document 79). There has been occasional debate about whether Marić influenced Einstein's work, however, the overwhelming consensus amongst academic historians of science is that she did not. On 14 May 1904, Albert and Mileva's first son, Hans Albert Einstein, was born in Berne, Switzerland. Their second son, Eduard, was born in Zurich on 28 July 1910. Albert and Marić divorced on 14 February 1919, having lived apart for five years. On 2 June of that year, Einstein married Elsa Löwenthal (née Einstein), who had nursed him through an illness. Elsa was Albert's first cousin maternally and his second cousin paternally. Together the Einsteins raised Margot and Ilse, Elsa's daughters from her first marriage. Their union produced no children. Annus Mirabilis and special relativity Albert Einstein, 1905 In 1905, while he was working in the patent office, Einstein had four papers published in the Annalen der Physik, the leading German physics journal. These are the papers that history has come to call the Annus Mirabilis Papers: His paper on the particulate nature of light put forward the idea that certain experimental results, notably the photoelectric effect, could be simply understood from the postulate that light interacts with matter as discrete "packets" (quanta) of energy, an idea that had been introduced by Max Planck in 1900 as a purely mathematical manipulation, and which seemed to contradict contemporary wave theories of light . His paper on Brownian motion explained the random movement of very small objects as direct evidence of molecular action, thus supporting the atomic theory. His paper on the electrodynamics of moving bodies introduced the radical theory of special relativity, which showed that the observed independence of the speed of light on the observer's state of motion required fundamental changes to the notion of simultaneity. Consequences of this include the time-space frame of a moving body slowing down and contracting (in the direction of motion) relative to the frame of the observer. This paper also argued that the idea of a luminiferous aether—one of the leading theoretical entities in physics at the time—was superfluous. In his paper on mass–energy equivalence (previously considered to be distinct concepts), Einstein deduced from his equations of special relativity what has been called the twentieth century's most well known equation: E = mc2. This suggests that tiny amounts of mass could be converted into huge amounts of energy and presaged the development of nuclear power. All four papers are today recognized as tremendous achievements—and hence 1905 is known as Einstein's "Wonderful Year". At the time, however, they were not noticed by most physicists as being important, and many of those who did notice them rejected them outright. Some of this work—such as the theory of light quanta—remained controversial for years. On the reception of relativity theory around the world, and the different controversies it encountered, see the articles in Thomas F. Glick, ed., The Comparative Reception of Relativity (Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1987), ISBN 9027724989. At the age of 26, having studied under Alfred Kleiner, Professor of Experimental Physics, Einstein was awarded a PhD by the University of Zurich. His dissertation was entitled A New Determination of Molecular Dimensions. Light and general relativity One of the 1919 eclipse photographs taken during Arthur Stanley Eddington's expedition, which confirmed Einstein's predictions of the gravitational bending of light. In 1906, the patent office promoted Einstein to Technical Examiner Second Class, but he had not given up on academia. In 1908, he became a privatdozent at the University of Bern. In 1910, he wrote an expository paper that described the cumulative effect of light scattered by individual molecules in the atmosphere, i.e., why the sky is blue. Levenson, Thomas. "Einstein's Big Idea." Public Broadcasting Service. 2005. Retrieved on 25 February 2006. During 1909, Einstein published "Über die Entwicklung unserer Anschauungen über das Wesen und die Konstitution der Strahlung" ("The Development of Our Views on the Composition and Essence of Radiation"), on the quantization of light. In this and in an earlier 1909 paper, Einstein showed that Max Planck's energy quanta must have well-defined momenta and act in some respects as independent, point-like particles. This paper introduced the photon concept (although the term itself was introduced by Gilbert N. Lewis in 1926) and inspired the notion of wave–particle duality in quantum mechanics. In 1911, Einstein became an associate professor at the University of Zurich. However, shortly afterward, he accepted a full professorship at the German Charles-Ferdinand University in Prague. There, Einstein published a paper about the effects of gravity on light, specifically the gravitational redshift and the gravitational deflection of light. The paper appealed to astronomers to find ways of detecting the deflection during a solar eclipse. (also in Collected Papers Vol. 3, document 23) German astronomer Erwin Finlay-Freundlich publicized Einstein's challenge to scientists around the world. Crelinsten, Jeffrey. "Einstein's Jury: The Race to Test Relativity." Princeton University Press. 2006. Retrieved on 13 March 2007. ISBN 9780691123103 In 1912, Einstein returned to Switzerland to accept a professorship at his alma mater, the ETH. There he met mathematician Marcel Grossmann who introduced him to Riemannian geometry and more generally differential geometry, and at the recommendation of Italian mathematician Tullio Levi-Civita, Einstein began exploring the usefulness of general covariance (essentially the use of tensors) for his gravitational theory. Although for a while Einstein thought that there were problems with that approach, he later returned to it and by late 1915 had published his general theory of relativity in the form that is still used today . This theory explains gravitation as distortion of the structure of spacetime by matter, affecting the inertial motion of other matter. After many relocations, Mileva established a permanent home with the children in Zürich in 1914, just before the start of World War I. Einstein continued on alone to Berlin, where he became a member of the Prussian Academy of Sciences. As part of the arrangements for his new position, he also became a professor at the Humboldt University of Berlin, although with a special clause freeing him from most teaching obligations. From 1914 to 1932 he was also director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics. Kant, Horst. "Albert Einstein and the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics in Berlin." in Renn, Jürgen. "Albert Einstein — Chief Engineer of the Universe: One Hundred Authors for Einstein." Ed. Renn, Jürgen. Wiley-VCH. 2005. pp. 166–169. ISBN = 3527405747 During World War I, the speeches and writings of Central Powers scientists were available only to Central Powers academics, for national security reasons. Some of Einstein's work did reach the United Kingdom and the United States through the efforts of the Austrian Paul Ehrenfest and physicists in the Netherlands, especially 1902 Nobel Prize-winner Hendrik Lorentz and Willem de Sitter of the Leiden University. After the war ended, Einstein maintained his relationship with the Leiden University, accepting a contract as an Extraordinary Professor; he travelled to Holland regularly to lecture there between 1920 and 1930. In 1917, Einstein published an article in Physikalische Zeitschrift that proposed the possibility of stimulated emission, the physical process that makes possible the maser and the laser . He also published a paper introducing a new notion, the cosmological constant, into the general theory of relativity in an attempt to model the behavior of the entire universe . 1917 was the year astronomers began taking Einstein up on his 1911 challenge from Prague. The Mount Wilson Observatory in California, U.S., published a solar spectroscopic analysis that showed no gravitational redshift. In 1918, the Lick Observatory, also in California, announced that they too had disproven Einstein's prediction, although their findings were not published. However, in May 1919, a team led by British astronomer Arthur Stanley Eddington claimed to have confirmed Einstein's prediction of gravitational deflection of starlight by the Sun while photographing a solar eclipse in Sobral, northern Brazil, and Príncipe. On 7 November 1919, leading British newspaper The Times printed a banner headline that read: "Revolution in Science – New Theory of the Universe – Newtonian Ideas Overthrown". In an interview Nobel laureate Max Born praised general relativity as the "greatest feat of human thinking about nature"; fellow laureate Paul Dirac was quoted saying it was "probably the greatest scientific discovery ever made". Schmidhuber, Jürgen. "Albert Einstein (1879–1955) and the 'Greatest Scientific Discovery Ever'." 2006. Retrieved on 4 October 2006. From this point on, the international media guaranteed Einstein's global renown. There have been later claims that scrutiny of the specific photographs taken on the Eddington expedition showed the experimental uncertainty to be of about the same magnitude as the effect Eddington claimed to have demonstrated, and that a 1962 British expedition concluded that the method was inherently unreliable, the deflection of light during a solar eclipse has been confirmed by later, more accurate observations. See the table in MathPages Bending Light There was some resentment toward the newcomer Einstein's fame in the scientific community, notably among some German physicists, who later started the Deutsche Physik (German Physics) movement. For a discussion of astronomers' attitudes and debates about relativity, see , especially chapters 6, 9, 10 and 11. Nobel Prize Einstein, 1921. Age 42. In 1922 Einstein was awarded the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics, "for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect". This refers to his 1905 paper on the photoelectric effect: "On a Heuristic Viewpoint Concerning the Production and Transformation of Light", which was well supported by the experimental evidence by that time. The presentation speech began by mentioning "his theory of relativity [which had] been the subject of lively debate in philosophical circles [and] also has astrophysical implications which are being rigorously examined at the present time." It was long reported that Einstein gave the Nobel prize money directly to his first wife, Mileva Marić, in compliance with their 1919 divorce settlement. However, personal correspondence made public in 2006 shows that he invested much of it in the United States, and saw much of it wiped out in the Depression. Einstein traveled to New York City in the United States for the first time on 2 April 1921. When asked where he got his scientific ideas, Einstein explained that he believed scientific work best proceeds from an examination of physical reality and a search for underlying axioms, with consistent explanations that apply in all instances and avoid contradicting each other. He also recommended theories with visualizable results . See Albert Einstein, "Geometry and Experience," (1921), reprinted in Ideas and Opinions. Unified field theory Einstein's research after general relativity consisted primarily of a long series of attempts to generalize his geometric theory of gravitation in order to also explain electromagnetism. In 1950, he described his "unified field theory" in a Scientific American article entitled "On the Generalized Theory of Gravitation" . Although he continued to be lauded for his work, Einstein became increasingly isolated in his research, and his efforts were ultimately unsuccessful. In his pursuit of a unification of the fundamental forces, Einstein ignored some mainstream developments in physics, most notably the strong and weak nuclear forces, which were not well understood until many years after his death. Mainstream physics, in turn, largely ignored Einstein's approaches to unification. Einstein's dream of unifying other laws of physics with gravity motivates modern quests for a theory of everything and in particular string theory, where geometrical fields emerge in a unified quantum-mechanical setting. Collaboration and conflict Bose–Einstein statistics In 1924, Einstein received a description of a statistical model from Indian physicist Satyendra Nath Bose, based on a counting method that assumed that light could be understood as a gas of indistinguishable particles. Bose's statistics applied to some atoms as well as to the proposed light particles, and Einstein submitted his translation of Bose's paper to the Zeitschrift für Physik. Einstein also published his own articles describing the model and its implications, among them the Bose–Einstein condensate phenomenon that should appear at very low temperatures . It was not until 1995 that the first such condensate was produced experimentally by Eric Allin Cornell and Carl Wieman using ultra-cooling equipment built at the NIST-JILA laboratory at the University of Colorado at Boulder. Bose–Einstein statistics are now used to describe the behaviors of any assembly of "bosons". Einstein's sketches for this project may be seen in the Einstein Archive in the library of the Leiden University. "Einstein archive at the Instituut-Lorentz." Instituut-Lorentz. 2005. Retrieved on 21 November 2005. Schrödinger gas model Einstein suggested to Erwin Schrödinger an application of Max Planck's idea of treating energy levels for a gas as a whole rather than for individual molecules, and Schrödinger applied this in a paper using the Boltzmann distribution to derive the thermodynamic properties of a semiclassical ideal gas. Schrödinger urged Einstein to add his name as co-author, although Einstein declined the invitation. Einstein refrigerator In 1926, Einstein and his former student Leó Szilárd, a Hungarian physicist who later worked on the Manhattan Project and is credited with the discovery of the chain reaction, co-invented (and in 1930, patented) the Einstein refrigerator, revolutionary for having no moving parts and using only heat as an input. Goettling, Gary. Einstein's refrigerator Georgia Tech Alumni Magazine. 1998. Retrieved on 21 November 2005. On 11 November 1930, was awarded to Albert Einstein and Leó Szilárd for the refrigerator. Bohr versus Einstein Einstein and Niels Bohr. Photo taken by Paul Ehrenfest during their 1925 Leiden visit. In the 1920s, quantum mechanics developed into a more complete theory. Einstein was unhappy with the Copenhagen interpretation of quantum theory developed by Niels Bohr and Werner Heisenberg, wherein quantum phenomena are inherently probabilistic, with definite states resulting only upon interaction with classical systems. A public debate between Einstein and Bohr followed, lasting for many years (including during the Solvay Conferences). Einstein formulated thought experiments against the Copenhagen interpretation, which were all rebutted by Bohr. In a 1926 letter to Max Born, Einstein wrote: "I, at any rate, am convinced that He [God] does not throw dice." . A reprint of this book was published by Edition Erbrich in 1982, ISBN 388682005X Einstein was never satisfied by what he perceived to be quantum theory's intrinsically incomplete description of nature, and in 1935 he further explored the issue in collaboration with Boris Podolsky and Nathan Rosen, noting that the theory seems to require non-local interactions; this is known as the EPR paradox . The EPR experiment has since been performed, with results confirming quantum theory's predictions. The first of many experimental tests relating to EPR. Einstein's disagreement with Bohr revolved around the idea of scientific determinism. For this reason the repercussions of the Einstein-Bohr debate have found their way into philosophical discourse as well. Religious views The question of scientific determinism gave rise to questions about Einstein's position on theological determinism, and whether or not he believed in a God. In 1929, Einstein told Rabbi Herbert S. Goldstein "I believe in Spinoza's God, who reveals Himself in the lawful harmony of the world, not in a God Who concerns Himself with the fate and the doings of mankind." In a 1950 letter to M. Berkowitz, Einstein stated that "My position concerning God is that of an agnostic. I am convinced that a vivid consciousness of the primary importance of moral principles for the betterment and ennoblement of life does not need the idea of a law-giver, especially a law-giver who works on the basis of reward and punishment." Albert Einstein in a letter to M. Berkowitz, 25 October 1950; Einstein Archive 59-215; from Alice Calaprice, ed., The New Quotable Einstein, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 2000, p. 216. Einstein also stated: "I have repeatedly said that in my opinion the idea of a personal God is a childlike one. You may call me an agnostic, but I do not share the crusading spirit of the professional atheist whose fervor is mostly due to a painful act of liberation from the fetters of religious indoctrination received in youth." He is reported to have said in a conversation with Hubertus, Prince of Löwenstein-Wertheim-Freudenberg, "In view of such harmony in the cosmos which I, with my limited human mind, am able to recognize, there are yet people who say there is no God. But what really makes me angry is that they quote me for the support of such views." Einstein clarified his religious views in a letter he wrote in response to those who claimed that he worshipped a Judeo-Christian god: "It was, of course, a lie what you read about my religious convictions, a lie which is being systematically repeated. I do not believe in a personal god and I have never denied this but have expressed it clearly. If something is in me which can be called religious then it is the unbounded admiration for the structure of the world so far as our science can reveal it." In his book The World as I See It, he wrote: "A knowledge of the existence of something we cannot penetrate, of the manifestations of the profoundest reason and the most radiant beauty, which are only accessible to our reason in their most elementary forms—it is this knowledge and this emotion that constitute the truly religious attitude; in this sense, and in this alone, I am a deeply religious man." In a 1930 New York Times article, Einstein distinguished three styles which are usually intermixed in actual religion. The first is motivated by fear and poor understanding of causality, and hence invents supernatural beings. The second is social and moral, motivated by desire for love and support. Einstein noted that both have an anthropomorphic concept of God. The third style, which Einstein deemed most mature, is motivated by a deep sense of awe and mystery. He said, "The individual feels ... the sublimity and marvelous order which reveal themselves in nature ... and he wants to experience the universe as a single significant whole." Einstein saw science as an antagonist of the first two styles of religion, but as a partner of the third style. Einstein was also a Humanist and a supporter of Ethical Culture. He served on the advisory board of the First Humanist Society of New York. For the seventy-fifth anniversary of the New York Society for Ethical Culture, he noted that the idea of Ethical Culture embodied his personal conception of what is most valuable and enduring in religious idealism. He observed, "Without 'ethical culture' there is no salvation for humanity." Einstein published a paper in Nature in 1940 entitled "Science and Religion" in which he said that: "a person who is religiously enlightened appears to me to be one who has, to the best of his ability, liberated himself from the fetters of his selfish desires and is preoccupied with thoughts, feelings and aspirations to which he clings because of their super-personal value ... regardless of whether any attempt is made to unite this content with a Divine Being, for otherwise it would not be possible to count Buddha and Spinoza as religious personalities. Accordingly a religious person is devout in the sense that he has no doubt of the significance of those super-personal objects and goals which neither require nor are capable of rational foundation ... In this sense religion is the age-old endeavour of mankind to become clearly and completely conscious of these values and goals, and constantly to strengthen their effects." He argued that conflicts between science and religion "have all sprung from fatal errors." "[E]ven though the realms of religion and science in themselves are clearly marked off from each other" there are "strong reciprocal relationships and dependencies ... science without religion is lame, religion without science is blind ... a legitimate conflict between science and religion cannot exist." In Einstein's view, "neither the rule of human nor Divine Will exists as an independent cause of natural events. To be sure, the doctrine of a personal God interfering with natural events could never be refuted ... by science, for [it] can always take refuge in those domains in which scientific knowledge has not yet been able to set foot." In a letter to Eric Gutkind in 1954 Einstein wrote: ... The word God is for me nothing more than the expression and product of human weaknesses, the Bible a collection of honourable, but still primitive legends which are nevertheless pretty childish. No interpretation no matter how subtle can (for me) change this. These subtilised interpretations are highly manifold according to their nature and have almost nothing to do with the original text. For me the Jewish religion like all other religions is an incarnation of the most childish superstitions. And the Jewish people to whom I gladly belong and with whose mentality I have a deep affinity have no different quality for me than all other people. As far as my experience goes, they are also no better than other human groups, although they are protected from the worst cancers by a lack of power. Otherwise I cannot see anything 'chosen' about them. Einstein had previously explored this belief that man could not understand the nature of God when he gave an interview to Time Magazine explaining: I'm not an atheist. I don't think I can call myself a pantheist. The problem involved is too vast for our limited minds. We are in the position of a little child entering a huge library filled with books in many languages. The child knows someone must have written those books. It does not know how. It does not understand the languages in which they are written. The child dimly suspects a mysterious order in the arrangement of the books but doesn't know what it is. That, it seems to me, is the attitude of even the most intelligent human being toward God. We see the universe marvelously arranged and obeying certain laws but only dimly understand these laws. Politics Einstein and Indian poet and Nobel laureate Rabindranath Tagore during their widely publicized 14 July 1930 conversation With increasing public demands, his involvement in political, humanitarian, and academic projects in various countries, and his new acquaintances with scholars and political figures from around the world, Einstein was less able to achieve the productive isolation that he needed in order to work. Due to his fame and genius, Einstein found himself called on to give conclusive judgments on matters that had nothing to do with theoretical physics or mathematics. He was not timid, and he was aware of the world around him, with no illusion that ignoring politics would make world events fade away. His very visible position allowed him to speak and write frankly, even provocatively, at a time when many people of conscience could only flee to the underground or keep doubts about developments within their own movements to themselves for fear of internecine fighting. Einstein flouted the ascendant Nazi movement, tried to be a voice of moderation in the tumultuous formation of the State of Israel and braved anti-communist politics and resistance to the civil rights movement in the United States. He participated in the 1927 congress of the League against Imperialism in Brussels. Zionism Einstein was a socialist Zionist who supported the creation of a Jewish national homeland in the British mandate of Palestine. In 1931, The Macmillan Company published About Zionism: Speeches and Lectures by Professor Albert Einstein. ASIN: B00085M906 Querido, an Amsterdam publishing house, collected eleven of Einstein's essays into a 1933 book entitled Mein Weltbild, translated to English as The World as I See It; Einstein's foreword dedicates the collection "to the Jews of Germany". Available in reprint paperback from Filiquarian Publishing, LLC, ISBN 1599869659. In the face of Germany's rising militarism, Einstein wrote and spoke for peace. See the AMNH site's popup of translated letter from Freud, in the section "Freud and Einstein", regarding proposed joint presentation on "What can be done to rid mankind of the menace of war?" Albert Einstein, seen here with his wife Elsa Einstein and Zionist leaders, including future President of Israel Chaim Weizmann, his wife Dr. Vera Weizmann, Menahem Ussishkin, and Ben-Zion Mossinson on arrival in New York City in 1921. Einstein publicly stated reservations about the proposal to partition the British-supervised British Mandate of Palestine into independent Arab and Jewish countries. In a 1938 speech, "Our Debt to Zionism", he said: "My awareness of the essential nature of Judaism resists the idea of a Jewish state with borders, an army, and a measure of temporal power, no matter how modest. I am afraid of the inner damage Judaism will sustain—especially from the development of a narrow nationalism within our own ranks, against which we have already had to fight strongly, even without a Jewish state. ... If external necessity should after all compel us to assume this burden, let us bear it with tact and patience." In a 1947 letter to Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru, Einstein stated that the Balfour Declaration's proposal to establish a national home for Jews in Palestine "redresses the balance" of justice and history. The United Nations did divide the mandate, demarcating the borders of several new countries including the State of Israel, and war broke out immediately. Einstein was one of the authors of an open letter to the New York Times in 1948 criticizing Menachem Begin's Herut (Freedom) Party for the Deir Yassin massacre . Einstein served on the Board of Governors of The Hebrew University of Jerusalem. In his Will of 1950, Einstein bequeathed literary rights to his writings to The Hebrew University, where many of his original documents are held in the Albert Einstein Archives. When President Chaim Weizmann died in 1952, Einstein was asked to be Israel's second president, but he declined, stating that he had "neither the natural ability nor the experience to deal with human beings." He wrote: "I am deeply moved by the offer from our State of Israel, and at once saddened and ashamed that I cannot accept it. " Anti-Nazism In January 1933, Adolf Hitler was appointed Chancellor of Germany. One of the first actions of Hitler's administration was the Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service, which removed Jews and politically suspect government employees (including university professors) from their jobs, unless they had demonstrated their loyalty to Germany by serving in World War I. In response to this growing threat, Einstein had prudently traveled to the U.S. in December 1932. For several years he had been wintering at the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena, California, Clark, R. "Einstein: The Life and Times" Harper-Collins, 1984. 880 pp. and also was a guest lecturer at Abraham Flexner's newly founded Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey. The Einsteins bought a house in Princeton (where Elsa died in 1936), and Einstein remained an integral contributor to the Institute for Advanced Study until his death in 1955. During the 1930s and into World War II, Einstein wrote affidavits recommending United States visas for a huge number of European Jews who were trying to flee persecution. He raised money for Zionist organizations and was, in part, responsible for the formation, in 1933, of the International Rescue Committee. The International Rescue Committee gives support and shelter to refugees of social and political persecution. Einstein receiving his certificate of American citizenship from Judge Phillip Forman in 1940 Meanwhile, in Germany, a campaign to eliminate Einstein's work from the German lexicon as unacceptable "Jewish physics" (Jüdische Physik) was led by Nobel laureates Philipp Lenard and Johannes Stark. Deutsche Physik activists published pamphlets and even textbooks denigrating Einstein, and instructors who taught his theories were blacklisted—including Nobel laureate Werner Heisenberg, who had debated quantum probability with Bohr and Einstein. Philipp Lenard claimed that the mass–energy equivalence formula needed to be credited to Friedrich Hasenöhrl to make it an Aryan creation. An anti-Einstein organization was formed, and a man who was convicted of composing a plot to kill Einstein was fined a mere six dollars. Einstein became a citizen of the United States in 1940 and remained there the rest of his life, although he retained his Swiss citizenship. Atomic bomb Concerned scientists, many of them refugees from European anti-Semitism in the U.S., recognized the danger of German scientists developing an atomic bomb based on the newly discovered phenomena of nuclear fission. In 1939, the Hungarian émigré Leó Szilárd, having failed to arouse U.S. government interest on his own, worked with Einstein to write a letter to U.S. President Franklin Delano Roosevelt, which Einstein signed, urging U.S. development of such a weapon. In August 1939, Roosevelt received the Einstein-Szilárd letter and authorized secret research into the harnessing of nuclear fission for military purposes. By 1942 this effort had become the Manhattan Project, the largest secret scientific endeavor undertaken up to that time. By late 1945, the U.S. had developed operational nuclear weapons, and used them on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Einstein himself did not play a role in the development of the atomic bomb other than signing the letter. He did help the United States Navy with some unrelated theoretical questions it was working on during the war. According to Linus Pauling, Einstein later expressed regret about his letter to Roosevelt. Scientist Tells of Einstein's A-bomb Regrets. The Philadelphia Bulletin, 13 May 1955. (PDF document from the Swiss Federal Archives from Internet Archive.) In 1947, Einstein wrote an article for The Atlantic Monthly arguing that the United States should not try to pursue an atomic monopoly, and instead should equip the United Nations with nuclear weapons for the sole purpose of maintaining deterrence. Cold War era When he was a visible figure working against the rise of Nazism, Einstein had sought help and developed working relationships in both the West and what was to become the Soviet bloc. After World War II, enmity between the former allies became a very serious issue for people with international résumés. To make things worse, during the first days of McCarthyism Einstein was writing about a single world government; it was at this time that he wrote, "I do not know how the third World War will be fought, but I can tell you what they will use in the Fourth—rocks!" Other versions of the quote exist. In a 1949 Monthly Review article entitled "Why Socialism?" Albert Einstein described a chaotic capitalist society, a source of evil to be overcome, as the "predatory phase of human development" . With Albert Schweitzer and Bertrand Russell, Einstein lobbied to stop nuclear testing and future bombs. Days before his death, Einstein signed the Russell-Einstein Manifesto, which led to the Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs. Einstein was a member of several civil rights groups, including the Princeton chapter of the NAACP. When the aged W. E. B. Du Bois was accused of being a Communist spy, Einstein volunteered as a character witness, and the case was dismissed shortly afterward. Einstein's friendship with activist Paul Robeson, with whom he served as co-chair of the American Crusade to End Lynching, lasted twenty years. In 1946, Einstein collaborated with Rabbi Israel Goldstein, Middlesex University heir C. Ruggles Smith, and activist attorney George Alpert on the Albert Einstein Foundation for Higher Learning, which was formed to create a Jewish-sponsored secular university, open to all students, on the grounds of the former Middlesex University in Waltham, Massachusetts. Middlesex was chosen in part because it was accessible from both Boston and New York City, Jewish cultural centers of the U.S. Their vision was a university "deeply conscious both of the Hebraic tradition of Torah looking upon culture as a birthright, and of the American ideal of an educated democracy." The collaboration was stormy, however. Finally, when Einstein wanted to appoint British economist Harold Laski as the university's president, George Alpert wrote that Laski was "a man utterly alien to American principles of democracy, tarred with the Communist brush." Einstein withdrew his support and barred the use of his name. The university opened in 1948 as Brandeis University. In 1953, Brandeis offered Einstein an honorary degree, but he declined. Given Einstein's links to Germany and Zionism, his socialist ideals, and his links to Communist figures, the U.S. Federal Bureau of Investigation kept a file on Einstein that grew to 1,427 pages. Many of the documents in the file were sent to the FBI by concerned citizens: some objecting to his immigration, while others asked the FBI to protect him. Although Einstein had long been sympathetic to the notion of vegetarianism, it was only near the start of 1954 that he adopted a strict vegetarian diet. Death On 17 April 1955, Albert Einstein experienced internal bleeding caused by the rupture of an abdominal aortic aneurysm, which had previously been diagnosed and reinforced. He took a draft of a speech he was preparing for a television appearance commemorating the State of Israel's seventh anniversary with him to the hospital, but he did not live long enough to complete it. He died in Princeton Hospital early the next morning at the age of 76, having continued to work until near the end. Einstein's remains were cremated and his ashes were scattered. Before the cremation, Princeton Hospital pathologist Thomas Stoltz Harvey removed Einstein's brain for preservation, without the permission of his family, in hope that the neuroscience of the future would be able to discover what made Einstein so intelligent. Legacy While travelling, Einstein had written daily to his wife Elsa and adopted stepdaughters, Margot and Ilse, and the letters were included in the papers bequeathed to The Hebrew University. Margot Einstein permitted the personal letters to be made available to the public, but requested that it not be done until twenty years after her death (she died in 1986 New York Times obituary ). Barbara Wolff, of The Hebrew University's Albert Einstein Archives, told the BBC that there are about 3,500 pages of private correspondence written between 1912 and 1955. The United States' National Academy of Sciences commissioned the Albert Einstein Memorial, a monumental bronze and marble sculpture by Robert Berks, dedicated in 1979 at its Washington, D.C. campus adjacent to the National Mall. Einstein bequeathed the royalties from use of his image to The Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Corbis, successor to The Roger Richman Agency, licenses the use of his name and associated imagery, as agent for the Hebrew University. ; Honors Max Planck presents Albert Einstein with the Max-Planck medal of the German Physical Society, June 28, 1929 in Berlin. In 1999, Albert Einstein was named Person of the Century by Time magazine, a Gallup poll recorded him as the fourth most admired person of the 20th century and according to The 100: A Ranking of the Most Influential Persons in History, Einstein is "the greatest scientist of the twentieth century and one of the supreme intellects of all time." A partial list of his memorials: The International Union of Pure and Applied Physics named 2005 the "World Year of Physics" in commemoration of the 100th anniversary of the publication of the Annus Mirabilis Papers. The Albert Einstein Institute The Albert Einstein Memorial by Robert Berks A unit used in photochemistry, the einstein The chemical element 99, einsteinium The asteroid 2001 Einstein The Albert Einstein Award The Albert Einstein Peace Prize In 1990, his name was added to the Walhalla temple. Effect on popular culture In the period before World War II, Albert Einstein was so well-known in America that he would be stopped on the street by people wanting him to explain "that theory." He finally figured out a way to handle the incessant inquiries. He told his inquirers "Pardon me, sorry! Always I am mistaken for Professor Einstein." The New Yorker April 1939 pg 69 Disguise Albert Einstein has been the subject of or inspiration for many novels, films, and plays. Einstein is a favorite model for depictions of mad scientists and absent-minded professors; his expressive face and distinctive hairstyle have been widely copied and exaggerated. Time magazine's Frederic Golden wrote that Einstein was "a cartoonist's dream come true." Einstein's association with great intelligence has made the name Einstein synonymous with genius, often used in ironic expressions such as "Nice job, Einstein!". See also Annus Mirabilis Papers Heinrich Burkhardt Hermann Einstein EPR paradox History of general relativity History of gravitational theory History of special relativity Introduction to special relativity Pauline Koch List of coupled cousins List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein List of things named after Einstein Mass–energy equivalence (also known as E=mc2) Photoelectric effect Relativity priority dispute Sticky bead argument Summation convention The Einstein Theory of Relativity (educational film about the theory of relativity) Theory of everything German inventors and discoverers Wikipedia Books: Albert Einstein Publications The following publications by Albert Einstein are referenced in this article. A more complete list of his publications may be found at List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein. . This annus mirabilis paper on the photoelectric effect was received by Annalen der Physik 18 March. . This PhD thesis was completed 30 April and submitted 20 July. . This annus mirabilis paper on Brownian motion was received 11 May. . This annus mirabilis paper on special relativity was received 30 June. . This annus mirabilis paper on mass-energy equivalence was received 27 September. . First of a series of papers on this topic. . On Baer's law and meanders in the courses of rivers. . The chasing a light beam thought experiment is described on pages 48–51. Collected Papers: Further information about the volumes published so far can be found on the webpages of the Einstein Papers Project and on the Princeton University Press Einstein Page References Further reading Moring, Gary, "The complete idiot’s guide to understanding Einstein", Indianapolis, IN : Alpha books : Macmillan USA, Inc., 2000 (2nd edition, 2004). ISBN 0028631803 Schweber, S. S., Einstein and Oppenheimer: The Meaning of Genius, Harvard University Press, 2008, ISBN 978-0674028289. External links Einstein Page from Princeton University Press, publisher of Einstein's writings since 1921. Einstein Archives Online "Emilio Segre Visual Archives: Albert Einstein", American Institute of Physics "The MacTutor History of Mathematics archive": Albert Einstein University of Saint Andrews, School of Mathematics and Statistics (huge bibliography for further reading) "Einstein's Big Idea" Nova television documentary series website, Public Broadcasting Service Nobelprize.org: The Nobel Prize in Physics 1921 Mathematics Genealogy Project: Albert Einstein, Mathematics Genealogy Project (a service of the NDSU Department of Mathematics, in association with the American Mathematical Society) In Einstein's Shadow BBC Radio 4 series on Einstein's contributions to science Works by Albert Einstein (public domain in Canada) "A. Einstein: Image and Impact", on the American Institute of Physics's "AIP Center for the History of Physics" site: biography, audio and full site as downloadable PDF for classroom use Einstein's Annus Mirabilis 1905 - collection at Johns Hopkins University Key Participants: Albert Einstein - Linus Pauling and the International Peace Movement: A Documentary History Videos Archival footage of Einstein Einstein in 1943 Einstein explains E=mc^2 Einstein's 1933 arrival in the US Footage of the 1927 Solvay conference Einstein talks about nuclear energy nan:Albert Einstein be-x-old:Альбэрт Айнштайн | Albert_Einstein |@lemmatized albert:45 einstein:252 german:13 march:4 april:5 ethnically:1 jewish:13 born:2 theoretical:6 physicist:6 best:3 know:10 theory:38 relativity:23 specifically:2 mass:6 energy:11 equivalence:6 express:3 equation:4 e:8 receive:9 nobel:10 prize:7 physic:29 service:7 especially:6 discovery:5 law:9 photoelectric:6 effect:11 many:12 contribution:2 include:12 special:8 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5,584 | Heisuke_Hironaka | Heisuke Hironaka (広中 平祐 Hironaka Heisuke; born April 9, 1931) is a Japanese mathematician. After completing his undergraduate studies at Kyoto University, he received his Ph. D. from Harvard while under the direction of Oscar Zariski. He won the Fields Medal in 1970. He is celebrated for proving in 1964 that singularities of algebraic varieties admit resolutions in characteristic zero. This means that any projective variety can be replaced by (more precisely is birationally equivalent to) a similar variety which has no singularities. Hironaka was for many years a Professor of mathematics at Harvard University but currently lives in Japan, where he is greatly respected and influential. He is also a professor of mathematics at Seoul National University in South Korea. He has been active in raising funds for causes such as mathematical education. He is president of the University of Creation; Art, Music & Social Work, a private university in Takasaki, Gunma, Japan. He once wrote a paper under a pseudonym derived from Kobayashi Issa, a famous Japanese haiku poet. The result is known as Issa's theorem in complex function theory. Hironaka is married to Wakako Hironaka, a politician, and they have two children. List of books available in English Formal functions and formal imbeddings / by Heisuke Hironaka and Hideyuki Matsumura (1967) On the characters and of singularities / by Heisuke Hironaka Introduction to the theory of infinitely near singular points / Heisuke Hironaka (1974) The theory of the maximal contact / José M. Aroca, Heisuke Hironaka and José L. Vicente (1975) Desingularization theorems / Jose M. Aroca, Heisuke Hironaka and Jose L. Vicente (1977) Geometric singularity theory / editors of the volume, Heisuke Hironaka, Stanisław Janeczko (2004) References External links Jackson, Allyn; Inteview with Heisuke Hironaka; Notices of the American Mathematical Society; vol. 52, no. 9 (October 2005). | Heisuke_Hironaka |@lemmatized heisuke:9 hironaka:12 広中:1 平祐:1 bear:1 april:1 japanese:2 mathematician:1 complete:1 undergraduate:1 study:1 kyoto:1 university:5 receive:1 ph:1 harvard:2 direction:1 oscar:1 zariski:1 win:1 field:1 medal:1 celebrate:1 prove:1 singularity:4 algebraic:1 variety:3 admit:1 resolution:1 characteristic:1 zero:1 mean:1 projective:1 replace:1 precisely:1 birationally:1 equivalent:1 similar:1 many:1 year:1 professor:2 mathematics:2 currently:1 live:1 japan:2 greatly:1 respect:1 influential:1 also:1 seoul:1 national:1 south:1 korea:1 active:1 raise:1 fund:1 cause:1 mathematical:2 education:1 president:1 creation:1 art:1 music:1 social:1 work:1 private:1 takasaki:1 gunma:1 write:1 paper:1 pseudonym:1 derive:1 kobayashi:1 issa:2 famous:1 haiku:1 poet:1 result:1 know:1 theorem:1 complex:1 function:2 theory:4 marry:1 wakako:1 politician:1 two:1 child:1 list:1 book:1 available:1 english:1 formal:2 imbeddings:1 hideyuki:1 matsumura:1 character:1 introduction:1 infinitely:1 near:1 singular:1 point:1 maximal:1 contact:1 josé:2 aroca:2 l:2 vicente:2 desingularization:1 theorems:1 jose:2 geometric:1 editor:1 volume:1 stanisław:1 janeczko:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 jackson:1 allyn:1 inteview:1 notice:1 american:1 society:1 vol:1 october:1 |@bigram heisuke_hironaka:8 kobayashi_issa:1 external_link:1 |
5,585 | Chervil | Chervil (Anthriscus cerefolium) is a delicate annual herb related to parsley. Sometimes called garden chervil, it is used to season mild-flavoured dishes and is a constituent of the French herb mixture fines herbes. Biology A member of the Apiaceae, chervil is native to the Caucasus but was spread by the Romans through most of Europe, where it is now naturalised. The plants grow to 40-70 cm, with tripinnate leaves that may be curly. The small white flowers form small umbels, 2.5-5 cm across. The fruit is about 1 cm long, oblong-ovoid with a slender, ridged beak. Root Chervil Another type of chervil is grown as a root vegetable, sometimes called turnip rooted chervil or tuberous-rooted chervil. This type of chervil produces much thicker roots than types cultivated for their leaves. It was once a popular vegetable in the 19th century. It is now virtually forgotten and is little known in Britain and the United States, root chervil is very common in French cuisine, where it is used in most soups or stews. Though it looks similar to parsnip it tastes quite different. Parsnips are among the closest relatives of parsley in the umbellifer family of herbs, although the similarity of the names is a coincidence, parsnip meaning "forked turnip". It is not related to real turnips. Uses Culinary Chervil garnishing a salad. Sometimes referred to as "gourmet's parsley", chervil is used to season poultry, seafood, and young vegetables. It is particularly popular in France, where it is added to omelettes, salads and soups. More delicate than parsley, it has a faint taste of liquorice. Horticulture Chervil is sometimes used to repel slugs. Medicinal Chervil had various traditional uses. Pregnant women bathed in an infusion of it; a lotion of it was used as a skin cleanser; and it was used medicinally as a blood purifier. It was also claimed to be useful as a digestive aid, for lowering high blood pressure, and, infused with vinegar, for curing hiccups. Cultivation Chervil is best grown seeded in place - transplanting can be difficult, due to the long taproot. It prefers a cool and moist location, otherwise it rapidly goes to seed (also known as bolting). Regular harvesting of leaves also helps to prevent bolting. If plants bolt despite precautions, the plant can be periodically re-sown through the growing season, thus producing fresh plants as older plants bolt and go out of production. Chervil grows to a height of 12 to 24 inches, and a width of 6 to 12 inches. See also Wild Chervil Bur Chervil Dill Sweet Cicely References Further reading Howard, Michael. Traditional Folk Remedies (Century, 1987), p.118. External links Herbs by Linda Gilbert: Chervil A Pinch of Chervil Desirable Herb and Spice Varieties: Chervil | Chervil |@lemmatized chervil:20 anthriscus:1 cerefolium:1 delicate:2 annual:1 herb:4 relate:2 parsley:4 sometimes:4 call:2 garden:1 use:6 season:3 mild:1 flavoured:1 dish:1 constituent:1 french:2 mixture:1 fine:1 herbes:1 biology:1 member:1 apiaceae:1 native:1 caucasus:1 spread:1 roman:1 europe:1 naturalise:1 plant:5 grow:4 cm:3 tripinnate:1 leaf:3 may:1 curly:1 small:2 white:1 flower:1 form:1 umbel:1 across:1 fruit:1 long:2 oblong:1 ovoid:1 slender:1 ridge:1 beak:1 root:6 another:1 type:3 vegetable:3 turnip:3 tuberous:1 produce:2 much:1 thick:1 cultivate:1 popular:2 century:2 virtually:1 forget:1 little:1 know:2 britain:1 united:1 state:1 common:1 cuisine:1 soup:2 stew:1 though:1 look:1 similar:1 parsnip:3 taste:2 quite:1 different:1 among:1 close:1 relative:1 umbellifer:1 family:1 although:1 similarity:1 name:1 coincidence:1 meaning:1 fork:1 real:1 us:2 culinary:1 garnish:1 salad:2 refer:1 gourmet:1 poultry:1 seafood:1 young:1 particularly:1 france:1 add:1 omelette:1 faint:1 liquorice:1 horticulture:1 repel:1 slug:1 medicinal:1 various:1 traditional:2 pregnant:1 woman:1 bath:1 infusion:1 lotion:1 skin:1 cleanser:1 medicinally:1 blood:2 purifier:1 also:4 claim:1 useful:1 digestive:1 aid:1 lower:1 high:1 pressure:1 infuse:1 vinegar:1 cure:1 hiccup:1 cultivation:1 best:1 grown:1 seed:2 place:1 transplanting:1 difficult:1 due:1 taproot:1 prefer:1 cool:1 moist:1 location:1 otherwise:1 rapidly:1 go:2 bolt:3 regular:1 harvesting:1 help:1 prevent:1 bolting:1 despite:1 precaution:1 periodically:1 sow:1 thus:1 fresh:1 old:1 production:1 height:1 inch:2 width:1 see:1 wild:1 bur:1 dill:1 sweet:1 cicely:1 reference:1 far:1 read:1 howard:1 michael:1 folk:1 remedy:1 p:1 external:1 link:1 herbs:1 linda:1 gilbert:1 pinch:1 desirable:1 spice:1 variety:1 |@bigram soup_stew:1 poultry_seafood:1 cool_moist:1 external_link:1 herb_spice:1 |
5,586 | Joachim_III_Frederick,_Elector_of_Brandenburg | Joachim Frederick, Elector of Brandenburg Joachim Frederick (; 27 January 1546 – 18 July 1608) was a Prince-elector of the Margraviate of Brandenburg from the House of Hohenzollern. Joachim Frederick was born in Cölln to John George, Elector of Brandenburg, and Sophie, Princess of Liegnitz (Legnica). He succeeded his father in 1598, and he was administrator of the Archbishopric of Magdeburg from 1566-98. Joachim Frederick was succeeded at his death by his son John Sigismund. Joachim Frederick's first marriage on 8 January 1570 was to Catherine, Princess of Brandenburg-Küstrin, daughter of John I, Margrave of Brandenburg-Küstrin, and Catherine, Duchess of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel. Joachim Frederick's second marriage, on 23 October 1603, was to Eleonore of Hohenzollern, born 12 August 1583, daughter of Albert Frederick and Marie Eleonore of Cleves. He became regent of the Duchy of Prussia in 1605, because Albert Frederick was mentally ill. Children of Joachim Frederick and Catherine, Princess of Brandenburg-Küstrin: John Sigismund, Elector of Brandenburg (8 November 1572-23 December 1619) Anne Catherine (26 June 1575 – 29 March 1612), married to King Christian IV of Denmark. Girl [1576] John George, Duke of Jägerndorf (16 December 1577-2 March 1624) Augustus (16 February 1580-23 April 1601) Albert Frederick (29 April 1582- 3 December 1600) Joachim (13 April 1583- 10 June 1600) Ernest (13 April 1583- 18 September 1613) Barbara Sophie (16 November 1584- 13 February 1636) married the Duke of Württemberg Girl [1585/6] Christian William, Margrave of Brandenburg (28 August 1587 – 1 January 1665) Child of Joachim Frederick and Eleonore of Hohenzollern: Marie Eleonore (22 March 1607 – 18 February 1675), married Ludwig Philipp of Pfalz-Simmern-Kaiserslautern | Joachim_III_Frederick,_Elector_of_Brandenburg |@lemmatized joachim:9 frederick:11 elector:4 brandenburg:8 january:3 july:1 prince:1 margraviate:1 house:1 hohenzollern:3 bear:1 cölln:1 john:5 george:2 sophie:2 princess:3 liegnitz:1 legnica:1 succeed:2 father:1 administrator:1 archbishopric:1 magdeburg:1 death:1 son:1 sigismund:2 first:1 marriage:2 catherine:4 küstrin:3 daughter:2 margrave:2 duchess:1 brunswick:1 wolfenbüttel:1 second:1 october:1 eleonore:4 born:1 august:2 albert:3 marie:2 clef:1 become:1 regent:1 duchy:1 prussia:1 mentally:1 ill:1 child:2 november:2 december:3 anne:1 june:2 march:3 marry:3 king:1 christian:2 iv:1 denmark:1 girl:2 duke:2 jägerndorf:1 augustus:1 february:3 april:4 ernest:1 september:1 barbara:1 württemberg:1 william:1 ludwig:1 philipp:1 pfalz:1 simmern:1 kaiserslautern:1 |@bigram joachim_frederick:8 elector_brandenburg:3 elector_margraviate:1 margraviate_brandenburg:1 brandenburg_küstrin:3 margrave_brandenburg:2 brunswick_wolfenbüttel:1 duchy_prussia:1 mentally_ill:1 duke_württemberg:1 |
5,587 | Elizabeth_Barrett_Browning | Elizabeth Barrett Browning (March 6, 1806 – June 29, 1861) was one of the most prominent poets of the Victorian era. She was the wife of poet Robert Browning, whom she married in secret due to objections by her father. Her poetry was widely popular in both England and the United States during her lifetime. Burr, David Stanford. "Introduction".Sonnets from the Portuguese: a celebration of loveMacmillan (1986) Browning published many poems in her lifetime, and many more were published by her husband after her death. Her works contained early examples of feminist thought and have been reprinted in several volumes including The Norton Anthology of English Literature. Early life Elizabeth Barrett Moulton-Barrett was born on March 6, 1806, in Coxhoe Hall, between the villages of Coxhoe and Kelloe in County Durham. Her parents were Edward Barrett Moulton Barrett and Mary Graham-Clarke; she was the eldest of their 12 children (eight boys and four girls). All the children survived except for one girl who died at the age of four, when Elizabeth was eight. All the children in her family had nicknames: Elizabeth's was `Ba`. The Barrett family, who were part Creole, had lived for centuries in Jamaica, where they owned sugar plantations and relied on slave labour. Elizabeth's father chose to raise his family in England while his fortune grew in Jamaica. The Graham-Clarke family was as wealthy as the Barretts family wealth. Elizabeth was baptized in 1809 at Kelloe Parish Church, though she had already been baptized by a family friend in the first week after she was born. Later that year, after the third child Henrietta was born, Edward bought Hope End, a estate near the Malvern Hills in Ledbury, Herefordshire. Elizabeth had "a large room to herself, with stained glass in the window, and she loved the garden where she tended white roses in a special arbour by the south wall" Mander,Rosalie.Mrs Browning: The Story of Elizabeth Barrett.London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson,1980 Her time at Hope End would inspire her in later life to write Aurora Leigh. Elizabeth was educated at home, and attended lessons with her brother's tutor. This gave her a good education for a girl of that time, and she is said to have read passages from Paradise Lost and a number of Shakespearean plays, among other works, before the age of ten. During the Hope End period she was "a shy, intensely studious, precocious child, yet cheerful, affectionate and lovable". Taplin, Gardner B. The Life of Elizabeth BrowningNew Haven: Yale University Press, 1957 Her intellectual fascination with the classics and metaphysics was balanced by a religious obsession which she later described as "not the deep persuasion of the mild Christian but the wild visions of an enthusiast." Everett, Glenn,Life of Elizabeth Browning(2002) The Barretts attended services at the nearest Dissenting chapel, and Edward was active in Bible and Missionary societies. Elizabeth was very close to her siblings while playing the maternal role. She had great respect for her father: she claimed that life was no fun without him, and her mother agreed, probably because they did not fully understand what the business really was that kept him when his trips got longer and longer. Her first known poem was written at the age of sixteen or eighteen. The manuscript is currently in the Berg Collection of the New York Public Library; the exact date is controversial because the "2" in the date 1812 is written over something else that is scratched out. By the age of twelve she had written an "epic" poem consisting of four books of rhyming couplets. When she was fourteen her father paid for the publication of a long Homeric poem entitled The Battle of Marathon. Barrett later referred to this as "Pope's Homer done over again, or rather undone." By the age of twenty she had read the principal Greek and Latin authors, and Dante's Inferno, in their original languages. She learnt Hebrew and read the Old Testament from beginning to end. Essays of the mind was published in 1826, also at her father’s expense. It was then (aged 20) that Elizabeth began to battle with a life-long illness, which the medical science of the time was unable to diagnose. She began to take morphine for the pain, and eventually became addicted to the drug. This illness caused her to be frail and weak. Mander,Rosalie.Mrs Browning: The Story of Elizabeth Barrett.London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson,1980 Her illness meant Browning composed her poems primarily in her home. Mary Russell Mitford described the young Elizabeth as: "A slight, delicate figure, with a shower of dark curls falling on each side of a most expressive face; large, tender eyes, richly fringed by dark eyelashes, and a smile like a sunbeam." Anne Thackeray Ritchie described her as: "Very small and brown" with big, exotic eyes and an overgenerous mouth.[12] Residences and publications Sidmouth, Devonshire, and London On June 30, 1824 one of the leading newspapers in London, the Globe and Traveler, printed her Stanzas on the Death of Lord Byron, Taplin, Gardner B. The Life of Elizabeth Browning New Haven: Yale University Press, 1957 In the same year a law suit Elizabeth father’s cousin had filed against him about property estate in Jamaica had won in favor of their cousin, causing them the start of their financial loss. In 1826 she published her first collection of poems, An Essay on Mind and Other Poems. This is a didactic poem with Homer; Latin and Greek are manifested within these poems. Its publication drew the attention of a blind scholar of the Greek language, Hugh Stuart Boyd, and that of another Greek scholar, Uvedale Price. She maintained a scholarly correspondence with both men until her death. Among other neighbors, pleasant but of no intellectual interest, was Mrs. James Martin from Colwall with whom she kept up a correspondence, which gives account of her life. At Boyd's suggestion, she translated Aeschylus Prometheus Bound (published in 1833; retranslated in 1850). During their friendship Barrett absorbed a lot of Greek literature, including Homer, Pindar and Aristophanes. From 1822 onwards Elizabeth's interests tended more and more to the scholarly and literary. In 1825 she published The Rose and Zephyr her first published work. In 1828 Elizabeth’s mother died. She is buried at the Parish Church of St Michael and All Angels in Ledbury next to her daughter Mary. The death of her mother hit her hard, which, Boyd says in his letters, for a time took away from her the power of thinking. The abolition of slavery in the early 1830s reduced Mr. Barrett's finances. His financial losses in the early 1830s forced him to sell Hope End, and although never poor, the place was seized and put up for sale to please creditors. The investment that had given them revenue in Jamaica was also stopped with the abolition of slavery. In 1831 Elizabeth received news that her grandmother Mouton had died. She had been like a second mother to Elizabeth and the other children and subsequently Elizabeth became ill for weeks. The family moved three times between 1832 and 1837, first to a white Georgian building in Sidmouth, Devonshire where they remained for three years. Later they moved on to Gloucester Place London. While living there she wrote for several magazines and in 1825 her first published work, The Rose and Zephyr was published in Literary Gazette. Wimpole Street They finally settled at 50 Wimpole Street, a place she had visited as a child. John Kenyon, a distant cousin, introduced her to celebrities of the literary world, including William Wordsworth, Mary Russell Mitford, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Alfred Lord Tennyson and Thomas Carlyle. Elizabeth continued to write, contributing The Romaunt of Margaret, The Romaunt of the Page, The Poet's Vow, and other pieces to various periodicals. She corresponded with literary figures of the time, including Mary Russell Mitford. She and Mary became close friends, Mary helping her to further her literary ambition. In 1838 The Seraphim and Other Poems appeared as the first volume of Elizabeth's mature poetry to appear under her own name. Torquay In 1838, at her physician's insistence, Browning moved from London to Torquay on the Devonshire coast. Her brother Edward, one of her closest relatives, went a long with her. Her father, Mr. Barrett, disapproved of Edward going to Torquay but did not hinder his visit. The subsequent death of her brother Edward, who drowned in a sailing accident at Torquay in 1840, had a serious effect on her already fragile health; when they found his body after a couple days, she had no strength for tears or words. They returned to Wimpole Street. Return to Wimpole Street By the time of her return to Wimpole Street she had become an invalid and a recluse, spending most of the next five years in her bedroom, seeing few people other than her immediate family. One of those she did see was her friend John Kenyon, a wealthy and convivial friend of the arts. She felt responsible for her brother's death because it was she who wanted him to be there with her. During this time she allegedly developed an addiction to opium. She got comfort from her golden-haired cocker spaniel named “Flush” which had been given to Elizabeth as a gift. She continued to write poetry, including The Cry of the Children, published in 1842. This poem condemned child labour and helped bring about child labour reforms. At about the same time she contributed some critical prose pieces to Richard Henry Horne's A New Spirit of the Age. She also wrote The First Day’s Exile from Eden. In 1844 she published two volumes of Poems, which included A Drama of Exile, A Vision of Poets, and Lady Geraldine's Courtship. “Since she was not burdened with any domestic duties expected of her sisters, Elizabeth could now devote herself entirely to the life of the mind, cultivating an enormous correspondence, reading widely”. Pollock, Mary Sanders. Elizabeth Barrett and Robert Browning: A Creative Partnership. England: Ashgate Publishing Company, 2003. Meeting Robert Browning and works of this time Her 1844 Poems made her one of the most popular writers in the land at the time and inspired Robert Browning to write to her, telling her how much he loved her poems. Kenyon arranged for Browning to meet Elizabeth in May 1845, and so began one of the most famous courtships in literature. Elizabeth had produced a large amount of works and had been writing long before Robert Browning had even published a word. However, he had a great influence on her writing, as did she on his. It is observable that Elizabeth’s poetry matured. Two of Barrett’s most famous pieces were produced after she met Browning: Sonnets from the Portuguese and Aurora Leigh. Some critics, however point to him as an undermining influence: "Until her relationship with Robert Browning began in 1845, Barrett’s willingness to engage in public discourse about social issues and about aesthetic issues in poetry, which had been so strong in her youth, gradually diminished, as did her physical health. As an intellectual presence and a physical being, she was becoming a shadow of herself". Pollock, Mary Sanders. Elizabeth Barrett and Robert Browning: A Creative Partnership. England: Ashgate Publishing Company, 2003. Among Elizabeth's best known lyrics are Sonnets from the Portuguese (1850) - the 'Portuguese' being her husband's pet name for her. The title also refers to the series of sonnets of the 16th-century Portuguese poet Luis de Camões; in all these poems she used rhyme schemes typical of the Portuguese sonnets. The verse-novel Aurora Leigh, her most ambitious and perhaps the most popular of her longer poems, appeared in 1856. It is the story of a woman writer making her way in life, balancing work and love. The writings depicted in this novel are all based on similar, personal experiences that Elizabeth suffered through herself. The North American Review praised Elizabeth’s poem: “ Mrs. Browning’s poems are, in all respects, the utterance of a woman – of a woman of great learning, rich experience, and powerful genius, uniting to her woman’s nature the strength which is sometimes thought peculiar to a man.” Kaplan, Cora. Aurora Leigh And Other Poems. London: The Women’s Press Lmited, 1978 Robert Browning The courtship and marriage between Robert Browning and Elizabeth were carried out secretly. Six years his elder and an invalid, she could not believe that the vigorous and worldly Browning really loved her as much as he professed to, and her doubts are expressed in the Sonnets from the Portuguese, which she wrote over the next two years. Love conquered all, however, and, after a private marriage at St. Marylebone Parish Church, Browning imitated his hero Shelley by spiriting his beloved off to Italy in August 1846, which became her home almost continuously until her death. Elizabeth's loyal nurse, Wilson, who witnessed the marriage at the church, accompanied the couple to Italy and became at service to them. Mr. Barrett disinherited Elizabeth, as he did for each of his children who married: “The Mrs. Browning of popular imagination was a sweet, innocent young woman who suffered endless cruelties at the hands of a tyrannical papa but who nonetheless had the good fortune to fall in love with a dashing and handsome poet named Robert Browning. She finally escaped the dungeon of Wimpole Street, eloped to Italy, and lived happily ever after.” Peterson, William S. Sonnets From The Portuguese. Massachusetts: Barre Publishing, 1977. As Elizabeth had inherited some money of her own, the couple were reasonably comfortable in Italy, and their relationship together was content. The Brownings were well respected in Italy they would be asked for autographs or stopped by people because of the celebrity. Elizabeth grew stronger, and, in 1849, at the age of 43, she gave birth to a son, Robert Wiedemann Barrett Browning, who they called Pen. Their son later married but had no legitimate children, so there are apparently no direct descendants of the two famous poets. However, it is rumoured that the areas around Florence are peopled with his descendants. “Several Browning critics have suggested that the poet decided that he was an “objective poet” and then sought out a “subjective poet” in the hope that dialogue with her would enable him to be more successful.” Pollock, Mary Sanders. Elizabeth Barrett and Robert Browning: A Creative Partnership. England: Ashgate Publishing Company, 2003. At her husband's insistence, the second edition of Elizabeth’s Poems included her love sonnets; these increased her popularity and high critical regard so that she cemented her position as favourite Victorian poetess. Upon William Wordsworth's death in 1850, she was a serious contender to become Poet Laureate, but the position went to Tennyson. Decline At the death of an old friend, G.B. Hunter and then her father her health faded again, centring around deteriorating lung function. She was moved from Florence to Sienna and to their summer home, The Villa Alberti. In 1860 she issued a small volume of political poems titled Poems before Congress. These poems related to political issues for the Italians; “most of which were written to express her sympathy with the Italian case after the outbreak of fighting in 1859” Taplin, Gardner B. The Life of Elizabeth Browning New Haven: Yale University Press, 1957 . She dedicated this book to her husband. Her last last piece of work was A Musical Instrument published in July 1862. She had also reprinted Last Poem, which became one of her best known works. In 1860 they returned to Rome, only to find out Elizabeth’s sister Henrietta had died, news of which made Elizabeth weaker and depressed. She became gradually weaker and died on June 29, 1861. She was buried in the English Cemetery of Florence. “On Monday July 1 the shops in the section of the city around Casa Guidi were closed, while Elizabeth was mourned with unusual demonstrations.” Taplin, Gardner B. The Life of Elizabeth Browning New Haven: Yale University Press, 1957 The nature of her illnesses is still unclear, although medical and literary scholars have speculated that longstanding pulmonary problems, combined with palliative opiates, contributed to her decline. Spiritual influence A lot of Elizabeth’s work has religion themes recurring thought her literature. She had read and studied famous literary works like Paradise lost and Dante's Inferno. Elizabeth says in her writing '"We want the sense of the saturation of Christ's blood upon the souls of our poets, that it may cry through them in answer to the ceaseless wail of the Sphinx of our humanity, expounding agony into renovation. Something of this has been perceived in art when its glory was at the fullest. Something of a yearning after this may be seen among the Greek Christian poets, something which would have been much with a stronger faculty"She also believed that "Christ's religion is essentially poetry — poetry glorified.” She uses the religious aspect in many of her poems, especially in her early work such as the Sonnets. She was interested in theological debate, Lewis,Linda.Elizabeth Barrett Browning's Spiritual Progress. Missouri: Missouri University Press. 1997 had learned Hebrew and read the Hebrew bible. We find in the poem Aurora Leigh, for example, much religious imagery and allusion such as images of the apocalypse. Critical reception American poet Edgar Allan Poe was inspired by Barrett Browning's poem Lady Geraldine's Courtship and, specifically, borrowed the poem's meter for his poem The Raven. Sova, Dawn B. Edgar Allan Poe: A to Z. New York City: Checkmark Books, 2001: 208. ISBN 081604161X Poe had reviewed Barrett's work in the January 1845 issue of the Broadway Journal and said that "her poetic inspiration is the highest - we can conceive of nothing more august. Her sense of Art is pure in itself." Meyers, Jeffrey. Edgar Allan Poe: His Life and Legacy. New York City: Cooper Square Press, 1992: 160. ISBN 0815410387 In return, she praised The Raven and Poe dedicated his 1845 collection The Raven and Other Poems to her, referring to her as "the noblest of her sex". Thomas, Dwight and David K. Jackson. The Poe Log: A Documentary Life of Edgar Allan Poe, 1809-1849. New York: G. K. Hall & Co., 1987: 591. ISBN 0783814011 Her poetry greatly influenced Emily Dickinson who admired her as woman of achievement. Her popularity in the United States and Britain was further advanced by her stands against social injustice, including opposition to slavery in the United States, championing of the Italian national cause, protest against child labour. In 1899 Lilian Whiting wrote a biography of Elizabeth Barrett Browning titled A study of Elizabeth Barrett Browning in which she describes the influence of Browing as "the most philisophical poet" and depicts her life as "a Gospel of applied Christianity. To Whiting, the term "art for art's sake" does not apply to the works of Browning, as she appears to write each of her poems with a distinct purpose because she writes of a more "honest vision". In the critical analysis, Whiting portray's Browning as a poet who uses knowledge of Classical literature with an "intuitive gift of spiritual divination". Whiting, Lilian. A study of Elizabeth Barrett Browning. Little, Brown and Company (1899) In Elizabeth Barrett Browning, Angela Leighton suggests that the portrayal of Browning as the "pious iconography of womanhood" detracts from the focus of Browning's achievements as a poet. Leighton cites the 1931 play by Even Besier titled The Barretts of Wimpole Street as evidence that 20th Century literary criticism of Browning's works suffered from the popularity of the poet rather than her poems. Leighton, Angela. Elizabeth Barrett Browning. Indiana University Press (1986) pp.8-18 Throughout the majority of the 20th Century, literary criticism of Browning's poetry remained sparse until her poems were discovered by the Feminist movement. Browning described herself as being inclined to reject several womens rights principles, suggesting in letters to Mary Russell Mitford and her husband, that she believed that there was an inferiority of intellect in women and that women. However, feminist critics have used Deconstructionist theories of Jaques Derrida and other philosophers to explain the feminist importance of Browning's literary voice. Leighton writes that because Browning participates in the literary world, where voice and diction is dominated by masculine superiority, she "is defined only in mysterious opposition to everything that distinguishes the male subject who writes..." Works, First Publication {| border="2" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 90%;" |-style="background:#B0C4DE;" ! Year ! Title of Publications and editors ! Publisher |- | 1820 |The Battle of Marathon:A Poem|Privately printed |- |1826 |A Essay On Mind, with Other Poems |London: James Duncan |- |1833 |Prometheus Bound, Translated from the Greek of Aeschlus,and Miscellaneous Poems|London: A.J. Valpy |- |1838 |The Seraphim, and Other Poems|London: Saunders and Otley |- |1844 |Poems (UK)/ A Drama of Exile, and other Poems (US) |London: Edward Moxon. New York: Henry G. Langley |- |1850 |Poems("New Edition," 2 vols.)Revision of 1844 edition adding Sonnets from the Portuguese and others | London: Chapman & Hall ] |- |1851 |Casa Guidi Window|London: Chapman & Hall |- |1853 |Poems(3d ed.) |London: Chapman & Hall |- |1854 |Two Poems:"A Plea for the Ragged Schools of London" by Barrett Browning and "The Twins" by Browning |London: Bradbury & Evans |- |1856 |Poems(4th ed.) |London: Chapman & Hall 1857 printed on title page |- |1860 |Poems Beofore Congress|London: Chapman & Hall |- |1862 |Last Poems|London: Chapman & Hall |- |1863 |The Greek Christian: Poets and the English Poets|London: Chapman & Hall |- |1877 |The Earlier Poems of Elizabeth Barrett Browning, 1826-1833, ed Richard Herne Shepheard |London: Bartholomew Robson |- |1877 |Letters of Elizabeth Barrett Browning Addressed to Richard Hengist Horne, with comments on comtemoraries, 2 vols., ed. S.R. Townshend Mayer |London: Richard Bentley & Son |- |1897 |Letters of Elizabeth Barrett Browning, 2 vols., ed. Frederic G. Kenyon |London:Smith, Elder,& Co. |- |1899 |Letters of Robert Browing and Elizabeth Barrett Barrett 1845-1846, 2 vol., ed Robert W. Barrett Browning |London: Smith, Elder & Co. |- |1914 |New Poems by Robert Browning and Elizabeth Barrett Browning, ed. Frederic G Kenyon |London:Smith, Elder & Co. |- |1929 |Elizabeth Barrett Browning: Letters to Her Sister, 1846-1859, ed. Leonard Huxley |London: John Murry |- |1935 |Twenty-Two Unpublished Letters of Elizabeth Barrett Browning and Robert Browning to Henrietta and Arabella Moulton Barrett |New York: United Feature Syndicate |- |1939 |Letters from Elizabeth Barrett to B.R. Haydon, ed. Martha Hale Shackford |New York: Oxford University Press |- |1954 |Elizabeth Barrett to Miss Mitford, ed. Betty Miller |London: John Murry |- |1955 |Unpublished Letters of Elizabeth Barrett Browning to Hugh Stuart Boyd, ed. Barbara P. McCarthy |New Heaven, conn.: Yale University Press |- |1958 |Letters of the Brownings to George Barrett, ed. Paul Landis with Ronald E. Freeman |Urbana: University of Illinois Press |- |1974 |Elizabeth Barrett Browning's Letters to Mrs. David Ogilvy, 1849-1861, ed. Peter N Heydon and Philip Kelley |New York: Quadrangle, The New York Times Book Co., and The Browning Institute |- |1984 |The Brownings' Correspondence, ed. Phillip Kelley, Ronald Hudson, and Scott Lewis |Winfield, Kans.: Wedgestone press |} Other Information The University of Worcester has acknowledged Browning's local connection by naming a new building after her. References Bibliography Everett, Glenn,Life of Elizabeth Browning(2002) Julia Markus, Dared and Done: Marriage of Elizabeth Barrett and Robert Browning, Ohio University Press, 1995 ISBN 0 8214 1246 9. Kaplan, Cora. Aurora Leigh And Other Poems. London: The Women’s Press Limited, 1978. Lewis,Linda.Elizabeth Barrett Browning's Spiritual Progress. Missouri: Missouri University Press. 1997 Mander,Rosalie.Mrs Browning: The Story of Elizabeth Barrett.London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson,1980 Meyers, Jeffrey. Edgar Allan Poe: His Life and Legacy. New York City: Cooper Square Press, 1992: 160. ISBN 0815410387 Peterson, William S. Sonnets From The Portuguese. Massachusetts: Barre Publishing, 1977 Pollock, Mary Sanders. Elizabeth Barrett and Robert Browning: A Creative Partnership. England: Ashgate Publishing Company, 2003 Sova, Dawn B. Edgar Allan Poe: A to Z. New York City: Checkmark Books, 2001: 208. ISBN 081604161X Taplin, Gardner B. The Life of Elizabeth BrowningNew Haven: Yale University Press, 1957 Thomas, Dwight and David K. Jackson. The Poe Log: A Documentary Life of Edgar Allan Poe, 1809-1849. New York: G. K. Hall & Co., 1987: 591. ISBN 0783814011 External links The Life of Elizabeth Barrett Browning by Glenn Everett Poems by Elizabeth Barrett Browning at PoetryFoundation.org The Brownings: A Research Guide (Baylor University) Project Gutenberg e-text of Sonnets from the Portuguese Poems by Elizabeth Barrett Browning An extensive collection of Browning's poetry. Elizabeth Barrett Browning Website, includes readings of Lady Geraldine's Courtship, Sonnets from the Portuguese, Runaway Slave at Pilgrim's Point, "Hiram Powers' Greek Slave", Casa Guidi Windows, and Aurora Leigh Reely's Poetry Pages Hear Sonnets 43 and 33 Browning Family Collection at the Harry Ransom Center at The University of Texas at Austin | Elizabeth_Barrett_Browning |@lemmatized elizabeth:75 barrett:51 browning:45 march:2 june:3 one:8 prominent:1 poet:20 victorian:2 era:1 wife:1 robert:18 marry:3 secret:1 due:1 objection:1 father:8 poetry:11 widely:2 popular:4 england:6 united:4 state:3 lifetime:2 burr:1 david:4 stanford:1 introduction:1 sonnet:14 portuguese:12 celebration:1 lovemacmillan:1 brown:32 publish:13 many:3 poem:48 husband:5 death:9 work:16 contain:1 early:6 example:2 feminist:4 thought:1 reprint:2 several:4 volume:4 include:9 norton:1 anthology:1 english:3 literature:5 life:20 moulton:3 bear:3 coxhoe:2 hall:10 village:1 kelloe:2 county:1 durham:1 parent:1 edward:7 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5,588 | Hacker_ethic | The hacker ethic comprises the values and philosophy that are standard in the hacker community. The early hacker culture and resulting philosophy originated at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in the 1950s and 1960s. The term 'hacker ethic' is attributed to journalist Steven Levy as described in his book titled Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution, written in 1984. The guidelines of the hacker ethic make it easy to see how computers have evolved into the personal devices we know and rely upon today. The key points within this ethic are that of access, free information, and improvement to quality of life. While some tenets of hacker ethic were described in other texts like Computer Lib/Dream Machines (1974) by Theodor Nelson, Levy appears to have been the first to document and historicize both the philosophy and the founders of the philosophy. Levy explains that MIT housed an early IBM 704 computer inside the Electronic Accounting Machinery (EAM) room in 1959. This room became the staging grounds for early hackers as MIT students from the Tech Model Railroad Club stole inside the EAM room after hours to attempt programming the 30 tonne, 9 foot tall computer. The boys defined a hack as a project undertaken or a product built not solely to fulfil some constructive goal, but with some wild pleasure taken in mere involvement. Levy, S 1984. Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution. Anchor Press/Doubleday, New York. pg 9 The term “hack” arose from MIT lingo as the word had long been used to describe college pranks that MIT students would regularly devise. Hackers push programs beyond what they are designed to do. Levy notes that, at other universities, professors were making public proclamations that computers would never be able to beat a human being in chess. Hackers knew better. They would be the ones who would guide computers to greater heights than anyone expected. Levy, S 1984. Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution. Anchor Press/Doubleday, New York. pg 36 The Hacker Ethic was a “new way of life, with a philosophy, an ethic and a dream”. However, the elements of the Hacker Ethic were not openly debated and discussed, rather they were accepted and silently agreed upon. Levy, S 1984. Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution. Anchor Press/Doubleday, New York. pg 26 The hacker ethics As Levy stated in the preface of Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution, Levy, S: Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution, page ix. Anchor Press/Doubleday, 1984. the general tenets or principles of hacker ethic include: Sharing Openness Decentralization Free access to computers World Improvement In addition to those principles listed above, Levy also described more specific hacker ethics and beliefs in chapter 2, The Hacker Ethic. Levy, S: Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution, pages 26–36. Anchor Press/Doubleday, 1984. The ethics he described in chapter 2 are quoted here. Access to computers—and anything which might teach you something about the way the world works—should be unlimited and total. Always yield to the Hands-On Imperative!– Levy is recounting hackers' abilities to learn and build upon pre-existing ideas and systems. He believes that access gives hackers the opportunity to take things apart, fix, or improve upon them and to learn and understand how they work. This gives them the knowledge to create new and even more interesting things (Levy, 1984:226) Levy,Steven(1984)Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution, Anchor Press/Doubleday, New York, pp 3-36 . Access aids the expansion of technology. All information should be free.—linking directly with access, information needs to be free for hackers to fix, improve, and reinvent systems. A free exchange of information allows for greater overall creativity. Levy, S. 1984. Hackers:Heroes of the Computer Revolution. Anchor Press/Doubleday, New York. pg 27 In the hacker viewpoint, any system could benefit from an easy flow of information. Levy, S. 1984. Hackers:Heroes of the Computer Revolution. Anchor Press/Doubleday, New York. pg 28 Mistrust authority—promote decentralization. The best way to promote the free exchange of information is to have an open system that presents no boundaries between a hacker and his quest for knowledge. Hackers believe that bureaucracies, whether corporate, government, or university, are flawed systems. Levy, S. 1984. Hackers:Heroes of the Computer Revolution. Anchor Press/Doubleday, New York. pg 28 Hackers should be judged by their hacking, not criteria such as degrees, age, race, or position. Inherent in the hacker ethic is a meritocratic system where superficiality is disregarded in esteem of skill. Levy articulates that criteria such as age, sex, race, position, and qualification are deemed irrelevant within the hacker community. Levy, S. (1984) Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution, Anchor Press/Doubleday, New York, pp 3–36 Hacker skill is the ultimate determinant of acceptance. Such a code within the hacker community fosters the advance of hacking and software development. Testament to the hacker ethic of equal opportunity, For further discussion on liberalism and hacking including equal opportunity see Coleman and Golub's 'Hacker practice' Moral genres and the cultural articulation of liberalism. Peter Deutsch, a twelve-year-old hacker, was accepted in the TX-0 community, though was not recognised by non-hacker graduate students. You can create art and beauty on a computer. Hackers deeply appreciate innovative techniques which allow programs to perform complicated tasks with few instructions. Levy, S. 1984. Hackers:Heroes of the Computer Revolution. Anchor Press/Doubleday, New York. pg 31 A program's code was considered to hold a beauty of its own, having been carefully composed and artfully arranged. Levy, S 1984. Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution. Anchor Press/Doubleday, New York. pg 30–31 Learning to create programs which used the least amount of space almost became a game between the early hackers. Levy,Steven(1984)Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution, Anchor Press/Doubleday, New York, pp 3–36 Computers can change your life for the better. Hackers felt that computers had enriched their lives, given their lives focus, and made their lives adventurous. Hackers regarded computers as Aladdin's lamps that they could control. Levy, S. 1984. Hackers:Heroes of the Computer Revolution. Anchor Press/Doubleday, New York. pg 33 They believed that everyone in society could benefit from experiencing such power and that if everyone could interact with computers in the way that hackers did, then the Hacker Ethic might spread through society and computers would improve the world. Levy, S. 1984. Hackers:Heroes of the Computer Revolution. Anchor Press/Doubleday, New York. pg 36 The hacker succeeded in turning dreams of endless possibilities into realities. The hackers primary object was to teach society that "the world opened up by the computer was a limitless one" (Levy 230:1984) Levy,Steven(1984)Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution, Anchor Press/Doubleday, New York, pp 3–36 Sharing According to Levy's account, sharing was the norm and expected within the non-corporate hacker culture. The principle of sharing stemmed from the atmosphere and resources at MIT. During the early days of computers and programming, the hackers at MIT would develop a program and share it. If the hack was particularly good, then the program might be posted on a board somewhere near one of the computers. Other programs that could be built upon and improved were saved to tapes and added to a drawer of programs—readily accessible to all the other hackers. At any time, a fellow hacker might reach into the drawer, pick out the program, and begin adding to it or "bumming" it to make it better (bumming refers to the process of making the code more concise so that more can be done in fewer instructions). In the second generation of hackers, sharing was about sharing with the general public in addition to sharing with other hackers. A particular organization of hackers that was concerned with sharing computers with the general public was a group called Community Memory. This group of hackers and idealists put computers in public places for anyone to use. The first community computer was placed outside of Leopold's Records in Berkeley, California. Another sharing of resources occurred when Bob Albrecht provided considerable resources for a non-profit organization called People's Computer Company (PCC). PCC opened a computer center where anyone could use the computers there for fifty cents per hour. This second generation's sharing contributed to the battles of free and open software. In fact, when Bill Gates' version of BASIC for the Altair was shared among the hacker community, Gates 'lost' a considerable sum of money because few users payed for the software. As a result, Gates wrote an Open Letter to Hobbyists. This letter was published by several computer magazines and newsletters—most notably that of the Homebrew Computer Club where much of the sharing occurred. Hands-on imperative Many of the principles and tenets of Hacker Ethic contribute to a common goal—the Hands-On Imperative. As Levy described in chapter 2, "Hackers believe that essential lessons can be learned about the systems—about the world—from taking things apart, seeing how they work, and using this knowledge to create new and more interesting things." Levy, S: "Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution", pages 27–36. Anchor Press/Doubleday, 1984. Employing the Hands-On Imperative requires free access, open information, and the sharing of knowledge. To a true hacker, if the Hands-On Imperative is restricted, then the ends justify the means to make it unrestricted so that improvements can be made. When these principles are not present, hackers tend to work around them. For example, when the computers at MIT were protected either by physical locks or login programs, the hackers there systematically worked around them in order to have access to the machines. Hackers assumed a "wilful blindness" in the pursuit of perfection. Levy, S 1984. Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution. Anchor Press/Doubleday, New York. pg 27 It is important to note that this behavior was not malicious in nature—the MIT hackers did not seek to harm the systems or their users (although occasional practical jokes were played using the computer systems). This deeply contrasts with the modern, media-encouraged image of hackers who crack secure systems in order to steal information or complete an act of cybervandalism. Community and collaboration Throughout writings about hackers and their work processes, a common value of community and collaboration is present. For example, in Levy's Hackers, each generation of hackers had geographically based communities where collaboration and sharing occurred. For the hackers at MIT, it was the labs where the computers were running. For the hardware hackers (second generation) and the game hackers (third generation) the geographic area was centered in Silicon Valley where the Homebrew Computer Club and the People's Computer Company helped hackers network, collaborate, and share their work. The concept of community and collaboration is still relevant today, although hackers are no longer limited to collaboration in geographic regions. Now collaboration takes place via the Internet. Eric S. Raymond identifies and explains this concept shift in The Cathedral and the Bazaar. Before cheap Internet, there were some geographically compact communities where the culture encouraged Weinberg's egoless programming, and a developer could easily attract a lot of skilled kibitzers and co-developers. Bell Labs, the MIT AI and LCS labs, UC Berkeley—these became the home of innovations that are legendary and still potent. Raymond, E. The Cathedral and the Bazaar Raymond also notes that the success of Linux coincided with the wide availability of the World Wide Web. The value of community is still in high practice and use today. Levy's "true hackers" Levy identifies several "true hackers" who significantly influenced the hacker ethic. Some well-known "true hackers" include: John McCarthy—The founder of the Artificial Intelligence lab at MIT. Bill Gosper—A mathematician and hacker. Richard Greenblatt Richard Stallman—A programmer and political activist who is well-known for Emacs and the Free Software Movement. Levy also identified the "hardware hackers" (the "second generation", mostly centered in Silicon Valley) and the "game hackers" (or the "third generation"). All three generations of hackers, according to Levy, embodied the principles of the hacker ethic. Some Levy's "second-generation" hackers include: Steve Wozniak—One of two Steves that founded Apple, Inc. Bob Marsh—A designer of the Sol-20 computer. Steve Dompier—A homebrew member and hacker worked with the early Altair. Fred Moore—An activist and founder of the Homebrew Computer Club. Lee Felsenstein—A hardware hacker and co-founder of Community Memory and Homebrew. A designer of the Sol-20 computer. Levy's "third generation" practitioners of hacker ethic include: John Harris—One of the first programmers hired at On-Line Systems (later became Sierra Entertainment). Ken Williams—Along with wife Roberta, founded On-Line Systems after working at IBM. New hacker ethic Some have postulated that a "New Hacker Ethic" has evolved out of the older hacker ethic that originated at MIT. Steven Mizrach, who identifies himself with CyberAnthropolist studies, CyberAnthropology main page by Steven Mizrach explored this idea of "New Hacker Ethic" in his essay titled Is there Hacker Ethic for 90s Hackers?. Identification of the "New Hacker Ethic" implies a radical shift in hacker ethic. While the nature of hacker activity has evolved due to the availability of new technologies (for example, the mainstreaming of the personal computer or the social connectivity of the internet), the hacker ethics—particularly those of access, sharing, and community—remain the same. Other descriptions of hacker ethic Later in 2001, Finnish philosopher Pekka Himanen promoted the hacker ethic in opposition to the Protestant work ethic. In Himanen's opinion the hacker ethic is more closely related to the virtue ethics found in the writings of Plato and of Aristotle. For Himanen (who wrote The Hacker Ethic), Torvalds (prologue), and Castells (epilogue), the hacker ethic centers around passion, hard work, creativity and joy in creating software. Both Himanen and Torvalds were inspired by the Sampo Finnish mythology. The Sampo, described in the Kalevala, was a magical artifact constructed by Ilmarinen, the blacksmith god, that brought good fortune to its holder; nobody knows exactly what it was supposed to be. The Sampo has been interpreted in many ways: a world pillar or world tree, a compass or astrolabe, a chest containing a treasure, a Byzantine coin die, a decorated Vendel period shield, a Christian relic, etc. In the Kalevala, compiler Lönnrot interpreted it to be a quern or mill of some sort that made flour, salt, and gold out of thin air. Free software, open-source software, and hacker ethic Free and open source software (often termed FOSS) is the descendant of the hacker ethics that Levy described. The hackers who hold true to the hacker ethics listed above—especially the Hands-On Imperative—are usually supporters of free software and/or open source software. This is because free and open source software allows hackers to access the code used to create the software to improve or reuse it. In effect the free and open source software movements embody all of the hacker ethics. See also Ethics Ethical code Free software movement References Himanen, Pekka. 2001. The Hacker Ethic and the Spirit of the Information Age. Random House. ISBN 0-375-50566-0 Levy, Steven. 2001. (1984). "Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution." Updated edition. Penguin. ISBN 0141000511 External links Enid Gabriella Coleman, an anthropologist at NYU, works on hackers and has written extensively on the hacker ethic and culture Tom Chance's research, The Hacker Ethic and Meaningful Work Hacker ethic from the Jargon file Directory of free software ITERATIVE DISCOURSE AND THE FORMATION OF NEW SUBCULTURES by Steve Mizrach describes the hacker terminology, including the term cracker. 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5,589 | Derivative_(finance) | Derivatives are financial contracts, or financial instruments, whose values are derived from the value of something else (known as the underlying). The underlying value on which a derivative is based can be an asset (e.g., commodities, equities (stocks), residential mortgages, commercial real estate, loans, bonds), an index (e.g., interest rates, exchange rates, stock market indices, consumer price index (CPI) — see inflation derivatives), weather conditions, or other items. Credit derivatives are based on loans, bonds or other forms of credit. The main types of derivatives are forwards, futures, options, and swaps. Derivatives can be used to mitigate the risk of economic loss arising from changes in the value of the underlying. This activity is known as hedging. Alternatively, derivatives can be used by investors to increase the profit arising if the value of the underlying moves in the direction they expect. This activity is known as speculation. Because the value of a derivative is contingent on the value of the underlying, the notional value of derivatives is recorded off the balance sheet of an institution, although the market value of derivatives is recorded on the balance sheet. Uses Hedging Derivatives allow risk about the value of the underlying asset to be transferred from one party to another. For example, a wheat farmer and a miller could sign a futures contract to exchange a specified amount of cash for a specified amount of wheat in the future. Both parties have reduced a future risk: for the wheat farmer, the uncertainty of the price, and for the miller, the availability of wheat. However, there is still the risk that no wheat will be available due to causes unspecified by the contract, like the weather, or that one party will renege on the contract. Although a third party, called a clearing house, insures a futures contract, not all derivatives are insured against counterparty risk. From another perspective, the farmer and the miller both reduce a risk and acquire a risk when they sign the futures contract: The farmer reduces the risk that the price of wheat will fall below the price specified in the contract and acquires the risk that the price of wheat will rise above the price specified in the contract (thereby losing additional income that he could have earned). The miller, on the other hand, acquires the risk that the price of wheat will fall below the price specified in the contract (thereby paying more in the future than he otherwise would) and reduces the risk that the price of wheat will rise above the price specified in the contract. In this sense, one party is the insurer (risk taker) for one type of risk, and the counterparty is the insurer (risk taker) for another type of risk. Hedging also occurs when an individual or institution buys an asset (like a commodity, a bond that has coupon payments, a stock that pays dividends, and so on) and sells it using a futures contract. The individual or institution has access to the asset for a specified amount of time, and then can sell it in the future at a specified price according to the futures contract. Of course, this allows the individual or institution the benefit of holding the asset while reducing the risk that the future selling price will deviate unexpectedly from the market's current assessment of the future value of the asset. Derivatives traders at the Chicago Board of Trade. Speculation and arbitrage Derivatives can be used to acquire risk, rather than to insure or hedge against risk. Thus, some individuals and institutions will enter into a derivative contract to speculate on the value of the underlying asset, betting that the party seeking insurance will be wrong about the future value of the underlying asset. Speculators will want to be able to buy an asset in the future at a low price according to a derivative contract when the future market price is high, or to sell an asset in the future at a high price according to a derivative contract when the future market price is low. Individuals and institutions may also look for arbitrage opportunities, as when the current buying price of an asset falls below the price specified in a futures contract to sell the asset. Speculative trading in derivatives gained a great deal of notoriety in 1995 when Nick Leeson, a trader at Barings Bank, made poor and unauthorized investments in futures contracts. Through a combination of poor judgment, lack of oversight by the bank's management and by regulators, and unfortunate events like the Kobe earthquake, Leeson incurred a $1.3 billion loss that bankrupted the centuries-old institution. How Leeson broke the bank - BBC Economy http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/375259.stm Types of derivatives OTC and exchange-traded Broadly speaking there are two distinct groups of derivative contracts, which are distinguished by the way they are traded in market: Over-the-counter (OTC) derivatives are contracts that are traded (and privately negotiated) directly between two parties, without going through an exchange or other intermediary. Products such as swaps, forward rate agreements, and exotic options are almost always traded in this way. The OTC derivative market is the largest market for derivatives, and is largely unregulated with respect to disclosure of information between the parties, since the OTC market is made up of banks and other highly sophisticated parties, such as hedge funds. Reporting of OTC amounts are difficult because trades can occur in private, without activity being visible on any exchange. According to the Bank for International Settlements, the total outstanding notional amount is $684 trillion (as of June 2008) BIS survey: The Bank for International Settlements (BIS) semi-annual OTC derivatives statistics report, for end of June 2008, shows $683.7 trillion total notional amounts outstanding of OTC derivatives with a gross market value of $20 trillion. See also Prior Period Regular OTC Derivatives Market Statistics.) . Of this total notional amount, 67% are interest rate contracts, 8% are credit default swaps (CDS), 9% are foreign exchange contracts, 2% are commodity contracts, 1% are equity contracts, and 12% are other. Because OTC derivatives are not traded on an exchange, there is no central counterparty. Therefore, they are subject to counterparty risk, like an ordinary contract, since each counterparty relies on the other to perform. Exchange-traded derivatives (ETD) are those derivatives products that are traded via specialized derivatives exchanges or other exchanges. A derivatives exchange acts as an intermediary to all related transactions, and takes Initial margin from both sides of the trade to act as a guarantee. The world's largest Futures and Options Week: According to figures published in F&O Week 10 October 2005. See also FOW Website. derivatives exchanges (by number of transactions) are the Korea Exchange (which lists KOSPI Index Futures & Options), Eurex (which lists a wide range of European products such as interest rate & index products), and CME Group (made up of the 2007 merger of the Chicago Mercantile Exchange and the Chicago Board of Trade and the 2008 acquisition of the New York Mercantile Exchange). According to BIS, the combined turnover in the world's derivatives exchanges totalled USD 344 trillion during Q4 2005. Some types of derivative instruments also may trade on traditional exchanges. For instance, hybrid instruments such as convertible bonds and/or convertible preferred may be listed on stock or bond exchanges. Also, warrants (or "rights") may be listed on equity exchanges. Performance Rights, Cash xPRTs and various other instruments that essentially consist of a complex set of options bundled into a simple package are routinely listed on equity exchanges. Like other derivatives, these publicly traded derivatives provide investors access to risk/reward and volatility characteristics that, while related to an underlying commodity, nonetheless are distinctive. Common derivative contract types There are three major classes of derivatives: Futures/Forwards are contracts to buy or sell an asset on or before a future date at a price specified today. A futures contract differs from a forward contract in that the futures contract is a standardized contract written by a clearing house that operates an exchange where the contract can be bought and sold, while a forward contract is a non-standardized contract written by the parties themselves. Options are contracts that give the owner the right, but not the obligation, to buy (in the case of a call option) or sell (in the case of a put option) an asset. The price at which the sale takes place is known as the strike price, and is specified at the time the parties enter into the option. The option contract also specifies a maturity date. In the case of a European option, the owner has the right to require the sale to take place on (but not before) the maturity date; in the case of an American option, the owner can require the sale to take place at any time up to the maturity date. If the owner of the contract exercises this right, the counterparty has the obligation to carry out the transaction. Swaps are contracts to exchange cash (flows) on or before a specified future date based on the underlying value of currencies/exchange rates, bonds/interest rates, commodities, stocks or other assets. More complex derivatives can be created by combining the elements of these basic types. For example, the holder of a swaption has the right, but not the obligation, to enter into a swap on or before a specified future date. Examples Some common examples of these derivatives are: UNDERLYINGCONTRACT TYPESExchange-traded futuresExchange-traded optionsOTC swapOTC forwardOTC optionEquity Index DJIA Index future NASDAQ Index future Option on DJIA Index future Option on NASDAQ Index future Equity swap Back-to-back n/aMoney market Eurodollar future Euribor future Option on Eurodollar future Option on Euribor future Interest rate swap Forward rate agreement Interest rate cap and floor Swaption Basis swapBonds Bond future Option on Bond future Total return swap Repurchase agreement Bond optionSingle StocksSingle-stock futureSingle-share optionEquity swapRepurchase agreementStock optionWarrantTurbo warrantCredit n/a n/aCredit default swap n/aCredit default option Other examples of underlying exchangeables are: Property (mortgage) derivatives Economic derivatives that pay off according to economic reports as measured and reported by national statistical agencies Energy derivatives that pay off according to a wide variety of indexed energy prices. Usually classified as either physical or financial, where physical means the contract includes actual delivery of the underlying energy commodity (oil, gas, power, etc.) Commodities Freight derivatives Inflation derivatives Insurance derivatives Weather derivatives Credit derivatives Cash flow The payments between the parties may be determined by: the price of some other, independently traded asset in the future (e.g., a common stock); the level of an independently determined index (e.g., a stock market index or heating-degree-days); the occurrence of some well-specified event (e.g., a company defaulting); an interest rate; an exchange rate; or some other factor. Some derivatives are the right to buy or sell the underlying security or commodity at some point in the future for a predetermined price. If the price of the underlying security or commodity moves into the right direction, the owner of the derivative makes money; otherwise, they lose money or the derivative becomes worthless. Depending on the terms of the contract, the potential gain or loss on a derivative can be much higher than if they had traded the underlying security or commodity directly. Valuation Total world derivatives from 1998-2007 http://www.bis.org/statistics/derstats.htm compared to total world wealth in the year 2000 Market and arbitrage-free prices Two common measures of value are: Market price, i.e. the price at which traders are willing to buy or sell the contract Arbitrage-free price, meaning that no risk-free profits can be made by trading in these contracts; see rational pricing Determining the market price For exchange-traded derivatives, market price is usually transparent (often published in real time by the exchange, based on all the current bids and offers placed on that particular contract at any one time). Complications can arise with OTC or floor-traded contracts though, as trading is handled manually, making it difficult to automatically broadcast prices. In particular with OTC contracts, there is no central exchange to collate and disseminate prices. Determining the arbitrage-free price The arbitrage-free price for a derivatives contract is complex, and there are many different variables to consider. Arbitrage-free pricing is a central topic of financial mathematics. The stochastic process of the price of the underlying asset is often crucial. A key equation for the theoretical valuation of options is the Black–Scholes formula, which is based on the assumption that the cash flows from a European stock option can be replicated by a continuous buying and selling strategy using only the stock. A simplified version of this valuation technique is the binomial options model. Criticisms Derivatives are often subject to the following criticisms: Possible large losses The use of derivatives can result in large losses due to the use of leverage, or borrowing. Derivatives allow investors to earn large returns from small movements in the underlying asset's price. However, investors could lose large amounts if the price of the underlying moves against them significantly. There have been several instances of massive losses in derivative markets, such as: The need to recapitalize insurer American International Group (AIG) with $85 billion of debt provided by the US federal government Derivatives Counter-party Risk: Lessons from AIG and the Credit Crisis . An AIG subsidiary had lost more than $18 billion over the preceding three quarters on Credit Default Swaps (CDS) it had written. "Buffett's Time Bomb Goes Off on Wall Street" by James B. Kelleher of Reuters It was reported that the recapitalization was necessary because further losses were foreseeable over the next few quarters. The loss of $7.2 Billion by Société Générale in January 2008 through mis-use of futures contracts. The loss of US$6.4 billion in the failed fund Amaranth Advisors, which was long natural gas in September 2006 when the price plummeted. The loss of US$4.6 billion in the failed fund Long-Term Capital Management in 1998. The bankruptcy of Orange County, CA in 1994, the largest municipal bankruptcy in U.S. history. On December 6, 1994, Orange County declared Chapter 9 bankruptcy, from which it emerged in June 1995. The county lost about $1.6 billion through derivatives trading. Orange County was neither bankrupt nor insolvent at the time; however, because of the strategy the county employed it was unable to generate the cash flows needed to maintain services. Orange County is a good example of what happens when derivatives are used incorrectly and positions liquidated in an unplanned manner; had they not liquidated they would not have lost any money as their positions rebounded. Potentially problematic use of interest-rate derivatives by US municipalities has continued in recent years. See, for example: Risk Magazine article on post-Katrina financing The Nick Leeson affair in 1994 Counter-party risk Derivatives (especially swaps) expose investors to counter-party risk. For example, suppose a person wanting a fixed interest rate loan for his business, but finding that banks only offer variable rates, swaps payments with another business who wants a variable rate, synthetically creating a fixed rate for the person. However if the second business goes bankrupt, it can't pay its variable rate and so the first business will lose its fixed rate and will be paying a variable rate again. If interest rates have increased, it is possible that the first business may be adversely affected, because it may not be prepared to pay the higher variable rate. Different types of derivatives have different levels of risk for this effect. For example, standardized stock options by law require the party at risk to have a certain amount deposited with the exchange, showing that they can pay for any losses; Banks who help businesses swap variable for fixed rates on loans may do credit checks on both parties. However in private agreements between two companies, for example, there may not be benchmarks for performing due diligence and risk analysis. Unsuitably high risk for small/inexperienced investors Derivatives pose unsuitably high amounts of risk for small or inexperienced investors. Because derivatives offer the possibility of large rewards, they offer an attraction even to individual investors. However, speculation in derivatives often assumes a great deal of risk, requiring commensurate experience and market knowledge, especially for the small investor, a reason why some financial planners advise against the use of these instruments. Derivatives are complex instruments devised as a form of insurance, to transfer risk among parties based on their willingness to assume additional risk, or hedge against it. Large notional value Derivatives typically have a large notional value. As such, there is the danger that their use could result in losses that the investor would be unable to compensate for. The possibility that this could lead to a chain reaction ensuing in an economic crisis, has been pointed out by famed investor Warren Buffett in Berkshire Hathaway's annual report. Buffett called them 'financial weapons of mass destruction.' The problem with derivatives is that they control an increasingly larger notional amount of assets and this may lead to distortions in the real capital and equities markets. Investors begin to look at the derivatives markets to make a decision to buy or sell securities and so what was originally meant to be a market to transfer risk now becomes a leading indicator. (See Berkshire Hathaway Annual Report for 2002) Leverage of an economy's debt Derivatives massively leverage the debt in an economy, making it ever more difficult for the underlying real economy to service its debt obligations and curtailing real economic activity, which can cause a recession or even depression. Derivatives--The Mystery Man Who'll Break the Global Bank at Monte Carlo http://www.survivalblog.com/derivatives.html In the view of Marriner S. Eccles, U.S. Federal Reserve Chairman from November, 1934 to February, 1948, too high a level of debt was one of the primary causes of the 1920s-30s Great Depression. (See Berkshire Hathaway Annual Report for 2002) Benefits Nevertheless, the use of derivatives also has its benefits: Derivatives facilitate the buying and selling of risk, and many people consider this to have a positive impact on the economic system. Although someone loses money while someone else gains money with a derivative, under normal circumstances, trading in derivatives should not adversely affect the economic system because it is not zero sum in utility. Former Federal Reserve Board chairman Alan Greenspan commented in 2003 that he believed that the use of derivatives has softened the impact of the economic downturn at the beginning of the 21st century. Definitions Bilateral netting: A legally enforceable arrangement between a bank and a counter-party that creates a single legal obligation covering all included individual contracts. This means that a bank’s obligation, in the event of the default or insolvency of one of the parties, would be the net sum of all positive and negative fair values of contracts included in the bilateral netting arrangement. Credit derivative: A contract that transfers credit risk from a protection buyer to a credit protection seller. Credit derivative products can take many forms, such as credit default swaps, credit linked notes and total return swaps. Derivative: A financial contract whose value is derived from the performance of assets, interest rates, currency exchange rates, or indexes. Derivative transactions include a wide assortment of financial contracts including structured debt obligations and deposits, swaps, futures, options, caps, floors, collars, forwards and various combinations thereof. Exchange-traded derivative contracts: Standardized derivative contracts (e.g. futures contracts and options) that are transacted on an organized futures exchange. Gross negative fair value: The sum of the fair values of contracts where the bank owes money to its counter-parties, without taking into account netting. This represents the maximum losses the bank’s counter-parties would incur if the bank defaults and there is no netting of contracts, and no bank collateral was held by the counter-parties. Gross positive fair value: The sum total of the fair values of contracts where the bank is owed money by its counter-parties, without taking into account netting. This represents the maximum losses a bank could incur if all its counter-parties default and there is no netting of contracts, and the bank holds no counter-party collateral. High-risk mortgage securities: Securities where the price or expected average life is highly sensitive to interest rate changes, as determined by the FFIEC policy statement on high-risk mortgage securities. Notional amount: The nominal or face amount that is used to calculate payments made on swaps and other risk management products. This amount generally does not change hands and is thus referred to as notional. Over-the-counter (OTC) derivative contracts : Privately negotiated derivative contracts that are transacted off organized futures exchanges. Structured notes: Non-mortgage-backed debt securities, whose cash flow characteristics depend on one or more indices and/or have embedded forwards or options. Total risk-based capital: The sum of tier 1 plus tier 2 capital. Tier 1 capital consists of common shareholders equity, perpetual preferred shareholders equity with non-cumulative dividends, retained earnings, and minority interests in the equity accounts of consolidated subsidiaries. Tier 2 capital consists of subordinated debt, intermediate-term preferred stock, cumulative and long-term preferred stock, and a portion of a bank’s allowance for loan and lease losses. References See also Dual currency deposit FX Option Interest rate derivative External links Derivative Dribble, a blog that explains how derivatives and structured products work and why they're used Derivatives--The Mystery Man Who'll Break the Global Bank at Monte Carlo Derivatives definition, how they work, explanation of types, and general details Article describing the $190,000 derivatives burden per person | Derivative_(finance) |@lemmatized derivative:92 financial:8 contract:60 instrument:6 whose:3 value:24 derive:2 something:1 else:2 know:4 underlie:7 base:7 asset:20 e:7 g:6 commodity:10 equity:9 stock:13 residential:1 mortgage:5 commercial:1 real:5 estate:1 loan:5 bond:9 index:14 interest:14 rate:27 exchange:32 market:22 consumer:1 price:40 cpi:1 see:8 inflation:2 weather:3 condition:1 item:1 credit:13 form:3 main:1 type:9 forward:8 future:44 option:26 swap:17 use:17 mitigate:1 risk:40 economic:8 loss:15 arise:2 change:3 activity:4 hedging:1 alternatively:1 investor:12 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5,590 | Kepler's_laws_of_planetary_motion | Figure 1: Illustration of Kepler's three laws with two planetary orbits. (1) The orbits are ellipses, with focal points ƒ1 and ƒ2 for the first planetƒ1 and ƒ3 for the second planet. The sun is placed in focal point ƒ1. (2) The two shaded sectors A1 and A2 have the same surface area and the time for planet 1 to cover segment A1 is equal to the time to cover segment A2. (3) The total orbit times for planet 1 and planet 2 have a ratio a13/2 : a23/2. In astronomy, Kepler's three laws of planetary motion are: "The orbit of every planet is an ellipse with the sun at a focus." "A line joining a planet and the sun sweeps out equal areas during equal intervals of time." "Kepler's Second Law" by Jeff Bryant with Oleksandr Pavlyk, Wolfram Demonstrations Project. "The square of the orbital period of a planet is directly proportional to the cube of the semi-major axis of its orbit." These three mathematical laws were discovered by German mathematician and astronomer Johannes Kepler (1571–1630), and used by him to describe the motion of planets in the Solar System. They describe the motion of any two bodies orbiting each other. Kepler worked from the observations of Tycho Brahe, which he published as the Rudolphine tables. Around 1605, Kepler found that Brahe's observations of the planets' positions followed these relatively simple mathematical laws. Kepler's laws challenged Aristotelean and Ptolemaic astronomy and physics. His assertion that the Earth moved, his use of ellipses rather than epicycles, and his proof that the planets' speeds varied, changed astronomy and physics. Almost a century later Isaac Newton was able to deduce Kepler's laws from Newton's own laws of motion and his law of universal gravitation, using classical Euclidean geometry. In modern times, Kepler's laws are used to calculate approximate orbits for artificial satellites, and bodies orbiting the Sun of which Kepler was unaware (such as the outer planets and smaller asteroids). They apply where any relatively small body is orbiting a larger, relatively massive body, though the effects of atmospheric drag (e.g. in a low orbit), relativity (e.g. Perihelion precession of Mercury), and other nearby bodies can make the results insufficiently accurate for a specific purpose. Introduction to the three laws Generality These laws describe the motion of any two bodies in orbit around each other. The masses of the two bodies can be nearly equal, e.g. Charon—Pluto (~1:10), in a small proportion, e.g. Moon—Earth (~1:100), or in a great proportion, e.g. Mercury—Sun (~1:10,000,000). In all cases both the bodies orbit around the common center of mass, the barycenter, with neither one having their center of mass exactly at one focus of an ellipse. However, both orbits are ellipses with one focus at the barycenter. When the ratio of masses is large, i.e. with planets orbiting the Sun, the barycenter is deep within the larger object close to its center of mass. In this case it requires sophisticated precise measurements to detect the separation of the barycenter from the center of mass of the larger object. Thus Kepler's first law accurately describes the orbits of the planets around the Sun. Since Kepler stated these laws as they apply to the Sun and the planets, and did not know of their generality, this article discusses these laws as they apply to the sun and its planets. First law Figure 2: Kepler's first law placing the Sun at the focus of an elliptical orbit "The orbit of every planet is an ellipse with the sun at a focus." Symbolically: where (r, θ) are heliocentric polar coordinates for the planet, p is the semi-latus rectum, and ε is the eccentricity. At the time, this was a radical claim; the prevailing belief (particularly in epicycle-based theories) was that orbits should be based on perfect circles. This observation was very significant at the time as it supported the Copernican view of the Universe. This does not mean it loses relevance in a more modern context. A circle is just one form of an ellipse, but most of the planets follow an orbit of low eccentricity, meaning that they can be crudely approximated as circles. So it is not evident from the orbit of the planets that the orbits are indeed elliptic. However, Kepler's calculations proved they were, which also allowed for other heavenly bodies farther away from the Sun with highly eccentric orbits (like very long stretched out circles). These other heavenly bodies indeed have been identified as the numerous comets or asteroids by astronomers after Kepler's time. The dwarf planet Pluto was discovered as late as 1930, the delay mostly due to its small size and its highly elongated orbit compared to the other planets. Nevertheless, heavenly bodies such as comets with parabolic or even hyperbolic orbits are possible under the Newtonian theory and have been observed. Second law Figure 3: Illustration of Kepler's second law. The planet moves faster near the Sun, so the same area is swept out in a given time as at larger distances, where the planet moves more slowly. "A line joining a planet and the sun sweeps out equal areas during equal intervals of time." Symbolically: where is the "areal velocity". This is also known as the law of equal areas. To understand this let us suppose a planet takes one day to travel from point A to point B. The lines from the Sun to points A and B, together with the planet orbit, will define an (roughly triangular) area. This same area will be covered every day regardless of where in its orbit the planet is. Now as the first law states that the planet follows an ellipse, the planet is at different distances from the Sun at different parts in its orbit. This leads to the conclusion that the planet has to move faster when it is closer to the sun so that it sweeps an equal area. Kepler's second law is an additional observation on top of his first law. It is equivalent to the fact that the net tangential force involved in an elliptical orbit, as per his first law, is zero. The "areal velocity" is proportional to angular momentum, and so for the same reasons, Kepler's second law is also a statement of the conservation of angular momentum. Third law Planets distant from the sun have longer orbital periods than close planets. Kepler's third law describes this fact quantitatively. "The square of the orbital period of a planet is directly proportional to the cube of the semi-major axis of its orbit." Symbolically: where is the orbital period of planet and is the semimajor axis of the orbit. The proportionality constant is the same for any planet around the sun. So the constant is 1 (sidereal year)2(astronomical unit)−3 or 2.97473×10−19 s2m−3. See the actual figures: attributes of major planets. For example, suppose planet A is four times as far from the sun as planet B. Then planet A must traverse four times the distance of Planet B each orbit, and moreover it turns out that planet A travels at half the speed of planet B. In total it takes 4×2=8 times as long for planet A to travel an orbit, in agreement with the law (82=43). This law used to be known as the harmonic law. Zero eccentricity Kepler's laws refine upon the model of Copernicus. If the eccentricity of a planetary orbit is zero, then Kepler's laws state: The planetary orbit is a circle with the sun in the center. The speed of the planet in the orbit is constant The square of the siderial period is proportionate to the cube of the distance from the sun. Actually the eccentricities of the orbits of the six planets known to Copernicus and Kepler are quite small, so this gives excellent approximations to the planetary motions, but Kepler's laws give even better fit to the observations. Because the uniform circular motion was considered to be normal, a deviation from this motion was considered an anomaly. Kepler's corrections to the Copernican model are not at all obvious: The planetary orbit is not a circle, but an ellipse, and the sun is not in the center of the orbit, but in a focal point. Neither the speed nor the angular speed of the planet in the orbit is constant, but the area speed is constant. The square of the siderial period is proportionate to the cube of the mean between the maximum and minimum distances from the sun. The time from the March equinox to the September equinox is around 186 days, while the time from the September equinox to the March equinox is only around 179 days. This elementary observation shows, using Kepler's laws, that the eccentricity of the orbit of the earth is not exactly zero. The intersection between the plane of the equator and the plane of the ecliptic cuts the orbit into two parts having areas in the proportion 186 to 179, while a diameter cuts the orbit into equal parts. So the eccentricity of the orbit of the earth is approximately which is close to the correct value. (See Earth's orbit). Nonzero planetary mass The acceleration of a planet moving according to Kepler's laws can be shown to be directed towards the sun, and the magnitude of the acceleration is in inverse proportion to the square of the distance from the sun. Isaac Newton assumed that all bodies in the universe attract one another with a force of gravitation. As the planets have small masses compared to that of the sun, the orbits obey Kepler's laws approximately. Newton's model improves Kepler's model to give better fit to the observations. Deviations from Kepler's laws due to attraction from other planets are called perturbations. The proportionality constant in Kepler's third law is related to the masses according to the following expression: where P is time per orbit and P/2π is time per radian. is the gravitational constant, is the mass of the sun, is the mass of the planet, and is the length of the semi-major axis of the orbit. The difference between Kepler's constant for Jupiter and that for Earth, due to the mass of Jupiter, is approximately a tenth of a percent. (See data tabulated at Planet attributes). Position as a function of time Kepler used these three laws for computing the position of a planet as a function of time. His method involves the solution of a transcendental equation called Kepler's equation. Mathematics of the ellipse 250px |Figure 4: Heliocentric coordinate system (r, θ) for ellipse. Also shown are: semi-major axis a, semi-minor axis b and semi-latus rectum p; center of ellipse and its two foci marked by large dots. For θ = 0°, r = rmin and for θ = 180°, r = rmax. In the ellipse equation (r, θ) are polar coordinates, p is the semi-latus rectum, and ε is the eccentricity. (see figure 4). At θ = 0 is the minimum perihelion distance is At θ = 90° the distance is . At θ = 180° the maximum aphelion distance is The semi-major axis is the arithmetic mean between rmin and rmax: The semi-minor axis is the geometric mean between rmin and rmax: The area of the ellipse is The special case of a circle is ε = 0, resulting in r = p = rmin = rmax = a = b and A = π r 2. Summary Using these ellipse-related terms, Kepler's procedure for calculating the heliocentric polar coordinates (r,θ) to a planetary position as a function of the time t since perihelion, and the orbital period P, is the following four steps. 1. Compute the mean anomaly M from the formula 2. Compute the eccentric anomaly E by numerically solving Kepler's equation: 3. Compute the true anomaly θ by the equation: 4. Compute the heliocentric distance r from the first law: The important special case of circular orbit, ε = 0, gives simply = E = M. The proof of this procedure is shown below. Details and proof FIgure 5: Geometric construction for Kepler's calculation of θ. The sun (located at the focus) is labeled S and the planet P. The auxiliary circle is an aid to calculation. Line xd is perpendicular to the base and through the planet P. The shaded sectors are arranged to have equal areas by positioning of point y. The Keplerian problem assumes an elliptical orbit and the four points: s the sun (at one focus of ellipse); z the perihelion c the center of the ellipse p the planet and distance between center and perihelion, the semimajor axis, the eccentricity, the semiminor axis, the distance between sun and planet. the direction to the planet as seen from the sun, the true anomaly. The problem is to compute the polar coordinates (r,θ) of the planet from the time since perihelion, t. It is solved in steps. Kepler considered the circle with the major axis as a diameter, and the projection of the planet to the auxiliary circle the point on the circle such that the sector areas |zcy| and |zsx| are equal, the mean anomaly. The sector areas are related by The circular sector area The area swept since perihelion, , is by Kepler's second law proportional to time since perihelion. So the mean anomaly, M, is proportional to time since perihelion, t. where P is the orbital period. The mean anomaly M is first computed. The goal is to compute the true anomaly θ. The function θ=f(M) is, however, not elementary. Kepler's solution is to use , x as seen from the centre, the eccentric anomaly as an intermediate variable, and first compute E as a function of M by solving Kepler's equation below, and then compute the true anomaly θ from the eccentric anomaly E. Here are the details. Division by a2/2 gives Kepler's equation The catch is that Kepler's equation cannot be rearranged to isolate E. The function E = f(M) is not an elementary formula, but Kepler's equation is solved either iteratively by a root-finding algorithm or, as derived in the article on eccentric anomaly, by an infinite series. Having computed the eccentric anomaly E from Kepler's equation, the next step is to calculate the true anomaly θ from the eccentric anomaly E. Note from the figure that so that Dividing by and inserting from Kepler's first law to get The result is a usable relationship between the eccentric anomaly E and the true anomaly θ. A computationally more convenient form follows by substituting into the trigonometric identity: Get Multiplying by (1+ε)/(1−ε) and taking the square root gives the result We have now completed the third step in the connection between time and position in the orbit. One could even develop a series computing θ directly from M. The fourth step is to compute the heliocentric distance r from the true anomaly θ by Kepler's first law: Derivation from Newton's laws of motion and Newton's law of gravitation Kepler's laws are concerned with the motion of the planets around the sun. Newton's laws of motion in general are concerned with the motion of objects subject to impressed forces. Newton's law of universal gravitation describes how masses attract each other through the force of gravity. Using the law of gravitation to determine the impressed forces in Newton's laws of motion enables the calculation of planetary orbits, as discussed below. In the special case where there are only two particles, the motion of the bodies is the exactly soluble two-body problem, of which an approximate example is the motion of a planet around the Sun according to Kepler's laws, as shown below. The trajectory of the lighter particle may also be a parabola or a hyperbola or a straight line. In the case of a single planet orbiting its sun, Newton's laws imply elliptical motion. The focus of the ellipse is at the center of mass of the sun and the planet (the barycenter), rather than located at the center of the sun itself. The period of the orbit depends a little on the mass of the planet. In the realistic case of many planets, the interaction from other planets modifies the orbit of any one planet. Even in this more complex situation, the language of Kepler's laws applies as the complicated orbits are described as simple Kepler orbits with slowly varying orbital elements. See also Kepler problem in general relativity. While Kepler's laws are expressed either in geometrical language, or as equations connecting the coordinates of the planet and the time variable with the orbital elements, Newton's second law is a differential equation. So the derivations below involve the art of solving differential equations. Kepler's second law is derived first, as the derivation of the first law depends on the derivation of the second law. The derivations that follow use heliocentric polar coordinates, that is, polar coordinates with the sun as the origin. See Figure 4. However, they can alternatively be formulated and derived using Cartesian coordinates. Hyman, Andrew. "A Simple Cartesian Treatment of Planetary Motion", European Journal of Physics, Vol. 14, pp. 145–147 (1993). Equations of motion Assume that the planet is so much lighter than the sun that the acceleration of the sun can be neglected. In other words, the barycenter is approximated as the center of the sun. Introduce the polar coordinate system in the plane of the orbit, with radial coordinate from the sun's center, r and angle from some arbitrary starting direction θ. Newton's law of gravitation says that "every object in the universe attracts every other object along a line of the centers of the objects, proportional to each object's mass, and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the objects," and his second law of motion says that "the mass times the acceleration is equal to the force." So the mass of the planet times the acceleration vector of the planet equals the mass of the sun times the mass of the planet, divided by the square of the distance, times minus the radial unit vector , times a constant of proportionality. This is written: where a dot on top of the variable signifies differentiation with respect to time, the second dot indicates the second derivative, and the position vector . In polar coordinates, as discussed in Vector calculus and Polar coordinates in an inertial frame of reference where is the tangential (azimuthal) unit vector orthogonal to and pointing in the direction of rotation, and is the polar angle. So differentiating the position vector twice to obtain the velocity and the acceleration vectors: Note that for constant distance, , the planet is subject to the centripetal acceleration, , and for constant angular speed, , the planet is subject to the Coriolis acceleration, . Although this term is called the "Coriolis acceleration", or the "Coriolis force per unit mass", it should be noted that the term "Coriolis force" as used in meteorology, for example, refers to something different: namely the force, similar in mathematical form, but caused by rotation of a frame of reference. Of course, in the example here of planetary motion, the entire analysis takes place in a stationary, inertial frame, so there is no force present related to rotation of a frame of reference. Inserting the acceleration vector into Newton's laws, and dividing by m, gives the vector equation of motion Equating components, we get the two ordinary differential equations of motion, one for the acceleration in the direction, the radial acceleration and one for the acceleration in the direction, the tangential or azimuthal acceleration: Deriving Kepler's second law In order to derive Kepler's second law only the tangential acceleration equation is needed. The magnitude of the specific angular momentum is a constant of motion, even if both the distance , and the angular speed , and the tangential velocity , vary, because where the expression in the last parentheses vanishes due to the tangential acceleration equation. The area swept out from time t1 to time t2, depends only on the duration t2−t1. This is Kepler's second law. Deriving Kepler's first law In order to derive Kepler's first law define where the constant has the dimension of length. Then and Differentiation with respect to time is transformed into differentiation with respect to angle: Differentiate twice: Substitute into the radial equation of motion and get Divide by to get a simple non-homogeneous linear differential equation for the orbit of the planet: An obvious solution to this equation is the circular orbit Other solutions are obtained by adding solutions to the homogeneous linear differential equation with constant coefficients These solutions are where and are arbitrary constants of integration. So the result is Choosing the axis of the coordinate system such that , and inserting , gives: If this is Kepler's first law. Deriving Kepler's third law In the special case of circular orbits, which are ellipses with zero eccentricity, the relation between the radius a of the orbit and its period P can be derived relatively easily. The centripetal force of circular motion is proportional to a/P2, and it is provided by the gravitational force, which is proportional to 1/a2. Hence, which is Kepler's third law for the special case. In the general case of elliptical orbits, the derivation is more complicated. The area of the planetary orbit ellipse is The area speed of the radius vector sweeping the orbit area is where The period of the orbit is satisfying implying Kepler's third law See also Kepler orbit Kepler problem Circular motion Gravity Two-body problem Free-fall time Laplace-Runge-Lenz vector Notes References Kepler's life is summarized on pages 627–623 and Book Five of his magnum opus, Harmonice Mundi (harmonies of the world), is reprinted on pages 635–732 of On the Shoulders of Giants: The Great Works of Physics and Astronomy (works by Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo, Newton, and Einstein). Stephen Hawking, ed. 2002 ISBN 0-7624-1348-4 A derivation of Kepler's third law of planetary motion is a standard topic in engineering mechanics classes. See, for example, pages 161–164 of . Murray and Dermott, Solar System Dynamics, Cambridge University Press 1999, ISBN 0-521-57597-4 External links B.Surendranath Reddy; animation of Kepler's laws: applet Crowell, Benjamin, Conservation Laws, http://www.lightandmatter.com/area1book2.html, an online book that gives a proof of the first law without the use of calculus. (see section 5.2, p.112) David McNamara and Gianfranco Vidali, Kepler's Second Law - Java Interactive Tutorial, http://www.phy.syr.edu/courses/java/mc_html/kepler.html, an interactive Java applet that aids in the understanding of Kepler's Second Law. University of Tennessee's Dept. Physics & Astronomy: Astronomy 161 page on Johannes Kepler: The Laws of Planetary Motion Equant compared to Kepler: interactive model Kepler's Third Law:interactive model | Kepler's_laws_of_planetary_motion |@lemmatized figure:9 illustration:2 kepler:74 three:5 law:78 two:11 planetary:14 orbit:66 ellipsis:2 focal:3 point:10 first:18 second:18 planet:75 sun:43 place:3 shade:1 sector:5 surface:1 area:20 time:35 cover:3 segment:2 equal:13 total:2 ratio:2 astronomy:6 motion:28 every:5 ellipse:16 focus:9 line:6 join:2 sweep:7 interval:2 jeff:1 bryant:1 oleksandr:1 pavlyk:1 wolfram:1 demonstration:1 project:1 square:8 orbital:8 period:11 directly:3 proportional:9 cube:4 semi:10 major:7 axis:12 mathematical:3 discover:2 german:1 mathematician:1 astronomer:2 johannes:2 use:14 describe:7 solar:2 system:5 body:15 work:3 observation:7 tycho:1 brahe:2 publish:1 rudolphine:1 table:1 around:9 find:1 position:8 follow:6 relatively:4 simple:4 challenge:1 aristotelean:1 ptolemaic:1 physic:5 assertion:1 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5,591 | Game_com | The Game.com (pronounced in TV commercials as "Game com", not "Game dot com" and styled as game.com marketing material) was a handheld game console released by Tiger Electronics in September 1997. It featured many new ideas for handheld consoles and was aimed at an older target audience, sporting PDA-style features and functions such as a touch screen and stylus. However, Tiger hoped it would also challenge Nintendo's Game Boy and gain a following among younger gamers too. Unlike other handheld game consoles, the first Game.com consoles included two slots for game cartridges and could be connected to a 14.4 kbit/s modem. Later models reverted to a single cartridge slot. History game.com Titles released at Game.com's launch included Indy 500, Duke Nukem 3D and Mortal Kombat Trilogy, along with Lights Out which came packaged with the system. Tiger also produced equivalents to many Game Boy peripherals, such as the compete.com serial cable allowing players to connect their consoles to play multiplayer games or exchange high scores. Branded items such as an AC adapter, earphones, and a carry-case were also made available. Many of the Game.com's extra features had only limited functionality compared to modern portable devices. The touch screen had a fairly low sensor resolution along with no backlight, so it lacked precision and made it hard to see the on-screen controls. Entering phone numbers, addresses or the like was cumbersome. As with most portable devices from the 1990s, data storage was entirely dependent on a button battery, and failure of this backup battery would erase any high scores or information stored on the console. The Lights Out cart which came bundled with the console Tiger failed to sell the Game.com to an older audience. While they were able to obtain more mature-themed game licenses like Mortal Kombat, Duke Nukem, and Resident Evil, few of these portable adaptations were developed by their original creators, or kept to the spirit of the original games. For example, the FPS Duke Nukem was presented in the first person, and while shooting does happen, the manner in which it is handled is far from that of the typical First Person Shooter: the player shifts around a room one tile at a time, always facing forward, and presses the fire button if an enemy happens to obstruct his gun. Turning, strafing, jumping, and the finer subtleties of aiming are thus rendered non-existent. Most game development, even on licensed games, was done in-house. As such, SDKs were not known to be widely available, and the third party development that has always been crucial to the survival of any gaming platform was absent. At the time, the platform was almost completely ignored by the gaming press. Tiger used provocative and potentially insulting marketing, including controversial slogans such as "It plays more games than you idiots have brain cells", which may have lost it supporters instead of gaining them. In an effort to revitalize their low sales, Tiger would later release the Game.com Pocket Pro. This was a smaller version of the game.com which had the same specifications as the original except that it had a single cartridge slot and required only two AA batteries. The initial version of the Pocket Pro featured a frontlit screen (advertised as backlit) and is distinguished by its rough-textured black case. A subsequent re-release omitted the frontlight and came in four translucent colors (green, blue, pink, and purple). This re-release enjoyed very limited success, and the console would be canceled in 2000, along with its exclusive internet service. Most of the console's problems were due to a small lineup (only 20 games), poor quality of games, lack of third party support, poor distribution, and poor marketing. Moreover, its display, like the original Game Boy's, suffered from very slow screen updates (known as "ghosting"), which makes fast moving objects blur and particularly hurt the fast-moving games Tiger sought licenses for. The Game.com Pocket Pro had a slightly better display than the first model — on par with the Game Boy Pocket's one — with less of a ghosting problem. While the Game.com was a commercial failure, it is notable that similar features were later used with great success by Nintendo in their DS handheld console. The Game.com was the first console to use a touchscreen, the first to include basic PDA-functions, the first to allow two game carts to be inserted at once and the first to allow internet access. Internet features Game.com modem and internet cartridges Using the Game.com with the modem was cumbersome. The user had to insert the Game.com modem into one of the unit's game cartridge slots, connect the Game.com to a phone jack, and dial into the Game.com-exclusive (and fairly expensive) ISP. From there, the user could upload saved high scores, or check e-mail and view the web if they had the Internet cartridge (sold separately from the modem). This process would end up being a matter of trial-and-error; both Tiger's now-defunct website and the included manual gave incorrect instructions for setting up a Game.com for internet access. Web access was text-only, and the later, single-cartridge versions of the Game.com could not access the web or send e-mail at all. None of the games had actual online play with other people, only high score uploads. The monthly fee, two extra peripherals, and exceedingly confusing setup required meant that only a small percentage of the admittedly few Game.com owners had a subscription to the Game.com internet service, which barely survived until the cancellation of the handheld. Technical specifications System Size (LxWxD)Original: 190 x 108 x 19 mm / Pocket Pro: 140 x 86 x 28 mm Processor ChipSharp SM8521 8-Bit CPU Screen Specs192 x 160 resolution, 12 x 10 grid based touch screen, 3.5 in. diagonal (Original) / 2,8 in. diagonal (Pocket Pro) Color SystemBlack and White, with 4 gray levels Sound/Music Monoaural, with 8-bit PCM and FM-synthesis, through a single speaker located in the upper left corner Power Source4 AA Batteries (2 AA batteries in Pocket and Pocket Pro) or AC Adapter PortsSerial Comm Port for the Compete.com cable, internet cable and weblink cable; 3.5 mm Audio Out Jack for headphones; DC9 V in (AC Adapter); 2 Cartridge Slots (1 on the Pocket and Pocket Pro) ButtonsPower (On/Off); Action (A, B, C, D); 3 Function (Menu, Sound, Pause); 1 Eight-way Directional Pad; Volume; Contrast; Reset (On system’s underside) Games Released Batman and Robin Centipede Duke Nukem 3D Fighters Megamix Frogger Henry Indy 500 Jeopardy! Lights Out (shipped with new Game.com handhelds; never sold separately) The Lost World: Jurassic Park Monopoly Mortal Kombat Trilogy Quiz Wiz: Cyber Trivia Resident Evil 2 Scrabble Sonic Jam Tiger Casino Wheel of Fortune Wheel of Fortune 2 Williams Arcade Classics Internet connection accessories for the Game.com were also released, including "Game.com Internet" and "Tiger Web Link" carts. Canceled titles A Bug's Life, Furbyland, Metal Gear Solid, NBA Hangtime An unnamed (and unannounced) RPG title can be seen in one of the game.com television commercials. It was later discovered that this was to be a game.com version of the PlayStation RPG Shadow Madness. Community A Game.com enthusiast with Usenet access created the newsgroup alt.games.video.tiger.game-com (Google Groups link below) shortly after the handheld's release in 1997. This group served as a focus point for Game.com owners, with often-heated discussion about the handheld's future and merits relative to other systems; as well as reviews of existing games and speculation about future releases. Tiger representatives sometimes posted using the now-defunct America Online account "TigerGcom". At one point, a gameplay video of the never-released Metal Gear Solid was distributed among group members. Most of the information about unreleased games herein was gleaned from postings to alt.games.video.tiger.game-com. Hacking and homebrew development In early 2005, a group called game.commies was formed with hopes of hacking the Game.com hardware and creating new homebrew video games. In 2006 they announced a working game.com emulator was in their possession, but denied a public release of it was forthcoming. This emulator was originally distributed to Game.com developers, in the same vein as Ensata. A preliminary driver for the Game.com hardware was added to the MESS emulator in 2006. 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5,592 | Low-alcohol_beer | “Lager” brand beer, which has 0.0% ABV. Tourtel, a near-beer which has 0.4% ABV. Low-alcohol beer (also called non-alcoholic or NA beer, small beer or small ale, or near-beer) is beer with very low or no alcohol content. Most low-alcohol beers are lagers, but there are some low-alcohol ales. In the United States, beverages containing less than 0.5% alcohol by volume (ABV) were legally called non-alcoholic, according to the now-defunct Volstead Act. Due to its very low alcohol content, NA beer may be legally sold to minors in most American states. In the United Kingdom, the following descriptions apply by law (correct as of May 2007): What Is Meant By Alcohol-Free? : The Alcohol-Free Shop No alcohol/alcohol-free: not more than 0.05% ABV Dealcoholised: over 0.05% and under 0.5% ABV Low-alcohol: not more than 1.2% ABV In the rest of the European Union, beer must contain no more than 0.5% ABV if it is labelled “alcohol-free.” Although labeled as non-alcoholic, some beers may still contain small amounts of alcohol; as a result, some American states prohibit their sale to minors and even to young adults. According to Michigan law, persons must be 18 or older to purchase “non-alcoholic beer” within the state. According to Pennsylvania law, persons must be 21 to purchase or consume “non-alcoholic beer” within the Commonwealth. Persons under the age of 21 caught purchasing or consuming “non-alcoholic beer” in Pennsylvania will be charged the same as if they were purchasing or consuming any other alcoholic beverage. This is also the case in other some states, such as Mississippi and Montana. In countries where alcohol advertising is forbidden or limited, non-alcoholic versions of popular brands of alcoholic beverages have been created for the purpose of advertisement. Light beer Light beer is beer that is reduced in alcohol content or in calories, compared to normal beer. Light beers may be chosen by beer drinkers who wish to manage their alcohol consumption or their calorie intake; however, they are sometimes criticized for being less flavourful than full-strength beers, being (in perception or in fact) “watered down.” Reduced alcohol “Light beer” customarily means a beer with less than 3.5% ABV. This is the primary definition of the term in Australia and Scotland. In Australia, regular beers have approximately 5% ABV; light beers have 2.2%–3.2%. In the United States, some establishments are permitted to sell only low-alcohol light beer . For example, in Minnesota, Kansas, Oklahoma, Colorado, and Utah, beer that is sold in supermarkets and convenience stores must have no more than 3.2% alcohol by weight (4% ABV). This low-alcohol beer is called “low-point beer” or “three-two beer.” Minnesota has a full-service alcohol license that is available to retailers. It permits the sale of beers having a normal alcohol content, but the 3.2% licenses are easier to obtain. Light beer with a significantly lower alcohol content allows consumers to drink more beers without becoming intoxicated. A lower-alcohol beer may also be cheaper, due to a lower tax. Reduced calories Reducing the calorie content of beer is done by a large reduction of its carbohydrate content and a small reduction of its alcohol content. The alcohol reduction is not primarily intended to produce a less intoxicating beverage. In the United States, “light beer” primarily refers to low-calorie beer. The spelling “lite beer” is also commonly used. Low-point beer (3.2%) Low-point beer, which is often called “three-two beer” or “3 point 2 brew,” is beer that contains 3.2% alcohol by weight (equivalent to 4% ABV). The term “low-point beer” is unique to the United States, where some states limit the sale of beer, but beers of this type are also available in countries (such as Sweden and Finland) that tax or otherwise regulate beer according to its alcohol content. The states of Colorado, Kansas, Minnesota, Oklahoma, and Utah permit general establishments such as supermarket chains and convenience stores to sell only low-point beer. "What's On Tap - The California Craft Beer Newsletter: July 2005 archive "Oklahoma's 3.2 beer laws unlikely to change anytime soon," Modern Brewery Age, September 29, 2003 USA Today - Travel: Salt Lake City "Getting to the bottom of Minnesota's liquor laws" Beer Travelers: Beer along Route 66 In these states, all alcoholic beverages containing more than 3.2% alcohol by weight (ABW) must be sold from state-licensed liquor stores. Oklahoma additionally requires that any beverage containing more than 3.2% ABW must be sold at normal room temperature. 37 Oklahoma Statutes § 534. Missouri also has a legal classification for low-point beer, which it calls “nonintoxicating beer.” Chapter 312, Revised Statutes of Missouri (R.S.Mo.) Unlike Colorado, Kansas, Minnesota, Oklahoma, and Utah, however, Missouri does not limit supermarket chains and convenience stores to selling only low-point beer. Instead, Missouri’s alcohol laws permit grocery stores, drug stores, gas stations, and even “general merchandise stores” (a term that Missouri law does not define) to sell any alcoholic beverage; Section 311.200, R.S.Mo. consequently, 3.2% beer is rarely sold in Missouri. Near beer Originally, “near beer” was a term for malt beverages containing little or no alcohol (less than 0.5% ABV), which were mass-marketed during Prohibition in the United States. Near beer could not legally be labeled as “beer” and was officially classified as a “cereal beverage.” Kansas Department of Revenue - Alcoholic Beverage Control - History of Alcoholic Beverages in Kansas The public, however, almost universally called it “near beer.” Today, the term “near beer” has been revived to refer to modern non-alcoholic beer. The most popular "near beer" was Bevo, brewed by the Anheuser-Busch company. The Pabst company brewed "Pablo", Miller brewed "Vivo", and Schlitz brewed "Famo". Many local and regional breweries stayed in business by marketing their own near-beers. By 1921 production of near beer had reached over 300 million US gallons (1 billion L) a year (360 L/s). A popular illegal practice was to add alcohol to near beer. The resulting beverage was known as spiked beer or needle beer, We Want Beer: National Prohibition, Part 1 so called because a needle was used to inject alcohol through the cork of the bottle or keg. Food critic and writer Waverley Root described the common American near beer as "such a wishy-washy, thin, ill-tasting, discouraging sort of slop that it might have been dreamed up by a Puritan Machiavelli with the intent of disgusting drinkers with genuine beer forever." AmericanHeritage.com / BEER AND AMERICA Small beer Small beer Realbeer.com: Beer Break - What's A Small Beer? (also small ale) is a beer/ale that contains very little alcohol. Sometimes unfiltered and porridge-like, it was a favoured drink in Medieval Europe and colonial North America where George Washington had a recipe involving bran and molasses. NYPL, To make Small Beer It was sometimes had with breakfast, as attested in Benjamin Franklin's autobiography. Before public sanitation, cholera and other water-transmitted diseases were a significant cause of death. Because alcohol is toxic to most water-borne pathogens, and because the process of brewing any beer from malt involves boiling the water, which also kills germs, drinking small beer instead of water was one way to escape infection. Small beer was also produced in households for consumption by children and servants. It was not unknown for workers in heavy industries and physical work to consume double figure (pint) quantities of small beer during a working day to maintain their hydration levels. This was usually provided free as part of their working conditions, it being recognised that maintaining suitable levels of hydration was indeed essential for optimum performance. Small beer/small ale can also refer to a beer made of the "second runnings" from a very strong beer (e.g., scotch ale) mash. These beers can be as strong as a mild ale, depending on the strength of the original mash. This was done as an economy measure in household brewing in England up to the 18th century and is still done by some homebrewers and microbrewers such as Anchor Brewing Company. Metaphorically, small beer means a trifle, a thing of little importance. The term is also used derisively for commercially produced beers which are thought to taste too weak. Small ale in literature Besides Franklin's autobiography, small ale turns up in the writings of William Shakespeare, William Thackeray's Vanity Fair, Robert Louis Stevenson's Kidnapped, Patrick O'Brian's Aubrey-Maturin series, in Ellis Peters' Brother Cadfael series and in Neil Gaiman's Marvel 1602. Thomas Thetcher's tombstone at Winchester Cathedral features a poem that blames his death on drinking small beer while hot. Graham Greene used the phrase 'small beer' in the metaphorical sense in The Honorary Consul. Ken Follett, in his novel "The Pillars of the Earth," makes numerous references to small beer. In Truman Capote's "In Cold Blood", Mrs Hartman of the local cafe serves 3.2 beer, as Kansas is 'dry', due to prohibition. The pub tradition of Swearing on the Horns includes a pledge not to drink small beer when strong beer is available. In the best selling novel, "The Heretic's Daughter" Sarah is sent to town to buy a pail of small beer for her family. Small beer today Few commercial breweries bother to make small beer today. However, one of these rarities is produced by the Anchor Brewing Company of San Francisco, California. It is made from the "second runnings" of the malt from the brewer's Old Foghorn Barleywine Style Ale. Religious prohibitions Islam prohibits the consumption of intoxicants in any quantities. Islam and Drugs However, there is disagreement among the scholars of Islam about the consumption of non-alcoholic beer. Islamtoday.com: Is Non-Alcoholic Beer Permissible? Non-Alcoholic Beer: Prohibited? Despite this disagreement, alcohol-free (0%) beers such as Laziza and Almaza are often available in stores and restaurants that cater to an Islamic customer base. They are also popular in countries such as Saudi Arabia and Kuwait that enforce alcohol prohibition, and are often available with added flavors like apple, strawberry or peach. See also Alcohol by volume Beer Kvass References | Low-alcohol_beer |@lemmatized lager:2 brand:2 beer:102 abv:12 tourtel:1 near:12 low:19 alcohol:38 also:13 call:7 non:11 alcoholic:17 na:2 small:24 ale:10 content:9 united:6 state:13 beverage:12 contain:8 less:5 volume:2 legally:3 accord:4 defunct:1 volstead:1 act:1 due:3 may:5 sell:9 minor:2 american:3 kingdom:1 following:1 description:1 apply:1 law:7 correct:1 mean:3 free:6 shop:1 dealcoholised:1 rest:1 european:1 union:1 must:6 label:3 although:1 still:2 amount:1 result:1 prohibit:3 sale:3 even:2 young:1 adult:1 michigan:1 person:3 old:2 purchase:3 within:2 pennsylvania:2 consume:4 commonwealth:1 age:2 caught:1 purchasing:1 charge:1 case:1 mississippi:1 montana:1 country:3 advertising:1 forbidden:1 limited:1 version:1 popular:4 create:1 purpose:1 advertisement:1 light:8 reduce:4 calorie:5 compare:1 normal:3 choose:1 drinker:2 wish:1 manage:1 consumption:4 intake:1 however:5 sometimes:3 criticize:1 flavourful:1 full:2 strength:2 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5,593 | Jamaica | Jamaica () is an island nation of the Greater Antilles, in length and as much as in width situated in the Caribbean Sea. It is about south of Cuba, and west of the island of Hispaniola, on which Haiti and the Dominican Republic are situated. Its indigenous Arawakan-speaking Taíno inhabitants named the island Xaymaca, meaning the "Land of Wood and Water", or the "Land of Springs". Formerly a Spanish possession known as , it later became the British Crown colony of Jamaica. It is the third most populous anglophone country in North America, after the United States and Canada. It remains a Commonwealth realm. History The Arawak and Taino indigenous people originating from South America settled on the island between 4000 and 1000 BC. http://www.jamaicans.com/articles/primearticles/taino.shtml When Christopher Columbus arrived in 1494 there were over 200 villages ruled by chiefs or caciques, with the south coast of Jamaica being the most populated, especially around what is now known as Old Harbour. http://www.jamaicans.com/articles/primearticles/taino.shtml The Tainos were still inhabiting Jamaica when the British took control of the island. http://www.jamaicans.com/articles/primearticles/taino.shtml The Jamaican National Heritage Trust is attempting to locate and document any evidence of the Taino/Arawaks. Jamaican National Heritage Trust Christopher Columbus claimed Jamaica for Spain after landing there in 1494. Columbus' probable landing point was Dry Harbour, now called Discovery Bay. St. Ann's Bay was the "Saint Gloria" of Columbus who first sighted Jamaica at this point. One mile west of St. Ann's Bay is the site of the first Spanish settlement on the island, Sevilla, which was abandoned in 1554 because of numerous pirate raids. The capital was moved to Spanish Town, now located in the parish of St. Catherine, as early as 1534. It was then called "Villa de la Vega". Spanish Town has the oldest Cathedral in the British colonies. The Spanish were forcibly evicted by the English at Ocho Rios in St. Ann. However, it was not until 1655 that, at Tower Isle, the English took over the last Spanish fort in Jamaica. The Spaniard Don Arnoldo de Yassi kept Tower Hill (the site of Tower Isle) from the English for five years, before escaping to Cuba. The site of his departure was fittingly called "Runaway Bay", which is also in St. Ann. The name of Montego Bay, the capital of the parish of St. James, was derived from the Spanish name (or Bay of Lard) for the large quantity of boar used for the lard-making industry. Town of Montego Bay info The English Admiral William Penn (father of William Penn of Pennsylvania) and General Robert Venables seized the island in 1655. As early as the 1670s, blacks formed a majority of the population. A failed settler society: marriage and demographic failure in early Jamaica, Journal of Social History, Fall, 1994, by Trevor Burnard During its first 200 years of British rule, Jamaica became one of the world's leading sugar-exporting, slave-dependent nations, producing more than 77,000 tons of sugar annually between 1820 and 1824. After the abolition of the slave trade (but not slavery itself) in 1807, The Sugar Revolutions and Slavery, U.S. Library of Congress the British imported Indian and Chinese workers as indentured servants to supplement the labour pool. Descendants of indentured servants of Asian and Chinese origin continue to reside in Jamaica today. By the beginning of the 19th century, Jamaica's heavy reliance on slavery resulted in blacks (Africans) outnumbering whites (Europeans) by a ratio of almost 20 to 1. Even though England had outlawed the importation of slaves, some were still smuggled into the colonies. The British government drew-up laws regimenting the abolition of slavery, but they also included instructions for the improvement of the slaves' way of life. These instructions included a ban of the use of whips in the field, a ban on the flogging of women, notification that slaves were to be allowed religious instruction, a requirement that slaves be given an extra free day during the week when they could sell their produce as well as a ban of Sunday markets. In Jamaica, however, these measures were resisted by the House of Assembly. The Assembly claimed that the slaves were content and objected to Parliament's interference in island affairs, although many slave owners feared possible revolts. Following a series of rebellions and changing attitudes in Great Britain, the nation formally abolished slavery in 1834, with full emancipation from chattel slavery declared in 1838. In the 1800s, the British established a number of botanical gardens. These included the Castleton Garden, set up in 1862 to replace the Bath Garden (created in 1779) which was subject to flooding. Bath Garden was the site for planting breadfruit brought to Jamaica from the Pacific by Captain William Bligh. Other gardens were the Cinchona Plantation founded in 1868 and the Hope Garden founded in 1874. In 1872, Kingston became the island's capital. In 1945, Sir Horace Hector Hearne became Chief Justice and Keeper of the Records in Jamaica. He headed the Supreme Court, Kingston between 1945 and 1950/1951. He then moved to Kenya where he was appointed Chief Justice. Jamaica slowly gained increasing independence from the United Kingdom and in 1958, it became a province in the Federation of the West Indies, a federation among the British West Indies. Jamaica attained full independence by leaving the federation in 1962. Map of Jamaica Strong economic growth, averaging about six percent per annum, marked the first ten years of independence under conservative governments which were led successively by Prime Ministers Alexander Bustamante, Donald Sangster and Hugh Shearer. The growth was fueled by strong investments in bauxite/alumina, tourism, manufacturing industry and, to a lesser extent, the agricultural sector. However, the optimism of the first decade was accompanied by a growing sense of inequality, and a sense that the benefits of growth were not being experienced by the urban poor. This, combined with the effects of a slowdown in the global economy in 1970, prompted the electorate to change the government, electing the PNP (People's National Party) in 1972. However, despite efforts to create more socially equitable policies in education and health, Jamaica continued to lag economically, with its gross national product having fallen in 1980 to some twenty-five percent below the 1972 level. Rising foreign and local debt, accompanied by large fiscal deficits, resulted in the invitation of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) financing from the United States and others, and the imposition of IMF austerity measures (with a greater than 25% interest rate per year). Economic deterioration continued into the mid-1980s, exacerbated by a number of factors; The first and third largest alumina producers, Alpart and Alcoa, closed and there was a significant reduction in production by the second largest producer, Alcan. In addition, tourism decreased and Reynolds Jamaica Mines, Ltd. left the Jamaican industry. Government and politics Inside the Parliament of Jamaica Jamaica is a parliamentary democracy and constitutional monarchy with the monarch being represented by a Governor-General. The head of state is Queen Elizabeth II, who officially uses the title "Queen of Jamaica" when she visits the country or performs duties overseas on Jamaica's behalf. See Jamaican Royal Family. The Governor-General is nominated by the Prime Minister and the entire Cabinet and appointed by the monarch. All the members of the Cabinet are appointed by the Governor-General on the advice of the Prime Minister. The monarch and the Governor-General serve largely ceremonial roles, apart from their potent reserve power to dismiss the Prime Minister or Parliament. Jamaica's current Constitution was drafted in 1962 by a bipartisan joint committee of the Jamaican legislature. It came into force with the Jamaica Independence Act, 1962 of the United Kingdom Parliament, which gave Jamaica political exile. This was followed by a reformation of the island's national anthem. The Parliament of Jamaica is bicameral, consisting of the House of Representatives (Lower House) and the Senate (Upper House). Members of the House (known as Members of Parliament or MPs) are directly elected, and the member of the House of Representatives who, in the Governor-General's best judgment, is best able to command the confidence of a majority of the members of that House, is appointed by the Governor-General to be the Prime Minister. Senators are appointed jointly by the Prime Minister and the parliamentary Leader of the Opposition. In February 2006, Portia Simpson-Miller was elected by delegates of the ruling People's National Party (PNP) to replace P. J. Patterson as President of the Party. At the end of March 2006 when Patterson demitted office, Simpson-Miller became the first female Prime Minister of Jamaica. Former Prime Minister Patterson had held office since the 1992 resignation of Michael Manley. Patterson was re-elected three times, the last being in 2002. On 3 September 2007, Bruce Golding of the Jamaica Labour Party was voted in as Prime Minister-Designate after achieving a 33 - 27 seat victory over Portia Simpson-Miller and the PNP in the 2007 Jamaican general election. Portia Simpson-Miller conceded defeat on 5 September 2007. On 11 September 2007, after being sworn in by Governor-General Kenneth Hall, The Hon. Bruce Golding assumed office as Prime Minister of Jamaica. Jamaica has traditionally had a two-party system, with power often alternating between the People's National Party and Jamaica Labour Party (JLP). However, over the past decade a new political party called the National Democratic Movement (NDM) emerged in an attempt to challenge the two-party system, though it has become largely irrelevant in this system, as it garnered only 540 votes of the over 800,000 votes cast in the 3 September elections. Jamaica is a full and participating member of the Caribbean Community (CARICOM). Parishes Jamaica is divided into 14 parishes, which are grouped into three historic counties that have no administrative relevance. Cornwall CountyMiddlesex CountySurrey County 1 Hanover 6 Clarendon 11 Kingston 2 Saint Elizabeth 7 Manchester 12 Portland 3 Saint James 8 Saint Ann 13 Saint Andrew 4 Trelawny 9 Saint Catherine 14 Saint Thomas 5 Westmoreland 10 Saint Mary Geography Doctor's Cave Beach Club is a popular destination in Montego Bay.The picturesque Dunn's River Falls in Ocho Ríos. Jamaica is the third largest island in the Caribbean. The island is home to the Blue Mountains inland, and is surrounded by a narrow coastal plain. Most major towns and cities are located on the coast. Chief towns and cities include the capital Kingston, Portmore, Spanish Town, Mandeville, Ocho Ríos, Port Antonio, Negril, and Montego Bay. The Kingston Harbour is one of the largest natural harbours in the world. There are several tourist attractions scattered across the country, including Dunn's River Falls in St. Ann, YS Falls in St. Elizabeth, the Blue Lagoon in Portland, and Port Royal which is the site of an earthquake that helped form the island's Palisadoes. The climate in Jamaica is tropical, with hot and humid weather, although higher inland regions have a more temperate climate. Some regions on the south coast, such as the Liguanea Plain and the Pedro Plains are relatively dry rain-shadow areas. Jamaica lies in the hurricane belt of the Atlantic Ocean; as a result, the island sometimes experiences significant storm damage. Hurricanes Charlie and Gilbert hit Jamaica directly in 1951 and 1988, respectively, causing major damage, destruction, and many deaths. In the 2000s, hurricanes Ivan, Dean, and Gustav also brought severe weather to the island. Demographics Ethnic origins According to the 2001 census, Jamaica's population mainly consists of people of African descent, comprising 91.2% of the demographics. Multiracial Jamaicans make up 6.2% of the population, and "other or unknown" Jamaicans (including Indian, Chinese, British, Irish, and German Jamaicans) make up 2.6% of the population. Immigration has been greatly rising from China, Haiti, Cuba, Colombia, and other Latin American countries; 20,000 Latin Americans currently reside in Jamaica. 7,000 Americans also reside in Jamaica. http://www.joshuaproject.net/peopctry.php http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/shared/spl/hi/in_depth/brits_abroad/html/caribbean.stm The Portuguese of the West Indies Language The official language of Jamaica is English. Informally, Jamaican Patois () is more commonly spoken by a majority of the population. Although British English or "The Queen's English" is the most obvious influence on patois, it includes words and syntax from various African languages (namely Akan, Igbo, Wolof and Twi); http://www.jamaicans.com/speakja/patoisarticle/notpatoisbutjamic.shtml other European languages (Spanish, Portuguese, and French); Pre-Columbian Caribbean languages (Arawakan); and Asian languages (Hindi, Hakka and Cantonese), evidence of historical admixture. In general, patois differs from English in pronunciation, grammar, nominal orthography and syntax, having many intonations to indicate meaning and mood. The language's characteristics include pronouncing as and as , and omitting some initial consonant sounds, principally . For example, the word "there" is . A number of linguists classify Jamaican Patois as a separate language, while others consider it to be a dialect of English. Emigration Over the past several decades, close to a million Jamaicans have emigrated, especially to the United Kingdom, United States, and Canada. In the case of the United States, about 20,000 Jamaicans per year are granted permanent residence. United States immigration statistics . The great number of Jamaicans living abroad has become known as the "Jamaican diaspora". There has also been emigration of Jamaicans to Cuba. Jamaicans to Cuba The scale of emigration has been widespread and similar to other Caribbean entities such as Puerto Rico, Guyana, and Trinidad and Tobago. Because the Jamaican population now has a birth rate about replacement level, the continuing high rate of emigration will cause the population to start falling in the next few decades. Concentrations of expatriate Jamaicans are large in a number of cities in the United States, including New York City, Buffalo, the Miami metro area, Atlanta, Orlando, Tampa, Washington, D.C, Philadelphia, Hartford and Los Angeles. In Canada, the Jamaican population is centred in Toronto, and there are smaller communities in cities such as Hamilton, Montreal, Vancouver and Ottawa. In the United Kingdom, Jamaican communities exist in most large cities where they make up the larger part of the British-Caribbean community. Religion Christians make up the majority of the population, approximately 65 percent. The Christian faith spread rapidly as British Christian abolitionists joined educated former slaves in the struggle against slavery. The five largest denominations in Jamaica are: Church of God, Seventh-day Adventist, Baptist, Pentecostal and Anglican. Other popular religions in Jamaica include Islam, Bahá'í Faith with perhaps 8000 Bahá'ís and 21 Local Spiritual Assemblies, Buddhism, and Hinduism. religiousintelligence.co.uk, religiousfreedom.lib.virginia.edu There is also a small population of Jews, about 200, who describe themselves as Liberal-Conservative. Jamaican Jews The first Jews in Jamaica trace their roots back to early 15th century Spain and Portugal. Islam in Jamaica estimate a total Muslim population of 5,000. Culture Marcus Garvey, Father of the Back to Africa Movement and Jamaica's first National Hero. Bob Marley, the most famous reggae artist from Jamaica. The Rastafari movement was founded in Jamaica. This Back to Africa movement believes that Haile Selassie of Ethiopia was God incarnate, the returned black messiah, come to take the lost Twelve Tribes of Israel back to live with him in Holy Mount Zion in a world of perfect peace, love and harmony. Bob Marley, a convert to the faith, spread the message of Rastafari to the world. There are now estimated to be more than a million Rastafarians throughout the world. Though a small nation, Jamaica is rich in culture, and has a strong global presence. The musical genres reggae, ska, mento, rocksteady, dub, and, more recently, dancehall and ragga all originated in the island's vibrant, popular urban recording industry. Jamaica also played an important role in the development of punk rock, through reggae and ska. Reggae has also influenced American rap music, as they both share their roots as rhythmic, African styles of music. Some rappers, such as The Notorious B.I.G. and Heavy D, are of Jamaican descent. Internationally known reggae musician Bob Marley was born in Jamaica and is very respected there. Many other internationally known artists were born in Jamaica including Lee "Scratch" Perry, Peter Tosh, Bunny Wailer, Big Youth, Jimmy Cliff, Dennis Brown, Desmond Dekker, Beres Hammond, Beenie Man, Shaggy, Tami Chynn, Tessanne Chin, Grace Jones, Shabba Ranks, Supercat, Buju Banton, Sean Paul, I Wayne, Bounty Killer and many others. Famous band artist groups that came from Jamaica include Black Uhuru, Third World Band, Inner Circle, Chalice Reggae Band, Culture, Fab Five and Morgan Heritage. The genre jungle emerged from London's Jamaican diaspora. The birth of hip-hop in New York also owed much to the city's Jamaican community. Ian Fleming, who lived in Jamaica, repeatedly used the island as a setting in the James Bond novels, including Live and Let Die, Doctor No, For Your Eyes Only, The Man with the Golden Gun and Octopussy. In addition, James Bond uses a Jamaica-based cover in Casino Royale. So far, the only Bond film to have been set in Jamaica is Doctor No. However, filming for the fictional island of San Monique in Live and Let Die took place in Jamaica. The American film Cocktail, starring Tom Cruise, is one of the most popular films to depict Jamaica. A look at delinquent youth in Jamaica is presented in the 1970s musical crime film The Harder They Come, starring Jimmy Cliff as a frustrated (and psychopathic) reggae musician who descends into a murderous crime spree. Another popular Jamaican-based film is the 1993 comedy Cool Runnings which is loosely based on the true story of Jamaica's first bobsled team trying to make it in the Winter Olympics. Errol Flynn lived with his third wife Patrice Wymore in Port Antonio in the 1950s. He was responsible for developing tourism to this area, popularising raft trips down rivers on bamboo rafts. Dr. Rebecca Tortello The History of Jamaica - Captivated by Jamaica The island is famous for its Jamaican jerk spice which forms a popular part of Jamaican cuisine. Jamaica is also home to the world-renowned Red Stripe Beer and Jamaican Blue Mountain Coffee. National symbols National Bird — Doctor Bird (Green-and-black Streamertail, Trochilus polytmus) National Flower — Lignum Vitae (Hibiscus elatus) National Tree — Blue Mahoe (Guaiacum officinale) National Dish — Ackee and Saltfish (dried salted Cod) National Motto — "Out of Many, One People." (Unity among many cultures and races.) Sport Usain Bolt, one of Jamaica's most famous athletes. Jamaicans, in general, have a large interest in sports. Cricket, football (soccer), athletics and horse-racing are several popular sports. The Jamaican national cricket team competes regionally, and also provides players for the West Indies. The national football team qualified for the 1998 FIFA World Cup. Jamaican athletics have been well represented at the Olympics, World Championships and other major athletics events over the years with leading athletes obtaining medals. Usain Bolt, world record holder in the 100m for men at 9.69s, and 200m for men at 19.30s is among a rich heritage of Jamaican sprinters to compete on the world stage. They have also boasted athletes such as Delloreen Ennis-London, Veronica Campbell-Brown, Brigitte Foster-Hylton, and former 100m world record holder Asafa Powell. The Jamaica national bobsled team was once a serious contender in the Winter Olympics, beating many well-established teams. There is a notable amount of golf in Jamaica, but it appears to be focused on the international tourism market. In the 2008 Beijing Olympics, Usain Bolt of Jamaica won three gold medals and broke the World Records for the 100m and 200m sprint races respectively. 400m hurdler Melaine Walker, won a gold medal and broke the Olympic record time in her event. Veronica Campbell-Brown successfully defended her 200m title when she claimed gold. Shelly-Ann Fraser won gold in the women's 100m sprint, with her team mates Kerron Stewart and Sherone Simpson coming in joint second for two silver medals. The Jamaican men's 4 x 100m relay team consisting of Asafa Powell, Usain Bolt, Michael Frater and Nesta Carter passed the finishing line in a World Record time of 37.10 seconds. This was 0.3 seconds quicker than the previous record set by the American relay team in 1992 and 1993, the margin is equivalent to three yards. Overall, the Jamaican 2008 Olympics team finished with a rank of 13 out of 204 competing nations. The 11 medals consisted of 6 golds, 3 silvers and 2 bronze. Chess, Pocket Pool, and Basketball are widely played in Jamaica which are supported by the Jamaica Chess Federation (JCF), the Jamaica Pocket Pool Federation (JPPF), and the Jamaica Basketball Federation (JBF). Netball is also very popular on the island, with the National Netball Team called The Sunshine Girls consistently ranking in the top five in the world. During the 1980s the island produced world class athletes in Boxing as well, including the likes of Trevor Berbick and Mike McCallum. Education The emancipation of the slaves heralded in the establishment of the Jamaican education system for the masses. Prior to emancipation there were few schools for educating locals. Many sent their children off to England to access quality education. After emancipation the West Indian Commission granted a sum of money to establish Elementary Schools, now known as All Age Schools. Most of these schools were established by the churches. This was the genesis of the modern Jamaican school system: Presently the following categories of schools exist: Early childhood – Basic, Infant and privately operated pre- school. Age cohort – 1 – 5 years. Primary – Publicly and privately owned (Privately owned being called Preparatory Schools). Ages 5 – 10 years. Secondary – Publicly and privately owned. Ages 10 – 18 years. The high schools in Jamaica may be either single-sex or co-educational institutions, and many schools follow the traditional English grammar school model used throughout the British West Indies. Tertiary - Community Colleges, Teachers’ Colleges with The Mico Teachers' College(now The MICO University College) being the oldest founded in 1836, Vocational Training Centres, Colleges and Universities - Publicly and privately owned. There are five local universities namely: The University of the West Indies (Mona Campus); the University of Technology, Jamaica formerly The College of Art Science and Technology (CAST); the Northern Caribbean University; the University College of The Caribbean and the International University of the Caribbean. Additionally, there are many community and teacher training colleges. Education is free from the early childhood to secondary levels. There are also opportunities for those who cannot afford further education in the vocational arena through the Human Employment and Resource Training-National Training Agency (HEART Trust-NTA) programme and through an extensive scholarship network for the various universities. Economy Jamaica is a mixed economy with state enterprises as well as private sector businesses. Major sectors of the Jamaican economy include agriculture, mining, manufacturing, tourism and financial and insurance services. Tourism and mining are the leading foreign exchange earners. Supported by multilateral financial institutions, Jamaica has, since the early 1980s, sought to implement structural reforms aimed at fostering private sector activity and increasing the role of market forces in resource allocation. Since 1991, the Government has followed a programme of economic liberalization and stabilization by removing exchange controls, floating the exchange rate, cutting tariffs, stabilising the Jamaican currency, reducing inflation and removing restrictions on foreign investment. Emphasis has been placed on maintaining strict fiscal discipline, greater openness to trade and financial flows, market liberalisation and reduction in the size of government. During this period, a large share of the economy was returned to private sector ownership through divestment and privatisation programmes. The macroeconomic stabilisation programme introduced in 1991, which focused on tight fiscal and monetary policies, has contributed to a controlled reduction in the rate of inflation. The annual inflation rate has decreased from a high of 80.2% in 1991 to 7.9% in 1998. inflation for FY1998/99 was 6.2% compared to 7.2% in the corresponding period in CUU1997/98. The Government of Jamaica remains committed to lowering inflation, with a long-term objective of bringing it in line with that of its major trading partners. After a period of steady growth from 1985 to 1995, real GDP decreased by 1.8% and 2.4% in 1996 and 1997, respectively. The decrease in GDP in 1996 and 1997 was largely due to significant problems in the financial sector and, in 1997, a severe island-wide drought (the worst in 70 years) that drastically reduced agricultural production. In 1997, nominal GDP was approximately J$220,556.2 million (US$6,198.9 million based on the average annual exchange rate of the period). Fishing boats and bauxite cargo ships share the waterways near Alligator Pond, Jamaica The economy in 1997 was marked by low levels of import growth, high levels of private capital inflows and relative stability in the foreign exchange market. Recent economic performance shows the Jamaican economy is recovering. Agricultural production, an important engine of growth increased 15.3% in third quarter of 1998 compared to the corresponding period in 1997, signaling the first positive growth rate in the sector since January 1997. Bauxite and alumina production increased 5.5% from January to December, 1998 compared to the corresponding period in 1997. January's bauxite production recorded a 7.1% increase relative to January 1998 and continued expansion of alumina production through 2009 is planned by Alcoa. No gas from Trinidad, Venezuela by 2009 - Jamaica Observer.com at www.jamaicaobserver.com Tourism, which is the largest foreign exchange earner, showed improvement as well. In the third quarter of 1998, growth in tourist arrivals accelerated with an overall increase of 8.5% in tourism earnings in 1998 when compared to the corresponding period in 1997. Jamaica's agricultural exports are sugar, bananas, coffee, rum,and yams. Jamaica has a wide variety of industrial and commercial activities. The aviation industry is able to perform most routine aircraft maintenance, except for heavy structural repairs. There is a considerable amount of technical support for transport and agricultural aviation. Jamaica has a considerable amount of industrial engineering, light manufacturing, including metal fabrication, metal roofing, and furniture manufacturing. Food and beverage processing, glassware manufacturing, computer software and data processing, printing and publishing, insurance underwriting, music and recording, and advanced education activities can be found in the larger urban areas. The Jamaican construction industry is entirely self-sufficient, with professional technical standards and guidance. History of Aviation in Jamaica: Part I Since the first quarter of 2006, the economy of Jamaica has undergone a period of staunch growth. With inflation for the 2006 calendar year down to 6.0% and unemployment down to 8.9%, the nominal GDP grew by an unprecedented 2.9%. Statistical Institute of Jamaica at www.statinja.com An investment programme in island transportation and utility infrastructure and gains in the tourism, mining, and service sectors all contributed this figure. All projections for 2007 show an even higher potential for economic growth with all estimates over 3.0% and hampered only by urban crime and public policies. In 2006, Jamaica became part of the CARICOM Single Market and Economy (CSME) as one of the pioneering members. International trade Exports: (1999) 1,238 billion $ (Natural resources: 55.7%, Food 19.1%, Bananas 4%, Chemicals 3.6%, Machinery 2.2%). The main export countries: United States 33.4%, Canada 14.1%, United Kingdom 13.4%, Netherlands 10.2%, Norway 5.8%, France 5%, Germany 4%, and Japan 2.3%. Imports: (1999) 2,89 billion $ (Energy 50.5%, Machinery and Equipment 7.6%, Consumer goods 33.2%). The main import countries: United States 48.1%, Trinidad and Tobago 7.8%, Japan 6.9%, France 5%, United Kingdom 3.7%, and Canada 3%. Exports and Imports for January 2007 - Exports: (January 2007) Total Goods Exports 166,495 (US$000) (General Merchandise Exports 93.4%, Freezone Exports 2.6%, Goods Procured in Ports 4.0%). Imports: (January 2007) : Total Goods Import 511,015 (US$000); General Merchandise Imports 97.8%, Freezone Imports 0.3%, Goods Procured in Ports 1.8%). Infrastructure Transport The transport infrastructure in Jamaica consists of roadways, railways ship and air transport, with roadways forming the backbone of the island's internal transport system. Roadways The Jamaican road network consists of almost 13 049 miles (21,000 kilometres) of roads, of which over 9 321 miles (15,000 kilometres) is paved. The CIA World Factbook - Jamaica Retrieved 2007-06-27. The Jamaican Government has, since the late 1990s and in cooperation with private investors, embarked on a campaign of infrastructural improvement projects, one of which includes the creation of a system of freeways, the first such access-controlled roadways of their kind on the island, connecting the main population centers of the island. This project has so far seen the completion of 21 miles (33 kilometres) of freeway. Railways Railways in Jamaica, as in many other countries, no longer enjoy the prominent position they once did, having been largely replaced by roadways as the primary means of transport. Of the 169 miles (272 kilometres) of railway found in Jamaica, only 35 miles (57 kilometres) remain in operation, currently used to transport bauxite. Air transport There are two international airports in Jamaica with modern terminals, long runways, and the navigational equipment required to accommodate the large jet aircraft used in modern air travel: Norman Manley International Airport in Kingston and Sangster International Airport in the resort town of Montego Bay. Both airports are home to the country's national airline, Air Jamaica. In addition there are local commuter airports at Tinson Pen (Kingston), Port Antonio, Ocho Ríos, and Negril which cater to internal flights only. Many other small, rural centers are served by private fields on sugar estates or bauxite mines. Ports, shipping and lighthouses Owing to its location in the Caribbean Sea in the shipping lane to the Panama Canal and relative proximity to large markets in North America and emerging markets in Latin America, Jamaica receives high container traffic. The container terminal at the Port of Kingston has undergone large expansion in capacity in recent years to handle growth both already realised as well as that which is projected in coming years. The Jamaica Observer Retrieved 27 June 2007. Montego Freeport in Montego Bay also handles a variety of cargo like (though more limited than) the Port of Kingston, mainly agricultural products. There are several other ports positioned around the island, including Port Esquivel in St. Catherine (WINDALCO), Rocky Point in Clarendon, Port Kaiser in St. Elizabeth, Port Rhoades in Discovery Bay, Reynolds Pier in Ocho Rios, and Boundbrook Port in Port Antonio. To aid the navigation of shipping, Jamaica operates nine lighthouses. For more information see Lighthouses in Jamaica. Energy Jamaica depends on petroleum imports to satisfy its national energy needs. Many test sites have been explored for oil, but no commercially viable quantities have been found. The most convenient sources of imported oil and motor fuels (diesel, gasoline, and jet fuel) are from Mexico and Venezuela. Jamaica's electrical power is produced by diesel (bunker oil) generators located in Old Harbour. Other smaller power stations (most owned by the Jamaica Public Service Company - the island's electricity provider) support the island's electrical grid including the Hunts Bay Power Station, the Bogue Power Station, the Rockfort Power Station and small hydroelectric plants on the White River, Rio Bueno, Morant River, Black River (Maggotty) and Roaring River. A wind farm, owned by the Petroleum Corporation of Jamaica, was established at Wigton, Manchester. Jamaica imports approximately 80,000 barrels of oil energy products per day, including asphalt and lubrication products. Just 20% of imported fuels are used for road transportation, the rest being used by the bauxite industry, electricity generation, and aviation. Jamaica produces enormous quantities of hydrous ethanol (5% water content), most of which appears to be consumed as beverages, and none of it used as motor fuel. Facilities exist to refine hydrous ethanol feedstock into anhydrous ethanol (0% water content), but the process appears to be uneconomic at this time and the facility remains idle. Communication Jamaica has a fully digital telephone communication system with a mobile penetration of over 95%. Doing eBusiness in Jamaica, The Economist Intelligence Unit. The country’s three mobile operators - Cable and Wireless (marketed as LIME - landline Internet, Mobile and Entertainment), Digicel, and Oceanic Digital (operating as MiPhone and now known as Claro since late 2008) - have spent millions in network upgrade and expansion.Both Digicel and Oceanic Digital were granted licences in 2001 to operate mobile services in the newly liberalised telecom market that had once been the sole domain of the incumbent Cable and Wireless monopoly. Digicel opted for the more widely used GSM wireless system, while Oceanic opted for the CDMA standard. Cable and Wireless, which had begun with TDMA standard, subsequently upgraded to GSM, and currently utilises both standards on its network. With wireless usage increasing, land lines supplied by Cable and Wireless have declined from just over half a million to roughly about three hundred thousand as of 2006. In a bid to grab more market share, Cable and Wireless recently launched a new land line service called HomeFone Prepaid that would allow customers to pay for minutes they use rather than pay a set monthly fee for service, much like prepaid wireless service. A new entrant to the Jamaican communications market, Flow Jamaica, recently laid a new submarine cable connecting Jamaica to the United States. This new cable increases the total number of submarine cables connecting Jamaica to the rest of the world to four. Two more licences were auctioned by the Jamaican government to provide mobile services on the island, including one that was previously owned by AT&T Wireless but never utilised, and one new licence. Industry analysts argue that with a near market saturation, there is very little room for new operators. Military Jamaican Defence Forces The Jamaica Defence Force (JDF) is the small but professional military force of Jamaica. The JDF is based on the British military model with organisation, training, weapons and traditions closely aligned with Commonwealth realms. Once chosen, officer candidates are sent to one of several British or Canadian basic officer courses depending on which arm of service they are selected for. Enlisted soldiers are given basic training at JDF Training Depot, Newcastle or Up Park Camp, both in St. Andrew. As with the British model, NCOs are given several levels of professional training as they rise up the ranks. Additional military schools are available for speciality training in Canada, the United States and the United Kingdom. The JDF is directly descended from the British West Indies Regiment formed during the colonial era. The West Indies Regiment was used extensively by the British Empire in policing the empire from 1795 to 1926. Other units in the JDF heritage include the early colonial Jamaica Militia, the Kingston Infantry Volunteers of WWI and reorganised into the Jamaican Infantry Volunteers in World War II. The West Indies Regiment was reformed in 1958 as part of the West Indies Federation. The dissolution of the Federation resulted in the establishment of the JDF. The Jamaica Defence Force (JDF) comprises an infantry Regiment and Reserve Corps, an Air Wing, a Coast Guard fleet and a supporting Engineering Unit. The infantry regiment contains the 1st, 2nd and 3rd (National Reserve) battalions. The JDF Air Wing is divided into three flight units, a training unit, a support unit and the JDF Air Wing (National Reserve). The Coast Guard is divided between seagoing crews and support crews. It conducts maritime safety and maritime law enforcement as well as defence-related operations. The support battalion contains a Military Police platoon as well as vehicle, armourers and supply units. The 1st Engineer Regiment provides military engineering support to the JDF. The Headquarters JDF contains the JDF Commander, Command Staff as well as Intelligence, Judge Advocate office, Administrative and Procurement sections. In recent years the JDF has been called on to assist the nation's police, the Jamaica Constabulary Force (JCF) in fighting drug smuggling and a rising crime rate which includes one of the highest murder rates in the world. JDF units actively conduct armed patrols with the JCF in high-crime areas and known gang neighbourhoods. There has been vocal controversy as well as support of this JDF role. In early 2005, an Opposition leader, Edward Seaga, called for the merger of the JDF and JCF. This has not garnered support in either organisation nor among the majority of citizens. Crime See also: Prisons in Jamaica Some areas of Jamaica, particularly cities such as Kingston, experience high levels of crime and violence. Jamaica has had one of the highest murder rates in the world for many years according to UN estimates. Nationmaster Crime Stats Former Prime Minister P.J. Patterson described the situation as "a national challenge of unprecedented proportions". Washington Post Foreign Service In 2005, Jamaica had 1,674 murders for a murder rate of 58 per 100,000 people; that year, Jamaica had the highest murder rate in the world. The U.S. Department of State reports that brutality against homosexuals, mainly by private citizens, was widespread in 2008. Many Jamaicans are hostile toward LGBT and Intersex people, and several mob attacks against gays have been reported. Attacks on gays are encouraged in some popular Jamaican dancehall/reggae songs that have been called murder music. See also Index of Jamaica-related articles LGBT rights in Jamaica Outline of Jamaica References Further reading Chapman, V.J. 1961. The Marine Algae of Jamaica. Part 1. Myxophyceae and Chlorophyceae. Institute of Jamaica. Chapman, V.J. 1963. The Marine Algae of Jamaica. Part 2. Phaeophyceas and Rhodophyceae. Institute of Jamaica. External links Government Government of Jamaica Official website of Queen Elizabeth as Queen of Jamaica Official website of the Jamaica Information Service The Cabinet Office of the Government of Jamaica Chief of State and Cabinet Members General information Jamaica from UCB Libraries GovPubs National Library of Jamaica materials in the Digital Library of the Caribbean be-x-old:Ямайка | Jamaica |@lemmatized jamaica:130 island:30 nation:6 great:5 antilles:1 length:1 much:3 width:1 situate:2 caribbean:12 sea:2 south:4 cuba:5 west:13 hispaniola:1 haiti:2 dominican:1 republic:1 indigenous:2 arawakan:2 speaking:1 taíno:1 inhabitant:1 name:3 xaymaca:1 mean:2 land:6 wood:1 water:3 spring:1 formerly:2 spanish:9 possession:1 know:9 later:1 become:9 british:18 crown:1 colony:3 third:7 populous:1 anglophone:1 country:9 north:2 america:4 united:17 state:14 canada:6 remain:4 commonwealth:2 realm:2 history:4 arawak:2 taino:5 people:8 originate:2 settle:1 bc:1 http:6 www:7 jamaican:53 com:7 article:4 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5,594 | Lens_(optics) | A lens. Lenses can be used to focus light. A lens is an optical device with perfect or approximate axial symmetry which transmits and refracts light, converging or diverging the beam. A simple lens is a lens consisting of a single optical element. A compound lens is an array of simple lenses (elements) with a common axis; the use of multiple elements allows more optical aberrations to be corrected than is possible with a single element. Manufactured lenses are typically made of glass or transparent plastic. Elements which refract electromagnetic radiation outside the visual spectrum are also called lenses: for instance, a microwave lens can be made from paraffin wax. The obsolescent spelling lense is sometimes seen, but Merriam-Webster's medical dictionary is the only major dictionary that considers this to be correct. History The Golden Gate Bridge refracted in rain droplets, which act as lenses The oldest lens artifact is the Nimrud lens, which is over three thousand years old, dating back to ancient Assyria. David Brewster proposed that it may have been used as a magnifying glass, or as a burning-glass to start fires by concentrating sunlight. Assyrian craftsmen made intricate engravings, and could have used such a lens in their work. Another early reference to magnification dates back to ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs in the 8th century BC, which depict "simple glass meniscal lenses". The earliest written records of lenses date to Ancient Greece, with Aristophanes' play The Clouds (424 BC) mentioning a burning-glass (a biconvex lens used to focus the sun's rays to produce fire). The writings of Pliny the Elder (23–79) also show that burning-glasses were known to the Roman Empire, Pliny the Elder, The Natural History (trans. John Bostock) Book XXXVII, Chap. 10. and mentions what is arguably the earliest use of a corrective lens: Nero was said to watch the gladiatorial games using an emerald Pliny the Elder, The Natural History (trans. John Bostock) Book XXXVII, Chap. 16 (presumably concave to correct for myopia, though the reference is vague). Both Pliny and Seneca the Younger (3 BC–65) described the magnifying effect of a glass globe filled with water. The word lens comes from the Latin name of the lentil, because a double-convex lens is lentil-shaped. The genus of the lentil plant is Lens, and the most commonly eaten species is Lens culinaris. The lentil plant also gives its name to a geometric figure. The Arabian physicist and mathematician Ibn Sahl (c.940–c.1000) used what is now known as Snell's law to calculate the shape of lenses. Rashed, R. (1990). "A pioneer in anaclastics: Ibn Sahl on burning mirrors and lenses." Isis, 81, 464–491. Ibn al-Haytham (965–1038), known in the West as Alhazen, wrote the first major optical treatise, the Book of Optics, which contained the earliest historical proof of a magnifying device, a convex lens forming a magnified image. The book was translated into Latin in the 12th century, and became the standard textbook in the field and influenced many other writers. Excavations at the Viking harbour town of Fröjel, Gotland, Sweden discovered in 1999 the rock crystal Visby lenses, produced by turning on pole-lathes at Fröjel in the 11th to 12th century, with an imaging quality comparable to that of 1950s aspheric lenses. The Viking lenses concentrate sunlight enough to ignite fires. Widespread use of lenses did not occur until the use of reading stones in the 11th century and the invention of spectacles, probably in Italy in the 1280s. Scholars have noted that spectacles were invented not long after the translation of al-Haytham's book into Latin, but it is not clear what role, if any, the optical theory of the time played in the discovery. Nicholas of Cusa is believed to have been the first to discover the benefits of concave lenses for the treatment of myopia in 1451. The Abbe sine condition, due to Ernst Abbe (1860s), is a condition that must be fulfilled by a lens or other optical system in order for it to produce sharp images of off-axis as well as on-axis objects. It revolutionized the design of optical instruments such as microscopes, and helped to establish the Carl Zeiss company as a leading supplier of optical instruments. Construction of simple lenses Image of the city of Seattle as seen through a lens. Most lenses are spherical lenses: their two surfaces are parts of the surfaces of spheres, with the lens axis ideally perpendicular to both surfaces. Each surface can be convex (bulging outwards from the lens), concave (depressed into the lens), or planar (flat). The line joining the centres of the spheres making up the lens surfaces is called the axis of the lens. Typically the lens axis passes through the physical centre of the lens, because of the way they are manufactured. Lenses may be cut or ground after manufacturing to give them a different shape or size. The lens axis may then not pass through the physical centre of the lens. Toric or sphero-cylindrical lenses have surfaces with two different radii of curvature in two orthogonal planes. They have a different focal power in different meridians. This is a form of deliberate astigmatism. More complex are aspheric lenses. These are lenses where one or both surfaces have a shape that is neither spherical nor cylindrical. Such lenses can produce images with much less aberration than standard simple lenses. Types of simple lenses Lenses are classified by the curvature of the two optical surfaces. A lens is biconvex (or double convex, or just convex) if both surfaces are convex. If both surfaces have the same radius of curvature, the lens is equiconvex. A lens with two concave surfaces is biconcave (or just concave). If one of the surfaces is flat, the lens is plano-convex or plano-concave depending on the curvature of the other surface. A lens with one convex and one concave side is convex-concave or meniscus. It is this type of lens that is most commonly used in corrective lenses. If the lens is biconvex or plano-convex, a collimated or parallel beam of light travelling parallel to the lens axis and passing through the lens will be converged (or focused) to a spot on the axis, at a certain distance behind the lens (known as the focal length). In this case, the lens is called a positive or converging lens. Biconvex lens If the lens is biconcave or plano-concave, a collimated beam of light passing through the lens is diverged (spread); the lens is thus called a negative or diverging lens. The beam after passing through the lens appears to be emanating from a particular point on the axis in front of the lens; the distance from this point to the lens is also known as the focal length, although it is negative with respect to the focal length of a converging lens. Biconcave lens Convex-concave (meniscus) lenses can be either positive or negative, depending on the relative curvatures of the two surfaces. A negative meniscus lens has a steeper concave surface and will be thinner at the centre than at the periphery. Conversely, a positive meniscus lens has a steeper convex surface and will be thicker at the centre than at the periphery. An ideal thin lens with two surfaces of equal curvature would have zero optical power, meaning that it would neither converge nor diverge light. All real lenses have a nonzero thickness, however, which affects the optical power. To obtain exactly zero optical power, a meniscus lens must have slightly unequal curvatures to account for the effect of the lens' thickness. Lensmaker's equation The focal length of a lens in air can be calculated from the lensmaker's equation: Greivenkamp, p.14; Hecht §6.1 where is the focal length of the lens, is the refractive index of the lens material, is the radius of curvature of the lens surface closest to the light source, is the radius of curvature of the lens surface farthest from the light source, and is the thickness of the lens (the distance along the lens axis between the two surface vertices). Sign convention of lens radii R1 and R2 The signs of the lens' radii of curvature indicate whether the corresponding surfaces are convex or concave. The sign convention used to represent this varies, but in this article if R1 is positive the first surface is convex, and if R1 is negative the surface is concave. The signs are reversed for the back surface of the lens: if R2 is positive the surface is concave, and if R2 is negative the surface is convex. If either radius is infinite, the corresponding surface is flat. With this convention the signs are determined by the shapes of the lens surfaces, and are independent of the direction in which light travels through the lens. Thin lens equation If d is small compared to R1 and R2, then the thin lens approximation can be made. For a lens in air, f is then given by Hecht, § 5.2.3 The focal length f is positive for converging lenses, and negative for diverging lenses. The value 1/f is known as the optical power of the lens, measured in dioptres, which are units equal to inverse meters (m−1). Lenses have the same focal length when light travels from the back to the front as when light goes from the front to the back, although other properties of the lens, such as the aberrations are not necessarily the same in both directions. Imaging properties As mentioned above, a positive or converging lens in air will focus a collimated beam travelling along the lens axis to a spot (known as the focal point) at a distance f from the lens. Conversely, a point source of light placed at the focal point will be converted into a collimated beam by the lens. These two cases are examples of image formation in lenses. In the former case, an object at an infinite distance (as represented by a collimated beam of waves) is focused to an image at the focal point of the lens. In the latter, an object at the focal length distance from the lens is imaged at infinity. The plane perpendicular to the lens axis situated at a distance f from the lens is called the focal plane. (Note: In the figure below the image is actually larger than the object; this is a function of f and S1, described below) If the distances from the object to the lens and from the lens to the image are S1 and S2 respectively, for a lens of negligible thickness, in air, the distances are related by the thin lens formula: . This can also be put into the "Newtonian" form: Hecht (2002), p. 120. where and . What this means is that, if an object is placed at a distance S1 along the axis in front of a positive lens of focal length f, a screen placed at a distance S2 behind the lens will have a sharp image of the object projected onto it, as long as S1 > f (if the lens-to-screen distance S2 is varied slightly, the image will become less sharp). This is the principle behind photography and the human eye. The image in this case is known as a real image. 360 Note that if S1 < f, S2 becomes negative, the image is apparently positioned on the same side of the lens as the object. Although this kind of image, known as a virtual image, cannot be projected on a screen, an observer looking through the lens will see the image in its apparent calculated position. A magnifying glass creates this kind of image. The magnification of the lens is given by: , where M is the magnification factor; if |M|>1, the image is larger than the object. Notice the sign convention here shows that, if M is negative, as it is for real images, the image is upside-down with respect to the object. For virtual images, M is positive and the image is upright. In the special case that S1 = ∞, then S2 = f and M = −f / ∞ = 0. This corresponds to a collimated beam being focused to a single spot at the focal point. The size of the image in this case is not actually zero, since diffraction effects place a lower limit on the size of the image (see Rayleigh criterion). The formulas above may also be used for negative (diverging) lens by using a negative focal length (f), but for these lenses only virtual images can be formed. For the case of lenses that are not thin, or for more complicated multi-lens optical systems, the same formulas can be used, but S1 and S2 are interpreted differently. If the system is in air or vacuum, S1 and S2 are measured from the front and rear principal planes of the system, respectively. Imaging in media with an index of refraction greater than 1 is more complicated, and is beyond the scope of this article. Aberrations Lenses do not form perfect images, and there is always some degree of distortion or aberration introduced by the lens which causes the image to be an imperfect replica of the object. Careful design of the lens system for a particular application ensures that the aberration is minimized. There are several different types of aberration which can affect image quality. Spherical aberration Spherical aberration occurs because spherical surfaces are not the ideal shape with which to make a lens, but they are by far the simplest shape to which glass can be ground and polished and so are often used. Spherical aberration causes beams parallel to, but distant from, the lens axis to be focused in a slightly different place than beams close to the axis. This manifests itself as a blurring of the image. Lenses in which closer-to-ideal, non-spherical surfaces are used are called aspheric lenses. These were formerly complex to make and often extremely expensive, but advances in technology have greatly reduced the manufacturing cost for such lenses. Spherical aberration can be minimised by careful choice of the curvature of the surfaces for a particular application: for instance, a plano-convex lens which is used to focus a collimated beam produces a sharper focal spot when used with the convex side towards the beam source. Coma Another type of aberration is coma, which derives its name from the comet-like appearance of the aberrated image. Coma occurs when an object off the optical axis of the lens is imaged, where rays pass through the lens at an angle to the axis θ. Rays which pass through the centre of the lens of focal length f are focused at a point with distance f tan θ from the axis. Rays passing through the outer margins of the lens are focused at different points, either further from the axis (positive coma) or closer to the axis (negative coma). In general, a bundle of parallel rays passing through the lens at a fixed distance from the centre of the lens are focused to a ring-shaped image in the focal plane, known as a comatic circle. The sum of all these circles results in a V-shaped or comet-like flare. As with spherical aberration, coma can be minimised (and in some cases eliminated) by choosing the curvature of the two lens surfaces to match the application. Lenses in which both spherical aberration and coma are minimised are called bestform lenses. Chromatic aberration Chromatic aberration is caused by the dispersion of the lens material—the variation of its refractive index n with the wavelength of light. Since, from the formulae above, f is dependent upon n, it follows that different wavelengths of light will be focused to different positions. Chromatic aberration of a lens is seen as fringes of colour around the image. It can be minimised by using an achromatic doublet (or achromat) in which two materials with differing dispersion are bonded together to form a single lens. This reduces the amount of chromatic aberration over a certain range of wavelengths, though it does not produce perfect correction. The use of achromats was an important step in the development of the optical microscope. An apochromat is a lens or lens system which has even better correction of chromatic aberration, combined with improved correction of spherical aberration. Apochromats are much more expensive than achromats. Different lens materials may also be used to minimize chromatic aberration, such as specialized coatings or lenses made from the crystal fluorite. This naturally occurring substance has the highest known Abbe number, indicating that the material has low dispersion. Other types of aberration Other kinds of aberration include field curvature, barrel and pincushion distortion, and astigmatism. Aperture diffraction Even if a lens is designed to minimize or eliminate the aberrations described above, the image quality is still limited by the diffraction of light passing through the lens' finite aperture. A diffraction-limited lens is one in which aberrations have been reduced to the point where the image quality is primarily limited by diffraction under the design conditions. Compound lenses Simple lenses are subject to the optical aberrations discussed above. In many cases these aberrations can be compensated for to a great extent by using a combination of simple lenses with complementary aberrations. A compound lens is a collection of simple lenses of different shapes and made of materials of different refractive indices, arranged one after the other with a common axis. The simplest case is where lenses are placed in contact: if the lenses of focal lengths f1 and f2 are "thin", the combined focal length f of the lenses is given by . Since 1/f is the power of a lens, it can be seen that the powers of thin lenses in contact are additive. If two thin lenses are separated in air by some distance d, the focal length for the combined system is given by . The distance from the second lens to the focal point of the combined lenses is called the back focal length (BFL). . As d tends to zero, the value of the BFL tends to the value of f given for thin lenses in contact. If the separation distance is equal to the sum of the focal lengths (d = f1+f2), the combined focal length and BFL are infinite. This corresponds to a pair of lenses that transform a parallel (collimated) beam into another collimated beam. This type of system is called afocal, since it produces no net convergence or divergence of the beam. Two lenses at this separation form the simplest type of optical telescope. Although the system does not alter the divergence of a collimated beam, it does alter the width of the beam. The magnification of such a telescope is given by , which is the ratio of the input beam width to the output beam width. Note the sign convention: a telescope with two convex lenses (f1 > 0, f2 > 0) produces a negative magnification, indicating an inverted image. A convex plus a concave lens (f1 > 0 > f2) produces a positive magnification and the image is upright. Uses of lenses A single convex lens mounted in a frame with a handle or stand is a magnifying glass. Lenses are used as prosthetics for the correction of visual impairments such as myopia, hyperopia, presbyopia, and astigmatism. (See corrective lens, contact lens, eyeglasses.) Most lenses used for other purposes have strict axial symmetry; eyeglass lenses are only approximately symmetric. They are usually shaped to fit in a roughly oval, not circular, frame; the optical centers are placed over the eyeballs; their curvature may not be axially symmetric to correct for astigmatism. Sunglasses lenses may be designed to attenuate light without refraction. Another use is in imaging systems such as a monocular, binoculars, telescope, spotting scope, telescopic gun sight, theodolite, microscope, camera (photographic lens) and projector. Some of these instruments produce a virtual image when applied to the human eye; others produce a real image which can be captured on photographic film or an optical sensor. Convex lenses produce an image of an object at infinity at their focus; if the sun is imaged, much of the visible and infrared light incident on the lens is concentrated into the small image. A large lens will create enough intensity to burn a flammable object at the focal point. Since ignition can be achieved even with a poorly made lens, lenses have been used as burning-glasses for at least 2400 years. A modern application is the use of relatively large lenses to concentrate solar energy on relatively small photovoltaic cells, harvesting more energy without the need to use larger, more expensive, cells. Radio astronomy and radar systems often use dielectric lenses, commonly called a lens antenna to refract electromagnetic radiation into a collector antenna. The Square Kilometre Array radio telescope, scheduled to be operational by 2020, will employ such lenses to get a collection area nearly 30 times greater than any previous antenna. See also Aberration in optical systems Anti-fogging treatment of optical surfaces Axicon Back focal plane Bokeh Cardinal point (optics) Corrective lens Eyepiece F-number Fresnel lens Gradient index lens Gravitational lens History of lensmaking Lens (anatomy) List of lens designs Microscope Microlens Numerical aperture Optical coatings Optical lens design Optical lenticular Photochromic lens Photographic lens Prime lens Prism (optics) Ray tracing Superlens Telescope Zoom lens References General Chapters 5 & 6. Footnotes External links Applied photographic optics Book Book- The properties of optical glass Handbook of Ceramics, Glasses, and Diamonds Optical glass construction History of Optics (audio mp3) by Simon Schaffer, Professor in History and Philosophy of Science at the University of Cambridge, Jim Bennett, Director of the Museum of the History of Science at the University of Oxford and Emily Winterburn, Curator of Astronomy at the National Maritime Museum (recorded by the BBC). a chapter from an online textbook on refraction and lenses Thin Spherical Lenses on Project PHYSNET. Lens article at digitalartform.com Thin Lens Java applet Article on Ancient Egyptian lenses picture of the Ninive rock crystal lens Learning by Simulations - Concave and Convex Lenses Do Sensors “Outresolve” Lenses?; on lens and sensor resolution interaction. | Lens_(optics) |@lemmatized lens:200 use:30 focus:13 light:16 optical:27 device:2 perfect:3 approximate:1 axial:2 symmetry:2 transmits:1 refracts:1 converge:6 diverge:6 beam:19 simple:12 consisting:1 single:5 element:5 compound:3 array:2 common:2 axis:22 multiple:1 allow:1 aberration:29 correct:4 possible:1 manufacture:3 typically:2 make:10 glass:14 transparent:1 plastic:1 refract:3 electromagnetic:2 radiation:2 outside:1 visual:2 spectrum:1 also:8 call:10 instance:2 microwave:1 paraffin:1 wax:1 obsolescent:1 spelling:1 lense:1 sometimes:1 see:8 merriam:1 webster:1 medical:1 dictionary:2 major:2 consider:1 history:7 golden:1 gate:1 bridge:1 rain:1 droplet:1 act:1 old:2 artifact:1 nimrud:1 three:1 thousand:1 year:2 date:3 back:7 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5,595 | Civil_engineering | The Petronas Twin Towers, designed by architect Cesar Pelli and Thornton-Tomasetti and Ranhill Bersekutu Sdn Bhd engineers, were the world's tallest buildings from 1998 to 2004. Civil engineering is a professional engineering discipline that deals with the design, construction and maintenance of the physical and naturally built environment, including works such as bridges, roads, canals, dams and buildings. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. (accessed: 2007-08-08). Civil engineering is the oldest engineering discipline after military engineering, and it was defined to distinguish non-military engineering from military engineering. It is traditionally broken into several sub-disciplines including environmental engineering, geotechnical engineering, structural engineering, transportation engineering, municipal or urban engineering, water resources engineering, materials engineering, coastal engineering, surveying, and construction engineering. Civil engineering takes place on all levels: in the public sector from municipal through to federal levels, and in the private sector from individual homeowners through to international companies. History of the civil engineering profession The Falkirk Wheel in Scotland. Engineering has been an aspect of life since the beginnings of human existence. Civil engineering might be considered properly commencing between 4000 and 2000 BC in Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia when humans started to abandon a nomadic existence, thus causing a need for the construction of shelter. During this time, transportation became increasingly important leading to the development of the wheel and sailing. The construction of Pyramids in Egypt (circa 2700-2500 BC) might be considered the first instances of large structure constructions. Other ancient historic civil engineering constructions include the Parthenon by Iktinos in Ancient Greece (447-438 BC), the Appian Way by Roman engineers (c. 312 BC), and the Great Wall of China by General Meng T'ien under orders from Ch'in Emperor Shih Huang Ti (c. 220 BC). The Romans developed civil structures throughout their empire, including especially aqueducts, insulae, harbours, bridges, dams and roads. Until modern times there was no clear distinction between civil engineering and architecture, and the term engineer and architect were mainly geographical variations referring to the same person, often used interchangeably. The Architecture of the Italian Renaissance Jacob Burckhardt ISBN 0805210822 In the 18th century, the term civil engineering began to be used to distinguish it from military engineering. The Archimedes screw was operated by hand and could raise water efficiently. The first self-proclaimed civil engineer was John Smeaton who constructed the Eddystone Lighthouse. In 1771 Smeaton and some of his colleagues formed the Smeatonian Society of Civil Engineers, a group of leaders of the profession who met informally over dinner. Though there was evidence of some technical meetings, it was little more than a social society. In 1818 the Institution of Civil Engineers was founded in London, and in 1820 the eminent engineer Thomas Telford became its first president. The institution received a Royal Charter in 1828, formally recognising civil engineering as a profession. Its charter defined civil engineering as: The first private college to teach Civil Engineering in the United States was Norwich University founded in 1819 by Captain Alden Partridge. "Norwich University Legacy Website" . The first degree in Civil Engineering in the United States was awarded by Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in 1835. Griggs, Francis E Jr. "Amos Eaton was Right!". Journal of Professional Issues in Engineering Education and Practice, Vol. 123, No. 1, January 1997, pp. 30–34. See also RPI Timeline The first such degree to be awarded to a woman was granted by Cornell University to Nora Stanton Blatch in 1905. History of the science of civil engineering Pont du Gard, France, a Roman aqueduct built circa 19 BC. Civil engineering is the application of physical and scientific principles, and its history is intricately linked to advances in understanding of physics and mathematics throughout history. Because civil engineering is a wide ranging profession, including several separate specialized sub-disciplines, its history is linked to knowledge of structures, materials science, geography, geology, soils, hydrology, environment, mechanics and other fields. Throughout ancient and medieval history most architectural design and construction was carried out by artisans, such as stone masons and carpenters, rising to the role of master builder. Knowledge was retained in guilds and seldom supplanted by advances. Structures, roads and infrastructure that existed were repetitive, and increases in scale were incremental. One of the earliest examples of a scientific approach to physical and mathematical problems applicable to civil engineering is the work of Archimedes in the 3rd century BC, including Archimedes Principle, which underpins our understanding of buoyancy, and practical solutions such as Archimedes' screw. Brahmagupta, an Indian mathematician, used arithmetic in the 7th century AD, based on Hindu-Arabic numerals, for excavation (volume) computations. Algebra with arithemtic and mensuration by Henry Thomas Colebrook, http://books.google.com/books?id=A3cAAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=brahmagupta The civil engineer Education and licensure The Institution of Civil Engineers headquarters in London Civil engineers typically possess an academic degree with a major in civil engineering. The length of study for such a degree is usually four or five years and the completed degree is usually designated as a Bachelor of Engineering, though some universities designate the degree as a Bachelor of Science. The degree generally includes units covering physics, mathematics, project management, design and specific topics in civil engineering. Initially such topics cover most, if not all, of the sub-disciplines of civil engineering. Students then choose to specialize in one or more sub-disciplines towards the end of the degree. Various undergraduate degree requirements at MIT, Cal Poly, Queen's and Portsmouth In most countries, a Bachelor's degree in engineering represents the first step towards professional certification and the degree program itself is certified by a professional body. After completing a certified degree program the engineer must satisfy a range of requirements (including work experience and exam requirements) before being certified. Once certified, the engineer is designated the title of Professional Engineer (in the United States, Canada and South Africa), Chartered Engineer (in most Commonwealth countries), Chartered Professional Engineer (in Australia and New Zealand), or European Engineer (in much of the European Union). There are international engineering agreements between relevant professional bodies which are designed to allow engineers to practice across international borders. The advantages of certification vary depending upon location. For example, in the United States and Canada "only a licensed engineer may prepare, sign and seal, and submit engineering plans and drawings to a public authority for approval, or seal engineering work for public and private clients.". This requirement is enforced by state and provincial legislation such as Quebec's Engineers Act. In other countries, no such legislation exists. In Australia, state licensing of engineers is limited to the state of Queensland. Practically all certifying bodies maintain a code of ethics that they expect all members to abide by or risk expulsion. In this way, these organizations play an important role in maintaining ethical standards for the profession. Even in jurisdictions where certification has little or no legal bearing on work, engineers are subject to contract law. In cases where an engineer's work fails he or she may be subject to the tort of negligence and, in extreme cases, the charge of criminal negligence. An engineer's work must also comply with numerous other rules and regulations such as building codes and legislation pertaining to environmental law. Careers There is no one typical career path for civil engineers. Most engineering graduates start with jobs of low responsibility, and as they prove their competence, they are given more and more responsible tasks, but within each subfield of civil engineering, and even within different segments of the market within each branch, the details of a career path can vary. In some fields and firms, entry-level engineers are put to work primarily monitoring construction in the field, serving as the "eyes and ears" of more senior design engineers; while in other areas, entry-level engineers end up performing the more routine tasks of analysis or design and interpretation. More senior engineers can move into doing more complex analysis or design work, or management of more complex design projects, or management of other engineers, or into specialized consulting, including forensic engineering. Sub-disciplines In general, civil engineering is concerned with the overall interface of human created fixed projects with the greater world. General civil engineers work closely with surveyors and specialized civil engineers to fit and serve fixed projects within their given site, community and terrain by designing grading, drainage, pavement, water supply, sewer service, electric and communications supply, and land divisions. General engineers spend much of their time visiting project sites, developing community consensus, and preparing construction plans. General civil engineering is also referred to as site engineering, a branch of civil engineering that primarily focuses on converting a tract of land from one usage to another. Civil engineers typically apply the principles of geotechnical engineering, structural engineering, environmental engineering, transportation engineering and construction engineering to residential, commercial, industrial and public works projects of all sizes and levels of construction. Coastal engineering Coastal engineering is concerned with managing coastal areas. In some jurisdictions the terms sea defense and coastal protection are used to mean, respectively, defence against flooding and erosion. The term coastal defence is the more traditional term, but coastal management has become more popular as the field has expanded to include techniques that allow erosion to claim land Building construction for several apartment blocks Construction engineering Construction engineering involves planning and execution of the designs from transportation, site development, hydraulic, environmental, structural and geotechnical engineers. As construction firms tend to have higher business risk than other types of civil engineering firms, many construction engineers tend to take on a role that is more business-like in nature: drafting and reviewing contracts, evaluating logistical operations, and closely-monitoring prices of necessary supplies. Earthquake engineering Earthquake engineering covers ability of various structures to withstand hazardous earthquake exposures at the sites of their particular location.Earthquake-proof and massive pyramid El Castillo, Chichen Itza Earthquake engineering is treating its subject structures like defensive fortifications in military engineering but for the warfare on earthquakes. Both earthquake and military general design principles are similar: be ready to slow down or mitigate the advance of a possible attacker. The main objectives of earthquake engineering are:Snapshot from shake-table video of testing base-isolated (right) and regular (left) building model Understand interaction of structures with the shaky ground. Foresee the consequences of possible earthquakes. Design, construct and maintain structures to perform at earthquake exposure up to the expectations and in compliance with building codes. Earthquake engineering structure does not, necessarily, means extremely strong and expensive structure like, e.g., El Castillo pyramid at Chichen Itza shown above. Now, the most powerful and budgetary tool of the earthquake engineering is base isolation which pertains to the passive structural vibration control technologies. Environmental engineering A filter bed, a part of sewage treatment Environmental engineering deals with the treatment of chemical, biological, and/or thermal waste, the purification of water and air, and the remediation of contaminated sites, due to prior waste disposal or accidental contamination. Among the topics covered by environmental engineering are pollutant transport, water purification, waste water treatment, air pollution, solid waste treatment and hazardous waste management. Environmental engineers can be involved with pollution reduction, green engineering, and industrial ecology. Environmental engineering also deals with the gathering of information on the environmental consequences of proposed actions and the assessment of effects of proposed actions for the purpose of assisting society and policy makers in the decision making process. Environmental engineering is the contemporary term for sanitary engineering, though sanitary engineering traditionally had not included much of the hazardous waste management and environmental remediation work covered by the term environmental engineering. Some other terms in use are public health engineering and environmental health engineering. Geotechnical engineering A slab-on-grade foundation Geotechnical engineering is an area of civil engineering concerned with the rock and soil that civil engineering systems are supported by. Knowledge from the fields of geology, material science and testing, mechanics, and hydraulics are applied by geotechnical engineers to safely and economically design foundations, retaining walls, and similar structures. Environmental concerns in relation to groundwater and waste disposal have spawned a new area of study called geoenvironmental engineering where biology and chemistry are important. Mitchell, James Kenneth (1993), Fundamentals of Soil Behavior (2nd ed.), John Wiley and Sons, pp 1–2 Shroff, Arvind V.; Shah, Dhananjay L. (2003), Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Taylor & Francis, 2003, pp 1–2 Some of the unique difficulties of geotechnical engineering are the result of the variability and properties of soil. Boundary conditions are often well defined in other branches of civil engineering, but with soil, clearly defining these conditions can be impossible. The material properties and behavior of soil are also difficult to predict due to the variability of soil and limited investigation. This contrasts with the relatively well defined material properties of steel and concrete used in other areas of civil engineering. Soil mechanics, which define the behavior of soil, is complex due to stress-dependent material properties such as volume change, stress–strain relationship, and strength. Water resources engineering Hoover dam Water resources engineering is concerned with the collection and management of water (as a natural resource). As a discipline it therefore combines hydrology, environmental science, meteorology, geology, conservation, and resource management. This area of civil engineering relates to the prediction and management of both the quality and the quantity of water in both underground (aquifers) and above ground (lakes, rivers, and streams) resources. Water resource engineers analyze and model very small to very large areas of the earth to predict the amount and content of water as it flows into, through, or out of a facility. Although the actual design of the facility may be left to other engineers. Hydraulic engineering is concerned with the flow and conveyance of fluids, principally water. This area of civil engineering is intimately related to the design of pipelines, water distribution systems, drainage facilities (including bridges, dams, channels, culverts, levees, storm sewers), and canals. Hydraulic engineers design these facilities using the concepts of fluid pressure, fluid statics, fluid dynamics, and hydraulics, among others. Materials engineering Another aspect of Civil engineering is materials science. Material engineering deals with ceramics such as concrete, mix asphalt concrete, metals Focus around increased strength, metals such as aluminum and steel, and polymers such as polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) and carbon fibers. Structural engineering Burj Dubai, the world's tallest building, currently under construction in Dubai Clifton Suspension Bridge, designed by Isambard Kingdom Brunel, in Bristol, UK Structural engineering is concerned with the structural design and structural analysis of buildings, bridges, towers, flyovers, tunnels, off shore structures like oil and gas fields in the sea, and other structures. This involves identifying the loads which act upon a structure and the forces and stresses which arise within that structure due to those loads, and then designing the structure to successfully support and resist those loads. The loads can be self weight of the structures, other dead load, live loads, moving (wheel) load, wind load, earthquake load, load from temperature change etc. The structural engineer must design structures to be safe for their users and to successfully fulfill the function they are designed for (to be serviceable). Due to the nature of some loading conditions, sub-disciplines within structural engineering have emerged, including wind engineering and earthquake engineering. Design considerations will include strength, stiffness, and stability of the structure when subjected to loads which may be static, such as furniture or self-weight, or dynamic, such as wind, seismic, crowd or vehicle loads, or transitory, such as temporary construction loads or impact. Other considerations include cost, constructability, safety, aesthetics and sustainability. Surveying An all-female surveying crew in Idaho, 1918 Surveying is the process by which a surveyor measures certain dimensions that generally occur on the surface of the Earth. Surveying equipment, such as levels and theodolites, are used for accurate measurement of angular deviation, horizontal, vertical and slope distances. With computerisation, electronic distance measurement (EDM), total stations, GPS surveying and laser scanning have supplemented (and to a large extent supplanted) the traditional optical instruments. This information is crucial to convert the data into a graphical representation of the Earth's surface, in the form of a map. This information is then used by civil engineers, contractors and even realtors to design from, build on, and trade, respectively. Elements of a building or structure must be correctly sized and positioned in relation to each other and to site boundaries and adjacent structures. Although surveying is a distinct profession with separate qualifications and licensing arrangements, civil engineers are trained in the basics of surveying and mapping, as well as geographic information systems. Surveyors may also lay out the routes of railways, tramway tracks, highways, roads, pipelines and streets as well as position other infrastructures, such as harbors, before construction. Land Surveying In the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom and most Commonwealth countries land surveying is considered to be a distinct profession. Land surveyors are not considered to be engineers, and have their own professional associations and licencing requirements. The services of a licenced land surveyor are generally required for boundary surveys (to establish the boundaries of a parcel using its legal description) and subdivision plans (a plot or map based on a survey of a parcel of land, with boundary lines drawn inside the larger parcel to indicated the creation of new boundary lines and roads). Construction Surveying Construction surveying is generally performed by specialised technicians. Unlike land surveyors, the resulting plan does not have legal status. Construction surveyors perform the following tasks: Survey existing conditions of the future work site, including topography, existing buildings and infrastructure, and even including underground infrastructure whenever possible; Construction surveying (otherwise "lay-out" or "setting-out"): to stake out reference points and markers that will guide the construction of new structures such as roads or buildings for subsequent construction; Verify the location of structures during construction; As-Built surveying: a survey conducted at the end of the construction project to verify that the work authorized was completed to the specifications set on plans. Transportation engineering Transportation engineering is concerned with moving people and goods efficiently, safely, and in a manner conducive to a vibrant community. This involves specifying, designing, constructing, and maintaining transportation infrastructure which includes streets, canals, highways, rail systems, airports, ports, and mass transit. It includes areas such as transportation design, transportation planning, traffic engineering, some aspects of urban engineering, queueing theory, pavement engineering, Intelligent Transportation System (ITS), and infrastructure management. Municipal or urban engineering Municipal engineering is concerned with municipal infrastructure. This involves specifying, designing, constructing, and maintaining streets, sidewalks, water supply networks, sewers, street lighting, municipal solid waste management and disposal, storage depots for various bulk materials used for maintenance and public works (salt, sand, etc), public parks and bicycle paths. In the case of underground utility networks, it may also include the civil portion (conduits and access chambers) of the local distribution networks of electrical and telecommunications services. It can also include the optimizing of garbage collection and bus service networks. Some of these disciplines overlap with other civil engineering specialties, however municipal engineering focuses on the coordination of these infrastructure networks and services, as they are often built simultaneously, and managed by the same municipal authority. See also Civil engineer Macro-engineering List of civil engineers List of historic civil engineering landmarks Infrastructure Associations American Society of Civil Engineers Canadian Society for Civil Engineering Chi Epsilon, a civil engineering honor society Earthquake Engineering Research Institute Engineers Australia Institution of Civil Engineers Institution of Engineers of Ireland Institute of Transportation Engineers International Federation of Consulting Engineers Transportation Research Board The Institution of Civil Engineering Surveyors References External links American Society of Civil Engineers Institution of Civil Engineers Planete TP - The World of Public Works CENews - For the Business of Civil Engineering The Institution of Civil Engineering Surveyors | Civil_engineering |@lemmatized petronas:1 twin:1 tower:2 design:27 architect:2 cesar:1 pelli:1 thornton:1 tomasetti:1 ranhill:1 bersekutu:1 sdn:1 bhd:1 engineer:54 world:4 tall:1 building:10 civil:58 engineering:115 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5,596 | Herbert_Marcuse | Herbert Marcuse (July 19,1898 – July 29,1979) was a German philosopher, political theorist and sociologist, and a member of the Frankfurt School. His best known works are Eros and Civilization, One-Dimensional Man and The Aesthetic Dimension. Life and work Herbert Marcuse was born in Berlin to Carl Marcuse and Gertrud Kreslawsky and raised in a Jewish family and served in the German Army, caring for horses in Berlin during the First World War. He then became a member of a Soldiers' Council that participated in the aborted socialist Spartacist uprising. After completing his Ph.D. thesis at the University of Freiburg in 1922 on the German Künstlerroman, he moved back to Berlin, where he worked in publishing. He returned to Freiburg in 1929 to write a Habilitation with Martin Heidegger, which was published in 1932 as Hegel's Ontology and Theory of Historicity in spite of Heidegger's rejection. With his academic career blocked by the rise of the Third Reich, in 1933 Marcuse joined the Frankfurt Institute for Social Research, emigrating from Germany that same year, going first to Switzerland, then the United States, where he became a naturalized citizen in 1940. Although he never returned to Germany to live, he remained one of the major theorists associated with the Frankfurt School, along with Max Horkheimer and Theodor W. Adorno (among others). In 1940 he published Reason and Revolution, a dialectical work studying Georg W. F. Hegel and Karl Marx. During World War II Marcuse first worked for the U.S. Office of War Information (OWI) on anti-Nazi propaganda projects. In 1943 he transferred to the Office of Strategic Services (OSS), the precursor to the Central Intelligence Agency. His work for the OSS involved research on Nazi Germany and denazification. After the dissolution of the OSS in 1945, Marcuse was employed by the US Department of State as head of the Central European section, retiring after the death of his first wife in 1951. In 1952 he began a teaching career as a political theorist, first at Columbia University and Harvard University, then at Brandeis University from 1958 to 1965, where he taught philosophy and politics, and finally (by then he was past the usual retirement age), at the University of California, San Diego. He was a friend and collaborator of the political sociologist Barrington Moore, Jr. and of the political philosopher Robert Paul Wolff, and also a friend of the Columbia University sociology professor C. Wright Mills, one of the founders of the New Left movement. In the post-war period, Marcuse was the most explicitly political and left-wing member of the Frankfurt School, continuing to identify himself as a Marxist, a socialist, and a Hegelian. Marcuse's critiques of capitalist society (especially his 1955 synthesis of Marx and Freud, Eros and Civilization, and his 1964 book One-Dimensional Man) resonated with the concerns of the student movement in the 1960s. Because of his willingness to speak at student protests, Marcuse soon became known as "the father of the New Left in the United States", a term he strongly disliked and disavowed. His work heavily influenced intellectual discourse on popular culture and scholarly popular culture studies. He had many speaking engagements in the US and Europe in the late 1960s and 1970s. He became a close friend and inspirer of the French philosopher André Gorz. Marcuse defended the arrested East German dissident Rudolf Bahro (author of Die Alternative: Zur Kritik des real existierenden Sozialismus [trans., The Alternative in Eastern Europe]), discussing in a 1979 essay Bahro's theories of "change from within" . Many radical scholars and activists were influenced by Marcuse, such as Angela Davis, Abbie Hoffman, Rudi Dutschke, and Robert M. Young. (See the List of Scholars and Activists link, below.) Among those who critiqued him from the left were Marxist-humanist Raya Dunayevskaya, and fellow German emigre Paul Mattick, both of whom subjected One-Dimensional Man to a Marxist critique. Marcuse's 1965 essay "Repressive Tolerance", in which he claimed capitalist democracies can have totalitarian aspects, has been criticized by conservatives. Marcuse argues that genuine tolerance does not tolerate support for repression, since doing so ensures that marginalized voices will remain unheard. He characterizes tolerance of repressive speech as "inauthentic." Instead, he advocates a discriminatory form of tolerance that does not allow so-called "repressive" intolerance to be voiced. Marcuse married three times. His first wife was mathematician Sophie Wertman (1901–1951), with whom he had a son, Peter (born 1928). Herbert's second marriage was to Inge Neumann (1913?–1972), the widow of his close friend Franz Neumann (1900-1954). His third wife was Erica Sherover (1938–1988), a former graduate student and forty years his junior, whom he married in 1976. His son Peter is currently professor emeritus of Urban Planning at Columbia University. Ten days after his eighty-first birthday, Marcuse died on July 29, 1979, after having suffered a stroke during a visit to Germany. He had spoken at the Frankfurt Römerberggespräche, and second-generation Frankfurt School theorist Jürgen Habermas had invited him to the Max-Planck-Institute for the Study of the Scientific-Technical World in Starnberg. Primary literature The Struggle Against Liberalism in the Totalitarian View of the State (1934) Reason and Revolution (1941) Eros and Civilization (1955) Soviet Marxism: A Critical Analysis (1958) One-Dimensional Man (1964) Repressive Tolerance (1965) Negations (1968) An Essay on Liberation (1969) Counter-Revolution and Revolt (1972) The Aesthetic Dimension (1978) Secondary literature Christian Fuchs (2005). Emanzipation! Technik und Politik bei Herbert Marcuse. Aachen: Shaker. ISBN 3-8322-3999-5. Christian Fuchs (2005). Herbert Marcuse interkulturell gelesen. Interkulturelle Bibliothek Vol. 15. Nordhausen: Bautz. ISBN 3-88309-175-8. Douglas Kellner (1984). Herbert Marcuse and the Crisis of Marxism. London: Macmillan. ISBN 9780520052956. See also Neo-Marxism Freudo-Marxism Theodor Adorno Walter Benjamin Erich Fromm Wilhelm Reich André Gorz Jürgen Habermas Max Horkheimer Georg Lukács C. Wright Mills External links Comprehensive 'Official' Herbert Marcuse Website, by one of Marcuse's grandsons, with full bibliographies of primary and secondary works, and full texts of many important works Excellent narrative biography by A. Buick, at worldsocialism.org Detailed intellectual biography and essays, by Douglas Kellner, Marcuse scholar at UCLA "Herbert Marcuse (on-line) Archive" at marxists.org Eros and Civilization (1955) text excerpts online at marxists.org One-Dimensional Man (1964), partial text online at marcuse.org Repressive Tolerance (1965), complete essay text online at marcuse.org Comprehensive bibliography of Marcuse's published works, at marcuse.org Long list of secondary works about Marcuse, at marcuse.org List of scholars and activists influenced by Marcuse, at marcuse.org Herbert's Hippopotamus: Marcuse and Revolution in Paradise, biographic documentary on Google video Bernard Stiegler, "Spirit, Capitalism, and Superego" [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jkTNe85y0UI - DRUX FLUX - a short film by Canadian/Bulgarian filmmaker Theodore Ushev, inspired by "One-Dimensional man" by Herbert Marcuse" "Stephen Amidon on Herbert Marcuse's One-Dimensional Man" New Statesman, 27 November, 2000 | 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5,597 | Interference | Interference may refer to: Sciences Interference (genetic) is a phenomenon by which a chromosomal crossover in one interval decreases the probability that additional crossovers will occur nearby. The distribution of crossovers by interference has been postulated to ensure that every pair of homologs receives at least one. The degree of interference and the number of crossovers per meiosis varies between organisms. Interference (physics), in physics, the superposition of two or more waves resulting in a new wave pattern. See also beat (acoustics). Interference (communication), in telecommunication and electronics, anything which alters, modifies, or disrupts a message as it travels along a channel between a source and a receiver. Typically the term refers to the addition of an unwanted signal to the useful signal, for example: Electromagnetic interference (EMI) Co-channel interference (CCI), also known as crosstalk Adjacent-channel interference (ACI) Intersymbol interference (ISI) Inter-carrier interference (ICI), caused by doppler shift in OFDM modulation (multitone modulation). Common-mode interference (CMI) Conducted interference Vaccine interference may occur when two or more vaccines are mixed together in the same formulation. Interference in engineering, two items attempting to occupy the same space (eg over-size pin in hole). An interference engine refers to an engine whose pistons can strike and damage the piston valves when the engine is cranked while the timing belt is broken. Interference theory in psychology. Statistical interference is a method of determining when one distribution of values exceeds another. Linguistics Language interference, a nontechnical term referring to the 'transfer' of native language grammar and pronunciation into the learning and use of a second language. Narrative interference, in literary criticism. Law Humanitarian interference in law. Interference proceedings of the United States patent law. Sports Interference (chess), when a piece is sacrificially interposed between attacker and defender. Interference (ice hockey), the penalty where a player impedes the movement of another player who does not have the puck. Interference (baseball), an infraction where a person illegally changes the course of play from what is expected. Pass interference, a penalty in American football and Canadian Football. Media Interference (film), Paramount Pictures' first all-talking feature film, made in 1928. Interference (album), a 1998 album by Cubanate. Interference (book), a 1984 book by Nick Rhodes containing manipulated Polaroids. Interference: Book One, the first book in a two-book duology of Doctor Who books of the Eighth Doctor Adventures. Interference, a TV show created by students at the University of Salford for Channel M "Interference" (Prison Break episode), the 49th episode of the TV series Prison Break. 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5,598 | Dhrystone | Dhrystone is a synthetic computing benchmark program developed in 1984 by Reinhold P. Weicker intended to be representative of system (integer) programming. The Dhrystone grew to become representative of general processor (CPU) performance until it was superseded by the CPU89 benchmark suite from the Standard Performance Evaluation Corporation, today known as the "SPECint" suite. The name is a pun on a different benchmark algorithm called Whetstone. With Dhrystone, Weicker gathered meta-data from a broad range of software – including programs written in FORTRAN, PL/1, SAL, ALGOL 68, and Pascal. He then characterized these programs in terms of various common constructs – procedure calls, pointer indirections, assignments, etc. From this he wrote the Dhrystone benchmark to correspond to a representative mix. Dhrystone was published in Ada, with the C version for Unix developed by Rick Richardson ("version 1.1") greatly contributing to its popularity. Dhrystone vs. Whetstone The Dhrystone benchmark contains no floating point operations, thus the name is a pun on the then-popular Whetstone benchmark for floating point operations. The output from the benchmark is the number of Dhrystones per second (the number of iterations of the main code loop per second). Both Whetstone and Dhrystone are synthetic benchmarks, meaning that they are simple programs that are carefully designed to statistically mimic some common set of programs. Whetstone, developed in 1972, originally strove to mimic typical Algol 60 programs based on measurements from 1970, but eventually became most popular in its Fortran version. Whetstone thus reflected the highly numerical orientation of computing in the 1960s. Issues addressed by Dhrystone Dhrystone's eventual importance as an indicator of general-purpose ("integer") performance of new computers made it a target for commercial compiler writers. Various modern compiler static code analysis techniques (such as dead code elimination) make the use and design of synthetic benchmarks more difficult. Version 2.0 of the benchmark, released by Weicker and Richardson in March 1988, had a number of changes intended to foil a range of compiler techniques. Yet it was carefully crafted so as not to change the underlying benchmark. This effort to foil compilers was only partly successful. Dhrystone 2.1, released in May of the same year, had some minor changes and remains the current definition of Dhrystone. Other than issues related to compiler optimization, various other issues have been cited with the Dhrystone. Most of these were understood at the time of its publication in 1984 – including the small code size and small data set size. More subtle is the slight over-representation of string operations, which is largely language related: both Ada and Pascal have strings as first class citizens in the language, whereas C does not, so what was simple variable assignments in reference benchmarks became buffer copy operations in the C library. Dhrystone remains remarkably resilient as a simple benchmark, but its continuing value in establishing true performance is questionable. It is easy to use, well documented, is fully self-contained, is well understood, and can be made to work on almost any system. In particular, it has remained in broad use in the embedded computing world, though the recently developed EEMBC benchmark suite as well as HINT, Stream, and even Bytemark are widely quoted and used, as well as more specific benchmarks for memory subsystem (Cachebench), TCP/IP (TTCP), and many others. Still, 20 years of continued use is quite a testament to Weicker's careful design and foresight. Results Dhrystone tries to represent the result more meaningfully than MIPS (million instructions per second), because MIPS cannot be used across different instruction sets (e.g. RISC vs. CISC) for the same computation requirement from users. Thus, the main score is just Dhrystone loops per second. Another common representation of the Dhrystone benchmark is the DMIPS (Dhrystone MIPS) obtained when the Dhrystone score is divided by 1,757 (the number of Dhrystones per second obtained on the VAX 11/780, nominally a 1 MIPS machine). Criticisms Using Dhrystone as a benchmark has many pitfalls: it features unusual code that is not usually representative of real-life programs. It is also susceptible to compiler optimizations. For example, it does a lot of string copying in an attempt to measure string copying performance. However, the strings in Dhrystone are of known constant length and their starts are aligned on natural boundaries, two characteristics usually absent from real programs. Therefore an optimizer can replace a string copy with a sequence of word moves without any loops, which will be much faster. This optimization therefore overstates system performance, sometimes by more than 30%. Dhrystone is no longer at all useful for performance measurement of systems, as its small code size (allowing it to fit in cache) means that it doesn't test the memory performance of a system http://www.ebenchmarks.com/download/ECLDhrystoneWhitePaper.pdf , which today is an important component of system performance. Even its author has held this view for a long time now. See also Benchmark (computing) Whetstone (benchmark) References Notes Bibliography Weicker, Reinhold. "Dhrystone: A Synthetic Systems Programming Benchmark" Communications of the ACM (CACM), Volume 27, Number 10, October 1984, p. 1013-1030. External links Newsgroup posting for calculation of DMIPS C version of Dhrystone in a sh file Self configuring and compiling version. Comments on Benchmark pitfalls. 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5,599 | Marquette,_Michigan | Marquette is a city in the U.S. state of Michigan and the county seat of Marquette County. The population was 19,661 at the 2000 census. Marquette is a major port on Lake Superior, primarily for shipping iron ore and is the home of Northern Michigan University. It is the largest city of the Upper Peninsula. The city of Marquette averages about 144 inches of snow per year, making it the second snowiest city in the contiguous United States among those cities large enough to be reported. History The land around Marquette was known to French missionaries of the early 17th century and the trappers of the early 19th century. Development of the area did not begin, however, until 1844, when William Burt and Jacob Houghton (the brother of geologist Douglass Houghton) discovered iron deposits near Teal Lake west of Marquette. In 1845, Jackson Mining Company, the first organized mining company in the region, was formed. Eckert, Kathryn Bishop (2000). The Sandstone Architecture of the Lake Superior Region, pp. 89-91. Detroit: Wayne State University Press. ISBN 0814328075. The village of Marquette began on September 14, 1849, with the formation of a second iron concern, the Marquette Iron Company. Three men participated in organizing the firm: Robert J. Graveraet, who had prospected the region for ore; Edward Clark, agent for Waterman A. Fisher of Worcester, Massachusetts, who financed the company, and Amos Rogers Harlow. The village was at first called New Worcester, with Harlow as the first postmaster. On August 21, 1850, the name was changed to honor Jacques Marquette, the French Jesuit missionary who had explored the region. A second post office, named Carp River, was opened on October 13, 1851 by Peter White, who had come there with Graveraet at age 18. Harlow closed his post office in August 1852. The Marquette Iron Company failed, while its successor, the Cleveland Iron Mining Company, flourished and had the village platted in 1854. The plat was recorded by Peter White. White's office was renamed as Marquette in April 1856, and the village was incorporated in 1859. It was incorporated as a city in 1871. During the 1850s, Marquette was linked by rail to numerous mines and became the leading shipping center of the Upper Peninsula. The first ore pocket dock, designed by an early town leader, John Burt, was built by the Cleveland Iron Mining Company in 1859. Bogue, Margaret Beattie (2007). Around the Shores of Lake Superior: A Guide to Historic Sites, pp. 237-39. University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 0299221741. By 1862, the city had a population of over 1,600 and a soaring economy. In the late 19th century, during the height of iron mining, Marquette became nationally known as a summer haven. Visitors brought in by Great Lakes passenger steamships filled the city's hotels and resorts. South of the city, K.I. Sawyer AFB, was an important Air Force installation during the Cold War, host to B-52H bombers and KC-135 tankers of the Strategic Air Command, as well as a fighter interceptor squadron. The base closed in September 1995, and is now the county's Sawyer International Airport. Marquette continues to be a shipping port for hematite ores and, today, enriched iron ore pellets, from nearby mines and pelletizing plants. About 7.9 million gross tons of pelletized iron ore passed through Marquette's Presque Isle Harbor in 2005. The Roman Catholic Bishop Frederic Baraga is buried at St. Peter's Cathedral, which is the center for the Diocese of Marquette. Marquette is the sister city of Kajaani, Finland, and Higashiomi (formerly Yokaichi), Japan. Postal and philatelic history In addition to the Marquette #1 Post Office there is the "Northern Michigan University Bookstore Contract Station #384". Marquette (NMU Bookstore CS #384), MI 49855, Postmark Collector's Club The first day of issue of a postal card showing Bishop Frederic Baraga took place in Marquette on 29 June 1984, and that of the Wonders of America Lake Superior stamp on May 27, 2006. Geography According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 19.4 square miles (50.2 km²), of which, 11.4 square miles (29.6 km²) of it is land and 8.0 square miles (20.6 km²) of it (41.09%) is water. The city includes several small islands (principally Middle Island, Gull Island, Lover's Island, Presque Isle Pt. Rocks, White Rocks, Ripley Rock, and Picnic Rocks) in Lake Superior. The Marquette Underwater Preserve lies immediately offshore. Marquette Mountain, used for skiing, is located in the city, as is most of the land of Marquette Branch Prison of the Michigan Department of Corrections. Michigan Department of Corrections, Marquette Branch Prison. Trowbridge Park (an unincorporated part of Marquette Township) is located to the west, and Marquette Township to the northwest of the city. Demographics At the 2000 census, there were 19,661 people, 8,071 households and 4,067 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,723.9 per square mile (665.3/km²). There were 8,429 housing units at an average density of 739.1/sq mi (285.2/km²). The racial makeup of the city was 95% White, 0.8% African American, 1.7% Native American, 0.8% Asian, 0% Pacific Islander, 0.22% from other races, and 1.33% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.77% of the population. 15.5% were of German, 12.6% Finnish, 8.9% French, 8.5% English, 8.2% Irish, 6.8% Italian and 6.7% Swedish ancestry according to Census 2000. There were 8,071 households of which 23.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 37.2% were married couples living together, 10.2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 49.6% were non-families. 37.0% of all households were made up of individuals and 11.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.13 and the average family size was 2.81. Age distribution was 16.8% under the age of 18, 25.9% from 18 to 24, 23.8% from 25 to 44, 19.7% from 45 to 64, and 13.8% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 31 years. For every 100 females there were 94.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 92.4 males. The median household income was US$29,918, and the median family income was US$48,120. Males had a median income of US$34,107 versus US$24,549 for females. The per capita income for the city was US$17,787. About 7.2% of families and 17.0% of the population were below the poverty line, including 12.3% of those under age 18 and 5.1% of those age 65 or over. Business Along with Northern Michigan University, the largest employers in Marquette are the Marquette School System, Marquette General Hospital (a regional medical center which is the only Level 2 Trauma center in the Upper Peninsula), the Michigan State Prison, Pioneer Surgical Technology, Charter Communications and The Mining Journal. Marquette in film and literature Robert Traver (John Voelker) set his novels Anatomy of a Murder (1958) and Laughing Whitefish (1965) in Marquette. The film version of Anatomy of a Murder, dramatizing an incident that happened in the area, was partly filmed in Marquette and Big Bay. However, much of it was filmed in the Marquette County Courthouse. Danny and the Boys (1951) is a collection of short stories set in and around Marquette. Philip Caputo set his novel Indian Country (1987) in the Upper Peninsula and several scenes depict Marquette. Jim Harrison's novel True North (2005) tells about a Marquette family whose wealth is based on exploiting Upper Peninsula timber. A large portion of the acclaimed graphic novel Blankets, by Craig Thompson, takes place in Marquette. Marquette was the site of many key events in the investigation of a murder in Dave Distel's The Sweater Letter, a true story of a murder that occurred near Ontonagan. Parks, sports and recreation The city of Marquette has a number of parks and recreational facilities which are used by city and county residents. Presque Isle Park is Marquette's most popular park located on the north side of the city. It includes 323 acres (131 hectares) of mostly forested land and juts out into Lake Superior. The park was designed by Fredrick Law Olmsted, the same Olmsted that designed Central Park in New York. Amenities include a wooden band shell for concerts, a park pavilion, a gazebo, a marina, a concession stand, picnic tables, barbecue pits, walking/skiing trails, playground facilities, Moosewood Nature Center and Shiras Pool. Lake Superior shore at Presque Isle Park in winter The city has two popular beaches, South Beach Park and McCarty's Cove. McCarty's Cove, flanked by the red U.S. Coast Guard Station lighthouse on its south shore, serves as a reprieve from hot summer days, where city and county residents alike take advantage of the cool, but tolerable, water temperatures and the cooling effects of the lake-generated sea breeze. Both beaches have picnic areas, grills, children's playgrounds and lifeguard stands. Other parks include Tourist Park, Founder's Landing, LaBonte Park, Mattson Lower Harbor Park, Park Cemetery, Shiras Park, Williams Park, Harlow Park, Pocket Park, Spring Street Park and Father Marquette Park. There are also numerous other recreational facilities located within the city. Lakeview Arena is best known for its use as an ice hockey facility, but it also hosts a number of public events. A skateboard park is located just outside of the arena and open during the summer. Lakeview Arena is home to the Marquette Rangers, Marquette Electricians, the Marquette Redmen high school hockey teams. In 1974, the arena replaced the historic Palestra, which had been located a few blocks away. Marquette has the largest man-made wooden dome in the world, the Superior Dome. (The second largest, located in Japan, is just one square foot smaller.) During the football season, the Dome is used primarily for football on its artificial turf field. Northern Michigan University holds its home football games in the Dome, as does the Michigan High School Athletic Association with the upper peninsula's High School football playoffs. The dome also hosts numerous private and public events which draw in thousands from around the region. The Marquette Golf Club has brought international recognition to the area for its unique and dramatic Greywalls course, opened in 2005. The course features several panoramic views of Lake Superior and winds its way through rocky outcroppings, heaving fairways and a rolling valley, yet is located less than two miles from the downtown area. Marquette also has an extensive network of biking and walking paths throughout the city. The city has been gradually expanding the paths and has been promoting itself as a walkable and livable community. Cross Country ski trails are also located at Presque Isle Park and the Fit Strip. Presque Isle State Park - Winter Activities Camping facilities are located at Tourist Park. Live theatrical productions are provided through Northern Michigan University's Forest Roberts Theatre and Black Box Theatre, Marquette High School's Kaufman Auditorium and Lake Superior Theatre, a semi-professional summer stock theatre. The combination of hilly terrain (a 600 foot vertical difference from top to bottom) and large area snow falls makes downhill skiing a reality on the edge of town. Marquette Mountain Ski Resort. Transportation Marquette is served by Sawyer International Airport with daily flights to Chicago, Detroit, Milwaukee and Minneapolis. Marquette is served by a public transportation bus system called the "MarqTran" that runs through the city and to nearby places such as Sawyer International Airport and Ishpeming. Highways is a major highway continuing westerly and northerly toward Houghton and southerly toward Escanaba. travels westerly to Wakefield and easterly toward Sault Ste. Marie. provides a direct connection to Sawyer International Airport. The city is also known for fishing for deep water lake trout, whitefish, salmon and brown trout. Museums, galleries, lighthouses The Marquette Maritime Museum is located along the Lake Superior shoreline near the U.S. Coast Guard Station. The museum is open during the summer season and offers an extensive collection of maritime artifacts involving the maritime history of Marquette. Tours of the historic Marquette Harbor Lighthouse are also available "About us" at Marquette Maritime Museum ; and just to the west of Marquette, the Big Bay Point Light is operated as a bed and breakfast, which offers a unique experience. The Upper Peninsula Children's Museum is located along Baraga Avenue. Those familiar with Marquette's past will recognize the former Bunny Bread sign that is located on the outside of the building. The museum features hands-on exhibits for children to learn and have fun doing so. The museum is open year-round. Upper Peninsula Children's Museum, general information The Marquette County History Museum is located along Front Street in the downtown district. The museum features many exhibits and artifacts of Marquette County's past. The museum includes a library and gift shop and is open year-round. "About us" at Marquette County History Museum The DeVos Art Museum is the art museum at Northern Michigan University. DeVos Art Museum, general information The Oasis Gallery for Contemporary Art is an ongoing project of the Marquette Arts Council. "About us" at Oasis Gallery for Contemporary Art Climate Monthly Normal and Record High and Low Temperatures Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Rec High °F 48 61 71 92 93 96 99 96 93 87 73 59 Norm High °F 19.7 24.2 33.1 45.8 61.5 70.3 75.2 72.6 63.2 50.9 35.4 24.1 Norm Low °F 3.3 5.4 14.3 26.9 39.1 48.3 53.5 52 43.8 34 22.4 10.2 Rec Low °F -27 -34 -30 -9 17 28 36 34 24 14 -8 -28 Precip (in) 2.6 1.85 3.13 2.79 3.07 3.21 3.01 3.55 3.74 3.66 3.27 2.43Source: USTravelWeather.com http://www.ustravelweather.com/michigan/marquette/ Education Public schools Marquette Senior High School Redmen and Redettes Bothwell Middle School School Graveraet Intermediate School Comets Cherry Creek Elementary School Panthers Sandy Knoll Elementary School Explorers Superior Hills Elementary School Huskies Vandenboom Elementary School Stars North Star Academy Marquette Alternative High School Private schools Father Marquette Elementary School Golden Eagles Father Marquette Middle School Golden Eagles Crossroads Christian Academy Universities Northern Michigan University Media Multiple media outlets provide local coverage of the Marquette area. Newspaper: The Mining Journal, The Northwind, Marquette Monthly and the Iron County Reporter Television: WLUC-TV, WBUP-TV, WMQF and WNMU-TV Radio: WNMU-FM, WHWL-FM, WUPK-FM, WFXD-FM and WUPX Suburbs of Marquette Harvey Trowbridge Park Marquette Township Festivals and events Art on the Rocks - An art festival at Presque Isle Park Hiawatha Music Festival Traditional music festival at Tourist Park (30th Annual 18-20 July 2008) Marquette's 4th of July Celebration Marquette area 4th of July committee Superior Bike Fest Superior bike fest Ore to Shore Mountain Bike race. Exchange Club International Food Fest Seafood Fest Up 200 Dog Sled Race The UP-200 Noquemanon Ski Marathon Noquemanon Ski Marathon Marquette Area Blues Fest Marquette area blues fest Marquette Scandinavian Midsummer Festival and Wife-Carrying Contest http://mmnow.com/mm_archive_folder/07/0706/city_notes.html See also Big Bay Point Light Shipwrecks of the 1913 Great Lakes storm Notes External links City of Marquette National Weather Service WFO Marquette, Michigan | Marquette,_Michigan |@lemmatized marquette:77 city:28 u:11 state:6 michigan:14 county:10 seat:1 population:5 census:4 major:2 port:2 lake:15 superior:14 primarily:2 ship:1 iron:11 ore:7 home:3 northern:7 university:10 large:7 upper:8 peninsula:8 average:4 inch:1 snow:2 per:3 year:6 make:4 second:4 snowy:1 contiguous:1 united:2 among:1 enough:1 report:1 history:5 land:4 around:4 know:4 french:3 missionary:2 early:3 century:3 trapper:1 development:1 area:11 begin:2 however:2 william:1 burt:2 jacob:1 houghton:3 brother:1 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