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5,400 | Foreign_relations_of_Moldova | After achieving independence from the Soviet Union, Moldova had established relations with other European countries. A course for European Union integration and neutrality define the country's foreign policy guidelines. In 1995 the country became the first post-Soviet state admitted to the Council of Europe. In addition to its participation in NATO's Partnership for Peace program, Moldova is also a member state of the United Nations, the OSCE, the North Atlantic Cooperation Council, the World Trade Organization, the International Monetary Fund, the World Bank, the Francophonie and the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development. In 2005 Moldova and EU established an action plan that sought to improve the collaboration between the two neighboring structures. After the War of Transnistria, Moldova had sought a peaceful resolution to the conflict in the Transnistria region by working with Romania, Ukraine, and Russia, calling for international mediation, and cooperating with the OSCE and UN fact-finding and observer missions. Relations with the European Union Moldova currently aspires to join the European Union Moldova will prove that it can and has chances to become EU member, Moldpress News Agency, June 19, 2007 and is implementing its first three-year Action Plan within the framework of the European Neighbourhood Policy (ENP) of the EU. Moldova-EU Action Plan Approved by European Commission, December 14 2004, retrieved July 2 2007 Relations with Romania Moldova's relations with its western neighbour, Romania, have been sinuous since 1994. Most of Moldova was part of Romania during the interwar period (1918-40) and linguists generally agree that the Moldovan language is in fact identical with Romanian. However, Moldovans have been ambivalent about whether they consider themselves Romanians or Moldovans. Early signs that Romania and Moldova might unite after both countries achieved emancipation from communist rule quickly faded. Romania remains interested in Moldovan affairs, especially that country's civil conflict with the breakaway republic of Transnistria. However, the two countries have been unable even to reach agreement on a basic bilateral treaty; Romania is insistent (against determined Moldovan resistance) that such a treaty would have to refer to Romania and Moldova's 'special relationship'. Since 1994, the two countries enjoyed a visa-free arrangement that ended on January 12007 with Romania's entry into European Union. This prompted a lot of Moldovan citizens to apply for Romanian citizenship. Cetatenia romana, portita spre Europa December 27, 2006 Relations with Russia and other post-Soviet states The Moldovan Parliament approved the country's membership in the Commonwealth of Independent States and the CIS charter on economic union in April 1994. Moldova however has never participated in any military aspects of CIS, citing its neutrality status. In 1998 Moldova contributed to the founding of GUAM, a regional cooperation agreement made up of Georgia, Ukraine, Azerbaijan and Moldova. Although the agreement initially included a declaration of mutual defense, Moldova has since declared its disinterest in participating in any GUAM-based mutual defense initiative. Russia continues to maintain military presence in the Transnistrian region of Moldova, despite previous agreements with Moldova and within OSCE and CAF to withdraw its troops and ammunition. Separatist movements The territory of Moldova includes the separatist Transnistria region. Transnistria had a particularly large non-Moldovan population (ca. 60%) and broke away from Moldova less than a year after Moldova became independent at the fall of the Soviet Union. It has its own de facto government and acts independenly from Chişinău since the War of Transnistria. The international diplomatic situation with respect to the question of Transnistria determines and is determined by Moldova's relations with Russia. Russia, Ukraine, OSCE, , and United States are involved at different degrees in the conflict resolution. Diplomatic representations Moldova has embassy-level relationships with: Austria, Belarus, Belgium, Bulgaria, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Latvia, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Sweden, Ukraine, the United Kingdom in Europe (excl. Russia and Turkey) Azerbaijan http://www.turism.md/eng/foreignembassy/112/ , the People's Republic of China, Israel, the Russian Federation, Turkey and the United States, outside Europe Representation Delegation of the European Union, the United Nations (in Geneva and New York City), the Council of Europe (Strasbourg), OSCE (Vienna) and the International Parliament for Safety and Peace in Italy. Country Formal Relations BeganNotes Armenia is represented in Moldova through its embassy in Kiev (Ukraine). Moldova is represented in Armenia through its embassy in Moscow (Russia). There are around 7,500 people of Armenina descent living in Moldova. Armenian Ministry of Foreign Affairs: presentation of the Moldovan ambassador’s credentials to the Armenian Foreign Minister Moldovan Ministry of Foreign Affairs: list of bilateral treaties with Armenia 1992-03-25 see Austria–Moldova relations see Belarus–Moldova relations Moldova has an embassy in Brussels. Trade is modest between Moldova and Belgium .for the year 2005: 44.7 million USD was traded between the two countries increasing by 33.4% compared to the year 2004 http://www.ambasadamoldova.be/bilateral/bel_en.htm Embassy of the Republic of Moldova in Belgium Belgian Embassy in Bucharest Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Moldova Belgian Federal Public Service Foreign Affairs, Foreign Trade and Development Cooperation 1992-02-05 Bulgaria recognized Moldova on December 28, 1991. Since 1992, Bulgaria has embassy in Chişinău. Bulgarian embassy in Chişinău Moldova has embassy in Sofia. Moldovan Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Bulgaria Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe and of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe. 1992-07-28 Moldova has recognised the independence of the Republic of Croatia on May 29, 1992. Croatia is represented in Moldova through its embassy in Bucharest (Romania). Moldova is represented in Croatia through its embassy in Budapest (Hungary). Croatian Ministry of Foreign Affairs and European Integration: list of bilateral treaties with Moldova Moldovan Ministry of Foreign Affairs and European Integration about relations with Croatia 1992-02-12 Cyprus Ministry of Foreign Affairs: list of bilateral treaties with Moldova Moldovan Ministry of Foreign Affairs and European Integration about relations with Cyprus 1992-01-20 Denmark recognized the independence of Moldova on December 31, 1991. Denmark is represented in Moldova through its embassy in Bucharest (Romania). Moldova is represented in Denmark through its embassy in Berlin (Germany). Danish Ministry of Foreign Affairs: part of the cooperation program with Moldova Moldovan Ministry of Foreign Affairs and European Integration about relations with Denmark 1992-11-10 Before 1918, both countries were part of the Russian Empire and before 1991 both countries were part of the USSR. Moldova recognized Estonia on August 28, 1991 Estonia recognized Moldova on February 20, 1992. Estonia is represented in Moldova through its embassy in Kiev (Ukraine) and through an honorary consulate in Chişinău. * Moldova is represented in Estonia through its embassy in Riga (Latvia). Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe. Estonian Ministry of Foreign Affairs about the relation with Moldova Moldovan Ministry of Foreign Affairs about the relation with Estonia 1992-02-26 Finland recognised Moldova's independence on December 30, 1991. Finland is represented in Moldova through its embassy in Bucharest, Romania. Moldova is represented in Finland its embassy in Stockholm, Sweden. http://formin.finland.fi/public/default.aspx?nodeid=17267&contentlan=2&culture=en-US Ministry for Foreign Affairs of Finland about relations with Moldova France opened an Embassy in Chisinau When visiting the respective country, a mutual visa obligation exists for both nationals for any border crossing, except for transfer passengers. A lot of French companies invest in Moldova. France Telecom with Orange as GSM operator. Or also Société Générale with Mobias Banca. There are also a lot of IT companies offshores in Chisinau. Embassy of the Republic of Moldova in Paris French Embassy in Chisinau Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Moldova French Ministry of Foreign and European Affairs 1992-06-25 Until 1991, both countries were part of the USSR and before 1918 part of the Russian empire. Georgia is represented in Moldova through its embassy in Bucharest (Romania). Moldova is represented in Georgia through its embassy in Baku (Azerbaijan). Georgian Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Moldova see Germany–Moldova relations 1992 Ireland is represented in Moldova through its embassy in Bucharest (Romania). Irish embassy in Bucharest (also accredited to Moldova) Moldova is represented in Ireland through its embassy in London (United Kingdom). Moldovan embassy in London (also accredited to Ireland) Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe. Moldovan Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Ireland 1992-06-22 see Israel–Moldova relations Italy plans to open an Embassy in Chisinau. The Italian ambassador to Moldova with residence in Bucharest is Daniele Mancini. Embassy of the Republic of Moldova in Rome Italian Embassy in Bucharest Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Moldova Italian Ministry of Foreign Affairs 1992-03-16 see Japan–Moldova relations Malta is represented in Modova through a non resident embassy based in Valletta (in the Foreign Affairs Ministry). Moldova is represented in Malta through its embassy in Rome (Italy). Direction of the Maltese representation in Moldova Direction of the Moldovan representation in Malta Moldovan Ministry of Foreign Affairs and European Integration about the relation with Malta see Moldova–Russia relations 1995 Moldova is represented in Serbia through its embassy in Sofia (Bulgaria). Serbia is represented in Moldova through its embassy in Kiev (Ukraine). Serbian Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Moldova 1993-10-27 Both countries are represented in each other through their embassies in Budapest (Hungary). Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe and the Francophonie. Moldova has an embassy in Ankara. Turkey has an embassy in Chişinău. Both countries are full members of BSEC. There are around 11,000 Turks who live in Moldova. Moldovan embassy in Ankara Turkish Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Moldova United Kingdom opened an Embassy in Chisinau. British Embassy in Chisinau Embassy of The Republic of Moldova to United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Moldova 1991-12-25 see Moldova – United States relations See also List of diplomatic missions in Moldova References | Foreign_relations_of_Moldova |@lemmatized achieve:2 independence:4 soviet:4 union:8 moldova:79 establish:2 relation:26 european:15 country:20 course:1 integration:6 neutrality:2 define:1 foreign:28 policy:2 guideline:1 become:3 first:2 post:2 state:7 admit:1 council:7 europe:9 addition:1 participation:1 nato:1 partnership:1 peace:2 program:2 also:6 member:7 united:9 nation:2 osce:5 north:1 atlantic:1 cooperation:4 world:2 trade:4 organization:2 international:4 monetary:1 fund:1 bank:2 francophonie:2 reconstruction:1 development:2 eu:4 action:3 plan:4 seek:2 improve:1 collaboration:1 two:4 neighboring:1 structure:1 war:2 transnistria:7 peaceful:1 resolution:2 conflict:3 region:3 work:1 romania:15 ukraine:7 russia:8 call:1 mediation:1 cooperate:1 un:1 fact:2 finding:1 observer:1 mission:2 currently:1 aspire:1 join:1 prove:1 chance:1 moldpress:1 news:1 agency:1 june:1 implement:1 three:1 year:4 within:2 framework:1 neighbourhood:1 enp:1 approve:2 commission:1 december:5 retrieve:1 july:1 western:1 neighbour:1 sinuous:1 since:5 part:6 interwar:1 period:1 linguists:1 generally:1 agree:1 moldovan:18 language:1 identical:1 romanian:2 however:3 moldovans:2 ambivalent:1 whether:1 consider:1 romanians:1 early:1 sign:1 might:1 unite:1 emancipation:1 communist:1 rule:1 quickly:1 fade:1 remain:1 interested:1 affair:26 especially:1 civil:1 breakaway:1 republic:11 unable:1 even:1 reach:1 agreement:4 basic:1 bilateral:5 treaty:5 insistent:1 determine:2 resistance:1 would:1 refer:1 special:1 relationship:2 enjoy:1 visa:2 free:1 arrangement:1 end:1 january:1 entry:1 prompt:1 lot:3 citizen:1 apply:1 citizenship:1 cetatenia:1 romana:1 portita:1 spre:1 europa:1 parliament:2 membership:1 commonwealth:1 independent:2 ci:2 charter:1 economic:1 april:1 never:1 participate:2 military:2 aspect:1 cite:1 status:1 contribute:1 founding:1 guam:2 regional:1 make:1 georgia:3 azerbaijan:3 although:1 initially:1 include:2 declaration:1 mutual:3 defense:2 declare:1 disinterest:1 base:2 initiative:1 continue:1 maintain:1 presence:1 transnistrian:1 despite:1 previous:1 caf:1 withdraw:1 troop:1 ammunition:1 separatist:2 movements:1 territory:1 particularly:1 large:1 non:2 population:1 ca:1 break:1 away:1 less:1 fall:1 de:1 facto:1 government:1 act:1 independenly:1 chişinău:5 diplomatic:3 situation:1 respect:1 question:1 determines:1 involve:1 different:1 degree:1 representation:4 embassy:40 level:1 austria:2 belarus:2 belgium:3 bulgaria:5 france:3 germany:3 greece:1 hungary:3 italy:4 latvia:2 poland:1 portugal:1 sweden:2 kingdom:4 excl:1 turkey:3 http:3 www:2 turism:1 md:1 eng:1 foreignembassy:1 people:2 china:1 israel:2 russian:3 federation:1 outside:1 delegation:1 geneva:1 new:1 york:1 city:1 strasbourg:1 vienna:1 safety:1 formal:1 begannotes:1 armenia:3 represent:19 kiev:3 moscow:1 around:2 armenina:1 descent:1 living:1 armenian:2 ministry:24 presentation:1 ambassador:2 credential:1 minister:1 list:4 see:8 brussels:1 modest:1 million:1 usd:1 increase:1 compare:1 ambasadamoldova:1 htm:1 belgian:2 bucharest:9 federal:1 public:2 service:1 recognize:4 bulgarian:1 sofia:2 full:5 security:1 co:1 operation:1 recognise:2 croatia:4 may:1 budapest:2 croatian:1 cyprus:2 denmark:4 berlin:1 danish:1 empire:2 ussr:2 estonia:5 august:1 february:1 honorary:1 consulate:1 riga:1 estonian:1 finland:5 stockholm:1 formin:1 fi:1 default:1 aspx:1 nodeid:1 contentlan:1 culture:1 en:1 u:1 open:3 chisinau:6 visit:1 respective:1 obligation:1 exist:1 national:1 border:1 crossing:1 except:1 transfer:1 passenger:1 french:3 company:2 invest:1 telecom:1 orange:1 gsm:1 operator:1 société:1 générale:1 mobias:1 banca:1 offshores:1 paris:1 baku:1 georgian:1 ireland:5 irish:1 accredit:2 london:2 italian:3 residence:1 daniele:1 mancini:1 rome:2 japan:1 malta:4 modova:1 resident:1 valletta:1 direction:2 maltese:1 serbia:2 serbian:1 ankara:2 bsec:1 turk:1 live:1 turkish:1 british:1 great:1 britain:1 northern:1 reference:1 |@bigram soviet_union:2 monetary_fund:1 romania_moldova:7 interwar_period:1 bilateral_treaty:4 de_facto:1 http_www:2 relation_begannotes:1 embassy_kiev:3 kiev_ukraine:3 foreign_affair:24 moldovan_ministry:8 embassy_bucharest:8 chişinău_moldova:2 embassy_sofia:2 bucharest_romania:5 budapest_hungary:2 moldova_moldovan:5 honorary_consulate:1 embassy_riga:1 riga_latvia:1 stockholm_sweden:1 default_aspx:1 embassy_chisinau:5 baku_azerbaijan:1 malta_embassy:1 maltese_representation:1 sofia_bulgaria:1 ankara_turkey:1 diplomatic_mission:1 |
5,401 | N_ray | N rays (or N-rays) are a hypothesized form of radiation, described by French scientist René-Prosper Blondlot, and initially confirmed by others, but subsequently found to be illusory. History In 1903, Blondlot, a distinguished physicist who was one of 8 physicists who were corresponding members of the French Academy of Science announced his discovery while working at the University of Nancy attempting to polarize X-rays. He had perceived changes in the brightness of an electric spark in a spark gap placed in an X-ray beam which he photographed and he later attributed to the novel form of radiation, naming it the N-ray for the University of Nancy. Blondlot, Rene, "'N' RAYS", translated by J. Garcin, Longmans, Green & Co., London, 1905 Blondlot, Augustin Charpentier, Arsène d'Arsonval and approximately 120 other scientists in 300 published articles claimed to be able to detect N rays emanating from most substances, including the human body with the peculiar exception that they were not emitted by green wood and some treated metals. Most researchers of the subject at the time used the perceived light of a dim phosphorescent surface as "detectors", although work in the period clearly showed the change in brightness to be a physiological phenomenon rather than some actual change in the level of illumination. Archives D'Electricite Medicale, "'N' Rays do not Influence the Resistivity of Selenium nor Modify the Influence of Light upon that Resistivity" by H. Guilleminot, (date?) pp243-244. Physicists Gustave le Bon and P. Audollet and spiritualist (Phrenologist?) Carl Huter even claimed the discovery as their own, leading to a commission of the Académie des sciences to decide priority. Comptes Rendu, April 11, 1904, pp884-885 The "discovery" excited international interest and many physicists worked to replicate the effects. However, the notable physicists Lord Kelvin, William Crookes, Otto Lummer and Heinrich Rubens failed to do so. Following his own failure, self-described as "wasting a whole morning", US physicist Robert W. Wood, who had a reputation as a popular "debunker" in the period, was prevailed upon by the journal Nature to travel to Blondlot's laboratory in France to investigate further. Wood suggested that Rubens go since he had been the most embarrassed when the Kaiser asked him to repeat the French experiments and then after two weeks he had to report his failure to do so. Rubens, however, felt it would look better if Wood went since Blondlot had been most polite in answering his many questions. In the darkened room, Professor Wood secretly removed an essential prism from the experimental apparatus, yet the experimenters still said that they observed N rays. He also secretly replaced a large file that was supposed to be giving off N rays with an inert piece of wood, yet the N rays were still "observed". His report on these investigations, published in Nature, suggested that N rays were a purely subjective phenomenon, with the scientists involved having recorded data that matched their expectations. By 1905 no one outside Nancy believed in N rays even as Blondlot himself is reported to have still been convinced of their existence in 1926. Martin Gardner, referencing Wood's biographer, William Seabrook's account of the affair, attributed the ensuing scandal to the decline in mental health and eventual death of Blondlot, but there is evidence that this is at least an exaggeration of the facts. Significance The incident is used as a cautionary tale among scientists on the dangers of error introduced by experimenter bias. More precisely, patriotism was at the heart of this self-deception. France had been defeated by the Germans in the Franco-Prussian War in 1870, and after the major discovery by Wilhelm Röntgen of the X Ray the race was on for new discoveries. N rays were cited as an example of pathological science by Irving Langmuir. However, the case is far more interesting than a single event, because nearly identical properties of an equally unknown radiation were recorded some 50 years before in another country by the Baron von Reichenbach in his treatise "Researches on Magnetism, Electricity, Heat, Light, Crystallization, and Chemical Attraction in their relations to the Vital Force", London, 1850, and before that in Vienna by Franz Mesmer in his "Memoire on the discovery of Animal-magnetism", 1779. It is clear that Reichenbach was aware of Mesmer's work and that researchers in Paris working with Blondlot were aware of Reichenbach's work Revue Scientifique, Ser 5, Vol II, No.22 although there is no proof that Professor Blondlot was personally aware of it. However, this spread of nearly identical pathological science in history shows the phenomena to have greater breadth than the usually assumed patriotic self-deception. Blondlot still has a park named after him in downtown Nancy Parc Blondlot, Nancy . He left his house and garden to the city which transformed it into a public park. This can be seen as appropriate since he made significant contributions to physics before the N ray debacle. James Randi reported that citizens of Nancy and members of the faculty at the university did not remember having heard about N rays or Blondlot. See also List of experimental errors and frauds in physics Retraction Pathological science References External links http://skepdic.com/blondlot.html and references therein 50, 100 and 150 years ago, Feb 2004 pg 14, Originally reported in Feb 1904 Scientific American - See especially Chapter 17, "Wood as a Debunker of Scientific Cranks and Frauds" The Rise and Fall of N-Rays Randi at Caltech: A report from the Paranormal Trenches, Skeptic vol. 1, no. 1, Spring 1992, pp. 22-31. | N_ray |@lemmatized n:15 ray:18 hypothesized:1 form:2 radiation:3 describe:2 french:3 scientist:4 rené:1 prosper:1 blondlot:14 initially:1 confirm:1 others:1 subsequently:1 find:1 illusory:1 history:2 distinguish:1 physicist:6 one:2 correspond:1 member:2 academy:1 science:5 announce:1 discovery:6 work:6 university:3 nancy:6 attempt:1 polarize:1 x:3 perceive:1 change:3 brightness:2 electric:1 spark:2 gap:1 place:1 beam:1 photograph:1 later:1 attribute:2 novel:1 name:2 rene:1 translate:1 j:1 garcin:1 longmans:1 green:2 co:1 london:2 augustin:1 charpentier:1 arsène:1 arsonval:1 approximately:1 published:1 article:1 claim:2 able:1 detect:1 emanate:1 substance:1 include:1 human:1 body:1 peculiar:1 exception:1 emit:1 wood:8 treated:1 metal:1 researcher:2 subject:1 time:1 use:2 perceived:1 light:3 dim:1 phosphorescent:1 surface:1 detector:1 although:2 period:2 clearly:1 show:2 physiological:1 phenomenon:3 rather:1 actual:1 level:1 illumination:1 archive:1 electricite:1 medicale:1 influence:2 resistivity:2 selenium:1 modify:1 upon:2 h:1 guilleminot:1 date:1 gustave:1 le:1 bon:1 p:1 audollet:1 spiritualist:1 phrenologist:1 carl:1 huter:1 even:2 lead:1 commission:1 académie:1 des:1 decide:1 priority:1 comptes:1 rendu:1 april:1 excite:1 international:1 interest:1 many:2 replicate:1 effect:1 however:4 notable:1 lord:1 kelvin:1 william:2 crookes:1 otto:1 lummer:1 heinrich:1 rubens:3 fail:1 follow:1 failure:2 self:3 waste:1 whole:1 morning:1 u:1 robert:1 w:1 reputation:1 popular:1 debunker:2 prevail:1 journal:1 nature:2 travel:1 laboratory:1 france:2 investigate:1 far:2 suggest:2 go:2 since:3 embarrassed:1 kaiser:1 ask:1 repeat:1 experiment:1 two:1 week:1 report:6 felt:1 would:1 look:1 good:1 polite:1 answer:1 question:1 darkened:1 room:1 professor:2 secretly:2 remove:1 essential:1 prism:1 experimental:2 apparatus:1 yet:2 experimenter:2 still:4 say:1 observe:2 also:2 replace:1 large:1 file:1 suppose:1 give:1 inert:1 piece:1 investigation:1 publish:1 purely:1 subjective:1 involve:1 record:2 data:1 match:1 expectation:1 outside:1 believe:1 convince:1 existence:1 martin:1 gardner:1 reference:3 biographer:1 seabrook:1 account:1 affair:1 ensue:1 scandal:1 decline:1 mental:1 health:1 eventual:1 death:1 evidence:1 least:1 exaggeration:1 fact:1 significance:1 incident:1 cautionary:1 tale:1 among:1 danger:1 error:2 introduce:1 bias:1 precisely:1 patriotism:1 heart:1 deception:2 defeat:1 german:1 franco:1 prussian:1 war:1 major:1 wilhelm:1 röntgen:1 race:1 new:1 cite:1 example:1 pathological:3 irving:1 langmuir:1 case:1 interesting:1 single:1 event:1 nearly:2 identical:2 property:1 equally:1 unknown:1 year:2 another:1 country:1 baron:1 von:1 reichenbach:3 treatise:1 research:1 magnetism:2 electricity:1 heat:1 crystallization:1 chemical:1 attraction:1 relation:1 vital:1 force:1 vienna:1 franz:1 mesmer:2 memoire:1 animal:1 clear:1 aware:3 paris:1 revue:1 scientifique:1 ser:1 vol:2 ii:1 proof:1 personally:1 spread:1 great:1 breadth:1 usually:1 assume:1 patriotic:1 park:2 downtown:1 parc:1 leave:1 house:1 garden:1 city:1 transform:1 public:1 see:3 appropriate:1 make:1 significant:1 contribution:1 physic:2 debacle:1 james:1 randi:2 citizen:1 faculty:1 remember:1 hear:1 list:1 fraud:2 retraction:1 external:1 link:1 http:1 skepdic:1 com:1 html:1 therein:1 ago:1 feb:2 pg:1 originally:1 scientific:2 american:1 especially:1 chapter:1 crank:1 rise:1 fall:1 caltech:1 paranormal:1 trench:1 skeptic:1 spring:1 pp:1 |@bigram longmans_green:1 le_bon:1 académie_des:1 william_crookes:1 darkened_room:1 martin_gardner:1 mental_health:1 cautionary_tale:1 experimenter_bias:1 franco_prussian:1 irving_langmuir:1 magnetism_electricity:1 franz_mesmer:1 james_randi:1 external_link:1 |
5,402 | Four_color_theorem | Example of a four-colored map A four-coloring of an actual map of the states of the United States (ignoring water and other countries). In mathematics, the four color theorem, or the four color map theorem, states that given any separation of a plane into contiguous regions, called a map, the regions can be colored using at most four colors so that no two adjacent regions have the same color. Two regions are called adjacent only if they share a border segment, not just a point. Three colors are adequate for simpler maps, but an additional fourth color is required for some maps, such as a map in which one region is surrounded by an odd number of other regions that touch each other in a cycle. The five color theorem, which has a short elementary proof, states that five colors suffice to color a map and was proven in the late 19th century; however, proving four colors suffice turned out to be significantly harder. A number of false proofs and false counterexamples have appeared since the first statement of the four color theorem in 1852. Despite the motivation from coloring political maps of countries, the theorem is not of particular interest to mapmakers. According to an article by the math historian Kenneth May , “Maps utilizing only four colours are rare, and those that do usually require only three. Books on cartography and the history of mapmaking do not mention the four-color property.” The four color theorem was proven in 1976 by Kenneth Appel and Wolfgang Haken. It was the first major theorem to be proven using a computer. Appel and Haken's approach started by showing there is a particular set of 1,936 maps, each of which cannot be part of a smallest-sized counterexample to the four color theorem. Appel and Haken used a special-purpose computer program to check each of these maps had this property. Additionally, any map (regardless of whether it is a counterexample or not) must have a portion that looks like one of these 1,936 maps. To show this required hundreds of pages of hand analysis. Appel and Haken concluded that no smallest counterexamples existed because any must contain, yet not contain, one of these 1,936 maps. This contradiction means there are no counterexamples at all and the theorem is true. Initially, their proof was not accepted by all mathematicians because the computer-assisted proof was infeasible for a human to check by hand . Since then the proof has gained wider acceptance, although doubts remain . To dispel remaining doubt about the Appel–Haken proof, a simpler proof using the same ideas and still relying on computers was published in 1997 by Robertson, Sanders, Seymour and Thomas. Additionally in 2005, the theorem was proven by Georges Gonthier with general purpose theorem proving software. Precise formulation of the theorem The intuitive statement of the four color theorem needs to be interpreted appropriately to be correct. For example, each region of the map should be contiguous. Example of a map with non-contiguous regions In the real world, not all countries are contiguous (e.g., Alaska as part of the United States, Nakhchivan as part of Azerbaijan, and Kaliningrad as part of Russia). Because the territory of a particular country must be the same color, four colors may not be sufficient. For instance, consider a simplified map: In this map, the two regions labeled A belong to the same country, and must be the same color. This map then requires five colors, since the two A regions together are contiguous with four other regions, each of which is contiguous with all the others. If A consisted of three regions, six or more colors might be required; one can construct maps that require an arbitrarily high number of colors. Some clarification is also needed on when two regions are said to be adjacent. For the theorem to be correct, two regions should only be considered adjacent if they share a nonzero length of boundary; touching at a single boundary point (such as the point at Four Corners where Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, and Utah meet) does not count as an adjacency for the purposes of the theorem. To precisely state the theorem, it is easiest to rephrase it in graph theory. It then states that the vertices of every planar graph can be colored with at most four colors so that no two adjacent vertices receive the same color, or "every planar graph is four-colorable" for short (; ). Such a graph can be obtained from a map by replacing every region by a vertex, and connecting two vertices by an edge exactly when the two regions share a border segment (not just a corner). History Early proof attempts The conjecture was first proposed in 1852 when Francis Guthrie, while trying to color the map of counties of England, noticed that only four different colors were needed. At the time, Guthrie's brother, Fredrick, was a student of Augustus De Morgan at University College. Francis inquired with Fredrick regarding it, who then took it to De Morgan (Francis Guthrie graduated later in 1852, and later became a professor of mathematics in South Africa). According to De Morgan: A student of mine [Guthrie] asked me to day to give him a reason for a fact which I did not know was a fact — and do not yet. He says that if a figure be any how divided and the compartments differently coloured so that figures with any portion of common boundary line are differently coloured — four colours may be wanted but not more — the following is his case in which four colours are wanted. Query cannot a necessity for five or more be invented… The first published reference is by Arthur Cayley who in turn credits the conjecture to De Morgan . There were several early failed attempts at proving the theorem. One proof was given by Alfred Kempe in 1879, which was widely acclaimed; another was given by Peter Guthrie Tait in 1880. It was not until 1890 that Kempe's proof was shown incorrect by Percy Heawood, and 1891 Tait's proof was shown incorrect by Julius Petersen — each false proof stood unchallenged for 11 years . In 1890, in addition to exposing the flaw in Kempe's proof, Heawood proved the five color theorem. Significant results were produced by Croatian mathematician Danilo Blanuša in the 1940s by finding an original snark. In 1943, Hugo Hadwiger formulated the Hadwiger conjecture, a far-reaching generalization of the four-color problem that still remains unsolved. Proof by computer During the 1960s and 1970s German mathematician Heinrich Heesch developed methods of using computers to search for a proof. Notably he was the first to use discharging for proving the theorem, which turned out to be important in the unavoidability portion of the subsequent Appel-Haken proof. He also expanded on the concept of reducibility and, along with Ken Durre, developed a computer test for it. Unfortunately, at this critical juncture, he was unable to procure the necessary supercomputer time to continue his work . Others took up his methods and his computer-assisted approach. In 1976, while other teams of mathematicians were racing to complete proofs, Kenneth Appel and Wolfgang Haken at the University of Illinois, announced that they had proven the theorem. They were assisted in some algorithmic work by John A. Koch . If the four-color conjecture were false, there would be at least one map with the smallest possible number of regions that requires five colors. The proof showed that such a minimal counterexample cannot exist, through the use of two technical concepts (; ; ): An unavoidable set contains regions such that every map must have at least one region from this collection. A reducible configuration is an arrangement of countries that cannot occur in a minimal counterexample. If a map contains a reducible configuration, and the rest of the map can be colored with four colors, then the entire map can be colored with four colors and so this map is not minimal. Using mathematical rules and procedures based on properties of reducible configurations, Appel and Haken found an unavoidable set of reducible configurations, thus proving that a minimal counterexample to the four-color conjecture could not exist. Their proof reduced the infinitude of possible maps to 1,936 reducible configurations (later reduced to 1,476) which had to be checked one by one by computer and took over a thousand hours. This reducibility part of the work was independently double checked with different programs and computers. However, the unavoidability part of the proof was verified in over 400 pages of microfiche, which had to be checked by hand . Appel and Haken's announcement was widely reported by the news media around the world, and the math department at the University of Illinois used a postmark stating "Four colors suffice." At the same time the unusual nature of the proof - it was the first major theorem to be proven with extensive computer assistance - and the complexity of the human verifiable portion, aroused considerable controversy . In the early 1980s, rumors spread of a flaw in the Appel-Haken proof. Ulrich Schmidt at RWTH Aachen examined Appel and Haken's proof for his master's thesis . He had checked about 40% of the unavoidability portion and found a significant error in the discharging procedure . In 1986, Appel and Haken were asked by the editor of Mathematical Intelligencer to write an article addressing the rumors of flaws in their proof. They responded that the rumors were due to a "misinterpretation of [Schmidt's] results" and obliged with a detailed article . Their magnum opus, a book claiming a complete and detailed proof (with a microfiche supplement of over 400 pages), appeared in 1989 and explained Schmidt's discovery and several further errors found by others . Simplification and verification Since the proving of the theorem, efficient algorithms have been found for 4-coloring maps requiring only O(n2) time, where n is the number of vertices. In 1996, Neil Robertson, Daniel P. Sanders, Paul Seymour, and Robin Thomas created a quadratic time algorithm, improving on a quartic algorithm based on Appel and Haken’s proof . This new proof is similar to Appel and Haken's but more efficient because it reduced the complexity of the problem and required checking only 633 reducible configurations. Both the unavoidability and reducibility parts of this new proof must be executed by computer and are impractical to check by hand . In 2005 Benjamin Werner and Georges Gonthier formalized a proof of the theorem inside the Coq proof assistant. This removed the need to trust the various computer programs used to verify particular cases; it is only necessary to trust the Coq kernel . Summary of proof ideas The following discussion is a summary based on the introduction to Appel and Haken's book Every Planar Map is Four Colorable . Although flawed, Kempe's original purported proof of the four color theorem provided some of the basic tools later used to prove it. The explanation here is reworded in terms of the modern graph theory formulation above. Kempe's argument goes as follows. First, if planar regions separated by the graph are not triangulated, i.e. do not have exactly three edges in their boundaries, we can add edges without introducing new vertices in order to make every region triangular, including the unbounded outer region. If this triangulated graph is colorable using four colors or less, so is the original graph since the same coloring is valid if edges are removed. So it suffices to prove the four color theorem for triangulated graphs to prove it for all planar graphs, and from now on we assume the graph is triangulated. Suppose v, e, and f are the number of vertices, edges, and regions. Euler's formula states v − e + f = 2. This together with the fact that each edge is shared by two regions, 2e = 3f, can be used to show 6v − 2e = 12. Now, the degree of a vertex is the number of edges abutting it. If vn is the number of vertices of degree n and D is the maximum degree of any vertex, But since 12 > 0 and 6 − i ≤ 0 for all i ≥ 6, this demonstrates that there is at least one vertex of degree 5 or less. If there is a graph requiring 5 colors, then there is a minimal such graph, where removing any vertex makes it four-colorable. Call this graph G. G cannot have a vertex of degree 3 or less, because if d(v) ≤ 3, we can remove v from G, four-color the smaller graph, then add back v and extend the four-coloring to it by choosing a color different from its neighbors. Kempe also showed correctly that G can have no vertex of degree 4. As before we remove the vertex v and four-color the remaining vertices. If all four neighbors of v are different colors, say red, green, blue, and yellow in clockwise order, we look for an alternating path of vertices colored red and blue joining the red and blue neighbors. Such a path is called a Kempe chain. There may be a Kempe chain joining the red and blue neighbors, and there may be a Kempe chain joining the green and yellow neighbors, but not both, since these two paths would necessarily intersect, and the vertex where they intersect cannot be colored. Suppose it is the red and blue neighbors that are not chained together. Explore all vertices attached to the red neighbor by red-blue alternating paths, and then reverse the colors red and blue on all these vertices. The result is still a valid four-coloring, and v can now be added back and colored red. This leaves only the case where G has a vertex of degree 5; but Kempe's argument was flawed for this case. Heawood noticed Kempe's mistake and also observed that if one was satisfied with proving only five colors are needed, one could run through the above argument (changing only that the minimal counterexample requires 6 colors) and use Kempe chains in the degree 5 situation to prove the five color theorem. In any case, to deal with this degree 5 vertex case requires a more complicated notion than removing a vertex. Rather the form of the argument is generalized to considering configurations, which are connected subgraphs of G with the degree of each vertex (in G) specified. For example, the case described in degree 4 vertex situation is the configuration consisting of a single vertex labelled as having degree 4 in G. As above, it suffices to demonstrate that if the configuration is removed and the remaining graph four-colored, then the coloring can be modified in such a way that when the configuration is re-added, the four-coloring can be extended to it as well. A configuration for which this is possible is called a reducible configuration. If at least one of a set of configurations must occur somewhere in G, that set is called unavoidable. The argument above began by giving an unavoidable set of five configurations (a single vertex with degree 1, a single vertex with degree 2, ..., a single vertex with degree 5) and then proceeded to show that the first 4 are reducible; to exhibit an unavoidable set of configurations where every configuration in the set is reducible would prove the theorem. Because G is triangular, the degree of each vertex in a configuration is known, and all edges internal to the configuration are known, the number of vertices in G adjacent to a given configuration is fixed, and they are joined in a cycle. These vertices form the ring of the configuration; a configuration with k vertices in its ring is a k-ring configuration, and the configuration together with its ring is called the ringed configuration. As in the simple cases above, one may enumerate all distinct four-colorings of the ring; any coloring that can be extended without modification to a coloring of the configuration is called initially good. For example, the single-vertex configuration above with 3 or less neighbors were initially good. In general, the surrounding graph must be systematically recolored to turn the ring's coloring into a good one, as was done in the case above where there were 4 neighbors; for a general configuration with a larger ring, this requires more complex techniques. Because of the large number of distinct four-colorings of the ring, this is the primary step requiring computer assistance. Finally, it remains to identify an unavoidable set of configurations amenable to reduction by this procedure. The primary method used to discover such a set is the method of discharging. The intuitive idea underlying discharging is to consider the planar graph as an electrical network. Initially positive and negative "electrical charge" is distributed amongst the vertices so that the total is positive. Recall the formula above: Each vertex is assigned an initial charge of 6-deg(v). Then one "flows" the charge by systematically redistributing the charge from a vertex to its neighboring vertices according to a set of rules, the discharging procedure. Since charge is preserved, some vertices still have positive charge. The rules restrict the possibilities for configurations of positively-charged vertices, so enumerating all such possible configurations gives an unavoidable set. As long as some member of the unavoidable set is not reducible, the discharging procedure is modified to eliminate it (while introducing other configurations). Appel and Haken's final discharging procedure was extremely complex and, together with a description of the resulting unavoidable configuration set, filled a 400-page volume, but the configurations it generated could be checked mechanically to be reducible. Verifying the volume describing the unavoidable configuration set itself was done by peer review over a period of several years. A technical detail not discussed here but required to complete the proof is immersion reducibility. False disproofs The four color theorem has been notorious for attracting a large number of false proofs and disproofs in its long history. At first, the New York Times refused as a matter of policy to report on the Appel–Haken proof, fearing that the proof would be shown false like the ones before it . Some alleged proofs, like Kempe's and Tait's mentioned above, stood under public scrutiny for over a decade before they were exposed. But many more, authored by amateurs, were never published at all. centrecentreThis map has been colored with five colors......but it is necessary to change at least four of the ten regions to obtain a coloring with only four colors. Generally, the simplest, though invalid, counterexamples attempt to create one region which touches all other regions. This forces the remaining regions to be colored with only three colors. Because the four color theorem is true, this is always possible; however, because the person drawing the map is focused on the one large region, they fail to notice that the remaining regions can in fact be colored with three colors. This trick can be generalized: there are many maps where if the colors of some regions are selected beforehand, it becomes impossible to color the remaining regions without exceeding four colors. A casual verifier of the counterexample may not think to change the colors of these regions, so that the counterexample will appear as though it is valid. Perhaps one effect underlying this common misconception is the fact that the color restriction is not transitive: a region only has to be colored differently from regions it touches directly, not regions touching regions that it touches. If this were the restriction, planar graphs would require arbitrarily large numbers of colors. Other false disproofs violate the assumptions of the theorem in unexpected ways, such as using a region that consists of multiple disconnected parts, or disallowing regions of the same color from touching at a point. Generalizations By joining the single arrows together and the double arrows together, one obtains a torus with seven mutually touching regions; therefore seven colors are necessary This construction shows the torus divided into the maximum of seven regions, every one of which touches every other. One can also consider the coloring problem on surfaces other than the plane . The problem on the sphere or cylinder is equivalent to that on the plane. For closed (orientable or non-orientable) surfaces with positive genus, the maximum number p of colors needed depends on the surface's Euler characteristic χ according to the formula where the outermost brackets denote the floor function. Alternatively, for an orientable surface the formula can be given in terms of the genus of a surface, g: . This formula, the Heawood conjecture, was conjectured by P.J. Heawood in 1890 and proven by Gerhard Ringel and J. T. W. Youngs in 1968. The only exception to the formula is the Klein bottle, which has Euler characteristic 0 (hence the formula gives p = 7) and requires 6 colors, as shown by P. Franklin in 1934. For example, the torus has Euler characteristic χ = 0 (and genus g = 1) and thus p = 7, so no more than 7 colors are required to color any map on a torus. A Möbius strip also requires six colors . There is no obvious extension of the coloring problem to three-dimensional solid regions. By using a set of n flexible rods, one can arrange that every rod touches every other rod. The set would then require n colors, or n+1 if you consider the empty space that also touches every rod. The number n can be taken to be any integer, as large as desired. Such examples were known to Fredrick Gurthrie in 1880 . See also Graph coloring, the problem of finding optimal colorings of graphs that are not necessarily planar. Hadwiger–Nelson problem: how many colors are needed to color the plane so that no two points at unit distance apart have the same color? References External links :WikiBooks:Amateur's guide to proving the four color theorem The Four Color Problem Gets a Sharp New Hue | Four_color_theorem |@lemmatized example:7 four:47 color:85 map:36 coloring:16 actual:1 state:9 united:2 ignore:1 water:1 country:6 mathematics:2 theorem:31 give:9 separation:1 plane:4 contiguous:6 region:42 call:8 use:17 two:13 adjacent:6 share:4 border:2 segment:2 point:5 three:7 adequate:1 simpler:2 additional:1 fourth:1 require:19 one:24 surround:2 odd:1 number:14 touch:10 cycle:2 five:10 short:2 elementary:1 proof:37 suffice:5 prove:20 late:1 century:1 however:3 turn:4 significantly:1 hard:1 false:8 counterexample:12 appear:3 since:8 first:9 statement:2 despite:1 motivation:1 political:1 particular:4 interest:1 mapmakers:1 accord:4 article:3 math:2 historian:1 kenneth:3 may:7 utilize:1 colour:5 rare:1 usually:1 book:3 cartography:1 history:3 mapmaking:1 mention:2 property:3 appel:17 wolfgang:2 haken:17 major:2 computer:14 approach:2 start:1 show:11 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5,403 | Daisy_Duck | {{DisneyChar | name =Daisy Duck | image = Daisy Duck in her usual lavender dress | first appearance =Don Donald, 1937; Mr. Duck Steps Out, 1940 | created by =Walt Disney Studios | copyright under =Walt Disney company | voiced by =Clarence Nash (Early Daisy) Ruth Peterson Gloria Bondell Patricia Parris (Mickey's Christmas Carol) Katherine Soucie (Quack Pack) Diane Michelle (The Gift of the Magi) Russi Taylor (Fantasia 2000)<ref> Russi Taylor. The Internet Movie Database (IMDB). Retrieved on March 17, 2008.</ref> Tress MacNeille (1999 to date) Mika Doi (Japanese) | aliases =Donna Duck, Super Daisy, Dolly Duck (Norway) | relatives =April, May and June Duck | friends =Donald Duck (boyfriend), Minnie Mouse, Clarabelle Cow, Clara Cluck, Gladstone Gander, Mickey Mouse, Goofy, Knuckles (pet), Huey, Dewey, and Louie, Scrooge McDuck }} Daisy Duck is one of Walt Disney's cartoon and comic book characters. She was created as a female counterpart and girlfriend to Donald Duck, and first appeared in the cartoon "Mr. Duck Steps Out" in 1940. Mr. Duck Steps Out. The Encyclopedia of Disney Animated Shorts. Retrieved on March 17, 2008.</ref>. Daisy has Donald's temper but has far greater control of it (although on rare occasions her temper can burst out and she can get into rages similar to Donald's), and tends to be more sophisticated than her boyfriend. She usually wears either no pants herself or a dress. She is mostly shown as showing a strong affinity towards Donald. Daisy replaced (or, according to some sources, represents a later form of) a short-lived early love interest named Donna Duck, who first appeared in the cartoon "Don Donald" in 1937.<ref> Don Donald. The Encyclopedia of Disney Animated Shorts. Retrieved on March 17, 2008. . In a short 1951 comic strip continuity, Donna returned, ret-conned into an unrelated Mexican girl duck who functioned as a rival for Donald's affections. Daisy is the aunt of triplets April, May and June Duck, who serve as Huey, Dewey, and Louie's female counterparts. In some appearances, Daisy is presented as a close friend of Minnie Mouse. Daisy is a V.I.P. member of the Mickey Mouse Club. Daisy Visits Minnie. The Encyclopedia of Disney Animated Shorts. Retrieved on March 17, 2008.</ref> Animation history The history of Daisy in animation can be traced to the appearance of her precursor Donna Duck in the cartoon short Don Donald (first released on January 9, 1937). The short was directed by Ben Sharpsteen. The plot had Donald courting Donna somewhere in Mexico. His efforts were frustrated and Donna leaves him alone and rides away in her unicycle by the finale. The short is important for introducing a love interest for Donald. But one should note that Donna had little in common with Daisy other than both being female ducks and sharing a temper. Donna was more or less a female version of Donald both in design and voice. Her voice was provided by Clarence Nash and was a slightly higher version of that of Donald. Donna was not intended as a recurring character and the Donald shorts of the following three years featured no female companion for him. Daisy Duck in her familiar name and design first appeared in Mr. Duck Steps Out (June 7, 1940). The short was directed by Jack King and scripted by Carl Barks. There Donald visits the house of his new love interest for their first known date . At first Daisy acts shy and has her back turned to her visitor. But Donald soon notices her tailfeathers taking the form of a hand and signaling for him to come closer. But their time alone is soon interrupted by Huey, Dewey, and Louie who have followed their uncle and clearly compete with him for the attention of Daisy. Uncle and nephews take turns dancing the jitterbug with her while trying to get rid of each other. In their final effort the three younger Ducks feed their uncle maize in the process of becoming popcorn. The process is completed within Donald himself who continues to move wildly around the house while maintaining the appearance of dancing. The short ends with an impressed Daisy showering her new lover with kisses. The short stands out among other Donald shorts of the period for its use of modern music and surreal situations throughout. The idea of a permanent love interest of Donald was well established following it. But Daisy did not appear as regularly as Donald himself. Her next appearance in A Good Time for a Dime (May 9, 1941) <ref> A Good Time for a Dime. The Encyclopedia of Disney Animated Shorts. Retrieved on March 17, 2008. features her as one of the temptations threatening to separate Donald from his money. The short The Nifty Nineties (June 20, 1941) The Nifty Nineties. The Encyclopedia of Disney Animated Shorts. Retrieved on March 17, 2008.</ref>. featured Mickey and Minnie Mouse in an 1890s setting. But Daisy made a cameo following Goofy and alongside Donald, Huey, Dewey and Louie. This was an indication Daisy was a permanent addition to the supporting cast of Donald. This short was directed by Riley Thompson. However she would make no further animated appearances until Donald's Crime (June 29, 1945). <ref> Donald's Crime. The Encyclopedia of Disney Animated Shorts. Retrieved on March 17, 2008. . The short featured Donald having arranged a date with Daisy at a nightclub but not having enough money to pay for it. He proceeds to take $1.35 from the piggy bank of his nephews. The crime of the title is theft and the rest of the short focused on Donald feeling guilt. His own imagination provided increasingly disturbing and nightmarish visions of the possible repercussions of his actions and resulted in Donald resolving to return the money. Her second appearance in the same year was in Cured Duck (October 26, 1945). Cured Duck. The Encyclopedia of Disney Animated Shorts. Retrieved on March 17, 2008.</ref>. The short starts simply enough. Donald visit Daisy at her house. She asks him to open a window. He keeps trying to pull it open and eventually goes into a rage. By the time Daisy returns to the room, Donald has wrecked it. She demonstrates that the locking mechanism was on and critizizes his temper. She refuses to date Donald again until he learns to manage his anger. She claims Donald does not see her losing her own temper. Donald agrees to her terms and follows the surreal method of mail ordering an "insult machine", a device constantly hurling verbal and physical insults at him. He endures the whole process until feeling able to stay calm throughout it. He visits Daisy again and this time calmly opens the window. But when Daisy shows her boyfriend her new hat, his reaction is uncontrollable laughter. Daisy goes into a rage of her own and the short ends by pointing out that Donald is not the only Duck in need of anger management training. There is a continuation regarding her temper at one episode in Mickey Mouse Works where she and Donald have a date in a restaurant wherein they both end up with a bad temper. Their relationship problems were also focused on in Donald's Double Trouble (June 28, 1946). <ref> Donald's Double Trouble. The Encyclopedia of Disney Animated Shorts. Retrieved on March 17, 2008. . This time Daisy criticizes his poor command of the English language and his less-than-refined manners. Unwilling to lose Daisy, Donald has to find an answer to the problem. But his solution involves his own look-alike who happens to have all the desired qualities. His unnamed look-alike happens to be unemployed at the moment and agrees to this plan. Donald provides the money for his dates with Daisy but soon comes to realise the look-alike serves as a rival suitor. The rest of the short focuses on his increasing jealousy and efforts to replace the look-alike during the next date. However a failed attempt at a tunnel of love results in the two male Ducks exiting the tunnel in each other's hands by mistake. Daisy walks out all wet. She jumps up and down and sounds like a record played too fast as Donald and his look-alike run away. Daisy makes a mere cameo in Dumb Bell of the Yukon (August 30, 1946) Dumb Bell of the Yukon. The Encyclopedia of Disney Animated Shorts. Retrieved on March 17, 2008.</ref>. but she once again factors on the motivation of Donald. This time he was hunting bears in Yukon, Canada in order to provide Daisy with a fur coat. The cameo involves his daydream of her pleased reaction. Her next appearance in Sleepy Time Donald (May 9, 1947) <ref> Sleepy Time Donald. The Encyclopedia of Disney Animated Shorts. Retrieved on March 17, 2008. . involved Daisy attempting to rescue sleepwalking Donald from wandering in danger. The male Duck is loose in an urban environment and the humor results from the problems Daisy herself suffers while trying to keep him safe. Daisy was also the actual protagonist of Donald's Dilemma (July 11, 1947). Donald's Dillema. The Encyclopedia of Disney Animated Shorts. Retrieved on March 17, 2008.</ref>. The short starts simply enough. Donald and Daisy are out on a date when a flower pot falls on his head. He regains consciousness soon enough but with some marked differences. Both his speaking and singing voices have been improved to the point of being able to enter a new career as a professional singer. He also acts more refined than usual. Most importantly Donald suffers from partial amnesia and has no memory of Daisy. Donald goes on becoming a well-known crooner and his rendition of When You Wish upon a Star becomes a hit. He is surrounded by female fans in his every step. Meanwhile Daisy can not even approach her former lover and her loss results in a number of psychological symptoms. Various scenes feature her suffering from anorexia, insomnia and self-described insanity. An often censored scene features her losing her will to live and contemplating various methods of suicide. She narrates her story to a psychologist who determines that Donald would regain his memory with another flower pot falling on his head, but warns that his improved voice may also be lost along with his singing career. He offers Daisy a dilemma. Either the world has its singer, but Daisy loses him; or Daisy regains her Donald, but the world loses him. Posed with the question "her or the world", Daisy answers with a resounding and possessive scream of "Me, Me, Me". Soon Donald has returned to his old self and has forgotten about his career. His fans forget about him. But Daisy has regained her lover. This is considered a darkly humorous look at their relationship. Donald would also face problems resulting from his own voice in Donald's Dream Voice (May 21, 1948). <ref> Donald's Dream Voice. The Encyclopedia of Disney Animated Shorts. Retrieved on March 17, 2008. . He works as a door-to-door salesman but his customers do not understand a word he is saying. His attempts at politeness are misinterpretated and customers react angrily to imagined insults. But Daisy convinces him otherwise "Don't give up! I have faith in you!" His problems seem to end when Donald buys a box of "voice pills", a medicine temporarily improving his voice. He gets confident enough in his newfound voice to prepare his marriage proposal for Daisy. But due to an accident he loses all but one of his pills. The rest of the short features his frustrated attempt to regain this last pill in order to propose to her. Something which he is eventually unable to do. After a few minutes of trying to get it, the pill ends up getting swallowed by a cow and makes it able to talk. And tells Donald he can't understand what he's saying. Donald then throws a tantrum. Daisy would not appear again until Crazy Over Daisy (March 24, 1950). Donald's Crazy Over Daisy. The Encyclopedia of Disney Animated Shorts. Retrieved on March 17, 2008.</ref>. The short took place in an 1890s setting. At first Donald seems in good mood and on his way for his date with Daisy. But when Chip 'n Dale start ridiculing his appearance the short results in one of their typical fights. Interrupted in the end by Daisy herself who accuses Donald of being cruel to the two innocent chipmunks. The short ends with Donald having to forget about that date. Daisy's final animated appearance in the Golden Age of American animation was in Donald's Diary (March 5, 1954). <ref> Donald's Diary. The Encyclopedia of Disney Animated Shorts. Retrieved on March 17, 2008. . There she played the role of a young lady who manages to start a long-term relationship with Donald. But after having a nightmare about the anxieties that would come from married life, Donald runs out on her and joins the French Foreign Legion. Several scenes of the short imply that Daisy has had several previous relationships with men. Donald carves their names on a tree. Not noticing than the opposing side of the tree features her name alongside that of several other boyfriends. The marriage scene in Donald's dream featured a group of sailors waving goodbye to Daisy and mourning the loss of their apparent lover. Daisy returned to animation came in Mickey's Christmas Carol (October 20, 1983). Mickey's Christmas Carol. The Encyclopedia of Disney Animated Shorts. Retrieved on March 17, 2008.</ref>. She was cast as Isabelle, the romantic partner of a young Scrooge McDuck. Daisy made a cameo alongside several Disney characters in Who Framed Roger Rabbit (June 21, 1988). Curiously, Daisy never appeared on DuckTales, but she was in its spin-off. In the 1996 television series Quack Pack, Daisy was presented as a much more assertive and liberated woman than in her previous appearances, where she was employed as a television station reporter, with Donald as her cameraman. In Quack Pack, Daisy had a pet Iguana named Knuckles. Daisy also has appeared in the later television series Mickey Mouse Works, Disney's House of Mouse and Mickey Mouse Clubhouse as a regular character. She was featured alongside Donald in the "Noah's Ark" segment of Fantasia 2000. She has also appeared in the direct-to-video films Mickey's Once Upon a Christmas, Mickey's Twice Upon a Christmas, and Mickey, Donald, Goofy: The Three Musketeers. Comics history According to the unofficial timeline of Don Rosa, Daisy was "born" in 1920. According to Rosa, Daisy is the sister of Donald's brother-in-law — Daisy's brother had married Donald's twin sister, Della Thelma Duck, and together, the two became the parents of Huey, Dewey, and Louie Duck. This is his explanation of why the triplets tend to call her "aunt Daisy" while no such courtesy is given to Gladstone Gander for example. Their common last name points to both Donald and Daisy being members of the Duck family. Several stories consider them cousins but none has specified their relationship. Current speculation by Donaldist Maurice who has studied and compared various versions of the family tree is that the two are second cousins. Don Rosa has however said that he considers Donald and Daisy to be nonrelated and that Duck simply is the Duckburg universe equal to Smith, being a common surname. Donna Duck served as a precursor for Daisy in both animation and comics. She first appeared in a one-page illustration titled "Don Donald" and published in Good Housekeeping #3701 (January, 1937). The page was illustrated by Thomas "Tom" Wood (1870s - October 4, 1940) who was head of the Walt Disney Studios' publicity department from 1933 until his death. She went on to appear in the "Donald and Donna" comic strip published in Mickey Mouse Weekly from May 15 to August 21, 1937. The Weekly was a United Kingdom publication and the strip was illustrated at the time by William Arthur Ward. However her co-starring role was brief. Daisy made her first comics appearance on November 4, 1940. She was introduced as the new neighbor of Donald and his potential love interest. The Donald Duck comic strip was at the time scripted by Bob Karp and illustrated by Al Taliaferro. She was seemimgly soft-spoken but had a fiery temper and Donald often found himself a victim to her rage. For example one strip had Daisy waiting for Donald to carve their names and their love for each other on a tree. Only to discover the male Duck had carved "Daisy loves Donald" with her name hardly visible and his name in prominent bold letters. Resulting in her breaking her "umbrella" on his head and dismissing him as a "conceited little pup". Her first original comic book appearance was in the story "The Mighty Trapper" by Carl Barks, first published in Walt Disney's Comics and Stories #36 (September, 1943). However this was only a cameo when Huey, Dewey and Louie ask her to lend them an old fur coat. Barks would not use the character again until "Donald Tames His Temper" (January, 1946) when Daisy demands that Donald learns to manage his anger as a New Year's resolution. Donald has to agree but points early on that Daisy herself has the temper of a "wild-eyed wildcat. Her next appearance by Barks in "Biceps Blues" (June, 1946) introduced a key concept to their relationship. When Daisy seems impressed by a certain type of male, Donald is forced to emulate that type. No matter how unsuited Donald is for emulating it successfully. In this early case Daisy envies her "old school chum" Susy Swan for dating a notable weightlifter. Donald at first protests that she seems too impressed by a "gorilla" just because the "muscle-bound buffalo" can lift 300 pounds. But when Daisy simply ignores him and daydreams about dating Hercules, Donald decides to start weightlifting. The rest of the story focuses on his ineptitude at exercising and the eventual efforts of Huey, Dewey and Louie to cheer him up by various tricks pointing to Donald becoming stronger. But when Donald arranges a demonstration for Daisy, Susy and her boyfiend , their tricks are not able to save him from ridicule. Daisy then chases Donald in anger (whom Donald in turn chases Huey, Dewey and Louie in anger) while Susy boasts about her luck in men to her weightlifter boyfriend, who simply grunts and nods and fails to understand her words. Daisy failed to see that Susy's boyfriend is strong but otherwise not too gifted, whereas Donald is one who would go great lengths for her. Daisy continued to make frequent appearances in stories by Barks but the next important one for her development was "Wintertime Wager" (January, 1948). There she first attempts to act as the voice of reason between competing cousins Donald Duck and Gladstone Gander and in fact manages to prevent Donald losing his house to Gladstone because of a wager. This story established that both of them wanted to be in her good graces. Their next joined meeting in "Gladstone Returns" (August, 1948) has Donald and Gladstone competing in raising enough money for her charity effort. Their rivalry would only increase when "Donald's Love Letters" (December, 1949) revealed that both cousins were romantically interested in Daisy. From then on many stories by both Barks and others would develop around this love triangle. Daisy in turns dates both of them but this fact does not prevent the two competing suitors from attempting to earn more of her affection or trying to embarrass each other in front of her. Daisy can be counted on to be making regular appearances alongside either of them for several years to come. Often it would appear as if Gladstone had the upper hand in winning Daisy due to his luck, only to find fate thwarts his plans, such as a contest where the man who hunts the most turkeys gets to have dinner with Daisy, who has won a beauty contest. Gladstone wins the turkey hunt but finds himself having dinner with an ugly woman who is the runner-up queen, as Daisy is incapacited, and Donald is the one nursing her. Similarly, Daisy's precursor Donna and Daisy herself were featured together as rivals for Donald's affection in a newspaper strip published on August 7, 1951. In her last appearance, on August 11, 1951, Donna had a fiancé, a caricature of Disney cartoonist Manuel Gonzales, establishing a distinction between her character and Daisy. In the comics, Daisy is also a member of a local gossip group called the "Chit-Chat Society," which plays bridge and sponsors charity fundraisers. The core membership seems to consist of Clarabelle Cow, Clara Cluck and a character named "Dora," <ref> Dora. Disney's HooZoo. Retrieved on March 17, 2008. though occasionally some other unnamed characters appear. In later years, Carl Barks 'modernized' Daisy in two stories: 'The not-so-ancient mariner' and 'Hall of the mermaid queen'. In the first story, Daisy is wearing a lot of different wigs and outfits. Gladstone Gander is also seen wearing a wig and a new wardrobe in the story. In the second story, Daisy has short, curly hair and a bow that's much smaller than usual. In the 1950s, Disney launched the series "Daisy Duck's diary", where Daisy was given more of a leading role. This series, originally by such cartoonists as Dick Moores, Jack Bradbury, Tony Strobl and Carl Barks have continued to the present day in Italy. Since the early 1970s, Daisy has been featured as a crimefighter in Italian Disney comics. The character of "Super Daisy" ("Paperinika" in Italian) was designed as a female counterpart to "Super Donald" ("Paperinik" in Italian). While the character of Super Donald was originally created to place Donald into situations where he was finally a "winner" (versus his usual portrayal as a "loser"), when Super Daisy appeared in the same story as Super Donald, she then became the "winner" and Donald was once more relegated to the role of "loser." This upset some children, who complained to the comics' editors, which resulted in the Italian comics ceasing to use Super Daisy, though the Brazil Disney comics continue to make use of Daisy's superhero alter ego. As Super Daisy, Daisy has no superpowers, but instead uses devices created by high society fashion designer Genialina Edy Son. Genialina personally designed Daisy's costume, as well as supplying her with crimefighting gear such as sleeping pills and a James Bond-esque sports car. Very frequently, Super Daisy will both fight alongside and against Super Donald. In the Brazilian stories, Super Daisy often teams up with other Disney comic superheroes, such as "Super Goof" (Goofy) , "Super Gilly" ("Gilbert"), the "Red Bat" (Fethry Duck), etc. Since 1999 Daisy, like Donald Duck, has her own magazine in the Netherlands. She had one in Brazil between 1986 and 1997, and a short lived series in 2004 with republications of old stories. UNIVERSO HQ | QUADRINHOS | REVIEWS | MARGARIDA # 1 In other media Kingdom Hearts In the Kingdom Hearts video game series, appeared as a countess in Disney Castle. Her relations to Donald remain intact, especially in Kingdom Hearts II'' when she was seen scolding him. Disney Think Fast Daisy is also a playable character in Disney Think Fast. Disney Parks At the Walt Disney Parks and Resorts and on the Disney Cruise Line ships, Daisy is a semi-common character for meet-and-greets, parades and shows, though she doesn't make as many appearances as Donald or Minnie. Her semi-elusiveness has made her extra popular to an extent, adding to the fact that Daisy is an 'unofficial' member of the Fab Five (with Daisy, the Sensational Six; with Chip-and-Dale, the Excellent Eight; with Clarabelle Cow and Horace Horsecollar , the Tremendous Ten ), therefore making Daisy merchandise even more appealing to collectors. Appearance Daisy Duck as seen in Quack Pack (1996). In the early Donald Duck shorts, she was a duck with a red dress, and she had a bow in her hair. The next appearance change was in the Barks-story 'The not-so-ancient mariner'. The third change was in the theme parks, when she arrived with a pink dress and indigo bow. The fourth change was during the Mickey Mouse Works shorts, when she gained a yellow dress and a green bow instead of red. Disney's House of Mouse got her a waitress look-a-like outfit, with a blue bow, and a long ponytail. In Mickey Mouse Clubhouse, Daisy regained her purple dress and bow, familiar to the theme park visitors. But she also had yellow earrings, and also a short ponytail, similar to the longer one seen in Disney's House of Mouse. For instance, in 1996 the television series Quack Pack gave Daisy Duck a more mature wardrobe and hairstyle, and cast her as a career woman with a television reporter job. In House of Mouse, Daisy wears a modern blue dress and has her hair in a gigantic ponytail. Disney's House of Mouse. ''The Encyclopedia of Disney Animated Shorts. Retrieved on March 17, 2008. . References External links | Daisy_Duck |@lemmatized disneychar:1 name:11 daisy:113 duck:39 image:1 usual:4 lavender:1 dress:7 first:15 appearance:20 donald:111 mr:4 step:5 create:4 walt:6 disney:38 studio:2 copyright:1 company:1 voice:12 clarence:2 nash:2 early:6 ruth:1 peterson:1 gloria:1 bondell:1 patricia:1 parris:1 mickey:15 christmas:5 carol:3 katherine:1 soucie:1 quack:5 pack:5 diane:1 michelle:1 gift:2 magi:1 russi:2 taylor:2 fantasia:2 ref:18 internet:1 movie:1 database:1 imdb:1 retrieve:18 march:20 tress:1 macneille:1 date:13 mika:1 doi:1 japanese:1 alias:1 donna:13 super:13 dolly:1 norway:1 relative:1 april:2 may:7 june:8 friends:1 boyfriend:6 minnie:5 mouse:16 clarabelle:3 cow:4 clara:2 cluck:2 gladstone:9 gander:4 goofy:4 knuckle:2 pet:2 huey:8 dewey:8 louie:8 scrooge:2 mcduck:2 one:13 cartoon:4 comic:15 book:2 character:12 female:7 counterpart:3 girlfriend:1 appear:14 encyclopedia:16 animate:18 short:44 temper:10 far:1 great:2 control:1 although:1 rare:1 occasion:1 burst:1 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5,404 | Communications_in_Afghanistan | Communications in Afghanistan has dramatically increased since 2002, and has embarked on wireless companies, internet, radio stations and television channels. Afghan telecommunication companies, Afghan Wireless and Roshan, have boasted rapid increase in cellular phone usage in the last several years. There are three more companies now in the telecom business in Afghanistan, one is Areeba, 2nd Ts_2 http://www.reuters.com/article/pressRelease/idUS152237+22-Jan-2009+PRN20090122 and the other is Etisalat which were launched in 2007. In 2006, the Afghan Ministry of Communications has signed a US 64.5 million dollar agreement with a company (ZTE Corporation) on the establishment of a countrywide fibre optical cable network. This will improve telephone, internet, television and radio broadcast services throughout the country. Ministry signs contract with Chinese company, Pajhwok Afghan News. Telephone As of 2007, eight (8) out of 100 people have access to a telephone. Donor pledges to ARTF cross $2 billion mark, Pajhwok Afghan News. Mobile communications are improving because of the introduction of two wireless carriers into this developing country. There are over 1.4 Million cellular lines in the country. Roshan provides services to 224 cities within Afghanistan and in 33 of the country’s 34 provinces. In 2007, Communication Minister, Amirzai Sangin, announced that 150,000 new fixed-telephone-lines would be installed in the 4 major cities of Afghanistan in one year. The project would be completed at the cost of 40 million US dollars, which will be provided from the development budget of the Afghan Ministry of Communications. 150,000 telephone lines to be provided in one year, Pajhwok Afghan News. There are also five or more VSAT's installed in Kabul, Kandahar, Herat, Mazari Sharif, and Jalalabad, providing international and domestic voice/data connectivity. The international calling code for Afghanistan is +93. The following is a list of cellular phone companies in the country: Afghan Wireless Roshan Etisalat Areeba Areeba Afghanistan MTN Groups of Companies MTN Group | Home Wasel Telecom :: WaselTelecom :: Internet At present there are at least 22 Internet Service Providers giving their services. Internet in Afghanistan is also at the peak with at least 535,000 users in 2007. Afghanistan Internet Usage and Telecommunications Reports The following is a list of the Internet Service Providers operating in Afghanistan: Insta Telecom Danesh Net based in Nimroz Neda Telecommunications Ts_2 http://www.reuters.com/article/pressRelease/idUS152237+22-Jan-2009+PRN20090122 Television Televisions is a popular entertainment medium in Afghanistan, with at least 14 broadcasting stations. Satellite television carrying foreign channels is available to anyone who has access to a dish. The following is a list of broadcasted Afghan TV channels in alphabetical order: ANTV (Afghanistan National Television) Ariana Afghanistan TV (based in USA) Ariana Television Network Ariana Television Network International Arzo TV Ayna TV Farda TV Khorasan TV (based in USA) Lemar TV Noor TV (based in USA) Noorin TV Payame Afghan TV (based in USA) RTA RTA Nangarhar Saba TV Saba World Sepher TV Shamshad TV Tolo TV Tolo TV International Tamadon TV Ujala TV Radio There are at least 5 FM stations, 21 AM stations, and 1 shortwave station (broadcasting in Pashto, Dari (Persian language), and English languages). The following is a list of radio channels in Afghanistan: Kabul Radio Postal service In 1870, the Bala Hissar post office was established in Kabul and a post office in the center of each province. And, a post office was established in each large city by 1918. Afghanistan became of a member of the Universal Postal Union in 1928. Postal administration elevated to the Ministry of Communication in 1934. Civil war caused a disruption in issuing official stamp on 1989. In 1999 postal service was operating again The Afghanistan government has reported to the UPU several times about illegal stamp being issued and sold in 2003 and 2007. Afghanistan Post is currently trying to revamp the postal service in the country, with the help of Pakistan Post. The Afghanistan Postal commission was formed to prepare a written policy for the development of the postal sector, which will form the basis of a new Postal Services Law governing licensing of postal services providers. The project should be finished by 2008. References CIA Factbook on Afghanistan External links Afghanistan's Ministry of Communications - Official website Afghanistan Telecom Sector Summary Difficulties of operating media organizations in Afghanistan Cleric launching TV channel for Afghan cultural preservation Mobil-Phone Towers Are Taliban's New Target RFE/RL March 3 2008 Kabul Media provides photographic and video content from Kabul, Afghanistan for news organizations | Communications_in_Afghanistan |@lemmatized communication:7 afghanistan:22 dramatically:1 increase:2 since:1 embark:1 wireless:4 company:7 internet:7 radio:5 station:5 television:8 channel:5 afghan:11 telecommunication:3 roshan:3 boast:1 rapid:1 cellular:3 phone:3 usage:2 last:1 several:2 year:3 three:1 telecom:4 business:1 one:3 areeba:3 http:2 www:2 reuters:2 com:2 article:2 pressrelease:2 jan:2 etisalat:2 launch:2 ministry:5 sign:2 u:2 million:3 dollar:2 agreement:1 zte:1 corporation:1 establishment:1 countrywide:1 fibre:1 optical:1 cable:1 network:3 improve:2 telephone:5 broadcast:3 service:10 throughout:1 country:6 contract:1 chinese:1 pajhwok:3 news:4 eight:1 people:1 access:2 donor:1 pledge:1 artf:1 cross:1 billion:1 mark:1 mobile:1 introduction:1 two:1 carrier:1 developing:1 line:3 provide:5 city:3 within:1 province:2 minister:1 amirzai:1 sangin:1 announce:1 new:3 fix:1 would:2 instal:2 major:1 project:2 complete:1 cost:1 development:2 budget:1 also:2 five:1 vsat:1 kabul:5 kandahar:1 herat:1 mazari:1 sharif:1 jalalabad:1 international:4 domestic:1 voice:1 data:1 connectivity:1 call:1 code:1 following:4 list:4 mtn:2 group:2 home:1 wasel:1 waseltelecom:1 present:1 least:4 provider:3 give:1 peak:1 user:1 report:2 operate:2 insta:1 danesh:1 net:1 base:5 nimroz:1 neda:1 popular:1 entertainment:1 medium:3 broadcasting:1 satellite:1 carry:1 foreign:1 available:1 anyone:1 dish:1 tv:18 alphabetical:1 order:1 antv:1 national:1 ariana:3 usa:4 arzo:1 ayna:1 farda:1 khorasan:1 lemar:1 noor:1 noorin:1 payame:1 rta:2 nangarhar:1 saba:2 world:1 sepher:1 shamshad:1 tolo:2 tamadon:1 ujala:1 fm:1 shortwave:1 pashto:1 dari:1 persian:1 language:2 english:1 postal:9 bala:1 hissar:1 post:5 office:3 establish:2 center:1 large:1 become:1 member:1 universal:1 union:1 administration:1 elevate:1 civil:1 war:1 cause:1 disruption:1 issue:2 official:2 stamp:2 government:1 upu:1 time:1 illegal:1 sell:1 currently:1 try:1 revamp:1 help:1 pakistan:1 commission:1 form:2 prepare:1 write:1 policy:1 sector:2 basis:1 law:1 govern:1 licensing:1 finish:1 reference:1 cia:1 factbook:1 external:1 link:1 website:1 summary:1 difficulty:1 operating:1 organization:2 cleric:1 cultural:1 preservation:1 mobil:1 tower:1 taliban:1 target:1 rfe:1 rl:1 march:1 photographic:1 video:1 content:1 |@bigram cellular_phone:2 http_www:2 pajhwok_afghan:3 kabul_kandahar:1 mazari_sharif:1 alphabetical_order:1 universal_postal:1 stamp_postal:1 cia_factbook:1 external_link:1 rfe_rl:1 |
5,405 | Permian | The Permian The term "Permian" was introduced into geology in 1841 by Sir Sir R. I. Murchison, president of the Geological Society of London, who identified typical strata in extensive Russian explorations undertaken with Edouard de Verneuil; Murchison asserted in 1841 that he named his "Permian system" after the ancient kingdom of Permia, and not after the then small town of Perm, as usually assumed; see "Origin of the Permian" is a geologic period and system that extends from 299.0 ± 0.8 to 251.0 ± 0.4 Ma (million years before the present) . It is the last period of the Paleozoic Era. The Permian period was named after the kingdom of Permia in modern-day Russia by Scottish geologist Roderick Murchison in 1841 (not the city of Perm, as commonly misconstrued). Subdivisions of the Permian period, from most recent to most ancient: Upper / Late Permian or Lopingian epoch [260.4 ± 0.7 Ma - 251.0 ± 0.4 Ma] Tatarian (Changxingian / Dorashmian) stage [253.8 ± 0.7 Ma - 251.0 ± 0.4 Ma] Kazanian (Wujiapingian / Dzhulfian / Longtanian / Rustlerian / Saladoan) stage [260.4 ± 0.7 Ma - 253.8 ± 0.7 Ma] Middle Permian or Guadalupian (Zechstein) epoch [270.6 ± 0.7 - 260.4 ± 0.7 Ma] Capitanian stage [265.8 ± 0.7 - 260.4 ± 0.7 Ma] Wordian stage [268.0 ± 0.7 - 265.8 ± 0.7 Ma] Roadian stage [270.6 ± 0.7 - 268.0 ± 0.7 Ma] Lower / Early Permian or Cisuralian epoch [299.0 ± 0.8 - 270.6 ± 0.7 Ma] Kungurian (Irenian / Filippovian / Leonard) stage [275.6 ± 0.7 - 270.6 ± 0.7 Ma] Artinskian (Baigendzinian / Aktastinian) stage [284.4 ± 0.7 - 275.6 ± 0.7 Ma] Sakmarian (Sterlitamakian / Tastubian / Leonard / Wolfcamp) stage [294.6 ± 0.8 - 284.4 ± 0.7 Ma] Asselian (Krumaian / Uskalikian / Surenian / Wolfcamp) stage [299.0 ± 0.8 - 294.6 ± 0.8 Ma] Oceans Sea levels in the Permian remained generally low, and near-shore environments were limited by the collection of almost all major landmasses into a single continent -- Pangaea. One continent, even a very large one, has a smaller shoreline than six to eight smaller ones with the same total area. This could have in part caused the widespread extinctions of marine species at the end of the period by severely reducing shallow coastal areas preferred by many marine organisms. Paleogeography Geography of the Permian world During the Permian, all the Earth's major land masses except portions of East Asia were collected into a single supercontinent known as Pangaea. Pangaea straddled the equator and extended toward the poles, with a corresponding effect on ocean currents in the single great ocean ("Panthalassa", the "universal sea"), and the Paleo-Tethys Ocean, a large ocean that was between Asia and Gondwana. The Cimmeria continent rifted away from Gondwana and drifted north to Laurasia, causing the Paleo-Tethys to shrink. A new ocean was growing on its southern end, the Tethys Ocean, an ocean that would dominate much of the Mesozoic Era. Large continental landmasses create climates with extreme variations of heat and cold ("continental climate") and monsoon conditions with highly seasonal rainfall patterns. Deserts seem to have been widespread on Pangaea. Such dry conditions favored gymnosperms, plants with seeds enclosed in a protective cover, over plants such as ferns that disperse spores. The first modern trees (conifers, ginkgos and cycads) appeared in the Permian. Three general areas are especially noted for their extensive Permian deposits - the Ural Mountains (where Perm itself is located), China, and the southwest of North America, where the Permian Basin in the U.S. state of Texas is so named because it has one of the thickest deposits of Permian rocks in the world. Climate As the Permian opened, the Earth was still in the grip of an ice age, so the polar regions were covered with deep layers of ice. Glaciers continued to cover much of Gondwanaland, as they had during the late Carboniferous. The Permian Period, at the end of the Paleozoic era, marked the beginning of great changes in the Earth's climate and appearance. Towards the middle of the period the climate became warmer and milder, the glaciers receded, and the continental interiors became drier. Much of the interior of Pangaea was probably arid, with great seasonal fluctuations (wet and dry seasons), because of the lack of the moderating effect of nearby bodies of water. This drying tendency continued through to the late Permian, along with alternating warming and cooling periods. Life Dimetrodon and Eryops- Early Permian, North America Edaphosaurus pogonias - Early Permian Ocher fauna - Early Middle Permian, Ural Region Titanophoneus and Ulemosaurus - Ural Region Marine biota Permian marine deposits are rich in fossil mollusks, echinoderms, and brachiopods. Fossilized shells of two kinds of invertebrates are widely used to identify Permian strata and correlate them between sites: fusulinids, a kind of shelled amoeba-like protist that is one of the foraminiferans, and ammonoids, shelled cephalopods that are distant relatives of the modern nautilus. By the close of the Permian, trilobites and a host of other marine groups became extinct Terrestrial biota Terrestrial life in the Permian included diverse plants, fungi, arthropods, and various types of tetrapods. The period saw a massive desert covering the interior of the Pangaea. The warm zone spread in the northern hemisphere, where extensive dry desert appeared. The rock formed at that time were stained red by iron oxides, the result of intense heating by the sun of a surface devoid of vegetation cover. A number of older types of plants and animals died out or became marginal elements. The Permian began with the Carboniferous flora still flourishing. About the middle of the Permian there was a major transition in vegetation. The swamp-loving lycopod trees of the Carboniferous, such as Lepidodendron and Sigillaria, were replaced by the more advanced conifers, which were better adapted to the changing climatic conditions. The Permian saw the radiation of many important conifer groups, including the ancestors of many present-day families. Lycopods and swamp forests still dominated the South China continent because it was an isolated continent and it sat near or at the equator. Oxygen levels were probably high there. The ginkgos and cycads also appeared during this period. Rich forests were present in many areas, with a diverse mix of plant groups. Insects of the Permian By the Pennsylvanian and well into the Permian, by far the most successful were primitive relatives of cockroaches. Six fast legs, two well developed folding wings, fairly good eyes, long, well developed antennae (olfactory), an omnivorous digestive system, a receptacle for storing sperm, a chitin skeleton that could support and protect, as well as form of gizzard and efficient mouth parts, gave it formidable advantages over other herbivorous animals. About 90% of insects were cockroach-like insects ("Blattopterans"). Zimmerman EC (1948) Insects of Hawaii, Vol. II. Univ. Hawaii Press The dragonflies Odonata were the dominant aerial predator and probably dominated terrestrial insect predation as well. True Odonata appeared in the Permian Grzimek HC Bernhard (1975) Grzimek's Animal Life Encyclopedia Vol 22 Insects. Van Nostrand Reinhold Co. NY. Riek EF Kukalova-Peck J (1984) A new interpretation of dragonfly wing venation based on early Upper Carboniferous fossils from Argentina (Insecta: Odonatoida and basic character states in Pterygote wings.) Can. J. Zool. 62; 1150-1160. and all are amphibious. Their prototypes are the oldest winged fossils, Wakeling JM Ellington CP (1997) Dragonfly flight III lift and power requirements. Journal of Experimental Biology 200; 583-600, on p589 go back to the Devonian, and are different from other wings in every way. Matsuda R (1970) Morphology and evolution of the insect thorax. Mem. Ent. Soc. Can. 76; 1-431. Their prototypes may have had the beginnings of many modern attributes even by late Carboniferous and it is possible that they even captured small vertebrates, for some species had a wing span of 71 cm. Riek EF Kukalova-Peck J (1984) A new interpretation of dragonfly wing venation based on early Upper Carboniferous fossils from Argentina (Insecta: Odonatoida and basic character states in Pterygote wings.) Can. J. Zool. 62; 1150-1160 A number of important new insect groups appeared at this time, including the Coleoptera (beetles) and Diptera (flies). Reptile and amphibian fauna Early Permian terrestrial faunas were dominated by pelycosaurs and amphibians, the middle Permian by primitive therapsids such as the dinocephalia, and the late Permian by more advanced therapsids such as gorgonopsians and dicynodonts. Towards the very end of the Permian the first archosaurs appeared, a group that would give rise to the dinosaurs in the following period. Also appearing at the end of the Permian were the first cynodonts, which would go on to evolve into mammals during the Triassic. Another group of therapsids, the therocephalians (such as Trochosaurus), arose in the Middle Permian. There were no aerial vertebrates. The Permian period saw the development of a fully terrestrial fauna and the appearance of the first large herbivores and carnivores. It was the high tide of the anapsides in the form of the massive Pareiasaurs and host of smaller, generally lizard-like groups. A group of small reptiles, the diapsids started to abound. These were the ancestors to most modern reptiles and the ruling dinosaurs as well as pterosaurs and crocodiles. Thriving also, were the early ancestors to mammals, the synapsida, which included some large reptiles such as Dimetrodon. Reptiles grew to dominance among vertebrates, because their special adaptations enabled them to flourish in the drier climate. Permian amphibians consisted of temnospondyli, lepospondyli and batrachosaurs. Permian–Triassic extinction event The Permian–Triassic extinction event, labeled "End P" here, is the most significant extinction event in this plot for marine genera which produce large numbers of fossils. The Permian ended with the most extensive extinction event recorded in paleontology: the Permian-Triassic extinction event. 90% to 95% of marine species became extinct, as well as 70% of all land organisms. On an individual level, perhaps as many as 99.5% of separate organisms died as a result of the event. http://www.historyfiles.co.uk/FeaturesPrehistory/Permian_Extinction01.htm There is also significant evidence that massive flood basalt eruptions from magma output lasting thousands of years in what is now the Siberian Traps contributed to environmental stress leading to mass extinction. The reduced coastal habitat and highly increased aridity probably also contributed. Based on the amount of lava estimated to have been produced during this period, the worst-case scenario is an expulsion of enough carbon dioxide from the eruptions to raise world temperatures five degrees Celsius. Another hypothesis involves ocean venting of hydrogen sulfide gas. Portions of deep ocean will periodically lose all of their dissolved oxygen allowing bacteria that live without oxygen to flourish and produce hydrogen sulfide gas. If enough hydrogen sulfide accumulates in an anoxic zone, the gas can rise into the atmosphere. Oxidizing gases in the atmosphere would destroy the toxic gas, but the hydrogen sulfide would soon consume all of the atmospheric gas available to change it. Hydrogen sulfide levels would increase dramatically over a few hundred years. Modeling of such an event indicates that the gas would destroy ozone in the upper atmosphere allowing ultraviolet radiation to kill off species that had survived the toxic gas (Kump, et al., 2005). Of course, there are species that can metabolize hydrogen sulfide. Another hypothesis builds on the flood basalt eruption theory. Five degrees Celsius would not be enough increase in world temperatures to explain the death of 95% of life. But such warming could slowly raise ocean temperatures until frozen methane reservoirs below the ocean floor near coastlines (a current target for a new energy source) melted, expelling enough methane, among the most potent greenhouse gases, into the atmosphere to raise world temperatures an additional five degrees Celsius. The frozen methane hypothesis helps explain the increase in carbon-12 levels midway into the Permian-Triassic boundary layer. It also helps explain why the first phase of the layer's extinctions was land-based, the second was marine-based (and starting right after the increase in C-12 levels), and the third land-based again. An even more speculative hypothesis is that intense radiation from a nearby supernova was responsible for the extinctions. Trilobites, which had thrived since Cambrian times, finally became extinct before the end of the Permian. Nautiluses, a species of cephalopods, surprisingly survived this occurrence. In 2006, a group of American scientists from Ohio State University reported evidence for a possible huge meteorite crater (Wilkes Land crater) with a diameter of around 500 kilometers in Antarctica. The crater is located at a depth of 1.6 kilometers beneath the ice of Wilkes Land in eastern Antarctica. The scientists speculate that this impact may have caused the Permian–Triassic extinction event, although its age is bracketed only between 100 million and 500 million years ago. They also speculate that it may have contributed in some way to the separation of Australia from the Antarctic landmass, which were both part of a supercontinent called Gondwana. Levels of iridium and quartz fracturing in the Permian-Triassic layer do not approach those of the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary layer. Given that a far greater proportion of species and individual organisms became extinct during the former, doubt is cast on the significance of a meteor impact in creating the latter. Further doubt has been cast on this theory based on fossils in Greenland showing the extinction to have been gradual, lasting about eighty thousand years, with three distinct phases. The warm zone spread in the northern hemisphere, where extensive dry desert appeared. The rock formed at that time were stained red by iron oxides, the result of intense heating by the sun of a surface devoid of vegetation cover. The old types of plants and animals died out. Many scientists believe that the Permian-Triassic extinction event was caused by a combination of some or all of the hypotheses above and other factors; the formation of Pangaea decreased the number of coastal habitats and may have contributed to the extinction of many clades. See also List of fossil sites (with link directory) Permian tetrapods Notes References Ogg, Jim; June, 2004, Overview of Global Boundary Stratotype Sections and Points (GSSP's) http://www.stratigraphy.org/gssp.htm Accessed April 30, 2006. External links University of California offers a more modern Permian stratigraphy Classic Permian strata in the Glass Mountains of the Permian Basin Examples of Permian Fossils Fossil of Giant Permian Amphibian | Permian |@lemmatized permian:55 term:1 introduce:1 geology:1 sir:2 r:2 murchison:3 president:1 geological:1 society:1 london:1 identify:2 typical:1 stratum:3 extensive:5 russian:1 exploration:1 undertake:1 edouard:1 de:1 verneuil:1 assert:1 name:3 system:3 ancient:2 kingdom:2 permia:2 small:6 town:1 perm:3 usually:1 assume:1 see:2 origin:1 geologic:1 period:13 extend:2 million:3 year:5 present:3 last:3 paleozoic:2 era:3 modern:6 day:2 russia:1 scottish:1 geologist:1 roderick:1 city:1 commonly:1 misconstrue:1 subdivision:1 recent:1 upper:4 late:5 lopingian:1 epoch:3 tatarian:1 changxingian:1 dorashmian:1 stage:9 kazanian:1 wujiapingian:1 dzhulfian:1 longtanian:1 rustlerian:1 saladoan:1 middle:6 guadalupian:1 zechstein:1 capitanian:1 wordian:1 roadian:1 low:2 early:8 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5,406 | History_of_Nigeria | Early history Recent archaeological research has shown that people were already living in southwestern Nigeria (specifically Iwo-Eleru) as early as 9000 BC and perhaps earlier at Ugwuelle-Uturu (Okigwe) in southeastern Nigeria. Shaw, T.& Daniells, S. G. H. 1984. Excavations At Iwo-Eleru, Ondo State, Nigeria. West African Journal of Archaeology Smelting furnaces at Taruga dating from the 4th century BC provide the oldest evidence of metalworking in Archaeology. Microlithic and ceramic industries were developed by savanna pastoralists from at least the 4th millennium BC and were continued by subsequent agricultural communities. In the south, hunting and gathering gave way to subsistence farming in the first millennium BC and the cultivation of staple foods. Kainji Dam excavations revealed ironworking by the 2nd century BC. The transition from Neolithic times to the Iron Age apparently was achieved without intermediate bronze production. Some scholars speculate that the smelting process was transmitted from the Mediterranean by Berbers. Others suggest the technology moved west from the Nile Valley, although the Iron Age in the Niger River valley and the forest region appears to predate the introduction of metallurgy in the upper savanna by more than 800 years. The earliest identified Nigerian culture is that of the Nok people who thrived between 500 BC and 200 AD on the Jos Plateau in northeastern Nigeria. Information is lacking from the first millennium AD following the Nok ascendancy, but by the 2nd millennium AD there was active trade from North Africa through the Sahara to the forest, with the people of the savanna acting as intermediaries in exchanges of various goods. Early states before 1500 Long before 1500, much of modern Nigeria was divided into states identified with contemporary ethnic groups. These early states included the Yoruba kingdoms, the Igbo kingdom of Nri, the Edo kingdom of Benin, the Efik kingdom, the Ibibio kingdom, the Annang kingdom, the Hausa cities, and Nupe. Numerous small states to the west and south of Lake Chad were absorbed or displaced in the course of the expansion of Kanem, which was centered to the northeast of Lake Chad. Borno, initially the western province of Kanem, became independent in the late 14th century. Other states probably existed but the absence of archaeological data do not permit accurate dating. In the southeast, the earliest Igbo state and the oldest kingdom in Nigeria was the Kingdom of Nri, which emerged in 900 AD and lasted for over a thousand years. Despite its relatively small size geographically it is considered the cradle of Igbo culture. Yoruba kingdoms and Benin Historically the Yoruba have been the dominant group on the west bank of the Niger. Of mixed origin, they were the product of periodic waves of migrants. The Yoruba were organized in patrilineal groups that occupied village communities and subsisted on agriculture. From approximately the 11th century, adjacent village compounds called ile coalesced into numerous territorial city-states in which clan loyalties became subordinate to dynastic chieftains. Urbanization was accompanied by high levels of artistic achievement, particularly in terracotta and ivory sculpture and in the sophisticated metal casting produced at Ife. The Yoruba paid tribute to a pantheon headed by an impersonal deity, Olorun, as well as lesser deities who performed various tasks. Oduduwa was regarded as the creator of the earth and the ancestor of the Yoruba kings. According to myth Oduduwa founded Ife and dispatched his sons to establish it. Yoruban tradition, which has been backed by some historians and scholars, suggests that some of the Yorubans' ancestors may have migrated from the Arabian peninsula. Mazrui, Alamin M. and Mutunga, Willy. Debating the African Condition: Ali Mazrui and His Critics. 2004, page 139-142 This theory cites numerous linguistic commonalities as evidence of Arabian origin, such as the word for prayer, Adua, and the word for blessings, Al-Barikah. The Yorubas are believed to have followed their leader Odua, the great father of the Yoruba, down to Ife, where they settled, today known as Ile-ife, a large city, in the heart of the western part of Nigeria. The Igbo States With the decline of Nri kingdom in the 1400-1600 AD, several states once under their influence, became powerful economic Oracular oligarchies and large commercial states that dominated Igboland. The neighboring Awka city-state rose in power in the result of their powerful Agbara oracle and blacksmith expertise. The Onitsha Kingdom, which was originally inhabited by Igbos of from East of the Niger, was founded in the 16th century by migrants from Anioma (Western Igboland) and Benin. Later groups like the Igala traders from the hinterland settled in Onitsha in the 18nth century. Western Igbo kingdoms like Aboh, dominated trade in the lower Niger area from the 17th century until European penetration. The Umunoha state in the Owerri area used the Igwe ka Ala oracle at their advantage. However, the Cross River Igbo states like the Aro and Abiriba had the greatest influence in Igboland and adjacent areas after the decline of Nri. The Arochukwu kingdom which emerged after the Aro-Ibibio wars from 1630-1720, and went on to form the Aro Confederacy which dominated parts of midwestern and eastern Nigeria with pockets of influence in Equatorial Guinea and Cameroon. The source of the Aro Confederacy's dominance was based on the judicial oracle of Ibini Ukpabi ("Long Juju") and the military forces of Ohafia, Abam, Ezza, Akpa, and other neighboring allies. The related Abiriba people also cooperated with the Aro to become a powerful economic force. Igbo gods, like those of the Yoruba, were numerous, but their relationship to one another and human beings was essentially egalitarian, reflecting Igbo society as a whole. A number of oracles and local cults attracted devotees while the central deity, the earth mother and fertility figure Ala, was venerated at shrines throughout Igboland. The weakness of a popular theory that Igbos were stateless rests on the paucity of historical evidence of pre-colonial Igbo society. There is a huge gap between the archaeological finds of Igbo Ukwu, which reveal a rich material culture in the heart of the Igbo region in the 8th century, and the oral traditions of the 20th century. Benin exercised considerable influence on the western Igbo who adopted many of the political structures familiar to the Yoruba-Benin region. Ofega was the queen. Nri Kingdom The city of Nri is considered to be the foundation of Igbo culture. Nri and Aguleri, where the Igbo creation myth originates, are in the territory of the Umueri clan, who trace their lineages back to the patriarchal king-figure, Eri. Eri's origins are unclear, though he has been described as a "sky being" sent by Chukwu (God). He has been characterized as having first given societal order to the people of Anambra. Archaeological evidence suggests that Nri hegemony in Igboland may go back as far as the 9th century, and royal burials have been unearthed dating to at least the 10th century. Eri, the god-like founder of Nri, is believed to have settled the region around 948 with other related Igbo cultures following after in the 13th century. The first Eze Nri (King of Nri), Ìfikuánim, followed directly after him. According to Igbo oral tradition, his reign started in 1043. At least one historian puts Ìfikuánim's reign much later, around 1225 AD. The Kingdom of Nri was a religio-polity, a sort of theocratic state, that developed in the central heartland of the Igbo region. The Nri had a taboo symbolic code with six types. These included human (such as the birth of twins), animal (such as killing or eating of pythons), object, temporal, behavioral, speech and place taboos. The rules regarding these taboos were used to educate and govern Nri's subjects. This meant that, while certain Igbo may have lived under different formal administration, all followers of the Igbo religion had to abide by the rules of the faith and obey its representative on earth, the Eze Nri. Oyo and Benin During the 15th century Oyo and Benin surpassed Ife as political and economic powers, although Ife preserved its status as a religious center. Respect for the priestly functions of the oni of Ife was a crucial factor in the evolution of Yoruban culture. The Ife model of government was adapted at Oyo, where a member of its ruling dynasty controlled several smaller city-states. A state council (the Oyo Mesi) named the alafin (king) and acted as a check on his authority. Their capital city was situated about 100 km north of present-day Oyo. Unlike the forest-bound Yoruba kingdoms, Oyo was in the savanna and drew its military strength from its cavalry forces, which established hegemony over the adjacent Nupe and the Borgu kingdoms and thereby developed trade routes farther to the north. Yorubaland established a community in the Edo-speaking area east of Ife before becoming a dependency of Ife at the beginning of the 14th century. By the 15th century it became an independent trading power, blocking Ife's access to the coastal ports as Oyo had cut off the mother city from the savanna. Political and religious authority resided in the oba (king) who according to tradition was descended from the Ife dynasty. Benin, which may have housed 100,000 inhabitants at its height, spread over twenty-five square km that were enclosed by three concentric rings of earthworks. By the late 15th century Benin was in contact with Portugal (see Atlantic slave trade). At its apogee in the 16th and 17th centuries, Benin encompassed parts of southeastern Yorubaland and the western Igbo. Northern kingdoms of the Savanna The Songhai Empire, c. 1500 Trade is the key to the emergence of organized communities in the savanna portions of Nigeria. Prehistoric inhabitants adjusting to the encroaching desert were widely scattered by the third millennium BC, when the desiccation of the Sahara began. Trans-Saharan trade routes linked western Sudan with the Mediterranean since the time of Carthage and with the Upper Nile from a much earlier date, establishing avenues of communication and cultural influence that remained open until the end of the 19th century. By these same routes, Islam made its way south into West Africa after the 9th century AD. By then a string of dynastic states, including the earliest Hausa states, stretched across western and central Sudan. The most powerful of these states were Ghana, Gao, and Kanem, which were not within the boundaries of modern Nigeria but which influenced the history of the Nigerian savanna. Ghana declined in the 11th century but was succeeded by the Mali Empire which consolidated much of western Sudan in the 13th century. Following the breakup of Mali a local leader named Sonni Ali (1464 -1492) founded the Songhai Empire in the region of middle Niger and the western Sudan and took control of the trans-Saharan trade. Sonni Ali seized Timbuktu in 1468 and Jenne in 1473, building his regime on trade revenues and the cooperation of Muslim merchants. His successor Askia Muhammad Ture (1493 - 1528) made Islam the official religion, built mosques, and brought Muslim scholars, including al-Maghili (d.1504), the founder of an important tradition of Sudanic African Muslim scholarship, to Gao. Ira M. Lapidus, A History of Islamic Societies, Cambridge 1988 Although these western empires had little political influence on the Nigerian savanna before 1500, they had a strong cultural and economic impact that became more pronounced in the 16th century, especially because these states became associated with the spread of Islam and trade. Throughout the 16th century much of northern Nigeria paid homage to Songhai in the west or to Borno, a rival empire in the east. Kanem-Bornu Empire Borno's history is closely associated with Kanem, which had achieved imperial status in the Lake Chad basin by the 13th century. Kanem expanded westward to include the area that became Borno. The (king) of Kanem and his court accepted Islam in the 11th century, as the western empires also had done. Islam was used to reinforce the political and social structures of the state although many established customs were maintained. Women, for example, continued to exercise considerable political influence. The mai employed his mounted bodyguard and an inchoate army of nobles to extend Kanem's authority into Borno. By tradition the territory was conferred on the heir to the throne to govern during his apprenticeship. In the 14th century, however, dynastic conflict forced the then-ruling group and its followers to relocate in Borno, where as a result the Kanuri emerged as an ethnic group in the late fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. The civil war that disrupted Kanem in the second half of the 14th century resulted in the independence of Borno. Borno's prosperity depended on the trans-Sudanic slave trade and the desert trade in salt and livestock. The need to protect its commercial interests compelled Borno to intervene in Kanem, which continued to be a theater of war throughout the fifteenth and into the sixteenth centuries. Despite its relative political weakness in this period, Borno's court and mosques under the patronage of a line of scholarly kings earned fame as centers of Islamic culture and learning. Hausa states Map of Nigeria (source: CIA's The World Factbook) By the 11th century some Hausa states - such as Kano, jigawa,Katsina, and Gobir - had developed into walled towns engaging in trade, servicing caravans, and the manufacture of various goods. Until the 15th century these small states were on the periphery of the major Sudanic empires of the era. They were constantly pressured by Songhai to the west and Kanem-Borno to the east, to which they paid tribute. Armed conflict was usually motivated by economic concerns, as coalitions of Hausa states mounted wars against the Jukun and Nupe in the middle belt to collect slaves or against one another for control of trade. Islam arrived to Hausaland along the caravan routes. The famous Kano Chronicle records the conversion of Kano's ruling dynasty by clerics from Mali, demonstrating that the imperial influence of Mali extended far to the east. Acceptance of Islam was gradual and was often nominal in the countryside where folk religion continued to exert a strong influence. Nonetheless, Kano and Katsina, with their famous mosques and schools, came to participate fully in the cultural and intellectual life of the Islamic world. The Fulani began to enter the Hausa country in the 13th century and by the 15th century they were tending cattle, sheep, and goats in Borno as well. The Fulani came from the Senegal River valley, where their ancestors had developed a method of livestock management based on transhumance. Gradually they moved eastward, first into the centers of the Mali and Songhai empires and eventually into Hausaland and Borno. Some Fulbe converted to Islam as early as the 11th century and settled among the Hausa, from whom they became racially indistinguishable. There they constituted a devoutly religious, educated elite who made themselves indispensable to the Hausa kings as government advisers, Islamic judges, and teachers. Calabar Kingdom Calabar Kingdom also known as Efik Kingdom is an Ancient Kingdom that existed thousands of years before Christ. The City of Calabar was the seat of power of the Calabar Kingdom. According to Obong of Calabar, Edidem (DR./Professor Nta Elijah Henshaw), Calabar Kingdom covered the entire Akwa Ibom State, Cross River State, Western Cameroon, the offshore island of Fernando Po (now Equatorial Guinea), and extended into parts of present Abia State and Imo State (Vanguard, Monday, August 2, 2004, reported by George Onah). The indigenes of the old Calabar Kingdom were referred to as Calabar people (even at present day, some Nigerians still call indigenes of Akwa Ibom State and Cross River State as Calabar people). The old Calabar Kingdom was composed of loosely governed states. The states included: Annang, Akamkpa, Efik, Eket, Ibibio, Ikom, Ogoja, (Opobo, now Ikot Abasi), Oron, Western Camaroon and the offshore island of Fernando Po (now Equatorial Guinea). Calabar was (and still is) the capital city of the Efik State of the old Calabar Kingdom. As such, the Kingdom has been known as either Calabar Kingdom or Efik Kingdom. Calabar Kingdom was an active ancient trading kingdom. Recorded history shows that the Calabar Kingdom was the first Kingdom to use a money system in trading in West Africa. The ancient money of Calabar Kingdom was called "Okpoho", a Calabar word for money. This money become known as the Manillas. The Kingdom was ruled by Kings with the King of Calabar as the High King. Several years after the Kingdom became a British colony, there was an agreement between the British and the Kings in 1908 abrogating the title of King, and replacing it with the title - Obong (Edem, 2008). Thus, as Calabar Kingdom became a British colony, the British saw it necessary to not duplicate the title of the monarch (the King or Queen - of England) in their colony. The High King (King of Calabar later known as Obong of Calabar till this present time), had a strong power in the capital City of Calabar in the Efik State with weak power over the other states in the Kingdom. Leadership power in the Calabar Kingdom was derived from a major secret society, the Ekpe Secrete Society. The Ekpe secret society was instrumental in keeping outsiders (other ethnic groups) outside of the Kingdom and in protecting the sovereignty of the Kingdom. The Ekpe secret society of the Old Calabar Kingdom developed one of the major ancient African script, the Nsibidi written script. The coastal ports of the Calabar Kingdom, especially the Calabar port made indigenes of the Kingdom to be the first group in southeastern parts of Nigeria to have contact with European traders and missionaries. The Obong of Calabar signed a treaty with the British government in the 17th century that resulted in the Southern Protectorate of Nigeria with headquarter at Calabar, thus making Calabar the first Nigerian Capital City. After Nigerian independence in 1960, Western Cameroon opted to become a part of Cameroon because of the weakness and poor political leadership and relationship of people of the then Eastern Nigeria. Hence, parts of the Calabar people got divided into Cameroon. The Calabar Kingdom produced the first Nigerian Professor, Professor Eyo Ita, who was the pioneer champion of youth movement in Nigeria for independence. He later became the first Premier of the former Eastern Region of Nigeria, and a member of the Nigerian team that negotiated Nigerian independence in Britain. The Kingdom also produced Sir/Dr. Egbert Udo Udoma, the first Nigerian to earn a Ph.D. in Political Science and Law from Ikot Abasi and Mr. J. A. Eka of Uyo, the father of Nigerian Cooperative movement (old name for Chamber of Commerce). During the Nigerian Civil War, the Calabar Kingdom became one of the original Nigerian twelve states, the South-eastern State of Nigeria which was later split into two states, the Cross River State and Akwa Ibom State. Pre-colonial states, 1500-1800 Savanna states During the 16th century the Songhai Empire reached its peak, stretching from the Senegal and Gambia rivers and incorporating part of Hausaland in the east. Concurrently the Saifawa Dynasty of Borno conquered Kanem and extended control west to Hausa cities not under Songhai authority. Largely because of Songhai's influence, there was a blossoming of Islamic learning and culture. Songhai collapsed in 1591 when a Moroccan army conquered Gao and Timbuktu. Morocco was unable to control the empire and the various provinces, including the Hausa states, became independent. The collapse undermined Songhai's hegemony over the Hausa states and abruptly altered the course of regional history. Borno reached its apogee under mai Idris Aloma (ca. 1569-1600) during whose reign Kanem was reconquered. The destruction of Songhai left Borno uncontested and until the 18th century Borno dominated northern Nigeria. Despite Borno's hegemony the Hausa states continued to wrestle for ascendancy. Gradually Borno's position weakened; its inability to check political rivalries between competing Hausa cities was one example of this decline. Another factor was the military threat of the Tuareg centered at Agades who penetrated the northern districts of Borno. The major cause of Borno's decline was a severe drought that struck the Sahel and savanna from in the middle of the 18th century. As a consequence Borno lost many northern territories to the Tuareg whose mobility allowed them to endure the famine more effectively. Borno regained some of its former might in the succeeding decades, but another drought occurred in the 1790s, again weakening the state. Ecological and political instability provided the background for the jihad of Usman dan Fodio. The military rivalries of the Hausa states strained the regions economic resources at a time when drought and famine undermined farmers and herders. Many Fulani moved into Hausaland and Borno, and their arrival increased tensions because they had no loyalty to the political authorities, who saw them as a source of increased taxation. By the end of the 18th century, some Muslim ulema began articulating the grievances of the common people. Efforts to eliminate or control these religious leaders only heightened the tensions, setting the stage for jihad. A British sphere of influence Stamp of Southern Nigeria, 1901Colonial Flag of Nigeria Following the Napoleonic wars, the British expanded trade with the Nigerian interior. In 1885 British claims to a West African sphere of influence received international recognition and in the following year the Royal Niger Company was chartered under the leadership of Sir George Taubman Goldie. In 1900 the company's territory came under the control of the British Government, which moved to consolidate its hold over the area of modern Nigeria. On January 1, 1901 Nigeria became a British protectorate, part of the British Empire, the foremost world power at the time. In 1914 the area was formally united as the Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria. Administratively Nigeria remained divided into the northern and southern provinces and Lagos colony. Western education and the development of a modern economy proceeded more rapidly in the south than in the north, with consequences felt in Nigeria's political life ever since. Following World War II, in response to the growth of Nigerian nationalism and demands for independence, successive constitutions legislated by the British Government moved Nigeria toward self-government on a representative and increasingly federal basis. By the middle of the 20th century, the great wave for independence was sweeping across Africa. Independence Jaja Wachuku, First Nigerian Speaker of the House: 1959 - 1960 Nigeria was granted full independence in October 1960 under a constitution that provided for a parliamentary government and a substantial measure of self-government for the country's three regions. From 1959 to 1960, Jaja Wachuku was the First black Speaker of the Nigerian Parliament - also called the House of Representatives. Wachuku replaced Sir Frederick Metcalfe of Great Britain. Notably, as First Speaker of the House, Jaja Wachuku received Nigeria's Instrument of Independence - also known as Freedom Charter - on October 1, 1960, from Princess Alexandra of Kent, the Queen's representative at the Nigerian independence ceremonies. The federal government was given exclusive powers in defense, foreign relations, and commercial and fiscal policy. The monarch of Nigeria was still head of state but legislative power was vested in a bicameral parliament, executive power in a prime minister and cabinet, and judicial authority in a Federal Supreme Court. Political parties, however, tended to reflect the make up of the three main ethnic groups. The NPC (Nigerian people's Congress) represented conservative, Muslim, largely Hausa interests, and dominated the Northern Region. The NCNC (National Convention of Nigerian Citizens), was Igbo- and Christian-dominated, ruling in the Eastern Region, and the AG (Action Group) was a left-leaning party that controlled the Yoruba west. The first post-independence National Government was formed by a conservative alliance of the NCNC and the NPC, with Sir Abubakar Tafawa Balewa, a Hausa, becoming Nigeria's first Prime Minister. The Yoruba-dominated AG became the opposition under its charismatic leader Chief Obafemi Awolowo. First Republic In October 1963 Nigeria proclaimed itself a Federal Republic, and former Governor General Nnamdi Azikiwe became the country's first President. From the outset Nigeria's ethnic and religious tensions were magnified by the disparities in economic and educational development between the south and the north. The AG was maneuvered out of control of the Western Region by the Federal Government and a new pro-government Yoruba party, the NNDP, took over. Shortly afterward the AG opposition leader, Chief Obafemi Awolowo, was imprisoned on treason charges that were later admitted to be without foundation. The 1965 National Election produced a major realignment of politics and a disputed result that set the country on the path to civil war. The dominant northern NPC went into a conservative alliance with the new Yoruba NNDP, leaving the Igbo NCNC to coalesce with the remnants of the AG (Action Group) in a progressive alliance. In the vote, widespread electoral fraud was alleged and riots erupted in the Yoruba West where heartlands of the AG discovered they had apparently elected pro-government NNDP representatives. First period of military rule On January 15, 1966 a group of army officers, mostly southeastern Igbos, overthrew the NPC-NNDP government and assassinated the prime minister and the premiers of the northern and western regions. The federal military government that assumed power under General Aguiyi-Ironsi was unable to quiet ethnic tensions or produce a constitution acceptable to all sections of the country. [www.conflictologist.narod.ru/nig66.html] Its efforts to abolish the federal structure raised tensions and led to another coup by largely northern officers in July 1966, which established the leadership of Major General Yakubu Gowon. The subsequent massacre of thousands of Igbo in the north prompted hundreds of thousands of them to return to the southeast where increasingly strong Igbo secessionist sentiment emerged. In a move towards greater autonomy to minority ethnic groups the military divided the four regions into 12 states. However the Igbo rejected attempts at constitutional revisions and insisted on full autonomy for the east. On May 29, 1967 Lt. Col. Emeka Ojukwu, the military governor of the eastern region who emerged as the leader of increasing Igbo secessionist sentiment, declared the independence of the eastern region as the Republic of Biafra. The ensuing Nigerian Civil War resulted in an estimated one million deaths before ending in the defeat of Biafra in 1970. John de St. Jorre. The Nigerian Civil War. London:Hodder and Stoughton, 1972 Following the civil war the country turned to the task of economic development. Foreign exchange earnings and government revenues increased spectacularly with the oil price rises of 1973-74. On July 29, 1975 Gen. Murtala Mohammed and a group of officers staged a bloodless coup, accusing Gen. Yakubu Gowon of corruption and delaying the promised return to civilian rule. General Mohammed replaced thousands of civil servants and announced a timetable for the resumption of civilian rule by October 1, 1979. He was assassinated on February 13, 1976 in an abortive coup and his chief of staff Lt. Gen. Olusegun Obasanjo became head of state. Second Republic A constituent assembly was elected in 1977 to draft a new constitution, which was published on September 21, 1978, when the ban on political activity was lifted. In 1979, five political parties competed in a series of elections in which Alhaji Shehu Shagari of the National Party of Nigeria (NPN) was elected president. All five parties won representation in the National Assembly. In August 1983 Shagari and the NPN were returned to power in a landslide victory, with a majority of seats in the National Assembly and control of 12 state governments. But the elections were marred by violence and allegations of widespread vote rigging and electoral malfeasance led to legal battles over the results. Falola, Toyin, and Julius Omozuanvbo Ihonvbere. The Rise and Fall of Nigeria's Second Republic, 1979-1983. London: Zed Books, 1985 On December 31, 1983 the military overthrew the Second Republic. Major General Muhammadu Buhari emerged as the leader of the Supreme Military Council (SMC), the country's new ruling body. The Buhari government was peacefully overthrown by the SMC's third-ranking member General Ibrahim Babangida in August 1985. Babangida cited the misuse of power, violations of human rights by key officers of the SMC, and the government's failure to deal with the country's deepening economic crisis as justifications for the takeover. During his first days in office President Babangida moved to restore freedom of the press and to release political detainees being held without charge. As part of a 15-month economic emergency plan he announced pay cuts for the military, police, civil servants and the private sector. President Babangida demonstrated his intent to encourage public participation in decision making by opening a national debate on proposed economic reform and recovery measures. The public response convinced Babangida of intense opposition to an economic recovery package dependent on an International Monetary Fund (IMF) loan. The abortive Third Republic President Babangida promised to return the country to civilian rule by 1990 which was later extended until January 1993. In early 1989 a constituent assembly completed a constitution and in the spring of 1989 political activity was again permitted. In October 1989 the government established two parties, the National Republican Convention (NRC) and the Social Democratic party (SDP) - other parties were not allowed to register. In April 1990 mid-level officers attempted unsuccessfully to overthrow the government and 69 accused plotters were executed after secret trials before military tribunals. In December 1990 the first stage of partisan elections was held at the local government level. Despite low turnout there was no violence and both parties demonstrated strength in all regions of the country, with the SDP winning control of a majority of local government councils. In December 1991 state legislative elections were held and Babangida decreed that previously banned politicians could contest in primaries scheduled for August. These were canceled due to fraud and subsequent primaries scheduled for September also were canceled. All announced candidates were disqualified from standing for president once a new election format was selected. The presidential election was finally held on June 12, 1993 with the inauguration of the new president scheduled to take place August 27, 1993, the eighth anniversary of President Babangida's coming to power. In the historic June 12, 1993 presidential elections, which most observers deemed to be Nigeria's fairest, early returns indicated that wealthy Yoruba businessman M.K.O. Abiola won a decisive victory. However, on June 23, Babangida, using several pending lawsuits as a pretense, annulled the election, throwing Nigeria into turmoil. More than 100 were killed in riots before Babangida agreed to hand power to an interim government on August 27, 1993. He later attempted to renege this decision, but without popular and military support, he was forced to hand over to Ernest Shonekan, a prominent nonpartisan businessman. Shonekan was to rule until elections scheduled for February 1994. Although he had led Babangida's Transitional Council since 1993, Shonekan was unable to reverse Nigeria's economic problems or to defuse lingering political tension. Sani Abacha Sani Abacha, military dictator of Nigeria from 1993 to 1998 With the country sliding into chaos Defense Minister Sani Abacha assumed power and forced Shonekan's resignation on November 17, 1993. Abacha dissolved all democratic institutions and replaced elected governors with military officers. Although promising restoration of civilian rule he refused to announce a transitional timetable until 1995. Following the annulment of the June 12 election the United States and others imposed sanctions on Nigeria including travel restrictions on government officials and suspension of arms sales and military assistance. Additional sanctions were imposed as a result of Nigeria's failure to gain full certification for its counter-narcotics efforts. Although Abacha was initially welcomed by many Nigerians, disenchantment grew rapidly. Opposition leaders formed the National Democratic Coalition (NADECO), which campaigned to reconvene the Senate and other disbanded democratic institutions. On June 11, 1994 Moshood Kashimawo Olawale Abiola declared himself president and went into hiding until his arrest on June 23. In response petroleum workers called a strike demanding that Abacha release Abiola and hand over power to him. Other unions joined the strike, bringing economic life around Lagos and the southwest to a standstill. After calling off a threatened strike in July the Nigeria Labour Congress (NLC) reconsidered a general strike in August after the government imposed conditions on Abiola's release. On August 17, 1994 the government dismissed the leadership of the NLC and the petroleum unions, placed the unions under appointed administrators, and arrested Frank Kokori and other labor leaders. The government alleged in early 1995 that military officers and civilians were engaged in a coup plot. Security officers rounded up the accused, including former Head of State Obasanjo and his deputy, retired General Shehu Musa Yar'Adua. After a secret tribunal most of the accused were convicted and several death sentences were handed down. In 1994 the government set up the Ogoni Civil Disturbances Special Tribunal to try Ogoni activist Ken Saro-Wiwa and others for their alleged roles in the killings of four Ogoni politicians. The tribunal sentenced Saro-Wiwa and eight others to death and they were executed on November 10, 1995. On October 1, 1995 Abacha announced the timetable for a 3-year transition to civilian rule. Only five political parties were approved by the regime and voter turnout for local elections in December 1997 was under 10%. On December 21, 1997 the government arrested General Oladipo Diya, ten officers, and eight civilians on charges of coup plotting. The accused were tried before a military tribunal in which Diya and eight others were sentenced to death. Abacha enforced authority through the federal security system which is accused of numerous human rights abuses, including infringements on freedom of speech, assembly, association, travel, and violence against women. After assuming power in June 1998 the Abubakar government took steps toward restoring worker rights and freedom of association for trade unions, which had deteriorated seriously under Abacha. Abubakar's transition to civilian rule Abacha died of heart failure on June 8, 1998 and was replaced by General Abdulsalami Abubakar. The military Provisional Ruling Council (PRC) under Abubakar commuted the sentences of those accused in the alleged coup during the Abacha regime and released almost all known civilian political detainees. Pending the promulgation of the constitution written in 1995, the government observed some provisions of the 1979 and 1989 constitutions. Neither Abacha nor Abubakar lifted the decree suspending the 1979 constitution, and the 1989 constitution was not implemented. The judiciary system continued to be hampered by corruption and lack of resources after Abacha's death. In an attempt to alleviate such problems Abubakar's government implemented a civil service pay raise and other reforms. In August 1998 Abubakar appointed the Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC) to conduct elections for local government councils, state legislatures and governors, the national assembly, and president. The NEC successfully held elections on December 5, 1998, January 9, 1999, February 20, and February 27, 1999, respectively. For local elections nine parties were granted provisional registration with three fulfilling the requirements to contest the following elections. These parties were the People's Democratic Party (PDP), the All People's Party (APP), and the predominantly Yoruba Alliance for Democracy (AD). Former military head of state Olusegun Obasanjo, freed from prison by Abubakar, ran as a civilian candidate and won the presidential election. The PRC promulgated a new constitution based largely on the suspended 1979 constitution, before the May 29, 1999 inauguration of the new civilian president. The constitution includes provisions for a bicameral legislature, the National Assembly consisting of a 360-member House of Representatives and a 109-member Senate. Fourth Republic The emergence of democracy in Nigeria on May 1999 ended 16 years of consecutive military rule. Olusegun Obasanjo inherited a country suffering economic stagnation and the deterioration of most democratic institutions. Obasanjo, a former general, was admired for his stand against the Abacha dictatorship, his record of returning the federal government to civilian rule in 1979, and his claim to represent all Nigerians regardless of religion. The new President took over a country that faced many problems, including a dysfunctional bureaucracy, collapsed infrastructure, and a military that wanted a reward for returning quietly to the barracks. The President moved quickly and retired hundreds of military officers holding political positions, established a blue-ribbon panel to investigate human rights violations, released scores of persons held without charge, and rescinded numerous questionable licenses and contracts left by the previous regimes. The government also moved to recover millions of dollars in funds secreted to overseas accounts. Most civil society leaders and Nigerians witnessed marked improvements in human rights and freedom of the press under Obasanjo. As Nigeria works out representational democracy, conflicts persist between the Executive and Legislative branches over appropriations and other proposed legislation. A sign of federalism has been the growing visibility of state governors and the inherent friction between Abuja and the state capitals over resource allocation. http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2836.htm Communal violence has plagued the Obasanjo government since its inception. In May 1999 violence erupted in Kaduna State over the succession of an Emir resulting in more than 100 deaths. In November 1999, the army destroyed the town of Odi, Bayelsa State and killed scores of civilians in retaliation for the murder of 12 policemen by a local gang. In Kaduna in February-May 2000 over 1,000 people died in rioting over the introduction of criminal Shar'ia in the State. Hundreds of ethnic Hausa were killed in reprisal attacks in southeastern Nigeria. In September 2001, over 2,000 people were killed in inter-religious rioting in Jos. In October 2001, hundreds were killed and thousands displaced in communal violence that spread across the states of Benue, Taraba, and Nasarawa. On October 1, 2001 Obasanjo announced the formation of a National Security Commission to address the issue of communal violence. Obasanjo was reelected in 2003. The new president faces the daunting task of rebuilding a petroleum-based economy, whose revenues have been squandered through corruption and mismanagement. Additionally, the Obasanjo administration must defuse longstanding ethnic and religious tensions if it hopes to build a foundation for economic growth and political stability. Currently there is unrest in the Niger delta over the environmental destruction caused by oil drilling and the ongoing poverty in the oil-rich region. A further major problem created by the oil industry is the drilling of pipelines by the local population in an attempt to drain off the petroleum for personal use or as a source of income. This often leads to major explosions and high death tolls. CNN.com - Gasoline pipeline blast kills up to 200 in Nigeria - May 12, 2006 Particularly notable disasters in this area have been: 1) October 1998, Jesse, 1100 deaths, 2) July 2000, Jesse, 250 deaths, 3) September 2004, near Lagos, 60 deaths, 4) May 2006, Ilado, approx. 150-200 deaths (current estimate). Nigerian petrol thieves suspected as blast kills 200 - Africa, World - Independent.co.uk Two militants of an unknown faction shot and killed Ustaz Ja'afar Adam, a northern Muslim religious leader and Kano State official, along with one of his disciples in a mosque in Kano during dawn prayers on 13 April 2007. Obasanjo had recently stated on national radio that he would "deal firmly" with election fraud and violence advocated by "highly placed individuals." His comments were interpreted by some analysts as a warning to his Vice President and 2007 presidential candidate Atiku Abubakar. Cleric killed in Nigeria mosque BBC News In the 2007 general election, Umaru Yar'Adua and Goodluck Jonathan, both of the People's Democratic Party, were elected President and Vice President, respectively. The election was marred by electoral fraud, and denounced by other candidates and international observers. "Nigeria election 'worst ever seen'", SMH News, 24 April 2007. Tom Ashby, "Yar'Adua wins Nigeria poll 'charade'", Reuters (IOL), 24 April 2007. Further reading Nigerian First Republic Nigerian Second Republic Nigerian Third Republic Nigerian Fourth Republic Notes References Edem, Tatabonko Orok, The Obongship Dispute in Calabar: Arejoinder, April 23, 2008. http://www.kwenu.com/nigeria/crossriver/calabar/edem_obongship_dispute.htm External links Upper and Lower Nigeria - Article from the historic Catholic Encyclopedia on Nigeria. History of Nigeria - Offers a history of Nigeria from ancient days to the present. BBC Timeline: Nigeria - Chronology of key events - Offers a view of one of the main sources of income for the country. | History_of_Nigeria |@lemmatized early:13 history:8 recent:1 archaeological:4 research:1 show:2 people:16 already:1 live:2 southwestern:1 nigeria:55 specifically:1 iwo:2 eleru:2 bc:7 perhaps:1 ugwuelle:1 uturu:1 okigwe:1 southeastern:5 shaw:1 daniells:1 g:1 h:1 excavation:2 ondo:1 state:67 west:12 african:5 journal:1 archaeology:2 smelt:2 furnace:1 taruga:1 date:3 century:40 provide:3 old:7 evidence:4 metalworking:1 microlithic:1 ceramic:1 industry:2 develop:5 savanna:11 pastoralists:1 least:3 millennium:5 continue:6 subsequent:3 agricultural:1 community:4 south:6 hunt:1 gather:1 give:3 way:2 subsistence:1 farming:1 first:22 cultivation:1 staple:1 food:1 kainji:1 dam:1 reveal:2 ironworking:1 transition:3 neolithic:1 time:5 iron:2 age:2 apparently:2 achieve:2 without:5 intermediate:1 bronze:1 production:1 scholar:3 speculate:1 process:1 transmit:1 mediterranean:2 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5,407 | Ackermann_function | In computability theory, the Ackermann function or Ackermann–Péter function is a simple example of a computable function that is not primitive recursive. The set of primitive recursive functions is a subset of the set of general recursive functions. Ackermann's function is an example that shows that the former is a strict subset of the latter. The Ackermann function is defined recursively for non-negative integers m and n as follows: Its value grows rapidly, even for small inputs. For example A(4,2) is an integer of 19,729 decimal digits. Decimal expansion of A(4,2) History In the late 1920s, the mathematicians Gabriel Sudan and Wilhelm Ackermann, students of David Hilbert, were studying the foundations of computation. Sudan is credited with inventing the lesser-known Sudan function, the first published function that is recursive but not primitive recursive. Shortly afterwards and independently, in 1928, Ackermann published his own recursive but not primitive recursive function. Ackermann originally considered a function A(m, n, p+1) of three variables, the p-fold iterated exponentiation of m with n, or m → n → p expressed using the Conway chained arrow notation. When p = 1, this is mn, which is m multiplied by itself n times. When p = 2, it is a tower of exponents with n levels, or m raised n times to the power m also written as nm, the tetration of m with n. This can be generalized indefinitely as p becomes larger. Ackermann proved that A is a recursive function, a function that a computer with unbounded memory can calculate, but it is not a primitive recursive function, a class of functions including almost all familiar functions such as addition and factorial. In On the Infinite, David Hilbert hypothesized that the Ackermann function was not primitively recursive, but it was Ackermann, Hilbert’s personal secretary and former student, who actually proved the hypothesis in his paper On Hilbert’s Construction of the Real Numbers. On the Infinite was Hilbert’s most important paper on the foundations of mathematics, serving as the heart of Hilbert's program to secure the foundation of transfinite numbers by basing them on finite methods. von Heijenoort. From Frege To Gödel, 1967. A similar function of only two variables was later defined by Rózsa Péter and Raphael Robinson; its definition is given below. The numbers, except in the first few rows, are three less than powers of two. For the exact relation between the two functions, see below. Definition and properties The Ackermann function is defined recursively for non-negative integers m and n as follows (this presentation is due to Rózsa Péter): It may not be immediately obvious that the evaluation of these functions always terminates. The recursion is bounded because in each recursive application either m decreases, or m remains the same and n decreases. Each time that n reaches zero, m decreases, so m eventually reaches zero as well. (Expressed more technically, in each case the pair (m, n) decreases in the lexicographic order, which preserves the well-ordering of the non-negative integers.) However, when m decreases there is no upper bound on how much n can increase — and it will often increase greatly. The Ackermann function can also be expressed nonrecursively using: Conway chained arrow notation: A(m, n) = (2 → (n+3) → (m − 2)) − 3 for m > 2 hence 2 → n → m = A(m+2,n-3) + 3 for n>2. (n=1 and n=2 would correspond with A(m,−2) = −1 and A(m,−1) = 1, which could logically be added.) hyper operators: A(m, n) = hyper(2, m, n + 3) − 3. the indexed version of Knuth's up-arrow notation: A(m, n) = The part of the definition A(m, 0) = A(m-1, 1) corresponds to For small values of m like 1, 2, or 3, the Ackermann function grows relatively slowly with respect to n (at most exponentially). For m ≥ 4, however, it grows much more quickly; even A(4, 2) is about 2×1019728, and the decimal expansion of A(4, 3) is very large by any typical measure. If we define the function f (n) = A(n, n), which increases both m and n at the same time, we have a function of one variable that dwarfs every primitive recursive function, including very fast-growing functions such as the exponential function, the factorial function, multi- and superfactorial functions, and even functions defined using Knuth's up-arrow notation (except when the indexed up-arrow is used). This extreme growth can be exploited to show that f, which is obviously computable on a machine with infinite memory such as a Turing machine and so is a computable function, grows faster than any primitive recursive function and is therefore not primitive recursive. Though the Ackermann function is often used to debunk the hypothesis that all useful or simple functions are primitive recursive, one should not confuse the primitive recursive functions with those definable by primitive recursion (it is this latter class that is of interest to programming language theorists because programs written using only primitive recursion are guaranteed to terminate). In a category with exponentials, using the isomorphism (in computer science, this is called currying), the Ackermann function may be defined via primitive recursion over higher-order functionals as follows: where Succ is the usual successor function and Iter is defined by primitive recursion as well: One interesting aspect of the Ackermann function is that the only arithmetic operations it ever uses are addition and subtraction of 1. Its properties come solely from the power of unlimited recursion. This also implies that its running time is at least proportional to its output, and so is also extremely huge. In actuality, for most cases the running time is far larger than the output; see below. Table of values Computing the Ackermann function can be restated in terms of an infinite table. We place the natural numbers along the top row. To determine a number in the table, take the number immediately to the left, then look up the required number in the previous row, at the position given by the number just taken. If there is no number to its left, simply look at column 1 in the previous row. Here is a small upper-left portion of the table: + Values of A(m, n) m\n 0 1 2 3 4 n 0 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 6 2 3 5 7 9 11 3 5 13 29 61 125 4 13 65533 265536 − 3 5 65533 A(4, A(5, 1)) A(4, A(5, 2)) A(4, A(5, 3)) A(4, A(5, n-1)) 6 A(5, 1) A(5, A(6, 0)) A(5, A(6, 1)) A(5, A(6, 2)) A(5, A(6, 3)) A(5, A(6, n-1)) The numbers listed here in a recursive reference are very large and cannot be easily notated in some other form. Despite the large values occurring in this early section of the table, some even larger numbers have been defined, such as Graham's number, which cannot be written with any small number of Knuth arrows. This number is constructed with a technique similar to applying the Ackermann function to itself recursively. This is a repeat of the above table, but with the values replaced by the relevant expression from the function definition to show the pattern clearly: + Values of A(m, n) m\n 0 1 2 3 4 n 0 0+1 1+1 2+1 3+1 4+1 1 A(0,1) A(0,A(1,0)) A(0,A(1,1)) A(0,A(1,2)) A(0,A(1,3)) 2 A(1,1) A(1,A(2,0)) A(1,A(2,1)) A(1,A(2,2)) A(1,A(2,3)) 3 A(2,1) A(2,A(3,0)) A(2,A(3,1)) A(2,A(3,2)) A(2,A(3,3)) 4 A(3,1) A(3,A(4,0)) A(3,A(4,1)) A(3,A(4,2)) A(3,A(4,3)) 5 A(4,1) A(4,A(5,0)) A(4,A(5,1)) A(4,A(5,2)) A(4,A(5,3)) A(4, A(5, n-1)) 6 A(5,1) A(5,A(6,0)) A(5,A(6,1)) A(5,A(6,2)) A(5,A(6,3)) A(5, A(6, n-1)) Extension f=A(4,z) in the complex z-plane. Levels, corresponding to integer values of the Re(f) and those for Im(f) are drawn Kouznetsov, D. "Ackermann functions of complex argument" The first three of Ackermann functions can be expressed through elementary functions; they allow straightforward analytic extension for complex values of the second argument. In these sense, A(1,z), A(2,z), A(3,z) are analytic functions in the whole z-plane. No such extension is yet established for A(m,z) at integer m>3. The sketch in the figure at right represents the possible realization of such extension, that remains limited at . The drawing indicates that, perhaps, the extension of A(4,z), analytic in the whole z-plane, is not possible; the analytic extension should have singularity at z=-5 and cut at the real axis for z<-5. Such cut and singularities seem to be typical also for the tetration function. Expansion To see how the Ackermann function grows so quickly, it helps to expand out some simple expressions using the rules in the original definition. For example, we can fully evaluate in the following way: To demonstrate how 's computation results in many steps and in a large number: Written as a power of 10, this is roughly equivalent to 101019727.78. Inverse Since the function f (n) = A(n, n) considered above grows very rapidly, its inverse function, f−1, grows very slowly. This inverse Ackermann function f−1 is usually denoted by α. In fact, α(n) is less than 5 for any conceivable input size n, since A(4, 4) is on the order of . This inverse appears in the time complexity of some algorithms, such as the disjoint-set data structure and Chazelle's algorithm for minimum spanning trees. Sometimes Ackermann's original function or other variations are used in these settings, but they all grow at similarly high rates. In particular, some modified functions simplify the expression by eliminating the −3 and similar terms. A two-parameter variation of the inverse Ackermann function can be defined as follows: This function arises in more precise analyses of the algorithms mentioned above, and gives a more refined time bound. In the disjoint-set data structure, m represents the number of operations while n represents the number of elements; in the minimum spanning tree algorithm, m represents the number of edges while n represents the number of vertices. Several slightly different definitions of α(m, n) exist; for example, log2 n is sometimes replaced by n, and the floor function is sometimes replaced by a ceiling. Other studies might define an inverse function of one where m is set to a constant, such that the inverse applies to a particular row. An inverse-Ackermann style lower bound for the online minimum spanning tree verification problem November 2002 Use as benchmark The Ackermann function, due to its definition in terms of extremely deep recursion, can be used as a benchmark of a compiler's ability to optimize recursion. The first use of Ackermann's function in this way was by Yngve Sundblad, The Ackermann function. A Theoretical, computational and formula manipulative study. (BIT 11 (1971), 107119). This seminal paper was taken up by Brian Wichmann (co-author of the Whetstone benchmark) in a trilogy of papers written between 1975 and 1982. A more recent use of Ackermann's function as a compiler benchmark is in The Computer Language Shootout which compares the time required to evaluate this function for fixed arguments in many different programming language implementations. Benchmarks XGC, May 11, 2005 For example, a compiler which, in analyzing the computation of A(3, 30), is able to save intermediate values like A(3, n) and A(2, n) in that calculation rather than recomputing them, can speed up computation of A(3, 30) by a factor of hundreds of thousands. Also, if A(2, n) is computed directly rather than as a recursive expansion of the form A(1, A(1, A(1,...A(1, 0)...))), this will save significant amounts of time. Computing A(1, n) takes linear time in n. Computing A(2, n) requires quadratic time, since it expands to O(n) nested calls to A(1, i) for various i. Computing A(3, n) requires time proportionate to 4n+1. The computation of A(3, 1) in the example above takes 16 (42) steps. A(4, 2), which appears as a decimal expansion in several web pages, cannot possibly be computed by simple recursive application of the Ackermann function in any tractable amount of time. Instead, shortcut formulas such as A(3, n) = 8×2n−3 are used as an optimization to complete some of the recursive calls. A practical method of computing functions similar to Ackermann's is to use memoization of intermediate results. A compiler could apply this technique to a function automatically using Donald Michie's "memo functions". Example: Explicit memo function version of Ackermann's function implemented in PL/SQL Ackermann numbers Related to the Ackermann function but in fact different are the Ackermann numbers, a sequence where the nth term equals: in the Knuth's up-arrow notation, or in the Conway chained arrow notation. Ackermann Number For instance, the first three Ackermann numbers are 11, 22 33 which equal the following: 11 = 1 = 4 An attempt to express the fourth Ackermann number, 44, using iterated exponentiation as above would become extremely complicated. However, it can be expressed using tetration in three nested layers as shown below. Explanation: in the middle layer, there is a tower of tetration whose full length is and the final result is the top layer of tetrated 4's whose full length equals the calculation of the middle layer. Note that by way of size comparison, the simple expression already exceeds a googolplex, so the fourth Ackermann number is quite large. In popular culture Randall Munroe has mentioned the Ackermann function in his popular web-comic xkcd. In the comic, Munroe makes reference to the Ackermann function with Graham's number as the arguments, naming it "The xkcd number". However, it should be noted that, although it might seem like a big step up from Graham's Number, the xkcd number is not even as big as (with being Graham's number), considering the recursive definition of: Proof: This shows how functions and methods that produce huge number such as the Moser number or Graham's Number grow so quickly that not even concepts like the xkcd number cause any significant growth. Not even , , or any such a tower would be significant given the possibilities of the Conway chained arrow notation, per example. A question involving this function was posed at the International Mathematical Olympiad, the most significant mathematics competition for school age students, in 1981. See also Computability theory (computer science) Charity (programming language) Recursion (computer science) Notes and references External links An animated Ackermann function calculator Scott Aaronson, Who can name the biggest number? (1999) Ackermann function's. Includes a table of some values. Hyper-operations: Ackermann's Function and New Arithmetical Operation Robert Munafo's Large Numbers describes several variations on the definition of A. Gabriel Nivasch, Inverse Ackermann without pain on the inverse Ackermann function. Raimund Seidel, Understanding the inverse Ackermann function (PDF presentation). The Ackermann function written in different programming languages, (on rosettacode.org) Ackermann's Function - some study and programming by Harry J. 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5,408 | Book_of_Habakkuk | The Book of Habakkuk is the eighth book of the 12 minor prophets of the Hebrew Bible. Cross 2005 It is attributed to the prophet Habakkuk, and was probably composed in the late 7th century BCE. A copy of chapters 1 and 2 (of 3) is included in the Habakkuk Commentary, found among the Dead Sea Scrolls. Chapters 1-2 are a dialog between Yahweh and the prophet. The central message, that "the just shall live by his faith" (2:4), plays an important rule in Christian thought. It is used in Romans 1:17, Galatians 3:11, and Hebrews 10:38 as the starting point of the concept of faith. Chapter 3 may be an independent addition, now recognized as a liturgical piece, but was possibly written by the same author as chapters 1 and 2. Background The prophet Habakkuk is generally believed to have written his book in the mid to late 7th century BCE, not long before the Babylonians' siege and capture of Jerusalem. Author Habakkuk identifies himself as a prophet in the opening verse. Due to the liturgical nature of the book of Habakkuk, there have been some scholars who think that the author may have been a temple prophet. Temple prophets are described in 1 Chronicles 25:1 as using lyres, harps and cymbals. Some feel that this is echoed in Habakkuk 3:19b, and that Habakkuk may have been a Levite and singer in the Temple. Barber 1985:15 There is no biographical information on the prophet Habakkuk; in fact less is known about him than any other writer of the Bible. The only canonical information we have comes from the book that is named for him. Brownlow 1961:440 His name comes either from the Hebrew word חבק (khavak) meaning "embrace" or else from an Akkadian word hambakuku for a kind of plant. Lehrman 1948:211 Buttrick 1962:503 Although his name does not appear in any other part of the Jewish Bible, Rabbinic tradition holds Habakkuk to be the Shunammite woman's son, who was restored to life by Elisha in 2 Kings 4:16. The prophet Habakkuk is also mentioned in the tale of Bel and the Dragon, part of the deuterocanonical additions to Daniel in a late section of that book. In the superscription of the Old Greek version, Habakkuk is called the son of Joshua of the tribe of Levi. In this book Habakkuk is lifted by an angel to Babylon to provide Daniel with some food while he is in the lion's den. Historical context The Chaldean Empire around 600 BCE. It is unknown when Habakkuk lived and preached, but the reference to the rise and advance of the Chaldeans in 1:6-11 places him in the middle to last quarter of the 7th century BC. Coffman 1982:61 Hailey 1972:271–272 One possible period might be during the reign of Jehoiakim, from 609-598 BC. The reasoning for this date is that during his reign that the Babylonians were growing in power. The Babylonians marched against Jerusalem in 598. Jehoiakim died while the Babylonians were marching towards Jerusalem and Jehoiakim's 8 year old son, Jehoiachin assumed the throne. Upon the Babylonians' arrival, Jehoiachin and advisors surrendered Jerusalem after a short time. With the transition of rulers and the age/inexperience of Jehoiachin, they were not able to stand against Chaldean forces. There is a sense of an intimate knowledge of the Babylonian brutality in 1:12-17. Overview The book of Habakkuk is a book of Hebrew Bible (the Old Testament) and stands eighth in a section known as the 12 Minor Prophets in the Masoretic and Greek texts. It follows Nahum and precedes Zephaniah, who are considered to be his contemporaries. The book consists of three chapters and the book is neatly divided into three different genres: A discussion between God and Habakkuk An Oracle of Woe A Psalm A breakdown of the book's structure looks this way: I. Title (1:1) II. The Problem of Unpunished wickedness (1:2 – 4) III. God's first response (1:5 – 11) IV. The problem of excessive punishment (1:12 – 17) V. Awaiting an Answer (2:1) VI. God’s second response (2:2 – 20) A. A vision (2:2 -5) i. Announcement (2:2 -3) ii. Life and Death (2:4 -5) B. Taunting woes (2:6 – 20) i. The pillager (2: 6 -8) ii. The plotter (2:9 – 11) iii. The promoter of violence (2:12 -14) iv. The debaucher (2:15 -17) v. The pagan idolator (2:18 -20) VII. Habakkuk’s Psalm (3:1 -19) A. Musical notes (3:1, 19b) B. Petition (3:2) C. God’s powerful presence in history (3:3 – 15) i. God’s coming (3:3 -7) ii. God’s combat (3:8 – 15) D. Fear and Faith (3:16 – 19a) Themes The major theme of Habakkuk is trying to grow from a faith of perplexity and doubt to the height of absolute trust in God. Habakkuk addresses his concerns over the fact that the punishment for Judah's sins is going to be executed by what was thought to be a sinful nation in Habakkuk's eyes. Habakkuk is unique among the prophets in that he openly questions the wisdom of God. In the first part of the first chapter, the Prophet sees the injustice among his people and asks why God does not take action. "1:2 Yahweh, how long will I cry, and you will not hear? I cry out to you “Violence!” and will you not save?" - World English Bible. In the middle part of Chapter 1, God explains that he will send the Chaldeans to punish his people. 1:5 “Look among the nations, watch, and wonder marvelously; for I am working a work in your days, which you will not believe though it is told you. 1:6 For, behold, I raise up the Chaldeans, that bitter and hasty nation, that march through the breadth of the earth, to possess dwelling places that are not theirs. (World English Bible) One of the "Eighteen Emendations to the Hebrew Scriptures" appears at 1:12. (Actually there were more than eighteen.) According to the professional Jewish scribes, the Sopherim, the text of 1:12 was changed from "You [God] do not die" to "We shall not die." The Sopherim considered it disrespectful of God to say "Thou diest not." In the final part of the first chapter, the prophet expresses shock at God's choice of instrument for judgment. 1:13 You who have purer eyes than to see evil, and who cannot look on perversity, why do you tolerate those who deal treacherously, and keep silent when the wicked swallows up the man who is more righteous than he, (World English Bible) In Chapter 2, he awaits God's response to his challenge. God explains that He will also judge the Chaldeans, and much more harshly. 2:8 Because you have plundered many nations, all the remnant of the peoples will plunder you, because of men’s blood, and for the violence done to the land, to the city and to all who dwell in it. 2:9 Woe to him who gets an evil gain for his house, (World English Bible) Finally, in Chapter 3, Habakkuk expresses his ultimate faith in God, even if he doesn't fully understand. 3:17 For though the fig tree doesn’t flourish, nor fruit be in the vines; the labor of the olive fails, the fields yield no food; the flocks are cut off from the fold, and there is no herd in the stalls: 3:18 yet I will rejoice in Yahweh. I will be joyful in the God of my salvation! (World English Bible) Because of the final chapter of his book, which is a poetic praise of God, it has been assumed that Habakkuk was likely a member of the Levitical choir in the Temple. Contemporary scholars point out, however, that this chapter is missing from the Dead Sea Scrolls and has some similarities with texts found in the Book of Daniel. They therefore suggest that it is a later interpolation which influenced the authors of Daniel, and that it is impossible to make the assumption of Habakkuk's background based on it. Importance The book is accepted as scriptual by adherents of the Jewish and Christian faiths. Canonicity The Book of Habakkuk is the eighth book of the Twelve Prophets of the Hebrew Bible, or of the "minor prophets" of the Christian Bible. It appears among the texts of the Septuagint. A copy of chapters 1 and 2 (of 3) is included in the Habakkuk Commentary, found among the Dead Sea Scrolls. Saint Paul Writing His Epistles, 16th century painting. The second half of Habakkuk 2:4 "...but the righteous shall live by his faith." This translation is both that of the ASV and that of the Jewish Publication Scoiety of America. (Lehrman 1948:219) is quoted by some of the earliest Christian writers. Although this passage is only three words in the original Hebrew, Barber 1985:38; The Hebrew text is וְצַדִּיק בֶּאֱמוּנָתוֹ יִחְיֶה . Paul the Apostle quotes this verse twice in his epistles, in Romans 1:17 and again in Galatians 3:11. In doing so, Paul extends Habakkuk's original concept of righteous living at the present time into a future life. Johnson 1969:85 The same verse is quoted in Hebrews 10:37-38, where Habakkuk's vision is tied to Christ and used to comfort the church during a period of persecution. Achtemeier 1993:266 Chapter 3 may be an independent addition, according to some scholars, now recognized as a liturgical piece. The first two chapters are regarded by many as the work of a cult prophet attached to the Jerusalem Temple, possibly also the author of chapter 3. Cultural influence The Christian hymn "The Lord is in His Holy Temple", written in 1900 by William J. Kirkpatrick, is based on verse 2:20. Wiegland 1992:685 Notes References Achtemeier, Elizabeth. (1993). "Habbakuk", The Oxford Companion to the Bible, pp 265-266. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-504645-5. Baker, David W. (1988). Nahum, Habakkuk and Zephaniah. Downers Grove: Intervarsity Press. Barber, Cyril. (1985). Habakkuk and Zephaniah, Everyman's Bible Commentary. Chicago: Moody Press. ISBN 0-8024-2069-9. Brownlow, Leroy. (1961). "Habakkuk", The Old Testament Books and their Messages in the Christian Age, pp 439–453. Fort Worth: Fort Worth Christian College. Buttrick, George Arthur, et al. (ed.) (1962). The Interpreter's Dictionary of the Bible: An Illustrated Encyclopedia Nashville, TN: Abingdon Press. ISBN 0-687-19271-4. Clark, David J., Howard A. Hatton. (1989). A Translator’s Handbook on The Books of Nahum, Habakkuk and Zephaniah. New York: United Bible Societies. Coffman, James Burton. (1982). Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, and Haggai, revised ed., Commentary on the Minor Prophets 3, pp 61–116. Abilene, Texas: A.C.U. Press. ISBN 0-915547-46-5. Cross, F. L. (ed.). (2005). The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press. Gowan, Donald E. (1976). The Triumph of Faith in Habakkuk. Atlanta: John Knox Press. Hailey, Homer. (1972). "Habakkuk", A Commentary on the Minor Prophets, pp 271–296. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Baker Book House ISBN 0-8010-4049-3. Henderson, Ebenezer. (1980). The Twelve Minor Prophets. Grand Rapids: Baker Book House. Johnson, Robert L. (1969). The Letter of Paul to the Galatians. Abilene, Texas: ACU Press. ISBN 0-915547-29-5. LaSor, William, David Allen Hubbard, Frederic Bush. (1996). Old Testament Survey. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans. Lehrman, S. M. (Rabbi) (1948). "Habakkuk, The Twelve Prophets, pp 210–220. London: The Soncino Press. McComiskey, Thomas Edward. (1993). The Minor Prophets. Grand Rapids: Baker Book House. Smith, Ralph L. (1984). Word Biblical Commentary. Waco, Texas: Words Books. Wiegand, John P. (ed.) (1992). Praise for the Lord'', song 685. Nashville, Tennessee: Praise Press. ISBN 0-89098-119-1. External links Jewish translations: Chavakuk - Habakkuk (Judaica Press) translation with Rashi's commentary at Chabad.org Christian translations: Online Bible at GospelHall.org (ESV, KJV, Darby, American Standard Version, Bible in Basic English) Further information Introduction to the book of Habakkuk from the NIV Study Bible A Brief Introduction to The Prophecy of Habakkuk for Contemporary Readers (Christian Perspective) | Book_of_Habakkuk |@lemmatized book:24 habakkuk:40 eighth:3 minor:7 prophet:21 hebrew:8 bible:18 cross:2 attribute:1 probably:1 compose:1 late:4 century:4 bce:3 copy:2 chapter:16 include:2 commentary:7 find:3 among:6 dead:3 sea:3 scroll:3 dialog:1 yahweh:3 central:1 message:2 shall:3 live:3 faith:8 play:1 important:1 rule:1 christian:10 thought:1 use:3 roman:2 galatian:3 hebrews:1 start:1 point:2 concept:2 may:4 independent:2 addition:3 recognize:2 liturgical:3 piece:2 possibly:2 write:4 author:5 background:2 generally:1 believe:2 mid:1 long:2 babylonian:6 siege:1 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triumph:1 atlanta:1 john:2 knox:1 homer:1 grand:4 rapid:4 michigan:1 henderson:1 ebenezer:1 robert:1 letter:1 acu:1 lasor:1 allen:1 hubbard:1 frederic:1 bush:1 survey:1 eerdmans:1 rabbi:1 london:1 soncino:1 mccomiskey:1 thomas:1 edward:1 smith:1 ralph:1 biblical:1 waco:1 wiegand:1 p:1 song:1 tennessee:1 external:1 link:1 chavakuk:1 judaica:1 rashi:1 chabad:1 org:2 online:1 gospelhall:1 esv:1 kjv:1 darby:1 american:1 standard:1 basic:1 introduction:2 niv:1 study:1 brief:1 prophecy:1 reader:1 perspective:1 |@bigram hebrew_bible:3 prophet_habakkuk:4 bel_dragon:1 hebrew_scriptures:1 ב_א:1 מו_נ:1 ח_י:1 י_ה:1 downer_grove:1 grove_intervarsity:1 intervarsity_press:1 fort_worth:2 et_al:1 nashville_tn:1 abingdon_press:1 abilene_texas:2 lasor_william:1 soncino_press:1 waco_texas:1 nashville_tennessee:1 external_link:1 translation_rashi:1 rashi_commentary:1 commentary_chabad:1 chabad_org:1 bible_gospelhall:1 gospelhall_org:1 org_esv:1 esv_kjv:1 kjv_darby:1 |
5,409 | Nutation | Rotation (green), Precession (blue) and Nutation in obliquity (red) of the Earth Nutation (from Latin: nūtāre, to nod) is a slight irregular motion (etymologically a "nodding") in the axis of rotation of a largely axially symmetric object, such as a gyroscope or a planet. A pure nutation is a movement of the rotation axis such that the first Euler angle (precession), is constant. Of a planet The nutation of a planet happens because the tidal forces which cause the precession of the equinoxes vary over time so that the speed of precession is not constant. It was discovered in 1728 by the English astronomer James Bradley, but was not explained until 20 years later. Because the dynamics of the planets are so well known, nutation can be calculated within seconds of arc over periods of many decades. There is another disturbance of the Earth's rotation called polar motion that can be estimated only a few months ahead, because it is influenced by rapidly and unpredictably varying things such as ocean currents, wind systems, and motions in the Earth's core. Values of nutation are usually divided into components parallel and perpendicular to the ecliptic. The component which works along the ecliptic is known as the nutation in longitude. The component perpendicular to the ecliptic is known as the nutation in obliquity. Celestial coordinate systems are based on an "equator" and "equinox," which means a great circle in the sky that is the projection of the Earth's equator outwards, and a line, the Vernal equinox intersecting that circle, which determines the starting point for measurement of right ascension. These items are affected both by precession of the equinoxes and nutation, and thus depend on the theories applied to precession and nutation, and on the date used as a reference date for the coordinate system. In simpler terms, nutation (and precession) values are important in observation from Earth for calculating the apparent positions of astronomical objects. Of the Earth In the case of Earth, the principal sources of tidal force are the Sun and Moon, which continuously change location relative to each other and thus cause nutation in Earth's axis. The largest component of Earth's nutation has a period of 18.6 years, the same as that of the precession of the Moon's orbital nodes. However, there are other significant periodical terms which must be calculated depending on the desired accuracy of the result. A mathematical description (set of equations) that represents nutation is called a "theory of nutation" (see, e.g. ). In the theory, parameters are adjusted in a more or less ad hoc method to obtain the best fit to data. As can be seen from the IERS publication just cited, nowadays simple rigid-body mechanics do not give the best theory; one has to account for deformations of the solid Earth. Values The principal term of nutation is due to the regression of the moon's nodal line and has the same period of 6798 days (18.6 years). It reaches 17″ in longitude and 9″ in obliquity. All other terms are much smaller. The next largest, with a period of 183 days (0.5 year) has amplitudes 1.3″ and 0.6″ respectively. Interestingly the periods of all terms larger than 0.0001″ (about as accurately as one can measure) lie between 5.5 and 6798 days and seem to avoid the range from 34.8 to 91 days. It is therefore customary to split the nutation into long-period and short-period terms. The long-period terms are calculated and mentioned in the almanacs, while the additional correction due to the short-period terms is usually taken from a table. See also Axial tilt Euler angles Polar motion Precession (astronomy) External links For a synopsis and comparison of recent nutation theories, see Cyril Ron, "The Tables of Differences Between the Nutation Series IAU2000, IERS1996 and IAU1980" (PDF), at iers.org. | Nutation |@lemmatized rotation:4 green:1 precession:9 blue:1 nutation:19 obliquity:3 red:1 earth:10 latin:1 nūtāre:1 nod:2 slight:1 irregular:1 motion:4 etymologically:1 axis:3 largely:1 axially:1 symmetric:1 object:2 gyroscope:1 planet:4 pure:1 movement:1 first:1 euler:2 angle:2 constant:2 happen:1 tidal:2 force:2 cause:2 equinox:4 vary:2 time:1 speed:1 discover:1 english:1 astronomer:1 james:1 bradley:1 explain:1 year:4 later:1 dynamic:1 well:1 know:3 calculate:4 within:1 second:1 arc:1 period:9 many:1 decade:1 another:1 disturbance:1 call:2 polar:2 estimate:1 month:1 ahead:1 influence:1 rapidly:1 unpredictably:1 thing:1 ocean:1 current:1 wind:1 system:3 core:1 value:3 usually:2 divide:1 component:4 parallel:1 perpendicular:2 ecliptic:3 work:1 along:1 longitude:2 celestial:1 coordinate:2 base:1 equator:2 mean:1 great:1 circle:2 sky:1 projection:1 outwards:1 line:2 vernal:1 intersect:1 determine:1 starting:1 point:1 measurement:1 right:1 ascension:1 item:1 affect:1 thus:2 depend:2 theory:5 apply:1 date:2 use:1 reference:1 simpler:1 term:8 important:1 observation:1 apparent:1 position:1 astronomical:1 case:1 principal:2 source:1 sun:1 moon:3 continuously:1 change:1 location:1 relative:1 large:3 orbital:1 node:1 however:1 significant:1 periodical:1 must:1 desired:1 accuracy:1 result:1 mathematical:1 description:1 set:1 equation:1 represent:1 see:4 e:1 g:1 parameter:1 adjust:1 less:1 ad:1 hoc:1 method:1 obtain:1 best:2 fit:1 data:1 iers:2 publication:1 cite:1 nowadays:1 simple:1 rigid:1 body:1 mechanic:1 give:1 one:2 account:1 deformation:1 solid:1 due:2 regression:1 nodal:1 day:4 reach:1 much:1 small:1 next:1 amplitudes:1 respectively:1 interestingly:1 accurately:1 measure:1 lie:1 seem:1 avoid:1 range:1 therefore:1 customary:1 split:1 long:2 short:2 mention:1 almanac:1 additional:1 correction:1 take:1 table:2 also:1 axial:1 tilt:1 astronomy:1 external:1 link:1 synopsis:1 comparison:1 recent:1 cyril:1 ron:1 difference:1 series:1 pdf:1 org:1 |@bigram axis_rotation:1 precession_equinox:2 vernal_equinox:1 ad_hoc:1 axial_tilt:1 external_link:1 |
5,410 | Gavoi | Gavoi is a commune in central Sardinia (Italy), part of the province of Nuoro, in the natural region of Barbagia. It overlooks the Lake of Gusana. History Gavoi was a very ancient Hebrew colony (allegedly from the 4th century AD) and in the 17th century was repopulated by Tuscan carbon-makers. Main sights The Roman church of San Gavino is Gavoi's foremost sacred spot, through there are eight other ancient churches in the village. The village's center contains rock houses with balconies, and a village fountain is known as "Antana 'e Cartzonna". Near the lake are the archaeological areas of Orrui and San Michele di Fonni. A Roman bridge is submerged beneath the lake. Economy Agriculture production include potatoes and cheese (the town is famous for its pecorino). Traditions and culture The "tumbarinu" is a traditional drum made of dog or donkey skin. The "ballu tundu", is a traditional dance in the round, as in the Balkan area. Poetry is esteemed, including extemporaneous rhyme competitions on given topics. The nearby Sanctuary of Madonna d'Itria hosts a palio, in this case a peculiar horse competition very similar to that of Siena. | Gavoi |@lemmatized gavoi:3 commune:1 central:1 sardinia:1 italy:1 part:1 province:1 nuoro:1 natural:1 region:1 barbagia:1 overlook:1 lake:3 gusana:1 history:1 ancient:2 hebrew:1 colony:1 allegedly:1 century:2 ad:1 repopulated:1 tuscan:1 carbon:1 maker:1 main:1 sight:1 roman:2 church:2 san:2 gavino:1 foremost:1 sacred:1 spot:1 eight:1 village:3 center:1 contain:1 rock:1 house:1 balcony:1 fountain:1 know:1 antana:1 e:1 cartzonna:1 near:1 archaeological:1 area:2 orrui:1 michele:1 di:1 fonni:1 bridge:1 submerge:1 beneath:1 economy:1 agriculture:1 production:1 include:2 potato:1 cheese:1 town:1 famous:1 pecorino:1 tradition:1 culture:1 tumbarinu:1 traditional:2 drum:1 make:1 dog:1 donkey:1 skin:1 ballu:1 tundu:1 dance:1 round:1 balkan:1 poetry:1 esteem:1 extemporaneous:1 rhyme:1 competition:2 give:1 topic:1 nearby:1 sanctuary:1 madonna:1 itria:1 host:1 palio:1 case:1 peculiar:1 horse:1 similar:1 siena:1 |@bigram province_nuoro:1 |
5,411 | Great_Victoria_Desert | The IBRA regions, with Great Victoria Desert in red The Great Victoria Desert is a barren, arid, and sparsely populated desert ecoregion in southern Australia. It falls inside the states of South Australia and Western Australia and consists of many small sandhills, grasslands and salt lakes. It is over 700 kilometres (435 miles) wide (from west to east) and covers an area of . The Western Australia Mallee shrub ecoregion lies to the west, the Little Sandy Desert to the northwest, the Gibson Desert and the Central Ranges xeric shrublands to the north, the Tirari and Sturt's Stony deserts to the east, and the Nullarbor Plain to the south separates it from the Southern Ocean. Due to the aridity and dryness of the desert, almost no farming activity is carried out there, and it is a protected area of Western Australia. Within South Australia, is Mamungari Conservation Park, one of the twelve World Biosphere Reserves in Australia and contains pristine arid zone wilderness and possesses cultural significance. The average annual rainfall is low, ranging from 200 to 250 mm (8 to 10 in) per year. Thunderstorms are relatively common in the Great Victoria Desert, with an average of 15 - 20 thunderstorms per annum. Summer daytime temperatures range from 32 to 40 °C (90 to 104 °F). In winter, this falls to 18 to 23 °C (64 to 75 °F). Snow never falls in the Great Victoria Desert. It is inhabited by many different groups of Indigenous Australians, including the Kogara and the Mirning. In 1875, British explorer Ernest Giles became the first European to cross the desert. He named the desert after the then-reigning British monarch, Queen Victoria. The Great Victoria Desert is the largest desert in Australia. It is an Interim Biogeographic Regionalisation for Australia (IBRA) region. IBRA Version 6.1 data References External links Great Victoria Desert - The Largest Desert in Australia See also Nullarbor Plain ILY | Great_Victoria_Desert |@lemmatized ibra:3 region:2 great:6 victoria:7 desert:15 red:1 barren:1 arid:2 sparsely:1 populated:1 ecoregion:2 southern:2 australia:10 fall:3 inside:1 state:1 south:3 western:3 consists:1 many:2 small:1 sandhills:1 grassland:1 salt:1 lake:1 kilometre:1 mile:1 wide:1 west:2 east:2 cover:1 area:2 mallee:1 shrub:1 lie:1 little:1 sandy:1 northwest:1 gibson:1 central:1 range:3 xeric:1 shrublands:1 north:1 tirari:1 sturt:1 stony:1 nullarbor:2 plain:2 separate:1 ocean:1 due:1 aridity:1 dryness:1 almost:1 farming:1 activity:1 carry:1 protected:1 within:1 mamungari:1 conservation:1 park:1 one:1 twelve:1 world:1 biosphere:1 reserve:1 contains:1 pristine:1 zone:1 wilderness:1 possess:1 cultural:1 significance:1 average:2 annual:1 rainfall:1 low:1 mm:1 per:2 year:1 thunderstorm:2 relatively:1 common:1 annum:1 summer:1 daytime:1 temperature:1 c:2 f:2 winter:1 snow:1 never:1 inhabit:1 different:1 group:1 indigenous:1 australian:1 include:1 kogara:1 mirning:1 british:2 explorer:1 ernest:1 giles:1 become:1 first:1 european:1 cross:1 name:1 reign:1 monarch:1 queen:1 large:2 interim:1 biogeographic:1 regionalisation:1 version:1 data:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 see:1 also:1 ily:1 |@bigram sparsely_populated:1 xeric_shrublands:1 biosphere_reserve:1 annual_rainfall:1 per_annum:1 daytime_temperature:1 queen_victoria:1 external_link:1 |
5,412 | Kraków | Kraków (pronounced ; in English also spelled Krakow or Cracow, ( listen)) is one of the largest and oldest cities in Poland, and is a popular tourist location, euromonitor.com Top 150 City Destinations, Caroline Bremner, 11 Oct 2007. Retrieved 29 May 2009 staypoland.com Krakow TOURISM. Retrieved 29 May 2009 containing a World Heritage Site in the historic centre. Situated on the Vistula river () in the Lesser Poland region, the city dates back to the 7th century. The Municipality Of Kraków Press Office, 1996–2007, in participation with ACK Cyfronet of the AGH University of Science and Technology, Kraków has traditionally been one of the leading centres of Polish academic, cultural and artistic life, and is one of Poland's most important economic centres. It was the capital of Poland from 1038 to 1596, the capital of the Grand Duchy of Kraków from 1846 to 1918, and the capital of Kraków Voivodeship from the 14th century to 1999. It is now the capital of the Lesser Poland Voivodeship. The city has grown from a Stone Age settlement to Poland's second most important city. It has grown out from a hamlet on Wawel Hill, and was reported as a busy trading centre of Slavonic Europe in 965. http://www.krakow-info.com/history.htm With the emergence of the Second Polish Republic, Kraków restored its role as a major academic and cultural centre with the establishment of new universities. History Early history A settlement was established in the Stone Age on the present site of the Wawel Hill. Wawel Hill past and present A legend attributes its founding to the mythical ruler Krakus, who built it above a cave occupied by a dragon, Smok Wawelski. Wawel Royal Castle, homepage. Maria Dębicka, The first written record of the city's name dates back to 966, when Kraków was described as a notable commercial centre. By the end of the 10th century, the city was a leading trading centre, incorporated into the holdings of the Piast dynasty. Brick buildings were constructed, including the Wawel Castle, Romanesque churches such as St. Adalbert's, a cathedral, and a basilica. The city was almost entirely destroyed during the Tatar invasions of 1241, 1259 and 1287. Edmund Kolodziejczyk, "Poland. Geography, political history and the position of the church." Catholic Encyclopedia, It was rebuilt and incorporated in 1257, based on the Magdeburg law, with tax benefits and trade privileges for its citizens. Marek Strzala, The city again rose to prominence in 1364, when Casimir III of Poland founded the University of Kraków, Sharon & Peter Pfeiffer, "Krakow. A brief history." the second oldest university in central Europe after the University of Prague. The city continued to grow under the joint Lithuanian-Polish Jagiellon dynasty (1386–1572). As the capital of a powerful state and a member of the Hanseatic League, the city attracted many craftsmen, businesses, and guilds as science and the arts began to flourish. Hanseatic towns: Kraków, Polonia Online, Retrieved on 25 September 2007. Golden age |Wawel Cathedral on Wawel Hill The 15th and 16th centuries were known as Poland's Złoty Wiek, the Golden Age. p.118. See vol.1, chapter 5. Many works of Polish Renaissance art and architecture were created there during that time, Michael J. Mikoś, Polish Renaissance Literature: An Anthology. Ed. Michael J. Mikoś. Columbus, Ohio/Bloomington, Indiana: Slavica Publishers. 1995. ISBN 978-0-89357-257-0 First chapters online, Retrieved on 25 September 2007 Cracow's Historic Centre, UNESCO report, retrieved on 4 October 2007 including ancient synagogues in Kraków's Jewish quarter of Kazimierz, such as the renowned Old Synagogue. Old Synagogue in Krakow, Retrieved on 25 September, 2007. During the reign of Casimir IV, various artists came to work and live in Kraków, and Johann Haller established a printing press in the city Harold B. Segel, Renaissance Culture in Poland: The Rise of Humanism, 1470–1543, Cornell University Press, 1989, ISBN 0801422868, Google Print, p.252 after Kasper Straube had printed the Calendarium Cracoviense, the first work printed in Poland, in 1473. Norman Davies, God's Playground, vol.1, chapter 5 Wieslaw Wydra, "Die ersten in polnischer Sprache gedruckten Texte, 1475–1520", Gutenberg-Jahrbuch, Vol. 62 (1987), pp.88–94 (88) In 1520, the most famous church bell in Poland, named Zygmunt after Sigismund I of Poland, was cast by Hans Behem. "The Warsaw Voice", April 11, 1999. At that time, Hans Dürer, a younger brother of Albrecht Dürer, was Sigismund's court painter. T. Sturge Moore, "Albert Durer"; and Janusz Wałek, Hans von Kulmbach made altarpieces for several churches. Emil Kren and Daniel Marx, "Artists' biographies."Hans Süss von Kulmbach; J. Paul Getty Museum, "Artists: Hans von Kulmbach"; also, Agnieszka Janczyk, Kazimierz Kuczman, Joanna Winiewicz-Wolska, In 1572, King Sigismund II, the last of the Jagiellons, died childless. The Polish throne passed to Henry III of France and then to other foreign-based rulers in rapid succession, causing a decline in the city's importance that was worsened by pillaging during the Swedish invasion and by an outbreak of plague that left 20,000 of the city's residents dead. In 1596, Sigismund III, of the Swedish House of Vasa, moved the capital of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth from Kraków to Warsaw. Jagiellonian University Center for European Studies, "A Very Short History of Kraków", see: 18th and early 19th centuries 100|Territorial growth of Kraków from the late 18th century Already weakened during the 18th century, by mid-1790 the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth had been twice partitioned by its neighbors: Russia, the Habsburg empire, and Prussia. Dorota Wasik, Cracow University of Economics, International Programs Office: "A short long history of Cracow", see: In 1794, Tadeusz Kościuszko initiated an unsuccessful insurrection in the town's Main Square which, in spite of his victorious Battle of Racławice against numerically superior Russian army, resulted in the third and final partition of Poland. Grzegorz Reszka, based on:T. Cegielski, K. Zielińska: "Historia. Dzieje nowożytne", J. A. Gierowski: "Historia Polski 1764–1864", Lubicz-Pachoński: "Kościuszko na ziemi krakowskiej", A. Radziwiłł, W. Roszkowski: :Historia 1789–1871:, W. Malski: "Amerykańska wojna pułkownika Kościuszki". Following the Uprising, Kraków became part of the Austrian partition in a province of Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria. In 1809, Napoleon Bonaparte captured former Polish territories from Austria and made the town part of the Duchy of Warsaw. Following Napoleon's defeat in Russia, the Congress of Vienna in 1815 mostly restored earlier structures, although it also created the partially independent Free City of Kraków. As in 1794, the city again became the center of an insurrection, the Kraków Uprising of 1846, which failed to spread outside the city and was put down. Again, it resulted in an annexation by Austria, on 16 November 1846. The former Free City region became the Grand Duchy of Cracow (, ). The Chapel of St. Bronisława adjacent to Kościuszko Mound, Kościuszko Mound Homepage, Kraków, Poland. erected in 1820 to commemorate the death of Tadeusz Kościuszko In 1866, Austria granted a degree of autonomy to Galicia after the Austro-Prussian War, Marek Strzala, "History of Krakow" and Kraków became a Polish national symbol and a center of culture and art, known frequently as the "Polish Athens" (Polskie Ateny) or "Polish Mecca". Bożena Szara, Przeglad Polski (6 April 2001): Many leading Polish artists of the period resided in Kraków, Cracow: City of Treasures, by Beata Moore, among them the seminal painter Jan Matejko, and the founder of modern Polish drama, Stanisław Wyspiański. Maria Prussak, Adam Mickiewicz Institute, April 2006. Profiles. Visual arts, literature, theatre: Fin de siècle Kraków evolved into a modern metropolis; Adam Mickiewicz Institute: Culture.pl, editor in chief: Andrzej Lubomirski, Warsaw, ISSN 1734–0624, running water and electric streetcars were introduced in 1901, Artur Turyna, and between 1910 and 1915, Kraków and surrounding suburban communities were gradually combined into a single administrative unit called Greater Kraków (Wielki Kraków). At the outbreak of World War I on 3 August 1914, Józef Piłsudski formed a small cadre military unit, the First Cadre Company the predecessor of the Polish Legions which set out from Kraków to fight for the liberation of Poland. Bohdan Urbankowski, The city was briefly besieged by Russian troops in November 1914, but they were pushed back afterwards. Paweł Stachnik, Dziennik Polski, 21 September 2004. The Austrian rule in Kraków ended on 31 October 1918, when the Polish Liquidation Committee assumed power. 1918 to the present St. Mary's Square with St. Mary's Basilica (left) With the emergence of the Second Polish Republic, Kraków restored its role as a major academic and cultural centre with the establishment of new universities such as the AGH University of Science and Technology and the Jan Matejko Academy of Fine Arts, including a number of new and essential vocational schools. It became an important cultural centre for the Polish Jews with a Zionist youth movement relatively strong among the city's Jewish population. Eilat Gordin Levitan, Kraków was also an influential centre of Jewish spiritual life, with all its manifestations of religious observance from Orthodox, to Chasidic and Reform flourishing side by side. Neo-Moorish façade of the Tempel Synagogue Following the invasion of Poland in September 1939, the Nazi German forces turned the city into the capital of the General Government, a colonial authority headed by Hans Frank and seated in Wawel Castle. In an operation called "Sonderaktion Krakau", more than 180 university professors and academics were arrested and sent to Sachsenhausen and Dachau concentration camps, though the survivors were later released on the request of prominent Italians. Anna M. Cienciala, History 557 Lecture Notes, 2002 (Revised Fall. 2003), Edward Burek, (editor). “Sonderaktion Krakau” in Encyklopedia Krakowa. Krakow: PWM, 2000 The Jewish population was first confined to a ghetto and later murdered or sent to concentration camps, including Płaszów and Auschwitz in Oświęcim. Bieberstein: Zagłada Żydów w Krakowie. Kraków 1985. J. Kast, B. Siegler, P. Zinke: Das Tagebuch der Partisanin Justyna. Jüdischer Widerstand in Krakau. Berlin 1999. Articles from Kraków newspapers (mostly from the local "Gazeta Wyborcza") published in March 2003 on the 60th anniversary of the liquidation of the Kraków ghetto. Featuring historical maps. Kraków remained relatively undamaged at the end of World War II. Jerzy Lukowski, Hubert Zawadzki, A Concise History of Poland, Cambridge University Press, 2006, ISBN 052185332X, Google Print, p.66 Allegedly Germans planned to destroy it with massive amounts of explosives, Norman Salsitz, Stanley Kaish, Anna M. Cienciala, "The German Occupation of Poland and the Holocaust in German-occupied Poland." Chapter: "The Polish Resistance Movement against the Germans." The Polish Review, v.48, 1, 2003, 49–72. but according to the most popular of several versions of the story, Leszek Mazan, Ocalenie Krakowa, Polityka - nr 3 (2487) z dnia 22-01-2005.. Soviet Marshal Ivan Konev, after being informed by the Polish patriots of the German plan, Ivan Katyshkin, "Sluzhili my v shtabe armeiskom", Moskva, Voenizdat, 1979, , p. 155 tried to preserve Kraków from destruction by ordering a lightning attack on the city. Makhmut Gareev, Marshal Konev, Krasnaia Zvezda, 12 April 2001 The credibility of these accounts has been recently questioned by Polish historian Andrzej Chwalba, who in his recent works finds no evidence for any German plan of massive destruction and portrays Konev's strategy as ordinary, only accidentally resulting in reduced damage to Kraków, a fact that was later exaggerated into the myth of "Konev, savior of Kraków" by Soviet propaganda. Alma Mater, Jagiellonian University monthly, No.64 (2004). Interview with professor Andrzej Chwalba, by Rita Pagacz-Moczarska. Andrzej Chwalba. Krakow w latach 1939–1945 Cracow under German Occupation, 1939–1945. Dzieje Krakowa tom 5. Cracow: Wydawnictwo Literackie, 2002. After the war, under the Stalinist regime, the intellectual and academic community of Kraków was put under total political control. The universities were soon deprived of their printing rights as well as their autonomy. The communist government of the People's Republic of Poland ordered construction of the country's largest steel mill in the newly-created suburb of Nowa Huta. Jagiellonian University Centre for European Studies, see: The creation of the giant Lenin Steelworks (now Sendzimir Steelworks owned by Mittal) sealed Kraków's transformation from a university city to an industrial centre. Encyclopædia Britannica, The new working class, drawn by the industrialization of the city, contributed to its rapid population growth. Also, in an effort that spanned two decades, Karol Wojtyła, cardinal archbishop of Kraków, successfully lobbied for permission to build the first churches in the new industrial suburbs. Governance Main Market Square with Church of St. Wojciech (right) The Kraków City Council has 43 elected members, Biuletyn Informacji Publicznej (Bulletin of Public Information), one of whom is the mayor, or President of Kraków, elected every four years. The election of the City Council and of the local head of government, Biuletyn Informacji Publicznej (Bulletin of Public Information), which takes place at the same time, is based on legislation introduced on 20 June 2002. The current President of Kraków, re-elected for his second term in 2006, is Professor Jacek Majchrowski. The responsibilities of Kraków’s president include drafting and implementing resolutions, enacting city bylaws, managing the city budget, employing city administrators, and preparing against floods and natural disasters. The president fulfills his duties with the help of the City Council, city managers and city inspectors. In the 1990s, the city government was reorganized to better differentiate between its political agenda and administrative functions. As a result, the Office of Public Information was created to handle inquiries and foster communication between city departments and citizens at large. Laura Brunell, University Press of America, Lanham, Maryland, 2005, ISBN 0761829563. In the year 2000, the city government introduced a new long-term program called "Safer City" in cooperation with the Police, Traffic, Social Services, Fire, Public Safety, and the Youth Departments. Subsequently, the number of criminal offences went down by 3 percent between 2000 and 2001, and the rate of detection increased by 1.4 percent to a total of 30.2 percent in the same period. Biuletyn Informacji Publicznej (Bulletin of Public Information). Raport o stanie miasta, 2001. The city is receiving help in carrying out the program from all educational institutions and the local media, including TV, radio and the press. (See also: List of mayors of Kraków, and the Members of Polish national Parliament (Sejm) elected from Kraków constituency.) Geography A meander in the Vistula River with a view of Dębnicki Bridge, downtown Kraków Kraków lies in the southern part of Poland, on the Vistula River, in a valley at the foot of the Carpathian Mountains, above sea level; half way between the Jurassic Rock Upland () to the north, and the Tatra Mountains to the south, constituting the natural border with Slovakia and the Czech Republic; 230 km west from the border with Ukraine. There are five nature reserves in Kraków, with a combined area of ca. 48.6 hectares (120 acres). Due to their ecological value, these areas are legally protected. The western part of the city, along its northern and north-western side, borders an area of international significance known as the Jurassic Bielany-Tyniec refuge. The main motives for the protection of this area include plant and animal wildlife and the area's geomorphological features and landscape. Witold Stefan Alexandrowicz and Zofia Alexandrowicz, Acta Carsologica, Slovenian Academy Of Sciences Another part of the city is located within the ecological 'corridor' of the Vistula River valley. This corridor is also assessed as being of international significance as part of the Pan-European ecological network. Institute of Environmental Sciences of the Jagiellonian University, The city centre is situated on the left (northern) bank of the river. Climate Kraków has a temperate climate. Average temperatures in summer range from to and in winter from to . The average annual temperature fluctuates between and . Kraków usually sees between 23 and 58 days per year with below-freezing temperatures. Predominantly western winds, conducive to rainfall, are typical of summer months, whereas eastern winds, decreasing the amount of precipitation, blow mostly in winter. Sharon & Peter Pfeiffer, Districts The oldest neighborhoods of Kraków were incorporated into the city before the late 18th century. They include the Old Town (Stare Miasto), once contained within the city defensive walls and now encircled by the Planty park; the Wawel District, which is the site of the Royal Castle and the cathedral; Stradom and Kazimierz, the latter originally divided into Christian and Jewish quarters; Rick Steves, "Poland Rediscovered: ." Published in Rick Steves' Eastern Europe, 2005 edition. as well as the ancient town of Kleparz. Major districts added in the 19th and 20th centuries include Podgórze, which until 1915 was a separate town on the southern bank of the Vistula, and Nowa Huta, east of the city centre, built after World War II. The 18 districts of Kraków, with the Vistula River running from west to east Since 27 March 1991, Kraków has been divided into 18 administrative districts, each with a degree of autonomy within its own municipal government (Rada Dzielnicy). The current divisions were introduced by the Kraków City Hall on 19 April 1995. Districts were assigned Roman numerals as well as the current name: Original Kraków City Hall bylaw Nr XXI/143/91 (unpublished) introduced on 27 March 1991; current municipal borders established according to City bylaw Nr XVI/192/95 for 19 April 1995. Source: Stare Miasto (I), Grzegórzki (II), Prądnik Czerwony (III), Prądnik Biały (IV), Krowodrza (V), Bronowice (VI), Zwierzyniec (VII), Dębniki (VIII), Łagiewniki-Borek Fałęcki (IX), Swoszowice (X), Podgórze Duchackie (XI), Bieżanów-Prokocim (XII), Podgórze (XIII), Czyżyny (XIV), Mistrzejowice (XV), Bieńczyce (XVI), Wzgórza Krzesławickie (XVII), and Nowa Huta (XVIII). Among the most notable historic districts of the city are: Wawel Hill, home to Wawel Castle and Wawel Cathedral, where many Polish kings are buried; the medieval Old Town, with its Main Market Square (200 metres, or 656 feet, square); dozens of old churches and museums; the 14th-century buildings of the Jagiellonian University; and Kazimierz, the historical centre of Kraków's Jewish social and religious life. Global Portal of Diplomats at eDiplomat.com. Notes on Poland including recreation, entertainment, social and religious life, The historic Wawel Hill district The Old Town district of Kraków is home to about six thousand historic sites and more than two million works of art. Jeffrey Zuehlke, Its rich variety of historic architecture includes Renaissance, Baroque and Gothic buildings. Kraków's palaces, churches and mansions display great variety of color, architectural details, stained glass, paintings, sculptures, and furnishings. In the Market Square stands the Gothic St. Mary's Basilica (Kościół Mariacki). It was built in the 14th century and features the famous wooden altar carved by Veit Stoss. A trumpet call, hejnał mariacki, is sounded from the church's main tower every hour. The melody played ends unexpectedly in midstream. According to legend, the tune was played during a 13th-century Tatar invasion by a guard warning citizens against the attack. He was shot by a Tatar warrior while playing, the melody breaking off at the moment he died. O.J's Music, Trumpet Page: including music notations and sound samples in MP3 and Midi version. The story was recounted in a book published in the late 1920s called The Trumpeter of Krakow, which won a Newberry Award. ...though there is probably no direct link between this bugle call and a historical event in 1241, this does not detract from its meaning for Polish people today Demographics Demographic indicators Data from population and housing census at www.stat.gov.pl Years Kraków Population in thousands 19701978198819952002 588,0693,6746,6732,9758,5 Population density person/km² 19701978198819952002 2,5562,1562,2852,2432,320 Number of women per 100 men 19701978198819952002 110110110112113 Population growth per 1000 1998199920002001 −1.3−1.7−1.5−1.5 Krakow had a recorded population of 756,441 in 2008. Central Statistical Office, Warsaw 2008, According to the 2006 data, the population of Kraków comprised about 2% of the population of Poland and 23% of the population of the Lesser Poland Voivodeship. Selected demographic indicators are presented in a table (below), compiled on the basis of only the population living in Kraków permanently. In the 1931 census, 78.1% of Cracovians declared Polish as their primary language, with Yiddish or Hebrew at 20.9%, Ukrainian 0.4%, German 0.3%, and Russian 0.1%. See “Ludność” in Encyklopedia Krakowa. Kraków: PWN, 2000 The ravages of history have greatly reduced the percentage of ethnic minorities living in Kraków. The official and unofficial numbers differ, as in the case of Romani people. Hence, according to the 2002 census, among those who have declared their national identity (irrespective of language and religion) in Kraków Voivodeship, 1,572 were Slovaks, followed by Ukrainians (472), Jews (50) and Armenians (22). Romani people, officially numbered at 1,678, are estimated at over 5,000. Statistics collected by the Ministry of Education reveal that, even though only 1% of adults (as per above) claim their official status, as many as 3% of students participate in programmes designed for ethnic minorities. See also: Urban demographics of Poland. Historical demographics of Kraków Economy |Cloth Hall (Sukiennice) at the Main Market Square Kraków is one of Poland's most important economic centres, and the economic center of the Lesser Poland (Małopolska) region. / Kraków Real Estate Market, 2005 Economics, Magiczny Kraków Following the collapse of communism, the private sector has been growing in Kraków. There are about 20 large multinational companies in Kraków, including Google, Hitachi, IBM, General Electric, Capgemini, Motorola, and Sabre Holdings, along with other British, German and Scandinavian-based firms. In 2005, Foreign direct investment in Kraków has reached approximately USD 3.5 billion. Kraków is the second city in Poland (after Warsaw) most often visited by foreigners. The unemployment rate in Kraków was 4.8 percent in May 2007, well below the national average of 13 percent. Level of unemployment in Poland by region, 31 May 2007. In 2006, the city budget, which is presented by the Mayor of Kraków on November 15 each year, had a projected revenue of 2,150 billion złoty. Biuro Informacji Publicznej (Office of Public Information). The primary sources of revenue were as follows: 14% from the municipal taxation on real estate properties and the use of amenities, 30% in transfers from the national budget, and 34% in state subsidies. Projected expenditures, totaling 2,349 billion złoty, included 21% in city development costs and 79% in city maintenance costs. Of the maintenance costs, as much as 39% were spent on education and childcare. City of Kraków development costs included 41% toward road building, transport, and communication (combined), and 25% for the city's infrastructure and environment. Biuro Informacji Publicznej, Kraków (Office of Public Information, Kraków). The city has high bond credit rating (BBB+). Culture As the former national capital with a history encompassing more than a thousand years, the city remains the spiritual heart of Poland. It is a major attraction for local and international tourists, attracting seven million visitors annually. Famous landmarks include the Main Market Square with St. Mary's Basilica and the Sukiennice Cloth Hall, the Wawel Castle, the National Art Museum, the Zygmunt Bell at the Wawel Cathedral, and the medieval St Florian's Gate with the Barbican along the Royal Coronation Route. In 1978 Kraków's historic centre, which includes the Old Town, Kazimierz and the Wawel Castle was included in the list of World Heritage Sites. Kraków is considered by many to be the cultural capital of Poland. eter S. Green, CITY GUIDE:Krakow:Poland's Fun City, International Herald Tribune, June 16, 2000. Retrieved on 11 October 2007 It was named the European Capital of Culture for the year 2000 by the European Union. Kraków has 28 museums and public art galleries. Among them are the main branch of Poland's National Museum and the Czartoryski Museum, the latter featuring works by Leonardo and Rembrandt. The city has several famous theaters, including: National Stary Theatre, a.k.a. The Old Theatre, Juliusz Słowacki Theatre, Bagatela Theatre, The Ludowy Theatre, and Groteska Theatre of Puppetry, as well as Opera Krakowska and Kraków Operetta. Kraków Stare Miasto () is the central, historic district of Kraków, Poland (city's Administrative District No. 1). Ingrid Gustafson, Let's Go: Eastern Europe Published by Macmillan, page 444. Let's Go Publications, 2008. It is the most prominent example of an Old Town in the country also, because for many centuries, Kraków was the royal capital of Poland, until Sigismund III Vasa relocated the court to Warsaw in 1596. Stare Miasto was added to the UNESCO World Heritage Sites in 1978. The whole district is bisected by the Royal Road, the coronation route traversed by the Kings of Poland. The Route begins at St. Florian's Church outside the northern flank of the old city walls in the medieval suburb of Kleparz; passes the Barbican of Kraków (Barbakan) built in 1499, and enters Stare Miasto through the Florian Gate. It leads down Floriańska Street through the Main Square, and up Grodzka to Wawel, the former seat of Polish royalty overlooking the Vistula river. Old Town attracts visitors from all over the World. Krakow historic centre is one of the 13 places in Poland that are included in the UNESCO World Heritage Sites. The architectural design of the Old Town had survived all cataclysms of the past and retained its original form coming from the medieval times. The Old Town district of Kraków is home to about six thousand historic sites and more than two million works of art. Jeffrey Zuehlke, Its rich variety of historic architecture includes Renaissance, Baroque and Gothic buildings. Kraków's palaces, churches, theatres and mansions display great variety of color, architectural details, stained glass, paintings, sculptures, and furnishings. Kraków hosts many annual and biannual artistic events, Municipality Of Krakow Press Office, some of international significance, such as the Misteria Paschalia (baroque music), Sacrum-Profanum (contemporary music), Cracow Screen Festival (popular music), Festival of Polish Music (classical music), Dedications (theatre), Festival of Short Feature Films, Biennial of Graphic Arts, and the Jewish Culture Festival. It became the residence of two Polish Nobel laureates in literature: Wisława Szymborska and Czesław Miłosz; a third Nobel laureate, the Yugoslav writer Ivo Andric also lived and studied in Kraków. Other former residents include famous Polish film directors Andrzej Wajda and Roman Polanski. Points of interest outside the city include the Wieliczka salt mine, the Tatra Mountains to the south, the historic city of Częstochowa, the former Nazi concentration camp at Auschwitz, and Ojcowski National Park, which includes Pieskowa Skała Castle. Starwood, "Explore Krakow". Parks Fountain in Planty Park Planty is the best-known park in Kraków. It was established between 1822 and 1830 in place of the old city walls, forming a green belt around the Old Town. It consists of a chain of smaller gardens designed in various styles and adorned with monuments. The park has an area of 21 hectares (52 acres) and a length of 4 kilometers (2.5 miles), forming a scenic walkway popular with Cracovians. Marek Strzala, The first public park equipped with exercise fixtures was founded by Dr Henryk Jordan on the banks of the Rudawa river in 1889. The Jordan Park, equipped with running and exercise tracks, playgrounds, swimming pool, amphitheatre, pavilions, and a pond for boat rowing and water bicycles, is on the grounds of Kraków’s Błonia. The less prominent Park Krakowski was founded in 1885 by Stanisław Rehman but has since been greatly reduced in size because of rapid real estate development. It was a popular destination point with many Cracovians at the end of the 19th century. Ryszard Burek (editor), Encyklopedia Krakowa, 2000, ISBN 83-01-13325-2. Sports Football (soccer) is one of the most popular games locally, as it is in Poland as a whole. The teams with considerable following are eleven-time Polish champions Wisła Kraków. Wisła portal, 1998–2007, and five-time champions Cracovia Kraków. List of oldest Polish sports clubs featured in a newspaper retrospective. Other football clubs include Hutnik Kraków, Wawel Kraków and Garbarnia Kraków. There is also the first-league rugby club Juvenia Kraków. Kraków has a number of additional, equally valued sports teams including six-time Polish ice hockey champions Cracovia Kraków and the twenty-time women's basketball champions Wisła Kraków. The Cracovia Marathon, with over a thousand participants from two dozen countries annually, has been held in the city since 2002. Official website of the Cracovia Marathon Office, with list of winners, events, and registration form. Transport Kraków Main station Public transport is based around a fairly dense network of tramway and bus lines operated by a municipal company, supplemented by a number of private minibus operators. Local trains connect some of the suburbs. The bulk of the city’s historic area has been turned into a pedestrian zone with rickshaws and horse buggies; however, the tramlines run within a three-block radius. Marek Strzala, Rail connections are available to most Polish cities. Trains to Warsaw depart every hour. International destinations include Berlin, Budapest, Prague, Hamburg, Lvov, Kiev, and Odessa (June–September). Magiczny Kraków, city's official website. The main railway station is located just outside the Old Town District and is well-served by public transport. Kraków airport, (John Paul II International Airport Kraków-Balice, ) is west of the city. Direct trains cover the route between Kraków Główny train station and the airport in 15 minutes. The annual capacity of the airport is estimated at 1.3 million passengers; however, in 2007 more than 3.042 million people used the airport, giving Kraków Airport 15 percent of all air passenger traffic in Poland. The passenger terminal is undergoing extension and is being adapted to meet the requirements of the Schengen Treaty. World Airports Guide. Education Collegium Maius, the oldest building of the Jagiellonian University Kraków is a major center of education. More then ten university or academy-level institutions offer courses in the city, with 170,000 students. Jagiellonian University, the oldest and best known university in Poland and ranked by the Times Higher Education Supplement as the best university in the country, Times Higher Education Suplement (THES). Rank 287 worldwide as the first Polish university listed among the top 500 in 2006. QS Quacquarelli Symonds. Source: The Times Higher Education Suplement. QS World University Rankings. was founded in 1364 as the Cracow Academy and renamed in 1817 to commemorate the Jagiellonian dynasty of Polish-Lithuanian kings. Jagiellonian University (homepage), "Calendar" Its principal academic asset is the Jagiellonian Library, with more than 4 million volumes, including a large collection of medieval manuscripts Jagiellonian University, like Copernicus' De Revolutionibus and the Balthasar Behem Codex. With 42,325 students (2005) and 3,605 academic staff, the Jagiellonian University is also one of the leading research centres in Poland. Famous historical figures connected with the University include Saint John Cantius, Jan Długosz, Nicolaus Copernicus, Andrzej Frycz Modrzewski, Jan Kochanowski, King John III Sobieski, Pope John Paul II and Nobel laureates Ivo Andric and Wisława Szymborska. The Nobel Foundation. AGH University of Science and Technology, established in 1919, is the second-largest technical university in Poland, with more than 15 faculties and student enrollment exceeding 30,000. AGH University of Science and Technology homepage, It was ranked by the Polish edition of Newsweek as the best technical university in the country for the year 2004. Countrywide ranking of Polish universities, Newsweek (Polish edition), 22.03.2004, During its 80-year history, more than 73,000 students graduated from AGH with master's or bachelor's degrees. Some 3,600 persons were granted the degree of Doctor of Science, and about 900 obtained the qualification of Habilitated Doctor. Professor Antoni S. Kleczkowski, AGH University of Science and Technology. Other institutions of higher learning include Cracow University of Economics, established in 1925; Academy of Music in Kraków, first conceived as a conservatory in 1888; Pedagogical University, in operation since 1946; Agricultural University of Cracow, offering courses since 1890 (initially as a part of Jagiellonian University); Academy of Fine Arts, the oldest Fine Arts Academy in Poland, founded by the Polish painter Jan Matejko; Ludwik Solski Academy for the Dramatic Arts; The Pontifical Academy of Theology; and Cracow University of Technology, which has more than 37,000 graduates. Symbols Banner of Kraków The city's official symbols are the coat of arms, the flag (see top of this page), the seal, and the banner (right). October 9, 2002 Ordinance of the Kraków City Council no. CXXIII/1150/02 on the symbols of the Royal Capital City of Kraków (PDF) and February 6, 2004 Ordinance of the Mayor of Kraków no. 167/2004 on the use of the symbols of the Royal Capital City of Kraków (PDF) In addition to these, a number of semi-official and unofficial symbols, such as the "Cracovia" logo used in Kraków's promotional materials, or an image of the Wawel dragon wearing a Kraków cap, and a stylized crowned letter K, are also used, since most of Kraków's official symbols are legally restricted. Etymology The name of Kraków is traditionally derived from Krakus (Krak, Grakch), the legendary founder of Kraków and a ruler of the tribe of Lechitians (Poles). In Polish, is an archaic possessive form of Krak and essentially means "Krak's (town)". Krakus's name may derive from "krakula", a Proto-Slavic word Maria Curie-Skłodowska University, Lublin. Historical forum, meaning a judge's staff, or a Proto-Slavic word "krak" meaning an oak, once a sacred tree most often associated with the concept of genealogy. The first mention of Prince Krakus (then written as Grakch) dates back to 1190, although the town existed as early as the 7th century, inhabited by the tribe of Wiślanie. The city's full official name, used on ceremonial occasions, is , meaning "Royal Capital City of Kraków". In English, a person born, or living, in is a (). The city is known in Czech and Slovak as Krakov, in Hungarian as , in Lithuanian as , in German as , in Latin as and in French as . Ukrainian and Yiddish languages refer to it as and respectively. Andrzej Chwalba. Krakow w latach 1939–1945 (Cracow, 1939–1945). Dzieje Krakowa tom 5. Cracow: Wydawnictwo Literackie, 2002. (In Polish.) Names of Kraków in different languages are also available. International relations Twin towns - Sister cities Kraków is twinned, or maintains close relations with, more than 30 cities around the world: {{cite web|url = http://www.krakow.pl/miasto/miasta_partnerskie/|title=Kraków Official Website - Partnership Cities|accessdate=2008-11-01|publisher= © 1996-2008 ACK CYFRONET AGH}} Bordeaux, France (since 1993) Bratislava, Slovakia {{cite web|url=http://www.bratislava-city.sk/bratislava-twin-towns|title=Bratislava City - Twin Towns|publisher=© 2003-2008 Bratislava-City.sk|accessdate=2008-10-26}} Budapest, Hungary (since 2005) Cambridge, Mass., USA (since 1989) "A Message from the Peace Commission: Information on Cambridge's Sister Cities," February 15, 2008. Retrieved 2008-10-12. Also in: Richard Thompson, "Looking to strengthen family ties with 'sister cities'," Boston Globe, October 12, 2008. Retrieved 2008-10-12. Curitiba, Brazil (since 1993) Cusco, Peru Edinburgh, Scotland (since 1995) {{cite web |url=http://www.edinburgh.gov.uk/internet/city_living/CEC_twin_and_partner_cities |title=Edinburgh - Twin and Partner Cities |accessdate=2008-12-21 |publisher=© 2008 The City of Edinburgh Council, City Chambers, High Street, Edinburgh, EH1 1YJ Scotland}} Fes, Morocco (since 2004) Florence, Italy (since 1992) Frankfurt, Germany (since 1991) {{cite web|url=http://www.frankfurt.de/sixcms/detail.php?id=502645|title=Frankfurt -Partner Cities|publisher=© 2008 Stadt Frankfurt am Main|accessdate=2008-12-05}} Göteborg, Sweden (since 1990) Grozny, Russia (since 1997) {{cite web |url=http://grozny-virtual.su/|title=Grozny Official Website|accessdate=2008-11-01 |publisher= © 2000-2008 сайт Грозный Виртуальный при перепечатке материалов в онлайн проектах}} Innsbruck in Austria (since 1998) Kiev, Ukraine (since 1993) La Serena, Chile (since 1995) Lahore, Pakistan (since 2007) The Lahore District Council voted on Saturday, 27 January 2007 to declare Lahore a twin city of Kraków, Belgrade, Chicago, and Coimbra at its meeting held at Town Hall, The Post, 28 January 2007, retrieved 1 November 2008 Leipzig, Germany (since 1995) Leuven, Belgium (since 1991) Lviv, Ukraine (since 1995) Milan, Italy (since 2003) {{cite web|url=http://www.comune.milano.it/portale/wps/portal/CDM?WCM_GLOBAL_CONTEXT=/wps/wcm/connect/ContentLibrary/In%20Comune/In%20Comune/Citt%20Gemellate|title=Milano - Città Gemellate|publisher=© 2008 Municipality of Milan (Comune di Milano)|accessdate=2008-12-05}} Nuremberg, Germany (since 1991) Orléans, France (since 1992) Pécs, Hungary (since 1998) Rochester, NY, USA (since 1973) Quito, Ecuador St Petersburg, Russia (since 2006) Seville, Spain (since 2002) Solothurn, Switzerland (since 1990) Vilnius, Lithuania Zagreb, Croatia (since 1975) from the municipality official website References Further reading Jane Hardy, Al Rainnie, Restructuring Krakow: Desperately Seeking Capitalism. Published 1996 by Mansell Publishing, 285 pages. Business, economics, finance. ISBN 0720122317. Edward Hartwig, Kraków, with Jerzy Broszkiewicz (contributor). Published 1980, by Sport i Turystyka, 239 pages. ISBN 8321723217. Bolesław T. Łaszewski, Kraków: karta z dziejów dwudziestolecia. Published 1985, by Bicentennial Pub. Corp. (original from the University of Michigan), 132 pages. ISBN 0912757086 Joanna Markin, Bogumiła Gnypowa, Kraków: The Guide. Published 1996 by Pascal Publishing, 342 pages. ISBN 8387037281. Tim Pepper, Andrew Beattie, Krakow. Published 2007 by Hunter Pub Inc., 160 pages. ISBN 1843063085. The book includes description of public art galleries and museums. Scott Simpson, Krakow. Published 2003 by Thomas Cook, 192 pages. Transport, geography, sightseeing, history, and culture. Includes weblinks CD. ISBN 1841571873. Dorota Wąsik, Emma Roper-Evans, Krakow. Published 2002 by Somerset. Cultural guidebook series, 160 pages. ISBN 9630059304. Richard Watkins, Best of Kraków, Published 2006, by Lonely Planet, 64 pages, complemented by fold-out maps. ISBN 1741048222. 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5,413 | Demographics_of_Gabon | This article is about the demographic features of the population of Gabon, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. Almost all Gabonese are of Bantu origin. Gabon has at least 40 ethnic groups with separate languages and cultures. The largest is the Fang. Others include the Myene, Bandjabi, Eshira, Bapounou, and Okande. Ethnic group boundaries are less sharply drawn in Gabon than elsewhere in Africa. French, the official language, is a unifying force. More than 120,000 French people live in Gabon, and France predominates foreign cultural and commercial influences. Historical and environmental factors caused Gabon's population to decline between 1900 and 1940. It is one of the least-densely inhabited countries in Africa, and a labor shortage is a major obstacle to development and a draw for foreign workers. The population is generally accepted to be just over 1 million but remains in dispute. CIA World Factbook demographic statistics The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated. Population: 1,424,906 note: Estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2006 est.) Age structure: 0-14 years: 42.1% (male 300,914; female 299,141) 15-64 years: 53.9% (male 383,137; female 384,876) 65 years and over: 4% (male 23,576; female 33,262) (2006 est.) Population growth rate: 2.13% (2006 est.) Birth rate: 36.16 births/1,000 population (2006 est.) Death rate: 12.25 deaths/1,000 population (2006 est.) Net migration rate: -2.65 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2006 est.) Sex ratio: at birth: 1.03 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.01 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 1 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.71 male(s)/female total population: 0.99 male(s)/female (2006 est.) Infant mortality rate: 54.51 deaths/1,000 live births (2006 est.) Life expectancy at birth: total population: 54.49 years male: 53.21 years female: 55.81 years (2006 est.) Total fertility rate: 4.74 children born/woman (2006 est.) Nationality: noun: Gabonese (singular and plural) adjective: Gabonese Ethnic groups: Bantu tribes including four major tribal groupings (Fang, Eshira, Bapounou, Bateke) other Africans, notably 'forest people' (pygmee, now sedentarizing) such as the Babongo tribe Europeans 154,000, including 120,000 French and 11,000 persons of dual nationality) Religions: Christian 55%-75%, animist, Muslim less than 1% (see Religion in Gabon) Languages: French (official since colonial rule), Fang, Myene, Bateke, Bapounou/Eschira, Bandjabi Literacy: definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 63.2% male: 73.7% female: 53.3% (1995 est.) References See also: Gabon | Demographics_of_Gabon |@lemmatized article:1 demographic:3 feature:1 population:15 gabon:7 include:4 density:1 ethnicity:1 education:1 level:1 health:1 populace:1 economic:1 status:1 religious:1 affiliation:1 aspect:1 almost:1 gabonese:3 bantu:2 origin:1 least:2 ethnic:3 group:3 separate:1 language:2 culture:1 large:1 fang:3 others:1 myene:2 bandjabi:2 eshira:2 bapounou:3 okande:1 boundary:1 less:2 sharply:1 draw:2 elsewhere:1 africa:2 french:4 official:2 unifying:1 force:1 people:2 live:2 france:1 predominates:1 foreign:2 cultural:1 commercial:1 influence:1 historical:1 environmental:1 factor:1 cause:1 decline:1 one:1 densely:1 inhabited:1 country:2 labor:1 shortage:1 major:2 obstacle:1 development:1 worker:1 generally:1 accept:1 million:1 remain:1 dispute:1 cia:2 world:2 factbook:2 statistic:2 following:1 unless:1 otherwise:2 indicate:1 note:1 estimate:1 explicitly:1 take:1 account:1 effect:1 excess:1 mortality:3 due:1 aid:1 result:1 low:2 life:2 expectancy:2 high:1 infant:2 death:4 rate:8 growth:2 change:1 distribution:1 age:3 sex:2 would:1 expect:1 july:1 est:11 structure:1 year:9 male:10 female:10 birth:5 net:1 migration:1 migrant:1 ratio:1 total:4 fertility:1 child:1 bear:1 woman:1 nationality:2 noun:1 singular:1 plural:1 adjective:1 tribe:2 four:1 tribal:1 grouping:1 bateke:2 african:1 notably:1 forest:1 pygmee:1 sedentarizing:1 babongo:1 europeans:1 person:1 dual:1 religion:2 christian:1 animist:1 muslim:1 see:2 languages:1 since:1 colonial:1 rule:1 eschira:1 literacy:1 definition:1 read:1 write:1 reference:1 also:1 |@bigram density_ethnicity:1 ethnicity_education:1 health_populace:1 populace_economic:1 religious_affiliation:1 affiliation_aspect:1 factbook_demographic:1 demographic_statistic:2 statistic_cia:1 factbook_unless:1 unless_otherwise:1 excess_mortality:1 life_expectancy:2 infant_mortality:2 male_female:9 net_migration:1 rate_migrant:1 est_infant:1 mortality_rate:1 expectancy_birth:1 total_fertility:1 fertility_rate:1 est_nationality:1 nationality_noun:1 singular_plural:1 christian_animist:1 literacy_definition:1 |
5,414 | Cicero | Marcus Tullius Cicero (; Classical Latin: ; January 3, 106 BC – December 7, 43 BC) was a Roman philosopher, statesman, lawyer, political theorist, and Roman constitutionalist. Cicero is widely considered one of Rome's greatest orators and prose stylists. Rawson, E.: Cicero, a portrait (1975) p.303 Haskell, H.J.: This was Cicero (1964)p.300-301 Cicero is generally perceived to be one of the most versatile minds of ancient Rome. He introduced the Romans to the chief schools of Greek philosophy and created a Latin philosophical vocabulary, distinguishing himself as a linguist, translator, and philosopher. An impressive orator and successful lawyer, Cicero probably thought his political career his most important achievement. Today, he is appreciated primarily for his humanism and philosophical and political writings. His voluminous correspondence, much of it addressed to his friend Atticus, has been especially influential, introducing the art of refined letter writing to European culture. Cornelius Nepos, the 1st-century BC biographer of Atticus, remarked that Cicero's letters contained such a wealth of detail "concerning the inclinations of leading men, the faults of the generals, and the revolutions in the government" that their reader had little need for a history of the period. Cornelius Nepos, Atticus 16, trans. John Selby Watson. During the chaotic latter half of the first century B.C. marked by civil wars and the dictatorship of Gaius Julius Caesar, Cicero championed a return to the traditional republican government. However, his career as a statesman was marked by inconsistencies and a tendency to shift his position in response to changes in the political climate. His indecision may be attributed to his sensitive and impressionable personality; he was prone to overreaction in the face of political and private change. "Would that he had been able to endure prosperity with greater self-control and adversity with more fortitude!" wrote C. Asinius Pollio, a contemporary Roman statesman and historian. Haskell, H.J.:"This was Cicero" (1964) p.296 Castren and Pietilä-Castren: "Antiikin käsikirja" /"Handbook of antiquity" (2000) p.237 Personal life Early life Cicero was born in 106 BC in Arpinum, a hill town 100 kilometres (60 miles) south of Rome. So, although a great master of Latin rhetoric and composition, Cicero was not "Roman" in the traditional sense, and was quite self-conscious of this for his entire life. Cicero's childhood dream was "Always to be best and far to excel the others," a line taken from Homer's Iliad. Everitt, A.: "Cicero, a turbulent life" (2001) p.43 During this period in Roman history, if one was to be considered "cultured", it was necessary to be able to speak both Latin and Greek. The Roman upper class often preferred Greek to Latin in private correspondence, recognizing its more refined and precise expressions, and its greater subtlety and nuance, in part due to the greater range of Greek abstract nouns. Cicero, like most of his contemporaries, was therefore educated in the teachings of the ancient Greek philosophers, poets and historians. The most prominent teachers of oratory of that time were themselves Greek. Rawson, E.:"Cicero, a portrait" (1975) p.8 Cicero used his knowledge of Greek to translate many of the theoretical concepts of Greek philosophy into Latin, thus translating Greek philosophical works for a larger audience. It was precisely his broad education that tied him to the traditional Roman elite. Everitt, A.:"Cicero: The Life and Times of Rome's Greatest Politician" (2001) p.35 Cicero's father was a well-to-do equestrian (knight) with good connections in Rome. Though he was a semi-invalid who could not enter public life, he compensated for this by studying extensively. Although little is known about Cicero's mother, Helvia, it was common for the wives of important Roman citizens to be responsible for the management of the household. Cicero's brother Quintus wrote in a letter that she was a thrifty housewife. Rawson, E.: Cicero, a portrait (1975) p.5-6; Cicero, Ad Familiares 16.26.2 (Quintus to Cicero) Cicero's cognomen, personal surname, comes from the Latin for chickpea, cicer. Plutarch explains that the name was originally given to one of Cicero's ancestors who had a cleft in the tip of his nose resembling a chickpea. However it is more likely that Cicero's ancestors prospered through the cultivation and sale of chickpeas. Trollope, Anthony. The Life of Cicero Volume 1. p. 42 Romans often chose down-to-earth personal surnames: the famous family names of Fabius, Lentulus, and Piso come from the Latin names of beans, lentils, and peas. Plutarch writes that Cicero was urged to change this deprecatory name when he entered politics, but refused, saying that he would make Cicero more glorious than Scaurus ("Swollen-ankled") and Catulus ("Puppy"). Plutarch, Cicero 1.3–5 The Young Cicero Reading, 1464 fresco, now at the Wallace Collection. According to Plutarch, Cicero was an extremely talented student, whose learning attracted attention from all over Rome, Plutarch, Cicero 2.2 affording him the opportunity to study Roman law under Quintus Mucius Scaevola. Plutarch, Cicero 3.2 Cicero's fellow students were Gaius Marius Minor, Servius Sulpicius Rufus (who became a famous lawyer, one of the few whom Cicero considered superior to himself in legal matters), and Titus Pomponius. The latter two became Cicero's friends for life, and Pomponius (who later received the cognomen "Atticus" for his philhellenism) would become Cicero's longtime chief emotional support and adviser. Cicero wanted to pursue a public civil service career along the steps of the Cursus honorum. In 90 BC–88 BC, Cicero served both Gnaeus Pompeius Strabo and Lucius Cornelius Sulla as they campaigned in the Social War, though he had no taste for military life, being an intellectual first and foremost. Cicero started his career as a lawyer around 83-81 BC. His first major case of which a written record is still existant was his 80 BC defense of Sextus Roscius on the charge of parricide. Rawson, E.: "Cicero, a portrait" (1975) p.22 Taking this case was a courageous move for Cicero; parricide was considered an appalling crime, and the people whom Cicero accused of the murder — the most notorious being Chrysogonus — were favorites of Sulla. At this time it would have been easy for Sulla to have the unknown Cicero murdered. Cicero's defense was an indirect challenge to the dictator Sulla, and on the strength of his case, Roscius was acquitted. In 79 BC, Cicero left for Greece, Asia Minor and Rhodes, perhaps due to the potential wrath of Sulla. Haskell, H.J.: "This was Cicero" (1940) p.83 Cicero traveled to Athens, where he again met Atticus, who had become an honorary citizen of Athens and introduced Cicero to some significant Athenians. In Athens, Cicero visited the sacred sites of the philosophers, but not before he consulted different rhetoricians in order to learn a less exhaustive style of speech. His chief instructor was the rhetorician Apollonius Molon of Rhodes. He instructed Cicero in a more expansive and less intense form of oratory that would define Cicero's individual style in years to come. Cicero's interest in philosophy figured heavily in his later career and led to him introducing Greek philosophy to Roman culture, creating a philosophical vocabulary in Latin. In 87 BC, Philo of Larissa, the head of the Academy that was founded by Plato in Athens about 300 years earlier, arrived in Rome. Cicero, "inspired by an extraordinary zeal for philosophy", Rawson:"Cicero, a portrait" (1975) p.18 sat enthusiastically at his feet and absorbed Plato's philosophy, even calling Plato his god. He admired especially Plato's moral and political seriousness, but he also respected his breadth of imagination. Cicero nonetheless rejected Plato's theory of Ideas. Family Cicero married Terentia probably at the age of 27, in 79 BC. According to the upper class mores of the day it was a marriage of convenience, but endured harmoniously for some 30 years. Terentia's family was wealthy, probably the plebeian noble house of Terenti Varrones, thus meeting the needs of Cicero's political ambitions in both economic and social terms. She had a uterine sister (or perhaps first cousin) named Fabia, who as a child had become a Vestal Virgin – a very great honour. Terentia was a strong-willed woman and (citing Plutarch) "she took more interest in her husband's political career than she allowed him to take in household affairs". Rawson, E.: "Cicero, a portrait" (1975) p.25 She was a pious and probably a rather down-to-earth person. In the 40s Cicero's letters to Terentia became shorter and colder. He complained to his friends that Terentia had betrayed him but did not specify in which sense. Perhaps the marriage simply could not outlast the strain of the political upheaval in Rome, Cicero's involvement in it, and various other disputes between the two. The divorce appears to have taken place in 45 BC. In late 46 BC Cicero married a young girl, Publilia, who had been his ward. It is thought that Cicero needed her money, particularly after having to repay the dowry of Terentia, who came from a wealthy family. Rawson, E.: Cicero p.225 This marriage did not last long. Although his marriage to Terentia was one of convenience, it is commonly known that Cicero held great love for his daughter Tullia. Haskell H.J.: This was Cicero, p.95 When she suddenly became ill in February 45 BC and died after having seemingly recovered from giving birth to a son in January, Cicero was stunned. "I have lost the one thing that bound me to life" he wrote to Atticus. Haskell, H.J.:"This was Cicero" (1964) p.249 Atticus told him to come for a visit during the first weeks of his bereavement, so that he could comfort him when his pain was at its greatest. In Atticus' large library, Cicero read everything that the Greek philosophers had written about overcoming grief, "but my sorrow defeats all consolation." Cicero, Letters to Atticus, 12.14. Rawson, E.: Cicero p. 225 Caesar and Brutus as well as Servius Sulpicius Rufus sent him letters of condolence. Rawson, E.:Cicero p.226 Cicero, Samtliga brev/Collected letters Cicero hoped that his son Marcus would become a philosopher like him, but Marcus himself wished for a military career. He joined the army of Pompey in 49 BC and after Pompey's defeat at Pharsalus 48 BC, he was pardoned by Caesar. Cicero sent him to Athens to study as a disciple of the peripatetic philosopher Kratippos in 48 BC, but he used this absence from "his father's vigilant eye" to "eat, drink and be merry." Haskell, H.J.: This was Cicero (1964) p.103- 104 After Cicero's murder he joined the army of the Liberatores but was later pardoned by Augustus. Augustus' bad conscience for having put Cicero on the proscription list during the Second Triumvirate led him to aid considerably Marcus Minor's career. He became an augur, and was nominated consul in 30 BC together with Augustus, and later appointed proconsul of Syria and the province of Asia. Paavo Castren & L. Pietilä-Castren: Antiikin käsikirja/Encyclopedia of the Ancient World Works Cicero was declared a “righteous pagan” by the early Catholic Church, and therefore many of his works were deemed worthy of preservation. Saint Augustine and others quoted liberally from his works "De re publica" (On The Republic) and "De Legibus" (On The Laws), and it is due to this that we are able to recreate much of the work from the surviving fragments. Cicero also articulated an early, abstract conceptualization of rights, based on ancient law and custom. Of Cicero's books, six on rhetoric have survived, as well as parts of eight on philosophy. Of his speeches, eighty-eight were recorded, but only fifty-eight survive. Public career Marcus Tullius Cicero Quaestor His first office was as one of the twenty annual Quaestors, a training post for serious public administration in a diversity of areas, but with a traditional emphasis on administration and rigorous accounting of public monies under the guidance of a senior magistrate or provincial commander. Cicero served as quaestor in western Sicily in 75 BC and demonstrated honesty and integrity in his dealings with the inhabitants. As a result, the grateful Sicilians asked Cicero to prosecute Gaius Verres, a governor of Sicily, who had badly plundered Sicily. His prosecution of Gaius Verres was a great forensic success for Cicero. Upon the conclusion of this case, Cicero came to be considered the greatest orator in Rome. Oratory was considered a great art in ancient Rome and an important tool for disseminating knowledge and promoting oneself in elections, in part because there was no regular media at the time. Despite his great success as an advocate, Cicero lacked reputable ancestry: he was neither noble nor patrician. Cicero grew up in a time of civil unrest and war. Sulla’s victory in the first of many civil wars led to a new constitutional framework that undermined libertas (liberty), the fundamental value of the Roman Republic. Nonetheless, Sulla’s reforms strengthened the position of the equestrian class, contributing to that class’s growing political power. Cicero was both an Italian eques and a novus homo, but more importantly he was a Roman constitutionalist. His social class and loyalty to the Republic ensured he would "command the support and confidence of the people as well as the Italian middle classes." The fact that the optimates faction never truly accepted Cicero undermined his efforts to reform the Republic while preserving the constitution. Nevertheless, he was able to successfully ascend the Roman cursus honorum, holding each magistracy at or near the youngest possible age: quaestor in 75 (age 31), aedile in 69 (age 37), and praetor in 66 (age 40), where he served as president of the "Reclamation" (or extortion) Court. He was then elected consul at age 43. Cicero and Pompey Consul Cicero was elected Consul for the year 63 BC. His co-consul for the year, Gaius Antonius Hybrida, played a minor role. During his year in office he thwarted a conspiracy to overthrow the Roman Republic, led by Lucius Sergius Catiline. Cicero procured a Senatus Consultum de Re Publica Defendenda (a declaration of martial law), and he drove Catiline from the city with four vehement speeches (the Catiline Orations), which to this day remain outstanding examples of his rhetorical style. The Orations listed Catiline and his followers' debaucheries, and denounced Catiline's senatorial sympathizers as roguish and dissolute debtors, clinging to Catiline as a final and desperate hope. Cicero demanded that Catiline and his followers leave the city. At the conclusion of his first speech, Catiline burst from the Temple of Jupiter Stator. In his following speeches Cicero did not directly address Catiline but instead addressed the Senate. By these speeches Cicero wanted to prepare the Senate for the worst possible case; he also delivered more evidence against Catiline. Cicero Denounces Catiline, fresco by Cesare Maccari, 1882-1888. Catiline fled and left behind his followers to start the revolution from within while Catiline assaulted the city with an army of "moral bankrupts and honest fanatics". Catiline had attempted to involve the Allobroges, a tribe of Transalpine Gaul, in their plot, but Cicero, working with the Gauls, was able to seize letters which incriminated the five conspirators and forced them to confess their crimes in front of the Senate. Cicero, In Catilinam 3.2; Sallust, Bellum Catilinae 40-45; Plutarch, Cicero 18.4 The Senate then deliberated upon the conspirators' punishment. As it was the dominant advisory body to the various legislative assemblies rather than a judicial body, there were limits to its power; however, martial law was in effect, and it was feared that simple house arrest or exile — the standard options — would not remove the threat to the state. At first most in the Senate spoke for the "extreme penalty"; many were then swayed by Julius Caesar, who decried the precedent it would set and argued in favor of life imprisonment in various Italian towns. Cato then rose in defence of the death penalty and all the Senate finally agreed on the matter. Cicero had the conspirators taken to the Tullianum, the notorious Roman prison, where they were strangled. Cicero himself accompanied the former consul Publius Cornelius Lentulus Sura, one of the conspirators, to the Tullianum. Cicero received the honorific "Pater Patriae" for his efforts to suppress the conspiracy, but lived thereafter in fear of trial or exile for having put Roman citizens to death without trial. Exile and return In 60 BC Julius Caesar invited Cicero to be the fourth member of his existing partnership with Pompey and Marcus Licinius Crassus, an assembly that would eventually be called the First Triumvirate. Cicero refused the invitation because he suspected it would undermine the Republic. Rawson, E.: Cicero, 1984 106 In 58 BC Publius Clodius Pulcher, the tribune of the plebs, introduced a law (the Leges Clodiae) threatening exile to anyone who executed a Roman citizen without a trial. Cicero, having executed members of the Catiline conspiracy four years previously without formal trial, and having had a public falling-out with Clodius, was clearly the intended target of the law. Cicero argued that the senatus consultum ultimum indemnified him from punishment, and he attempted to gain the support of the senators and consuls, especially of Pompey. When help was not forthcoming, he went into exile. He arrived at Thessalonica, Greece on May 23, 58 BC. Haskell, H.J.: This was Cicero, 1964 200 Haskell, H.J.: This was Cicero, 1964 p.201 Plutarch. Cicero 32 Cicero's exile caused him to fall into depression. He wrote to Atticus: "Your pleas have prevented me from committing suicide. But what is there to live for? Don't blame me for complaining. My afflictions surpass any you ever heard of earlier" Haskell, H.J.: "This was Cicero" (1964) p.201 . After the invervention of recently-elected tribune Titus Annius Milo, the senate unanimously voted in favor of recalling Cicero from exile. Clodius cast a single vote against the decree. Cicero returned to Italy on August 5, 57 BC, landing at Brundisium. Cicero, Samtliga brev/Collected letters (in a Swedish translation) He was greeted by a cheering crowd, and, to his delight, his beloved daughter Tullia. Haskell. H.J.: This was Cicero, p.204 Cicero tried to reintegrate himself into politics, but on attacking a bill of Caesar's proved unsuccessful. The conference at Luca in 56 BC forced Cicero to make a recantation and pledge his support to the triumvirate. With this a cowed Cicero retreated to his literary works and left politics for the following few years. Grant, M: "Cicero: Selected Works", p67 Julius Caesar's Civil war Gaius Julius Caesar. The struggle between Pompey and Julius Caesar grew more intense in 50 BC. Cicero chose to favour Pompey, but at the same time he prudently avoided openly alienating Caesar. When Caesar invaded Italy in 49 BC, Cicero fled Rome. Caesar, seeking the legitimacy an endorsement by a senior senator would provide, courted Cicero's favour, but even so Cicero slipped out of Italy and traveled to Dyrrachium (Epidamnos), Illyria, where Pompey's staff was situated. Everitt, Anthony: Cicero pp. 215. Cicero traveled with the Pompeian forces to Pharsalus in 48 BC, Plutarch, Cicero 38.1 though he was quickly losing faith in the competence and righteousness of the Pompeian lot. Eventually, he provoked the hostility of his fellow senator Cato, who told him that he would have been of more use to the cause of the optimates if he had stayed in Rome. After Caesar's victory at Pharsalus, Cicero returned to Rome only very cautiously. Caesar pardoned him and Cicero tried to adjust to the situation and maintain his political work, hoping that Caesar might revive the Republic and its institutions. In a letter to Varro on c. April 20, 46 BC, Cicero outlined his strategy under Caesar's dictatorship. Cicero, however, was taken completely by surprise when the Liberatores assassinated Caesar on the ides of March, 44 BC. Cicero was not included in the conspiracy, even though the conspirators were sure of his sympathy. Marcus Junius Brutus called out Cicero's name, asking him to "restore the Republic" when he lifted the bloodstained dagger after the assassination. Cicero, Second Philippic Against Antony A letter Cicero wrote in February 43 BC to Trebonius, one of the conspirators, began, "How I could wish that you had invited me to that most glorious banquet on the Ides of March"! Cicero, Ad Familiares 10.28 Cicero became a popular leader during the period of instability following the assassination. He had no respect for Mark Antony, who was scheming to take revenge upon Caesar's murderers. In exchange for amnesty for the assassins, he arranged for the Senate to agree not to declare Caesar to have been a tyrant, which allowed the Caesarians to have lawful support. Opposition to Mark Antony, and death Cicero and Antony then became the two leading men in Rome; Cicero as spokesman for the Senate and Antony as consul, leader of the Caesarian faction, and unofficial executor of Caesar's public will. The two men had never been on friendly terms and their relationship worsened after Cicero made it clear that he felt Antony to be taking unfair liberties in interpreting Caesar's wishes and intentions. When Octavian, Caesar's heir and adopted son, arrived in Italy in April, Cicero formed a plan to play him against Antony. In September he began attacking Antony in a series of speeches he called the Philippics, after Demosthenes's denunciations of Philip II of Macedon. Praising Octavian, he said that the young man only desired honor and would not make the same mistake as his adoptive father. During this time, Cicero's popularity as a public figure was unrivalled. Appian, Civil Wars 4.19 Cicero supported Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus as governor of Cisalpine Gaul (Gallia Cisalpina) and urged the Senate to name Antony an enemy of the state. The speech of Lucius Piso, Caesar's father-in-law, delayed proceedings against Antony. Antony was later declared an enemy of the state when he refused to lift the siege of Mutina, which was in the hands of Decimus Brutus. Cicero’s plan to drive out Antony failed. Antony and Octavian reconciled and allied with Lepidus to form the Second Triumvirate after the successive battles of Forum Gallorum and Mutina. The Triumvirate began proscribing their enemies and potential rivals immediately after legislating the alliance into official existence for a term of five years with consular imperium. Cicero and all of his contacts and supporters were numbered among the enemies of the state, and reportedly, Octavian argued for two days against Cicero being added to the list. Plutarch, Cicero 46.3–5 Cicero was one of the most viciously and doggedly hunted among the proscribed. He was viewed with sympathy by a large segment of the public and many people refused to report that they had seen him. He was caught December 7, 43 BC leaving his villa in Formiae in a litter going to the seaside where he hoped to embark on a ship destined for Macedonia. Haskell, H.J.: This was Cicero (1964) p.293 When the assassins – Herennius (a centurion) and Popillius (a tribune) – arrived, Cicero's own slaves said they had not seen him, but he was given away by Philologus, a freed slave of his brother Quintus Cicero. Cicero around age 60, from a marble bust Once discovered, Cicero's last words were said to have been, "There is nothing proper about what you are doing, soldier, but do try to kill me properly." He bowed to his captors, leaning his head out of the litter in a gladiatorial gesture to ease the task. By baring his neck and throat to the soldiers, he was indicating that he wouldn't resist. According to Plutarch, Herennius first slew him, then cut off his head. On Antony's instructions his hands, which had penned the Philippics against Antony, were cut off as well; these were nailed and displayed along with his head on the Rostra in the Forum Romanum according to the tradition of Marius and Sulla, both of whom had displayed the heads of their enemies in the Forum. Cicero was the only victim of the proscriptions to be displayed in that manner. According to Cassius Dio Cassius Dio, Roman History 47.8.4 (in a story often mistakenly attributed to Plutarch), Antony's wife Fulvia took Cicero's head, pulled out his tongue, and jabbed it repeatedly with her hairpin in final revenge against Cicero's power of speech. Everitt, A.: Cicero, A turbulent life (2001) Cicero's son, Marcus Tullius Cicero Minor, during his year as a consul in 30 BC, avenged his father's death somewhat when he announced to the Senate Mark Antony's naval defeat at Actium in 31 BC by Octavian and his capable commander-in-chief Agrippa. In the same meeting the Senate voted to prohibit all future Antonius descendants from using the name Marcus. Octavian would later come upon one of his grandsons reading a book authored by Cicero. The boy tried to conceal the book, fearing the reaction of his grandfather. Octavian, now called Augustus, took the book from his grandson, read a part of it, and then handed the volume back, saying: "He was a learned man, dear child, a learned man who loved his country." Plutarch, Cicero, 49.5 Legacy Cicero was a gifted and energetic writer, with an interest in a wide variety of subjects in keeping with the Hellenistic philosophical and rhetorical traditions in which he was trained. The quality and ready accessibility of Ciceronian texts favored very wide distribution and inclusion in teaching curricula. This influence increased after the "Dark Ages" in Europe, from which more of his writings survived than any other Latin author. His works rank among the most influential in European culture, and today still constitute one of the most important bodies of primary material for the writing and revision of Roman history. After the civil war, Cicero recognized that the end of the Republic was almost certain. He stated that "the Republic, the Senate, the law courts are mere ciphers and that not one of us has any constitutional position at all." The civil war had destroyed the Republic and Julius Caesar’s victory had been absolute. Caesar's assassination failed to reinstate the Republic, despite further attacks on the Romans' freedom by "Caesar’s own henchman, Mark Antony." His death only highlighted the stability of ‘one man rule’ by the ensuing chaos and further civil wars that broke out with Caesar’s murderers, Brutus and Cassius, and finally between his own supporters, Mark Antony and Octavian. See also Titus Pomponius Atticus Caecilia Attica Quintus Tullius Cicero Marcus Tullius Tiro Tullia Ciceronis Servius Sulpicius Rufus Lorem Ipsum Works by Cicero Translation Notes References Badian, E: "Cicero and the Commission of 146 B.C.", Collection Latomus 101 (1969), 54-65. Cicero, Marcus Tullius, Cicero’s letters to Atticus, Vol, I, II, IV, VI, Cambridge University Press, Great Britain, 1965 Cicero, Marcus Tullius, Latin extracts of Cicero on Himself, translated by Charles Gordon Cooper , University of Queensland Press, Brisbane, 1963 Cicero, Marcus Tullius, Selected Political Speeches, Penguin Books Ltd, Great Britain, 1969 Cicero, Marcus Tullius, De Officiis (On Duties), translated by Walter Miller. Harvard University Press, 1913, ISBN 978-0-674-99033-3, ISBN 0-674-99033-1 Cicero, Marcus Tullius, Selected Works, Penguin Books Ltd, Great Britain, 1971 Cowell, F R: Cicero and the Roman Republic (Penguin Books, 1948; numerous later reprints) Gruen, Erich S: The Last Generation of the Roman Republic (University of California Press, USA, 1974) Haskell, H J: This was Cicero (Fawcett publications, 1946) March, Duane A: "Cicero and the 'Gang of Five' ", Classical World 82 (1989), 225-234 Narducci, Emanuele. Cicerone. La parola e la politica, Laterza 2009 ISBN 8842076058 Plutarch Penguins Classics English translation by Rex Warner, Fall of the Roman Republic, Six Lives by Plutarch: Marius, Sulla, Crassus, Pompey, Caesar, Cicero (Penguin Books, 1958; with Introduction and notes by Robin Seager, 1972) Rawson, Beryl: The Politics of Friendship: Pompey and Cicero (Sydney University Press, 1978) Rawson, Elizabeth: "Cicero the Historian and Cicero the Antiquarian", JRS 62 (1972), 33-45. Cicero: A Portrait (Allen Lane, Penguin Books Ltd., 1975) ISBN 0-7139-0864-5. Scullard, H. H. From the Gracchi to Nero, University Paperbacks, Great Britain, 1968 Smith, R E: Cicero the Statesman (Cambridge University Press, 1966) Stockton, David: Cicero: A Political Biography (Oxford University Press, 1971)* Wistrand, M: Cicero Imperator: Studies in Cicero's Correspondence 51-47 B.C. (Göteborg, 1979) External links General: Quotes with Cicero's teachings on oratory Links to Cicero resources University of Texas Cicero Homepage The Internet Encyclopædia of Philosophy LATINUM - Anglice et Latine - Extensive Latin language learning podcast. Listen to Cicero Read Aloud. Works by Cicero: Online Library of Liberty Perseus Project (Latin and English): Classics Collection (see: M. Tullius Cicero) The Latin Library (Latin): Works of Cicero UAH (Latin, with translation notes): Cicero Page De Officiis, translated by Walter Miller Cicero's works: text, concordances and frequency list Cicero's letters: thematically selected and arranged in chronological order Biographies and descriptions of Cicero's time: At Project Gutenberg Plutarch's biography of Cicero contained in the Parallel Lives Life of Cicero by Anthony Trollope, Volume I – Volume II Cicero by Rev. W. Lucas Collins (Ancient Classics for English Readers) Roman life in the days of Cicero by Rev. Alfred J. Church Social life at Rome in the Age of Cicero by W. 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5,415 | Lake_Balaton | Location of Lake Balaton within Hungary Lake Balaton, located in Hungary, is the largest lake in Central Europe , and one of the foremost regional tourist destinations. Due to Hungary being landlocked, it is often affectionately called the "Hungarian Sea". The Zala River provides the largest inflow of water to the lake, and the canalized Sió is the only outflow. With a surface area of 592 km² has a length of 77 km and a width ranging from 4 to 14 km. The lake's surface is 104 m above sea level, and its depth varies up to 12.2 m (mean depth is 3.2 m). Name In Hungarian, the lake is known as Balaton (nicknamed Balcsi, and sometimes "The Hungarian Sea"); in Latin as Lacus Pelso, in German as Plattensee, in Slovak as Blatenské jazero and in Croatian and Serbian as Blatno jezero. Its name means approximately "muddy lake" in Slavic ("blato" means "mud" in South-Slavic from earlier Pan-Slavic "bolto"). The Hungarian name Balaton, is also derived from the original Slavic name (Slavic neutrum adjective "boltьno(-je ezero)" = "muddy (lake)"), but it has no concrete meaning today in Hungarian. The Romans called the lake Lacus Pelso ("Lake Pelso"). Pelso derives from a local name for the lake, perhaps from the Illyrian language, the Illyrians having once populated the region. Paleolinguists surmise that "Pelso" meant "shallow" in Illyrian, this deduction being based on its probable Proto-Indo-European root *pels-, and on examples such as Plattensee ("shallow sea"), a name given to the lake by the Germanic people in the area through the centuries. Climate Map of Balaton in ancient times Lake Balaton affects the local area precipitation per annum. The area receives approximately two to three inches (5-7 cm) more precipitation than most of Hungary, resulting in more cloudy days, and less extreme temperatures. The lake's surface freezes during colder winters. Lake Balaton region's climate has also made it ideal for growing grapes to make wine. Secondary radiation is emitted from the lake doubling the amount of sunlight that the grapes vines of the region receive. The Mediterranean climate combined with the soil (containing volcanic rock) has made the region notable for its production of wines since the Roman period two thousand years ago. Tourist information The major resorts around the lake are Siófok, Keszthely and Balatonfüred. Siófok is known often as the "Party Capital of Hungary", which attracts many young party goers in summer due to its numerous large discos. Keszthely is the site of the famous Festetics Palace and Balatonfüred is a historical bathing town home to the annual Anna Ball. The high tourist season extends from June until the end of August. The average water temperature during the summer is 25°C, which makes bathing and swimming possible. Most of the beaches consist of either grass, rocks or the silty sand that also makes up most of the bottom of the lake. Many resorts have artificial sandy beaches and all beaches have step access to the water. Other tourist attractions include sailing, fishing and other water sports, as well as visiting the countryside and hills; wineries on the north coast and night life on the south shore. The Tihany Peninsula is an historical district. Badacsony is a famous volcanic mountain and wine growing region as well as a lakeside resort. Although the peak season at the lake is the summer, lovers of Balaton think that it is also worth visiting the lake in winter, when you can go fishing through ice-holes, or, if the ice is thick enough, brave visitors can even skate, sledge or ice-sail on the lake. Balaton is served by Sármellék International Airport . There are scheduled flights from Berlin, Frankfurt, Stuttgart, Copenhagen, Zürich and London Stansted. The lake is also accessible via charter flights from Hamburg, Düsseldorf, Billund and Moscow. Chief resorts include: Badacsony - Balatonalmádi - Balatonboglár - Balatonfüred - Balatonlelle - Fonyód - Keszthely - Siófok - Tihany - Vonyarcvashegy Trivia The Hungarian government has started a campaign of promoting Balaton as a holiday place for young people. There is a slightly controversial promotional cartoon on the official Balaton tourist page depicting a man who meets a young blonde girl and makes love to her on a boat while hiding his wedding ring. Balaton Hungarian Tourist Website Operation Frühlingserwachen was conducted in the region of Lake Balaton in March 1945, being referred to as "the Lake Balaton Offensive" in many British histories of the Second World War. The battle was a German counterattack by Sepp Dietrich's 6.SS-Panzerarmee between March 6, 1945 and March 16, 1945 and resulted in a Red Army victory. Several Ilyushin Il-2 wrecks have been pulled out of the lake, remnants of the Soviet Air Force. Towns and villages Towns and villages alongside Lake Balaton. North shore From east to west: Balatonfőkajár - Balatonakarattya - Balatonkenese - Balatonfűzfő - Balatonalmádi - Alsóörs - Paloznak - Csopak - Arács - Balatonfüred - Tihany - Aszófő - Örvényes - Balatonudvari - Fövenyes - Balatonakali - Zánka - Balatonszepezd - Szepezdfürdő - Révfülöp - Pálköve - Ábrahámhegy - Balatonrendes - Badacsonytomaj - Badacsony - Badacsonytördemic - Szigliget - Balatonederics - Balatongyörök - Vonyarcvashegy - Gyenesdiás - Keszthely South shore From east to west: Balatonakarattya - Balatonaliga - Balatonvilágos - Sóstó - Szabadifürdo - Siófok - Széplak - Zamárdi - Szántód - Balatonföldvár - Balatonszárszó - Balatonszemes - Balatonlelle - Balatonboglár - Fonyód - Bélatelep - Balatonfenyves - Balatonmáriafürdő - Balatonkeresztúr - Balatonberény - Fenékpuszta See also Geography of Hungary References Gallery External links A picture gallery Balaton - World Lake Database (English) Pictures of Balatongyörök - Pictures of Balatongyörök Lake Balaton on SeeUinHungary.com | Lake_Balaton |@lemmatized location:1 lake:28 balaton:17 within:1 hungary:6 locate:1 large:3 central:1 europe:1 one:1 foremost:1 regional:1 tourist:6 destination:1 due:2 landlocked:1 often:2 affectionately:1 call:2 hungarian:7 sea:4 zala:1 river:1 provide:1 inflow:1 water:4 canalized:1 sió:1 outflow:1 surface:3 area:4 length:1 km:2 width:1 ranging:1 level:1 depth:2 vary:1 mean:4 name:6 know:2 nicknamed:1 balcsi:1 sometimes:1 latin:1 lacus:2 pelso:5 german:2 plattensee:2 slovak:1 blatenské:1 jazero:1 croatian:1 serbian:1 blatno:1 jezero:1 approximately:2 muddy:2 slavic:5 blato:1 mud:1 south:3 early:1 pan:1 bolto:1 also:6 derive:2 original:1 neutrum:1 adjective:1 boltьno:1 je:1 ezero:1 concrete:1 meaning:1 today:1 roman:2 local:2 perhaps:1 illyrian:3 language:1 populate:1 region:6 paleolinguists:1 surmise:1 shallow:2 deduction:1 base:1 probable:1 proto:1 indo:1 european:1 root:1 pel:1 example:1 give:1 germanic:1 people:2 century:1 climate:3 map:1 ancient:1 time:1 affect:1 precipitation:2 per:1 annum:1 receive:2 two:2 three:1 inch:1 cm:1 result:2 cloudy:1 day:1 less:1 extreme:1 temperature:2 freeze:1 colder:1 winter:2 make:6 ideal:1 grow:2 grape:2 wine:3 secondary:1 radiation:1 emit:1 double:1 amount:1 sunlight:1 vine:1 mediterranean:1 combine:1 soil:1 contain:1 volcanic:2 rock:2 notable:1 production:1 since:1 period:1 thousand:1 year:1 ago:1 information:1 major:1 resort:4 around:1 siófok:4 keszthely:4 balatonfüred:4 party:2 capital:1 attract:1 many:3 young:3 goer:1 summer:3 numerous:1 disco:1 site:1 famous:2 festetics:1 palace:1 historical:2 bathing:2 town:3 home:1 annual:1 anna:1 ball:1 high:1 season:2 extend:1 june:1 end:1 august:1 average:1 c:1 swim:1 possible:1 beach:3 consist:1 either:1 grass:1 silty:1 sand:1 bottom:1 artificial:1 sandy:1 step:1 access:1 attraction:1 include:2 sail:2 fishing:2 sport:1 well:2 visit:2 countryside:1 hill:1 winery:1 north:2 coast:1 night:1 life:1 shore:3 tihany:3 peninsula:1 district:1 badacsony:3 mountain:1 lakeside:1 although:1 peak:1 lover:1 think:1 worth:1 go:1 ice:3 hole:1 thick:1 enough:1 brave:1 visitor:1 even:1 skate:1 sledge:1 serve:1 sármellék:1 international:1 airport:1 schedule:1 flight:2 berlin:1 frankfurt:1 stuttgart:1 copenhagen:1 zürich:1 london:1 stansted:1 accessible:1 via:1 charter:1 hamburg:1 düsseldorf:1 billund:1 moscow:1 chief:1 balatonalmádi:2 balatonboglár:2 balatonlelle:2 fonyód:2 vonyarcvashegy:2 trivia:1 government:1 start:1 campaign:1 promote:1 holiday:1 place:1 slightly:1 controversial:1 promotional:1 cartoon:1 official:1 page:1 depict:1 man:1 meet:1 blonde:1 girl:1 love:1 boat:1 hide:1 wedding:1 ring:1 website:1 operation:1 frühlingserwachen:1 conduct:1 march:3 refer:1 offensive:1 british:1 history:1 second:1 world:2 war:1 battle:1 counterattack:1 sepp:1 dietrich:1 ss:1 panzerarmee:1 red:1 army:1 victory:1 several:1 ilyushin:1 il:1 wreck:1 pull:1 remnant:1 soviet:1 air:1 force:1 village:2 alongside:1 east:2 west:2 balatonfőkajár:1 balatonakarattya:2 balatonkenese:1 balatonfűzfő:1 alsóörs:1 paloznak:1 csopak:1 arács:1 aszófő:1 örvényes:1 balatonudvari:1 fövenyes:1 balatonakali:1 zánka:1 balatonszepezd:1 szepezdfürdő:1 révfülöp:1 pálköve:1 ábrahámhegy:1 balatonrendes:1 badacsonytomaj:1 badacsonytördemic:1 szigliget:1 balatonederics:1 balatongyörök:3 gyenesdiás:1 balatonaliga:1 balatonvilágos:1 sóstó:1 szabadifürdo:1 széplak:1 zamárdi:1 szántód:1 balatonföldvár:1 balatonszárszó:1 balatonszemes:1 bélatelep:1 balatonfenyves:1 balatonmáriafürdő:1 balatonkeresztúr:1 balatonberény:1 fenékpuszta:1 see:1 geography:1 reference:1 gallery:2 external:1 link:1 picture:3 database:1 english:1 seeuinhungary:1 com:1 |@bigram lake_balaton:9 tourist_destination:1 croatian_serbian:1 proto_indo:1 indo_european:1 per_annum:1 inch_cm:1 colder_winter:1 sandy_beach:1 tourist_attraction:1 london_stansted:1 ilyushin_il:1 external_link:1 |
5,416 | Transport_in_Niger | A state run SNTV coach running between Ouagadougou (Burkina Faso) and Niamey, Niger. Road transport is the major form of travel across the huge distances between Nigerien population centers, though most Nigeriens do not own vehicles. horsecarts are a common sight on Niger's roads, like these near Diffa in eastern Niger. Transport in Niger is crucial to the economy of this vast landlocked nation, with cities separated by huge uninhabited deserts, mountain ranges, and other natural features. A poor nation, Niger's transport system was little developed during the colonial period (1899-1960), relying upon animal transport, human transport, and limited river transport in the far south west and south east. No railways were constructed in the colonial period, and roads outside the capitol remained unpaved. The Niger River is unsuitable for river transport of any large scale, as it lacks depth for most of the year, and is broken by rapids at many spots. Camel caravan transport was historically important in the Sahara desert and Sahel regions which cover most of the north. Highways Outside of cities, the first major paved roads were constructed from the northern town of Arlit to the Benin border in the 1970s and 1980s. This road, dubbed the Uranium Highway runs through Arlit, Agadez, Tahoua, Birnin-Konni, and Niamey, and is part of the Trans-Sahara Highway system. An additional paved highway runs from Niamey via Maradi and Zinder towards Diffa in the far east of the nation, although the stretch from Zinder to Diffa is only partially paved. Portions of this route are used by the Trans-Sahel Highway route. The Niger section runs 837 km (of which 600 km was in poor condition as of 2000), via Niamey, Dosso, Dogondoutchi, Birnin-Konni and Maradi to the Nigerian border at Jibiya. Other roads range from all-weather laterite surfaces to grated dirt or sand Pistes, especially in the desert north. The United States government in 1996 estimated there were a total of 10100 km of highways in Niger, with 798 km paved and 9302 km, unpaved, but making no distinction between improved or all weather roads and unimproved roads. CIA World Factbook: Niger. updated on 20 November 2008 The government of Niger, in 2009, gave a figure of 18949 km of total roadways. Journée parlementaire à l'Assemblée nationale : la question de la sécurité routière en débat à l'hémicycle. Zabeirou Moussa. Le Sahel, Niamey. 08 May 2009. Routes Nationale The national road system ("Routes Nationale") are numbered and prefixed with "RN", as RN1. The numbering system contains routes or sections which are as yet unpaved or even unimproved tracks. Route Nationale no. 25, for example, is a major paved highway from Niamey to Filingué, follows the partially improved Route Nationale no. 26 towards Abala, veers off onto a dirt track (locally called a Piste) from the villages of Talcho to Sanam, where RN26 also terminates from another direction. RN25 then continues along a piste, through largely uninhabited desert for almost 100km before reaching the city of Tahoua, served by other major paved roads. The main "Uranium Highway" then coincides with the RN25 all the way to Arlit in the far north. Consequently, the informal names for the routes (eg "Uranium Highway") serves a somewhat more practical purpose that the RN numbers. Road transport Nigeriens in both urban and rural areas rely on a combination of motor vehicles and animals for transport of themselves and commercial goods. Road transport is the major form of travel across the huge distances between Nigerien population centers, though most Nigeriens do not own vehicles. In cities, public transport systems within cities are largely absent, so a variety of privately operated services carry many urban dwellers. Vans, cars, motor coaches, trucks, and even converted motorbikes provide paid transport. Between cities coach systems are the standard form of personal transport, with the government operating one bus service (the SNTV), and a multitude of buses, "bush taxis" (taxi brousse), small vans and semi-converted trucks taking passengers and goods. Services are sometimes scheduled from the "Highway stations" ("Gares Routiers") found in every town, but are more frequently ad hoc: vehicles ply the trade between towns, picking up at stations or anywhere along the route, and departing only when full. Animals pulling wagons and loaded camel trains remain a common sight on Nigerien roads. Motor vehicle regulation Transport, including motor vehicles, are overseen by the Nigerien Ministry of Transport's Directorate for Land Water and Air Transport ("Ministère des Transport et de l'aviation civile/Direction des Transports Terrestres, Maritimes et Fluviaux"). Vehicles in Niger are subject to the "Laws of the Road" ("Code du Route") for which the government began a continuing reform in 2004-2006 and is based substantially on French models. SOLLICITATION DE MANIFESTATION D’INTERET: Services de consultants : « Services de consultants pour l’actualisation du code de la route : recrutement d’un consultant individuel international, expert en sécurité routière ». REPUBLIQUE DU NIGER, MINISTERE DES TRANSPORTS ET DE L’AVIATION CIVILE, DIRECTION DES TRANSPORTS TERRESTRES, MARITIMES ET FLUVIAUX. March 2, 2009 Vehicles travel on the right side of the road, and roads use French style signage. Routes Nationale are marked with the traditional French Milestones: a white tablet with a red top, maked with the route number. Vehicles owners must obtain a Registration document ("Carte Gris") and Vehicle license plates ("plaques d’immatriculation"), which are of similar manufacture to those in Guinea and Mali. Cartes grises et plaques d’immatriculation : “Le Système Holocis” contre la fraude. Le Republicain (Bamako). 16/09/2008 Licence plates usually contain the national code "RN" for international travel. FRANCOPLAQUE: a gallery of Nigerien license plates, current and historic. Niger is a signatory of the September 1949 Geneva Convention on Road Traffic, and thus honours International drivers licenses from other signitories. Drivers license. International University of Japan. Drivers licenses are regulated through the national Ministry of Transport, but issued by local officials. Permis de conduire: French Embassy to Niger. Accessed 2009-05-13 Drivers must pass a drivers test to qualify. Vers une réforme de l'examen du permis de conduire au Niger. Niamey, Niger (PANA). 18/03/2002 A 2009 enforcement blitz in Niamey resulted in numerous arrests of owners of small motorbikes, a common in Nigerien cities. One newspaper reported that most riders believed erroneously that there was no license or regulation required by law for motorbikes under 50cc in engine size, although these had been regulated in law since 2002 but not enforced. CONTRÔLE DES PLAQUES D’IMMATRICULATION DES MOTOS 50 CM3 Plus de 300 motos saisies en une semaine. Le Republicain (Niamey). 12 May 2009. Motorbikes are also common means of public transport in some Nigerien cities. These motorcycle "taxis motos", or "kabu kabu", are the primary form of taxis in cities like Zinder, Agadez, and Maradi. In Zinder, a 2009 local newspaper report claimed there were no more than "three to five" automobile taxis operating in a diffuse city which subsequently relies upon the only partially regulated motorcycle taxi sector. Les taxis motos ou kabu kabu incorrigibles?. Les Echos (Zinder). 3 March 2009, p. 2. Road safety Road accidents have been identified as a major public health concern by the Nigerien government. According to Chékarou Bagoudou , Chief of the Division of Road Safety and Security of the Nigerien Ministry of Transport, there were 4338 officially reported road accidents in 2008, with 7443 victims, of which 616 were killed. With the Nigerien government counting 18949 km of roads in the nation, this comes to one accident for every five kilometers in 2008. Speaking before a National Assembly session, Bagoudou said that the 42.2 billion CFA francs spent on medical costs for road accident victims accounted for around 25% of the 2008 budget of the Nigerien Ministry of Public Health. Transport figures concluded that 70% of road accidents were caused by "human factors", 23% by mechanical faults and 7% by road conditions. Journée parlementaire à l'Assemblée nationale : la question de la sécurité routière en débat à l'hémicycle. Zabeirou Moussa. Le Sahel, Niamey. 08 May 2009. Waterways The Niger River is navigable 300 km from Niamey to Gaya on the Benin frontier from mid-December to March. Thereafter the a series of falls and rapids render the Niger unnavigable in all seasons. In the navigable stretches, shallows prevent all but the small draft African canoes (Pirogues and Pinnases) from operating in many areas. As there is only one major bridge over the Niger (The Kennedy Bridge in Niamey: the Niger River bridge at Gaya crosses into Benin), car ferries are of crucial importance, especially the crossing at Bac Farie, 40 km north of Niamey on the RN4, and the car ferry at Ayorou. Despite having no ocean or deep draft river ports, Niger does operate a ports authority. Niger relies on the port at Cotonou (Benin), and to a lesser degree Lome (Togo), and Port Harcourt (Nigeria), as its main route to overseas trade. Abidjan was is in the process of regaining Niger's port trade, following the disruption of the Ivorian Civil War, beginning in 1999. Abidjan port regains its regional importance African Business , Oct, 2008 by Marcel Gossio. Niger operates a Nigerien Ports Authority station, as well as customs and tax offices in a section of Cotonou's port, so that imports and exports can be directly transported between Gaya and the port. French Uranium mines in Arlit, which produce Niger's largest exports by value, travel through this port to France or the world market. Airports The US government estimated there were 27 airports and/or landing strips in Niger as of 2007. CIA World Factbook: Niger. updated on 20 November 2008 Nine (9) of these had paved runways, 18 with unpaved landing strips. ICAO Codes for Niger are prefixed "DR". Of the 9 Airports with paved runways, 2 with paved strips from 2,438 to 3,047 m: Diori Hamani International Airport and Mano Dayak International Airport. These are the only two Nigerien airports with regular international commercial flights. Six of the remainder have strips between 1,524 and 2,437 m, while one is under 914 m. 18 additional airports have unpaved runways 15 of them with strips between 914 and 1,523 m. Major airports (with ICAO code and IATA code) include: Airports of Niger, World Aero Data/ Avigation Networks, Inc. DRRM (MFQ) – Maradi Airport – Maradi DRRN (NIM) – Diori Hamani International Airport – Niamey DRRT (THZ) – Tahoua Airport – Tahoua DRZA (AJY) – Mano Dayak International Airport – Agadez South DRZL (RLT) – Arlit Airport – Arlit DRZR (ZND) – Zinder Airport – Zinder DRZF () – Diffa Airport – Diffa DRZD () – Dirkou Airport – Dirkou DRRB (BKN) – Birni N'Konni Airport – Birni N'Konni Other airstrips (with ICAO codes) include: Airports Niger. PictAero.com / Association de Gestion d'AeroWeb-fr. DRRI Bilma DRRC Dogondoutchi DRRD Dosso DRRG Gaya DRZG Goure DRZI Iferouane DRRP La Tapoa DRZM Maine Soroa DRZN N'guigmi DRRU Ouallam DRZT Tanout DRRA Tessaoua DRRE Tera DRRL Tillabery Railway There are no railways in Niger, although Niger is a user of the Benin and Togo railway lines which carry goods from seaports to the Niger border. Rail lines to Niamey and other points in Niger were proposed during the colonial period, and continue to be discussed. Possible rail links projects Nigeria - no - 1067 mm gauge Benin - no - 1000 mm Mali - no - 1000 mm Algeria - no - 1435 mm Libya - no - 1435 mm - under construction Gauge Were any railways in Niger to interconnect with railways of adjacent countries, choosing the best gauge will be tricky. 1067 mm matches the gauge of the regional powerhouse of Nigeria, although Nigeria has ambitious plans to convert to 1435mm. 1435 mm matches the gauge of North Africa and Europe. 1000 mm, while quite common, is fragmented and used by minor countries. Fortunately, it is possible to build plain track suitable for all three (see Dual gauge). Niger would be a participant in the AfricaRail project. With 1435mm gauge railways seemingly under construction in Libya to the north and Nigeria to the south, and an interconnection between the two that quite likely would pass through Nigeria, this would seem to indicate that Niger will acquire standard gauge railways. This would scuttle in part at least proposals to create a 1000mm gauge network joining Niger with Togo, Benin and beyond. Considering the amount of new construction needed to link such countries, and the construction of a number of heavy duty iron ore railways which would almost certainly be 1435mm gauge, momentum is created to adopt the 1435mm gauge throughout. An Indian proposal has surfaced to link the railways in Benin and Togo with landlocked Niger and Burkino Faso. This network skirts around Ghana which is the wrong narrow gauge of 1067 mm. On 6 March 2006 a scheme to extend the Nigerian rail system to neighbouring Niger, conceived 10 years ago, was revived and is currently receiving consideration by the transport ministries of both governments. The route identified runs from the present Nigerian railhead at Kaura-Namoda via Sokoto to Birnin-Konni (about 250km altogether) on the border with Niger, which has no railway. A feasibility study on has been carried out by consultants Team (Nig) Ltd of Nigeria; the only obstacle now is the lack of funds. It is hoped that donor agencies will assist. Nigeria is already using gauge convertible sleepers on the Onne line, and would presumably use them on the Niger Extension, so that initially 1067mm gauge would be used with easy conversion to 1435mm at a later date. Triple gauge sleepers that can also support 1000mm are also possible. A map of link from Libya to Niger AfricaRail A map of a scheme to link Côte d'Ivoire, Burkina Faso, Niger, Benin and Togo, which are conveniently all 1000mm gauge. Stations See also Niger References Jolijn Geels. Niger. Bradt UK/ Globe Pequot Press USA (2006) ISBN 9781841621524 Samuel Decalo. Historical Dictionary of Niger (3rd ed.). Scarecrow Press, Boston & Folkestone, (1997) ISBN 0810831368 Abdou Bontianti et Issa Abdou Yonlihinza, La RN 6 : un exemple d’intégration économique sous-régionale et un facteur de désenclavement du Niger, Les Cahiers d’Outre-Mer, 241-242 January-June 2008, Accessed 13 May 2009. | Transport_in_Niger |@lemmatized state:2 run:6 sntv:2 coach:3 ouagadougou:1 burkina:2 faso:3 niamey:15 niger:48 road:25 transport:27 major:8 form:4 travel:5 across:2 huge:3 distance:2 nigerien:16 population:2 center:2 though:2 vehicle:10 horsecarts:1 common:5 sight:2 like:2 near:1 diffa:5 eastern:1 crucial:2 economy:1 vast:1 landlocked:2 nation:4 city:10 separate:1 uninhabited:2 desert:4 mountain:1 range:2 natural:1 feature:1 poor:2 system:7 little:1 developed:1 colonial:3 period:3 rely:3 upon:2 animal:3 human:2 limit:1 river:6 far:3 south:4 west:1 east:2 railway:11 construct:2 outside:2 capitol:1 remain:2 unpaved:5 unsuitable:1 large:2 scale:1 lack:2 depth:1 year:2 break:1 rapid:2 many:3 spot:1 camel:2 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5,417 | Aristophanes | Aristophanes as imagined by a nineteenth century illustrator. It can be inferred from jests in his plays that he was in fact prematurely bald. The Frogs and Other Plays David Barrett, Penguin Books 1964, page 9. Surviving PlaysThe Acharnians 425 BCThe Knights 424 BCThe Clouds 423 BCThe Wasps 422 BCPeace 421 BCThe Birds 414 BCLysistrata 411BCThesmophoriazusae 411 BCThe Frogs 405 BCEcclesiazusae c.392 BCWealth II 388 BC Aristophanes (, ca. 446 – ca. 386 BC), son of Philippus, of the deme Cydathenaus, Aristophanes: Lysistrata, The Acharnians, The Clouds Alan Sommerstein, Penguin Books 1973, page 9 was a prolific and much acclaimed comic playwright of ancient Athens. Eleven of his forty plays have come down to us virtually complete. These, as well as fragments of some of his other plays, provide us with the only real example we have of a genre of comic drama known as Old Comedy and they are in fact used to define the genre. Aristophanes: Clouds K.J.Dover (ed), Oxford University Press 1970, Intro. page X. Also known as the Father of Comedy Aristophanes in Performance 421 BC-AD 2007:Peace, Birds and Frogs Edith Hall and Amanda Wrigley, Legenda (Oxford) 2007, page 1 and the Prince of Ancient Comedy, Character Sketches of Romance, Fiction and the Drama, Vol. 1 Aristophanes has been said to recreate the life of ancient Athens more convincingly than any other author. The Birds and Other plays David Barrett and Alan Sommerstein (eds), Penguin Classics 2003, page 26 His powers of ridicule were feared and acknowledged by influential contemporaries - Plato The Apology translated by Benjamin Jowett, , section4 Apology, Greek text, edited J Burnet, section 19c singled out Aristophanes' play The Clouds as slander contributing to the trial and execution of Socrates although other satirical playwrights Lysistrata, The Acharnians, The Clouds Alan Sommerstein, Penguin Books 1973, p16 had caricatured the philosopher. The demagogue Cleon once prosecuted Aristophanes for slandering the Athenian polis with his second play The Babylonians (now lost). Details of his trial and punishment are not recorded but Aristophanes replied with merciless caricatures of Cleon in his subsequent plays, especially The Knights. "In my opinion," he says through the Chorus in that play, "producing comedies is the hardest work of all." () Aristophanis Comoediae Tomus 1, F.W.Hall and W.M.Geldart (eds), Oxford Classical Texts, Knights ln 516 Biography of a dramatist Less is known about Aristophanes than about his plays. In fact, his plays are the main source of information about him. It was conventional in Old Comedy for the Chorus to speak on behalf of the author during an address called the 'parabasis' and thus some biographical facts can be got 'straight from the horse's mouth', so to speak. However, these facts relate almost entirely to his career as a dramatist and the plays contain few clear and unambiguous clues about his personal beliefs or his private life. Greek Comedy and Ideology David Konstan, Oxford University Press US 1995, page 6 He was a comic poet in an age when it was conventional for a poet to assume the role of 'teacher' (didaskalos) and though this specifically referred to his training of the Chorus in rehearsal, it also covered his relationship with the audience as a commentator on significant issues. Aristophanes: The Clouds K.J.Dover, Oxford University Press 1970, Intro. page XIV Aristophanes claimed to be writing for a clever and discerning audience Aristophanis Comoediae Tomus 1, F.W.Hall and W.M.Geldart (eds), Oxford Classical Texts,Clouds 520-25 yet he also declared that 'other times' would judge the audience according to its reception of his plays. Aristophanis Comoediae Tomus 1, F.W.Hall and W.M.Geldart (eds), Oxford Classical Texts,Clouds 560-62 He sometimes boasts of his originality as a dramatist Wasps 1536-7 Wikisource original Greek , Clouds 545-48, Peace 739-58 yet his plays consistently espouse opposition to radical, new influences in Athenian society. He caricatured leading figures in the arts (notably Euripides, whose influence on his own work however he once begrudgingly acknowledged), The Birds and Other Plays by Aristophanes David Barrett and Alan Sommerstein, Penguin Classics 2003, page 9 in politics (especially the populist Cleon), and in philosophy/religion (where Socrates was the most obvious target). Such caricatures seem to imply that Aristophanes was an old-fashioned conservative yet that view of him leads to contradictions. Greek Society Antony Andrewes, Pelican Books, 1981, pages 247-48 The writing of plays was a craft that could be handed down from father to son and it has been argued that Aristophanes produced plays mainly to entertain the audience and to win prestigious competitions. Aristophanes: Lysistrata, The Acharnians, The Clouds A.H. Sommerstein (ed), Penguin Books 1975, page9, footnote The plays were written for production at the great dramatic festivals of Athens, the Lenaia and City Dionysia, where they were judged and awarded places relative to the works of other comic dramatists. An elaborate series of lotteries, designed to prevent prejudice or corruption, narrowed the voting judges at the City Dionysia to just five in number. These judges probably reflected the mood of the audiences Aristophanes:The Frogs and Other Plays David Barrett (ed), Penguin Classics 1964, page 26 yet there is much uncertainty about the actual composition of those audiences. Aristophanes:The Frogs and Other Plays David Barrett (ed), Penguin Classics 1964, page 25 They were certainly huge, with seating for at least 10 000 at the Theatre of Dionysus, but it is not certain that they amounted to a representative sample of the Athenian citizenry. The day's program at the City Dionysia for example was crowded, with three tragedies and a 'satyr' play ahead of the comedy and it is possible that many of the poorer citizens (typically the main supporters of demagogues like Cleon) occupied the festival holiday in other pursuits. The conservative views expressed in the plays might therefore reflect the attitudes of a dominant group in an unrepresentative audience. The production process might also have been a factor influencing the views expressed in the plays. Throughout most of Aristophanes' career, the Chorus was essential to a play's success and it was recruited and funded by a 'choregus', a wealthy citizen appointed to the task by one of the archons. A choregus could regard his personal expenditure on the Chorus as a civic duty and a public honour but Aristophanes showed in The Knights that wealthy citizens could in fact regard civic responsibilities as punishment imposed on them by demagogues and populists like Cleon. Aristophanis Comoediae Tomus 1, F.W.Hall and W.M.Geldart (eds), Oxford Classical Texts, The Knights lines 911-25 Thus the political conservatism of the plays might reflect the views of a typical choregus, on whose generosity the dramatist depended for the success of his play. When Aristophanes' first play The Banqueters was produced, Athens was an ambitious, imperial power and The Peloponnesian War was only in its fourth year. His plays often express pride in the achievement of the older generation (the victors at Marathon) Wasps 1075-1101 Wikisource original Greek , Knights 565-576 Acharnians Wikisource Greek text 692-700 yet they are not jingoistic and they are staunchly opposed to the war with Sparta. The plays are particularly scathing in criticism of war-profiteers, among whom populists such as Cleon figure prominently. Wasps 669-677 Wikisource original Greek ; Knights 438-39, 833-35, 864-67; Peace 1210-64; Birds 1410-65 The Acharnians, Wikisource lines 910-58 By the time his last play was produced (around 386 BC), Athens had been defeated in war, its empire had been dismantled and it had undergone a transformation from the political to the intellectual centre of Greece. Aristophanes: Lysistrata, The Acharnians, The Clouds A.H.Sommerstein (ed), Penguin Books 1975, pp 13-14 Aristophanes was part of this transformation and he shared in the intellectual fashions of the period - the structure of his plays evolves from Old Comedy until, in his last, surviving play, Wealth II, it more closely resembles New Comedy. It is uncertain however whether he led or merely responded to changes in audience expectations. Aristophanes: The Frogs and Other Plays David Barrett (ed), Penguin Classics 1964, page 12 Aristophanes' won second prize at the City Dionysia in 427 BC with his first play The Banqueters (now lost). He won first prize there with his next play, The Babylonians (also now lost). It was usual for foreign dignitaries to attend the City Dionysia and The Babylonians caused some embarrassment for the Athenian authorities since it depicted the cities of the Athenian League as slaves grinding at a mill. 'Greek Drama' P.Levi in The Oxford History of the Classical World J.Boardman, J.Griffin, O.Murray (eds), Oxford University Press 1986, page 177 Some influential citizens, notably Cleon, subsequently sought to prosecute the young dramatist on a charge of slandering the polis. The details of the trial are unrecorded but, speaking through the hero of his third play The Acharnians (staged at the Lenaia, where there were few or no foreign dignitaries), he carefully distinguishes between the polis and the real targets of his acerbic wit: The Acharnians, Wikisource lines 515-17 People among us, and I don't mean the polis, Remember this - I don't mean the polis - But wicked little men of a counterfeit kind.... Aristophanes repeatedly savages Cleon in his later plays. These satirical diatribes however appear to have had no effect on Cleon's political career - a few weeks after the performance of The Knights, a play that is full of anti-Cleon jokes, Cleon was elected to the prestigious board of ten generals. The Birds and Other Plays by Aristophanes David Barrett and Alan Sommerstein (eds), Penguin Classics 2003, page 34 Equally, Cleon seems to have had no real power to limit or control Aristophanes since the caricatures of him continued up to and even beyond his death. In the absence of clear biographical facts about Aristophanes, scholars make educated guesses based on interpretation of the language in the plays. Inscriptions and summaries or comments by Hellenistic and Byzantine scholars can also provide useful clues. Comments made by the Chorus on behalf of Aristophanes in The Clouds Aristophanis Comoediae Tomus 1, F.W.Hall and W.M.Geldart (eds), Oxford Classical Texts, The Clouds lns 528-32 have been interpreted as evidence that he can have been hardly more than eighteen years old when his first play The Banqueters was produced. Aristophanes: Lysistrata, The Acharnians, The Clouds Alan Sommerstein (ed), Penguin Classics 1975, page 9 The second parabasis in Wasps Wasps Wikisource original Greek lines 1265-91 appears to indicate that he reached some kind of temporary accommodation with Cleon, possibly following his prosecution for The Babylonians or perhaps after a subsequent attack by Cleon in response to The Knights. Aristophanes:Wasps Douglas MacDowell (ed), Oxford University Press 1978, page 299 The hero in The Acharnians complains about Cleon "dragging me into court" over "last year's play" Acharnians Wikisource original Greek 377-82 and this could indicate that Aristophanes acted that part in the play's performance at The Lenaia. It has been inferred Aristophanes: The Frogs and Other Plays David Barrett (ed), Penguin Books 1964, page 9 from statements in The Clouds and Peace that Aristophanes was prematurely bald, Aristophanis Comoediae Tomus 1, F.W. Hall and W.M. Geldart (eds), Oxford Classical Texts, Clouds 540-45, Peace 767-74 and from statements in The Acharnians that he had some kind of close, personal association with the island of Aegina. The Acharnians Wikisource original Greek lns 652-54 We know from comments in The Knights<ref>Knights 512-14</ref> and The Clouds Clouds 530-33 that his first three plays were not produced in his own name. They were instead produced in the names of Callistratus and Philoneides, an arrangement that seemed to suit Aristophanes since Philoneides later produced The Frogs. Clouds Peter Meineck (translator) and Ian Storey (Introduction), Hackett Publishing 2000, page 15 We know that Aristophanes was probably victorious at least once at the City Dionysia (with Babylonians in 427) IG II2 2325. 58 and at least three times at the Lenaia, with Acharnians in 425, Knights in 424, and Frogs in 405. Frogs in fact won the unique distinction of a repeat performance at a subsequent festival. We know that a son of Aristophanes, Araros, was also a comic poet and he could have been heavily involved in the production of his father's play Wealth II in 388 Aristophanes, testimonium 1, lines 54-56, in Kassel-Austin, Poetae Comici Graeci vol. III.2 (Berlin 1984), p. 4. . Araros is also thought to have been responsible for the posthumous performances of the now lost plays Aeolosicon II and Cocalus, Aristophanes, Κώκαλος, testimonium iii, in Kassel-Austin, Poetae Comici Graeci vol. III.2 (Berlin 1984), p. 201. and it is possible that the last of these won the prize at the City Dionysia in 387. IG II2 2318. 196 It appears that a second son, Philippus, was twice victorious at the Lenaia IG II2 2325. 140 and he could have produced some of Eubulus’ comedies. Eubulus, testimonium 4, in Kassel-Austin, Poetae Comici Graeci vol. V (Berlin 1986), p. 188. A third son was called either Nicostratus or Philetaerus, Clouds Peter Meineck (translator) and Ian Storey (Introduction), Hackett Publishing 2000, page XVIII and a man by the latter name appears in the catalogue of Lenaia victors with two victories, the first probably in the late 370s. IG II2 2325. 143 (just after Anaxandrides and just before Eubulus) Plato's The Symposium appears to be a useful source of biographical information about Aristophanes yet the reliability of the information is open to debate. Aristophanes:Clouds K.J.Dover (ed), Oxford University Press 1970, Intro. page IX note 1. 'The Symposium' purports to be a record of conversations at a dinner party at which both Aristophanes and Socrates are guests. The party is supposed to have occurred some seven years after the performance of The Clouds (the play in which Socrates was cruelly caricatured) and yet there is no indication of any ill-feeling between the dramatist and the philosopher. Plato's Aristophanes is in fact a genial character and this has been interpreted as evidence of Plato's own friendship with him Aristophanes: Lysistrata, The Acharnians, The Clouds Alan Sommerstein (ed), Penguin Books 1973, page10 (their friendship appears to be corroborated by an epitaph for Aristophanes, reputedly written by Plato, in which the playwright's soul is compared to an eternal shrine for the Graces). The Birds and Other Plays David Barrett and Alan Sommerstein (eds), Penguin Classics 2003, page10 Plato was only a boy when the events in The Symposium are supposed to have occurred and it is possible that his Aristophanes is in fact based on a reading of the plays. For example, conversation among the guests turns to the subject of Love and Aristophanes explains his notion of it in terms of an amusing allegory, a device he often uses in his plays. He is represented as suffering an attack of hiccoughs and this might be a humorous reference to the crude physical jokes in his plays. He tells the other guests that he is quite happy to be thought amusing but he is wary of appearing ridiculous. The Symposium original Greek text: section 189b The Symposium (English translation) Benjamin Jowett (scroll half way down). This fear of being ridiculed is consistent with his declaration in The Knights that he embarked on a career of comic playwright warily after witnessing the public contempt and ridicule that other dramatists had incurred. Aristophanis Comoediae Tomus 1, F.W.Hall and W.M.Geldart (eds), Knights ln 507-550 The fact that Arristophanes survived The Peloponnesian War, two oligarchic revolutions and two democratic restorations has been interpreted as evidence that he was not actively involved in politics even in spite of the highly political stance of the plays. Aristophanes: Clouds K.J. Dover (ed), Oxford University Press 1970, Introduction page IX He was probably appointed to the Council of Five Hundred for a year at the beginning of the fourth century but such appointments were very common in democratic Athens. Aristophanes: The Birds and Other Plays D. Barrett and A. Sommerstein (eds),Penguin Classics 2003, page 7 Socrates, in the trial leading up to his own death, put the issue of a personal conscience in those troubled times quite succinctly: Wikisource, Plato's Apology, John Burnet (ed) section 32a "...he who will really fight for the right, if he would live even for a little while, must have a private station and not a public one. Plato's Apology, Benjamin Jowett (trans) (section23). Aristophanes the poet The language in Aristophanes' plays, and in Old Comedy generally, was valued by ancient commentators for its exemplification of the Attic dialect. The orator Quintilian believed that the charm and grandeur of the Attic dialect made Old Comedy a model for orators to study and follow, and he considered it inferior in this respect only to the works of Homer. The Orator's Training Quintilian 10.1.65-6, cited in The Birds and Other Plays by Aristophanes David Barrett and Alan Sommersteinn (eds), Penguin Classics 2003, page 15 A revival of interest in the Attic dialect appears in fact to have been largely responsible for the recovery and circulation of Aristophanes' plays during the 4th and 5th Centuries AD, resulting in their survival today. In Aristophanes' plays, the Attic dialect is couched in verse and his plays can be appreciated for their poetic qualities. For Aristophanes' contemporaries the works of Homer and Hesiod were as instructive as The Bible has become for many Greeks today. Poetry therefore had a moral and social significance that made it an inevitable topic of comic satire. The Frogs and Other Plays David Barrett (ed), Penguin Classics 1964, pages 151-52 Aristophanes was very conscious of literary fashions and traditions and his plays feature numerous references to other poets. These not only include rival comic dramatists such as Eupolis and Hermippus Aristophanis Comoediae Tomus 1, F.W.Hall and W.M.Geldart (eds), Oxford Classical Texts, Clouds lns 553-54 and predecessors such as Magnes, Crates and Cratinus, Aristophanis Comoediae Tomus 1, F.W. Hall and W.M. Geldart (eds), Oxford Classical Texts, Knights lns 519-40 but also tragedians, notably Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides, all three of whom for instance are mentioned in The Frogs. Aristophanes was the equal of these great tragedians in his subtle use of lyrics. The Frogs and Other Plays David Barrett, Penguin Classics 1964, page 30 He appears to have modelled his approach to language on that of Euripides in particular, so much so that the comic dramatist Cratinus labelled him a 'Euripidaristophanist' addicted to hair-splitting niceties. The Birds and Other Plays by Aristophanes David Barrett and Alan Sommerstein (eds), Penguin Classics 2003, page 9 A full appreciation of Aristophanes plays requires an understanding of the poetic forms he employed with virtuoso skill, which are appreciable through their different rhythms and associations. Aristophanes Wasps Douglas MacDowell (ed), Oxford University Press 1978, page 21 These can be defined in general terms according to three kinds, Birds and Other Plays David Barrett and Alan Sommerstein (eds), Penguin Classics 2003, pages 7-8 as indicated below: Iambic dialogue: Aristophanes achieves an effect resembling natural speech through the use of the six-foot iambic trimeter (corresponding to the effects achieved by English poets such as Shakespeare using iambic pentametre). His realistic use of the metre Birds and Other Plays David Barrett and Alan Sommerstein (eds), Penguin Classics 2003, page 27; Aristophanes Wasps Douglas MacDowell (ed), Oxford University Press 1978, page 16 makes it ideal for both dialogue and soliloquy, as for instance in the prologue, before the arrival of the Chorus, when the audience is introduced to the main issues in the plot. The Acharnians opens with these three lines by the hero, Dikaiopolis: How many are the things that vex my heart! Pleasures are few, so very few - just four - But stressful things are manysandthousandsandheaps! Original Greek, Wikisource The Acharnians lines 1-3 Here Aristophanes employs a frequent device, arranging the syntax so that the final word in a line comes as a comic climax. Aristophanes Wasps Douglas MacDowell (ed), Oxford University Press 1978, page17 The hero's pleasures are so few he can number them (, four) but his causes for complaint are so many they beggar numerical description and he must invent his own word for them (, literally 'sandhundredheaps', here paraphrased 'manysandthousandsandheaps'). The use of invented compound words is another comic device frequently found in the plays. Aristophanes Wasps Douglas MacDowell (ed), Oxford University Press 1978, page13; Aristophanes:Lysistrata, The Acharnians, The Clouds Alan Sommerstein, Penguin Classics 1973, page 37 Tetrameter verses: These are long lines of anapests, trochees or iambs (rarely dactyls) in 7 or 8 metrical feet known as tetrameters, used in various situations within each play, such as: formal debates or agons between characters (typically in anapestic rhythm); excited dialogue or heated argument (typically trochaic rhythm, the same as in early tragedy); long speeches declaimed by the Chorus in parabases (in either anapestic or trochaic rhythms); informal debates barely above the level of ordinary dialogue (typically iambic). Anapestic rhythms are naturally jaunty (as in many limericks) and trochaic metre is suited to rapid delivery (the word 'trochee' is in fact derived from trechein, 'to run', as demonstrated for example by choruses who enter at speed, often in aggressive mood) L.P.E. Parker, The Songs of Aristophanes, Oxford, 1997, p. 36 However, even though both these rhythms can seem to 'bowl along' Birds and Other Plays David Barrett and Alan Sommerstein (eds), Penguin Classics 2003, page 27 Aristophanes often varies them through use of complex syntax and substituted metres, adapting the rhythms to the requirements of serious argument. In an anapestic passage in The Frogs, for instance, the character Aeschylus presents a view of poetry that is supposed to be serious but which leads to a comic interruption by the god, Dionysus: AES.:It was Orpheus singing who taught us religion and how wrong people are when they kill, And we learned from Musaeus medicinal cures and the science of divination. If it's farming you want, Hesiod knows it all, when to plant, when to harvest. How godlike Homer got to be famous, I'll tell if you ask: he taught us what all good men should know, Discipline, fortitude, battle-readiness. DIO.: But no-one taught Pantacles - yesterday He was marching his men up and down on parade when the crest of his helmet fell off! Aristophanis Comoediae Tomus 2, F.W.Hall and W.M.Geldart (eds), Oxford Classical Texts, Frogs lns 1032-38 The length of the verses naturally enforces a pause in the middle, indicated here by a break in the lines. The rhythm begins at a typical anapestic gallop, slows down to consider the revered poets Hesiod and Homer, then gallops off again to its comic conclusion at the expense of the unfortunate Pantocles. Such subtle variations in rhythm are common in the plays, allowing for serious points to be made while still whetting the audience's appetite for the next joke. Lyrics: Almost nothing is known about the music that accompanied Greek lyrics and the metre is often so varied and complex that it is difficult for modern readers or audiences to get a feel for the intended effects, yet Aristophanes still impresses with the charm and simplicity of his lyrics. Birds and Other Plays David Barrett and Alan Sommerstein (eds), Penguin Classics 2003, page 27 Some of the most memorable and haunting lyrics are dignified hymns set free of the comic action Greek Drama, Peter Levi, in The Oxford History of the Classical World edited by J. Boardman, J. Griffin and O. Murray, Oxford University Press 1986, page 175 In the example below, taken from The Wasps, the lyric is merely a comic interlude and the rhythm is steadily trochaic. The syntax in the original Greek is natural and unforced and it was probably accompanied by brisk and cheerful music, gliding to a concluding pun at the expense of Amynias, who is thought to have lost his fortune gambling. Aristophanes Wasps Douglas MacDowell (ed), Oxford University Press 1978, page 27 Though to myself I often seem A bright chap and not awkward, None comes close to Amynias, Son of Sellos of the Bigwig Clan, a man I once saw Dine with rich Leogorus. Now as poor as Antiphon, He lives on apples and pomegranates Yet he got himself appointed Ambassador to Pharselus, Way up there in Thessaly, Home of the poor Penestes: Happy to be where everyone Is as penniless as he is! Aristophanes Wasps Douglas MacDowell, Oxford University Press 1978, lines 1265-74: Wikisource: The pun here in English translation (Penestes-penniless) is a weak version of the Greek pun . Many of the puns in the plays are in fact weak puns based on words that are similar rather than identical and it has been observed that there could in fact be more of them than Scholars have yet been able to identify. Birds and Other Plays David Barrett and Alan Sommerstein (eds), Penguin Classics 2003, page 21 Sometimes entire scenes are constructed on puns, as is the case in The Acharnians with the Megarian farmer and his pigs. The Acharnians Wikisource original Greek lns 729-835 It can be argued that the most important feature of the language of the plays is imagery, particularly the use of similes, metaphors and pictorial expressions. Aristophanes Wasps Douglas MacDowell, Oxford University Press 1978, page 17 In 'The Knights' for example the ears of a character with selective hearing are represented as parasols that open and close. Aristophanis Comoediae Tomus 1, F.W. Hall and W.M. Geldart (eds), Oxford Classical Texts, Knights lns 1347-48; In The Frogs, Aeschylus is said to compose verses in the manner of a horse rolling in a sandpit. The Frogs lines 902-4 Some plays feature revelations of human perfectibility that are poetic rather than religious in character, such as the marriage of the hero Pisthetairos to Zeus's paramour in The Birds and the 'recreation' of 'old' Athens, crowned with violets, at the end of The Knights. Aristophanes and Old Comedy The Greek word for 'comedy' (komoidia) derives from the words for 'revel' and 'song' (komos and ode) and according to Aristotle The Poetics 1449a11, Wikisource English translation section IV comic drama actually developed from song. The first, official comedy was not staged at the City Dionysia until 487/6 BC, Clouds translated by Peter Meineck with introduction by Ian Storey, Hackett Publishing 2000, page IX by which time tragedy had already been long established there. The first comedy was staged at the Lenaia later still, ibid page XIX just some twenty years before the performance there of The Acharnians, the first of Aristophanes' surviving plays. According to Aristotle, comedy was slow to gain official acceptance because nobody took it seriously The Poetics 1448b38 - 1449b, Wikisource English translation section V yet, only sixty years after comedy first appeared at 'The City Dionysia', Aristophanes observed that producing comedies was the most difficult work of all. Aristophanis Comoediae Tomus 1, F.W. Hall and W.M. Geldart (eds), Oxford Classical Texts, Knights ln 516 Competition at the Dionysian festivals required the existence of dramatic conventions for plays to be judged yet it also fuelled innovations. Aristophanes:The Frogs and Other Plays David Barrett, Penguin Classics 1964, page 12 Developments were quite rapid, such that Aristotle was able to distinguish between 'old' and 'new' comedy by 330 BC. Nichomachean Ethics 1128a 21-24 The trend from Old Comedy to New Comedy involved a trend away from a highly topical emphasis on real individuals and local issues towards a less critical approach featuring generalized situations and stock characters. The trend was due in part to the internationalizing of cultural perspectives during and after The Peloponnesian War. Aristophanes D. Slavitt and P. Bovie (eds), University of Pennsylvania Press 1999, page XIV Clouds translated by P. Meineck with introduction by I. Storey, Hackett Publishing 2000, page VIII For ancient commentators such as Plutarch, Comparison of Aristophanes and Menander the development of New Comedy represented increased sophistication yet Old Comedy was in fact a complex and sophisticated art form incorporating many approaches to humour and entertainment. Clouds translated by P.Meineck with introduction by I.Storey, Hackett Publishing 2000, page VII In Aristophanes' early plays, the genre appears to have developed around a complex set of dramatic conventions and these were only gradually simplified and abandoned. Both the City Dionysia and the Lenaia were celebrated in honour of Dionysus, a god who represented Man's darker nature (Euripides' play The Bacchae offers the best insight into the Fifth Century ideas about this god). Clouds P.Meineck (translator) and I.Storey (Introduction), Hackett Publishing 2000, page VIII Old Comedy was a celebration of the exuberant sense of release inherent in his worship Clouds P.Meineck (translator) and I.Storey (Introduction), Hackett Publishing 2000, page XIX and it was more interested in finding targets for satire than in advocating any line of policy. Greek Society Antony Andrewes, Pelican Books 1981, page 247 In the City Dionysia, a statue of the god was brought to the theatre from a temple outside the city and it remained in the theatre throughout the festival, overseeing the plays like a privileged member of the audience. Aristophanes: Lysistrata, The Acharnians, The Clouds A.Sommerstein, Penguin Classics 1975, page 18 In Aristophanes' play The Frogs, the god becomes a character and he enters the theatre ludicrously disguized as Hercules. He observes to the audience that, every time he is on hand to hear a joke from a comic dramatist like Phrynichus (one of Aristophanes' rivals), he ages by more than a year. Frogs Wikisource English translation ; original Greek text lines 12-18 The scene opens the play and it is a reminder to the audience that almost nobody is above mockery in Old Comedy - not even its patron god or its practitioners! Gods, artists, politicians and even ordinary citizens were legitimate targets, comedy was a kind of licensed buffoonery Greek Society Antony Andrewes, Pelican Books 1981, page 248 and there was no legal redress for anyone who was slandered in a play. Aristophanes: The Frogs and Other Plays David Barrett, Penguin Classics 1964, page 27 There were some limits on the scope of the satire but they are not easily defined. Impiety could be punished in Fifth Century BC Athens but absurdities implicit in traditional religion were open to ridicule. Aristophanes:Lysistrata, The Acharnians, Clouds A. Sommerstein, Penguin Classics 1975, page 17 The polis was not allowed to be slandered but, as stated in the biography, that could depend on who was in the audience and which festival was involved. For convenience, Old Comedy, as represented by Aristophanes' early plays, is analysed here in terms of three broad characteristics - topicality, festivity and complexity. Dramatic structure contributes to the complexity of Aristophanes' plays. However it is associated with poetic rhythms and meters that have little relevance to English translations and it is therefore treated separately. Topicality Old Comedy's emphasis on real personalities and local issues makes the plays difficult to comprehend today without the aid of scholarly commentaries. For a typical list of such topical references, see for example articles on The Knights, The Wasps and Peace. The topical emphasis had some unique consequences both for the writing and the production of plays in ancient Athens. Individual masks: All actors in classical Athens wore masks but, whereas in tragedy and New Comedy, these identified stereotypical characters, in Old Comedy the masks were often caricatures of real people. It is possible that Socrates attracted an unusual amount of attention in Old Comedy because his distinct face lent itself easily to caricature by mask-makers. Aristophanes: Lysistrata, The Acharnians, Clouds A. Sommerstein, Penguin Classics 1975, page 31 In The Knights we are told that the mask makers were too afraid to make a caricature of Cleon (there represented as a Paphlagonian slave) but we are also assured that the audience is clever enough to identify him anyway. Knights lines 230-33 The real scene of action: Since Old Comedy makes numerous references to people in the audience, the theatre itself was the real scene of action and theatrical illusion was treated as something of a joke. In The Acharnians, for example, The Pnyx is just a few steps from the hero's front door, and in Peace Olympia is separated from Athens by a few moments' supposed flight on a dung beetle. The audience is sometimes drawn or even dragged into the action. When the hero in Peace returns to Athens from his flight to Olympia, he tells the audience that they looked like rascals when seen from the heavens and, seen up close, they look even worse. Peace 821-23 . In The Acharnians the hero confronts the archon basileus, The Acharnians Wikisource original Greek lines 1224-25 sitting in the front row, and demands to be awarded first prize for a drinking competition, which is a none too subtle way for Aristophanes to request first prize for the drama competition. Self-mocking theatre: Frequent parodying of tragedy is an aspect of Old Comedy that modern audiences find difficult to understand yet the Lenaia and City Dionysia included performances of both comedies and tragedies and thus references to tragedy were highly topical and immediately relevant to the original audience. "Greek Drama" Peter Levi in The Oxford History of the Classical World J.Boardman, J. Griffin and O. Murray (eds), Oxford University Press 1986, page 176 The comic dramatist also poked fun at comic poets and he even ridiculed himself. It is possible, as indicated earlier, that Aristophanes mocked his own baldness. In The Clouds, the Chorus compares him to an unwed, young mother Clouds lines 528-33 and in The Acharnians the Chorus mockingly depicts him as Athen's greatest weapon in the war against Sparta. Acharnians lines 646-51 Political theatre: The Lenaia and City Dionysus were state-sponsored, religious festivals and, though the latter was the more prestigious of the two, both were occasions for official pomp and circumstance. The ceremonies for the Lenaia were overseen by the archon basileus and by officials of the Eleusinian mysteries. The City Dionysia was overseen by the archon eponymous and the priest of Dionysus. Opening ceremonies for the City Dionysia featured, in addition to the ceremonial arrival of the god, a parade in full armour of the sons of warriors who died fighting for the polis and, up until the end of the Peloponnesian War, a presentation of annual tribute from subject states. Aristophanes:Lysistrata, The Acharnians, The Clouds A.Sommerstein, Penguin Classics 1973, pages 18-19 Religious and political issues were topics that could hardly be ignored in such a setting and the plays often treat them quite seriously. Knights, for example, is chiefly notable for its unremitting jokes at Cleon's expense yet it includes simple hymns invoking Poseidon and Athena, Knights lines 551-64 and 581-594 and it ends with visions of a miraculously transformed Demos (i.e. the morally reformed citizenry of Athens). Knights lines 1321-38 Imaginative visions of a return to peaceful activities resulting from peace with Sparta, e.g. Peace lines 551-97 and a plea for leniency for citizens suspected of complicity in an oligarchic revolt Frogs lines 686-705 are other examples of a serious purpose behind the plays. Even jokes can be serious when the topic is politics, especially at a time of war. The butt of the most savage jokes are opportunists who prey on the gullibility of their fellow citizens, including oracle-mongers, e.g. Knights lines 997-1095; Birds lines 959-91 the exponents of new religious practices, e.g. Clouds lines 263-66, Frogs lines 891-94 war-profiteers and political fanatics. In The Acharnians, for example, Lamachus is represented as a crazed militarist whose preparations for war are put in hilarious relief to the hero's preparations for a dinner party. Acharnians lines 1097-1142 lines Cleon emerges from numerous similes and metaphors in the The Knights as a protean form of comic evil, clinging to political power by every possible means for as long as he can. Teasing and taunting: A festival audience presented the comic dramatist with a wide range of targets, not just political or religious ones - anyone known to the audience could be mocked for any reason, such as diseases, physical deformities, ugliness, family misfortunes, bad manners, perversions, dishonesty, cowardice in battle, and clumsiness. Aristophanes: Clouds K.J. Dover (ed), Oxford University Press 1970, pages XIII-XIV Foreigners, a conspicuous presence in imperial Athens, particularly at the City Dionysia, often figure in the plays as people who comically mispronounce Attic words - these include Spartans (Lysistrata), Scythians (Thesmophoriazusae), Persians, Boeotians and Megarians (The Acharnians). Festivity The Lenaia and City Dionysia were religious festivals but, in classical Athens, they resembled a gala rather than a church service. Aristophanes: Clouds K.J. Dover, Oxford University Press 1970, page XV Dirty jokes: A relaxation in standards of behaviour was permitted and the holiday spirit included bawdy irreverence towards both men and gods. "Greek Drama" Peter Levi in The Oxford History of the Classical World, Oxford University Press 1986, page 175 Old Comedy is rich in obscenities and the crude jokes are often very detailed, as when the Chorus in The Acharnians places a curse on Antimachus, The Acharnians Wikisource original Greek lines 1164-73 a choregus accused of niggardly conduct, wishing upon him a night-time mugging as he returns home from some drunken party and envisioning him, as he stoops down to pick up a rock in the darkness, accidentally picking up a fresh turd instead. He is then envisioned hurling the turd at his attacker, missing and accidentally hitting Cratinus, a lyric poet not admired by Aristophanes. Aristophanes: Lysistrata, The Acharnians, The Clouds A. Sommerstein, Penguin Classics, pages 243-4, notes 69,80,81 What makes this curse particularly funny is the fact that it was sung (or chanted) in choreographed style by a Chorus of 24 grown men and, in the original performance, these were amateurs known to the audience as responsible citizens. The Broadway Musical: The Chorus was vital to the success of a play in Old Comedy long after it had lost its relevance for tragedy. Aristophanes: The Frogs and Other Plays David Barrett, Penguin Classics 1964, pages 14-15 Technically, the competition in the dramatic festivals was not between poets but between choruses. Aristophanes: Lysistrata, The Acharnians, The Clouds A. Sommerstein, Penguin Classics, page 23 In fact eight of Aristophanes' eleven surviving plays are named after the Chorus. In Aristophanes' time, the Chorus in tragedy was relatively small (twelve members) and its role had been reduced to that of an awkwardly placed commentator, but in Old Comedy the Chorus was large (numbering twenty-four), it was actively involved in the plot, its entry into the action was frequently spectacular, its movements were practised with military precision and sometimes it was involved in choreographed skirmishes with the actors. The Acharnians lines 280-301 Wikisource original Greek ; Knights lines 247-72; Wasps lines 452-460 Wikisource original Greek The expenditure on costumes, training and maintenance of a Chorus was considerable, Aristophanes: The Frogs and Other Plays David Barrett, Penguin Classics 1964, page 9 and it is possible that many people in the original audience enjoyed comedy mainly for the spectacle and music. Aristophanes: Wasps Douglas MacDowell (ed), Oxford University Press 1978, page 14-15 The chorus gradually lost its significance as New Comedy began to develop. Obvious costumes: Consistent with the holiday spirit, much of the humour in Old Comedy is slapstick buffoonery that doesn't require the audience's careful attention, often relying on visual cues. Actors playing male roles appear to have worn tights over grotesque padding, with a prodigious, leather phallus barely concealed by a short tunic. Female characters were played by men but were easily recognized in long, saffron tunics. Aristophanes: Lysistrata, The Acharnians, The Clouds A. Sommerstein, Penguin Classics, page 29 Sometimes the visual cues are deliberately confused for comic effect, as in The Frogs, where Dionysus arrives on stage in a saffron tunic, the buskin boots of a tragic actor and a lion skin cloak that usually characterized Heracles - an outfit that provokes the latter (as no doubt it provoked the audience) to guffaws of helpless mirth. Frogs lines 45-47 The farcical anti-climax: The holiday spirit might also have been responsible for an aspect of the comic plot that can seem bewildering to modern audiences. The major confrontation (agon) between the 'good' and 'bad' characters in a play is often resolved decisively in favour of the former long before the end of the play. The rest of the play deals with farcical consequences in a succession of loosely connected scenes. The farcical anti-climax has been explained in a variety of ways, depending on the particular play. In The Wasps, for instance, it has been thought to indicate a gradual change in the main character's perspective as the lessons of the agon are slowly absorbed. Aristophanes: Wasps Douglas MacDowell, Oxford University Press 1978, page 7 In The Acharnians, it has been explained in terms of a unifying theme that underlies the episodes, demonstrating the practical benefits that come with wisdom. Aristophanes: Lysistrata, The Acharnians, The Clouds A. Sommerstein, Penguin Classics, pages 33-34 But the early release of dramatic tension is consistent with the holiday meanings in Old Comedy Aristophanes' Old-and-new Comedy Kenneth J.Reckford, UNC Press 1987, page 15 and it allows the audience to relax in uncomplicated enjoyment of the spectacle, the music, jokes and celebrations that characterize the remainder of the play. The celebration of the hero's victory often concludes in a sexual conquest and sometimes it takes the form of a wedding, thus providing the action with a joyous sense of closure. Aristophanes: The Frogs and Other Plays David Barrett, Penguin Classics 1964, pages 13-14 Complexity The development of New Comedy involved a trend towards more realistic plots, a simpler dramatic structure and a softer tone. Aristophanes D. Slavitt and P. Bovie (eds), University of Pennsylvania Press 1999, page XIII Old Comedy was the comedy of a vigorously democratic polis at the height of its power and it gave Aristophanes the freedom to explore the limits of humour, even to the point of undermining the humour itself. Aristophanes and the Definition of Comedy M.S.Silk, Oxford University Press 2002, page 418 Inclusive comedy: Old Comedy provided a variety of entertainments for a diverse audience. It accommodated a serious purpose, light entertainment, hauntingly beautiful lyrics, the buffoonery of puns and invented words, obscenities, disciplined verse, wildly absurd plots and a formal, dramatic structure. The resourceful hero: In Aristophanic comedy, the hero is an independent-minded and self-reliant individual. He has something of the ingenuity of Homer's Odysseus and much of the shrewdness of the farmer idealized in Hesiod's Works and Days, subjected to corrupt leaders and unreliable neighbours. Typically he devises a complicated and highly fanciful escape from an intolerable situation. Clouds Peter Meineck (translator) and Ian Storey (Introduction), Hackett Publishing 2000, page VIII Thus Dikaiopolis in The Acharnians contrives a private peace treaty with the Spartans; Bdelucleon in The Wasps turns his own house into a private law court in order to keep his jury-addicted father safely at home; Trygaeus in Peace flies to Olympus on a giant dung beetle to obtain an end to the Peloponnesian War; Pisthetairus in Birds sets off to establish his own colony and becomes instead the ruler of the bird kingdom and a rival to the gods. Logical absurdities: Fantasy in Old Comedy is unrestricted and impossibilities are ignored Aristophanes: Clouds K.J.Dover, Oxford University Press 1970, page XIII Situations are developed logically to absurd conclusions, an approach to humour that is echoed for instance in the works of Lewis Carroll and Eugene Ionesco (the Theatre of the Absurd). Aristophanes: Wasps Douglas MacDowell, Oxford University Press 1978, page 12 The crazy costume worn by Dionysus in The Frogs is typical of an absurd result obtained on logical grounds - he wears a woman's saffron-coloured tunic because effeminacy is an aspect of his divinity, buskin boots because he is interested in reviving the art of tragedy, and a lion skin cape because, like Heracles, his mission leads him into Hades. Absurdities develop logically from initial premises in a plot. In The Knights for instance, Cleon's corrupt service to the people of Athens is originally depicted as a household relationship in which the slave dupes his master. The introduction of a rival, who is not a member of the household, leads to an absurd shift in the metaphor, so that Cleon and his rival become erastai competing for the affections of an eromenos, hawkers of oracles competing for the attention of a credulous public, athletes in a race for approval and orators competing for the popular vote. The resourceful cast: The numerous surprising developments in an Aristophanic plot, the changes in scene, and the farcical comings and goings of minor characters towards the end of a play, were managed according to theatrical convention with only three principal actors (a fourth actor, often the leader of the chorus, was permitted to deliver short speeches). Aristophanes: The Frogs and other Plays David Barrett (ed), Penguin Classics 1964, page 17 Songs and addresses to the audience by the Chorus gave the actors much-needed time off-stage to draw breath and to prepare for changes in scene. Complex structure: The action of an Aristophanic play obeyed a crazy logic of its own and yet it always unfolded within a highly formal, dramatic structure that was repeated with minor variations from one play to another. The different, structural elements are associated with different poetic meters and rhythms and these are generally lost in English translations. Dramatic structure The structural elements of a typical Aristophanic plot can be summarized as follows: prologue - an introductory scene with a dialogue and/or soliloquy addressed to the audience, expressed in iambic trimeter and explaining the situation that is to be resolved in the play; parodos - the arrival of the chorus, dancing and singing, sometimes followed by a choreographed skirmish with one or more actors, often expressed in tetrameters; parabasis - verses through which the Chorus addresses the audience directly, firstly in the middle of the play and again near the end (see the section below Parabasis); agon - a formal debate that decides the outcome of the play, typically in anapestic tetrameter, though iambs are sometimes used to delineate inferior arguments; Aristophanes:Wasps D.MacDowell (ed.), Oxford University Press 1971, page 207 note 546-630 symmetrical scenes - passages featuring songs and declaimed verses in tetrameters, arranged symmetrically in two sections such that each half resembles the other in meter and line length; the agon and parabasis can be considered specific instances of symmetrical scenes; episodes - sections of dialogue in iambic trimeter, often in a succession of scenes featuring minor characters towards the end of a play; songs ('strophes'/'antistrophes' or 'odes'/'antodes') - often in symmetrical pairs where each half has the same meter and number of lines as the other, used as transitions between other structural elements, or between scenes while actors change costume, and often commenting on the action; exodus - the departure of the Chorus and the actors, in song and dance celebrating the hero's victory and sometimes celebrating a symbolic marriage. The rules of competition did not prevent a playwright arranging and adjusting these elements to suit his particular needs. Aristophanes: Lysistrata, The Acharnians, The Clouds A. Sommerstein, Penguin Classics 1975, page 27 In The Acharnians, for example, there is no formal agon whereas in The Clouds there are two agons. Parabasis The parabasis is an address to the audience by the Chorus and/or the leader of the Chorus while the actors are leaving or have left the stage. The Chorus in this role speaks sometimes out of character, as the author's mouthpiece, and sometimes in character, but very often it isn't easy to distinguish its two roles. Generally the parabasis occurs somewhere in the middle of a play and often there is a second parabasis towards the end. The elements of a parabasis have been defined and named by scholars but it is probable that Aristophanes' own understanding was less formal. Aristophanes: Wasps Dougles MacDowell, Oxford University Press 1978, page 261 The selection of elements can vary from play to play and it varies considerably within plays between first and second parabasis. The early plays (The Acharnians to The Birds) are fairly uniform in their approach however and the following elements of a parabasis can be found within them. kommation: This is a brief prelude, comprising short lines and often including a valediction to the departing actors, such as (Go rejoicing!). parabasis proper: This is a usually a defense of the author's work and it includes criticism of the audience's attitude. It is declaimed in long lines of 'anapestic tetrameters'. Aristophanes himself refers to the parabasis proper only as 'anapests'. pnigos: Sometimes known as 'a choker', it comprises a few short lines appended to the parabasis proper as a kind of rapid patter (it has been suggested that some of the effects achieved in a pnigos can be heard in "The Lord Chancellor's Nightmare Song", in act 2 of Gilbert and Sullivan's Iolanthe). Aristophanes Wasps Douglas MacDowell (ed), Oxford University Press 1978, page 27 epirrhematic syzygies: These are symmetrical scenes that mirror each other in meter and number of lines. They form part of the first parabasis and they often comprise the entire second parabasis. They are characterized by the following elements:strophe or ode: These are lyrics in a variety of meters, sung by the Chorus in the first parabasis as an invocation to the gods and as a comic interlude in the second parabasis.epirrhema: These are usually long lines of trochaic tetrameters. Broadly political in their significance, they were probably spoken by the leader of the Chorus in character. Aristophanes: Clouds K.J. Dover (ed), Oxford University Press 1970, page 126 antistrophe or antode: These are songs that mirror the strophe/ode in meter, length and function. antepirrhema. This is another declaimed passage and it mirrors the epirrhema in meter, length and function. The Wasps is thought to offer the best example of a conventional approach Aristophanes:Wasps Douglas M.MacDowell, Oxford University Press 1978, note 1283 page 298 and the elements of a parabasis can be identified and located in that play as follows. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto; background-color: #ffffff" ! Elements in The Wasps! 1st parabasis ! 2nd parabasis |- | kommation | lines 1009-14 | --- |- | parabasis proper | lines 1015-50 | --- |- | pnigos | lines 1051-59 | --- |- | strophe | lines 1060-70 | lines 1265-74 |- | epirrhema | lines 1071-90 | lines 1275-83 |- | antistrophe | lines 1091-1101 | missing |- | antepirrhema | lines 1102-1121 | lines 1284-91 |} Textual corruption is probably the reason for the absence of the antistrophe in the second parabasis. Aristophanes Wasps Douglas MacDowell (ed), Oxford University Press 1978, pages 298-99 However, there are several variations from the ideal even within the early plays. For example, the parabasis proper in The Clouds (lines 518-62) is composed in eupolidean meter rather than in anapests Aristophanes:Clouds K.J.Dover, Oxford University Press 1970, page 119 note 518-62 and the second parabasis includes a kommation but it lacks strophe, antistrophe and antepirrhema (The Clouds lines 1113-30). The second parabasis in The Acharnians lines 971-99 can be considered a hybrid parabasis/song (i.e. the declaimed sections are merely continuations of the strophe and antistrophe) Comedy E.Handley in 'The Cambridge History of Classical Literature I' P.Easterling, R. MacGregor Walker Knox, E.Kenney (eds), page 360 and, unlike the typical parabasis, it seems to comment on actions that occur on stage during the address. An understanding of Old Comedy conventions such as the parabasis is necessary for a proper understanding of Aristophanes' plays; on the other hand, a sensitive appreciation of the plays is necessary for a proper understanding of the conventions. Influence and legacy The tragic dramatists, Sophocles and Euripides, died near the end of the Peloponnesian War and the art of tragedy thereafter ceased to develop, yet comedy did continue to develop after the defeat of Athens and it is possible that it did so because, in Aristophanes, it had a master craftsman who lived long enough to help usher it into a new age. "Greek Drama" Peter Levi, in The Oxford History of the Classical World J. Boardman, J. Griffin and O. Murray (eds), Oxford University Press 1986, page 176 Aristophanes seems to have had some appreciation of his formative role in the development of comedy, as indicated by his comment in Clouds that his audience would be judged by other times according to its reception of his plays. Clouds lines 560-62 Clouds was awarded third (i.e. last) place after its original performance and the text that has come down to the modern age was a subsequent draft that Aristophanes intended to be read rather than acted. Aristophanes: Clouds K.J.Dover, Oxford University Press 1970, pages XXIX-XXX The circulation of his plays in manuscript extended their influence beyond the original audience, over whom in fact they seem to have had no practical influence at all. The plays did not affect the career of Cleon, they failed to persuade the Athenians to pursue an honourable peace with Sparta and they were not instrumental in the trial and execution of Socrates, whose death probably resulted from public animosity towards the philosopher's disgraced associates (such as Alcibiades), Aristophanes: Clouds K.J. Dover, Oxford University Press 1970, pages XIV-XV exacerbated of course by his own intransigence during the trial. Plato's Apology, Benjamin Jowett (trans), Wikisource copy: (section 33) The plays, in manuscript form, have been put to some surprising uses - as indicated earlier, they were used in the study of rhetoric on the recommendation of Quintilian and by students of the Attic dialect in the Fourth and Fifth Centuries AD. It is possible that Plato sent copies of the plays to Dionysius of Syracuse so that he might learn about Athenian life and government. Clouds Peter Meineck (translator) and Ian Storey (Introduction), Hackett Publishing 2000, page X Latin translations of the plays by Andreas Divus (Venice 1528) were circulated widely throughout Europe in the Rennaissance and these were soon followed by translations and adaptations in modern languages. Racine, for example, drew Les Plaideurs (1668) from The Wasps. Goethe (who turned to Aristophanes for a warmer and more vivid form of comedy than he could derive from readings of Terence and Plautus) adapted a short play Die Vogel from The Birds for performance in Weimar. Aristophanes has appealed to both conservatives and radicals in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries - Anatoly Lunacharsky, first Commissar of Enlightenment for the USSR in 1917, declared that the ancient dramatist would have a permanent place in proletarian theatre and yet Prussian intellectuals interpreted Aristophanes as a satirical opponent of social reform.. Aristophanes in Performance 421 BC-AD 2007:Peace, Birds and Frogs Edith Hall and Amanda Wrigley, Legenda (Oxford) 2007, pages 9-12 The avant-gardist stage-director Karolos Koun directed a version of The Birds under the Acroplis in 1959 that established a trend in modern Greek history of breaking taboos through the voice of Aristophanes. Politics and Aristophanes: watchword Caution! by Gonda Van Steen in 'The Cambridge Companion to Greek and Roman Theatre' Marianne McDonald and J.Michael Walton (eds) , Cambridge University Press 2007, page 109 The plays have a significance that goes beyond their artistic function, as historical documents that open the window on life and politics in classical Athens, in which respect they are perhaps as important as the writings of Thucydides. The artistic influence of the plays is immeasurable. They have contributed to the history of European theatre and that history in turn shapes our understanding of the plays. Thus for example the operettas of Gilbert and Sullivan can give us insights into Aristophanes' plays e.g. Aristophanes: Lysistrata, The Acharnians, The Clouds A. Sommerstein, Penguin Classics 1975, page 37 and similarly the plays can give us insights into the operettas. "W.S. Gilbert: A Mid-Victorian Aristophanes" in W.S. Gilbert: A Century of Scholarship and Commentary, John Bush Jones (ed), New York University Press 1970 Listed below is a random and very tiny sample of works influenced (more or less) by Aristophanes. In drama 1909: Wasps, original Greek, Cambridge University undergraduate production, music by Vaughan Williams; 2004, July-October: The Frogs (musical), adapted by Nathan Lane, music and lyrics by Stephen Sondheim, performed at The Vivian Beaumont Theatre Broadway; 1962-2006: various plays by students and staff, Kings College London, in the original Greek : Frogs 1962,1971,1988; Thesmophoriazusae 1965, 1974, 1985; Acharnians 1968, 1992, 2004; Clouds 1977, 1990; Birds 1982, 2000; Ecclesiazusae 2006; Peace 1970; Wasps 1981 2002: Lysistrata, adapted by Robert Brustein, music by Galt McDermot, performed by American Repertory Theatre, Boston U.S.A.; 2008, May-June: Frogs, adapted by David Greenspan, music by Thomas Cabaniss, performed by Classic Stage Company, New York, U.S.A. In literature The romantic poet, Percy Shelley, wrote a comic, lyrical drama (Swellfoot the Tyrrant) in imitation of Aristophanes' play The Frogs after he was reminded of the Chorus in that play by a herd of pigs passing to market under the window of his lodgings in San Giuliano, Italy. Note on Oedipus Tyrannus by Mrs Shelley, quoted in Shelley: Poetical Works Thomas Hutchinson (ed), Oxford University Press 1970, page 410 Aristophanes (particularly in reference to The Clouds) is mentioned frequently by the character Menedemos in the Hellenic Traders series of novels by H N Turteltaub. A liberal version of the comedies have been published in comic book format, initially by "Agrotikes Ekdoseis" during the 1990s and republished over the years by other companies. The plot was written by Tasos Apostolidis and the sketches were of George Akokalidis. The stories feature either Aristophanes narrating them, directing the play, or even as a character inside one of his stories. In electronic media The Wasps, radio play adapted by David Pountney, music by Vaughan Williams, recorded 26-28 July 2005, Albert Halls, Bolten, in association with BBC, under Halle label; Acropolis Now is a comedy radio show for the BBC set in Ancient Greece. It features Aristophanes, Socrates and many other famous Greeks. (Not to be confused with the Australian sitcom of the same name.) Aristophanes Against the World was a radio play by Martyn Wade and broadcast on BBC Radio 4. Loosely based on several of his plays, it featured Clive Merrison as Aristophanes. In The Odd Couple, Oscar and Felix are on Password, and when the password is bird, Felix’s clue is Aristophanes because of his play The Birds. After failing to guess it, Oscar says that the clue is ridiculous, and then when it's Oscar’s turn to give the clue on the team’s next shot, the password is ridiculous and Oscar's clue is Aristophanes, to which Felix instantly responds, "Ridiculous!" Aristophanes was also featured in "The Scorpion King 2: Rise of a Warrior" as a main character. Works Surviving plays Most of these are traditionally referred to by abbreviations of their Latin titles; Latin remains a customary language of scholarship in classical studies. The Acharnians ( Acharneis; Attic ; Latin: ) (425 BC) The Knights ( Hippeis; Attic ; Latin: ) (424 BC) The Clouds ( Nephelai; Latin: ) (original 423 BC, uncompleted revised version from 419 BC – 416 BC survives) The Wasps ( Sphekes; Latin: ) (422 BC) Peace ( Eirene; Latin: ) (first version, 421 BC) The Birds ( Ornithes; Latin: ) (414 BC) Lysistrata () (411 BC) Thesmophoriazusae or The Women Celebrating the Thesmophoria ( (first version, c. 411 BC) The Frogs ( Batrachoi; Latin: ) (405 BC) Ecclesiazusae or The Assemblywomen; () (c. 392 BC) Wealth (; Latin Plutus) (second version, 388 BC) Datable non-surviving (lost) plays The standard modern edition of the fragments is Kassel-Austin, Poetae Comici Graeci III.2; Kock-numbers are now outdated and should not be used. Banqueters (427 BC) Babylonians (426 BC) Farmers (424 BC) Merchant Ships (423 BC) Clouds (first version) (423 BC) Proagon (422 BC) Amphiaraos (414 BC) Plutus (Wealth, first version, 408 BC) Gerytades (uncertain, probably 407 BC) Kokalos (387 BC) Aiolosikon (second version, 386 BC) Undated non-surviving (lost) plays Aiolosikon (first version) Anagyros Frying-Pan Men Daidalos Danaids Centaur Heroes Lemnian Women Old Age Peace (second version) Phoenician Women Polyidos Seasons Storks Telemessians Triphales Thesmophoriazusae (Women at the Thesmophoria Festival, second version) Women in TentsAttributed (doubtful, possibly by Archippos) Dionysos Shipwrecked Islands Niobos PoetrySee also Agathon Theatre of ancient Greece Greek literature Asteroid 2934 Aristophanes, named after the dramatist Hubert Parry wrote music for The BirdsReferences Further reading Henderson, Jeffrey The Maculate Muse: Obscene Language in Attic Comedy 1991 Oxford University Press ISBN 0-19-506685-5 reviewed by W.J. Slater, Phoenix, Vol. 30, No. 3 (Autumn, 1976), pp. 291-293 doi:10.2307/1087300 Platter, Charles. Aristophanes and the Carnival of Genres (Arethusa Books). Baltimore, MD; London: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2006 (hardcover, ISBN 0-8018-8527-2). Lee, Jae Num. "Scatology in Continental Satirical Writings from Aristophanes to Rabelais" and "English Scatological Writings from Skelton to Pope." Swift and Scatological Satire. Albuquerque: U of New Mexico P, 1971. 7-22; 23-53.Aristophanes and the Comic Hero by Cedric H. Whitman Author(s) of Review: H. Lloyd Stow The American Journal of Philology, Vol. 87, No. 1 (Jan., 1966), pp. 111–113 G. M. Sifakis The Structure of Aristophanic Comedy'' The Journal of Hellenic Studies, Vol. 112, 1992 (1992), pp. 123–142 doi:10.2307/632156 External links The Eleven Comedies (in translation) at eBooks @ Adelaide Aristophanes Texts Biography and texts of Aristophanes The texts of Aristophanes' plays (in translation) Contribution to the English Language List of films based on Aristophanes plays Today's Audiences Just Don't Get Me Satirical article written "by" Aristophanes at The Onion Life of Aristophanes SORGLL: Aristophanes, Birds 227-62; read by Stephen Daitz | Aristophanes |@lemmatized aristophanes:158 imagine:1 nineteenth:2 century:8 illustrator:1 infer:2 jest:1 play:146 fact:19 prematurely:2 bald:2 frog:33 david:27 barrett:25 penguin:42 book:12 page:89 survive:6 playsthe:1 acharnians:50 bcthe:5 knight:30 cloud:62 wasps:11 bcpeace:1 bird:28 bclysistrata:1 bcecclesiazusae:1 c:3 bcwealth:1 ii:4 bc:33 ca:2 son:7 philippus:2 deme:1 cydathenaus:1 lysistrata:20 alan:16 sommerstein:28 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5,418 | An_American_in_Paris | This article is about the Gershwin composition. For the 1951 musical starring Gene Kelly, see An American in Paris (film). An American in Paris is a symphonic composition by American composer George Gershwin, composed in 1928. Inspired by time Gershwin had spent in Paris, it is in the form of an extended tone poem evoking the sights and energy of the French capital in the 1920s. It is one of Gershwin's best-known compositions. Gershwin composed the piece on commission from the New York Philharmonic. He also did the orchestration. (He did not orchestrate his musicals.) Gershwin scored An American in Paris for the standard instruments of the symphony orchestra plus celesta, saxophone, and automobile horns. Gershwin brought back some Parisian taxi horns for the New York premiere of the composition which took place on December 13, 1928 in Carnegie Hall with Walter Damrosch conducting the New York Philharmonic. Gershwin collaborated on the original program notes with the critic and composer Deems Taylor, noting that: "My purpose here is to portray the impression of an American visitor in Paris as he strolls about the city and listens to various street noises and absorbs the French atmosphere." When the tone poem moves into the blues, "our American friend ... has succumbed to a spasm of homesickness." But, "nostalgia is not a fatal disease." The American visitor "once again is an alert spectator of Parisian life" and "the street noises and French atmosphere are triumphant." Instrumentation An American in Paris is scored for 3 flutes (3rd doubling on piccolo), 2 oboes, English horn, 2 clarinets in B flat, bass clarinet in B flat, 2 bassoons, 4 horns in F, 3 trumpets in B flat, 3 trombones, tuba, timpani, snare drum, bass drum, cymbals, low and high tom-toms, xylophone, glockenspiel, celesta, 4 taxi horns, alto saxophone, tenor saxophone, baritone saxophone, and strings. Recordings An American in Paris has been frequently recorded over the years. The very first recording was made for RCA Victor in 1929 with Nathaniel Shilkret conducting the Victor Symphony Orchestra, drawn from members of the Philadelphia Orchestra. Gershwin was on hand to "supervise" the recording; however, Shilkret was reported to be in charge and eventually asked the composer to leave the recording studio. Then, a little later, Shilkret discovered there was no one to play the brief celesta solo during the slow section, so he hastily asked Gershwin if he might play the solo; Gershwin said he could and so he briefly participated in the actual recording. Later, Arthur Fiedler and the Boston Pops Orchestra recorded the work for RCA Victor, including one of the first stereo recordings of the music. In 1945, Arturo Toscanini and the NBC Symphony Orchestra recorded the music in Carnegie Hall, one of the few commercial recordings Toscanini made of music by an American composer. In 1951, MGM released a musical comedy, An American in Paris, featuring Gene Kelly and Leslie Caron. Winner of numerous awards, including the 1951 Best Picture Oscar, the film was directed by Vincente Minnelli, featured many tunes of Gershwin, and concluded with an extensive, elaborate dance sequence built around Gershwin's symphonic poem (arranged for the film by Johnny Green). A part of the symphonic composition is also featured in As Good as It Gets, released in 1997. External links An American in Paris: listen to the whole symphonic poem by Gershwin on Magazzini-Sonori. 1944 recording by The New York Philharmonic conducted by Artur Rodzinsky. | An_American_in_Paris |@lemmatized article:1 gershwin:14 composition:5 musical:3 star:1 gene:2 kelly:2 see:1 american:12 paris:9 film:3 symphonic:4 composer:4 george:1 compose:2 inspire:1 time:1 spend:1 form:1 extended:1 tone:2 poem:4 evoke:1 sight:1 energy:1 french:3 capital:1 one:4 best:2 know:1 piece:1 commission:1 new:4 york:4 philharmonic:3 also:2 orchestration:1 orchestrate:1 score:2 standard:1 instrument:1 symphony:3 orchestra:5 plus:1 celesta:3 saxophone:4 automobile:1 horn:5 bring:1 back:1 parisian:2 taxi:2 premiere:1 take:1 place:1 december:1 carnegie:2 hall:2 walter:1 damrosch:1 conduct:3 collaborate:1 original:1 program:1 note:2 critic:1 deems:1 taylor:1 purpose:1 portray:1 impression:1 visitor:2 stroll:1 city:1 listen:2 various:1 street:2 noise:2 absorb:1 atmosphere:2 move:1 blue:1 friend:1 succumb:1 spasm:1 homesickness:1 nostalgia:1 fatal:1 disease:1 alert:1 spectator:1 life:1 triumphant:1 instrumentation:1 flute:1 double:1 piccolo:1 oboe:1 english:1 clarinet:2 b:3 flat:3 bass:2 bassoon:1 f:1 trumpet:1 trombone:1 tuba:1 timpani:1 snare:1 drum:2 cymbal:1 low:1 high:1 tom:2 xylophone:1 glockenspiel:1 alto:1 tenor:1 baritone:1 string:1 recording:8 frequently:1 record:3 year:1 first:2 make:2 rca:2 victor:3 nathaniel:1 shilkret:3 drawn:1 member:1 philadelphia:1 hand:1 supervise:1 however:1 report:1 charge:1 eventually:1 ask:2 leave:1 studio:1 little:1 later:2 discover:1 play:2 brief:1 solo:2 slow:1 section:1 hastily:1 might:1 say:1 could:1 briefly:1 participate:1 actual:1 arthur:1 fiedler:1 boston:1 pop:1 work:1 include:2 stereo:1 music:3 arturo:1 toscanini:2 nbc:1 commercial:1 mgm:1 release:2 comedy:1 feature:3 leslie:1 caron:1 winner:1 numerous:1 award:1 picture:1 oscar:1 direct:1 vincente:1 minnelli:1 many:1 tune:1 conclude:1 extensive:1 elaborate:1 dance:1 sequence:1 build:1 around:1 arrange:1 johnny:1 green:1 part:1 good:1 get:1 external:1 link:1 whole:1 magazzini:1 sonori:1 artur:1 rodzinsky:1 |@bigram george_gershwin:1 symphony_orchestra:3 horn_clarinet:1 bass_clarinet:1 snare_drum:1 drum_cymbal:1 alto_saxophone:1 tenor_saxophone:1 saxophone_baritone:1 rca_victor:2 arturo_toscanini:1 leslie_caron:1 vincente_minnelli:1 symphonic_poem:2 external_link:1 |
5,419 | Isoelectric_point | The isoelectric point (pI), sometimes abbreviated to IEP, is the pH at which a particular molecule or surface carries no net electrical charge. Amphoteric molecules called zwitterions contain both positive and negative charges depending on the functional groups present in the molecule. The net charge on the molecule is affected by pH of their surrounding environment and can become more positively or negatively charged due to the loss or gain of protons (H+). The pI is pH value at which the molecule carries no electrical charge or the negative and positive charges are equal. Surfaces naturally charge to form a double layer. In the common case when the surface charge-determining ions are H+/OH-, the net surface charge is affected by the pH of the liquid in which the solid is submerged. Again, the pI is the pH value of the solution at which the surfaces carries no net charge. The pI value can affect the solubility of a molecule at a given pH. Such molecules have minimum solubility in water or salt solutions at the pH which corresponds to their pI and often precipitate out of solution. Biological amphoteric molecules such as proteins contain both acidic and basic functional groups. Amino acids which make up proteins may be positive, negative, neutral or polar in nature, and together give a protein its overall charge. At a pH below their pI, proteins carry a net positive charge; above their pI they carry a net negative charge. Proteins can thus be separated according to their isoelectric point (overall charge) on a polyacrylamide gel using a technique called isoelectric focusing, which uses a pH gradient to separate proteins. Isoelectric focusing is also the first step in 2-D gel polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. Calculating pI values For an amino acid with only one amine and one carboxyl group, the pI can be calculated from the pKa's of this molecule. For amino acids with more than two ionizable groups, such as lysine, the same formula is used, but this time the two pKa's used are those of the two groups that lose and gain a charge from the neutral form of the amino acid. Lysine has a single carboxylic pKa and two amine pKa values (one of which is on the R-group), so fully protonated lysine has a +2 net charge. To get a neutral charge, we must deprotonate the lysine twice , and therefore use the R-group and amine pKa values (found at List of standard amino acids). However, a more exact treatment of this requires advanced acid/base knowledge and calculations. The pH of an electrophoretic gel is determined by the buffer used for that gel. If the pH of the buffer is above the pI of the protein being run, the protein will migrate to the positive pole (negative charge is attracted to a positive pole). If the pH of the buffer is below the pI of the protein being run, the protein will migrate to the negative pole of the gel (positive charge is attracted to the negative pole). If the protein is run with a buffer pH that is equal to the pI, it will not migrate at all. This is also true for individual amino acids. Ceramic materials The isoelectric points (IEP) of metal oxide ceramics are used extensively in material science in various aqueous processing steps (synthesis, modification, etc.). For these surfaces, present as colloids or larger particles in aqueous solution, the surface is generally assumed to be covered with surface hydroxyl species, M-OH (where M is a metal such as Al, Si, etc.). At pH values above the IEP, the predominate surface species is M-O-, while at pH values below the IEP, M-OH+ species predominate. Some approximate values of common ceramics are listed below (Haruta Haruta M (2004). 'Nanoparticulate Gold Catalysts for Low-Temperature CO Oxidation', Journal of New Materials for Electrochemical Systems, vol. 7, pp 163-172. and Brunelle Brunelle JP (1978). 'Preparation of Catalysts by Metallic Complex Adsorption on Mineral Oxides'. Pure and Applied Chemistry vol. 50, pp. 1211-1229. , except where noted). The exact value can vary widely, depending on material factors such as purity and phase as well as physical parameters such as temperature. In addition, precise measurement of isoelectric points is difficult and requires careful techniques, even with modern methods. Thus, many sources often cite differing values for isoelectric points of these materials. Examples of isoelectric points The following list gives the pH25°C of isoelectric point at 25 °C for selected materials in water: Note: The list is ordered by increasing pH values. tungsten(VI) oxide WO3: 0.2-0.5 antimony(V) oxide Sb2O5: <0.4 to 1.9 vanadium(V) oxide (vanadia) V2O5: 1-2 (3 ) silicon oxide (silica) SiO2: 1.7-3.5 silicon carbide (alpha) SiC: 2-3.5 U.S. Patent 5,165,996 tantalum(V) oxide, Ta2O5: 2.7-3.0 tin(IV) oxide SnO2: 4-5.5 (7.3 Lewis, JA (2000). 'Colloidal Processing of Ceramics', Journal of the American Ceramic Society vol. 83, no. 10, pp.2341-2359. ) zirconium(IV) oxide (zirconia) ZrO2: 4-11 manganese(IV) oxide MnO2: 4-5 delta-MnO2 1.5, beta-MnO2 7.3 titanium(IV) oxide (titania) (rutile or anatase) TiO2: 3.9-8.2 silicon nitride Si3N4: 6-7 iron (II, III) oxide (magnetite) Fe3O4: 6.5-6.8 gamma iron (III) oxide (maghemite) Fe2O3: 3.3-6.7 cerium(IV) oxide (ceria) CeO2: 6.7-8.6 chromium(III) oxide (chromia) Cr2O3: 7 (6.2-8.1 ) gamma aluminium oxide (gamma alumina) Al2O3: 7-8 thallium(I) oxide Tl2O: 8 Kosmulski M and Saneluta C (2004). 'Point of zero charge/isoelectric point of exotic oxides: Tl2O3', Journal of Colloid and Interface Science vol. 280, no. 2, pp. 544-545. alpha iron (III) oxide (hematite) Fe2O3: 8.4-8.5 alpha aluminium oxide (alpha alumina, corundum) Al2O3: 8-9 silicon nitride Si3N4: 9 yttrium(III) oxide (yttria) Y2O3: 7.15-8.95 copper(II) oxide CuO: 9.5 zinc oxide ZnO: 8.7-10.3 lanthanum(III) oxide La2O3: 10 nickel(II) oxide NiO: 10-11 (9.9-11.3 ) lead(II) oxide PbO: 10.7-11.6 Marek Kosmulski, "Chemical Properties of Material Surfaces", Marcel Dekker, 2001. magnesium oxide (magnesia) MgO: 12-13 (9.8-12.7 ) Mixed oxides may exhibit isoelectric point values that are intermediate to those of the corresponding pure oxides. For example, Jara et al. Jara, A.A., S. Goldberg and M.L. Mora (2005). 'Studies of the surface charge of amorphous aluminosilicates using surface complexation models', Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, vol. 292, no. 1, pp. 160-170. measured an IEP of 4.5 for a synthetically-prepared amorphous aluminosilicate (Al2O3-SiO2). The researchers noted that the electrokinetic behavior of the surface was dominated by surface Si-OH species, thus explaining the relatively low IEP value. Significantly higher IEP values (pH 6 to 8) have been reported for 3Al2O3-2SiO2 by others (see Lewis). Lewis also lists the IEP of barium titanate, BaTiO3 as being between pH 5 and 6, while Vamvakaki et al. Vamvakaki, M., N.C. Billingham, S.P. Armes, J.F. Watts and S.J. Greaves (2001). 'Controlled structure copolymers for the dispersion of high-performance ceramics in aqueous media', Journal of Materials Chemistry, vol. 11, pp. 2437-2444. reported a value of 3, although these authors note that a wide range of values have been reported, a result of either residual barium carbonate on the surface or TiO2-rich surfaces. Isoelectric point versus point of zero charge The terms isoelectric point (IEP) and point of zero charge (PZC) are often used interchangeably, although under certain circumstances, it may be productive to make the distinction. In systems in which H+/OH- are the interface potential-determining ions, the point of zero charge is given in the terms of pH. The pH at which the surface exhibits a neutral net electrical charge is the point of zero charge at the surface. Electrokinetic phenomena generally measure zeta potential, and a zero zeta potential is interpreted as the point of zero net charge at the shear plane. This is termed the isoelectric point A.W. Adamson, A.P. Gast, "Physical Chemistry of Surfaces", John Wiley and Sons, 1997. . Thus, the isoelectric point is the value of pH at which the colloidal particle remains stationary in an electrical field. The isoelectric point is expected to be somewhat different than the point of zero charge at the particle surface, but this difference is often ignored in practice for so-called pristine surfaces, i.e., surfaces with no specifically adsorbed positive or negative charges. In this context, specific adsorption is understood as adsorption occurring the Stern layer or chemisorption. Thus, point of zero charge at the surface is taken as equal to isoelectric point in the absence of specific adsorption on that surface. According to Jolivet Jolivet J.P., Metal Oxide Chemistry and Synthesis. From Solution to Solid State, John Wiley & Sons Ltd. 2000,ISBN 0-471-97056-5 (English translation of the original French text, De la Solution à l'Oxyde, InterEditions et CNRS Editions, Paris, 1994). , in the absence of positive or negative charges, the surface is best described by the point of zero charge. If positive and negative charges are both present in equal amounts, then this is the isoelectric point. Thus, the PZC refers to the absence of any type of surface charge, while the IEP refers to a state of net neutral surface charge. The difference between the two, therefore, is quantity of charged sites at the point of net zero charge. Jolivet uses the intrinsic surface equilibrium constants, pK- and pK+ to define the two conditions in terms of the relative number of charged sites: For large ΔpK (>4 according to Jolivet), the predominate species is MOH while there are relatively few charged species - so the PZC is relevant. For small values of ΔpK, there are many charged species in approximately equal numbers, so one speaks of the IEP. References Further reading Nelson DL, Cox MM (2004). Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry. W. H. Freeman; 4th edition (Hardcover). ISBN 0-7167-4339- External links EMBL WWW Gateway to Isoelectric Point Service — calculates the pI for an input amino acid sequence. Calculation of protein isoelectric point — free online and offline program to calculation pI and more theoretical information about this subject. | Isoelectric_point |@lemmatized isoelectric:20 point:28 pi:14 sometimes:1 abbreviate:1 iep:11 ph:21 particular:1 molecule:9 surface:28 carry:5 net:11 electrical:4 charge:40 amphoteric:2 call:3 zwitterions:1 contain:2 positive:10 negative:10 depend:2 functional:2 group:7 present:3 affect:3 surrounding:1 environment:1 become:1 positively:1 negatively:1 due:1 loss:1 gain:2 proton:1 h:4 value:19 equal:5 naturally:1 form:2 double:1 layer:2 common:2 case:1 determining:1 ion:2 oh:5 liquid:1 solid:2 submerge:1 solution:6 solubility:2 give:4 minimum:1 water:2 salt:1 correspond:1 often:4 precipitate:1 biological:1 protein:11 acidic:1 basic:1 amino:7 acid:8 make:2 may:3 neutral:5 polar:1 nature:1 together:1 overall:2 proteins:1 thus:6 separate:2 accord:3 polyacrylamide:2 gel:6 use:10 technique:2 focusing:2 gradient:1 also:3 first:1 step:2 electrophoresis:1 calculate:3 one:4 amine:3 carboxyl:1 pka:5 two:6 ionizable:1 lysine:4 formula:1 time:1 lose:1 single:1 carboxylic:1 r:2 fully:1 protonated:1 get:1 must:1 deprotonate:1 twice:1 therefore:2 find:1 list:5 standard:1 however:1 exact:2 treatment:1 require:2 advanced:1 base:1 knowledge:1 calculation:3 electrophoretic:1 determine:2 buffer:4 run:3 migrate:3 pole:4 attract:2 true:1 individual:1 ceramic:6 material:8 metal:3 oxide:30 extensively:1 science:3 various:1 aqueous:3 process:1 synthesis:2 modification:1 etc:2 colloid:3 large:2 particle:3 generally:2 assume:1 cover:1 hydroxyl:1 specie:7 al:3 si:2 predominate:3 approximate:1 haruta:2 nanoparticulate:1 gold:1 catalyst:2 low:2 temperature:2 co:1 oxidation:1 journal:5 new:1 electrochemical:1 system:2 vol:6 pp:6 brunelle:2 jp:1 preparation:1 metallic:1 complex:1 adsorption:4 mineral:1 pure:2 applied:1 chemistry:4 except:1 noted:1 vary:1 widely:1 factor:1 purity:1 phase:1 well:1 physical:2 parameter:1 addition:1 precise:1 measurement:1 difficult:1 careful:1 even:1 modern:1 method:1 many:2 source:1 cite:1 differ:1 example:2 following:1 c:4 select:1 note:3 order:1 increase:1 tungsten:1 vi:1 antimony:1 v:3 vanadium:1 vanadia:1 silicon:4 silica:1 carbide:1 alpha:4 sic:1 u:1 patent:1 tantalum:1 tin:1 iv:5 lewis:3 ja:1 colloidal:2 processing:1 american:1 society:1 zirconium:1 zirconia:1 manganese:1 delta:1 beta:1 titanium:1 titania:1 rutile:1 anatase:1 nitride:2 iron:3 ii:4 iii:6 magnetite:1 gamma:3 maghemite:1 cerium:1 ceria:1 chromium:1 chromia:1 aluminium:2 alumina:2 thallium:1 kosmulski:2 saneluta:1 zero:11 exotic:1 interface:3 hematite:1 corundum:1 yttrium:1 yttria:1 copper:1 cuo:1 zinc:1 zno:1 lanthanum:1 nickel:1 nio:1 lead:1 pbo:1 marek:1 chemical:1 property:1 marcel:1 dekker:1 magnesium:1 magnesia:1 mgo:1 mixed:1 exhibit:2 intermediate:1 corresponding:1 jara:2 et:3 goldberg:1 l:2 mora:1 study:1 amorphous:2 aluminosilicates:1 complexation:1 model:1 measure:2 synthetically:1 prepared:1 aluminosilicate:1 researcher:1 electrokinetic:2 behavior:1 dominate:1 explain:1 relatively:2 significantly:1 high:2 report:3 others:1 see:1 barium:2 titanate:1 vamvakaki:2 n:1 billingham:1 p:3 armes:1 j:3 f:1 watt:1 greave:1 controlled:1 structure:1 copolymer:1 dispersion:1 performance:1 medium:1 although:2 author:1 wide:1 range:1 result:1 either:1 residual:1 carbonate:1 rich:1 versus:1 term:4 pzc:3 interchangeably:1 certain:1 circumstance:1 productive:1 distinction:1 potential:3 phenomenon:1 zeta:2 interpret:1 shear:1 plane:1 w:2 adamson:1 gast:1 john:2 wiley:2 son:2 remain:1 stationary:1 field:1 expect:1 somewhat:1 different:1 difference:2 ignore:1 practice:1 pristine:1 e:1 specifically:1 adsorb:1 context:1 specific:2 understood:1 occur:1 stern:1 chemisorption:1 take:1 absence:3 jolivet:4 state:2 ltd:1 isbn:2 english:1 translation:1 original:1 french:1 text:1 de:1 la:1 à:1 oxyde:1 intereditions:1 cnrs:1 edition:2 paris:1 best:1 describe:1 amount:1 refers:2 type:1 quantity:1 site:2 intrinsic:1 equilibrium:1 constant:1 pk:2 define:1 condition:1 relative:1 number:2 δpk:2 moh:1 relevant:1 small:1 approximately:1 speaks:1 reference:1 far:1 read:1 nelson:1 dl:1 cox:1 mm:1 lehninger:1 principle:1 biochemistry:1 freeman:1 hardcover:1 external:1 link:1 embl:1 www:1 gateway:1 service:1 input:1 sequence:1 free:1 online:1 offline:1 program:1 theoretical:1 information:1 subject:1 |@bigram isoelectric_point:18 positively_negatively:1 negatively_charge:1 amino_acid:7 polyacrylamide_gel:2 gel_electrophoresis:1 acid_lysine:1 aqueous_solution:1 pure_applied:1 silicon_carbide:1 silicon_nitride:2 cerium_iv:1 aluminium_oxide:2 zinc_oxide:1 marcel_dekker:1 magnesium_oxide:1 et_al:2 wiley_son:2 colloidal_particle:1 lehninger_principle:1 external_link:1 online_offline:1 |
5,420 | Bikini | A bikini or two piece is a women's swimsuit with two parts, one covering the breasts (optionally in the case of the monokini), the other the groin (and optionally the buttocks), leaving an uncovered area between the two (optionally in the case of the Tankini). It is often worn in hot weather or while swimming. The shapes of both parts of a bikini resemble women's underwear, and the lower part can range from revealing thong or g-string to briefs and modest square-cut shorts. Merriam–Webster's Collegiate Dictionary (11th edition) describes the bikini as "a woman's scanty two-piece bathing suit", "a man's brief swimsuit" and "a man's or woman's low-cut briefs". The bikini, which shocked when it appeared on French beaches in 1947, was a Greco-Roman invention. Peter J. James, I. J. Thorpe & Nick Thorpe, Ancient Inventions, page 279, Ballantine Books, 1994, ISBN 0345401026 The modern bikini was invented by French engineer Louis Réard in 1946. He named it after Bikini Atoll in the Pacific, the site of the Operation Crossroads nuclear weapon test on July 1, 1946. The reasoning was that the burst of excitement created by it would be like a nuclear device. The monokini, a bikini variant, is a back formation from bikini, interpreting the first syllable as the Latin prefix bi- meaning "two" or "doubled", and substituting for it mono- meaning "one". Bill Sherk, 500 Years of New Words, page 284, Dundurn Press Ltd., 2004, ISBN 1550025252 Jacques Heim called his bikini precursor the Atome, named for its size, and Louis Réard claimed to have "split the Atome" to make it smaller. From a 1949 Los Angeles Times report: "The bathing beauty queen—blond Bebe Shopp, 18, of Hopkins, Minn.—got an enthusiastic welcome in Paris, but she said she hasn't changed her mind about French swim suits. ... 'I don't approve of Bikini suits for American girls,' Bebe told her French interviewers. 'The French girls can wear them if they want to, but I still don't approve of them on American girls." "Miss America Stops in Paris—Traffic, Too." Los Angeles Times. August 7, 1949. p. 1 The bikini is perhaps the most popular female beachwear around the globe, according to French fashion historian Olivier Saillard due to "the power of women, and not the power of fashion". As he explains, "The emancipation of swimwear has always been linked to the emancipation of women." Kathryn Westcott, "The Bikini: Not a brief affair", BBC News, 2006-06-05 By the mid 2000s bikinis had become a US$811 million business annually, according to the NPD Group, a consumer and retail information company. Sylvia Rubin, "Fashion shocker of '46: the naked belly button", San Francisco Chronicle, 2006-07-02 The bikini has boosted spin-off services like bikini waxing and the sun tanning industries. Lorna Edwards, "You've still got it, babe, The Age, 2006-06-03 History The history of the bikini is a checkered one. The earliest evidence of a bikini-like costume dates back to the Chalcolithic era, as the mother-goddess of Çatalhöyük, a large ancient settlement in southern Anatolia, is depicted astride two leopards wearing garb akin to a modern bikini. Prithvi Kumar Agrawala, Goddessess in Ancient India, page 12, Abhinav Publications, 1984, ISBN 0391029606 Two-piece garments worn by women for athletic purposes are on Greek urns and paintings dating back to 1400 BC. Active women of ancient Greece wore a breastband called a mastodeton or an apodesmos, which continued to be used as an undergarment in the Middle Ages. Stephanie Pedersen, Bra, page 8, David & Charles, 2004, ISBN 071532067X While men in ancient Greece abandoned the perizoma, partly high-cut briefs and partly loincloth, women performers and acrobats continued to wear it. Larissa Bonfante, Etruscan Dress, page 21, JHU Press, 2003, ISBN 0801874130 Artwork dating back to the Diocletian period (286-305 AD) in Villa Romana del Casale, Sicily depicts women in garments resembling bikinis in mosaics on the floor. Villa Romana del Casale, Val di Noto The images of ten women, dubbed the "Bikini Girls", Allen Guttmann, Women's Sports: A History, page 38, Columbia University Press, 1991, ISBN 023106957X exercising in clothing that would pass as bikinis today, are the most replicated mosaic among the 37 million colored tiles at the site. Villa Romana del Casale, World Heritage Sites Archeological finds, especially in Pompeii, show the Roman goddess Venus wearing a bikini. A statue of Venus in a bikini was found in cupboard in the southwest corner in Casa della Venere, others were found in the front hall. Pompeian Households, Stoa Image Gallery, The Stoa Consortium A statue of Venus was recovered from the tablinum of the house of Julia Felix, Mary Beard & John Henderson, Classical Art, page 116, Oxford University Press, 2001, ISBN 0192842374 and another from an atrium at the garden at Via Dell'Abbondanza. Elisabeth B. MacDougall, Wilhelmina Mary Feemster Jashemski & Dumbarton Oaks, Ancient Roman Gardens, page 38, Dumbarton Oaks, 1979, ISBN 0884021009 The modern bikini started to emerge again in 1907, when Australian swimmer and performer Annette Kellerman was arrested on a Boston beach for wearing a form-fitting one-piece which became an accepted swimsuit for women by 1910. Pictures of her were produced as evidence in the Esquire magazine versus United States Postmaster General legal battle over indecency in 1943. In 1913, inspired by the introduction of females into Olympic swimming, the designer Carl Jantzen made the first functional two-piece swimwear, a close-fitting one-piece with shorts on the bottom and short sleeves on top. By the 1930s, necklines plunged at the back, sleeves disappeared and sides were cut away. Hollywood endorsed the new glamour with films such as Neptune's Daughter in which Esther Williams wore provocatively named costumes such as "Double Entendre" and "Honey Child". David Sandhu, "Nottingham: Bathed in nostalgia", The Telegraph (UK), 2003-08-04 With new materials like lastex and nylon, by 1934 the swimsuit started hugging the body and had shoulder straps to lower for tanning. History of the Bikini, Carnival Burlesque and vaudeville performers wore two-piece outfits in the 1920s, and in 1932 French designer Madeleine Vionnet offered an exposed midriff in an evening gown. Samantha Critchell, "Little wonder that bikinis have fit in almost from the start", The San Diego Union-Tribune, 2006-05-28 By the early 1940s two-piece swimsuits were frequent on American beaches. Hollywood stars like Ava Gardner, Rita Hayworth and Lana Turner tried similar swimwear or beachwear. James Kitchling, Short History of Bikinis and Swimsuits, 3X24 News Magazine Pin ups of Hayworth and Esther Williams in the costume were widely distributed. Finally, the modern bikini was introduced by French engineer Louis Réard and fashion designer Jacques Heim in Paris in 1946. Réard was a car engineer but by 1946 he was running his mother's lingerie boutique near Les Folies Bergères in Paris. Adam Sage, "Happy birthday: the 'shocking and immoral' bikini hits 60", The Times, 2006-04-16 Heim was working on a new kind of beach costume. It comprised two pieces, the bottom large enough to cover its wearer's navel. In May 1946, he advertised it as the world's "smallest bathing suit". Réard named his swimsuit the “bikini,” taking the name from the Bikini Atoll, one of a series of islands in the South Pacific where testing on the new atomic bomb was occurring that summer. Historians assume Reard termed his swimsuit the “bikini” because he believed its revealing style would create reactions among people similar to those created by America’s atomic bomb in Japan just one summer earlier. Réard sliced the top off the bottoms and advertised it as "smaller than the smallest swimsuit". Paula Cocozza, "A little piece of history", The Guardian, 2006-06-10 The Bikini Turns 60, 1946 to 2006: 60 Years of Bikini Bathing Beauties, Lilith E-Zine Réard could not find a model to wear his design. He ended up hiring Micheline Bernardini, a nude dancer from the Casino de Paris. That bikini, a string bikini with a g-string back of of clothes with newspaper type printed across, was introduced on July 5 at Piscine Molitor, a public pool in Paris. Bikini Introduced, This Day in History, History Channel Heim's design was the first worn on the beach, but clothing was given its name by Réard. Bikini variants The bikini has spawned many stylistic variations. A regular bikini is defined as a two pieces of garments that cover the groin and buttocks at the lower end and the breasts in the upper end. Some bikinis can offer a large amount of coverage, while other bikinis provide only the barest minimum. Topless variants may still be considered bikinis, although technically no longer two-piece swimsuits. What is a Bikini?, WiseGeek Bikini, Swimsuit Styles Along with a variation in designs, the term bikini was followed by an often hilarious lexicon including the numokini (top part missing), seekini (transparent bikini), tankini (tank top, bikini bottom), camikini (camisole top and bikini bottom) and hikini. Barry J. Blake, Playing with Words: Humour in the English Language, page 59, Equinox, 2007, ISBN 1845533305 Since fashions of different centuries exist beside one another in early 21st century, though it is possible to imagine a woman combining a bikini and a 1910 bathing costume. Jacques Laurent & Cécil Saint-Laurent, A History of Ladies Underwear, page 214, Joseph, 1968, ISBN 0718106245 Bikini tops come in several different styles and cuts, including a halter-style neck that offers more coverage and support, a strapless bandeau, a rectangular strip of fabric covering the breasts that minimizes large breasts, a top with cups similar to a push-up bra, and the more traditional triangle cups that lift and shape the breasts. Bikini bottoms vary in style and cut and in the amount of coverage they offer, coverage ranging anywhere from complete underwear-style coverage, as in the case of more modest bottom pieces like briefs, shorts, or briefs with a small skirt-panel attached, to almost full exposure, as in the case of the thong bikini. Skimpier styles have narrow sides, including V-cut (in front), French cut (with high-cut sides) and low-cut string (with string sides). In just one major fashion show in 1985 were two-piece suits with cropped tank tops instead of the usual skimpy bandeaux, suits that are bikinis in front and one-piece in back, suspender straps, ruffles, and daring, navel-baring cutouts. Fashion Correspondent, "Swimsuits take some inspiration from the past", Philadelphia Inquirer, 1985-11-10 Subsequent variations on the theme include the monokini, tankini, string bikini, thong, slingshot, minimini, teardrop, and micro. David Diefendorf & James Randi, Amazing... But False!: Hundreds of "Facts" You Thought Were True, But Aren't, page 33, Sterling, 2007, ISBN 1402737912 Bikini underwear Types of underwear worn by both men and women are identified as bikini underwear, similar in size and revealing nature to the bottom half of a bikini bathing suit. For women, bikini underwear can refer to virtually any tight, skimpy, or revealing undergarment that provides less coverage to the midsection than traditional underwear, panties or knickers. For men, a bikini is a type of undergarment that is smaller and more revealing than men's briefs. Sports bikini There is evidence of ancient roman women playing Expulsim Ludere, an early version of handball. John Anthony Cuddon, The Macmillan Dictionary of Sports and Games, page 393, Macmillan, 1980, ISBN 0333191633 Female athletes who play beach volleyball professionally usually wear two-pieces. These bikinis are designed with functionality rather than fashion in mind. Beach volleyball In 1994, the bikini became the official uniform of women's Olympic beach volleyball, marking a female sexuality that was also athletic. It also sold tickets. Dancers, sex appeal and bikinis worn by women players as much as athletic ability made beach volleyball the fifth largest television audience of all the sports at the Games at Bondi Beach in Australia in 2000 Olympics. Stuff Writer, "Beach volleyball a popular spectator sport", ESPN, 2004-08-16 The popularity of Dead or Alive: Xtreme Beach Volleyball, a video game for Xbox, was attributed to the scantily clad women. Charles Harold, GAME THEORY; It's Hot-Potato Season: Call In the String Bikinis, New York Times, 2003-08-07; Retrieved: 2008-03-12 Athletics Often the women in athletics also wear bikinis, not much larger than in beach volleyball. Amy Acuff, an US high-jumper, wore a black leather bikini instead of a track suit, at Sydney 2000 Summer Olympics. Staff Correspondent, "Hype Hopes Today's Olympians need more than athletic prowess to win gold", Fort Worth Star-Telegram, 2000-08-06 Speedster Florence Griffith-Joyner mixed bikini bottoms with one-legged tights in Seoul 1988 Summer Olympics, which earned her more attention than her record breaking in Women's 200 meters. Anne Marie Balsamo, Technologies of the gendered body, page 46, Duke University Press, 1996, ISBN 0822316986 Towns like Porto Seguro in Brazil has become an attraction for beach athletics in bikini for the tourists. James Brooke, "In the Land of Lambada", 1991-03-10 Controversy Skimpy bikinis have been a major component of marketing woman's sports, raising some objections. Laura Grae Kilborn, "The Marketing Of Female Athletes", Denver Post, 1998-08-11 In 2007, fans voted for contestants in the WWE Diva contest after watching them playing beach volleyball in skimpy bikinis. WWE Diva Search, Propeller News, 2007-09-18; Retrieved: 2008-03-12 In the 2004 and 2008 Olympic Games, inclusion of bikini-clad athletes raised eyebrows, while a controversy broke out around bikini-clad cheerleaders performing at a beach volleyball match. Phil Gordos, Bikini girls making waves, BBC, 2004-08-25; Retrieved: 2008-03-12 Associated Press, Beach volleyball’s bikini cheerleaders stir up a storm, NBC sports, 2004-08-17; Retrieved: 2008-03-12 Bikinis stirred up a controversy at the 2006 Asian Games at Doha, Qatar, and the Iraqi teams refused to wear such clothing. Associated Press, In Doha, beach volleyball bikinis create cultural clash, Ynet News, 2006-03-12; Retrieved: 2008-03-12 In the 2007 South Pacific Games, players were made to wear shorts and cropped sports tops instead of bikinis. Staff Correspondent, No bikinis for beach volleyball players, The News, 2007-08-31; Retrieved: 2008-03-12 In the West Asian Games 2006, bikini-bottoms were banned for female athletes, who were asked to wear long shorts. Staff Correspondent, "Unveiling the spirit of the sporting women", The Economic Times, 2006-12-01 String bikinis and other skimpy clothes are also common in surfing paving ways for some hooliganism in the past. Matt Krantz, "Sponsors get gnarly idea: Surf sells, dude", USA Today, 2001-08-06 Men's bikini The term men's bikini is used to describe types of men's swimsuits, men's underwear, or similar garments. Men's bikinis can have both high or low side panels, string sides or tie sides, and most lack a button or flap front. Many do not have a visible waistband like briefs. Suits less than 1.5 inches wide at the hips are less common for sporting purposes and are most often worn for recreation, fashion, and sun tanning. An example of this style, known as the posing brief, is the standard for competitions in the sport of bodybuilding. Male Punk rock musicians have performed on the stage wearing woman's bikini briefs. A. W. Richard Sipe, A Secret World, page 25, Psychology Press, 1990, ISBN 0876305850 The 2000 Bollywood film Hera Pheri shows men sunbathing in bikinis, who were mistakenly belived to be girls from a distance by the protagonist. Ruth Vanita, Queering India, page 207, Routledge, 2002, ISBN 0415929504 Swimsuits shown in men's wear collections by Giorgio Armani, Dolce & Gabbana or Paul Smith have tended to be black and snug fitting, throwbacks to the designs of the 1930s and '40s, while Gianni Versace's ads with their heroic depictions of Miami bathers in contrast to popular, sports-inspired beach wear — bright and baggy Bermudas or boxer shorts. The Greek designer Nikos Apostolopoulos put a different spin as his bathing suits (for both sexes, but with the focus on the male) making them anatomical creations, cut and stitched to outline the body and its sexual characteristics. Suzy Menkes, "Runways: Remembrance of Thongs Past", The New York Times, 1993-07-18 Traditionally in the past, general society did not accept men wearing bikinis at public beaches or swimming pools. However, as with the women's liberty movement, it is becoming more accepted for men to wear more revealing swimsuits at public locations. Men can now be seen wearing bikinis, thongs, and g-strings at pools and beaches throughout the world, however, it is still less popular in the United States than in Europe where men have been wearing bikinis for decades. Bikini tops for men is seen as an amusement factor. Sarah Karnasiewicz, Here she comes, "Mr. Saugus High School", Salon.com Mankini Mankini is a type of sling bikini worn by men. It was popularized by Sacha Baron Cohen when he donned one in the film Borat. The buzz around the film started building during the Cannes Film Festival in May 2006, when Baron Cohen posed in character on the beach in a neon green mankini, alongside two models. Josh Friedman & Lorenza Munoz, "Fox scales back `Borat' movie's opening; The comedy will first be shown in 800 theaters, down from 2,000, amid a lack of awareness", The Los Angeles Times, page C1, 2006-10-25 According to one fashion expert suspenders combined with bikini briefs or panties form an unaesthetic pattern. Joan Nunn, Fashion in Costume, 1200-1980: 1200-1980, page 222, Herbert Press, 1984, ISBN 0906969379 According to another the Borat connection the style has become a bit humorous. Sling bikini, Brazilian Bikinis Hollywood comic Jim Carrey has worn a mankini on the beach, Tom Chivers, "Jim Carrey wears Jenny McCarthy's swimsuit in Borat-like 'mankini' Malibu beach jaunt", Telegraph (UK), 2008-07-07 and British designer Alexander McQueen paraded male models in mankinis in Milan Fashion Week 2008. News Desk, "Borat's mankini hits catwalk", News (Australia), 2008-06-24 Mankinis have also caused controversy in New Zealand, with the wearing of mankinis to rugby sevens tournaments banned. Staff Reporter, "Kiwi cops cracking down on Borat's skimpy 'mankini'", Cheers News Agency, 2008-01-29 Santino Marella also wore a mankini to prove that he should be in the Miss WrestleMania Battle Royale at WrestleMania XXV. See also Swimsuit Thong (clothing) and G-string Bikini waxing Toplessness and Topfreedom References External links Evolution on the swimwear on Fashion Era Bikini in beauty contests Bikini Science: A comprehensive site on the bikini Bikini exhibition | Bikini |@lemmatized bikini:97 two:16 piece:16 woman:26 swimsuit:17 part:4 one:13 cover:4 breast:5 optionally:3 case:4 monokini:3 groin:2 buttock:2 leave:1 uncovered:1 area:1 tankini:3 often:4 worn:2 hot:2 weather:1 swim:2 shape:2 resemble:2 underwear:9 low:5 range:2 reveal:2 thong:6 g:4 string:11 brief:12 modest:2 square:1 cut:11 short:8 merriam:1 webster:1 collegiate:1 dictionary:2 edition:1 describe:2 scanty:1 bath:4 suit:10 man:2 shock:1 appear:1 french:9 beach:25 greco:1 roman:4 invention:2 peter:1 j:3 james:4 thorpe:2 nick:1 ancient:7 page:17 ballantine:1 book:1 isbn:16 modern:4 invent:1 engineer:3 louis:3 réard:8 name:6 atoll:2 pacific:3 site:3 operation:1 crossroad:1 nuclear:2 weapon:1 test:2 july:2 reasoning:1 burst:1 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5,421 | 2001_World_Series | The 2001 World Series (the "November Series") took place between the Arizona Diamondbacks and the New York Yankees. The Diamondbacks won the best-of-seven series four games to three. The Series featured two extra-inning games and three late-inning comebacks. It ended on a game seven walk-off hit (the first since Edgar Rentería's in 1997), in the form of a bloop single off the bat of Luis Gonzalez. This was the first World Series ever played in the state of Arizona, while it was the third World Series game seven to end on a hit with the bases loaded in the bottom of the final inning (Florida Marlins 1997, Minnesota Twins, 1991). As of 2008, this is the last World Series in which the National League had home-field advantage, as they have yet to clinch it under the current All-Star Game format. This was the last World Series not to feature a wild card team until 2008. Randy Johnson and Curt Schilling were the Co-MVP's of the 2001 World Series. Both combined for a 4-0 record and a 1.40 ERA, striking out 45 Yankees in 39 1/3 innings. Background The Arizona Diamondbacks, breaking a record previously held by the Florida Marlins, reached the Series in just their fourth season of existence, and took on the three-time defending champion New York Yankees, who were trying to become the first team to win four straight titles since the Yankees' five consecutive titles from 1949 to 1953. Additionally, the Series would be taking place in New York City only seven weeks after the September 11, 2001 Terrorist Attacks, representing a remarkable boost in morale for the fatigued city. Arizona captured the Series, four games to three, thereby dethroning the defending World Champions and earning their first title. The Diamondbacks win also ended the tongue-in-cheek "Curse Of The Balboni." In 1985, Kansas City Royals player Steve Balboni set a team record with 36 home runs, and the Royals went on to win their first World Series. Since that time, no team who had employed a 36+ home run player had won the World Series. The Diamondbacks' Luis Gonzalez, with his 57 regular-season home runs, helped the team break the "curse". Arizona won the first two games at home handily, but New York won the next three in close contests in Yankee Stadium, including two dramatic ninth-inning comebacks against Arizona closer Byung-Hyun Kim. Arizona won the sixth game behind Randy Johnson, who then came in to pitch in relief of Curt Schilling in game seven. The Diamondbacks won the game 3–2, with Jay Bell scoring the winning run on a bloop single by Luis Gonzalez, in the bottom of the ninth inning off the Yankees' ace closer, Mariano Rivera. The home team won every game in the Series. This had only happened twice before, in 1987 and 1991; in both cases, the Minnesota Twins won the Series. This was also, until 2008, the most recent World Series to feature two division winners — all the Series from 2002 through 2007 have featured at least one of the two Wild Card qualifiers. This Series was also the subject of an HBO documentary Nine Innings from Ground Zero in 2004. Despite the closeness of the Series overall, the Diamondbacks outscored the Yankees 37–14 over the entire Series, as a result of large margins of victory achieved by Arizona in Bank One Ballpark relative to the one run margins at Yankee Stadium. In addition to breaking the "Curse of The Balboni", Luis Gonzalez helped put an end to the so-called "Ex-Cubs Factor" jinx. The D-backs not only defied that "jinx" to win the Series, but two of the three ex-Cubs (Grace and Gonzalez) actively participated in the Series-winning rally. September 11 and the month of November Due to the postponement of games in September as a result of the September 11, 2001 attacks, the World Series began Saturday, October 27, 2001, the latest start date ever for a World Series. The Series went seven games, the last three of which were the first major-league games (other than exhibitions) played in the month of November. This was just the fourth time that no World Series champion was decided within the traditional month of October. The previous three occurrences were in 1904 (no series), 1918 (series held in September due to World War I), and 1994 (no series due to work stoppage). Summary NL Arizona Diamondbacks (4) vs AL New York Yankees (3) GameScoreDateLocationAttendance1New York Yankees - 1, Arizona Diamondbacks - 9October 27Bank One Ballpark49,646 2New York Yankees - 0, Arizona Diamondbacks - 4October 28Bank One Ballpark49,646 3Arizona Diamondbacks - 1, New York Yankees - 2October 30Yankee Stadium55,820 4Arizona Diamondbacks - 3, New York Yankees - 4 (10 innings)October 31Yankee Stadium55,863 5Arizona Diamondbacks - 2, New York Yankees - 3 (12 innings)November 1Yankee Stadium56,018 6New York Yankees - 2, Arizona Diamondbacks - 15November 3Bank One Ballpark49,707 7New York Yankees - 2, Arizona Diamondbacks - 3November 4Bank One Ballpark49,589 Matchups Game 1 Saturday, October 27, 2001 at Bank One Ballpark in Phoenix, Arizona Arizona showed no fear and chased Yankee's starter Mike Mussina after just three innings. The Yankees gave up five unearned runs and the Diamondbacks rode Curt Schilling's seven strong innings to a 9–1 rout. Craig Counsell homered off Mussina in the first and Luis Gonzalez homered in the third, drove in two runs, and scored twice. Although the Yankees scored 1 run in the first, they were only able to get 3 hits. Game 2 Sunday, October 28, 2001 at Bank One Ballpark in Phoenix, Arizona Arizona continued to take control of the series behind the arm of Randy Johnson. The Big Unit pitched a complete game shutout, allowing only four baserunners and three hits while striking out 11 Yankees. Matt Williams hit a three-run homer in the seventh off Yankee starter Andy Pettitte as Arizona won 4–0 and took a commanding two games to none lead as the series headed to New York City. Game 3 Donning an FDNY fleece, with a bullet proof vest underneath, President Bush tosses out the ceremonial first pitch. Tuesday, October 30, 2001 at Yankee Stadium in Bronx, New York The game was opened in New York by President George W. Bush, who threw out the ceremonial first pitch, a strike to Yankees backup catcher Todd Greene. Bush became the first sitting President to throw out a World Series first pitch since Dwight D. Eisenhower in 1956. He also threw it from the mound where the pitcher would stand (unlike most ceremonial first pitches which are from in front of the mound) and threw it for a strike. Chants of "U-S-A, U-S-A" rang throughout Yankee Stadium. Yankees starter Roger Clemens allowed only three hits and struck out nine in seven innings of work. Yankees closer Mariano Rivera pitched two innings for the save. Scott Brosius broke a sixth inning tie with an RBI single to left. The Diamondbacks wasted a great outing from starter Brian Anderson by committing three crucial errors (2 in the 4th, 1 in the 6th) and running themselves out of the first inning. Game 4 Wednesday, October 31, 2001 at Yankee Stadium in Bronx, New York Arizona manager Bob Brenly took a gamble and started Curt Schilling on three days' rest. It worked as Schilling pitched seven strong innings and left the game with a 1–1 tie. The Diamondbacks took a 3–1 lead in the top of the eighth on an Erubiel Durazo double and a fielder's choice, which prompted Brenly to bring in closer Byung-Hyun Kim for a two inning save. Kim, at 22, became the first Korean-born player to play in the World Series. Kim struck out the side in the eighth, but the Yankees began their comeback in the ninth. First, Jeter tried bunting, but was out by one step. Then Paul O'Neill lined an opposite-field single in front of left fielder Luis Gonzalez. After Bernie Williams struck out, Tino Martinez hit a two-run home run on the first pitch he saw from Kim over the right-center field wall, tying the game 3–3. Brenly stuck with his closer as the game headed into extra innings. When the scoreboard clock in Yankee Stadium passed midnight, World Series play in November began. Derek Jeter hit an opposite field walk-off home run on a 3-2 pitch count from Kim. This walk-off home run gave the Yankees a 4–3 victory and tied the series at two, making Jeter the first player to hit a November home run and earning him the tongue-in-cheek nickname of "Mr. November." Game 5 Thursday, November 1, 2001 at Yankee Stadium in Bronx, New York For game five, Brenly started Miguel Batista, who pitched a strong 7 2/3 scoreless innings. Mussina bounced back from his poor game one start, but allowed solo home runs to Steve Finley and Rod Barajas in the fifth. With the Diamondbacks leading 2–0 in the ninth, Brenly again went to his closer, and for the second night in a row Byung-Hyun Kim failed to hold the lead. Jorge Posada doubled to open the inning, but Kim retired the next two batters. Then, with two outs in the ninth Scott Brosius hit a 1-0 pitch over the left field wall to tie the game at two. Yankee Stadium erupted after the Brosius Home Run, fans were literally rolling in the aisles. For the second straight night, the game went into extra innings following a ninth inning home run and the Yankees won it in the 12th when Alfonso Soriano knocked in Chuck Knoblauch with a base hit off Albie Lopez. New York went ahead three games to two in the series as the teams headed back to Arizona. In the top of the ninth inning, with the Yankees down 2–0, Paul O'Neill (retiring after the series) was serenaded by Yankees fans chanting his name in unison. Game 6 Saturday, November 3, 2001 at Bank One Ballpark in Phoenix, Arizona With Arizona in a must-win situation, the Diamondbacks provided Randy Johnson all the offense he would ever need. Johnson struck out seven in seven innings of work, giving up just two runs. The Diamondbacks rocked Yankee starter Andy Pettitte for six runs after two innings and nine more runs against reliever Jay Witasick in one and a third innings before Randy Choate and Mike Stanton kept them scoreless for the rest of the game. They hit six doubles and Danny Bautista went 3-4 with 5 RBIs. They set a World Series record with 22 hits and handed New York its most lopsided loss in 293 postseason games. The 15-2 win evened the series at three games apiece and set up a game seven for the ages between Roger Clemens and Curt Schilling, again pitching on three days' rest. Game 7 Sunday, November 4, 2001 at Bank One Ballpark in Phoenix, Arizona It was a matchup of two 20-game-winners in the series finale that would crown a new champion. Clemens at 39 years old became the oldest game seven starter ever. Schilling had already started two games of the series and pitched his 300th inning of the season on just three days' rest. The two aces matched each other inning by inning and after seven full, the game was tied at 1–1. The Diamondbacks scored first in the 6th inning with a Steve Finley single and a Danny Bautista double (Bautista would be called out at third base). The Yankees responded with an RBI single from Tino Martinez, which drove in Derek Jeter. Brenly stayed with Schilling into the eighth, and the move backfired as Alfonso Soriano hit a solo home run on an 0-2 pitch. After Schilling got one out, he gave up a single to David Justice, and he left the game trailing 2–1. Brenly brought in Miguel Batista to get out Derek Jeter and then in an unconventional move, brought in the previous night's starter Randy Johnson, who had thrown 104 pitches, in relief to keep it a one-run game. It proved to be a smart move, as Johnson retired all four Yankees he faced. With the Yankees ahead 2–1 in the bottom of the eighth, manager Joe Torre turned the game over to his ace closer Mariano Rivera for a two-inning save. Rivera was one of the strongest closers in the game, and had pitched brilliantly throughout the postseason up to that point. Rivera struck out the side in the eighth, including Arizona's sluggers Luis Gonzalez, Matt Williams, and Danny Bautista, which lowered his ERA in the postseason to a major league-best of 0.70. Although he was sharp in the eighth, this game would end in the third ninth-inning comeback of the Series. Mark Grace led off the inning with a single to center on a 1-0 pitch. The real turning point was Rivera's errant throw to second base on a bunt attempt by Damian Miller on an 0-1 pitch, putting runners on first and second. Derek Jeter tried to reach for the ball, but got tangled in the legs of pinch-runner David Dellucci, who was sliding in an attempt to break up the double play. Rivera appeared to regain control when he fielded Jay Bell's bunt and threw out Dellucci at third base, but third baseman Scott Brosius decided to hold the ball instead of throwing to first to attempt to complete the double play. Midre Cummings was sent in to pinch-run for Damien Miller. With Cummings at second and Bell at first, the next batter, Tony Womack, drove a double down the right-field line on a 2-2 pitch that evened the score and blew the save. Bell went to third and the Yankees pulled the infield and the outfield in as the potential winning run stood at third with less than two outs. After Rivera hit Craig Counsell with an 0-1 pitch, the bases were loaded. The winning run would be batted in with a gentle tap over the drawn-in infield. On an 0-1 pitch, Luis Gonzalez lofted a soft single over Derek Jeter that barely reached the outfield grass, plating Jay Bell with the winning run. This ended New York's bid for a fourth consecutive title and brought Arizona its first championship in just its fourth year of existence, making the Diamondbacks the fastest expansion team to win a World Series. Composite Box 2001 World Series (4-3): Arizona Diamondbacks (N.L.) over New York Yankees (A.L.) Series quotes Notes References External links Book on 2001 WS is "the last word on the inside game of baseball" SI.com: MLB Postseason 2001 USA Today: Quest for a Title CBS Sportsline: 2001 MLB Playoffs 2001 World Series by Baseball Almanac 2001 World Series - ARI vs. NYY - Baseball-Reference.com | 2001_World_Series |@lemmatized world:22 series:48 november:10 take:7 place:2 arizona:26 diamondback:24 new:18 york:21 yankee:41 win:20 best:2 seven:14 four:5 game:46 three:18 feature:4 two:23 extra:3 inning:33 late:2 comeback:4 end:6 walk:3 hit:15 first:24 since:4 edgar:1 rentería:1 form:1 bloop:2 single:9 bat:2 luis:8 gonzalez:9 ever:4 play:6 state:1 third:9 base:6 load:2 bottom:3 final:1 florida:2 marlin:2 minnesota:2 twin:2 last:4 national:1 league:3 home:14 field:7 advantage:1 yet:1 clinch:1 current:1 star:1 format:1 wild:2 card:2 team:8 randy:6 johnson:7 curt:5 schilling:9 co:1 mvp:1 combine:1 record:4 era:2 strike:9 background:1 break:5 previously:1 hold:4 reach:3 fourth:4 season:3 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5,422 | Diplomatic_mission | Indian embassy in Berlin, Germany Seal on the building of German Embassies. Text: "Federal Republic of Germany - Embassy" A diplomatic mission is a group of people from one state or an international inter-governmental organization (such as the United Nations) present in another state to represent the sending state/organization in the receiving state. In practice, a diplomatic mission usually denotes the permanent mission, namely the office of a country's diplomatic representatives in the capital city of another country. Naming A permanent diplomatic mission is typically known as an Embassy or Chancery, and the person in charge of the mission is known as an ambassador. The ambassadorial residence is generally called the embassy. Some ambassadors will live outside of the chancery. For example, the American ambassador to Russia lives in a mansion known as Spaso House outside of the chancery. Missions between Commonwealth countries are known as High Commissions and their heads are High Commissioners. This is due to the fact that an ambassador is a representative that a Head of State sends to another Head of State with an accreditation letter, and since most of the Commonwealth realms share the same Head of State (the British Monarch), it would be strange for the British Monarch to accredit people to herself. All missions to the United Nations are known simply as Permanent Missions, while missions to the European Union are known as "Permanent Representations" and the head of such a mission is typically both a Permanent Representative and an ambassador. European Union missions abroad are known as "delegations". Some countries have more particular naming for their missions and staff: a Vatican mission is headed by a Nuncio and consequently known as an Apostolic Nunciature, while Libya's missions were for a long time known as People's Bureaux and the head of the mission was a Secretary. In the past a diplomatic mission headed by a lower ranking official (an envoy or minister resident) was known as a legation. Since the ranks of envoy and minister resident are effectively obsolete, the designation of legation is no longer used today. (See diplomatic rank.) In cases of dispute, it is common for a country to recall its head of mission as a sign of its displeasure. This is less drastic than cutting diplomatic relations completely, and the mission will still continue operating more or less normally, but it will now be headed by a chargé d'affaires who may have limited powers. Note that for the period of succession between two heads of missions, a chargé d'affaires ad interim may be appointed as caretaker; this does not imply any hostility to the host country. A Consulate is similar to (but not the same as) a diplomatic office, but with focus on dealing with individual persons and businesses, as defined by the Vienna Convention on Consular Relations. A Consulate or Consulate-General is generally a representative of the Embassy in locales outside of the capital city. For instance, The British Embassy to the United States is in Washington, D.C., and there are British Consulates in Los Angeles, New York City, Houston, and so on. The person in charge of a consulate or consulate-general is known as a consul or consul-general, respectively. Similar services may also be provided at the embassy (to serve the region of the capital) in what is sometimes called a consular section. The term "embassy" is often used to refer to the building or compound housing an ambassador's offices and staff. Technically, "embassy" refers to the diplomatic delegation itself, while the office building in which they work is known as a chancery, but this distinction is rarely used in practice. Ambassadors reside in ambassadorial residences, which enjoy the same rights as missions. Extraterritoriality Nordic Embassies Berlin United States Interests Section in Havana Indonesian Embassy in Canberra South Korean Embassy in Diplomatstaden, Stockholm Contrary to common belief, diplomatic missions do not enjoy an extraterritorial status: "Diplomatic and consular premises are not extraterritorial. The status of diplomatic and consular premises arises from the rules of law relating to immunity from the prescriptive and enforcement jurisdiction of the receiving state"They are only required to pay taxes equal to their respective countries' guidelines. As the host country may not enter the representing country's embassy without permission, embassies are sometimes used by refugees escaping from either the host country or a third country. For example, North Korean nationals, who would be arrested and deported from China upon discovery, have sought sanctuary at various third-country embassies in China. Once inside the embassy, diplomatic channels can be used to solve the issue and send the refugees to another country. Notable violations of embassy extraterritoriality include the Iran hostage crisis (1979–1981) and the Japanese embassy hostage crisis which took place at the ambassador's residence in Lima, Peru during 1996. Role The role of such a mission is to protect in the receiving State the interests of the sending State and of its nationals, within the limits permitted by international law; negotiating with the Government of the receiving State as directed by the sending State; ascertaining by lawful means conditions and developments in the receiving State, and reporting thereon to the Government of the sending State; promoting friendly relations between the sending State and the receiving State, and developing their economic, cultural and scientific relations. Between members of the Commonwealth of Nations there are no embassies, but High Commissions, as Commonwealth nations share a special diplomatic relationship. It is generally expected that an embassy of a Commonwealth country in a non-Commonwealth country will do its best to provide diplomatic services to citizens from other Commonwealth countries if the citizen's country does not have an embassy in that country. Canadian and Australian nationals enjoy even greater cooperation between their respective consular services, as outlined in Canada/Australian Consular Services Sharing Agreement. The same kind of procedure is also followed multilaterally by the member states of the European Union (EU). European citizens in need of consular help in a country without diplomatic or consular representation of their own country may turn to any consular or diplomatic mission of another EU member state. The rights and immunities (such as diplomatic immunity) of diplomatic missions are codified in the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations. Nations that are not recognized have legations overseas but these are not recognized as having official diplomatic status as defined by the Vienna Convention. These de facto embassies are usually referred to as Representative Offices. Some examples of these types of missions: the Representative Office of the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus in Washington, D.C.; Somaliland's representatives in London, Addis Ababa, Rome, and Washington, D.C.; the Republic of Nagorno-Karabakh has a representative office in Washington, D.C.; the Taipei Economic and Cultural Office in Washington, D.C. (representing the Republic of China); and the American Institute in Taiwan (representing the United States in Taiwan). Under United States law, such offices are regarded by the State Department officially as "information centers" and the persons working in them do not have diplomatic visas, nor are credentials from their chiefs of mission accepted. Countries that are not sovereign states may set up offices abroad, as in the case of Hong Kong, which government has set up Hong Kong Economic and Trade Offices in various locations. Such offices assume some of the non-diplomatic functions of diplomatic posts, such as promoting trade interests and providing assistance to its citizens and residents. They are nevertheless not diplomatic missions, their personnel are not diplomats and do not have diplomatic visas, although there may be legislation providing for personal immunities and tax privileges, as in the case of the HKETOs in London and Toronto, for example. Some cities may host more than one mission from the same country. An example is Rome, where many states maintain missions to Italy, another to the Holy See and even another to the Sovereign Military Order of Malta. It is not customary for these missions to share premises nor diplomatic personnel. Presently only the Iraqi missions to Italy and the Holy See share premises; however, two ambassadors are appointed, one to each country. Geneva, a Swiss city hosting many international organizations, also has many missions. See also Diplomacy Paradiplomacy List of people who took refuge in a diplomatic mission List of diplomatic missions External links Embassies and consulates around the world Embassies and Consulates Search Directory What is the difference between an Embassy and a Consulate? | Diplomatic_mission |@lemmatized indian:1 embassy:26 berlin:2 germany:2 seal:1 building:3 german:1 text:1 federal:1 republic:4 diplomatic:29 mission:34 group:1 people:4 one:3 state:25 international:3 inter:1 governmental:1 organization:3 united:6 nation:5 present:1 another:7 represent:4 send:6 receiving:4 practice:2 usually:2 denote:1 permanent:5 namely:1 office:12 country:23 representative:8 capital:3 city:5 name:1 typically:2 know:12 chancery:4 person:4 charge:2 ambassador:9 ambassadorial:2 residence:3 generally:3 call:2 live:1 outside:3 example:5 american:2 russia:1 life:1 mansion:1 spaso:1 house:1 commonwealth:7 high:3 commission:2 head:11 commissioner:1 due:1 fact:1 sends:1 accreditation:1 letter:1 since:2 realm:1 share:5 british:4 monarch:2 would:2 strange:1 accredit:1 simply:1 european:4 union:3 representation:2 abroad:2 delegation:2 particular:1 naming:1 staff:2 vatican:1 nuncio:1 consequently:1 apostolic:1 nunciature:1 libya:1 long:1 time:1 bureau:1 secretary:1 past:1 low:1 ranking:1 official:2 envoy:2 minister:2 resident:3 legation:3 rank:2 effectively:1 obsolete:1 designation:1 longer:1 use:5 today:1 see:4 case:3 dispute:1 common:2 recall:1 sign:1 displeasure:1 less:2 drastic:1 cut:1 relation:5 completely:1 still:1 continue:1 operate:1 normally:1 chargé:2 affaire:2 may:8 limited:1 power:1 note:1 period:1 succession:1 two:2 ad:1 interim:1 appoint:2 caretaker:1 imply:1 hostility:1 host:5 consulate:9 similar:2 focus:1 deal:1 individual:1 business:1 define:2 vienna:3 convention:3 consular:9 general:3 locale:1 instance:1 washington:5 c:5 los:1 angeles:1 new:1 york:1 houston:1 consul:2 respectively:1 service:4 also:4 provide:4 serve:1 region:1 sometimes:2 section:2 term:1 often:1 refer:2 compound:1 housing:1 technically:1 refers:1 work:2 distinction:1 rarely:1 reside:1 enjoy:3 right:2 extraterritoriality:2 nordic:1 interest:3 havana:1 indonesian:1 canberra:1 south:1 korean:2 diplomatstaden:1 stockholm:1 contrary:1 belief:1 extraterritorial:2 status:3 premise:4 arises:1 rule:1 law:3 relate:1 immunity:4 prescriptive:1 enforcement:1 jurisdiction:1 receive:2 required:1 pay:1 tax:2 equal:1 respective:2 guideline:1 enter:1 without:2 permission:1 refugee:2 escape:1 either:1 third:2 north:1 national:3 arrest:1 deport:1 china:3 upon:1 discovery:1 seek:1 sanctuary:1 various:2 inside:1 channel:1 solve:1 issue:1 notable:1 violation:1 include:1 iran:1 hostage:2 crisis:2 japanese:1 take:2 place:1 lima:1 peru:1 role:2 protect:1 within:1 limit:1 permit:1 negotiate:1 government:3 direct:1 ascertain:1 lawful:1 mean:1 condition:1 development:1 report:1 thereon:1 promote:2 friendly:1 develop:1 economic:3 cultural:2 scientific:1 member:3 special:1 relationship:1 expect:1 non:2 best:1 citizen:4 canadian:1 australian:2 even:2 great:1 cooperation:1 outline:1 canada:1 agreement:1 kind:1 procedure:1 follow:1 multilaterally:1 eu:2 need:1 help:1 turn:1 codify:1 recognize:2 overseas:1 de:1 facto:1 type:1 turkish:1 northern:1 cyprus:1 somaliland:1 london:2 addis:1 ababa:1 rome:2 nagorno:1 karabakh:1 taipei:1 institute:1 taiwan:2 regard:1 department:1 officially:1 information:1 center:1 visa:2 credential:1 chief:1 accept:1 sovereign:2 set:2 hong:2 kong:2 trade:2 location:1 assume:1 function:1 post:1 assistance:1 nevertheless:1 personnel:2 diplomat:1 although:1 legislation:1 personal:1 privilege:1 hketos:1 toronto:1 many:3 maintain:1 italy:2 holy:2 military:1 order:1 malta:1 customary:1 presently:1 iraqi:1 however:1 geneva:1 swiss:1 diplomacy:1 paradiplomacy:1 list:2 refuge:1 external:1 link:1 around:1 world:1 search:1 directory:1 difference:1 |@bigram diplomatic_mission:10 inter_governmental:1 commonwealth_realm:1 diplomatic_relation:2 chargé_affaire:2 los_angeles:1 embassy_canberra:1 hostage_crisis:2 lima_peru:1 diplomatic_immunity:1 de_facto:1 addis_ababa:1 nagorno_karabakh:1 hong_kong:2 external_link:1 |
5,423 | Kingdom_of_Israel | The Kingdom of Israel may refer to one several ancient kingdoms in the Land of Israel. The Kingdom of Israel established under Saul which united the Israelites under a single king. The northern kingdom of Israel established under Jeroboam when the original kingdom divided in two. The kingdom of Israel established by the Hasmoneans. The kingdom of Israel ruled by Herod the Great. | Kingdom_of_Israel |@lemmatized kingdom:7 israel:6 may:1 refer:1 one:1 several:1 ancient:1 land:1 establish:3 saul:1 unite:1 israelite:1 single:1 king:1 northern:1 jeroboam:1 original:1 divide:1 two:1 hasmoneans:1 rule:1 herod:1 great:1 |@bigram |
5,424 | Foreign_relations_of_Italy | This article describes the foreign relations of Italy. International organization participation AfDB, AsDB, Australia Group, BIS, BSEC (observer), CDB (non-regional), CE, CEI, CERN, EAPC, EBRD, ECE, ECLAC, EIB, EMU, ESA, EU, FAO, G8, G-10, IADB, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICC, ICRM, IDA, IEA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS IHO, ILO, IMF, International Maritime Organization, Inmarsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, ITUC, LAIA (observer), MINURSO, MONUC, NAM (guest), NATO, NEA, NSG, OAS (observer), OECD, OPCW, OSCE, PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNIFIL, UNIKOM, UNITAR, UNMIBH, UNMIK, UNMOGIP, UNSC, UNTSO, UPU WCO, WEU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO, Zangger Committee Foreign relations Italy was one of the Founding members of the European Community — now the European Union (EU). The country was admitted to the United Nations in 1955 and is a member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade/World Trade Organization (GATT/WTO), the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), and the Council of Europe. It chaired the CSCE (the forerunner of the OSCE) in 1994, the EU in 1996, and the G8 in 2001, and held the EU presidency from July to December 2003. Italy participated in and deployed troops in support of UN peacekeeping missions in Somalia, Mozambique, and East Timor and provides critical support for NATO and UN operations in Bosnia, Kosovo and Albania. 1,000 Alpini troops were deployed to Afghanistan in support of Operation Enduring Freedom (OEF) in February 2003. Italy also supported international efforts to reconstruct and stabilize Iraq through its military contingent of some 3,200 troops, as well as humanitarian workers and other officials. The troops remained in Iraq until December 2006 when they were retrieved by the Prodi-government. In August 2006 Italy sent about 3,000 soldiers to Lebanon for the ONU peacekeeping mission UNIFIL. "Italian soldiers leave for Lebanon Il Corriere della Sera, 30 August 2006 Furthermore, since 2 February 2007 an Italian, Claudio Graziano is the commander of the UN force in the country. The Italian government seeks to obtain consensus with other European countries on various defense and security issues within the EU as well as NATO. European integration and the development of common defense and security policies will continue to be of primary interest to Italy. In February 2007, Italy, Britain, Canada, Norway and Russia announced their funding commitments to launch a $1.5 billion project to help develop vaccines they said could save millions of lives in poor nations, and called on others to join them. "Rich Nations Launch Vaccine Pact". Reuters. 10 February 2007. Relations with the United States The United States enjoy a peculiar relation with Italy, as the latter, defeated in WWII, has been a secret battlefield of the Cold War. Italy and the US are NATO allies and cooperate in the United Nations, in various regional organizations, and bilaterally. Italy has worked closely with the United States and with other nations on such issues as NATO and UN operations as well as with assistance to Russia and the New Independent States; the Middle East peace process; multilateral talks; Somalia and Mozambique peacekeeping; and combating drug trafficking, trafficking in women and children, and terrorism. Under longstanding bilateral agreements flowing from NATO membership, Italy hosts important U.S. military forces at Vicenza and Livorno (army); Aviano (air force); and Sigonella, Gaeta, and Naples- home port for the U.S. Navy Sixth Fleet. The United States still has about 16,000 military personnel stationed in Italy. The NATO War College is situated at Cecchignola, near Rome. Also, investigations continue about the killing of Italian Military Intelligence service officer Nicola Calipari by United States troops during the liberation of Giuliana Sgrena and about the abduction and torture of terrorism suspect Abu Omar by CIA agents. Relations with Russia Relations with the People's Republic of China In 2005, Italy and the People's Republic of China have celebrated the 35th anniversary of the establishment of diplomatic relations between the two nations. However, China's massive exports of textile and footwear into Italy are said to be a rising concern to Italy's economy and productivity People's Daily Online - China-Italy relations experiencing "powerful acceleration": Fini . Relations with Croatia and Slovenia Italy and Slovenia made progress in resolving bilateral issues; Croatia and Italy made progress toward resolving a bilateral issue dating from World War II over property and ethnic minority rights. Italy is in dispute with Croatia over the Croatian contiguous zone in the Adriatic Sea. Croatia invoked her contiguous zone in 2003, but soon came under pressure from Italy, because that would break an earlier agreement with Italy and Slovenia Croatia's Mesic suggests modification of proposed fishing zone likely (SETimes.com) . Today, the Croatian contiguous zone doesn't apply to EU countries, but that has automatically changed on 1 January 2008. According to Croatian officials, Italy has threatened Croatia to block its acceptance to EU. In the meantime, Italy invoked her own contiguous zone in Adriatic, without breaking the agreement on fishing zones. On 10 December 2007, Italy published a stamp bearing the inscription "Fiume - terra orientale già italiana" (meaning "Rijeka (city in Croatia) - eastern land once part of Italy"). This move caused strong protest from Croatia. Italy, where tens of thousands of Italian-speaking exiles from Histria, the Kvarner and Dalmatia live with their descendants, firmly refuses to revoke the stamp. Relations with Israel Political Cooperation The relations between Italy and Israel, traditionally intense, have registered during recent years a progressive reinforcement in all sectors, and the political dialogue has developed in the most extensive meaning of the word. Italian politicians and businessmen frequently visit Israel. The Israeli Government has followed the fight against international terrorism pursued by the Italian Government (also in the European arena: the decision of Riva del Garda to add Hamas in the European list of organizations considered as terrorist). It has also been appreciated what the Italian Presidency has done in the framework of the United Nations on the Middle Eastern issues. Finally, Israel welcomed the coherent and firm line of conduct, on the part of all Italian institutions, in contrasting the emergence of anti-Semitism in every possible form. Cultural Cooperation Italian culture is well-admired in Italy. Israelis know Italy well, and visit Italy frequently for various reasons. A special connection between Italian culture and the Israeli society has been constituted through the lively activity of the community of Italian Jews who immigrated to Israel, in particular the community in Jerusalem, consisting of about 5000 people. The promotion of the Italian culture has therefore become pivotal also in the context of valorizing the antique and rich Jewish-Italian heritage, as well as deepening the collaboration with the associations that represent the Jews of Italian origin in Israel. The Embassy and the Italian Cultural Institute in Tel Aviv have recently stimulated the creation of an Association called "Amitei Italia" (Friends of Italy),consisting of over 15,000 individuals This initiative stands side by side with the establishing, during last fall, of the "Club degli amici dell'Istituto Italiano di Cultura", that is, the "Club of the friends of the Italian Cultural Institute". The Italian language is being taught in various centers around the country. The total number of students studying in centers under the direct control of the Italian Cultural Institute on 2004 reached 1500, in 150 courses with 30 teachers, reaching 2500 if the Dante Aghileri school figures are considered. Recently, the possibility of introducing the teaching of the Italian language in various high schools and academic institutes has been successfully negotiated. The average of registrations of young Israeli students to Italian universities stands on about 400 per year, mainly in the sectors of medicine, law, science, politics, architecture, and art. The registrations for courses for the academic year 2004-2005 have seen a major increase of about 10%. Embassy of Italy in Tel Aviv North Africa Relations with Egypt Relations between both countries were established during the period of the Roman Empire. However in World War II, relations were strained as Italy invaded Egypt. However after the war, relations were re-established and are close. Egypt has representations in Rome and Milan, while Italy has representations in Cairo and Alexandria, also the two nations are members of the Union for the Mediterranean. Relations with Tunisia Both countries established diplomatic relations in 1957. Italy has an embassy in Tunis and 3 honorary consulates (in Bizerte, Sfax and Sousse). Tunisia has an embassy in Rome, a general consulate in Palermo, 3 consulates (in Genoa, Milan and Naples) and 2 honorary consulates (in Bari and Novara). Both countries are full members of the Union for the Mediterranean. There was an important Italian community living in Tunisia before the independence. Relations with the Pacific On January 21, 2008, the Solomon Times reported that Italy had "pledged to convene an Italian-Pacific Islands Forum towards the end of 2008". The newspaper reported that Italy wished to "deepen [its] bilateral relations with Pacific Island countries". Italy has applied to be a dialogue partner of the Pacific Islands Forum, and attended a Forum meeting in Tonga in October 2007. A Memorandum of Understanding between Italy and the Pacific Islands countries exists as a commitment to provide development aid. "Italy to Convene Italian-Pacific Islands Forum", Joanna Sireheti, Solomon Times, January 21, 2008 However, the fall of the Prodi government a few days after the publication of this article has left the future of Italy-Pacific Islands relations potentially uncertain. International disputes Investigations continue about the killing of SISMI service officer Nicola Calipari by United States troops during the liberation of Giuliana Sgrena and about the abduction and torture of terrorism suspect Abu Omar by CIA agents. Still large popular resentment about alleged U.S. and French involvement in the crash of Itavia Flight 870 and subsequent cover-up over Ustica in 1980, as for the NATO-sponsored strategy of tension in the 70s-80s and the Cavalese cable-car disaster in the 90s. Italy – wishing for a seat for the whole European Union – opposes the request of G4 nations (Brazil, Germany, India and Japan) for a permanent seat in the UN Security Council, accusing them of buying votes of poorer countries using aid money. Illegal immigration Italian and Albanian authorities managed to basically stop the flow of illegal immigrants and human trafficking from the Albanian coast to Italy, that have acquired great significance toward the end of the last century. From the beginning of the current century the most important flow of immigrants come from the coasts and the illegal organizations of Libya. Although an Italian-Libyan agreement exists it is substantially ineffective, probably the failure of this collaboration is favoured by the not very good relationship between the two governments. However, as for almost all continental European countries, the numerically biggest flow come from terrestrial borders. Illicit drugs United States authorities allege Italy is an important gateway for and consumer of Latin American cocaine and Southwest Asian heroin entering the European market. References See also Treaty of Osimo Treaty of Rapallo Iran-Italy relations Iraq-Italy relations Italian diplomatic missions List of diplomatic missions in Italy | Foreign_relations_of_Italy |@lemmatized article:2 describe:1 foreign:2 relation:22 italy:47 international:5 organization:8 participation:1 afdb:1 asdb:1 australia:1 group:1 bi:1 bsec:1 observer:3 cdb:1 non:1 regional:2 ce:1 cei:1 cern:1 eapc:1 ebrd:1 ece:1 eclac:1 eib:1 emu:1 esa:1 eu:7 fao:1 g:1 iadb:1 iaea:1 ibrd:1 icao:1 icc:2 icrm:1 ida:1 iea:1 ifad:1 ifc:1 ifrcs:1 iho:1 ilo:1 imf:1 maritime:1 inmarsat:1 interpol:1 ioc:1 iom:1 iso:1 itu:1 ituc:1 laia:1 minurso:1 monuc:1 nam:1 guest:1 nato:9 nea:1 nsg:1 oas:1 oecd:2 opcw:1 osce:3 pca:1 un:6 unctad:1 unesco:1 unhcr:1 unido:1 unifil:2 unikom:1 unitar:1 unmibh:1 unmik:1 unmogip:1 unsc:1 untso:1 upu:1 wco:1 weu:1 wipo:1 wmo:1 wtoo:1 wtro:1 zangger:1 committee:1 one:1 found:1 member:4 european:9 community:4 union:4 country:12 admit:1 united:10 nation:9 north:2 atlantic:1 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5,425 | List_of_anthropologists | The following list is obsolete. Please make no further additions to the list. For scientists and scholars of anthropology, refer to the category Anthropologists . __NOTOC__ K Sergei Kan Jomo Kenyatta David Kertzer Anatoly Khazanov Richard G. Klein Dorinne K. Kondo Andrey Korotayev Conrad Kottak Grover Krantz Charles H. Kraft Tiffany Kreger Kewal Krishan Alfred L. Kroeber Theodora Kroeber Adam Kuper L William Labov George Lakoff Harold E. Lambert Bruno Lator Edmund Leach Murray Leaf Louis Leakey Mary Leakey Richard Leakey Richard Borshay Lee Claude Lévi-Strauss Robert Lowie Nancy Lurie M Alan Macfarlane Saba Mahmood Bronisław Malinowski John Alden Mason Marcel Mauss Phillip McArthur Margaret Mead Mervyn Meggitt Josef Mengele Nikolay Miklukho-Maklay Emily Martin Sidney Mintz Ashley Montagu James Mooney John H. Moore Lewis H. Morgan George Murdock R Paul Rabinow Nicholas Randinhof Wilhelm Radloff Roy Rappaport Hans Ras Alfred Reginald Radcliffe-Brown Gerardo Reichel-Dolmatoff Kathy Reichs Audrey Richards W. H. R. Rivers Paul Rivet Carlos David Rodríguez Flórez Editor by International Journal of Dental Anthropology - IJDA Ernesto León Rodríguez Flórez Editor by International Journal of Dental Anthropology - IJDA Eric Ross Gayle Rubin Robert A. Rubinstein Breanna Rodgers | List_of_anthropologists |@lemmatized following:1 list:2 obsolete:1 please:1 make:1 addition:1 scientist:1 scholar:1 anthropology:3 refer:1 category:1 anthropologist:1 k:2 sergei:1 kan:1 jomo:1 kenyatta:1 david:2 kertzer:1 anatoly:1 khazanov:1 richard:3 g:1 klein:1 dorinne:1 kondo:1 andrey:1 korotayev:1 conrad:1 kottak:1 grover:1 krantz:1 charles:1 h:4 kraft:1 tiffany:1 kreger:1 kewal:1 krishan:1 alfred:2 l:2 kroeber:2 theodora:1 adam:1 kuper:1 william:1 labov:1 george:2 lakoff:1 harold:1 e:1 lambert:1 bruno:1 lator:1 edmund:1 leach:1 murray:1 leaf:1 louis:1 leakey:3 mary:1 borshay:1 lee:1 claude:1 lévi:1 strauss:1 robert:2 lowie:1 nancy:1 lurie:1 alan:1 macfarlane:1 saba:1 mahmood:1 bronisław:1 malinowski:1 john:2 alden:1 mason:1 marcel:1 mauss:1 phillip:1 mcarthur:1 margaret:1 mead:1 mervyn:1 meggitt:1 josef:1 mengele:1 nikolay:1 miklukho:1 maklay:1 emily:1 martin:1 sidney:1 mintz:1 ashley:1 montagu:1 jam:1 mooney:1 moore:1 lewis:1 morgan:1 murdock:1 r:2 paul:2 rabinow:1 nicholas:1 randinhof:1 wilhelm:1 radloff:1 roy:1 rappaport:1 han:1 ras:1 reginald:1 radcliffe:1 brown:1 gerardo:1 reichel:1 dolmatoff:1 kathy:1 reich:1 audrey:1 richards:1 w:1 river:1 rivet:1 carlos:1 rodríguez:2 flórez:2 editor:2 international:2 journal:2 dental:2 ijda:2 ernesto:1 león:1 eric:1 ross:1 gayle:1 rubin:1 rubinstein:1 breanna:1 rodgers:1 |@bigram jomo_kenyatta:1 george_lakoff:1 claude_lévi:1 lévi_strauss:1 robert_lowie:1 bronisław_malinowski:1 marcel_mauss:1 margaret_mead:1 |
5,426 | Motel | A motel is a hotel designed for motorists to stay en route. Entering dictionaries after World War II, the word motel, a portmanteau of motor and hotel or motorists' hotel, referred initially to a type of hotel consisting of a single building of connected rooms whose doors faced a parking lot and, in some circumstances, a common area; or a series of small cabins with common parking. As the United States highway system began to develop in the 1920s, long distance road journeys became more common and the need for inexpensive, easily accessible overnight accommodation sited close to the main routes, led to the growth of the motel concept. History Wigwam Motel No. 6, a unique motel/motor court on historic Route 66 in Holbrook, ArizonaAuto camps predated motels by a few years. Los Angeles Times, "Hanlon before the Council is favoring a site just outside the city limits for an auto tourist camp.," February 8, 1923 Unlike motels, auto camps and tourist courts typically provided bed and breakfast or hotel style service, usually with stand-alone cabins. After the invention of the motel, auto camps continued in popularity through the Depression years and after World War II, their popularity finally starting to diminish with the construction of freeways and changes in consumer demands. Examples include the Rising Sun Auto Camp in Glacier National Park and Blue Bonnet Court in Texas. Such facilities were "mom-and-pop" facilities on the outskirts of a town that were as quirky as their owners. They attracted the first "road warriors" as they crossed North America in their new automobiles. In contrast, though they remained "Mom and Pop" operations, motels quickly adopted a homogenized appearance and were designed from the start to cater purely for motorists. The motel concept originated with the Motel Inn of San Luis Obispo, constructed in 1925 by Arthur Heineman. In conceiving of a name for his hotel Heineman abbreviated motor hotel to mo-tel. Motels are typically constructed in an 'I'- or 'L'- or 'U'-shaped layout that includes guest rooms, an attached manager's office, a small reception and, in some cases, a small diner. Post-war motels sought more visual distinction, often featuring eye-catching neon signs which employed themes from popular culture, ranging from Western imagery of cowboys and Indians to contemporary images of spaceships and atomic era iconography. Motels differ from hotels in their common location along highways, as opposed to the urban cores favored by hotels, and their orientation to the outside (in contrast to hotels whose doors typically face an interior hallway). Motels almost by definition include a parking lot, while older hotels were not built with automobile parking in mind. With the 1952 introduction of Kemmons Wilson's Holiday Inn, the mom-and-pop motels of that era went into decline. Eventually, the emergence of the interstate highway system, along with other factors, led to a blurring of the motel and the hotel, though family-owned motels with as few as five rooms may still be found, especially along older highways. Long-term Motels with low rates sometimes serve as housing for people who are not able to afford an apartment or have recently lost their home and need somewhere to stay until further arrangements are made. Motels catering to long-term stays often have kitchenettes. Short-time See also: Love hotel In most countries of Latin America and some countries of East Asia, motels are also known as short-time hotels, and offer a short-time or "transit" stay with hourly rates primarily intended for people having sexual liaisons and not requiring a full night's accommodation. In Mexico love hotel equivalents are known as "Motel de paso" (Passing Motel) (even if they are actually meant mostly for pedestrian access). In Colombia, Venezuela and Brazil, motels are used by people for sexual intercourse only. In Argentina these establishments are called albergue transitorio ("temporary lodging"), though known as telo in vesre-slang. In Panama love hotels are known as Push Bottoms. In Paraguay, similarly to Brazil and Colombia, motels may charge only by the hour and are also popularly known as reservados. In Singapore, cheap hotels often offer a slightly more euphemistic "transit" stay for short-time visitors. In Manila, a campaign against the hotels, believed by religious conservatives to contribute to social decay in the predominantly Roman Catholic country, ended with the city banning hotels from offering stays of very short duration. As of December 2006 there are still many short time hotels in operation. In Belgium and France, these establishments are known as hôtels de passe. In Chile, they are known as moteles parejeros (coupling motels), and many of them offer hourly rates. In the United States and Canada, some ordinary motels in low income areas—often called no-tell motels or hot sheet motels—play a similar role to love hotels. Films Bates Motel set at Universal Studios The Bates Motel is an important part of Psycho, a 1959 novel by Robert Bloch and the 1960 Alfred Hitchcock film of the same name. Film sequels Psycho II and Psycho III feature the motel as does the 1987 television movie Bates Motel. The motel makes appearances in Psycho IV: The Beginning, but is not featured as much as in previous films. The Bates Motel returned to prominence in the 1998 remake of the original film. Legal issues Motels have also served as a haven for fugitives of the law. In the past, the anonymity and the ability to move around easily between motels in different regions by dropping in and checking out with a simple registration process allowed fugitives to remain ahead of the law. However, several advances have reduced the capacity of motels to serve this purpose. Credit card transactions, which in the past were more easily approved and took days to report, are now approved or declined on the spot, and are instantly recorded in a database, thereby allowing law enforcement access to this information. This system was implemented in 1993 after the abduction and murder of Donna Martz, whose credit card was used by her killers following her death to purchase food, gasoline, and to pay for overnight motel stays Bismarck Tribune - Bismarck News - Rodriguez case may revive North Dakota death penalty debate . The story of Martz's disappearance, leading to the development of this system, was described on The FBI Files. Laws in many places now require registering guests to present a government-issued photo ID, especially when paying with cash. Local law enforcement agencies frequently check motels when they suspect a wanted individual may be staying in their jurisdiction. References External links Motel Americana - a page devoted to history, narratives, and design of postwar motels "Motel Memories" - from the Oct. 9 - Oct. 15, 1997 issue of Tucson Weekly Motel Signs - A collection of motel signs from around the US Motel Directory - A directory of motels from around the US Motels in England - Motels in England Directory | Motel |@lemmatized motel:49 hotel:21 design:3 motorist:3 stay:8 en:1 route:3 enter:1 dictionary:1 world:2 war:3 ii:3 word:1 portmanteau:1 motor:3 refer:1 initially:1 type:1 consisting:1 single:1 building:1 connect:1 room:3 whose:3 door:2 face:2 parking:4 lot:2 circumstance:1 common:4 area:2 series:1 small:3 cabin:2 united:2 state:2 highway:4 system:4 begin:1 develop:1 long:3 distance:1 road:2 journey:1 become:1 need:2 inexpensive:1 easily:3 accessible:1 overnight:2 accommodation:2 sit:1 close:1 main:1 lead:3 growth:1 concept:2 history:2 wigwam:1 unique:1 court:3 historic:1 holbrook:1 arizonaauto:1 camp:5 predate:1 year:2 los:1 angeles:1 time:6 hanlon:1 council:1 favor:2 site:1 outside:2 city:2 limit:1 auto:4 tourist:2 february:1 unlike:1 typically:3 provide:1 bed:1 breakfast:1 style:1 service:1 usually:1 stand:1 alone:1 invention:1 continue:1 popularity:2 depression:1 finally:1 start:2 diminish:1 construction:1 freeway:1 change:1 consumer:1 demand:1 example:1 include:3 rise:1 sun:1 glacier:1 national:1 park:1 blue:1 bonnet:1 texas:1 facility:2 mom:3 pop:3 outskirt:1 town:1 quirky:1 owner:1 attract:1 first:1 warrior:1 cross:1 north:2 america:2 new:1 automobile:2 contrast:2 though:3 remain:2 operation:2 quickly:1 adopt:1 homogenized:1 appearance:2 cater:2 purely:1 originate:1 inn:2 san:1 luis:1 obispo:1 construct:2 arthur:1 heineman:2 conceiving:1 name:2 abbreviate:1 mo:1 tel:1 l:1 u:3 shape:1 layout:1 guest:2 attached:1 manager:1 office:1 reception:1 case:2 diner:1 post:1 seek:1 visual:1 distinction:1 often:4 feature:3 eye:1 catch:1 neon:1 sign:3 employ:1 theme:1 popular:1 culture:1 range:1 western:1 imagery:1 cowboy:1 indian:1 contemporary:1 image:1 spaceship:1 atomic:1 era:2 iconography:1 differ:1 location:1 along:3 oppose:1 urban:1 core:1 orientation:1 interior:1 hallway:1 almost:1 definition:1 old:2 build:1 mind:1 introduction:1 kemmons:1 wilson:1 holiday:1 go:1 decline:2 eventually:1 emergence:1 interstate:1 factor:1 blurring:1 family:1 five:1 may:4 still:2 find:1 especially:2 term:2 low:2 rate:3 sometimes:1 serve:3 housing:1 people:3 able:1 afford:1 apartment:1 recently:1 lose:1 home:1 somewhere:1 arrangement:1 make:2 kitchenette:1 short:6 see:1 also:4 love:4 country:3 latin:1 east:1 asia:1 know:7 offer:4 transit:2 hourly:2 primarily:1 intend:1 sexual:2 liaison:1 require:2 full:1 night:1 mexico:1 equivalent:1 de:2 paso:1 pass:1 even:1 actually:1 mean:1 mostly:1 pedestrian:1 access:2 colombia:2 venezuela:1 brazil:2 use:2 intercourse:1 argentina:1 establishment:2 call:2 albergue:1 transitorio:1 temporary:1 lodging:1 telo:1 vesre:1 slang:1 panama:1 push:1 bottom:1 paraguay:1 similarly:1 charge:1 hour:1 popularly:1 reservados:1 singapore:1 cheap:1 slightly:1 euphemistic:1 visitor:1 manila:1 campaign:1 believe:1 religious:1 conservative:1 contribute:1 social:1 decay:1 predominantly:1 roman:1 catholic:1 end:1 ban:1 duration:1 december:1 many:3 belgium:1 france:1 hôtels:1 passe:1 chile:1 moteles:1 parejeros:1 couple:1 canada:1 ordinary:1 income:1 tell:1 hot:1 sheet:1 play:1 similar:1 role:1 film:5 bat:2 set:1 universal:1 studio:1 bates:2 important:1 part:1 psycho:4 novel:1 robert:1 bloch:1 alfred:1 hitchcock:1 sequel:1 iii:1 television:1 movie:1 iv:1 beginning:1 much:1 previous:1 return:1 prominence:1 remake:1 original:1 legal:1 issue:3 fugitive:2 law:5 past:2 anonymity:1 ability:1 move:1 around:3 different:1 region:1 drop:1 check:2 simple:1 registration:1 process:1 allow:2 ahead:1 however:1 several:1 advance:1 reduce:1 capacity:1 purpose:1 credit:2 card:2 transaction:1 approve:2 take:1 day:1 report:1 spot:1 instantly:1 record:1 database:1 thereby:1 enforcement:2 information:1 implement:1 abduction:1 murder:1 donna:1 martz:2 killer:1 follow:1 death:2 purchase:1 food:1 gasoline:1 pay:2 bismarck:2 tribune:1 news:1 rodriguez:1 revive:1 dakota:1 penalty:1 debate:1 story:1 disappearance:1 development:1 describe:1 fbi:1 file:1 place:1 register:1 present:1 government:1 photo:1 id:1 cash:1 local:1 agency:1 frequently:1 suspect:1 wanted:1 individual:1 jurisdiction:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 americana:1 page:1 devote:1 narrative:1 postwar:1 memory:1 oct:2 tucson:1 weekly:1 collection:1 directory:3 england:2 |@bigram en_route:1 parking_lot:2 los_angeles:1 bed_breakfast:1 mom_pop:3 luis_obispo:1 holiday_inn:1 interstate_highway:1 colombia_venezuela:1 sexual_intercourse:1 alfred_hitchcock:1 north_dakota:1 enforcement_agency:1 external_link:1 oct_oct:1 |
5,427 | Military_of_Kyrgyzstan | The armed forces of Kyrgyzstan, originally formed from former Soviet forces of the Turkestan Military District stationed in the newly independent state, includes the Army/Land Forces, the Air and Air Defence Forces, the Northern and Southern Groups of Forces, Interior Troops, and Border Troops. For much of the Soviet period, since 1967, the 8th Guards 'Panfilov' Motor Rifle Division was the main military force in the country, and the Division was only disbanded in January 2003. http://www8.brinkster.com/vad777/sng/kirgizia.htm - accessed Aug 2007 and Jan 2008 In 1967 the Division had been moved to Bishkek from the Baltic Military District, where it had previously been based. In terms of foreign presence, the U.S.-led Operation Enduring Freedom coalition use the Manas Air Base (Bishkek's international airport) while Russia has the 999th Air Base at Kant. Army The Army of Kyrgyzstan includes the 1st Motor Rifle Brigade (Mountain) at Osh, a brigade at Koi-tash, in the Bishkek area, the 25th Special Forces Brigade, independent battalions at Karakol and Naryn, and other units. Two Groups of Forces, the Southern, and more recently the Northern, have been active during Kyrgyzstan's history. In 2004, the Northern Group of Forces was reported as consisting of the Balykchynsky brigade, the brigade deployed in suburb of Bishkek, separate battalions in Karakol and Naryn,and other army units. Vad777, accessed July 2008, reporting http://www.sk.kg/2004/n19/7.html - 2004, a dead link Equipment Armoured vehicle numbers are from the relevant Wikipedia articles. T-72 MBTs - 215 AIFV / APC BTR-60 - 53 BTR-70 - 10 BTR-80 - 8 BMP-1 - 274 BRM - 113 BMP-2 - 101 BRDM-2 - 30 Artillery Towed BS-3 - 18 D-30 - 72 M-30 - 35 D-1 - 16 Self-Propelled 2S9 Anona - 12 Jane's Armour and Artillery 1997-98 ISBN 0 7106 1542 6 2S1 - 18 Heavy MORTAR's 2S12 - 6 M-120 - 48 MRL's BM-21 - 21 Light equipment AK-74 PK machine gun Air Force The Air and Air Defense Force includes a regiment of MiG-21s and L-39s, four Antonov transports, and a helicopter regiment (apx 23 Mi-8, 9 Mi-24). Estimates for the numbers of MiG-21s range from 48 to 60-odd. However, Brinkster.com says that only a few L-39s and the helicopters are capable of flight. All Kyrgyz military aircraft are reportedly based at Kant, alongside the Russian 999th Air Base. Because of expense and military doctrine, Kyrgyzstan has not developed its air capability; a large number of the MiG-21 interceptors that it borrowed from Russia were returned in 1993, although a number of former Soviet air bases remain available. In 1996 about 100 decommissioned MiG-21s remained in Kyrgyzstan, along with ninety-six L-39 trainers and sixty-five helicopters. The air defense forces have received aid from Russia, which has sent military advisory units to establish a defense system. Presently Kyrgyzstan has twenty-six SA-2 and SA-3 surface-to-air missiles in its air defense arsenal. Aircraft Inventory In downtown Bishkek. The sign says, "National Guard" ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Aircraft ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Origin ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Type ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Versions ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|In service Kyrgyzstan Air Force at globalsecurity.org ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Notes |- ! style="align: center; background: lavender;" colspan="7" | Fighter Aircraft |----- | Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21 Fishbed || || fighter || MiG-21 || 48 || 100 acquired from ex-USSR. |- ! style="align: center; background: lavender;" colspan="7" | Transport and Liaison Aircraft |----- | Antonov An-12 Cub || || transport || An-12 || 2 || |----- | Antonov An-26 Curl || || transport || An-26 || 2 || |- ! style="align: center; background: lavender;" colspan="7" | Trainer Aircraft |----- | Aero L-39 Albatros || || light attack/trainer || L-39 || 4 || 96 acquired from ex-USSR. |- ! style="align: center; background: lavender;" colspan="7" | Attack Helicopters |----- | Mil Mi-24 Hind || || attack || Mi-24 || 9 || 31 in storage |- ! style="align: center; background: lavender;" colspan="7" | Transport and Utility Helicopters |----- | Mil Mi-8 HipMil Mi-17 Hip-H || || transport/attack || Mi-8Mi-17 || 23 || 2 in storage |} Air Defense SA-2, SA-3 - 20 SA-4 - 12 SA-7 - ??? ZSU-23-4SP - 24 S-60 - 24 References and links CIA World Factbook, 2003 edition. IISS Military Balance, 2007 edition Further reading - Henry Plater-Zyberk, Kyrgyzstan - Focusing on Security, Conflict Studies Research Centre K41, November 2003 | Military_of_Kyrgyzstan |@lemmatized armed:1 force:13 kyrgyzstan:8 originally:1 form:1 former:2 soviet:3 turkestan:1 military:7 district:2 station:1 newly:1 independent:2 state:1 include:3 army:4 land:1 air:15 defence:1 northern:3 southern:2 group:3 interior:1 troop:2 border:1 much:1 period:1 since:1 guard:2 panfilov:1 motor:2 rifle:2 division:3 main:1 country:1 disband:1 january:1 http:2 brinkster:2 com:2 sng:1 kirgizia:1 htm:1 access:2 aug:1 jan:1 move:1 bishkek:5 baltic:1 previously:1 base:6 term:1 foreign:1 presence:1 u:1 lead:1 operation:1 endure:1 freedom:1 coalition:1 use:1 manas:1 international:1 airport:1 russia:3 kant:2 brigade:5 mountain:1 osh:1 koi:1 tash:1 area:1 special:1 battalion:2 karakol:2 naryn:2 unit:3 two:1 recently:1 active:1 history:1 report:2 consisting:1 balykchynsky:1 deploy:1 suburb:1 separate:1 july:1 www:1 sk:1 kg:1 html:1 dead:1 link:2 equipment:2 armour:2 vehicle:1 number:4 relevant:1 wikipedia:1 article:1 mbts:1 aifv:1 apc:1 btr:3 bmp:2 brm:1 brdm:1 artillery:2 tow:1 b:1 self:1 propel:1 anona:1 jane:1 isbn:1 heavy:1 mortar:1 mrl:1 bm:1 light:2 ak:1 pk:1 machine:1 gun:1 defense:5 regiment:2 mig:6 l:5 four:1 antonov:3 transport:6 helicopter:5 apx:1 mi:7 estimate:1 range:1 odd:1 however:1 say:2 capable:1 flight:1 kyrgyz:1 aircraft:6 reportedly:1 alongside:1 russian:1 expense:1 doctrine:1 develop:1 capability:1 large:1 interceptor:1 borrow:1 return:1 although:1 remain:2 available:1 decommission:1 along:1 ninety:1 six:2 trainer:3 sixty:1 five:1 receive:1 aid:1 send:1 advisory:1 establish:1 system:1 presently:1 twenty:1 sa:6 surface:1 missile:1 arsenal:1 inventory:1 downtown:1 sign:1 national:1 style:11 text:6 align:11 left:6 background:11 aacccc:6 origin:1 type:1 version:1 service:1 globalsecurity:1 org:1 note:1 center:5 lavender:5 colspan:5 fighter:2 mikoyan:1 gurevich:1 fishbed:1 acquire:2 ex:2 ussr:2 liaison:1 cub:1 curl:1 aero:1 albatros:1 attack:4 mil:2 hind:1 storage:2 utility:1 hipmil:1 hip:1 h:1 zsu:1 reference:1 cia:1 world:1 factbook:1 edition:2 iiss:1 balance:1 far:1 read:1 henry:1 plater:1 zyberk:1 focus:1 security:1 conflict:1 study:1 research:1 centre:1 november:1 |@bigram endure_freedom:1 http_www:1 btr_btr:2 self_propel:1 antonov_transport:1 sa_sa:4 align_left:6 background_aacccc:6 globalsecurity_org:1 align_center:5 background_lavender:5 lavender_colspan:5 mikoyan_gurevich:1 gurevich_mig:1 mig_fishbed:1 antonov_curl:1 l_albatros:1 helicopter_mil:2 mil_mi:2 mi_hind:1 utility_helicopter:1 iiss_military:1 |
5,428 | Morton_Downey,_Jr. | Morton Downey, Jr. (born Sean Morton Downey; December 9, 1933 - March 12, 2001) was an American television talk show host of the 1980s who pioneered the "trash TV" format. Career In the 1980s, Downey was a talk show host at KFBK-AM in Sacramento, California, Downey's entry at 440 International where he established his abrasive and much imitated right wing, populist style, relentlessly deriding anyone who disagreed with him or had a liberal point of view. Downey's success, coupled with the repeal of the Fairness Doctrine, laid the groundwork for more aggressive, opinion-based talk radio. His work led to the "trash talk" genre of Jerry Springer, Maury Povich, Ricki Lake, Steve Wilkos and many more. His quarrel with fellow radio talk show host Wally George (with each charging that the other was not conservative) on George's talk show led to police tackling Downey to the ground. YouTube - Wally George vs. Morton Downey, Jr!!! The man who succeeded Downey at KFBK was Rush Limbaugh. Downey's largest effect on American culture came from his very popular, yet short-lived, syndicated mid-1980s television talk show, The Morton Downey Jr Show. The Morton Downey Jr. Show Downey headed to Secaucus, New Jersey where his highly controversial television program The Morton Downey Jr. Show was taped for two years before it was canceled for low ratings. The program featured screaming matches among Downey, his guests, and audience members. Using a large silver bowl for an ashtray, he would chainsmoke during the show and blow smoke in his guests' faces. The bowl was actually the Peabody Award that he had received earlier in his career. Downey's fans became known as "Loudmouths", patterned after the studio lecterns decorated with gaping cartoon mouths, from which Downey's guests would go head-to-head against each other on their respective issues. Downey's signature phrases "pablum puking liberal" (in reference to left-liberals) and "zip it!" briefly enjoyed some popularity in the contemporary vernacular. He particularly enjoyed making his guests angry with each other, which on a few occasions resulted in physical confrontations, such as one that occurred on a 1988 show taped at the Apollo Theater, involving black activist Al Sharpton and CORE National Chairman Roy Innis. The exchange between the two men culminated in Innis shoving Sharpton into his chair, knocking him to the floor and Downey intervening to separate the pair. Due to the controversial format and content of the show, Downey's affiliates, many of which were low-rated independent television stations in small to medium markets, were so fearful of advertiser and viewer backlash that they would air one or even two local disclaimers during the broadcast. The Washington Post wrote about him, "Suppose a maniac got hold of a talk show. Or need we suppose?" David Letterman said, "I'm always amazed at what people will fall for. We see this every 10 or 12 years, an attempt at this, and I guess from that standpoint I don't quite understand why everybody's falling over backwards over the guy." Shriek! Chic! It's Morton Downey!; Talk's Mr. Nasty, Coming On Strong With the Art of Abuse, The Washington Post, July 6, 1988, Tom Shales The success of the show made Downey a pop culture celebrity, leading to an appearance on Saturday Night Live in 1988 Episode 4, Tales From The Crypt, Season 14 of Saturday Night Live at imdb , WrestleMania V in 1989 in which he traded insults with Roddy Piper on Piper's Pit, and later roles in movies such as Predator 2 and Revenge of the Nerds III: The Next Generation. Downey's entry at IMDb He was also cast in several television roles, often playing tabloid TV hosts or other obnoxious media types. Later career In 1993, Downey attempted a talk radio comeback on Dallas radio station KGBS, where he would scream insults at his callers. He was also hired as the station's VP of Operations. The following year he had a short-lived television show, Downey, on CNBC, that was similar in theme to his earlier, more popular show. Downey at imdb In one episode, Downey claimed to have had a psychic communication with O.J. Simpson's murdered ex-wife, Nicole Brown Simpson. A second attempt at a talk radio comeback occurred in 1997 on Cleveland radio station WTAM in a late evening time slot. Morton Downey Jr. back with WTAM talk show, Cleveland Plain Dealer, July 14, 1997, pg. 5 sec. E, Roger Brown It marked his return to the Cleveland market, where Downey had been a host for crosstown WERE back in the late 1980s. Talk hosts talk about talking on Morton Downey show-il, Cleveland Plain Dealer, December 9, 1988, pg. 33 sec. SU, Bob Dolgan This stint came shortly after the surgery for lung cancer that removed one of his lungs. But on August 30, Downey quit his WTAM radio talk show to focus on pursuing legal action against Howard Stern. Downey had accused Stern of spreading rumors that he resumed his smoking habits, to which publicist Les Schecter rebuked, "He hasn't picked up a cigarette." Smoking Report Spurs Threats Of Lawsuits, San Jose Mercury News, August 30, 1997, page 4A, Mercury News Wire Services His replacement was former WERE host Rick Gilmour. Best Radio Personality: Rick Gilmore of WTAM, Cleveland Scene, September 17, 2003 Like his father, Downey pursued a career in music, recording in both pop and country styles. One song, "Green Eyed Girl" charted on the Billboard Magazine Country chart, peaking at #95 in 1981. In 1958, he recorded "Boulevard Of Broken Dreams", which he sang on national television on a set that resembled a dark street with one street light. After the success of his talk show, Downey returned to the recording studio to cut an album of songs based on his show, Morton Downey Jr Sings. The album's only single, "Zip It!" (a catch-phrase from the TV show, used to quiet an irate guest), became a surprise hit on some college radio stations. Following his death, news reports and obituaries incorrectly (according to the Orange County Register) credited him as the composer of "Wipe Out." Morton Downey Jr. Dies, Combative Talk Show Host Was An Icon Of The 1980s - CBS News As of 2008, Downey's official website (and others) continue to make this claim. Morton Downey Jr.'s Home Page Controversies In 1984, at KFBK radio, Downey used the word "Chinaman" while telling a joke. http://www.newsreview.com/sacramento/content?oid=914298 His use of the word upset portions of the sizable Asian community in Sacramento. One Asian City Councilman called for an apology and pressured the station for Downey's resignation. Downey refused to apologize and was forced to leave. In 1989, as fascination with Downey's TV show began to wane, he was involved in an incident in a San Francisco International Airport restroom in which he claimed to have been attacked by neo-Nazis who painted a swastika on his face and attempted to shave his head. Some inconsistencies in Downey's account (e.g., the swastika was painted in reverse, suggesting that Downey had drawn it himself in a mirror), and the failure of the police to find supportive evidence, led many to suspect that the incident was a hoax and a plea for attention. 'Mort the Mouth' Downey Jr. Dies; 'Trash TV' Talk-Show Host's Draw Was Shocking, Mocking", The Washington Post, March 14, 2001 A few months later, the show was canceled. Years later, during an appearance on The Howard Stern Show, Downey admitted that he had orchestrated the entire "attack" -- even shaving the front of his own head in the desperate effort to save his show from cancellation, by its syndicator, MCA. MCA already had problems selling the show to stations and to advertisers because of Downey's antics and the show's overall content. At the time of its cancellation, The Morton Downey Jr Show had been cleared on fewer than 30 stations across the country, and its advertisers had been limited to "direct-response" ads (900 chat line and phone sex numbers). Downey was sued for allegedly appropriating the words and music to his theme song from two songwriters. Suit alleges Downey stole song, Chicago Sun-Times, May 5, 1989, Adrienne Drell He was sued for $40 million after bringing a stripper onto the show and calling her a "slut", a "pig", a "hooker", and a "tramp", claiming that she had venereal diseases, and banging his pelvis against hers. At one point, he was arraigned on criminal charges for attacking a gay guest on his show, in a never-aired segment. Gay News From 365Gay.com In another lawsuit, he was accused of slandering a newscaster (a former colleague), and of indecently exposing himself to her and slapping her. Talk show host Downey named in defamation suit, Chicago Sun-Times, December 11, 1988 Downey infamously punched Stuttering John during an interview done for The Howard Stern Show. http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4196/is_20040308/ai_n10949440 In various interviews, he expressed remorse for some of the extreme theatrics of his TV show, saying he had taken things too far. He added that he had been a "bastard." However, he also claimed that his show was of a higher quality and not as "sleazy" as Jerry Springer's. Personal life Morton Downey Jr's parents were also in show business; his father, Morton Downey, was a popular singer, and his mother, Barbara Bennett, was a singer and dancer. His aunts included Hollywood film stars Constance and Joan Bennett, from whom he was estranged, and his maternal grandfather was the celebrated matinée idol Richard Bennett. Born into a life of luxury, he was raised next door to the Kennedy compound at Hyannis Port, Massachusetts. Downey was married four times and had four children from three of those marriages. With wife Helen he had Melissa, with Joan he had daughters Tracey and Kelli, and with fourth wife and widow Lori he had Seanna. He and Lori met when she appeared as a dancer in a show he attended in Atlantic City. According to Terry Pluto's book Loose Balls, Downey was one of the owners of the New Orleans Buccaneers basketball team in the American Basketball Association in the late 1960s. Wrestlemania and Roddy Piper During WrestleMania V, Morton Downey Jr. participated in a gimmick involving Brother Love and Roddy Piper. Piper returned to the WWF with a live "Piper's Pit" at WrestleMania, where Downey and Piper engaged in a war of words. After Piper made a joke involving Downey's facial features, Downey repeatedly blew cigarette smoke into Piper's face, despite Piper warning him not to do so. Piper then pulled out a fire extinguisher and hosed him down. Death from lung cancer In 1996, Downey was diagnosed with lung cancer and had one of his lungs removed. He did a complete about-face on the issue of tobacco use, going from a one-time member of the National Smokers Alliance to a staunch anti-smoking activist. He continued to speak against smoking until his death from lung cancer in 2001. Seattle Post-Intelligencer account of Downey's death After being diagnosed with lung cancer, he commented, "I had spawned a generation of kids to think it was cool to smoke a cigarette. Kids walked up to me until a matter of weeks ago, they'd have a cigarette in their hand and they'd say, 'Hey, Mort,' or, 'Hey, Mouth, autograph my cigarette.' And I'd do it." He also blamed tobacco companies for lying to consumers about cigarettes. References External links Official Morton Downey Jr. Web Site | Morton_Downey,_Jr. |@lemmatized morton:17 downey:62 jr:14 born:1 sean:1 december:3 march:2 american:3 television:7 talk:20 show:38 host:10 pioneer:1 trash:3 tv:6 format:2 career:4 kfbk:3 sacramento:3 california:1 entry:2 international:2 establish:1 abrasive:1 much:1 imitate:1 right:1 wing:1 populist:1 style:2 relentlessly:1 deride:1 anyone:1 disagree:1 liberal:3 point:2 view:1 success:3 couple:1 repeal:1 fairness:1 doctrine:1 lay:1 groundwork:1 aggressive:1 opinion:1 base:2 radio:10 work:1 lead:4 genre:1 jerry:2 springer:2 maury:1 povich:1 ricki:1 lake:1 steve:1 wilkos:1 many:3 quarrel:1 fellow:1 wally:2 george:3 charge:2 conservative:1 police:2 tackle:1 ground:1 youtube:1 v:3 man:1 succeed:1 rush:1 limbaugh:1 large:2 effect:1 culture:2 come:3 popular:3 yet:1 short:2 live:5 syndicate:1 mid:1 head:5 secaucus:1 new:2 jersey:1 highly:1 controversial:2 program:2 tap:2 two:4 year:4 cancel:2 low:2 rating:1 feature:2 screaming:1 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publicist:1 le:1 schecter:1 rebuke:1 pick:1 cigarette:6 report:2 spur:1 threat:1 lawsuit:2 san:2 jose:1 mercury:2 news:5 page:2 wire:1 service:1 replacement:1 former:2 rick:2 gilmour:1 best:1 personality:1 gilmore:1 scene:1 september:1 like:1 father:2 music:2 record:2 country:3 song:4 green:1 eye:1 girl:1 chart:2 billboard:1 magazine:1 peak:1 boulevard:1 broken:1 dream:1 sing:1 set:1 resemble:1 dark:1 street:2 light:1 recording:1 cut:1 album:2 sings:1 single:1 catch:1 quiet:1 irate:1 surprise:1 hit:1 college:1 follow:1 death:4 obituary:1 incorrectly:1 accord:2 orange:1 county:1 register:1 credit:1 composer:1 wipe:1 dy:2 combative:1 icon:1 cbs:1 official:2 website:1 others:1 continue:2 home:1 controversy:1 word:4 chinaman:1 tell:1 joke:2 http:2 www:1 newsreview:1 com:3 oid:1 upset:1 portion:1 sizable:1 asian:2 community:1 city:2 councilman:1 call:2 apology:1 pressure:1 resignation:1 refuse:1 apologize:1 force:1 fascination:1 begin:1 wane:1 incident:2 francisco:1 airport:1 restroom:1 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5,429 | Inner_product_space | Geometric interpretation of inner product In mathematics, an inner product space is a vector space with the additional structure of inner product. This additional structure associates each pair of vectors in the space with a scalar quantity known as the inner product of the vectors. Inner products allow the rigorous introduction of intuitive geometrical notions such as the length of a vector or the angle between two vectors. They also provide the means of defining orthogonality between vectors (zero inner product). Inner product spaces generalize Euclidean spaces (in which the inner product is the dot product, also known as the scalar product) to vector spaces of any (possibly infinite) dimension, and are studied in functional analysis. An inner product space is sometimes also called a pre-Hilbert space, since its completion with respect to the metric, induced by its inner product, is a Hilbert space. Inner product spaces were referred to as unitary spaces in earlier work, although this terminology is now rarely used. Definition In this article, the field of scalars denoted is either the field of real numbers or the field of complex numbers . Formally, an inner product space is a vector space V over the field together with an inner product, i.e., with a map that satisfies the following three axioms for all vectors and all scalars : Conjugate symmetry: Linearity in the first argument: Positive-definiteness: for all . Notice that conjugate symmetry implies that is real for all , since we have . Conjugate symmetry and linearity in the first variable gives , so an inner product is a sesquilinear form. Conjugate symmetry is also called Hermitian symmetry, and a conjugate symmetric sesquilinear form is called a Hermitian form While the above axioms are more mathematically economical, a compact verbal definition of an inner product is a positive-definite Hermitian form. In the case of , conjugate-symmetric reduces to symmetric, and sesquilinear reduces to bilinear. So, an inner product on a real vector space is a positive-definite symmetric bilinear form. From the linearity property it is derived that implies while from the positive-definiteness axiom we obtain the converse, implies Combining these two, we have the property that if and only if . The property of an inner product space that and is known as additivity. Remark: Some authors, especially in physics and matrix algebra, prefer to define the inner product and the sesquilinear form with linearity in the second argument rather than the first. Then the first argument becomes conjugate linear, rather than the second. In those disciplines we would write the product as (the bra-ket notation of quantum mechanics), respectively (dot product as a case of the convention of forming the matrix product AB as the dot products of rows of A with columns of B). Here the kets and columns are identified with the vectors of V and the bras and rows with the dual vectors or linear functionals of the dual space V*, with conjugacy associated with duality. This reverse order is now occasionally followed in the more abstract literature, e.g., Emch [1972], taking to be conjugate linear in x rather than y. A few instead find a middle ground by recognizing both and as distinct notations differing only in which argument is conjugate linear. There are various technical reasons why it is necessary to restrict the basefield to and in the definition. Briefly, the basefield has to contain an ordered subfield (in order for non-negativity to make sense) and therefore has to have characteristic equal to 0. This immediately excludes finite fields. The basefield has to have additional structure, such as a distinguished automorphism. More generally any quadratically closed subfield of or will suffice for this purpose, e.g., the algebraic numbers, but when it is a proper subfield (i.e., neither nor ) even finite-dimensional inner product spaces will fail to be metrically complete. In contrast all finite-dimensional inner product spaces over or , such as those used in quantum computation, are automatically metrically complete and hence Hilbert spaces. In some cases we need to consider non-negative semi-definite sesquilinear forms. This means that is only required to be non-negative. We show how to treat these below. Examples A trivial example is the real numbers with the standard multiplication as the inner product More generally any Euclidean space n with the dot product is an inner product space The general form of an inner product on n is given by: with M any symmetric positive-definite matrix, and y* the conjugate transpose of y. For the real case this corresponds to the dot product of the results of directionally differential scaling of the two vectors, with positive scale factors and orthogonal directions of scaling. Up to an orthogonal transformation it is a weighted-sum version of the dot product, with positive weights. The article on Hilbert space has several examples of inner product spaces wherein the metric induced by the inner product yields a complete metric space. An example of an inner product which induces an incomplete metric occurs with the space C[a, b] of continuous complex valued functions on the interval [a, b]. The inner product is This space is not complete; consider for example, for the interval [−1,1] the sequence of "step" functions { fk }k where fk(t) is 0 for t in the subinterval [−1,0] fk(t) is 1 for t in the subinterval [1/k, 1] fk is affine in [0, 1/k]. This sequence is a Cauchy sequence which does not converge to a continuous function. Norms on inner product spaces Inner product spaces have a naturally defined norm This is well defined by the nonnegativity axiom of the definition of inner product space. The norm is thought of as the length of the vector x. Directly from the axioms, we can prove the following: Cauchy–Schwarz inequality: for x, y elements of V with equality if and only if x and y are linearly dependent. This is one of the most important inequalities in mathematics. It is also known in the Russian mathematical literature as the Cauchy–Bunyakowski–Schwarz inequality. Because of its importance, its short proof should be noted. It is trivial to prove the inequality true in the case y = 0. Thus we assume ⟨y, y⟩ is nonzero, giving us the following: The complete proof can be obtained by multiplying out this result. Orthogonality: The geometric interpretation of the inner product in terms of angle and length, motivates much of the geometric terminology we use in regard to these spaces. Indeed, an immediate consequence of the Cauchy-Schwarz inequality is that it justifies defining the angle between two non-zero vectors x and y (at least in the case F = ) by the identity We assume the value of the angle is chosen to be in the interval [0, +π]. This is in analogy to the situation in two-dimensional Euclidean space. Correspondingly, we will say that non-zero vectors x, y of V are orthogonal if and only if their inner product is zero. Homogeneity: for x an element of V and r a scalar The homogeneity property is completely trivial to prove. Triangle inequality: for x, y elements of V The last two properties show the function defined is indeed a norm. Because of the triangle inequality and because of axiom 2, we see that ||·|| is a norm which turns V into a normed vector space and hence also into a metric space. The most important inner product spaces are the ones which are complete with respect to this metric; they are called Hilbert spaces. Every inner product V space is a dense subspace of some Hilbert space. This Hilbert space is essentially uniquely determined by V and is constructed by completing V. Parallelogram law: for x, y elements of V, Pythagorean theorem: Whenever x, y are in V and ⟨x, y⟩ = 0, then The proofs of both of these identities require only expressing the definition of norm in terms of the inner product and multiplying out, using the property of additivity of each component. Alternatively, both can be seen as consequences of the identity which is a form of the law of cosines, and is proved as before. The name Pythagorean theorem arises from the geometric interpretation of this result as an analogue of the theorem in synthetic geometry. Note that the proof of the Pythagorean theorem in synthetic geometry is considerably more elaborate because of the paucity of underlying structure. In this sense, the synthetic Pythagorean theorem, if correctly demonstrated is deeper than the version given above. An induction on the Pythagorean theorem yields: If x1, ..., xn are orthogonal vectors, that is, for distinct indices j, k, then In view of the Cauchy-Schwarz inequality, we also note that is continuous from V × V to F. This allows us to extend Pythagoras' theorem to infinitely many summands: Parseval's identity: Suppose V is a complete inner product space. If {xk} are mutually orthogonal vectors in V then provided the infinite series on the left is convergent. Completeness of the space is needed to ensure that the sequence of partial sums which is easily shown to be a Cauchy sequence is convergent. Orthonormal sequences A sequence {ek}k is orthonormal if and only if it is orthogonal and each ek has norm 1. An orthonormal basis for an inner product space of finite dimension V is an orthonormal sequence whose algebraic span is V. This definition of orthonormal basis does not generalise conveniently to the case of infinite dimensions, where the concept (properly formulated) is of major importance. Using the norm associated to the inner product, one has the notion of dense subset, and the appropriate definition of orthonormal basis is that the algebraic span (subspace of finite linear combinations of basis vectors) should be dense. The Gram-Schmidt process is a canonical procedure that takes a linearly independent sequence {vk}k on an inner product space and produces an orthonormal sequence {ek}k such that for each n By the Gram-Schmidt orthonormalization process, one shows: Theorem. Any separable inner product space V has an orthonormal basis. Parseval's identity leads immediately to the following theorem: Theorem. Let V be a separable inner product space and {ek}k an orthonormal basis of V. Then the map is an isometric linear map V → l2 with a dense image. This theorem can be regarded as an abstract form of Fourier series, in which an arbitrary orthonormal basis plays the role of the sequence of trigonometric polynomials. Note that the underlying index set can be taken to be any countable set (and in fact any set whatsoever, provided l2 is defined appropriately, as is explained in the article Hilbert space). In particular, we obtain the following result in the theory of Fourier series: Theorem. Let V be the inner product space . Then the sequence (indexed on set of all integers) of continuous functions is an orthonormal basis of the space with the L2 inner product. The mapping is an isometric linear map with dense image. Orthogonality of the sequence {ek}k follows immediately from the fact that if k ≠ j, then Normality of the sequence is by design, that is, the coefficients are so chosen so that the norm comes out to 1. Finally the fact that the sequence has a dense algebraic span, in the inner product norm, follows from the fact that the sequence has a dense algebraic span, this time in the space of continuous periodic functions on with the uniform norm. This is the content of the Weierstrass theorem on the uniform density of trigonometric polynomials. Operators on inner product spaces Several types of linear maps A from an inner product space V to an inner product space W are of relevance: Continuous linear maps, i.e., A is linear and continuous with respect to the metric defined above, or equivalently, A is linear and the set of non-negative reals {||Ax||}, where x ranges over the closed unit ball of V, is bounded. Symmetric linear operators, i.e., A is linear and ⟨Ax, y⟩ = ⟨x, A y⟩ for all x, y in V. Isometries, i.e., A is linear and ⟨Ax, Ay⟩ = ⟨x, y⟩ for all x, y in V, or equivalently, A is linear and ||Ax|| = ||x|| for all x in V. All isometries are injective. Isometries are morphisms between inner product spaces, and morphisms of real inner product spaces are orthogonal transformations (compare with orthogonal matrix). Isometrical isomorphisms, i.e., A is an isometry which is surjective (and hence bijective). Isometrical isomorphisms are also known as unitary operators (compare with unitary matrix). From the point of view of inner product space theory, there is no need to distinguish between two spaces which are isometrically isomorphic. The spectral theorem provides a canonical form for symmetric, unitary and more generally normal operators on finite dimensional inner product spaces. A generalization of the spectral theorem holds for continuous normal operators in Hilbert spaces. Degenerate inner products If V is a vector space and ⟨ , ⟩ a semi-definite sesquilinear form, then the function ||x|| = ⟨x, x⟩1/2 makes sense and satisfies all the properties of norm except that ||x|| = 0 does not imply x = 0 (such a functional is then called a semi-norm). We can produce an inner product space by considering the quotient W = V/{ x : ||x|| = 0}. The sesquilinear form ⟨ , ⟩ factors through W. This construction is used in numerous contexts. The Gelfand–Naimark–Segal construction is a particularly important example of the use of this technique. Another example is the representation of semi-definite kernels on arbitrary sets. See also Outer product Exterior algebra Bilinear form Dual space Dual pair Biorthogonal system Fubini–Study metric Energetic space References | Inner_product_space |@lemmatized geometric:4 interpretation:3 inner:53 product:63 mathematics:2 space:61 vector:21 additional:3 structure:4 associate:3 pair:2 scalar:5 quantity:1 know:5 allow:2 rigorous:1 introduction:1 intuitive:1 geometrical:1 notion:2 length:3 angle:4 two:7 also:9 provide:4 mean:2 define:8 orthogonality:3 zero:4 generalize:1 euclidean:3 dot:6 possibly:1 infinite:3 dimension:3 study:2 functional:2 analysis:1 sometimes:1 call:5 pre:1 hilbert:9 since:2 completion:1 respect:3 metric:8 induce:3 refer:1 unitary:4 early:1 work:1 although:1 terminology:2 rarely:1 use:7 definition:7 article:3 field:5 denote:1 either:1 real:7 number:4 complex:2 formally:1 v:31 together:1 e:8 map:6 satisfy:1 following:5 three:1 axiom:6 conjugate:10 symmetry:5 linearity:4 first:4 argument:4 positive:7 definiteness:2 notice:1 implies:3 variable:1 give:4 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homogeneity:2 r:1 completely:1 triangle:2 last:1 see:3 turn:1 normed:1 every:1 dense:7 subspace:2 essentially:1 uniquely:1 determine:1 construct:1 parallelogram:1 law:2 pythagorean:5 theorem:15 whenever:1 express:1 component:1 alternatively:1 cosine:1 name:1 arises:1 analogue:1 synthetic:3 geometry:2 considerably:1 elaborate:1 paucity:1 underlying:2 correctly:1 demonstrate:1 deep:1 induction:1 xn:1 index:2 j:2 view:2 extend:1 pythagoras:1 infinitely:1 many:1 summands:1 parseval:2 suppose:1 xk:1 mutually:1 series:3 left:1 convergent:2 completeness:1 ensure:1 partial:1 easily:1 orthonormal:11 ek:5 basis:8 whose:1 span:4 generalise:1 conveniently:1 concept:1 properly:1 formulate:1 major:1 subset:1 appropriate:1 combination:1 gram:2 schmidt:2 process:2 canonical:2 procedure:1 independent:1 vk:1 produce:2 orthonormalization:1 separable:2 lead:1 let:2 isometric:2 image:2 fourier:2 arbitrary:2 play:1 role:1 trigonometric:2 polynomial:2 set:6 countable:1 fact:4 whatsoever:1 appropriately:1 explain:1 particular:1 theory:2 indexed:1 integer:1 mapping:1 normality:1 design:1 coefficient:1 come:1 finally:1 time:1 periodic:1 uniform:2 content:1 weierstrass:1 density:1 operator:5 type:1 w:3 relevance:1 equivalently:2 ax:4 range:1 unit:1 ball:1 bound:1 isometry:4 ay:1 injective:1 morphisms:2 compare:2 isometrical:2 isomorphism:2 surjective:1 bijective:1 point:1 distinguish:1 isometrically:1 isomorphic:1 spectral:2 normal:2 generalization:1 hold:1 degenerate:1 satisfies:1 except:1 imply:1 quotient:1 construction:2 numerous:1 context:1 gelfand:1 naimark:1 segal:1 particularly:1 technique:1 another:1 representation:1 kernel:1 exterior:1 biorthogonal:1 system:1 fubini:1 energetic:1 reference:1 |@bigram conjugate_symmetry:4 symmetric_bilinear:1 bra_ket:1 ket_notation:1 quantum_mechanic:1 linear_functionals:1 finite_dimensional:3 conjugate_transpose:1 weighted_sum:1 fk_k:1 cauchy_sequence:2 cauchy_schwarz:3 schwarz_inequality:4 dimensional_euclidean:1 triangle_inequality:2 normed_vector:1 dense_subspace:1 uniquely_determine:1 pythagorean_theorem:5 proof_pythagorean:1 mutually_orthogonal:1 orthonormal_basis:7 linearly_independent:1 isometric_linear:2 weierstrass_theorem:1 |
5,430 | Geography_of_the_Cayman_Islands | The Cayman Islands are a British dependency and island nation. It is a three-island archipelago in the Caribbean Sea, consisting of Grand Cayman, Cayman Brac, and Little Cayman. The Cayman Islands are south of Cuba and northwest of Jamaica, and are between Cuba and Central America. Its geographic coordinates are 19°30 north, 80°30 west. The Cayman Islands have a land area of 101.2 square miles (259 km²), about 1.5 times the size of Washington, D.C. and 1.2 square miles (3 km²) larger than Saint Kitts and Nevis. The Caymans have a coastline of 99 miles (160 km). The Cayman Islands make a maritime claim of a exclusive fishing zone and a territorial sea of . The Cayman Islands' lowest elevation is the Caribbean Sea at sea level. The highest point is The Bluff, a limestone outcrop 141 feet (43 m) in height on the eastern end of eastern Cayman Brac, which itself was named for The Bluff—"brac" is Gaelic for "bluff." Climate The Cayman Islands have a tropical marine climate, with a wet season of warm, rainy summers (May to October) and a dry season of relatively cool winters (November to April). Terrain is mostly a low-lying limestone base surrounded by coral reefs. A major natural hazard is the tropical cyclones that form during the Atlantic hurricane season from July to November. Environmental issues An important environmental issue is the lack of fresh water resources. Drinking water supplies must be met by rainwater catchment and desalination. Natural resources Natural resources include fish and a climate and beaches that foster tourism, which is the islands' major industry. A 2005 estimate of land use determined that the Caymans' had 3.85 percent arable land and no permanent crops. | Geography_of_the_Cayman_Islands |@lemmatized cayman:12 island:9 british:1 dependency:1 nation:1 three:1 archipelago:1 caribbean:2 sea:4 consist:1 grand:1 brac:3 little:1 south:1 cuba:2 northwest:1 jamaica:1 central:1 america:1 geographic:1 coordinate:1 north:1 west:1 land:3 area:1 square:2 mile:3 time:1 size:1 washington:1 c:1 large:1 saint:1 kitts:1 nevis:1 coastline:1 km:1 make:1 maritime:1 claim:1 exclusive:1 fishing:1 zone:1 territorial:1 low:2 elevation:1 level:1 high:1 point:1 bluff:3 limestone:2 outcrop:1 foot:1 height:1 eastern:2 end:1 name:1 gaelic:1 climate:3 tropical:2 marine:1 wet:1 season:3 warm:1 rainy:1 summer:1 may:1 october:1 dry:1 relatively:1 cool:1 winter:1 november:2 april:1 terrain:1 mostly:1 lie:1 base:1 surround:1 coral:1 reef:1 major:2 natural:3 hazard:1 cyclone:1 form:1 atlantic:1 hurricane:1 july:1 environmental:2 issue:2 important:1 lack:1 fresh:1 water:2 resource:3 drink:1 supply:1 must:1 meet:1 rainwater:1 catchment:1 desalination:1 include:1 fish:1 beach:1 foster:1 tourism:1 industry:1 estimate:1 use:1 determine:1 percent:1 arable:1 permanent:1 crop:1 |@bigram grand_cayman:1 cayman_cayman:2 cayman_brac:2 geographic_coordinate:1 saint_kitts:1 kitts_nevis:1 mile_km:1 coral_reef:1 tropical_cyclone:1 arable_land:1 permanent_crop:1 |
5,431 | Carnivore | Lions are voracious carnivores; they can require up to seven kilograms (15 lbs) of meat per day. A major component of their diet is the flesh of large mammals, like this African Buffalo. A carnivore (), meaning 'meat eater' (Latin carne meaning 'flesh' and vorare meaning 'to devour'), is any animal with a diet consisting mainly of meat, whether it comes from animals living (predation) or dead (scavenging). In other words an animal may be considered a carnivore if it prefers feeding on animal matter over plant matter. Animals that must eat meat in order to thrive are referred to as obligate carnivores, whereas animals that exclusively feed on animal tissue are known as hypercarnivores. An apex predator is a carnivore that sits at the top of the foodchain. Plants that capture and digest insects are called carnivorous plants. Similarly fungi that capture microscopic animals are often called carnivorous fungi. Classification The Venus flytrap, a well known carnivorous plant Carnivores are classified by their dietary behaviour. However, because the specific definition of what exactly meat is can be flexible, so too can the definition of carnivore. In the strictest sense, meat may refer to the flesh of mammalian species, but in a broader sense the term might be used to refer to any animal tissue considered food. Carnivores that eat insects and similar invertebrates primarily or exclusively are called insectivores, while those that eat fish primarily or exclusively are called piscivores. Carnivory that entails the consumption of members of an organism's own species is referred to as cannibalism. This includes sexual cannibalism and cannibalistic infanticide. The word "carnivore" sometimes refers to the mammalian Order Carnivora, but this is somewhat misleading. Although many Carnivora fit the definition of being exclusively meat eaters, not all do. For example, bears are members of Carnivora, yet are not carnivores in the dietary sense, and pandas are almost exclusively herbivorous. In addition, some full-time (dolphins, shrews) and part-time (humans, pigs) meat-eating mammalian species, as well as all carnivorous non-mammals, are not members of Carnivora. Outside of the animal kingdom, there are several genera containing carnivorous plants and several phyla containing carnivorous fungi. The former are predominantly insectivores, while the latter prey mostly on microscopic invertebrates such as nematodes, amoeba and springtails. Obligate carnivores This tiger's sharp teeth and strong jaws are the classical physical traits expected from carnivorous mammalian predators An obligate or true carnivore is an animal that must eat meat in order to survive. They may consume other products presented to them, especially animal products like eggs and bone marrow or sweet sugary substances like honey and syrup, but, as these items are not essential, they do not consume these on a regular basis. True carnivores lack the physiology required for the efficient digestion of vegetable matter, and, in fact, some carnivorous mammals eat vegetation specifically as an emetic. The domestic cat is a prime example of an obligate carnivore, as are all of the other felids. A hypercarnivore presents specialized dentition for a meat-only diet. Characteristics of carnivores Characteristics commonly 'associated' with carnivores include organs for capturing and disarticulating prey (teeth and claws serve these functions in many vertebrates) and status as a predator. In truth, these assumptions may be misleading, as some carnivores do not hunt and are scavengers (though most hunting carnivores will scavenge when the opportunity exists). Thus they do not have the characteristics associated with hunting carnivores. Carnivores have comparatively short digestive systems as they are not required to break down tough cellulose found in plants. Plant material In most cases, some plant material is essential for adequate nutrition, particularly with regard to minerals, vitamins and fiber. Most wild carnivores consume this in the digestive system of their prey. Many carnivores also eat herbivore dung, presumably to obtain essential nutrients that they could not otherwise obtain, since their dentition and digestive system do not permit efficient processing of vegetable matter. Prehistoric carnivores Prehistoric mammals of the crown-clade Carnivoramorpha (Carnivora and Miacoidea without Creodonta), along with the early Order Creodonta, and some mammals of the even early Order Cimolesta, were true carnivores. The earliest carnivorous mammal is considered to be the Cimolestes that existed during the Late Cretaceous and Tertiary Periods in North America about 65 million years ago. Most species of Cimolestes were mouse to rat-sized, but the Late Cretaceous Cimolestes magnus reached the size of a marmot, making it one of the largest Mesozoic mammals known (20-60g). The cheek teeth combined the functions of piercing, shearing and grinding, and the molars of Palaeoryctes had extremely high and acute cusps that had little function other than piercing. The dentition of Cimolestes foreshadows the same cutting structures seen in all later carnivores. While the earlier smaller species were insectivores, the later marmot-sized Cimolestes magnus probably took larger prey and were definitely a carnivore to some degree. The cheek teeth of Hyracolestes ermineus (an ermine-like shrew - 40g) and Sarcodon pygmaeus ("pygmy flesh tooth" - 75g), were common in the Latest Paleocene of Mongolia and China and occupied the small predator niche. The cheek teeth show the same characteristic notches that serve in today's carnivores to hold flesh in place to shear apart with cutting ridges. The theropod dinosaurs such as Tyrannosaurus rex that existed during the late Cretaceous were "obligate carnivores". List of extant carnivores In contrast to the tiger, these Emperor penguins show that teeth and claws are not necessary to be a carnivore. They feed on crustaceans, fish, squid, and other small marine life. Great Blue Heron with a snake Some nematodes are also carnivorous, for instance this Mononchidae eating another Mononchidae. Mammals All feliforms, such as domestic cats, big cats, hyenas, mongooses, civets Most caniforms, such as the dogs, wolves, foxes, ferrets, bears, seals and walruses All cetaceans, such as dolphins, whales and porpoises All bats (except fruitbats) The carnivorous marsupials, such as the tasmanian devil Birds All birds of prey, such as hawks, eagles, falcons and owls All vultures, both old world and new Some waterfowl, such as gulls, penguins, pelicans, storks, and herons Reptiles All crocodilians, such as alligators, crocodiles, gharials and caimans All snakes, such as cobras, vipers, pythons and boas Some lizards, such as most skinks and all monitor lizards Some turtles, including the snapping turtle and most sea turtles Fish and amphibians Most anurans, such as frogs and toads All sharks, such as tiger, great white, nurse and reef sharks Many bony fish, such as tuna, marlin, salmon, and bass Invertebrates Some molluscs, such as octopuses and squid, and some gastropods Most arachnids, such as spiders and scorpions Many insects, such as mantises, dragonflies and most wasps All jellyfish and sea stars See also Antipredator adaptation Carnivorous plant Carnivorous fungus Cannibalism (zoology) Man-eater Herbivore Omnivore Vegetarianism List of feeding behaviours References | Carnivore |@lemmatized lion:1 voracious:1 carnivore:29 require:3 seven:1 kilogram:1 lb:1 meat:10 per:1 day:1 major:1 component:1 diet:3 flesh:5 large:3 mammal:8 like:4 african:1 buffalo:1 mean:3 eater:3 latin:1 carne:1 vorare:1 devour:1 animal:12 consist:1 mainly:1 whether:1 come:1 live:1 predation:1 dead:1 scavenge:2 word:2 may:4 consider:3 prefer:1 feed:2 matter:4 plant:9 must:2 eat:8 order:5 thrive:1 refer:4 obligate:5 whereas:1 exclusively:5 fee:2 tissue:2 know:3 hypercarnivores:1 apex:1 predator:4 sit:1 top:1 foodchain:1 capture:3 digest:1 insect:3 call:4 carnivorous:13 similarly:1 fungi:3 microscopic:2 often:1 classification:1 venus:1 flytrap:1 well:2 classify:1 dietary:2 behaviour:2 however:1 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shark:2 white:1 nurse:1 reef:1 bony:1 tuna:1 marlin:1 salmon:1 bass:1 invertebrates:1 mollusc:1 octopus:1 gastropod:1 arachnid:1 spider:1 scorpion:1 mantis:1 dragonfly:1 wasps:1 jellyfish:1 star:1 antipredator:1 adaptation:1 fungus:1 zoology:1 man:1 omnivore:1 vegetarianism:1 reference:1 |@bigram kilogram_lb:1 meat_eater:2 obligate_carnivore:3 apex_predator:1 venus_flytrap:1 somewhat_misleading:1 almost_exclusively:1 bone_marrow:1 carnivorous_mammal:2 adequate_nutrition:1 cretaceous_tertiary:1 cheek_teeth:3 theropod_dinosaur:1 tyrannosaurus_rex:1 fish_squid:1 frog_toad:1 bony_fish:1 |
5,432 | Emperor_Seiwa | Emperor Seiwa (清和天皇 Seiwa-tennō) (Third month, 25th day, 850 - Twelfth month, 4th day, 880) was the 56th emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. His reign spanned the years from 858 through 876. Titsingh, Isaac. (1834). Annales des empereurs du japon, p. 115-121; Brown, Delmer et al. (1979). Gukanshō, pp. 286-288; Varley, H. Paul. Jinnō Shōtōki, pp. 166-17. Genealogy Before his ascension to the Chrysanthemum Throne, his personal name (his imina) Brown, pp. 264. [Up until the time of Emperor Jomei, the personal names of the emperors (their imina) were very long and people did not generally use them. The number of characters in each name diminished after Jomei's reign.] was Korehito Shinnō (惟仁親王). Titsingh, p. 115. He was also known at Mizunoo-no-mikado. Varley, p. 166. Seiwa was the fourth son of Emperor Montoku. His mother was Empress Dowager Fujiwara no Akirakeiko (明子), also called the Somedono empress 染殿后). Seiwa's mother was the daughter of Fujiwara no Yoshifusa (藤原良房), who was regent and great minister of the council of state. [see above] He was the younger half-brother of Imperial Prince Koretaka (惟喬親王) (lived 844-897) Events of Seiwa's life Originally under the guardianship of his maternal grandfather Fujiwara no Yoshifusa, he displaced Imperial Prince Koretaka (惟喬親王) as Crown Prince. Upon the death of his father in 858, Emperor Montoku, he became Emperor at the age of 8, but the real power was held by his grandfather, Yoshifusa. Ten'an 2, the 27th day of the 8th month (858): In the 8th year of Montoku-tennōs reign (文徳天皇8年), the emperor abdicated; Titsingh, p. 115. [Tsuchihashi conversion: 7.10.858 (Friday)/天安二年八月二十七日] and the succession (‘‘senso’’) was received by a his son. Shortly thereafter, Emperor Seiwa is said to have acceded to the throne (‘‘sokui’’). Brown, pp. 286; Varley, p. 44. [A distinct act of senso is unrecognized prior to Emperor Tenji; and all sovereigns except Jitō, Yōzei, Go-Toba, and Fushimi have senso and sokui in the same year until the reign of Go-Murakami.] Ten'an 2, the 7th day of the 11th month (858): The emperor's official announcement of his enthronement at age 9 was accompanied by the appointment or his grandfather as regent (sesshō). This is the first time that this high honor has been accorded to a member of the Fujiwara family, and it is also the first example in Japan of the accession of an heir who is too young to be emperor. The proclamation of the beginning of Seiwa's reign was made at the Kotaijingu at Ise Province and at all the tombs of the imperial family. Titsingh, p. 115; Brown, p. 286. [Tsuchihashi conversion: 15.12.858 (Thursday)/天安二年十一月七日] Jōgan 1, in the 1st month (貞観元年; 859): All New Year's festivities were suspended because of the period of national mourning for the death of Emperor Montoku. Titsingh, p. 116. Jōgan 1 (859): Construction begins on the Iwashimizu Shrine near Heian-kyō. This shrine honors Hachiman, the Shinto war god. Brown, p. 288. Jōgan 10 (869): Yōzei was born, and he is named Seiwa's heir in the following year. Titsingh, p. 122. Jōgan 17, in the 11th month (876): In the 18th year of Seiwa-tennōs reign(清和天皇18年), the emperor ceded his throne to his five-year-old son, which means that the young child received the succession (‘‘senso’’). Shortly thereafter, Emperor Yōzei formally acceded to the throne (‘‘sokui’’). Titsingh, p. 122; Varley, p. 44. [A distinct act of senso is unrecognized prior to Emperor Tenji; and all sovereigns except Jitō, Yōzei, Go-Toba, and Fushimi have senso and sokui in the same year until the reign of Go-Murakami.] Gangyō 2 (878): Seiwa becomes a Buddhist priest. His new priestly name was Soshin. Gangyō 2, on the 4th day of the 12th month (878): Former-Emperor Seiwa died at age 31. Brown, p. 289; Varley, p. 170. From the site of his tomb, he was sometimes referred to as Mizunoo (水尾). Kugyō Kugyō (公卿) is a collective term for the very few most powerful men attached to the court of the Emperor of Japan in pre-Meiji eras.-- kugyō of Seiwa-tennō (in French) In general, this elite group included only three to four men at a time. These were hereditary courtiers whose experience and background would have brought them to the pinnacle of a life's career. During Seiwa's reign, this apex of the Daijō-kan included: Sesshō, Fujiwara no Yoshifusa (藤原良房), 804-872. Daijō-daijin, Fujiwara no Yoshifusa. [see above] Sadaijin, Minamoto no Makoto (源信). Sadaijin, Minamoto no Tooru (源融). Titsingh, p. 119. Udaijin, Fujiwara no Yoshimi (藤原良相), 817-867. Brown, p. 287. Udaijin, Fujiwara no Ujimune (藤原氏宗). Udaijin, Fujiwara no Mototsune (藤原基経), 836-891. [see above] Naidaijin Dainagon Eras of Seiwa's reign The years of Seiwa's reign are more specifically identified by more than one era name or nengō. {see above] Ten'an (857-859) Jōgan (859-877) Consorts and Children Nyōgo(Kōtaigō): Fujiwara no Takaiko (藤原高子) (842-910), daughter of Fujiwara no Nagara (藤原長良) Imperial Prince Sadaakira (貞明親王) (868-949) (Emperor Yōzei) Imperial Prince Sadayasu (貞保親王) (870-924) Imperial Princess Atsuko (敦子内親王) (?-930), 7th Saiin in Kamo Shrine 877-880 Nyōgo: Fujiwara no Tamiko (藤原多美子) (?-886), daughter of Fujiwara no Yoshimi (藤原良相) Nyōgo: Taira no Kanshi (平寛子) Nyōgo: Princess Kashi (嘉子女王), daughter of Prince Munesada (棟貞王) Imperial Prince Sadasumi (貞純親王) (873-916) - father of Minamoto no Tsunemoto (源経基), founder of the Seiwa Genji, from whom the Kamakura shogunate and the Ashikaga shogunate were both descended, as well as from whom the Tokugawa shogunate claimed descent Nyōgo: Minamoto no Seishi (源済子), daughter of Emperor Montoku Nyōgo: Minamoto no Sadako (源貞子) (?-873) Nyōgo: Minamoto no Kenshi/Atsuko (源喧子) Nyōgo: Princess Chūshi/Tadako (忠子女王), daughter of Imperial Prince Tokiyasu(Emperor Kōkō later) Nyōgo: Fujiwara no Yoriko (藤原頼子) (?-936), daughter of Fujiwara no Mototsune (藤原基経) Nyōgo: Fujiwara no Kazuko (藤原佳珠子), daughter of Fujiwara no Mototsune (藤原基経) Imperial Prince Sadatoki (貞辰親王) (874-929) Nyōgo: Minamoto no Takeko/Izuko (源厳子) (?-878), daughter of Minamoto no Yoshiari (源能有) Nyōgo: Minamoto no Gishi/Yoshiko (源宜子), daughter of Minamoto no Okimoto (源興基) Nyōgo: Princess Kenshi (兼子女王) Nyōgo: Princess Ryūshi (隆子女王) Koui: A daughter of Tachibana no Yasukage (橘休蔭の娘) Imperial Prince Sadakata (貞固親王) (?-930) Koui: A daughter of Fujiwara no Nakamune (藤原仲統の娘) Imperial Prince Sadamoto (貞元親王) (?-909) Koui: A daughter of Fujiwara no Yoshichika (藤原良近の娘) Imperial Prince Sadahira (貞平親王) (?-913) Imperial Princess Shikiko (識子内親王) (874-906), 21st Saiō (Imperial Princess serving at Ise Shrine) 877-880 Koui: Ariwara no Fumiko (在原文子), daughter of Ariwara no Yukihira (在原行平) Imperial Prince Sadakazu (貞数親王) (875-916) Imperial Princess Kaneko (包子内親王) (?-889) Koui: A daughter of Fujiwara no Morofuji (藤原諸葛の娘) Imperial Prince Sadazane (貞真親王) (876-932) Imperial Princess Mōshi (孟子内親王) (?-901) Koui: A daughter of Fujiwara no Naomune (藤原直宗の娘) Imperial Prince Sadayori (貞頼親王) (876-922) Koui: A daughter of Saeki no Sanefusa (佐伯子房の娘) Minamoto no Nagami (源長鑒) Minamoto no Nagayori (源長頼) Court lady : A daughter of Kamo no Mineo (賀茂岑雄の娘) Minamoto no Naganori (源長猷) (?-918) Minamoto no Saishi/Noriko (源載子) Court lady : A daughter of Ōno no Takatori (大野鷹取の娘) Minamoto no Nagafuchi (源長淵) Notes References Brown, Delmer M. and Ichirō Ishida, eds. (1979). [ Jien, c. 1220], Gukanshō (The Future and the Past, a translation and study of the Gukanshō, an interpretative history of Japan written in 1219). Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-03460-0 Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon. (1959). The Imperial House of Japan. Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society. OCLC 194887 Titsingh, Isaac, ed. (1834). [Siyun-sai Rin-siyo/Hayashi Gahō, 1652], Nipon o daï itsi ran; ou, [http://books.google.com/books?id=18oNAAAAIAAJ&dq=nipon+o+dai+itsi+ran Annales des empereurs du Japon.] Paris: Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland. Varley, H. Paul , ed. (1980). [ Kitabatake Chikafusa, 1359], Jinnō Shōtōki ("A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns: Jinnō Shōtōki of Kitabatake Chikafusa" translated by H. Paul Varley). New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-04940-4 See also Emperor of Japan List of Emperors of Japan Imperial cult Emperor Go-Mizunoo | Emperor_Seiwa |@lemmatized emperor:24 seiwa:16 清和天皇:1 tennō:2 third:1 month:7 day:5 twelfth:1 japan:7 accord:2 traditional:1 order:1 succession:3 reign:10 span:1 year:9 titsingh:9 isaac:2 annales:2 des:1 empereurs:2 du:2 japon:2 p:16 brown:8 delmer:2 et:1 al:1 gukanshō:3 pp:4 varley:7 h:3 paul:3 jinnō:3 shōtōki:3 genealogy:1 ascension:1 chrysanthemum:1 throne:4 personal:2 name:6 imina:2 time:3 jomei:2 long:1 people:1 generally:1 use:1 number:1 character:1 diminish:1 korehito:1 shinnō:1 惟仁親王:1 also:4 know:1 mizunoo:3 mikado:1 fourth:1 son:3 montoku:5 mother:2 empress:2 dowager:1 fujiwara:21 akirakeiko:1 明子:1 call:1 somedono:1 染殿后:1 daughter:19 yoshifusa:5 藤原良房:2 regent:2 great:2 minister:1 council:1 state:1 see:5 young:3 half:1 brother:1 imperial:21 prince:15 koretaka:2 惟喬親王:2 live:1 event:1 life:2 originally:1 guardianship:1 maternal:1 grandfather:3 displace:1 crown:1 upon:1 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5,433 | Catherine_of_Siena | Saint Catherine of Siena, O.P. (25 March 1347 – 29 April 1380) was a tertiary of the Dominican Order, and a Scholastic philosopher and theologian. She also worked to bring the Papacy back to Rome from its displacement in France, and to establish peace among the Italian city-states. She was proclaimed a Doctor of the Church in 1970. Life She was born Catherine Benin in Siena, Italy, to Giacomo di Benincasa, a clothdyer, and Lapa Piagenti, possibly daughter of a local poet. Born in 1347, she was the last of 25 children. She took the habit of the Dominican Tertiaries after vigorous protests from the Tertiaries themselves. In about 1366, St Catherine experienced what she described in her letters as a "Mystical Marriage" with Jesus. Her biographer Raymond of Capua also records that she was told by Christ to leave her withdrawn life and enter the public life of the world. Catherine dedicated much of her life to helping the ill and the poor, where she took care of them in hospitals or homes. Her early pious activities in Siena attracted a group of followers, both women and men, while they also brought her to the attention of the Dominican Order, which called her to Florence in 1374 to interrogate her for possible heresy. After this visit, in which she was deemed sufficiently orthodox, she began travelling with her followers throughout northern and central Italy advocating reform of the clergy and the launch of a new crusade and advising people that repentance and renewal could be done through "the total love for God." *Warren C. Hollister, and Judith M. Bennett. "Medieval Europe: A Short History", 9th edition, Boston: McGraw-Hill Companies Inc., 2002. p. 342 Physical travel was not the only way in which Catherine made her views known. In the early 1370s, she began writing letters to men and women of her circle, increasingly widening her audience to include figures in authority as she begged for peace between the republics and principalities of Italy and for the return of the Papacy from Avignon to Rome. She carried on a long correspondence with Pope Gregory XI, also asking him to reform the clergy and the administration of the Papal States. In June of 1376 Catherine went to Avignon herself as ambassador of Florence to make peace with the Papal States, but was unsuccessful. She also tried to convince Pope Gregory XI to return to Rome. *Warren C. Hollister, and Judith M. Bennett. "Medieval Europe: A Short History", 9th edition, Boston: McGraw-Hill Companies Inc., 2002. p. 343 She impressed the Pope so much that he returned his administration to Rome in January, 1377. Following Gregory's death and during the Western Schism of 1378 she was an adherent of Pope Urban VI, who summoned her to Rome, and stayed at Pope Urban VI's court and tried to convince nobles and cardinals of his legitimacy. She lived in Rome until her death in 1380. The problems of the Western Schism would trouble her until the end of her life. St Catherine's letters are considered one of the great works of early Tuscan literature. More than 300 letters have survived. In her letters to the Pope, she often referred to him affectionately as "Papa" or "Daddy" ("Babbo" in Italian). Other correspondents include her various confessors, among them Raymond of Capua, the kings of France and Hungary, the infamous mercenary John Hawkwood, the Queen of Naples, members of the Visconti family of Milan, and numerous religious figures. Roughly one third of her letters are to women. Her other major work is "The Dialogue of Divine Providence," a dialogue between a soul who "rises up" to God and God himself, and recorded between 1377 and 1378 by members of her circle. Often assumed to be illiterate, Catherine is acknowledged by Raymond in his life of her as capable of reading both Latin and Italian, and another hagiographer, Tommaso Caffarini, claimed that she could write. St Catherine died of a stroke in Rome, the spring of 1380, at the age of thirty-three. The people of Siena wished to have her body. A story is told of a miracle whereby they were partially successful: Knowing that they could not smuggle her whole body out of Rome, they decided to take only her head which they placed in a bag. When stopped by the Roman guards, they prayed to St Catherine to help them, confident that she would rather have her body (or at least part thereof) in Siena. When they opened the bag to show the guards, it appeared no longer to hold her head but to be full of rose petals. Once they got back to Siena they reopened the bag and her head was visible once more. Due to this story, St Catherine is often seen holding a rose. The incorruptible head and thumb were entombed in the Basilica of San Domenico, where they remain. Saint Catherine's body is buried in the Basilica of Santa Maria sopra Minerva in Rome, which is near the Pantheon. Saint Catherine by Carlo Dolci Pope Pius II canonized St Catherine in the year 1461. Her feast day, at the time, was not included in the Roman Calendar. When it was added in 1597, it was put on the day of her death, April 29, as now, but because of a conflict with the feast of Saint Peter of Verona, which was also on April 29, it was moved in 1628 to the new date of April 30. "Calendarium Romanum" (Libreria Editrice Vaticana, 1969), p. 91 In the 1969 revision of the Roman Catholic calendar of saints, it was decided to leave the celebration of the feast of St Peter of Verona to local calendars, because he was not as well known worldwide, and Saint Catherine's feast was restored to its traditional date of April 29. Calendarium Romanum (Libreria Editrice Vaticana, 1969), p. 121 Some continue to use one or other of the calendars in force in the 1628-1969 period. On 5 May 1940 Pope Pius XII named her a joint Patron Saint of Italy along with Saint Francis of Assisi. Pope Paul VI gave her the title of Doctor of the Church in 1970 along with Saint Teresa of Ávila making them the first women to receive this honour. In 1999, Pope John Paul II made her one of Europe's patron saints. She is also the patroness of the historically Catholic American sorority, Theta Phi Alpha.'''''' Saint Catherine Of Siena's Prayer O marvelous wonder of the Church, seraphic virgin, Saint Catherine, because of thine extraordinary virtue and the immense good which thou didst accomplish for the Church and society, thou art acclaimed and blessed by all people. O blessed Catherine, turn thy benign countenance towards me, who confident of thy powerful patronage call upon thee with all the ardor of affection and I beg thee to obtain by thy prayers the favors I so ardently desire (mention your request). Thou wast a victim of charity, who in order to benefit thy neighbor obtained from God the most stupendous miracles and became the joy and the hope of all; thou canst not help but hear the prayers of those who fly to thy heart - that heart which thou didst receive from the Divine Redeemer in a celestial ecstasy. O seraphic virgin, show once again proof of thy power and of thy flaming charity, so that thy name shall ever be blessed and exalted; grant that we, having experienced thy most efficacious intercession here on earth, may come one day to thank thee in Heaven and enjoy eternal happiness with thee. Amen. Novena Prayer Cards from the Dominican Shrine of St. Jude, 411 East 68th Street, New York, NY 10021. Nihil Obstat: Rev. E.A. Cerny, SS., S.T.D. Imprimatur: Most Reverend Francis P. Keough, D.D., Archbishop of Baltimore, September 29, 1954. ''' See also Christian mystics Flying Saints Order of Preachers Relics Stigmata The Incorruptibles War of the Eight Saints Notes References External links EWTN Library: Saint Catherine of Siena, Virgin Letters of Catherine from Gutenberg Saint Catherine of Siena: Text with concordances and frequency list Drawn by Love, The Mysticism of Catherine of Siena | Catherine_of_Siena |@lemmatized saint:16 catherine:22 siena:10 p:6 march:1 april:5 tertiary:3 dominican:4 order:4 scholastic:1 philosopher:1 theologian:1 also:8 work:3 bring:2 papacy:2 back:2 rome:9 displacement:1 france:2 establish:1 peace:3 among:2 italian:3 city:1 state:3 proclaim:1 doctor:2 church:4 life:6 bear:2 benin:1 italy:4 giacomo:1 di:1 benincasa:1 clothdyer:1 lapa:1 piagenti:1 possibly:1 daughter:1 local:2 poet:1 last:1 child:1 take:3 habit:1 vigorous:1 protest:1 st:8 experience:2 describe:1 letter:7 mystical:1 marriage:1 jesus:1 biographer:1 raymond:3 capua:2 record:2 tell:2 christ:1 leave:2 withdrawn:1 enter:1 public:1 world:1 dedicated:1 much:2 help:3 ill:1 poor:1 care:1 hospital:1 home:1 early:3 pious:1 activity:1 attract:1 group:1 follower:2 woman:4 men:2 attention:1 call:2 florence:2 interrogate:1 possible:1 heresy:1 visit:1 deem:1 sufficiently:1 orthodox:1 begin:2 travel:2 throughout:1 northern:1 central:1 advocate:1 reform:2 clergy:2 launch:1 new:3 crusade:1 advise:1 people:3 repentance:1 renewal:1 could:3 total:1 love:2 god:4 warren:2 c:2 hollister:2 judith:2 bennett:2 medieval:2 europe:3 short:2 history:2 edition:2 boston:2 mcgraw:2 hill:2 company:2 inc:2 physical:1 way:1 make:4 view:1 know:2 write:2 circle:2 increasingly:1 widen:1 audience:1 include:3 figure:2 authority:1 beg:2 republic:1 principality:1 return:3 avignon:2 carry:1 long:2 correspondence:1 pope:10 gregory:3 xi:2 ask:1 administration:2 papal:2 june:1 go:1 ambassador:1 unsuccessful:1 try:2 convince:2 impress:1 january:1 follow:1 death:3 western:2 schism:2 adherent:1 urban:2 vi:3 summon:1 stay:1 court:1 noble:1 cardinal:1 legitimacy:1 live:1 problem:1 would:2 trouble:1 end:1 consider:1 one:5 great:1 tuscan:1 literature:1 survive:1 often:3 refer:1 affectionately:1 papa:1 daddy:1 babbo:1 correspondent:1 various:1 confessor:1 king:1 hungary:1 infamous:1 mercenary:1 john:2 hawkwood:1 queen:1 naples:1 member:2 visconti:1 family:1 milan:1 numerous:1 religious:1 roughly:1 third:1 major:1 dialogue:2 divine:2 providence:1 soul:1 rise:3 assume:1 illiterate:1 acknowledge:1 capable:1 read:1 latin:1 another:1 hagiographer:1 tommaso:1 caffarini:1 claim:1 die:1 stroke:1 spring:1 age:1 thirty:1 three:1 wish:1 body:4 story:2 miracle:2 whereby:1 partially:1 successful:1 knowing:1 smuggle:1 whole:1 decide:2 head:4 place:1 bag:3 stop:1 roman:3 guard:2 pray:1 confident:2 rather:1 least:1 part:1 thereof:1 open:1 show:2 appear:1 hold:2 full:1 petal:1 get:1 reopen:1 visible:1 due:1 see:2 incorruptible:1 thumb:1 entomb:1 basilica:2 san:1 domenico:1 remain:1 bury:1 santa:1 maria:1 sopra:1 minerva:1 near:1 pantheon:1 carlo:1 dolci:1 pius:2 ii:2 canonize:1 year:1 feast:4 day:3 time:1 calendar:4 add:1 put:1 conflict:1 peter:2 verona:2 move:1 date:2 calendarium:2 romanum:2 libreria:2 editrice:2 vaticana:2 revision:1 catholic:2 celebration:1 well:1 worldwide:1 restore:1 traditional:1 continue:1 use:1 force:1 period:1 may:2 xii:1 name:2 joint:1 patron:2 along:2 francis:2 assisi:1 paul:2 give:1 title:1 teresa:1 ávila:1 first:1 receive:2 honour:1 patroness:1 historically:1 american:1 sorority:1 theta:1 phi:1 alpha:1 prayer:4 marvelous:1 wonder:1 seraphic:2 virgin:3 thine:1 extraordinary:1 virtue:1 immense:1 good:1 thou:5 didst:2 accomplish:1 society:1 art:1 acclaim:1 bless:3 turn:1 thy:9 benign:1 countenance:1 towards:1 powerful:1 patronage:1 upon:1 thee:4 ardor:1 affection:1 obtain:2 favor:1 ardently:1 desire:1 mention:1 request:1 wast:1 victim:1 charity:2 benefit:1 neighbor:1 stupendous:1 become:1 joy:1 hope:1 canst:1 hear:1 fly:2 heart:2 redeemer:1 celestial:1 ecstasy:1 proof:1 power:1 flame:1 shall:1 ever:1 exalt:1 grant:1 efficacious:1 intercession:1 earth:1 come:1 thank:1 heaven:1 enjoy:1 eternal:1 happiness:1 amen:1 novena:1 card:1 shrine:1 jude:1 east:1 street:1 york:1 ny:1 nihil:1 obstat:1 rev:1 e:1 cerny:1 ss:1 imprimatur:1 reverend:1 keough:1 archbishop:1 baltimore:1 september:1 christian:1 mystic:1 preacher:1 relic:1 stigmata:1 incorruptibles:1 war:1 eight:1 note:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 ewtn:1 library:1 gutenberg:1 text:1 concordance:1 frequency:1 list:1 draw:1 mysticism:1 |@bigram catherine_siena:5 judith_bennett:2 mcgraw_hill:2 pope_gregory:2 divine_providence:1 basilica_santa:1 santa_maria:1 maria_sopra:1 sopra_minerva:1 pope_pius:2 calendarium_romanum:2 romanum_libreria:2 libreria_editrice:2 editrice_vaticana:2 pius_xii:1 patron_saint:2 francis_assisi:1 theta_phi:1 phi_alpha:1 divine_redeemer:1 eternal_happiness:1 external_link:1 text_concordance:1 concordance_frequency:1 |
5,434 | Ardipithecus | Ardipithecus is a very early hominin genus (subfamily Homininae) which lived about 4.4 million years ago during the early Pliocene. Because this genus shares several traits with the African great ape genera (genus Pan and genus Gorilla), some consider it to be on the chimpanzee rather than human branch, but most consider it a proto-human because of a likeness in teeth with Australopithecus. Species Two species have been described, Ardipithecus ramidus and Ardipithecus kadabba, which was initially described as a subspecies of A. ramidus, but on the basis of teeth recently discovered in Ethiopia has been raised to species rank. Remains from both species have been found in the Middle Awash. Ardipithecus ramidus A. ramidus was named in September 1994. The first fossil find was dated to 4.4 million years ago based on its interval between two volcanic strata: the basal Gaala Tuff Complex (GATC) and the Daam Aatu Basaltic Tuff (DABT). Subsequent fossil discoveries by Yohannes Haile-Selassie and Giday WoldeGabriel — if identified as A. ramidus — would push the date back as far as 5.8 million years ago. In 1992-1993 a research team headed by Tim White discovered the first A. ramidus fossils — seventeen fragments including skull, mandible, teeth and arm bones — from the Afar Depression in the Middle Awash river valley of Ethiopia. More fragments were recovered in 1994, amounting to 45 percent of the total skeleton. This fossil was originally described as an Australopithecine, but White and his colleagues later published a note in the same journal renaming the fossil under a new genus, Ardipithecus. This fossil is not considered a hominid ancestor by scholars. White, TD, et al. New discoveries of Australopithecus at Maka in Ethiopia. Nature 1994; 371: p. 306-312. The Gona Project, a multidisciplinary team led by Sileshi Semaw, who is based at Indiana University's CRAFT (the Center for Research into the Anthropological Foundations of Technology) and the Stone Age Institute, discovered bones and teeth of nine A. ramidus individuals between 1999 and 2003 at As Duma in the Gona Western Margin of Ethiopia's Afar Region. The Gona Project dated its finds to between 4.51 - 4.32 million years ago. Ardipithecus kadabba A. kadabba is dated to have lived between 5.8 million to 5.2 million years ago. The canine teeth show primitive features, shared with Sahelanthropus and Orrorin, that distinguish them from those of more recent hominins. It has been suggested that A. kadabba is the most recent common ancestor of Homo and Pan. Anthropologists Yohannes Haile-Selassie, Gen Suwa, and Tim D. White published an article suggesting that the presence of a "canine cutting complex" indicates a need for relocation in hominid evolutionary history. Since A. ramidus is lacking the canine cutting complex, the authors argue, it is reasonable to infer the canine cutting complex, which is present in modern day chimpanzees, is a primitive trait which was lost during hominin evolution. The specific name comes from the Afar word for "basal family ancestor". Lifestyle On the basis of bone sizes, Ardipithecus species are believed to have been about the size of a modern chimpanzee. The toe structure of A. ramidus suggests that the creature walked upright. Ardipithecus is believed to have lived in shady forests rather than on the savannah, where the more energy efficient locomotion permitted by bipedalism would have been an advantage. According to Scott Simpson, the Gona Project's Physical Anthropologist, the fossil evidence from the Middle Awash indicates that both A. kadabba and A. ramidus lived in "a mosaic of woodland and grasslands with lakes, swamps and springs nearby," but further research is needed to determine which habitat Ardipithecus at Gona preferred. Criticism Despite the fact that the first discoveries were made some 14 years ago the large bulk of Ardipithecus material remains formally undescribed. This has led to accusations of withholding access by many scientists. References External links BBC News: Amazing hominid haul in Ethiopia NY Times: Two Splits Between Human and Chimp Lines Suggested Minnesota State University Archaeology info The Stone Age Institute Semaw, S. et al., 2005. Early Pliocene Hominids from Gona, Ethiopia. Nature 433(7023):301-305 | Ardipithecus |@lemmatized ardipithecus:10 early:3 hominin:2 genus:6 subfamily:1 homininae:1 live:4 million:6 year:6 ago:6 pliocene:2 share:2 several:1 trait:2 african:1 great:1 ape:1 pan:2 gorilla:1 consider:3 chimpanzee:3 rather:2 human:3 branch:1 proto:1 likeness:1 teeth:5 australopithecus:2 specie:5 two:3 describe:3 ramidus:10 kadabba:5 initially:1 subspecies:1 basis:2 recently:1 discover:3 ethiopia:6 raise:1 rank:1 remain:2 find:3 middle:3 awash:3 name:2 september:1 first:3 fossil:6 date:4 base:2 interval:1 volcanic:1 stratum:1 basal:2 gaala:1 tuff:2 complex:4 gatc:1 daam:1 aatu:1 basaltic:1 dabt:1 subsequent:1 discovery:3 yohannes:2 haile:2 selassie:2 giday:1 woldegabriel:1 identify:1 would:2 push:1 back:1 far:1 research:3 team:2 head:1 tim:2 white:4 fossils:1 seventeen:1 fragment:2 include:1 skull:1 mandible:1 arm:1 bone:3 afar:3 depression:1 river:1 valley:1 recover:1 amount:1 percent:1 total:1 skeleton:1 originally:1 australopithecine:1 colleague:1 later:1 publish:2 note:1 journal:1 rename:1 new:2 hominid:4 ancestor:3 scholar:1 td:1 et:2 al:2 maka:1 nature:2 p:1 gona:6 project:3 multidisciplinary:1 lead:2 sileshi:1 semaw:2 indiana:1 university:2 craft:1 center:1 anthropological:1 foundation:1 technology:1 stone:2 age:2 institute:2 nine:1 individual:1 duma:1 western:1 margin:1 region:1 canine:4 show:1 primitive:2 feature:1 sahelanthropus:1 orrorin:1 distinguish:1 recent:2 hominins:1 suggest:4 common:1 homo:1 anthropologist:2 gen:1 suwa:1 article:1 presence:1 cut:1 indicate:2 need:2 relocation:1 evolutionary:1 history:1 since:1 lack:1 cutting:2 author:1 argue:1 reasonable:1 infer:1 present:1 modern:2 day:1 lose:1 evolution:1 specific:1 come:1 word:1 family:1 lifestyle:1 size:2 believe:2 toe:1 structure:1 creature:1 walk:1 upright:1 shady:1 forest:1 savannah:1 energy:1 efficient:1 locomotion:1 permit:1 bipedalism:1 advantage:1 accord:1 scott:1 simpson:1 physical:1 evidence:1 mosaic:1 woodland:1 grassland:1 lake:1 swamp:1 spring:1 nearby:1 determine:1 habitat:1 prefer:1 criticism:1 despite:1 fact:1 make:1 large:1 bulk:1 material:1 formally:1 undescribed:1 accusation:1 withhold:1 access:1 many:1 scientist:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 bbc:1 news:1 amazing:1 haul:1 ny:1 time:1 split:1 chimp:1 line:1 minnesota:1 state:1 archaeology:1 info:1 |@bigram haile_selassie:2 et_al:2 canine_teeth:1 external_link:1 bbc_news:1 |
5,435 | Internetworking | Internetworking involves connecting two or more computer networks via gateways using a common routing technology. The result is called an internetwork (often shortened to internet). The most notable example of internetworking is the Internet (often, but not always, capitalized), a network of networks based on many underlying hardware technologies, but unified by an internetworking protocol standard, the Internet Protocol Suite (TCP/IP). The network elements used to connect individual networks are known as routers, but were originally called gateways, a term that was deprecated in this context, due to confusion with functionally different devices using the same name. The interconnection of networks with bridges (link layer devices) is sometimes incorrectly termed "internetworking", but the resulting system is simply a larger, single subnetwork, and no internetworking protocol (such as IP) is required to traverse it. However, a single computer network may be converted into an internetwork by dividing the network into segments and then adding routers between the segments. The original term for an internetwork was catenet. Internetworking started as a way to connect disparate types of networking technology, but it became widespread through the developing need to connect two or more local area networks via some sort of wide area network. The definition now includes the connection of other types of computer networks such as personal area networks. The Internet Protocol is designed to provide an unreliable (i.e., not guaranteed) packet service across the network. The architecture avoids intermediate network elements maintaining any state of the network. Instead, this function is assigned to the endpoints of each communication session. To transfer data reliably, applications must utilize an appropriate Transport Layer protocol, such as Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), which provides a reliable stream. Some applications use a simpler, connection-less transport protocol, User Datagram Protocol (UDP), for tasks which do not require reliable delivery of data or that require real-time service, such as video streaming. Networking models Two architectural models are commonly used to describe the protocols and methods used in internetworking. The Open System Interconnection (OSI) reference model was developed under the auspices of the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and provides a rigorous description for layering protocol functions from the underlying hardware to the software interface concepts in user applications. Internetworking is implemented in Layer 3 (Network Layer) of the model. The Internet Protocol Suite, also called the TCP/IP model, of the Internet was not designed to conform to this model and does not refer to it in any of the normative specifications (Requests for Comment) and Internet standards. Despite similar appearance as a layered model, it uses a much less rigorous, loosely defined architecture that concerns itself only with the aspects of networking. It does not discuss hardware-specific low-level interfaces, and assumes availability of a Link Layer interface to the local network link to which the host is connected. Internetworking is facilitated by the protocols of its Internet Layer. References | Internetworking |@lemmatized internetworking:9 involves:1 connect:5 two:3 computer:3 network:17 via:2 gateway:2 use:7 common:1 routing:1 technology:3 result:1 call:3 internetwork:3 often:2 shorten:1 internet:8 notable:1 example:1 always:1 capitalize:1 base:1 many:1 underlie:2 hardware:3 unify:1 protocol:12 standard:2 suite:2 tcp:3 ip:3 element:2 individual:1 know:1 router:2 originally:1 term:3 deprecate:1 context:1 due:1 confusion:1 functionally:1 different:1 device:2 name:1 interconnection:2 bridge:1 link:3 layer:7 sometimes:1 incorrectly:1 resulting:1 system:2 simply:1 large:1 single:2 subnetwork:1 require:3 traverse:1 however:1 may:1 convert:1 divide:1 segment:2 add:1 original:1 catenet:1 start:1 way:1 disparate:1 type:2 networking:3 become:1 widespread:1 develop:2 need:1 local:2 area:3 sort:1 wide:1 definition:1 include:1 connection:2 personal:1 design:2 provide:3 unreliable:1 e:1 guarantee:1 packet:1 service:2 across:1 architecture:2 avoid:1 intermediate:1 maintain:1 state:1 instead:1 function:2 assign:1 endpoint:1 communication:1 session:1 transfer:1 data:2 reliably:1 application:3 must:1 utilize:1 appropriate:1 transport:2 transmission:1 control:1 reliable:2 stream:1 simpler:1 le:1 user:2 datagram:1 udp:1 task:1 delivery:1 real:1 time:1 video:1 streaming:1 model:7 architectural:1 commonly:1 describe:1 method:1 open:1 osi:1 reference:2 auspex:1 international:1 organization:1 standardization:1 iso:1 rigorous:2 description:1 software:1 interface:3 concept:1 implement:1 also:1 conform:1 refer:1 normative:1 specification:1 request:1 comment:1 despite:1 similar:1 appearance:1 layered:1 much:1 less:1 loosely:1 defined:1 concern:1 aspect:1 discuss:1 specific:1 low:1 level:1 assume:1 availability:1 host:1 facilitate:1 |@bigram internetworking_protocol:2 protocol_suite:2 tcp_ip:2 user_datagram:1 datagram_protocol:1 protocol_udp:1 organization_standardization:1 standardization_iso:1 loosely_defined:1 |
5,436 | Banach_space | In mathematics, Banach spaces (, named after Polish mathematician Stefan Banach) are one of the central objects of study in functional analysis. They are topological vector spaces that have many interesting properties associated with them. For instance, one can model topological spaces on Banach spaces (just as one models topological spaces on Euclidean space). Such spaces are known as Banach manifolds. Many of the infinite-dimensional function spaces studied in analysis are examples of Banach spaces. Definition Banach spaces are defined as complete normed vector spaces. This means that a Banach space is a vector space V over the real or complex numbers with a norm ||·|| such that every Cauchy sequence (with respect to the metric d(x, y) = ||x − y||) in V has a limit in V. Since the norm induces a topology on the vector space, every Banach space is necessarily metrizable and metrizable spaces generally have very interesting properties. Examples Throughout, let K stand for one of the fields R or C. The familiar Euclidean spaces Kn, where the Euclidean norm of x = (x1, …, xn) is given by ||x|| = (∑i=1…n |xi|2)1/2, are Banach spaces. The space of all continuous functions ƒ : [a, b] → K defined on a closed interval [a, b] becomes a Banach space if we define the norm of such a function as ||ƒ|| = sup { |ƒ(x)| : x ∈ [a, b] }, otherwise known as the supremum norm. This is indeed a well-defined norm, since continuous functions defined on a closed interval are bounded. The space is complete under this norm, and the resulting Banach space is denoted by C[a, b]. This example can be generalized to the space C(X) of all continuous functions X → K, where X is a compact space, or to the space of all bounded continuous functions X → K, where X is any topological space, or indeed to the space B(X) of all bounded functions X → K, where X is any set. In all these examples, we can multiply functions and stay in the same space: all these examples are in fact unital Banach algebras. For any open set Ω ⊆ C, the set A(Ω) of all bounded, analytic functions u : Ω → C is a complex Banach space with respect to the supremum norm. The fact that uniform limits of analytic functions are analytic is an easy consequence of Morera's theorem. If p ≥ 1 is a real number, we can consider the space of all infinite sequences (x1, x2, x3, …) of elements in K such that the infinite series ∑i |xi|p is finite. The p-th root of this series' value is then defined to be the p-norm of the sequence. The space, together with this norm, is a Banach space; it is denoted by ℓ p. The Banach space ℓ∞ consists of all bounded sequences of elements in K; the norm of such a sequence is defined to be the supremum of the absolute values of the sequence's members. Again, if p ≥ 1 is a real number, we can consider all functions ƒ : [a, b] → K such that |ƒ|p is Lebesgue integrable. The p-th root of this integral is then defined to be the norm of ƒ. By itself, this space is not a Banach space because there are non-zero functions whose norm is zero. We define an equivalence relation as follows: ƒ and g are equivalent if and only if the norm of ƒ−g is zero. The set of equivalence classes then forms a Banach space; it is denoted by Lp([a, b]). It is crucial to use the Lebesgue integral and not the Riemann integral here, because the Riemann integral would not yield a complete space. These examples can be generalized; see Lp spaces for details. If X and Y are two Banach spaces, then we can form their direct sum X ⊕ Y, which has a natural topological vector space structure but no canonical norm. However, it is again a Banach space for several equivalent norms, for example This construction can be generalized to define ℓp-direct sums of arbitrarily many Banach spaces. When there is an infinite number of non-zero summands, the space obtained in this way depends upon p. If M is a closed linear subspace of the Banach space X, then the quotient space X / M is again a Banach space. Every inner product gives rise to an associated norm. The inner product space is called a Hilbert space if its associated norm is complete. Thus every Hilbert space is a Banach space by definition. The converse statement also holds under certain conditions; see below. Linear operators If V and W are Banach spaces over the same ground field K, the set of all continuous K-linear maps A : V → W is denoted by L(V, W). Note that in infinite-dimensional spaces, not all linear maps are automatically continuous. L(V, W) is a vector space, and by defining the norm ||A|| = sup { ||Ax|| : x in V with ||x|| ≤ 1 } it can be turned into a Banach space. The space L(V) = L(V, V) even forms a unital Banach algebra; the multiplication operation is given by the composition of linear maps. Dual space If V is a Banach space and K is the underlying field (either the real or the complex numbers), then K is itself a Banach space (using the absolute value as norm) and we can define the dual space V′ as V′ = L(V, K), the space of continuous linear maps into K. This is again a Banach space (with the operator norm). It can be used to define a new topology on V: the weak topology. Note that the requirement that the maps be continuous is essential; if V is infinite-dimensional, there exist linear maps which are not continuous, and therefore not bounded, so the space V∗ of linear maps into K is not a Banach space. The space V∗ (which may be called the algebraic dual space to distinguish it from V') also induces a weak topology which is finer than that induced by the continuous dual since V′ ⊆ V∗. There is a natural map F from V to V′′ (the dual of the dual) defined by F(x)(f) = f(x) for all x in V and f in V′. Because F(x) is a map from V′ to K, it is an element of V′′. The map F: x → F(x) is thus a map V → V′′. As a consequence of the Hahn-Banach theorem, this map is injective, and isometric; if it is also surjective, then the Banach space V is called reflexive. Reflexive spaces have many important geometric properties. A space is reflexive if and only if its dual is reflexive, which is the case if and only if its unit ball is compact in the weak topology. For example, ℓp is reflexive for 1 < p <∞ but ℓ1 and ℓ∞ are not reflexive. The dual of ℓp is ℓq where p and q are related by the formula 1/p + 1/q = 1. See L p spaces for details. Relationship to Hilbert spaces As mentioned above, every Hilbert space is a Banach space because, by definition, a Hilbert space is complete with respect to the norm associated with its inner product, where a norm and an inner product are said to be associated if ||v||² = (v,v) for all v. The converse is not always true; not every Banach space is a Hilbert space. A necessary and sufficient condition for a Banach space V to be associated to an inner product (which will then necessarily make V into a Hilbert space) is the parallelogram identity: for all u and v in V, and where ||*|| is the norm on V. So, for example, while Rn is a Banach space with respect to any norm defined on it, it is only a Hilbert space with respect to the Euclidean norm. Similarly, as an infinite-dimensional example, the Lebesgue space Lp is always a Banach space but is only a Hilbert space when p = 2. If the norm of a Banach space satisfies this identity, the associated inner product which makes it into a Hilbert space is given by the polarization identity. If V is a real Banach space, then the polarization identity is whereas if V is a complex Banach space, then the polarization identity is given by The necessity of this condition follows easily from the properties of an inner product. To see that it is sufficient—that the parallelogram law implies that the form defined by the polarization identity is indeed a complete inner product—one verifies algebraically that this form is additive, whence it follows by induction that the form is linear over the integers and rationals. Then since every real is the limit of some Cauchy sequence of rationals, the completeness of the norm extends the linearity to the whole real line. In the complex case, one can check also that the bilinear form is linear over i in one argument, and conjugate linear in the other. Hamel dimension It follows from the completeness of Banach spaces and the Baire category theorem that a Hamel basis of an infinite-dimensional Banach space is uncountable. Derivatives Several concepts of a derivative may be defined on a Banach space. See the articles on the Fréchet derivative and the Gâteaux derivative. Generalizations Several important spaces in functional analysis, for instance the space of all infinitely often differentiable functions R → R or the space of all distributions on R, are complete but are not normed vector spaces and hence not Banach spaces. In Fréchet spaces one still has a complete metric, while LF-spaces are complete uniform vector spaces arising as limits of Fréchet spaces. See also Topological manifold Linear map Literature Historical monographs in English, French and Polish: Stefan Banach: Théorie des opérations linéaires. -- Warszawa 1932. 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5,437 | Filk_music | The Dorsai Irregulars filking at Conclave 30. Filk is a musical culture, genre, and community tied to science fiction/fantasy fandom. The genre has been active since the early 1950s, and played primarily since the mid-1970s. Definitions As Debbie Ridpath Ohi's compilation What Is Filk? and the Interfilk What Is Filk page each demonstrate, there is no consensus definition of filk, though one could divide the different proposed definitions by their focus on the content and style of filk music or the cultural aspects of filking as an activity. One definition is based on filk as a genre: filk is folk music, usually with a science fiction or fantasy theme. But this definition is not exact. Filkers have been known to write filk songs about a variety of topics, including but not limited to tangentially-related topics such as computers and cats. The other common definition is anthropological: Filk is what is sung or performed by the network of people who originally gathered to sing at science fiction/fantasy conventions. Yet another definition focuses on filking as a community of those interested in filk music and who form part of the social network self-identified with filking. As described later in this article, the origins of filk in science fiction conventions and its current organization emphasizes the social-network aspect of filking. Whichever definition one chooses, filk is a form of music created from within science fiction and fantasy fandom, often performed late at night at science fiction conventions, though there are now dedicated filk conventions in Canada, England, Germany, and the USA. And whichever definition one chooses, the boundaries of filking are muddy. For example, filking overlaps with the singing and music performed by participants in the Society for Creative Anachronism or at LARPs. Styles and subjects In keeping with the folk-culture roots of filk, the musical styles and topics of filk music are eclectic. While a plurality of filk is rooted firmly in acoustic-instrument folk music, other pieces and artists draw inspiration from rock, a cappella vocal groups, or other styles. The hobbyist and itinerant nature of filk events (especially filk circles) gives some advantages to acoustic-vocal soloists and small groups, who need only carry a lightweight instrument or two and whose rehearsals do not need to balance scheduling logistics against regular work and other obligations. One of the few rock-style groups in filk has been Ookla the Mok, whose studio recordings use techniques common in modern rock. Some styles of filk rely heavily on sampling the original source material and integrating it in to electronica and hip-hop music such as 76's Objects in Space which is an homage to the popular tv show Firefly and DJ Qbert's Wave Twisters. The range of topics in filk songs stems from its cultural roots in fandom. Many songs honor specific works in science fiction, fantasy, or speculative fiction. Other songs are about science, fantasy, computers, technology in general, or values related to technological change. Yet others are about the culture of fandom, including filk itself (both as a phenomenon within fandom, and as a sub-culture). Many filk songs (such as Leslie Fish's "Carmen Miranda's Ghost Is Haunting Space Station 3") are humorous while others treat their subjects seriously (like Steve Macdonald's "Journey's Done"). However, some common themes do not fall neatly into filk's science fiction origins. Such topics include songs about cats, popular culture, and politics. These are perhaps best explained as an outgrowth of filk as a folk culture, open in some respects to expansion by individual artists. History For the first few decades of the occasional science fiction convention, there had been late-night singing sessions in hotel rooms. Part of this practice may have been rooted in an older folk culture of fans. Some of the oldest filks coming out of fandom were protest songs with original words and music written by a group of New York fans called The Futurians, and were written by Fred Pohl and Cyril Kornbluth (see Damon Knight's book of the same name, which contains the words and music to several of them). With the break up of the city clubs common during the depression, filking moved to science fiction conventions, often in the form of late-night singing sessions in hotel rooms, lobbies, service passages, or wherever else the filkers could find enough room to play/sing music uninterrupted. In the early 1950s, the term filk music started as a misspelling of folk music in an essay by Lee Jacobs, "The Influence of Science Fiction on Modern American Filk Music". While some sources claim that the editor of the Spectator Amateur Press Society refused to publish it, what is clear in the oral tradition of filking is that Jacobs' typo became the self-identified term for the genre/subculture while it was still an informal, unrecognized activity at conventions. Its first documented deliberate use was by Karen Kruse Anderson in Die Zeitschrift für vollständigen Unsinn (The Journal for Utter Nonsense) #774 (June 1953), for a song written by her husband Poul Anderson. The 1950s also saw the first formal publication of filksongs, generally as lyric sheets, but occasionally complete with (often original) music. While many of those original songs faded into obscurity, some continued to be popular for decades. By the late 1970s, periodicals such as Kantele and Philk Fee-Nom-Ee-Non offered a ready outlet for filk writers. At the 1974 World Science Fiction Convention author Bob Asprin announced publicly the creation of a group of volunteers he dubbed the Dorsai Irregulars, and a singing session ensued later that night. In the 1970s and 1980s, filking slowly became established as an acknowledged activity at science fiction conventions. Some convention organizers allotted hotel function space late at night for filkers, or filking occurred in hallways, bars or any other place that the filkers could find. Some convention organizers in the 1980s began inviting guests specifically for their filking. Some specialized conventions focused entirely on filk, beginning with FilkCon in Chicago in 1979, organized by Margaret Middleton and Curt Clemmer, later joined by BayFilk in Northern California; the Ohio Valley Filk Fest (OVFF) in Columbus, Ohio; ConChord in Los Angeles, California; Musicon in Nashville, Tennessee; FilKONtario near Toronto, Ontario; a rotating British filkcon; the German FilkCONtinental; and others. These efforts grew to raising funds for traveling filkers. The first was a British Filk Fund and then, in the early 1990s, several active organizers in North America created Interfilk, which is now the most active traveling filker fund. Beginning with British filker Mike Whitaker in 1992, 40 filkers were the beneficiaries of Interfilk subsidies in its first decade. OVFF began presenting the Pegasus Award annually for excellence in filk in 1984, and FilkOntario started the Filk Hall of Fame in 1995, honoring contributions to the community as well as to the music. After years of amateur tape recordings made at filksings, a trickle of studio-produced albums and tapes began to arrive in the 1970s. These included Folk Songs for Folk Who Ain't Been Yet (featuring Leslie Fish and friends) and Children of the Future by Karen Willson. Off Centaur Publications was one of the first formal attempts to regularly produce and promote filk albums, followed by many others since. As the costs of amateur album production dropped in the 1990s, more filkers created albums and, more recently, audio files available for downloading online. E-mail and the internet have also fostered the networking of self-identified filkers. In the late 1980s, California filker Kay Shapero created the filk group on the Fidonet hobbyist network of electronic bulletin boards. The later creation of other electronic forums—the Usenet group rec.music.filk, a British Isles e-mail list and the German language list, an IRC channel devoted to filking, and a growing cluster of filkers blogging on LiveJournal (including a LiveJournal community), to pick a few examples—have mirrored the growing connections among other self-identified social networks (or subcultures). The availability of several hundred albums labeled filk, the proliferation of specialty filk conventions, and the continued growth of electronic means for community connections have led to an intensification of community building. A few years into the 21st century, filking as an identifiable community exists on at least three continents. Filksongs are also available as live online feeds, including one at www.live365.com/stations/filk_com which is sponsored by DAG Productions. On the album Precious Friend, Pete Seeger and Arlo Guthrie perform "Old Time Religion", in a filk version. Most of the verses of this version were by Gordon Dickson; when Seeger finally discovered this, after the album was issued, he sent royalties on to Dickson. The Filk Circle Filk music is most commonly performed in a gathering known as a Filk Circle. Similar to the Drum Circles and Bardic Circles found at SCA events and other fannish events, filk circles can be formed in any location where filkers gather. Filk circles are different from concert-style musical performances. Although filk music can also be performed in front of an audience, and there are concerts scheduled at filk conventions and science fiction conventions worldwide, filk circles are a more common occurrence. The purpose of a filk circle is for musicians to share songs with other musicians, so performing and listening are given equal emphasis. In a filk circle, there is no stage, there is no audience. Those who participate in a filk circle may choose to perform, to listen, or both, as the mood strikes them. Performers may know only one song, or they may have an extensive library of songs from which to choose. Participants are usually encouraged to join in and sing along or play along on their instruments. Filk circles can be formalized parts of larger events, such as being assigned a specific time and location on the schedule of a science fiction convention, or they can be completely informal and spontaneous, forming organically in hotel hallways and lobbies. Filk-specific conventions will usually have multiple filk circles happening simultaneously in different rooms, with some circles focused on a single style or topic. Local parties called housefilks are day-long events organized around a single filk circle held in the host's home. Physical Layout A Filk circle at a science fiction convention. As the name implies, a rough circle of chairs is usually formed. The details depend on the available space and furniture, and it may not even end up being circular, or even have chairs at all. The purpose of the circular formation is both symbolic and functional: By having everyone face each other, it honors all participants as equals, it emphasizes both listening and performing, and it makes each participant visible to every other participant. A formally organized filk circle can have the chairs set up ahead of time, with the organizers estimating the number of participants and adjusting the size of the circle as best they can. A circle that is too large for the number of participants tends to feel uncomfortably empty, but a circle that is too small will need to be enlarged as the number of participants grows. The disruption that results from attempting to enlarge a filk circle in progress can break up the flow of the songs and change the mood, so enlarging the circle is often avoided in favor of adding extra layers (concentric circles) outside the inner circle (space permitting). Time of Day Traditionally, filk circles are started in the evening and tend to continue very late into the night. Of course, this depends upon the location, the participants, and the organizers. Filk circles have been known to continue all night, or at least into the early morning hours. Those organizing formal filk circles at conventions usually make arrangements with the hotel for the space to be available for the entire night. There are many exceptions to this; it's not uncommon to find a housefilk scheduled to start in the early afternoon and end in the early evening, for example. Musical Instruments At most filk circles, the participants are expected to bring their own musical instruments (if they play an instrument at all), although sometimes you will find organizers or performers bringing a collection of extra instruments so that others may borrow or experiment with them. Most performers who bring instruments such as guitars are usually happy to loan their instruments to someone who comes to the circle without one. A wide range of instruments can be found in a filk circle, although the most common is the acoustic guitar. Acoustic instruments are more common than electric instruments, although portable keyboards and even Theremins are not unheard of. Personal observation by Daniel Reitman, RadCon, Pasco, Washington, approx. 1998. Small, easily portable instruments are more common than large ones, although larger items such as small drum kits and upright basses can be found at some filk circles. A large filk circle might play host to an array of folk and Celtic instruments such as fiddles, mandolins, dulcimers, banjos, flutes, recorders, bodhráns, bongos and darbukas. Song Presentation Songs are presented very informally. They can be given with spoken introductions and explanations, or they can be simply played and allowed to speak for themselves. Songs can be chosen to fit the current mood or theme, or they may be chosen to deliberately change the mood. Songs can be performed by individuals, duos, groups, or groups hastily assembled from other participants. Songs can be accompanied by instruments or be performed a cappella. Songs can be original songs, covers, parodies, instrumentals, or even spoken-word pieces such as poetry and stories. An active and well-attended filk circle, at its peak, will usually be a somewhat continuous stream of songs, with only a small amount of chatting between songs. Filk circles that are just getting started or winding down may have more chatting and socializing than music. Types of Filk Circle Filk circles are often given an organizational structure to make it easier for participants to know when it's time to perform or time to listen to other performers. There are many ways to accomplish this, but the most common types of filk circle are listed below. Bardic In a bardic circle, each person in the circle (as well as those sitting in concentric circles around the inner circle, if any), go in turns, with each turn moving sequentially either clockwise or counterclockwise around the circle. Each participant is given the choice of pick, pass, or play. "Pick" means they can request a specific song, a specific performer, a general topic or style, or any other similar request from an individual or from the circle in general. "Pass" means they skip their turn and the choice passes on to the next person in sequence. "Play" means they can perform any song they choose, either specific to the current topic or mood, or deliberately different from the current topic or mood. The advantage of the bardic circle is that it has a clear structure which enforces politeness. It ensures everyone in the circle gets their turn, so that even shy people can have a chance to request or perform. There are disadvantages, however. A bardic circle with large numbers of participants will take a long time to traverse the entire circle, making people wait too long for their turn. There is less spontaneity in a bardic circle than a chaos circle, and the chance of being able to play a good "follower" song is reduced. Chaos In a chaos circle, there is no sequential organization. Any performer can simply begin playing a song after the prior song is finished, or any participant can shout out a request. Care must be taken to prevent two songs from starting at the same time. Frequently the word "follower!" is shouted in a chaos circle, meaning that a performer believes they have the perfect song to follow the prior song, and they want to play it now. The chaos circle's advantage is its spontaneity and energy. "Runs" of songs will frequently get started, with each new song intended to make some sort of connection to or commentary on the prior song's topic. The disadvantage is that it takes concentration and effort be polite and respectful in a chaos circle: It's easy to accidentally interrupt another performer who's trying to start up a song of their own, especially in a very large circle where one might not be able to easily hear the other performer on the opposite side of the room. Chaos circles thus have a reputation of favoring bold, loud performers who can command attention. Token Bardic A token bardic circle, also known as a "poker-chip" bardic circle, attempts to combine the enforced politeness of the bardic circle with the freeform nature of the chaos circle. A container full of some type of token such as poker chips is supplied for the circle. Each person participating in the circle is given a fixed number of tokens when they enter the room (frequently two tokens), and can throw a token into the center of the circle at any time to claim a pick or play turn (see Bardic, above). When all the active tokens in the circle are used up, they are scooped up and redistributed for the next round. The advantage of a token bardic is that there's still a chance for spontaneity and followers, yet it's easy to be polite to other performers because you can easily see when another performer wants a turn. The disadvantage is that, like bardic, in a large circle it may take a long time for you to get another turn after you've used up your existing turns. There are variations of these styles, some of the variants involving a person acting as a moderator. A given circle can change its style mid-stream, if the participants agree. It's common to see the participants of a bardic circle "go chaos" or vice versa, for example. Etiquette The etiquette of the filk circle begins with a respect for all music, including (and perhaps especially) amateur music and amateur performers. Everyone is encouraged to perform, regardless of their skill level. No one is criticized except to occasionally give tips or suggestions. Although singing along and playing along with instruments (including improvisation) is usually encouraged, filk circles are not like jam sessions. Jam sessions are usually focused on extended instrumental improvisation with everyone performing simultaneously, whereas filk circles tend to be more focused on a single performer or group singing an individual song during their turn. Singing along and playing along are expected to be done politely, contributing to the song rather than overshadowing the song's performer. The exception to this rule is when a jam session is specifically scheduled at a filk convention. Disruptions and distractions are discouraged during a song. This includes walking through the circle, general noise, and conversations. If between-song conversations and noise get out of hand, it's common to hear someone shout, "filker up!" as a signal to end the conversations so that the next person can have their turn. Cultural perspective There are several shared values that come from the cultural creation of filk in a social network, even one that spans several continents. At a deep level, the folk culture of filk validates creative arts in the midst of an explicitly technological culture. When accepting induction into the Filk Hall of Fame in 2003, ethnomusicologist Sally Childs-Helton said, We have taken our right to be creative and to literally "play" in the best sense of that word. Filk combines folk roots, live music circles, and dominant acoustical instrumentation, on the one hand, with high-tech cultural maintenance, on the other hand—a dense network of filkers' web pages, recordings, sound reinforcement at filk conventions, e-mail lists, and so on. The eclectic content of filk frequently contains that assertion of human creativity, especially in connection with technology. (See for example Leslie Fish's Hope Eyrie.) While there are significant numbers of memorial songs (e.g., Launius, 2004), pessimistic songs blame carelessness, incompetence, and corruption, only rarely considering the frailties of a society built on technology or hopes for the future. Because these themes cross international boundaries in filk, they are not explainable as a purely American optimism vis-a-vis technology (in contrast to Nye, 1996). Within the community, the folk culture of filk acknowledges the legitimacy of music created by artists with a broad range of skills. Those who actively identify themselves as filkers include professional musicians, musical novices, and all ranges in between. The repeat appearances of professional musicians at filk-specific conventions suggests a certain amount of respect given high levels of musical skill within filking, even while the culture is open to less experienced musicians. Whether the occasion is a housefilk in someone's home or a convention (festival) over a weekend, filk culture encourages respectful listening regardless of the performers' skill level and manifest opportunities for participation from single songs in a musical circle to scheduled concerts. That openness to participation is a marked norm in filking (e.g., Jenkins, 1992) and makes it relatively unique in a larger society that glorifies competition and super-stardom in performance arts. Mentorship within the filk community includes formal workshops at conventions as well as the informal swapping of advice in various forums. Occasional discussions over the boundaries of filk indicates the extent to which participants in filking are both aware of and keenly interested in the definition of filk as a community. Newsgroup debates over such topics as whether 'Weird Al' Yankovic is a filker suggest the deep feelings involved. In practice, most formal recognition of filkers in various awards are to those who regularly attend self-identified filk events, not to professional artists whose work may be considered found filk. Section references . Solomon H. Davidoff, "Filk:" A Study of Shared Musical Traditions and Related Phenomena among Fan Groups (M.A. thesis, Bowling Green State University, 1996). Bowling Green State University Thesis 6673. (At BGSU, call no. LD 4191 O6 No 6673.) Filk conventions Calendar listing of upcoming conventions, also as .ICS/iCalendar file Regular filk conventions sorted by time of year. Note that the following list is only for filk-specific conventions; there are also many general conventions which host filk programming. Convention name Region Month Homepage GAFilk Georgia, USA Early January http://www.gafilk.org/ Conflikt Renton, Washington, USA Late January http://www.conflikt.org/ UK filk convention (notionally called Contabile; annual name changes) Early February http://www.contabile.org.uk/ Consonance San Jose, California, USA Early March http://www.consonance.org/ FilKONtario, FKO Ontario, Canada Early April http://www.filkontario.ca/ NEFilk USA, rotates Boston (ConCertino), NY (Contata), DC (Conterpoint) Mid-year http://www.nefilk.us/ HarmUni UK Mid-year (not every year) http://harmuni.org/ ConChord Los Angeles, California, USA August http://www.conchord.org/ FilkCONtinental Germany Late September–early October http://www.filkcontinental.de/ Ohio Valley Filk Fest, OVFF Columbus, Ohio, USA Late October http://www.ovff.org/ Pegasus Awards The Pegasus Awards were founded to recognize and honor excellence in filking. These awards are given annually at the Ohio Valley Filk Fest (or OVFF). Anyone with an interest in filk can nominate songs or individuals for the awards, and anyone can vote. It is not necessary to be a member of the convention to be involved in the nomination and voting process. Currently awards are given in six categories: Best Song, Best Performer, Best Writer/Composer, Best Classic Song and two topical categories that vary from year to year. Some examples of past categories include: Best Love Song, Best Literature Song, Best Techie Song, Best Sing Along, etc. The OVFF convention committee solicits nominations for Finalists for the Pegasus Awards (the Nominating Ballot) during the late spring and summer. There is an opinion poll that runs during the year as well to help interested folk brainstorm ideas for the Nominating Ballot. The Finalist Ballot is distributed in the early fall, and must be returned by the opening night of OVFF. Voting can be done online—either to nominate Finalists, or to vote for the Finalists themselves. The final round of voting happens at OVFF itself, where handwritten ballots are collected after the annual Pegasus concert. The entire process is administered by the OVFF convention committee. Pegasus Awards site See also Science fiction conventions Barry and Sally Childs-Helton Maya Kaathryn Bohnhoff Frank Hayes (musician) References Further reading Cohen, Georgiana. "What is Filk?" The Boston Phoenix, March 20, 2008. Accessed 27 August 2008. References External links rec.music.filk FAQ Filk Book Index Filk Database UK Filk Music Database Leslie Fish Website | Filk_music |@lemmatized dorsai:2 irregulars:1 filking:18 conclave:1 filk:102 musical:9 culture:12 genre:4 community:10 tie:1 science:18 fiction:18 fantasy:6 fandom:6 active:5 since:3 early:12 play:15 primarily:1 mid:4 definition:10 debbie:1 ridpath:1 ohi:1 compilation:1 interfilk:3 page:2 demonstrate:1 consensus:1 though:2 one:14 could:3 divide:1 different:4 propose:1 focus:5 content:2 style:11 music:26 cultural:5 aspect:2 activity:3 base:1 folk:13 usually:9 theme:4 exact:1 filkers:13 know:6 write:4 song:49 variety:1 topic:11 include:12 limited:1 tangentially:1 related:2 computer:2 cat:2 common:11 anthropological:1 sung:1 perform:14 network:7 people:3 originally:1 gather:2 sing:9 convention:35 yet:4 another:4 interested:3 form:6 part:3 social:4 self:5 identify:4 described:1 later:3 article:1 origin:2 current:4 organization:2 emphasize:2 whichever:2 choose:7 create:5 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5,438 | Beauty | Beauty is a characteristic of a person, animal, place, object, or idea that provides a perceptual experience of pleasure, meaning, or satisfaction. Beauty is studied as part of aesthetics, sociology, social psychology, and culture. As a cultural creation, beauty has been extremely commercialized. An "ideal beauty" is an entity which is admired, or possesses features widely attributed to beauty in a particular culture. The experience of "beauty" often involves the interpretation of some entity as being in balance and harmony with nature, which may lead to feelings of attraction and emotional well-being. Because this is a subjective experience, it is often said that "beauty is in the eye of the beholder." In its most profound sense, beauty may engender a salient experience of positive reflection about the meaning of one's own existence. A subject of beauty is anything that resonates with personal meaning. The classical Greek adjective beautiful was καλλός. The Koine Greek word for beautiful was "ὡραῖος", Matthew 23:27, Acts 3:10, Flavius Josephus, 12.65 an adjective etymologically coming from the word "ὥρα" meaning hour. In Koine Greek, beauty was thus associated with "being of one's hour". A ripe fruit (of its time) was considered beautiful, whereas a young woman trying to appear older or an older woman trying to appear younger would not be considered beautiful. ὡραῖος in Attic Greek had many meanings, including youthful and ripe old age. Euripides, Alcestis 515. History of beauty The Taj Mahal is an example of symmetry in architecture. Deffinition: Chelsea Hirst There is evidence that a preference for beautiful faces emerges early in child development, and that the standards of attractiveness are similar across different genders and cultures. Rhodes, G. (2006). The evolutionary psychology of facial beauty. Annual Review of Psychology, 57, 199-226. Symmetry is also important because it suggests the absence of genetic or acquired defects. Although style and fashion vary widely, cross-cultural research has found a variety of commonalities in people's perception of beauty. The earliest Western theory of beauty can be found in the works of early Greek philosophers from the pre-Socratic period, such as Pythagoras. The Pythagorean school saw a strong connection between mathematics and beauty. In particular, they noted that objects proportioned according to the golden ratio seemed more attractive. Ancient Greek architecture is based on this view of symmetry and proportion. Classical philosophy and sculptures of men and women produced according to these philosophers' tenets of ideal human beauty were rediscovered in Renaissance Europe, leading to a re-adoption of what became known as a "classical ideal". In terms of female human beauty, a woman whose appearance conforms to these tenets is still called a "classical beauty" or said to possess a "classical beauty", whilst the foundations laid by Greek and Roman artists have also supplied the standard for male beauty in western civilization. Beauty ideals may contribute to racial oppression. For example, a prevailing idea in American culture has been that black features are less attractive or desirable than white features. The idea that blackness was ugly was highly damaging to the psyche of African Americans, manifesting itself as internalized racism. The black is beautiful cultural movement sought to dispel this notion. Conversely, beauty ideals may also promote racial unity. Mixed race children are often perceived to be more attractive than their parents because their genetic diversity protects them from the inherited errors of their individual parents. Leroi, A. (2003). Mutants: On Genetic Variety and the Human Body. Viking books Human beauty The characterization of a person as “beautiful”, whether on an individual basis or by community consensus, is often based on some combination of Inner Beauty, which includes psychological factors such as personality, intelligence, grace, congeniality, charm, integrity, congruity and elegance, and Outer Beauty, (i.e. physical attractiveness) which includes physical factors, such as health, youthfulness, sexiness, symmetry, averageness, and complexion. A common way to measure outer beauty, as based on community consensus, or general opinion, is to stage a beauty pageant, such as Miss Universe. Inner beauty, however, is more difficult to quantify, though beauty pageants often claim to take this into consideration as well. A strong indicator of physical beauty is "averageness", or "koinophilia". When images of human faces are averaged together to form a composite image, they become progressively closer to the "ideal" image and are perceived as more attractive. This was first noticed in 1883, when Francis Galton, cousin of Charles Darwin, overlaid photographic composite images of the faces of vegetarians and criminals to see if there was a typical facial appearance for each. When doing this, he noticed that the composite images were more attractive compared to any of the individual images. Researchers have replicated the result under more controlled conditions and found that the computer generated, mathematical average of a series of faces is rated more favorably than individual faces. Langlois, J. H., Roggman, L. A., & Musselman, L. (1994). What is average and what is not average about attractive faces? Psychological Science, 5, 214-220. Evolutionarily it makes logical sense that sexual creatures should be attracted to mates who possess predominantly common or average features. KOESLAG, J.H. (1990). Koinophilia groups sexual creatures into species, promotes stasis, and stabilizes social behaviour. J. theor. Biol. 144, 15-35 Another feature of beautiful women that has been explored by researchers is a waist-to-hip ratio of approximately 0.70 for women. Physiologists have shown that this ratio accurately indicates most women's fertility. Weight and skin color often govern attractiveness in a way dependent on one's culture Banerjee, S., Campo, S., & Greene, K. (2008, May). Fact or Wishful Thinking? Biased Expectations in I Think I Look Better When I'm Tanned. American Journal of Health Behavior, 32(3), 243-252. , additional text. Beauty is not solely limited to the female gender. More often defined as 'bishōnen,' the concept of beauty in men has been particularly established throughout history in East Asia, and most notably, in Japan. This is distinct from the idea of being metrosexual, which focuses mainly on the behavior of men in traditionally feminine ways. Bishōnen refers to males with distinctly feminine features, physical characteristics establishing the standard of beauty in Japan and typically exhibited in their pop culture idols. The origin of such a preference is uncertain but it clearly exists even today. Inner beauty Inner beauty is a concept used to describe the positive aspects of something that is not physically observable. While most species use physical traits and pheromones to attract mates, some humans claim to rely on the inner beauty of their choices. Qualities including kindness, sensitivity, tenderness or compassion, creativity and intelligence have been said to be desirable since antiquity. Effects on society Beauty presents a standard of comparison, and it can cause resentment and dissatisfaction when not achieved. People who do not fit the "beauty ideal" may be ostracized within their communities. The television sitcom Ugly Betty portrays the life of a girl faced with hardships due to society's unwelcoming attitudes toward those they deem unattractive. However, a person may also be targeted for harassment because of their beauty. In Malèna, a strikingly beautiful Italian woman is forced into poverty by the women of the community who refuse to give her work in fear that she may "woo" their husbands. Chinese Jade ornament with flower design, Jin Dynasty (1115-1234 AD), Shanghai Museum. Researchers have found that good looking students get higher grades from their teachers than students with an ordinary appearance. Furthermore, attractive patients receive more personalized care from their doctors. Studies have even shown that handsome criminals receive lighter sentences than less attractive convicts. How much money a person earns may also be influenced by physical beauty. One study found that people low in physical attractiveness earn 5 to 10 percent less than ordinary looking people, who in turn earn 3 to 8 percent less than those who are considered good looking. Lorenz, K. (2005). "Do pretty people earn more?" CNN News, Time Warner. Discrimination against others based on their appearance is known as lookism. St. Augustine said of beauty "Beauty is indeed a good gift of God; but that the good may not think it a great good, God dispenses it even to the wicked." City of God Book 15 Chapter 22 Ugliness Ugliness is a property of a person or thing that is unpleasant to look upon and results in a highly unfavorable evaluation. To be ugly is to be aesthetically unattractive, repulsive, or offensive. Webster's New World College Dictionary, 3rd edition, 1995. Like its opposite, beauty, ugliness involves a subjective judgment and is at least partly in the "eye of the beholder." Thus, the perception of ugliness can be mistaken or short-sighted, as in the story of The Ugly Duckling by Hans Christian Andersen. Although ugliness is normally viewed as a visible characteristic, it can also be an internal attribute. For example, an individual could be outwardly attractive but inwardly thoughtless and cruel. It is also possible to be in an "ugly mood," which is a temporary, internal state of unpleasantness. See also Aesthetics Glamour Style Human physical appearance Beauty in Nature Mathematical beauty Sexual attraction Erotic capital References External links BBC Radio 4's In Our Time programme on Beauty (requires RealAudio) Dictionary of the History of Ideas: Theories of Beauty to the Mid-Nineteenth Century beautycheck.de/english Regensburg University - Characteristics of beautiful faces | Beauty |@lemmatized beauty:47 characteristic:4 person:5 animal:1 place:1 object:2 idea:5 provide:1 perceptual:1 experience:4 pleasure:1 meaning:4 satisfaction:1 study:3 part:1 aesthetic:1 sociology:1 social:2 psychology:3 culture:6 cultural:3 creation:1 extremely:1 commercialize:1 ideal:7 entity:2 admire:1 possess:3 feature:6 widely:2 attribute:2 particular:2 often:7 involve:2 interpretation:1 balance:1 harmony:1 nature:2 may:10 lead:2 feeling:1 attraction:2 emotional:1 well:3 subjective:2 say:4 eye:2 beholder:2 profound:1 sense:2 engender:1 salient:1 positive:2 reflection:1 one:4 existence:1 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5,439 | American_Football_League | American Football League Sport American Professional Football Founded 1959 First Season 1960 Last Season 1969 No. of teams 8 (1960-1965), 9 (1966-1967), 10 (1968-1969) - {{#if:United States | Country United States - }} - {{#if:Kansas City Chiefs | champions Kansas City Chiefs - }} - The American Football League (AFL) was a major professional football league that operated from 1960 until 1969, when it was merged with the established National Football League (NFL). The upstart AFL operated in direct competition with the more established NFL throughout its existence. Initially viewed as inferior, the AFL began attracting top talent from colleges and the NFL by the mid-1960s, well before the Common Draft which began in 1967. In fact, even in 1960, its inaugural season, the AFL signed half of the NFL's first-round draft choices, including All-American Billy Cannon, perennial All-Star Johnny Robinson, and Hall of Famer Ron Mix. In 1966, a merger between the two leagues was announced, but was not finalized until 1970. During its final two years of existence, the AFL teams won two upset victories over the NFL teams in Super Bowl III and IV, the former considered among one of the biggest upsets in American sports history. When the merger took place, all ten AFL franchises became part of the merged league's new American Football Conference (AFC), with three teams from the original 16-team NFL (the Pittsburgh Steelers, Cleveland Browns, and Baltimore Colts) joining them. The remaining 13 original NFL teams became the inaugural members of the National Football Conference (NFC). The AFL logo was incorporated into the newly minted AFC logo, although the color of the "A" was changed from blue and white, to red. The NFL retained its old name and logo and claims the rights to all AFL products including the eagle logo. However, the NFL itself has licensed products (see External Links, below) which declare that the 1960-1969 American Football League was "the genesis of modern pro football". League history The National Football League had grown to become one of the most popular professional sports leagues in the United States. One franchise that did not share in the success of the league was the Chicago Cardinals, who were overshadowed by the more popular Chicago Bears. The team was reportedly for sale (with the intent of relocation), and one of the men who approached the Cardinals was Lamar Hunt, son and heir of Texas millionaire oilman H. L. Hunt. Gruver, The American Football League, p. 9. Hunt offered to buy the Cardinals and move them to Dallas, Texas, where he had grown up. While Hunt negotiated with Cardinals ownership, similar offers were made by Bud Adams, Bob Howsam, and Max Winter. Gruver, The American Football League, p. 13. When Hunt, Adams, and Howsam were each unable to secure a controlling interest in the Chicago Cardinals, they approached NFL commissioner Bert Bell and proposed the addition of expansion teams. Bell, wary of expanding the 12-team league and risking its newfound success, rejected the offer. Gruver, The American Football League, pp. 13–14. On his return flight to Dallas, Hunt conceived of an entirely new league and decided to contact the others who had shown interest in purchasing the Cardinals. He contacted Adams, Howsam, and Winter (as well as Winter's partner, Bill Boyer) to gauge their interest in starting a new league. Hunt's first meeting with Adams was held in March 1959. Gruver, The American Football League, p. 14. Hunt, who felt a regional rivalry would be critical for the success of the new league, convinced Adams to join and found his team in Houston. Hunt next secured an agreement from Howsam to bring a team to Denver, Colorado. Gruver, The American Football League, pp. 15–16. After Winter and Boyer agreed to start a team in Minneapolis-Saint Paul, the new league had its first four teams. Hunt also approached Willard Rhodes of Seattle, Washington, but that effort failed when Rhodes was turned down by Husky Stadium and had no place for his team to play. Miller, Going Long, pp. 3–4. Hunt also sought franchises in Los Angeles, California and New York City. During the summer of 1959 he sought the blessings of the NFL for his nascent league, as he did not seek a potentially costly rivalry. Within weeks of the July 1959 announcement of the league's formation, Hunt received commitments from Barron Hilton and Harry Wismer to bring teams to Los Angeles and New York, respectively. On August 14, 1959, the first league meeting was held in Chicago, and charter memberships were given to Dallas, New York, Houston, Denver, Los Angeles, and Minneapolis-Saint Paul. On August 22 the league officially was named the American Football League. Although Bell had given his public approval, individual NFL owners soon began a campaign to undermine the new league. AFL owners were approached with promises of new NFL franchises or ownership stakes in existing ones. Only the party from Minneapolis accepted, and the Minnesota group joined the NFL the next year, with the Vikings. No actual AFL team ever existed in Minnesota. The NFL also announced on August 29 that it would bring expansion teams to Houston and Dallas, to start play in 1961. Gruver, The American Football League, pp. 22–23. Two more cities were awarded AFL franchises later in the year. Ralph Wilson, who owned a minority interest in the NFL's Detroit Lions, announced he was placing a team in Buffalo, New York after he had been rejected by Miami. Buffalo was officially awarded a franchise on October 28. During a league meeting on November 22, a 10-man ownership group from Boston, Massachusetts (led by William H. (Billy) Sullivan) was awarded the AFL's eighth team. Maiorana, Relentless, p. 65. On November 30, 1959, Joe Foss, a World War II Marine fighter ace and former governor of South Dakota, was named the AFL's first commissioner. Foss commissioned a friend of Harry Wismer's to develop the AFL's eagle-on-football logo. Hunt was elected President of the AFL on January 26, 1960. The AFL Draft The AFL's first draft took place the same day Boston was awarded its franchise, and lasted 33 rounds. The league held a second draft on December 2, which lasted for 20 rounds. Since the Raiders joined after the AFL draft, they inherited Minnesota's selections (read next section). Dickey, Just Win, Baby, pp. 7–8. A special allocation draft was held in January, 1960, to allow the Raiders to stock their team, as some of the other AFL teams had already signed some of Minneapolis' original draft choices. "NFL Rejects" Prompted by the NFL's disdain for the new league, newspaper, radio and TV reporters from NFL cities took to calling former NFL players who went to the AFL "NFL Rejects", implying that if a player had spent time in the NFL and then played with an AFL team, he was "washed up" and not good enough to play in the "superior" NFL. Book, "Blanda" by Wells Twombly, p. 194 That assessment was contradicted by the play of the following "NFL Rejects": Jack Kemp, Babe Parilli, Ron McDole, Art Powell, John Tracey, George Blanda, Don Maynard, Len Dawson, and Lionel Taylor. They all started their careers in the NFL. In the American Football League, they all set standards at their respective positions. Crisis and success In November 1959, Minneapolis owner Max Winter announced his intent to leave the AFL in order to accept a franchise offer from the NFL. In 1961, his team began play in the NFL as the Minnesota Vikings. Los Angeles Chargers owner Barron Hilton demanded that a replacement for Minnesota be placed in California, in order to reduce his team's operating costs and to create a rivalry. After a brief search, Oakland was chosen and an ownership group led by local real estate developer Chet Soda was formed. After initially being called the Oakland "Señores", the Oakland Raiders officially joined the AFL on January 30, 1960. The AFL's first major success came when the Houston Oilers signed Billy Cannon, the All-American and 1959 Heisman Trophy winner from LSU. Cannon signed a $100,000 contract to play for the Oilers, despite having already signed a $50,000 contract with the NFL's Los Angeles Rams. The Oilers filed suit and claimed that Rams general manager Pete Rozelle had unduly manipulated Cannon. The court upheld the Houston contract, and with Cannon the Oilers appeared in the AFL's first three championship games (winning two). On June 9, 1960, the league signed a five-year television contract with ABC, which brought in revenues of approximately US$2,125,000 per year for the entire league. On June 17, the AFL filed an antitrust lawsuit against the NFL, which was dismissed in 1962 after a two-month trial. The AFL began regular-season play (a night game on Friday, September 9, 1960) with eight teams in the league — the Boston Patriots, Buffalo Bills, Dallas Texans, Denver Broncos, Houston Oilers, Los Angeles Chargers, New York Titans, and Oakland Raiders. Raiders co-owner Wayne Valley dubbed the AFL ownership "The Foolish Club," a term Lamar Hunt subsequently used on team photographs he sent as Christmas gifts. The Oilers became the first-ever league champions by defeating the Chargers, 24-16, in the AFL Championship on January 1, 1961. Attendance for the 1960 season was respectable for a new league, but not nearly that of the NFL. Whereas the more popular NFL teams in 1960 regularly saw attendance figures in excess of 50,000 per game, AFL attendance generally hovered between 10,000-20,000 per game. With the low attendance came financial losses. The Raiders, for instance, lost $500,000 in their first year and only survived after receiving a $400,000 loan from Bills owner Ralph Wilson. In an early sign of stability, however, the AFL did not lose any teams after its first year of operation. In fact, the only major change was the relocation of the Chargers from Los Angeles to San Diego. The Canadian Defeat The date was August 8, 1961. The AFL, desperate to prove that it was the real deal, challenged the Canadian Football League to an exhibition game. It was decided that the game would be between Hamilton Tiger-Cats and the Buffalo Bills. The Bills, who had finished near the bottom of the league in 1960, and Ticats, one of the best teams in the CFL at the time, were chosen because they were geographically close to one another. It was thought that beating a CFL team would prove that the AFL was at least the second-best football league in North America. After all, the NFL had sent several teams against teams from the CFL and had won every game so it was thought that victory against the CFL would be easy. Playing at Ivor Wynne Stadium in Hamilton, Ontario, the game proved to be a disaster for the AFL as the Ticats crushed the Bills 38-21 playing a mix of AFL and CFL rules. The Bills returned to Buffalo and it marked the only time a pro football team from Canada defeated a pro football team from the United States. No team from a U.S.-based football league has since competed with a team from a Canada-based league (U.S./Canadian professional team matchups within one league, however, have happened, such as the Toronto Rifles of the 1960s, the Montreal Machine of the early 1990s and the CFL USA of the mid-1990s). The Tiger-Cats continue to occasionally use this victory as a vehicle for its own promotion, particularly in light of the Bills' playing games in Toronto. Movement and instability (1962–63) While the Oilers found instant success in the AFL, other teams did not fare as well. The Oakland Raiders and New York Titans struggled on and off the field during their first few seasons in the league. Oakland's eight-man ownership group was reduced to just three in 1961, after heavy financial losses their first season. Attendance for home games was poor, partly due to the team playing in the San Francisco Bay Area—which already had an established NFL team (the San Francisco 49ers)—but the product on the field was also to blame. After winning six games their debut season, the Raiders won a total of three times in the 1961 and 1962 seasons. Oakland took part in a 1961 supplemental draft meant to boost the weaker teams in the league, but it did little good. They participated in another such draft in 1962. The Titans fared a little better on the field but had their own financial troubles. Attendance was so low for home games that team owner Harry Wismer had fans move to seats closer to the field to give the illusion of a fuller stadium on television. Eventually Wismer could no longer afford to meet his payroll, and on November 8, 1962 the AFL took over operations of the team. The Titans were sold to a five-person ownership group headed by Sonny Werblin on March 28, 1963, and in April the new owners changed the team's name to the New York Jets. The Raiders and Titans both finished last in their respective divisions in the 1962 season. The Texans and Oilers, winners of their divisions, faced each other for the 1962 AFL Championship on December 23. The Texans dethroned the two-time champion Oilers, 20-17, in a double-overtime contest that was at the time professional football's longest-ever game. In 1963, the Texans became the second AFL team to relocate. Lamar Hunt felt that despite winning the league championship in 1962, the Texans could not succeed financially competing in the same market as the Dallas Cowboys, who had entered the NFL as an expansion team in 1960. After meetings with New Orleans, Atlanta and Miami, Hunt announced on May 22 that the Texans' new home would be Kansas City, Missouri. Kansas City mayor Harold Roe Bartle (nicknamed "Chief") was instrumental in his city's success in attracting the team. Partly to honor Bartle, the franchise officially became the Kansas City Chiefs on May 26. The San Diego Chargers, under head coach Sid Gillman, won a decisive 51-10 victory over the Boston Patriots for the 1963 AFL Championship. Confident that his team was capable of beating the NFL-champion Chicago Bears (he had the Chargers' rings inscribed with the phrase "World Champions"), Gillman approached NFL Commissioner Pete Rozelle and proposed a final championship game between the two teams. Rozelle declined the offer; however, the game would be instituted three seasons later. Style of Play During the American Football League's existence, and henceforth, the league was characterized as a "no defense league", a "wide-open offensive league" or a "basketball league". Analysis of the scoring in the AFL from 1960 through 1969 compared to that of the NFL for the same ten seasons shows that the average combined score by both teams in regular season games from 1960 through 1969 in the American Football League was 45.6 points per game. The NFL's average over the same period was 43.5 points per game. On average, each AFL team scored only about one point more per game than each NFL team in the 1960s. However in 1965, the NFL averaged 46.1 total points per game, to the American Football League's 42.9 points. Another factor which may have affected the AFL's reputation as a high-scoring league is that its scoring was more evenly distributed than the NFL's. In 1960, in its 12 game season the AFL's highest scoring team, the NY Titans, scored 382 points, while the lowest-scoring Patriots had 286. In the NFL, in their 12 game season, the Cleveland Browns amassed 362 points, the Dallas Cowboys generated 177 points. However, all of the AFL teams were new franchises in 1960. Much has been argued about whether the AFL's best teams were as good as the NFL's best in the early 1960s. However, the AFL was a much more competitive league, and its lower-division teams would likely have done well against the weakest NFL teams. Many NFL offenses relied on slow, plodding, short-gain drives, while AFL teams generally reflected the philopsophy of one of Professional Football's greatest coaches, Sid Gillman: quick strikes, long passes, halfback options, etc. The very fact that AFL games were more exciting to watch may have led to the idea that they had "no defense"; but they had their share of good defensive coaches and teams. Lou Saban's Buffalo Bills, for example, did not allow a rushing touchdown in seventeen consecutive games over the 1964-1965 seasons. Nevertheless, with players like the Chargers' speedy Lance Alworth, possibly the best receiver of his era; and the first two Pro Football players to achieve and then break the mark of 100 catches in a season, the Broncos' Lionel Taylor and the Oilers' Charlie Hennigan; with flashy backs like the Raiders' Clem Daniels and the Chargers' Lincoln and Lowe; and bruising fullbacks like the Bills' Cookie Gilchrist and the Patriots' Jim Nance, offense was what caught the attention of American Football League fans. Watershed years (1964–65) A series of events throughout the next few years demonstrated the AFL's ability to achieve a greater level of equality with the NFL. On January 29, 1964 the AFL signed a lucrative US$ 36 million television contract with NBC (to start in the 1965 season), which gave the league money it needed to compete with the NFL for talent. A new single-game attendance record was set on November 8, 1964 when 61,929 fans packed Shea Stadium to watch the New York Jets and Buffalo Bills. The bidding war for players between the AFL and NFL escalated in 1965. The Chiefs drafted Kansas star Gale Sayers in the first round of the 1965 draft (held November 28, 1964), while the Chicago Bears did the same in the NFL draft. Sayers eventually signed with the Bears. A similar situation occurred when the New York Jets and the NFL's St. Louis Cardinals both drafted University of Alabama quarterback Joe Namath. In what was viewed as a key victory for the AFL, Namath signed a $427,000 contract with the Jets on January 2. It was the highest amount of money ever paid to a collegiate football player, and is cited as a contributing factor to the eventual merger between the two leagues. In March 1965, Minneapolis lawyer Joe Robbie met with Commissioner Foss to inquire about an expansion franchise. On May 6, Robbie secured an agreement to bring a team to Miami, Florida from city mayor Robert King High. League expansion was approved at a meeting held on June 7, and on August 16 the AFL's ninth franchise was officially awarded to Robbie and television star Danny Thomas. The Miami Dolphins joined the league for a fee of $7.5 million, and started play in the AFL's Eastern Division in 1966. Escalation and merger (1966–67) In 1966, the rivalry between the AFL and NFL reached an all-time peak. On April 7, Joe Foss resigned as AFL Commissioner. His successor was Oakland Raiders head coach and general manager Al Davis, who had been instrumental in turning around the fortunes of that franchise. No longer content with trying to outbid the NFL for college talent, the AFL under Davis actively started to recruit players already on NFL squads. Davis's strategy focused on quarterbacks in particular, and in two months he convinced seven NFL quarterbacks to sign with the AFL. Dickey, pp. 38–39. But while Davis intended to help the AFL win the bidding war, some AFL and NFL owners saw the escalation as detrimental to both leagues. The same month Davis was named commissioner, Lamar Hunt and Dallas Cowboys general manager Tex Schramm held a series of secret meetings in Dallas to discuss their concerns over rapidly increasing player salaries, as well as the practice of player poaching. Hunt and Schramm completed the basic groundwork for a merger of the two leagues by the end of May, and on June 8, 1966 the merger was officially announced. Under the terms of the agreement, the two leagues would hold a common player draft. The agreement also called for a title game to be played between the champions of the respective leagues. The two leagues would be fully merged by 1970, and NFL commissioner Pete Rozelle would remain as commissioner of the merged league. The AFL also agreed to pay indemnities of $18 million to the NFL over 20 years. In protest, Davis resigned as AFL commissioner on July 25 rather than remain until the completion of the merger, and Milt Woodard was named President of the AFL. On January 15, 1967, the first-ever World Championship Game between the champions of the two separate professional football leagues, the AFL-NFL Championship Game (retroactively referred to as Super Bowl I), was played in Los Angeles. After a close first half, the NFL champion Green Bay Packers overwhelmed the AFL champion Kansas City Chiefs, 35-10. The loss reinforced for many the notion that the AFL was indeed the inferior league. Packers head coach Vince Lombardi stated after the game, "I do not think they are as good as the top teams in the National Football League." The second AFL-NFL Championship (Super Bowl II) yielded a similar result. The Oakland Raiders—who easily beat the Houston Oilers to win their first AFL championship—were overmatched by the Packers, 33-14. The more experienced Packers capitalized on a number of Raiders miscues, and never trailed. Green Bay defensive tackle Henry Jordan offered a compliment to Oakland and the AFL, when he said, "...the AFL is becoming much more sophisticated on offense. I think the league has always had good personnel, but the blocks were subtler and better conceived in this game." The AFL added its tenth and final team on May 24, 1967, when they awarded the league's second expansion franchise to an ownership group from Cincinnati, Ohio headed by NFL legend Paul Brown. Although Brown had intended to join the NFL, he agreed to join the AFL when he learned that his team would join the NFL once the merger was completed. Brown, PB - The Paul Brown Story The Cincinnati Bengals began play in the 1968 season, and finished last in the Western Division. African-American players The eight new teams of the American Football League essentially made 280 additional positions available for American professional football players. One source of talent that had been traditionally ignored by the NFL was small, historically black colleges. Black players who did manage to make NFL rosters were subject to unwritten but stringent "quotas" for the number of black players on a team and the positions that could be filled by blacks. At that time, there were no black quarterbacks, centers, or middle linebackers in the NFL. The American Football League, in contrast, actively recruited from the black colleges, and used black players at positions not permitted to them in the NFL. For example, in 1963, the AFL's Kansas City Chiefs became the first team in pro football history to use the first overall pick of a draft on a player from a small black college – defensive tackle Buck Buchanan of Grambling State, while the NFL's New York Giants relegated Buchanan to their 19th round pick that year (Buchanan was inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 1990). Eighteen black players from Eddie Robinson's Grambling teams made AFL rosters in the sixties. The larger NFL had just fourteen; on a per-team ratio the AFL had about two Grambling players per team, NFL teams had about one. The same could be said in general for the ratio of all black players in each league. The effect was cumulative, more and more outstanding black players opted for the AFL, recognizing their chances to play were greater there. The Denver Broncos made Marlin Briscoe the first modern starting black quarterback, and Gene Mingo the first ever black placekicker in professional football. Willie Lanier (also destined for the Hall of Fame), for example, became pro football's first black middle linebacker with the Chiefs. Hank Stram's strategic innovations were not the only ideas copied by old-line NFL teams after the merger: so were his "color-blindness" and his team's use of blacks at formerly "white" positions. The Lions in David's Den The date was August 5, 1967. In the previous season, the Packers, the best team in Professional Football, had destroyed the competition in their own league and continued their dominance in the first AFL-NFL World Championship, defeating the AFL's Chiefs. The first AFL-NFL game after that pitted the NFL's Detroit Lions against the AFL's lowly Denver Broncos in an exhibition game at the University of Denver Stadium. Denver had been 4-10 in 1966, third-worst in the AFL. The Lions had been minimally better, at 4-9-1, but of course they played in the tough West Division of the superior NFL, against the likes of the Colts and the Packers. The Lions of 1967 were expecting big things. They had a new head coach, former Lions’ great Joe Schmidt. The team had quarterbacks Karl Sweetan and Milt Plum, and future star defensive back Lem Barney. The Broncos also had a new head coach in Lou Saban, and the stellar fullback Cookie Gilchrist was starting his second season there. But Denver had already lost its first exhibition game to the Miami Dolphins, an AFL expansion team. Before the game against the Broncos, Detroit defensive tackle Alex Karras had scornfully remarked "If the Lions lose this game, I'll walk back to Detroit"! The Broncos gained 227 yards rushing, to defeat the Lions 13-7. On the bus following the game, Roger Brown, the Lions’ defensive tackle moaned, “The Denver Broncos….It didn’t happen!“ Karras reneged on his vow, and flew back to Detroit with the rest of the defeated Lions. For months afterwards, a standard joke on Denver radio was "Alex Karras has been sighted walking North on Route 287"., etc. Legitimacy and the end of an era (1968-70) While many AFL players and observers felt their league was the equal of the NFL, the first two Super Bowls did little to prove it. That perception changed on January 12, 1969, when the AFL Champion New York Jets shocked the heavily favored NFL Champion Baltimore Colts in Super Bowl III. The Colts, who entered the contest favored by as many as 18 points, had completed the 1968 NFL season with a 13-1 record, and won the NFL title with a convincing 34-0 dismantling of the Cleveland Browns. Led by their stalwart defense—which allowed a record-low 144 points—the 1968 Colts were considered one of the best-ever NFL teams. By contrast, the Jets allowed 280 points, the highest total for any division winner in the two leagues. They had also narrowly beaten the favored Oakland Raiders in the AFL Championship. Jets quarterback Joe Namath recalled that in the days leading up to the game, he grew increasingly angry when told New York had no chance to beat Baltimore. Three days before the game, a frustrated Namath responded to a heckler at the Touchdown Club in Miami by declaring, "We're going to win Sunday, I'll guarantee you." Namath and the Jets made good on his guarantee as they held the Colts scoreless until late in the fourth quarter. The Jets won, 16-7, in what is considered one of the greatest upsets in American sports history. Shamsky, The Magnificent Seasons, p. 5. With the win, the AFL finally achieved parity with the NFL and legitimized the merger of the two leagues. That notion was reinforced one year later in Super Bowl IV, when the AFL champion Kansas City Chiefs upset the NFL champion Minnesota Vikings, 23-7, in the last championship game to be played between the two leagues. The Vikings, favored by 12½ points, were held to just 67 rushing yards. The last game in AFL history was the AFL All-Star Game, held in Houston's Astrodome on January 17, 1970. The Western All-Stars, led by Chargers quarterback John Hadl, defeated the Eastern All-Stars, 26-3. Hadl was named the game's Most Valuable Player. Prior to the start of the 1970 NFL season, the merged league was split into two conferences of three divisions each. All ten AFL teams made up the bulk of the new American Football Conference. To avoid having 16 teams in one conference and 10 in the other, the leagues voted to move three NFL teams to the AFC. Motivated by the prospect of an intrastate rivalry with the Bengals as well as his personal animosity with Paul Brown, Cleveland Browns owner Art Modell quickly offered to include his team in the AFC. He helped convince the Pittsburgh Steelers (the Browns' archrivals) and Baltimore Colts (who already shared the Baltimore/Washington, D.C. market with the Washington Redskins prior to the merger) to follow suit, and each team received US $3 million to switch. All the other NFL squads became part of the National Football Conference. Pro Football Hall of Fame receiver Charlie Joiner, who started his career with the Houston Oilers (1969), was the last AFL player active in Professional Football, retiring after the 1986 season, when he played for the San Diego Chargers. Legacy The AFL stands as the only professional football league to successfully compete against the NFL. When the two leagues merged in 1970, all ten AFL franchises and their statistics became part of the new NFL. Every other professional league that competed against the NFL: the three previous leagues named "American Football League"; the AAFC; the USFL; the WFL; and the XFL folded completely. From an earlier AFL (1936-1937), only the Cleveland Rams, and from the AAFC, Cleveland Browns and San Francisco 49ers joined the NFL and are currently operating (a third AAFC team, the Baltimore Colts, is not related to the current Indianapolis Colts franchise: the original Colts played only one year in the NFL before disbanding at the end of the 1950 season) The NFL adopted many ideas introduced by the AFL, including names on player jerseys and revenue sharing of gate and television receipts. The older league also adopted the practice of using the stadium scoreboard clocks to keep track of the official game time, instead of just having a stop watch used by the referee. The AFL played a 14-game schedule for its entire existence, starting in 1960. The NFL, which had played a 12-game schedule since 1947, changed to a 14-game schedule in 1961, a year after the American Football League instituted it. The AFL also introduced the two-point conversion to professional football thirty-four years before the NFL instituted it in 1994 (college football had adopted the two point conversion in the late 1950s). All of these innovations pioneered by the AFL, including its more exciting style of play and colorful uniforms, have essentially made today's pro football more like the AFL than like the old-line NFL. The AFL's challenge to the NFL also laid the groundwork for the Super Bowl, which has become the standard for championship contests in the US. Hunt's vision not only brought a new professional football league to California and New York, but introduced the sport to Colorado, restored it to Texas and later to fast-growing Florida, as well as bringing it to New England for the first time in 12 years. Buffalo, having lost its original NFL franchise in 1929 and turned down by the NFL at least twice (1940 and 1950) for a replacement, returned to the NFL with the merger. In addition, the AFL also adopted the first-ever cooperative television plan for professional football, in which the league office negotiated an ABC-TV contract, the proceeds of which were divided equally among member clubs. Three NFL franchises were awarded as a direct result of the AFL's competition with the older league: the Vikings, who were awarded to Max Winter in exchange for dropping his bid to join the AFL; the Falcons, whose franchise went to Rankin Smith to dissuade him from purchasing the AFL's Miami Dolphins; and the Saints, because of successful anti-trust legislation which let the two leagues merge, and was supported by several Louisiana politicians. Further, the success of the expansion process engendered by the AFL-NFL conflict (as well as later expansion pressures created by the WFL, USFL, and even the CFL) certainly led to more expansion, ultimately to the thirty-two team league as it exists in 2008. Had it not been for the existence of the Oilers from 1960 to 1996, the Houston Texans also would likely not exist today. Thus, if not for the AFL, at least five of today's NFL teams would likely never have existed. The AFL also spawned coaches whose style and techniques profoundly affect the play of professional football until this day. In addition to AFL greats like Hank Stram, Lou Saban, Sid Gillman and Al Davis were eventual hall of fame coaches such as Bill Walsh, a protegé of Davis with the AFL Oakland Raiders; and Chuck Noll, who worked for Gillman and the AFL LA/San Diego Chargers from 1960 through 1965. Others include Buddy Ryan (AFL's New York Jets) and John Madden (AFL's Oakland Raiders). Additionally, many prominent coaches began their pro football careers as players in the AFL, including Sam Wyche (Cincinnati Bengals), Marty Schottenheimer (Buffalo Bills), and two-time Super Bowl winner Tom Flores (Oakland Raiders). Flores also has a Super Bowl ring as a player (1969 Kansas City Chiefs). Perhaps the greatest social legacy of the AFL was the domino effect of its policy of opportunity for black players, which not only led to the explosion of black talent on the field, but the eventual entry of blacks into scouting, coordinator, and ultimately head coaching positions, long after the league ceased to exist. Foreword by Miller Farr. The AFL's free agents came from several sources. Some were players who could not find success playing in the NFL, while another source was the Canadian Football League. In the late 1950s, many players released by the NFL, or un-drafted and unsigned out of college by the NFL, went North to try their luck with the CFL, and later returned to the states to play in the AFL. In the league's first years, men like the Oilers' George Blanda, the Chargers/Bills' Jack Kemp, the Texans' Len Dawson, the Titans' Don Maynard, the Raiders/Patriots/Jets' Babe Parilli, the Pats' Bob Dee proved to be AFL standouts. Other players such as the Broncos' Frank Tripucka, the Pats' Gino Cappelletti, the Bills' Cookie Gilchrist and the Chargers' Tobin Rote, Sam Deluca and Dave Kocourek also made their mark to give the fledgling league badly-needed credibility. Rounding out this mix of potential talent were the true "free agents", the walk-ons and the "wanna-be's", who tried out in droves for the chance to play professional football. The American Football League took advantage of the burgeoning popularity of football by locating teams in major cities that lacked NFL franchises, and by using the growing power of televised football games (bolstered with the help of major network contracts, first with ABC and later with NBC). It featured many outstanding games, such as the classic 1962 double-overtime American Football League championship game between the Dallas Texans and the defending champion Houston Oilers. At the time it was the longest professional football championship game ever played. The AFL appealed to fans by offering a flashier style of play, compared to the more conservative game of the NFL. Long passes ("bombs") were commonplace in AFL offenses, led by such talented quarterbacks as John Hadl, Daryle Lamonica and Len Dawson. After the AFL-NFL merger agreement in 1966, and after the AFL's Jets defeated the "best team in the history of the NFL", the Colts, a popular misconception fostered by the NFL and spread by media reports was that the AFL defeated the NFL because of the Common Draft instituted from 1967 on. This apparently was meant to confirm that until the AFL did not have to compete with the NFL in the draft, it could not achieve parity. But the 1968 Jets had less than a handful of "Common Draftees". Their stars were honed in the AFL, many of them since the Titans days. As noted below, the AFL got its share of stars long before the "Common Draft". Players who chose the AFL to develop their talent included Lance Alworth and Ron Mix of the Chargers, who had also been drafted by the NFL's San Francisco 49ers and Baltimore Colts respectively. Both eventually were elected to the Pro Football Hall of Fame after earning recognition during their careers as being among the best at their positions. Among specific teams, the 1964 Buffalo Bills stood out by holding their opponents to a pro football record 913 yards rushing on 300 attempts, while also recording fifty quarterback sacks in a fourteen-game schedule. Another example is cited by the University of Kansas site, which describes the 1961 Bluebonnet Bowl, won by KU, and goes on to say "Two Kansas players, quarterback John Hadl and fullback Curtis McClinton, signed professional contracts on the field immediately after the conclusion of the game. Hadl inked a deal with the [AFL] San Diego Chargers, and McClinton went to the [AFL] Dallas Texans." Between them, in their careers Hadl and McClinton combined for an American Football League Rookie of the Year award, seven AFL All-Star selections, two Pro Bowl selections, a team MVP award, two AFL All-Star Game MVP awards, two AFL championships, and a World Championship. And these were players selected by the AFL long before the "Common Draft". Despite having a national television contract, the AFL often found itself trying to gain a foothold, only to come up against roadblocks. For example, CBS-TV, which broadcast NFL games, ignored and did not report scores from the other league, but only until after the merger agreement was announced. Influence on Professional Football Coaching Many coaches who eventually shaped modern Professional Football had roots in the American Football League. Bill Walsh is often cited for an impressive "coaching tree" of assistants who went on to become head coaches. But Walsh was an assistant to the Oakland Raiders' Al Davis, who learned the trade from the AFL Chargers' mastermind, Sid Gillman. Walsh's coaching tree is thus an offshoot of Gillman's coaching tree. Besides Davis, others who coached for Gillman included Dick Vermeil, Chuck Knox, and George Allen, as well as Chuck Noll, the only head coach to win four Super Bowls. The numbers on Gillman's coaching tree indicate the Super Bowls won by his coaching "descendants", a total of twenty. Image:Gillman Coaching Tree.gif AFL 50th Anniversary Celebration As the influence of the AFL continues through the present, its 50th Anniversary will be celebrated during the 2009 NFL season. Starting with the 2009 Pro Football Hall of Fame Game in Canton, Ohio, Professional Football will recognize the 50th anniversary of the American Football League's first season. Since 1971, the Hall of Fame exhibition game has been played between an AFC team and an NFC team. However, in 2009, the game will be between two of the 'original eight' franchises of the AFL, the Tennessee Titans (formerly the Houston Oilers) and the Buffalo Bills. Bills owner Ralph C. Wilson Jr. will be inducted into the Hall of Fame Class of 2009. Wilson and Titans owner Bud Adams are the only surviving members of the Foolish Club, the eight original owners of AFL franchises. For the game, each team will wear a throwback uniform from the AFL years (1960 - 1969), with the Titans wearing Oilers uniforms. During the regular season, each of the 'original eight' AFL teams will take part in two Legacy Weekends, during which each will play another original eight team, with both teams in AFL throwback uniforms. AFL franchises DivisionTeamFirst SeasonHome StadiumAFL Record (W-L-T) Includes postseason games. AFL TitlesEastern Boston Patriots1960Nickerson Field (1960–62), Fenway Park (1963–68), Alumni Stadium (1969)64-69-90Buffalo Bills1960War Memorial Stadium (1960-1969)67-71-62Houston Oilers1960Jeppesen Stadium (1960–64), Rice Stadium (1965–67), Houston Astrodome (1968–69)72-69-42Miami Dolphins1966Miami Orange Bowl15-39-20New York Titans/Jets1960Polo Grounds (1960–63), Shea Stadium (1964–69)71-67-61WesternCincinnati Bengals1968Nippert Stadium (1968-1969)7-20-10Dallas Texans/Kansas City Chiefs1960Cotton Bowl (1960–62), Municipal Stadium (1963–69)92-50-53Denver Broncos1960Bears Stadium/Mile High Stadium (1960–69)39-97-40 Los Angeles/San Diego Chargers1960Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum (1960), Balboa Stadium (1961–66), San Diego Stadium (1967–69)88-51-61Oakland Raiders1960Kezar Stadium (1960), Candlestick Park (1961), Frank Youell Field (1962–65), Oakland-Alameda County Coliseum (1966–69)80-61-51 AFL playoffs From 1960 to 1968, the AFL determined its champion via a single-elimination playoff game between the winners of its two divisions.The home teams alternated each year by division, so in 1968 the Jets hosted the Raiders, even though Oakland had a better record (this was changed in 1969). In 1963, the Buffalo Bills and Boston Patriots finished tied with identical records of 7-6-1 in the AFL East Division. There was no tie-breaker protocol in place, so a one game playoff was held in War Memorial Stadium in December. The visiting Patriots defeated the host Bills 26-8. The Patriots traveled to San Diego as the Chargers completed a three game season sweep over the weary Patriots with a 51-10 victory. A similar situation occurred in the 1968 season, when the Oakland Raiders and the Kansas City Chiefs finished the regular season tied with identical records of 12-2 in the AFL West Division. The Raiders beat the Chiefs 41-6 in a division playoff to qualify for the AFL Championship Game. In 1969, the final year of the independent AFL, Professional Football's first "wildcard" playoffs were conducted. A four-team playoff was held, with the second-place teams in each division playing the winner of the other division. The Chiefs upset the Raiders in Oakland 17-7 in the league's Championship, the final AFL game played. The Kansas City Chiefs were the first Super Bowl champion to win two road playoff games and the first wildcard team to win the Super Bowl, although the term "wildcard" was coined by the media, and not used officially until several years later. AFL Championship Games Eastern DivisionWestern Division SeasonDateWinning TeamScoreLosing TeamVenueAttendance1960January 1, 1961Houston Oilers 24–16Los Angeles ChargersJeppesen Stadium 32,1831961December 24, 1961Houston Oilers (2)10–3San Diego ChargersBalboa Stadium 29,5561962December 23, 1962Dallas Texans 20–17 (2OT)Houston Oilers Jeppesen Stadium (2)37,9811963January 5, 1964San Diego Chargers 51–10 Boston Patriots Balboa Stadium (2)30,1271964December 26, 1964Buffalo Bills 20–7San Diego ChargersWar Memorial Stadium 40,2421965 December 26, 1965Buffalo Bills (2)23–0San Diego ChargersBalboa Stadium (3)30,3611966January 1, 1967Kansas City Chiefs (2)31–7 Buffalo Bills War Memorial Stadium (2)42,0801967December 31, 1967Oakland Raiders40–7 Houston Oilers Oakland-Alameda County Coliseum53,3301968 December 29, 1968New York Jets27–23Oakland RaidersShea Stadium 62,6271969January 4, 1970Kansas City Chiefs (3)17–7 Oakland Raiders Oakland-Alameda County Coliseum (2)53,561 Italics – Super Bowl Appearance AFL All-Star games The AFL did not play an All-Star game after its first season in 1960, but did stage All-Star games for the 1961 through 1969 seasons. All-Star teams from the Eastern and Western divisions played each other after every season except 1965. That season, the league champion Buffalo Bills played all-stars from the other teams. After the 1964 season, the AFL All-Star game had been scheduled for early 1965 in New Orleans' Tulane Stadium. After numerous black players were refused service by a number of area hotels and businesses, black and white players alike called for a boycott. Led by Bills players such as Cookie Gilchrist, the players successfully lobbied to have the game moved to Houston's Jeppesen Stadium. All-Time AFL Team As chosen by 1969 AFL Hall of Fame Selection Committee Members: 2001 National Football League Record and Fact Book, p. 405, Edited by Randal Liu and Matt Marini, Workman Publishing Company, New York, ISBN 0-7611-2480-2 All-Time AFL Team Offense Defense Special TeamsPositionPlayerPositionPlayerPositionPlayerFlankerLance AlworthEndJerry MaysKickerGeorge BlandaEndDon MaynardGerry PhilbinTight endFred ArbanasTackleHouston AntwineTackleRon MixTom SestakJim TyrerLinebackerBobby BellCenterJim OttoGeorge WebsterGuardEd BuddeNick BuonicontiPunterJerrel WilsonBilly ShawCornerbackWillie BrownQuarterbackJoe NamathDave GraysonRunning backClem DanielsSafetyJohnny RobinsonPaul LoweGeorge Saimes AFL records The following is a sample of some records set during the existence of the league. The NFL considers AFL statistics and records equivalent to its own. Yards passing, game - 464, George Blanda (Oilers, October 29, 1961) Yards passing, season - 4,007, Joe Namath (Jets, 1967) Yards passing, career - 21,130, Jack Kemp (Chargers, Bills) Yards rushing, game - 243, Cookie Gilchrist (Bills, December 8, 1963) Yards rushing, season - 1,458, Jim Nance (Patriots, 1966) Yards rushing, career - 5,101, Clem Daniels (Texans, Raiders) Receptions, season - 101, Charlie Hennigan (Oilers, 1964) Receptions, career - 567, Lionel Taylor (Broncos) Points scored, season - 155, Gino Cappelletti (Patriots, 1964) Points scored, career - 1,100, Gino Cappelletti (Patriots) Players, coaches, and contributors List of American Football League players American Football League Most Valuable Players American Football League Rookies of the Year American Football League Draft Commissioners/Presidents of the American Football League Joe Foss, commissioner (November 1959–April 1966) Al Davis, commissioner (April 1966–July 1966) Milt Woodard, president (July 1966–March 1970) See also American Football League Draft American Football League win-loss records American Football League seasons American Football League playoffs American Football League Most Valuable Players American Football League Rookies of the Year AFL-NFL merger List of leagues of American football American Basketball Association World Hockey Association Footnotes References History: The AFL - Pro Football Hall of Fame (link). Further reading Jack Horrigan and Mike Rathet, The Other League/The Fabulous Story of the American Football League Jack Orr, We Came of Age/A Picture History of the American Football League George Sullivan, Touchdown!/The Picture History of the American Football League Sal Maiorana, If You Can't Join 'Em, Beat 'Em: A Remembrance of the American Football League, ISBN 1-4107-4942-8 External links RemembertheAFL.com Website afl-football.50webs.com The Summer of the Little Super Bowls KU story on Hadl and McClinton signings with the AFL PFRA article about the 1926 seasons of both the NFL and AFL PFRA article about the 1930s and 40s AFL Pro Football Hall of Fame American Football League Legacy Game Official Titans website story on the AFL's 50th Anniversary Celebration Schedule of American Football League Legacy Games ESPN.com article on AFL Legacy Games | American_Football_League |@lemmatized american:52 football:95 league:126 sport:5 professional:24 found:1 first:37 season:43 last:8 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5,440 | Amyotrophic_lateral_sclerosis | Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis is a form of motor neurone disease (ALS, sometimes called Maladie de Charcot) is a progressive, fatal, neurodegenerative disease caused by the degeneration of motor neurons, the nerve cells in the central nervous system that control voluntary muscle movement. In the United States, the condition is often referred to as Lou Gehrig's Disease, after the New York Yankees baseball star who was diagnosed with the disease in 1939 and died from it in 1941, at age thirty-seven; today, renowned physicist Stephen Hawking is likely the best-known living ALS patient. The disorder causes muscle weakness and atrophy throughout the body as both the upper and lower motor neurons degenerate, ceasing to send messages to muscles. Unable to function, the muscles gradually weaken, develop fasciculations (twitches) because of denervation, and eventually atrophy because of that denervation. The patient may ultimately lose the ability to initiate and control all voluntary movement; bladder and bowel sphincters and the muscles responsible for eye movement are usually (but not always) spared. Cognitive function is generally spared except in certain situations such as when ALS is associated with frontotemporal dementia. However, there are reports of more subtle cognitive changes of the frontotemporal type in many patients when detailed neuropsychological testing is employed. Sensory nerves and the autonomic nervous system, which controls functions like sweating, generally remain functional. History +TimelineYearEvent1850English scientist Augustus Waller describes the appearance of shriveled nerve fibers1869French doctor Jean-Martin Charcot first describes ALS in scientific literature1881"On Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis" is translated into English and published in a three-volume edition of Lectures on the Diseases of the Nervous System1939ALS becomes a cause célèbre in the United States when baseball legend Lou Gehrig's career—and, two years later, his life—are ended by the disease.1950sALS epidemic occurs among the Chamorro people on Guam1991Researchers link chromosome 21 to FALS (Familial ALS)1993SOD1 gene on chromosome 21 found to play a role in some cases of FALS1996Rilutek becomes the first FDA-approved drug for ALS1998El Escorial is developed as the standard for confirming ALS2001Alsin gene on chromosome 2 found to cause ALS2 Epidemiology, causes and risk factors ALS is one of the most common neuromuscular diseases worldwide, and people of all races and ethnic backgrounds are affected. One to 2 people per 100,000 develop ALS each year. ALS most commonly strikes people between 40 and 60 years of age, but younger and older people can also develop the disease. Men are affected slightly more often than women. "Familial ALS" accounts for approximately 5%–10% of all ALS cases and is caused by genetic factors. Of these, approximately 1 in 10 are linked to a mutation in copper/zinc superoxide dismutase (SOD1), an enzyme responsible for scavenging free radicals. A recent study has identified a gene called FUS ("Fused in Sarcoma", ALS6) as being responsible for 1 in 20 cases of fALS. Although the incidence of ALS is thought to be regionally uniform, there are three regions in the West Pacific where there has in the past been an elevated occurrence of ALS. This seems to be declining in recent decades. The largest is the area of Guam inhabited by the Chamorro people, who have historically had a high incidence (as much as 143 cases per 100,000 people per year) of a condition called Lytico-Bodig disease which is a combination of ALS, Parkinsonism, and dementia. Two more areas of increased incidence are the Kii peninsula of Japan and West Papua. S. Kuzuhara, Y. Kokubo P3-146Marked increase of parkinsonism-dementia (P-D) phenotypes in the high incidence amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) focus in the Kii peninsula of Japan. Alzheimer's and Dementia, Volume 2, Issue 3, Pages S417-S417 Although there have been reports of several "clusters" including three American football players from the San Francisco 49ers, more than fifty soccer players in Italy , three soccer-playing friends in the south of England, Wicks P, Abrahams S, Masi D, Hejda-Forde S, Leigh PN & Goldstein LH (2005) The Prevalence of Depression and Anxiety in MND, Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis and other Motor Neuron Disorders, Volume 6, Supplement 1, p. 147 and reports of conjugal (husband and wife) cases in the south of France, these are statistically plausible chance events. Although many authors consider ALS to be caused by a combination of genetic and environmental risk factors, so far the latter have not been firmly identified, other than a higher risk with increasing age. Cause and risk factors Scientists have not found a definitive cause for ALS and the onset of the disease has been linked to several factors, including: a virus; exposure to neurotoxins or heavy metals; DNA defects; immune system abnormalities; and enzyme abnormalities. Surgeries involving the spinal cord have also been thought to play a role in the onset of ALS due to the disruption of nerve fibers. There is a known hereditary factor in familial ALS (FALS); however, there is no known hereditary component in the 90-95% cases diagnosed as sporadic ALS. An inherited genetic defect on chromosome 21 is associated with approximately 20% of familial cases of ALS. This mutation is believed to be autosomal dominant. The children of those diagnosed with familial ALS have a higher risk factor for developing the disease; however, those who have close family members diagnosed with sporadic ALS have no greater a risk factor than the general population. http://web.archive.org/web/20041115214832/http://www.alsphiladelphia.org/pennstatehershey/newsletters/newsletter_spring04.htm Some causative factors have been suggested for the increased incidence in the western Pacific. Prolonged exposure to a dietary neurotoxin called BMAA is one suspected risk factor in Guam; the neurotoxin is a compound found in the seed of the cycad Cycas circinalis, a tropical plant found in Guam, which was used in the human food supply during the 1950s and early 1960s. The very high incidence of the disease among Italian soccer players (more than five times higher than normally expected) has raised the concern of a possible link between the disease and the use of pesticides on the soccer fields. According to the ALS Association, military veterans are at an increased risk of contracting ALS. In its report ALS in the Military, the group pointed to an almost 60% greater chance of the disease in military veterans than the general population. For Gulf War veterans, the chance is seen as twice that of veterans not deployed to the Persian Gulf in a joint study by the Veterans Affairs Administration and the DOD. Dietary intake of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) has been shown in several studies to decrease the risk of developing ALS Symptoms Initial symptoms The onset of ALS may be so subtle that the symptoms are frequently overlooked. The earliest symptoms are obvious weakness and/or muscle atrophy. This is followed by twitching, cramping, or stiffness of affected muscles; muscle weakness affecting an arm or a leg; and/or slurred and nasal speech. The twitching, cramping, etc. associated with ALS is a result of the dying motor neurons, therefore these symptoms without clinical weakness or atrophy of affected muscle is likely not ALS. The parts of the body affected by early symptoms of ALS depend on which motor neurons in the body are damaged first. About 75% of people experience "limb onset" ALS. In some of these cases, symptoms initially affect one of the legs, and patients experience awkwardness when walking or running or they notice that they are tripping or stumbling more often. Other limb onset patients first see the effects of the disease on a hand or arm as they experience difficulty with simple tasks requiring manual dexterity such as buttoning a shirt, writing, or turning a key in a lock. Occasionally the symptoms remain confined to one limb; this is known as monomelic amyotrophy. About 25% of cases are "bulbar onset" ALS. These patients first notice difficulty speaking clearly. Speech becomes garbled and slurred. Nasality and loss of volume are frequently the first symptoms. Difficulty swallowing, and loss of tongue mobility follow. Eventually total loss of speech and the inability to protect the airway when swallowing are experienced. Regardless of the part of the body first affected by the disease, muscle weakness and atrophy spread to other parts of the body as the disease progresses. Patients experience increasing difficulty moving, swallowing (dysphagia), and speaking or forming words (dysarthria). Symptoms of upper motor neuron involvement include tight and stiff muscles (spasticity) and exaggerated reflexes (hyperreflexia) including an overactive gag reflex. An abnormal reflex commonly called Babinski's sign (the big toe extends upward and other toes spread out) also indicates upper motor neuron damage. Symptoms of lower motor neuron degeneration include muscle weakness and atrophy, muscle cramps, and fleeting twitches of muscles that can be seen under the skin (fasciculations). Around 15–45% of patients experience pseudobulbar affect, also known as "emotional lability", which consists of uncontrollable laughter, crying or smiling, attributable to degeneration of bulbar upper motor neurons resulting in exaggeration of motor expressions of emotion. To be diagnosed with ALS, patients must have signs and symptoms of both upper and lower motor neuron damage that cannot be attributed to other causes. Emerging symptoms Although the sequence of emerging symptoms and the rate of disease progression vary from person to person, eventually patients will not be able to stand or walk, get in or out of bed on their own, or use their hands and arms. Difficulty swallowing and chewing impair the patient's ability to eat normally and increase the risk of choking. Maintaining weight will then become a problem. Because the disease usually does not affect cognitive abilities, patients are aware of their progressive loss of function and may become anxious and depressed. A small percentage of patients go on to develop frontotemporal dementia characterized by profound personality changes; this is more common among those with a family history of dementia. A larger proportion of patients experience mild problems with word-generation, attention, or decision-making. Cognitive function may be affected as part of the disease process or could be related to poor breathing at night (nocturnal hypoventilation). Health care professionals need to explain the course of the disease and describe available treatment options so that patients can make informed decisions in advance. As the diaphragm and intercostal muscles (rib cage) weaken, forced vital capacity and inspiratory pressure diminish. In bulbar onset ALS, this may occur before significant limb weakness is apparent. Bilevel positive pressure ventilation (frequently referred to by the tradename BiPAP) is frequently used to support breathing, first at night, and later during the daytime as well. It is recommended that long before BiPAP becomes insufficient, patients (with the eventual help of their families) must decide whether to have a tracheostomy and long term mechanical ventilation. Most patients do not elect this route, and instead choose palliative hospice care at this point. Most people with ALS die of respiratory failure or pneumonia, not the disease itself. ALS predominantly affects the motor neurons, and in the majority of cases the disease does not impair a patient's mind, personality, intelligence, or memory. Nor does it affect a person's ability to see, smell, taste, hear, or feel touch. Control of eye muscles is the most preserved function, although some patients with an extremely long duration of disease (20+ years) may lose eye control too. Unlike multiple sclerosis, bladder and bowel control are usually preserved in ALS, although as a result of immobility and diet changes, intestinal problems such as constipation can require intensive management. Diagnosis No test can provide a definite diagnosis of ALS, although the presence of upper and lower motor neuron signs in a single limb is strongly suggestive. Instead, the diagnosis of ALS is primarily based on the symptoms and signs the physician observes in the patient and a series of tests to rule out other diseases. Physicians obtain the patient's full medical history and usually conduct a neurologic examination at regular intervals to assess whether symptoms such as muscle weakness, atrophy of muscles, hyperreflexia, and spasticity are getting progressively worse. Because symptoms of ALS can be similar to those of a wide variety of other, more treatable diseases or disorders, appropriate tests must be conducted to exclude the possibility of other conditions. One of these tests is electromyography (EMG), a special recording technique that detects electrical activity in muscles. Certain EMG findings can support the diagnosis of ALS. Another common test measures nerve conduction velocity (NCV). Specific abnormalities in the NCV results may suggest, for example, that the patient has a form of peripheral neuropathy (damage to peripheral nerves) or myopathy (muscle disease) rather than ALS. The physician may order magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), a noninvasive procedure that uses a magnetic field and radio waves to take detailed images of the brain and spinal cord. Although these MRI scans are often normal in patients with ALS, they can reveal evidence of other problems that may be causing the symptoms, such as a spinal cord tumor, multiple sclerosis, a herniated disk in the neck, syringomyelia, or cervical spondylosis. Based on the patient's symptoms and findings from the examination and from these tests, the physician may order tests on blood and urine samples to eliminate the possibility of other diseases as well as routine laboratory tests. In some cases, for example, if a physician suspects that the patient may have a myopathy rather than ALS, a muscle biopsy may be performed. Infectious diseases such as human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), human T-cell leukaemia virus (HTLV), Lyme disease, syphilis and tick-borne encephalitis viruses can in some cases cause ALS-like symptoms. Neurological disorders such as multiple sclerosis, post-polio syndrome, multifocal motor neuropathy, and spinal muscular atrophy also can mimic certain facets of the disease and should be considered by physicians attempting to make a diagnosis. Because of the prognosis carried by this diagnosis and the variety of diseases or disorders that can resemble ALS in the early stages of the disease, patients should always obtain a second neurological opinion. A study by researchers from Mount Sinai School of Medicine identified three proteins that are found in significantly lower concentration in the cerebral spinal fluid of patients with ALS than in healthy individuals. This finding was published in the February 2006 issue of Neurology. Evaluating the levels of these three proteins proved 95% accurate for diagnosing ALS. The three protein markers are TTR, cystatin C, and the carboxyl-terminal fragment of neuroendocrine protein 7B2. These are the first biomarkers for this disease and may be first tools for confirming diagnosis of ALS. With current methods, the average time from onset of symptoms to diagnosis is around 12 months. Improved diagnostic markers may provide a means of early diagnosis, allowing patients to receive relief from symptoms years earlier. Etiology SOD1 The cause of ALS is not known, though an important step toward answering that question came in 1993 when scientists discovered that mutations in the gene that produces the Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase (SOD1) enzyme were associated with some cases (approximately 20%) of familial ALS. This enzyme is a powerful antioxidant that protects the body from damage caused by superoxide, a toxic free radical. Free radicals are highly reactive molecules produced by cells during normal metabolism. Free radicals can accumulate and cause damage to DNA and proteins within cells. Although it is not yet clear how the SOD1 gene mutation leads to motor neuron degeneration, researchers have theorized that an accumulation of free radicals may result from the faulty functioning of this gene. Current research, however, indicates that motor neuron death is not likely a result of lost or compromised dismutase activity, suggesting mutant SOD1 induces toxicity in some other way (a gain of function). Studies involving transgenic mice have yielded several theories about the role of SOD1 in mutant SOD1 familial amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Mice lacking the SOD1 gene entirely do not customarily develop ALS, although they do exhibit an acceleration of age-related muscle atrophy (sarcopenia) and a shortened lifespan (see article on superoxide dismutase). This indicates that the toxic properties of the mutant SOD1 are a result of a gain in function rather than a loss of normal function. In addition, aggregation of proteins has been found to be a common pathological feature of both familial and sporadic ALS (see article on proteopathy). Interestingly, in mutant SOD1 mice, aggregates (misfolded protein accumulations) of mutant SOD1 were found only in diseased tissues, and greater amounts were detected during motor neuron degeneration. It is speculated that aggregate accumulation of mutant SOD1 plays a role in disrupting cellular functions by damaging mitochondria, proteasomes, protein folding chaperones, or other proteins. Any such disruption, if proven, would lend significant credibility to the theory that aggregates are involved in mutant SOD1 toxicity. Critics have noted that in humans, SOD1 mutations cause only 2% or so of overall cases and the etiological mechanisms may be distinct from those responsible for the sporadic form of the disease. To date, the ALS-SOD1 mice remain the best model of the disease for preclinical studies but it hoped that more useful models will be developed. Other factors Studies also have focused on the role of glutamate in motor neuron degeneration. Glutamate is one of the chemical messengers or neurotransmitters in the brain. Scientists have found that, compared to healthy people, ALS patients have higher levels of glutamate in the serum and spinal fluid. Laboratory studies have demonstrated that neurons begin to die off when they are exposed over long periods to excessive amounts of glutamate (excitotoxicity). Now, scientists are trying to understand what mechanisms lead to a buildup of unneeded glutamate in the spinal fluid and how this imbalance could contribute to the development of ALS. Failure of astrocytes to sequester glutamate from the extracellular fluid surrounding the neurones has been proposed as a possible cause of this glutamate-mediated neurodegeneration. Riluzole is currently the only FDA approved drug for ALS and targets glutamate transporters. Its very modest benefit to patients has bolstered the argument that glutamate is not a primary cause of the disease. The antibiotic ceftriaxone has demonstrated an unexpected effect on glutamate and appears to be a beneficial treatment for ALS in animal models. Ceftriaxone is currently being tested in clinical trials. Autoimmune responses which occur when the body's immune system attacks normal cells have been suggested as one possible cause for motor neuron degeneration in ALS. Some scientists theorize that antibodies may directly or indirectly impair the function of motor neurons, interfering with the transmission of signals between the brain and muscles. More recent evidence indicates that the nervous system's immune cells, microglia, are heavily involved in the later stages of the disease. In searching for the cause of ALS, researchers have also studied environmental factors such as exposure to toxic or infectious agents. Other research has examined the possible role of dietary deficiency or trauma. However, as of yet, there is insufficient evidence to implicate these factors as causes of ALS. Future research may show that many factors, including a genetic predisposition, are involved in the development of ALS. Treatment No cure has yet been found. Medication However, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has approved the first drug treatment for the disease: Riluzole (Rilutek). Riluzole is believed to reduce damage to motor neurons by decreasing the release of glutamate via activation of glutamate transporters. In addition, the drug offers a wide array of other neuroprotective effects, by means of sodium and calcium channel blockades, inhibition of protein kinase C, and the promotion of NMDA (N-methyl d-aspartate) receptor antagonism. Clinical trials with ALS patients showed that Riluzole lengthens survival by several months, and may have a greater survival benefit for those with a bulbar onset. The drug also extends the time before a patient needs ventilation support. Riluzole does not reverse the damage already done to motor neurons, and patients taking the drug must be monitored for liver damage and other possible side effects. However, this first disease-specific therapy offers hope that the progression of ALS may one day be slowed by new medications or combinations of drugs. A small, open-label study recently suggested that the drug lithium which traditionally is used for the treatment of bipolar affective disorder may slow progression in both animal models and the human form of the disease. However, further research is needed to establish whether the effect is real or not. The tetracycline antibiotic minocycline is also under investigation for the treatment of ALS among other neurological disorders. In rodents with the SOD1 gene mutation that has been associated with ALS, Minocycline was as effective as Riluzole in extending survival, and it delayed the onset of movement problems. It is thought to exert its neuroprotective effects not by affecting glutamate release as with Riluzole, but by inhibiting the release of a mitochondrial protein called cytochrome c into the body of the cell. The new discovery of RNAi has some promise in treating ALS. In recent studies, RNAi has been used in lab rats to shut off specific genes that lead to ALS. Cytrx Corporation has sponsored ALS research utilizing RNAi gene silencing technology targeted at the mutant SOD1 gene. The mutant SOD1 gene is responsible for causing ALS in a subset of the 10% of all ALS patients who suffer from the familial, or genetic, form of the disease. Cytrx's orally-administered drug Arimoclomol is currently in clinical evaluation as a therapeutic treatment for ALS. Insulin-like growth factor 1 has also been studied as treatment for ALS. Cephalon and Chiron conducted two pivotal clinical studies of IGF-1 for ALS, and although one study demonstrated efficacy, the second was equivocal, and the product has never been approved by the FDA. In January 2007, the Italian Ministry of Health has requested INSMED corporation's drug, IPLEX, which is a recombinant IGF-1 with Binding Protein 3(IGF1BP3) to be used in a clinical trial for ALS patients in Italy. Methylcobalamin is being studied in Japan : preliminary results show it significantly lengthens survival time of ALS patients. Other Other treatments for ALS are designed to relieve symptoms and improve the quality of life for patients. This supportive care is best provided by multidisciplinary teams of health care professionals such as physicians; pharmacists; physical, occupational, and speech therapists; nutritionists; social workers; and home care and hospice nurses. Working with patients and caregivers, these teams can design an individualized plan of medical and physical therapy and provide special equipment aimed at keeping patients as mobile and comfortable as possible. Physicians can prescribe medications to help reduce fatigue, ease muscle cramps, control spasticity, and reduce excess saliva and phlegm. Drugs also are available to help patients with pain, depression, sleep disturbances, and constipation. Pharmacists can advise on best use of medications. This is particularly helpful with regards to patients with dysphagia, which many ALS patients experience. They would also monitor a patient's medications to reduce risk of drug interactions. Physical therapy and special equipment such as assistive technology can enhance patients' independence and safety throughout the course of ALS. Gentle, low-impact aerobic exercise such as walking, swimming, and stationary bicycling can strengthen unaffected muscles, improve cardiovascular health, and help patients fight fatigue and depression. Range of motion and stretching exercises can help prevent painful spasticity and shortening (contracture) of muscles. Physical therapists can recommend exercises that provide these benefits without overworking muscles. Physiotherapists can suggest devices such as ramps, braces, walkers, and wheelchairs that help patients remain mobile. Occupational therapists can provide or recomment equipment and adaptations to enable people to retain as much independence in activities of daily living as possible. ALS patients who have difficulty speaking may benefit from working with a speech-language pathologist. These health professionals can teach patients adaptive strategies such as techniques to help them speak louder and more clearly. As ALS progresses, speech-language pathologists can recommend the use of augmentative and alternative communication such as voice amplifiers, speech-generating devices (or voice output communication devices) and/or low tech communication techniques such as alphabet boards or yes/no signals. These methods and devices help patients communicate when they can no longer speak or produce vocal sounds. With the help of occupational Therapists, speech-generating devices can be activated by switches or mouse emulation techniques controlled by small physical movements of, for example, the head, finger or eyes. Patients and caregivers can learn from speech-language pathologists and nutritionists how to plan and prepare numerous small meals throughout the day that provide enough calories, fiber, and fluid and how to avoid foods that are difficult to swallow. Patients may begin using suction devices to remove excess fluids or saliva and prevent choking. When patients can no longer get enough nourishment from eating, doctors may advise inserting a feeding tube into the stomach. The use of a feeding tube also reduces the risk of choking and pneumonia that can result from inhaling liquids into the lungs. The tube is not painful and does not prevent patients from eating food orally if they wish. When the muscles that assist in breathing weaken, use of nocturnal ventilatory assistance (intermittent positive pressure ventilation (IPPV) or bilevel positive airway pressure (BIPAP)) may be used to aid breathing during sleep. Such devices artificially inflate the patient's lungs from various external sources that are applied directly to the face or body. When muscles are no longer able to maintain oxygen and carbon dioxide levels, these devices may be used full-time. Patients may eventually consider forms of mechanical ventilation (respirators) in which a machine inflates and deflates the lungs. To be effective, this may require a tube that passes from the nose or mouth to the windpipe (trachea) and for long-term use, an operation such as a tracheostomy, in which a plastic breathing tube is inserted directly in the patient's windpipe through an opening in the neck. Patients and their families should consider several factors when deciding whether and when to use one of these options. Ventilation devices differ in their effect on the patient's quality of life and in cost. Although ventilation support can ease problems with breathing and prolong survival, it does not affect the progression of ALS. Patients need to be fully informed about these considerations and the long-term effects of life without movement before they make decisions about ventilation support. It must be pointed out that some patients under long-term tracheostomy intermittent positive pressure ventilation with deflated cuffs or cuffless tracheostomy tubes (leak ventilation) are able to speak. This technique preserves speech in some patients with long-term mechanical ventilation. Social workers and home care and hospice nurses help patients, families, and caregivers with the medical, emotional, and financial challenges of coping with ALS, particularly during the final stages of the disease. Social workers provide support such as assistance in obtaining financial aid, arranging durable power of attorney, preparing a living will, and finding support groups for patients and caregivers. Home nurses are available not only to provide medical care but also to teach caregivers about tasks such as maintaining respirators, giving feedings, and moving patients to avoid painful skin problems and contractures. Home hospice nurses work in consultation with physicians to ensure proper medication, pain control, and other care affecting the quality of life of patients who wish to remain at home. The home hospice team can also counsel patients and caregivers about end-of-life issues. Both animal and human research suggest calorie restriction (CR) may be contraindicated for those with ALS. Research on a transgenic mouse model of ALS demonstrates that CR may hasten the onset of death in ALS. In that study, Hamadeh et al. also note two human studies that they indicate show "low energy intake correlates with death in people with ALS." However, in the first study, Slowie, Paige, and Antel state: "The reduction in energy intake by ALS patients did not correlate with the proximity of death but rather was a consistent aspect of the illness." They go on to conclude: "We conclude that ALS patients have a chronically deficient intake of energy and recommended augmentation of energy intake." Previously, Pedersen and Mattson also found that in the ALS mouse model, CR "accelerates the clinical course" of the disease and had no benefits. Suggesting that a calorically dense diet may slow ALS, a ketogenic diet in the ALS mouse model has been shown to slow the progress of disease. Media report on Zhao et al.. Prognosis Regardless of the part of the body first affected by the disease, it is usual for muscle weakness and atrophy to spread to other parts of the body as the disease progresses. It is important to remember that some patients with ALS have an arrested course with no progression beyond a certain point despite extensive follow-up. Such a pattern is particularly true for young males with predominant upper limb weakness especially on one side (so-called monomelic or Hirayama type motor neuron disease). Eventually people with ALS will not be able to stand or walk, get in or out of bed on their own, or use their hands and arms. In later stages of the disease, individuals have difficulty breathing as the muscles of the respiratory system weaken. Although ventilation support can ease problems with breathing and prolong survival, it does not affect the progression of ALS. Most people with ALS die from respiratory failure, usually within 3 to 5 years from the onset of symptoms. However, about 10 percent of those individuals with ALS survive for 10 or more years. Etymology Amyotrophic comes from the Greek language: A- means "no", myo refers to "muscle", and trophic means "nourishment"; amyotrophic therefore means "no muscle nourishment," which describes the characteristic atrophication of the sufferer's disused muscle tissue. Lateral identifies the areas in a person's spinal cord where portions of the nerve cells that are affected are located. As this area degenerates it leads to scarring or hardening ("sclerosis") in the region. Notable people affected by ALS Notable people living with ALS include: British theoretical physicist Stephen Hawking Renowned ALS researcher Richard Olney American guitarist and composer Jason Becker American artist Tucker Stilley, aka New Jack Rasputin, , American musician Eric Lowen of Lowen & Navarro American football star Orlando Thomas American football star O.J. Brigance Former Italian soccer player Stefano Borgonovo American politician and former boxer Scott LeDoux Former Canadian Football League player Tony Proudfoot Former head of the Office for Standards in Education, Chris Woodhead Notable people who have died of ALS include: American baseball star Lou Gehrig (the namesake of the colloquial reference to the disease in the United States) American baseball star Catfish Hunter (although he was diagnosed with ALS, he died from a fall down a set of stairs) American baseball star Kent Hrbek's father Ed Hrbek died from ALS. Hrbek later, with his wife, founded the Minnesota chapter of the ALS Association to fight the disease. http://webmn.alsa.org/site/PageServer?pagename=MN_homepage American college football star Thomas George Holmes, Oregon State University defensive Lineman, 1991, 1993-1995 American football star Glenn Montgomery Morrie Schwartz, a college professor about whom the book Tuesdays With Morrie was written German-Jewish philosopher Franz Rosenzweig Soap opera actor Michael Zaslow American politician Jacob Javits American composer and jazz bassist Charles Mingus American composer Gordon Jenkins American folk guitarist Lead Belly American actor Lane Smith American gerontologist Roy Walford Henry A. Wallace, former American Vice President Dennis Day, American vocalist and Jack Benny co-star Longtime Chicago television newscaster John Drury Sue Rodriguez, an advocate of assisted suicide Leeds United and former England football manager Don Revie British actor David Niven British musicologist Hans Keller British musicologist Stanley Sadie Mathematician and computer scientist Fokko du Cloux Jon Stone The Creator of Sesame Street Vietnam War survivor and prison camp escapee Dieter Dengler on whom the movie Rescue Dawn is based. American political activist and writer Harry Browne Roberto Fontanarrosa, Argentinian writer and cartoonist. Bruce Edwards, lifelong caddy for Tom Watson Portuguese singer and activist José Afonso See also Muscular Dystrophy Association ALS Association ALS Therapy Development Institute ALS Society of Canada References Information The U.S. National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke'' Further reading External links ALS Association NIH Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis Fact Sheet Life with Lou Gehrig's Disease - NPR Story | Amyotrophic_lateral_sclerosis |@lemmatized amyotrophic:8 lateral:7 sclerosis:10 form:6 motor:24 neurone:1 disease:52 al:110 sometimes:1 call:7 maladie:1 de:1 charcot:2 progressive:2 fatal:1 neurodegenerative:1 cause:22 degeneration:7 neuron:22 nerve:7 cell:8 central:1 nervous:4 system:6 control:9 voluntary:2 muscle:34 movement:6 united:4 state:5 condition:3 often:4 refer:2 lou:4 gehrig:4 new:4 york:1 yankee:1 baseball:5 star:9 diagnose:7 die:8 age:4 thirty:1 seven:1 today:1 renowned:2 physicist:2 stephen:2 hawking:1 likely:3 best:4 know:4 living:3 patient:69 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5,441 | Context-free_grammar | In formal language theory, a context-free grammar (CFG) is a grammar in which every production rule is of the form V → w where V is a single nonterminal symbol, and w is a string of terminals and/or nonterminals (possibly empty). Thus, the difference with arbitrary grammars is that the left hand side of a production rule is always a single nonterminal symbol rather than a string of terminal and/or nonterminal symbols. The term "context-free" expresses the fact that nonterminals are rewritten without regard to the context in which they occur. A formal language is context-free if some context-free grammar generates it. These languages are exactly all languages that can be recognized by a non-deterministic pushdown automaton. Context-free grammars play a central role in the description and design of programming languages and compilers. They are also used for analyzing the syntax of natural languages. Background Since the time of Pāṇini, at least, linguists have described the grammars of languages in terms of their block structure, and described how sentences are recursively built up from smaller phrases, and eventually individual words or word elements. The context-free grammar (or "phrase-structure grammar" as Chomsky called it) formalism developed by Noam Chomsky in the mid-1950s took the manner in which linguistics had described this grammatical structure and turned it into rigorous mathematics. A context-free grammar provides a simple and precise mechanism for describing the methods by which phrases in some natural language are built from smaller blocks, capturing the "block structure" of sentences in a natural way. Its simplicity makes the formalism amenable to rigorous mathematical study, but it comes at a price: important features of natural language syntax such as agreement and reference cannot be expressed in a natural way, or at all. Block structure was introduced into computer programming languages by the Algol project, which, as a consequence, also featured a context-free grammar to describe the resulting Algol syntax. This became a standard feature of computer languages, and the notation for grammars used in concrete descriptions of computer languages came to be known as Backus-Naur Form, after two members of the Algol language design committee. The "block structure" aspect that context-free grammars capture is so fundamental to grammar that the terms syntax and grammar are often identified with context-free grammar rules, especially in computer science. Formal constraints not captured by the grammar are then considered to be part of the "semantics" of the language. Context-free grammars are simple enough to allow the construction of efficient parsing algorithms which, for a given string, determine whether and how it can be generated from the grammar. An Earley parser is an example of such an algorithm, while the widely used LR and LL parsers are more efficient algorithms that deal only with more restrictive subsets of context-free grammars. Formal definitions A context-free grammar G is a 4-tuple: where 1. is a finite set of non-terminal characters or variables. They represent different types of phrase or clause in the sentence. 2. is a finite set of terminals, disjoint with , which make up the actual content of the sentence. 3. is a relation from to such that . 4. is the start variable, used to represent the whole sentence (or program). It must be an element of . In addition, is a finite set. The members of are called the rules or productions of the grammar. The asterisk represents the Kleene star operation. Additional Definition 1 For any strings , we say yields , written as , if such that and . Thus, is the result of applying the rule to . Additional Definition 2 For any (or in some textbooks) if such that Additional Definition 3 The language of a grammar is the set Additional Definition 4 A language is said to be a context-free language (CFL) if there exists a CFG, such that . Additional Definition 5 A context-free grammar is said to be proper if it has no inaccessible symbols: no improductive symbols: no ε-productions: no cycles: Examples Example 1 S → a S → aS S → bS The terminals here are a and b, while the only non-terminal is S. The language described is all nonempty strings of s and s that end in . This grammar is regular: no rule has more than one nonterminal in its right-hand side, and each of these nonterminals is at the same end of the right-hand side. Every regular grammar corresponds directly to a nondeterministic finite automaton, so we know that this is a regular language. It is common to list all right-hand sides for the same left-hand side on the same line, using | to separate them, like this: S → a | aS | bS Technically, this is the same grammar as above. Example 2 In a context-free grammar, we can pair up characters the way we do with brackets. The simplest example: S → aSb S → ab This grammar generates the language , which is not regular. The special character ε stands for the empty string. By changing the above grammar to S → aSb | ε we obtain a grammar generating the language instead. This differs only in that it contains the empty string while the original grammar did not. Example 3 Here is a context-free grammar for syntactically correct infix algebraic expressions in the variables x, y and z: S → x | y | z | S + S | S - S | S * S | S/S | (S) This grammar can, for example, generate the string "( x + y ) * x - z * y / ( x + x )" as follows: "S" is the initial string. "S - S" is the result of applying the fifth transformation [S → S - S] to the nonterminal S. "S * S - S / S" is the result of applying the sixth transform to the first S and the seventh one to the second S. "( S ) * S - S / ( S )" is the result of applying the final transform to certain of the nonterminals. "( S + S ) * S - S * S / ( S + S )" is the result of the fourth and fifth transforms to certain nonterminals. "( x + y ) * x - z * y / ( x + x )" is the final result, obtained by using the first three transformations to turn the S non terminals into the terminals x, y, and z. This grammar is ambiguous, meaning that one can generate the same string with more than one parse tree. For example, "x + y * z" might have either the + or the * parsed first; presumably these will produce different results. However, the language being described is not itself ambiguous: a different, unambiguous grammar can be written for it. Example 4 A context-free grammar for the language consisting of all strings over {a,b} for which the number of a's and b's are different is S → U | V U → TaU | TaT V → TbV | TbT T → aTbT | bTaT | ε Here, the nonterminal T can generate all strings with the same number of a's as b's, the nonterminal U generates all strings with more a's than b's and the nonterminal V generates all strings with fewer a's than b's. Example 5 Another example of a non-regular language is . It is context-free as it can be generated by the following context-free grammar: S → bSbb | A A → aA | ε Other examples The formation rules for the terms and formulas of formal logic fit the definition of context-free grammar, except that the set of symbols may be infinite and there may be more than one start symbol. Context-free grammars are not limited in application to mathematical ("formal") languages. For example, it has been suggested that a class of Tamil poetry called Venpa is described by a context-free grammar. Derivations and syntax trees There are two common ways to describe how a given string can be derived from the start symbol of a given grammar. The simplest way is to list the consecutive strings of symbols, beginning with the start symbol and ending with the string, and the rules that have been applied. If we introduce a strategy such as "always replace the left-most nonterminal first" then for context-free grammars the list of applied grammar rules is by itself sufficient. This is called the leftmost derivation of a string. For example, if we take the following grammar: (1) S → S + S (2) S → 1 (3) S → a and the string "1 + 1 + a" then a left derivation of this string is the list [ (1), (1), (2), (2), (3) ]. Analogously the rightmost derivation is defined as the list that we get if we always replace the rightmost nonterminal first. In this case this could be the list [ (1), (3), (1), (2), (2)]. The distinction between leftmost derivation and rightmost derivation is important because in most parsers the transformation of the input is defined by giving a piece of code for every grammar rule that is executed whenever the rule is applied. Therefore it is important to know whether the parser determines a leftmost or a rightmost derivation because this determines the order in which the pieces of code will be executed. See for an example LL parsers and LR parsers. A derivation also imposes in some sense a hierarchical structure on the string that is derived. For example, if the string "1 + 1 + a" is derived according to the leftmost derivation: S → S + S (1) → S + S + S (1) → 1 + S + S (2) → 1 + 1 + S (2) → 1 + 1 + a (3) the structure of the string would be: { { { 1 }S + { 1 }S }S + { a }S }S where { ... }S indicates a substring recognized as belonging to S. This hierarchy can also be seen as a tree: S /|\ / | \ / | \ S '+' S /|\ | / | \ | S '+' S 'a' | | '1' '1' This tree is called a concrete syntax tree (see also abstract syntax tree) of the string. In this case the presented leftmost and the rightmost derivations define the same syntax tree; however, there is another (leftmost) derivation of the same string S → S + S (1) → 1 + S (2) → 1 + S + S (1) → 1 + 1 + S (2) → 1 + 1 + a (3) and this defines the following syntax tree: S /|\ / | \ / | \ S '+' S | /|\ | / | \ '1' S '+' S | | '1' 'a' If, for certain strings in the language of the grammar, there is more than one parsing tree, then the grammar is said to be an ambiguous grammar. Such grammars are usually hard to parse because the parser cannot always decide which grammar rule it has to apply. Usually, ambiguity is a feature of the grammar, not the language, and an unambiguous grammar can be found which generates the same context-free language. However, there are certain languages which can only be generated by ambiguous grammars; such languages are called inherently ambiguous. Normal forms Every context-free grammar that does not generate the empty string can be transformed into one in which no rule has the empty string as a product [a rule with ε as a product is called an ε-production]. If it does generate the empty string, it will be necessary to include the rule , but there need be no other ε-rule. Every context-free grammar with no ε-production has an equivalent grammar in Chomsky normal form or Greibach normal form. "Equivalent" here means that the two grammars generate the same language. Because of the especially simple form of production rules in Chomsky Normal Form grammars, this normal form has both theoretical and practical implications. For instance, given a context-free grammar, one can use the Chomsky Normal Form to construct a polynomial-time algorithm which decides whether a given string is in the language represented by that grammar or not (the CYK algorithm). Undecidable problems Some questions that are undecidable for wider classes of grammars become decidable for context-free grammars; e.g. the emptiness problem (whether the grammar generates any terminal strings at all), is undecidable for context-sensitive grammars, but decidable for context-free grammars. Still, many problems remain undecidable. Examples: Universality Given a CFG, does it generate the language of all strings over the alphabet of terminal symbols used in its rules? A reduction can be demonstrated to this problem from the well-known undecidable problem of determining whether a Turing machine accepts a particular input (the Halting problem). The reduction uses the concept of a computation history, a string describing an entire computation of a Turing machine. We can construct a CFG that generates all strings that are not accepting computation histories for a particular Turing machine on a particular input, and thus it will accept all strings only if the machine does not accept that input. Language equality Given two CFGs, do they generate the same language? The undecidability of this problem is a direct consequence of the previous: we cannot even decide whether a CFG is equivalent to the trivial CFG deciding the language of all strings. Language inclusion Given two CFGs, can the first generate all strings that the second can generate? Being in a lower level of the Chomsky hierarchy Given a context-sensitive grammar, does it describe a context-free language? Given a context-free grammar, does it describe a regular language? Each of these problems is undecidable. Extensions An obvious way to extend the context-free grammar formalism is to allow nonterminals to have arguments, the values of which are passed along within the rules. This allows natural language features such as agreement and reference, and programming language analogs such as the correct use and definition of identifiers, to be expressed in a natural way. E.g. we can now easily express that in English sentences, the subject and verb must agree in number. In computer science, examples of this approach include affix grammars, attribute grammars, indexed grammars, and Van Wijngaarden two-level grammars. Similar extensions exist in linguistics. Another extension is to allow additional symbols to appear at the left hand side of rules, constraining their application. This produces the formalism of context-sensitive grammars. Restrictions Some important subclasses of the context free grammars are: Deterministic grammars LR(k) grammars, LALR(k) grammars LL(l) grammars These classes are important in parsing: they allow string recognition to proceed deterministically, e.g. without backtracking. Simple grammars This subclass of the LL(1) grammars is mostly interesting for its theoretical property that language equality of simple grammars is decidable, while language inclusion is not. Bracketed grammars These have the property that the terminal symbols are divided into left and right bracket pairs that always match up in rules. Linear grammars In linear grammars every right hand side of a rule has at most one nonterminal. Regular grammars This subclass of the linear grammars describes the regular languages, i.e. they correspond to finite automata and regular expressions. Linguistic applications Chomsky initially hoped to overcome the limitations of context-free grammars by adding transformation rules. Such rules are another standard device in traditional linguistics; e.g. passivization in English. Much of generative grammar has been devoted to finding ways of refining the descriptive mechanisms of phrase-structure grammar and transformation rules such that exactly the kinds of things can be expressed that natural language actually allows. Allowing arbitrary transformations doesn't meet that goal: they are much too powerful (Turing complete). Chomsky's general position regarding the non-context-freeness of natural language has held up since then , although his specific examples regarding the inadequacy of context free grammars (CFGs) in terms of their weak generative capacity were later disproved. Gerald Gazdar and Geoffrey Pullum have argued that despite a few non-context-free constructions in natural language (such as cross-serial dependencies in Swiss German and reduplication in Bambara ), the vast majority of forms in natural language are indeed context-free. See also Context-sensitive grammar Formal grammar Parsing Parsing expression grammar Stochastic context-free grammar Algorithms for context-free grammar generation Notes References Chomsky, Noam (Sept. 1956). "Three models for the description of language". Information Theory, IEEE Transactions 2 (3). Further reading Section 2.1: Context-Free Grammars, pp.91–101. Section 4.1.2: Decidable problems concerning context-free languages, pp.156–159. 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5,442 | Intoxicative_inhalant | Inhalants are a broad range of drugs in the forms of gases, aerosols, or solvents which are breathed in and absorbed through the lungs. While some inhalant drugs are used for medical purposes, as in the case of nitrous oxide (a dental anaesthetic), this article focuses on the non-medical use of inhalants, as recreational drugs which are used for their intoxicating effect. Most inhalant drugs which are used non-medically are ingredients in household or industrial chemical products which are not intended to be concentrated and inhaled, including organic solvents (found in cleaning products, fast-drying glues, and nail polish removers), fuels (gasoline (petrol) and kerosene) and propellant gases such as freon and compressed hydrofluorocarbons which are used in aerosol cans such as hairspray, whipped cream and non-stick cooking spray. A small number of recreational inhalant drugs are pharmaceutical products which are used illicitly, such as anaesthetics (ether and nitrous oxide) and volatile anti-angina drugs (alkyl nitrites). Inhalant users tend to be people who do not have access to other drugs or alcohol, such as children, teenagers, incarcerated or institutionalized people, and marginalized individuals. The most serious inhalant abuse occurs among children and teens who "...live on the streets completely without family ties." Epidemiology of Inhalant Abuse: An International Perspective, 148 Inhalant users inhale vapor or aerosol propellant gases using plastic bags held over the mouth or by breathing from a solvent-soaked rag or an open container. The effects of inhalants range from an alcohol-like intoxication and intense euphoria to vivid hallucinations, depending on the substance and the dosage. Some inhalant users are injured due to the harmful effects of the solvents or gases, or due to other chemicals used in the products that they are inhaling. As well, as with any recreational drug, users can be injured due to dangerous behavior while they are intoxicated, such as driving under the influence. In some cases, users have died from hypoxia (lack of oxygen), pneumonia, cardiac failure or arrest, or aspiration of vomit. Administration and effects Inhalant users inhale vapors or aerosol propellant gases using plastic bags held over the mouth or by breathing from an open container of solvents, such as gasoline or paint thinner. Nitrous oxide gases from whipped cream aerosol cans and aerosol hairspray or non-stick frying spray are sprayed into plastic bags. When inhaling non-stick cooking spray or other aerosol products, some users may filter the aerosolized particles out with a rag. Some gases such as propane and butane gases are inhaled directly from the canister. Once these solvents or gases are inhaled, the extensive capillary surface of the lungs rapidly absorb the solvent or gas, and blood levels peak rapidly. The intoxication effects occur so quickly that the effects of inhalation can resemble the intensity of effects produced by intravenous injection of other psychoactive drugs. The effects of solvent intoxication can vary widely depending on the dose and what type of solvent or gas is inhaled. A person who has inhaled a small amount of rubber cement or paint thinner vapour may be impaired in a manner resembling alcohol inebriation - stimulation, a sense of euphoria and intoxication, followed by a period of depression. A person who has inhaled a larger quantity of solvents or gases, or a stronger chemical, may experience stronger effects such as distortion in perceptions of time and space, hallucinations, and emotional disturbances. In the short term, many users experience headache, nausea and vomiting, slurred speech, loss of motor coordination, and wheezing. A characteristic "glue sniffer's rash" around the nose and mouth is sometimes seen after prolonged use. An odor of paint or solvents on clothes, skin, and breath is sometimes a sign of inhalant abuse, and paint or solvent residues can sometimes emerge in sweat. While commonly nicknamed "Canned Air" computer cleaning dusters are dangerous to inhale, because they do not contain compressed air. Instead, they contain a variety of inert gases that expand and cool rapidly upon being sprayed. Mechanisms of action Inhalants are a large class of drugs and therefore exhibit a variety of mechanisms of action. The mechanisms of action of many non-medical inhalants has not been well elucidated. Anesthetic gases used for surgery, such as nitrous oxide or enflurane, are believed to induce anesthesia primarily by acting as NMDA antagonists, open channel blockers which bind to the inside of the calcium channels on the outer surface of the neuron, and provide high levels of NMDA receptor blockade for a short period of time. This makes inhaled anesthetic gases different to other NMDA antagonists such as ketamine, which bind to a regulatory site on the NMDA-sensitive calcium transporter complex and provide slightly lower levels of NMDA blockade, but for a longer and much more predictable duration. This makes a deeper level of anesthesia achievable more easily using anaesthetic gases, but can also make them more dangerous than other drugs used for this purpose. Alcohol is known to act as a GABA agonist, and it is likely that other solvents also act here to produce additional depressant effects. The solvent diethyl ether, for instance, has seen historical episodes of both inhalation and drinking, and produces effects suggestive of both NMDA and GABA mediated activity. The particular mix of NMDA antagonist vs GABA agonist properties will vary between solvents depending on molecular size or shape, and so the effects of particular solvents will differ, although all tend to share a similar profile. Dangers and health problems Some inhalant users are injured due to the harmful effects of other chemicals used in the industrial solvents or fuels that they are inhaling (e.g., tetraethyl lead used in some fuels http://www.runet.edu/~wkovarik/ethylwar/ http://www.chm.bris.ac.uk/motm/leadtet/leadh.htm ). As well, as with many recreational drugs, users can be injured due to dangerous behavior while they are intoxicated. In some cases, inhalant users can be injured or killed due to the effects of inhaling solvents or gases, which can cause hypoxia (lack of oxygen), pneumonia, cardiac failure or arrest http://www.gdcada.org/statistics/inhalants.htm , or aspiration of vomit. The inhaling of some solvents can cause hearing loss, limb spasms, and damage to the central nervous system and brain. http://www.gdcada.org/statistics/inhalants.htm Serious but potentially reversible effects include liver and kidney damage and blood oxygen depletion. Death from inhalants is generally caused by a very high concentration of fumes. Deliberately inhaling solvents from an attached paper or plastic bag or in a closed area greatly increases the chances of suffocation. Brain damage is typically seen with chronic long term use as opposed to short term exposure. eMedicine - Inhalants : Article by Timothy Kaufman Of more concern from a toxicological perspective, or from the point of view of an individual considering the recreational use of solvents, is the additional toxicity resulting from either the physical properties of the compound itself, or additional ingredients present in a product. Many solvents of abuse are fairly toxic compounds which often produce liver and brain damage after prolonged use. This is particularly detrimental with chlorinated compounds such as carbon tetrachloride or chloroform, or when products containing mixtures of many substances such as solvent-based glue or paint is inhaled. Toxicity may also result from the pharmacological properties of the drug; excess NMDA antagonism can completely block calcium influx into neurons and provoke cell death through apoptosis, although this is more likely to be a long term result of chronic solvent abuse than a consequence of short term use. Precise statistics on deaths caused by inhalant abuse are difficult to determine, as it is considered a dramatically under-reported cause of death due to the common result of a cause-of-death determination being attributed to the side-effects of inhalant abuse, such as a blood vessel rupture in the brain or a heart attack, rather than to the abuse itself. http://www.inhalants.org/VPT.htm Inhalant use or abuse was mentioned on 144 death certificates in Texas during the period 1988-1998 and was reported in 39 deaths in Virginia between 1987 and 1996 from acute voluntary exposure to abused inhalants. http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0978/is_4_27/ai_80771915 Solvents Use of some inhalants can cause brain, nerve, liver and other damage to the body. In the short term, death from solvent abuse occurs most commonly from aspiration of vomit while unconscious, or from a combination of respiratory depression and hypoxia, the second cause being especially a risk with heavier than air vapors such as butane or gasoline vapor. Deaths typically occur from complications related to excessive sedation and vomiting. Actual overdose from the drug does occur, however, and indeed inhaled solvent abuse is statistically more likely to result in life-threatening respiratory depression than intravenous use of opiates such as heroin. Most deaths from solvent abuse could be prevented if individuals were resuscitated quickly when they stopped breathing and their airway cleared if they vomited. However, most inhalant abuse takes place when people inhale solvents by themselves or in groups of people who are intoxicated. Certain solvents are more hazardous than others, such as gasoline. Hypoxia can occur when inhalant users are huffing from a plastic bag over their face, which means that they are not breathing enough fresh air. Also, since many solvents are highly flammable (e.g., gasoline, paint thinner), some users have suffered burn injuries and deaths due to fires. Female inhalant users who are pregnant may have adverse effects on the fetus and the baby may be smaller when it is born, and may need additional health care. There is some evidence of birth defects and disabilities in babies born to women who sniffed solvents such as gasoline. Driving while using solvents presents the same dangers as other types of impaired driving, because many solvents cause an alcohol-type intoxication. Other inhalants Inhaling butane gas can cause drowsiness, narcosis, asphyxia, cardiac arrhythmia and frostbite. Butane is the most commonly misused volatile solvent in the UK, and caused 52% of solvent related deaths in 2000. By spraying butane directly into the throat, the jet of fluid can cool rapidly to –20 °C by expansion, causing prolonged laryngospasm. Some inhalants can also indirectly cause sudden death by cardiac arrest, in a syndrome known as Sudden Sniffing Death Syndrome. The anesthetic gases present in the inhalants appear to sensitize the user to adrenaline. In this state a sudden surge of adrenaline (e.g., from a frightening hallucination or run in with the law), can cause a fatal cardiac arrhythmia. Nitrous oxide gas can cause death by asphyxiation if a user inhales directly from a large tank using a mask or tube. Normally with recreational use, users get oxygen because they continue to breathe after inhaling the nitrous oxide from a bag or balloon. In a medical or dental setting, nitrous oxide is normally administered in combination with oxygen. With recreational use, if a mask is attached directly to the tank, then the user gets pure nitrous oxide with no way to take in any oxygen. The rapidly-expanding gas causes very cold temperatures which can freeze the lips and throat if the gas is inhaled directly from a tank or "whippit" aerosol container. Releasing the gas into a balloon first allows the gas to expand and warm before it is inhaled. Use of nitrous oxide does not damage the brain or liver, but it can cause vitamin B12 depletion. Socioeconomic factors Inhalant drugs are often used by children, teenagers, incarcerated or institutionalized people, and impoverished people, because these solvents and gases are ingredients in hundreds of legally-available, inexpensive products, such as deodorant sprays, hair spray, and aerosol air fresheners. However, most users tend to be "...adolescents (between the ages of 12 and 17)" . For example, studies on inhalant use in New Zealand showed that "...most of the inhalant abusers are within the 14- to 18-year-old age group"; in the Philippines, the mean age of sniffers was 15; in Korea, a 1992 study showed "86 percent are male and are below the age of 20"; about 3/4 of Singapore inhalant users in a 1987 study were 19 or younger. See article at: http://www.drugabuse.gov/pdf/monographs/148.pdf In some countries, chronic, heavy inhalant use is concentrated in marginalized, impoverished communities Native children in Canada's isolated Northern Labrador community of Davis Inlet were the focus of national concern in 1993 when many were found to be sniffing gasoline. The federal Canadian and provincial Newfoundland and Labrador governments intervened on a number of occasions, sending many children away for treatment. Despite being moved to the new community of Natuashish in 2002, serious inhalant abuse problems have continued. Similar problems were also reported in Sheshatshiu in 2000. . Young people who become chronic, heavy inhalant abusers are also more likely to be those who are isolated from their families and community. The article Epidemiology of Inhalant Abuse: An International Perspective notes that "[t]he most serious form of obsession with inhalant use probably occurs in countries other than the United States where young children live on the streets completely without family ties. These groups almost always use inhalants at very high levels (Leal et al. 1978). This isolation can make it harder to keep in touch with the sniffer and encourage him or her to stop sniffing." The article also states that "...high [inhalant use] rates among barrio Hispanics almost undoubtedly are related to the poverty, lack of opportunity, and social dysfunction that occur in barrios", and states that the "...same general tendency appears for Native-American youth", because "...Indian reservations are among the most disadvantaged environments in the United States; there are high rates of unemployment, little opportunity, and high rates of alcoholism and other health problems." There are a wide range of social problems associated with inhalant use such as feelings of distress, anxiety and grief for the community; violence and damage to property, violent crime, stresses on the juvenile justice system, and stresses on youth agencies and support services. History Solvents such as chloroform and diethyl ether and gases such as nitrous oxide were first used for medical purposes, such as providing anesthesia. These solvents' psychoactive and hallucinogenic effects at sub-anesthetic levels was also noted, which led to recreational use. Nitrous oxide particularly was popularised by the scientist Sir Humphry Davy who held nitrous oxide parties where users could enjoy the euphoric properties of the gas. Davy, noting the anesthetic effects, proposed that the gas could be used for operations, although this was not tried for another half century. Chloroform was used as an anaesthetic, but it fell into disuse due to its high toxicity and narrow dose margin. Nitrous oxide and diethyl ether were adopted by the medical mainstream and became the standard anesthetics in use for many years. Other gases such as cyclopropane were also used for anesthesia. Non-flammable gases such as halothane replaced flammable anaesthetics such as ether. Halothane is now rarely used in humans due to problems with liver damage and a rare condition called malignant hyperthermia, but it is still widely used in veterinary medicine. Modern anesthetics such as isoflurane and sevoflurane have been developed for medical use which lack both the flammability of ether and the toxicity of halothane, and research in the area is ongoing. Nitrous oxide is still widely used as a dental anaesthetic, to reduce patient anxiety during dental work and minor dental surgery. Other medical anesthetics and inhaled medicinal drugs include xenon, enflurane, isoflurane, sevoflurane, desflurane, methoxyflurane, salbutamol, and fluticasone. Patterns of non-medical usage Africa and Asia Glue and gasoline sniffing is also a problem in parts of Africa, especially with street children and South Asia, three of the most widely abused inhalants are the Dendrite brand and other forms of contact adhesives and rubber cements manufactured in Kolkata, toluenes in paint thinners and Iodex - a muscle stress relieving balm. Another very common inhalant is Erase-X, a correction fluid which contains toluene. It has become very common for school and college students to use it because it is easily available in stationery shops in India. This fluid is also used by street and working children in Delhi. In some African countries, an inhalant known as Jenkem, derived from fermented human feces, is reportedly used by homeless orphans. BBC News | Africa | Children high on sewage AEGiS-AP: African Children Orphaned by AIDS In 2007 a media-driven panic arose regarding use of Jenkem by schoolchildren in North America, but appears to have been unfounded and based on an Internet hoax. http://www.erowid.org/ask/ask.php?ID=3113 Europe and North America In the UK, marginalized youth use a number of inhalants, such as solvents and propellants. As well, in the UK rave culture, inhalants such as nitrous oxide "whippets" and amyl nitrite poppers are used to enhance the effect of the electronic dance music. In Russia and Eastern Europe, gasoline sniffing became common on Russian ships following attempts to limit the supply of alcohol to ship crews in the 1980s. The documentary Children Underground depicts the huffing of a solvent called Aurolac by Romanian homeless children. In Canada, native children in the isolated Northern Labrador community of Davis Inlet were the focus of national concern in 1993 when many were found to be sniffing gasoline. The federal Canadian and provincial Newfoundland and Labrador governments intervened on a number of occasions, sending many children away for treatment. Despite being moved to the new community of Natuashish in 2002, serious inhalant abuse problems have continued. Similar problems were also reported in Sheshatshiu in 2000. In Mexico, the inhaling of a mixture of gasoline and/or industrial solvents, known locally as "Activo" or "Chemo", has risen in popularity among the homeless and among the street children of Mexico City in recent years. The mixture is poured onto a handkerchief and inhaled while held in one's fist. In the US, Ether was used as a recreational drug during the 1930s Prohibition era, when alcohol was made illegal. Ether was either sniffed or drunk, and in some towns replaced alcohol entirely. However, the risk of death from excessive sedation or overdose is greater than that with alcohol, and ether drinking is associated with damage to the stomach and gastrointestinal tract. Use of glue, paint and gasoline became more common after the 1950s. Abuse of aerosol sprays became more common in the 1980s as older propellants such as CFCs were phased out and replaced by more environmentally friendly compounds such as propane and butane. Most inhalant solvents and gases are not regulated under illegal drug laws such as the United States' Controlled Substances Act. However, many US states and Canadian cities have placed restrictions on the sale of some solvent-containing products to minors, particularly for products widely associated with "sniffing", such as model cement. The practice of inhaling such substances is sometimes colloquially referred to as huffing, sniffing (or "glue-sniffing"), dusting, or chroming. Australia Australia has long faced a petrol (gasoline) sniffing problem, especially in isolated and impoverished communities. Although some sources argue that sniffing was introduced by United States servicemen stationed in the nation's Top End during World War II, or through experimentation by 1940s-era Coburg Peninsula sawmill workers, other sources claim that inhalant abuse (such as glue inhalation) emerged in Australia in the late 1960s. Chronic, heavy petrol sniffing appears mainly to occur among remote, impoverished indigenous communities, where the ready accessibility of petrol has helped to make it a common substance for abuse. In Australia, petrol sniffing now occurs widely throughout remote communities of the Northern Territory, Western Australia, northern parts of South Australia and Queensland. The number of people sniffing petrol goes up and down over time as young people experiment or sniff occasionally. 'Boss' or chronic sniffers may move in and out of communities; they are often responsible for encouraging young people to take it up. A 1983 survey of 4,165 secondary students in New Lydiate showed that solvents and aerosols ranked just after analgesics (e.g., codeine pills) and alcohol for drugs that were abused. This 1983 study did not find any common usage patterns or social class factors. The causes of death for inhalant users in Australia included pneumonia, cardiac failure/arrest, aspiration of vomit, and burns. In 1985, there were 14 communities in Central Australia reporting young people sniffing. In July 1997, it was estimated that there were around 200 young people sniffing petrol across 10 communities in Central Australia. Approximately 40 were classified as 'chronic' sniffers. There have been reports of young Aboriginal people sniffing petrol in the urban areas around Darwin and Alice Springs. Substitution of petrol by non-sniffable Opal fuel (which is much less likely to cause a "high") has made a difference in some communities. Popular culture references Music and musical culture Inhalant use, especially glue sniffing, is widely associated with the late 1970s punk youth subculture in the UK and North America. Raymond Cochrane and Douglas Carroll claim that when glue sniffing became widespread in the late 1970s, it was "...adopted by punks because public [negative] perceptions of sniffing fitted in with their self-image" as rebels against societal values. Raymond Cochrane, Douglas Carroll, Psychology and Social Issues: A Tutorial Text, Published 1991 Routledge 227 pages ISBN 1850008361 While punks at first used inhalants "...experimentally and as a cheap high, adult disgust and hostility [to the practice] encouraged punks to use glue sniffing as a way of shocking society". As well, using inhalants was a way of expressing their anti-corporatist DIY (Do It Yourself) credo ; by using inexpensive household products as inhalants, punks did not have to purchase industrially-manufactured liquor or beer. One history of the punk subculture argues that "substance abuse was often referred to in the music and did become synonymous with the genre, glue sniffing especially" because the youths' "...faith in the future had died and that the youth just didn’t care anymore", due to the "awareness of the threat of nuclear war and a pervasive sense of doom". http://209.85.215.104/search?q=cache:ZpSBkUwTcmEJ:www.caughtoffguard.co.uk/punk_culture.html+punk+glue+sniffing&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=27&gl=ca&lr=lang_en|lang_fr In a BBC interview with a person who was a punk in the late 1970s, they said that "there was a real fear of imminent nuclear war - people were sniffing glue knowing that it could kill them, but they didn't care because they believed that very soon everybody would be dead anyway." http://209.85.215.104/search?q=cache:gBdo9I2R2Q4J:www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A791336+punk+glue+sniffing&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=66&gl=ca&lr=lang_en|lang_fr A number of 1970s punk rock and 1980s hardcore punk songs refer to inhalant use. The Ramones, an influential early US punk band, referred to inhalant use in several of their songs. The song "Now I Want to Sniff Some Glue" describes adolescent ennui and the song "Carbona not Glue" states that "My brain is stuck from shooting glue". An influential punk fanzine about the subculture and music took its name ("Sniffin' Glue") from the Ramones song. The 1980s punk band Dead Milkmen wrote a song, "Life is Shit" from their album "Beelzebubba" about two friends hallucinating after sniffing glue. Punk band-turned hip hop group The Beastie Boys penned a song "Hold it Now - Hit It" which includes the line "cause I'm beer drinkin, breath stinkin, sniffing glue." Pop punk band Sum 41 wrote a song "Fat Lip", which refers to a character who does not "... make sense from all the gas you be huffing..." Inhalants are also referred to by bands from other genres, including several grunge bands--an early 1990s genre which was influenced by punk rock. The 1990s grunge band Nirvana, which was influenced by punk music, penned a song "Dumb", in which Kurt Cobain sings "my heart is broke/But I have some glue/ help me inhale /And mend it with you". L7, an all-female grunge band, penned a song entitled "Scrap" about a skinhead who inhales spray paint fumes until his mind "starts to gel". The Beck song "Fume" from his "Fresh Meat and Old Slabs" release is about inhaling nitrous oxide. Another Beck song, "Cold Ass Fashion," contains the line, "O.G. - Original Gluesniffer!" The band Primus's 1998 song "Lacquer Head" is about adolescents who use inhalants to get high. Hip hop performer Eminem wrote a song, "Bad Meets Evil" which refers to breathing "...ether in three lethal amounts" . "The Brian Jonestown Massacre" a retro-rock band from the 1990s has a song entitled "Hyperventilation" which is about sniffing model airplane cement. Films A number of films have depicted or referred to the use of solvent inhalants. In the 1980 comedy film Airplane!, the character of McCroskey (played by Lloyd Bridges) refers to his inhalant use when he states that "I picked the wrong week to quit sniffing glue." In the 1996 film Citizen Ruth, the character Ruth, a homeless drifter, is depicted inhaling patio sealant from a paper bag in an alleyway. In the movie Love Liza, the main character, played by Philip Seymour Hoffman, develops an addiction to inhaling gasoline vapor. Harmony Korine's 1997 film Gummo depicts adolescent boys inhaling contact cement for a "high". Edet Belzberg's 2001 documentary Children Underground chronicles the lives of Romanian street children addicted to inhaling paint. Yet another film that depicts the drug use is The Basketball Diaries in which a group of boys are huffing "carbona cleaning liquid" at 3 minutes and 27 seconds into the movie and farther into the movie a boy is reading a diary describing the experience of sniffing the cleaning liquid. Films have also depicted the use of gas-based or aerosol inhalants. In the David Lynch film Blue Velvet, the bizarre and manipulative character played by Dennis Hopper uses a mask to inhale an unknown gas. In Little Shop of Horrors, Steve Martin's character dies from nitrous oxide inhalation. In The Cider House Rules, Michael Caine's character is addicted to inhaling ether vapours. In the film thirteen, the main character, a teen, uses a can of aerosol computer cleaner to get high. The 1999 independent film Boys Don't Cry depicts two young low-income women inhaling aerosol computer cleaner (Canned Air) for a "buzz". In the action movie Shooter, an ex-serviceman on the run from the law (Mark Wahlberg) inhales nitrous oxide gas from a number of Whip-It! whipped cream canisters until he becomes unconscious. The film Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas describes how the two main characters inhale diethyl ether and Amyl Nitrite. See also Inhaler or puffer, a medical device used for delivering medication into the body via the lungs (often used in the treatment of asthma) Khaliq v HMA Mt Theo Program, a successful petrol sniffing prevention program run by the indigenous Warlpiri community in Central Australia. Opal (fuel), a special type of gasoline (petrol) developed to combat the rising use of gasoline as an inhalant in remote indigenous Australian communities. Opal is low-aromatic, and has less solvents in it, which makes it less likely to cause intoxication (a "high") for inhalant users. References External links abuse prevention website from the Alliance for Consumer Education Inhalants.Drugabuse.gov (National Institute on Drug Abuse) Inhalants - Facts and Figures (Office of National Drug Control Policy) What Parents Should Know About "Huffing"- by Alan Greene, MD Information and harm reduction strategies on inhalants and other psychoactive drugs | Intoxicative_inhalant |@lemmatized inhalant:69 broad:1 range:3 drug:23 form:3 gas:35 aerosol:14 solvent:47 breathe:7 absorb:2 lung:3 use:68 medical:10 purpose:3 case:3 nitrous:18 oxide:18 dental:5 anaesthetic:6 article:6 focus:3 non:9 recreational:9 intoxicating:1 effect:20 medically:1 ingredient:3 household:2 industrial:3 chemical:4 product:11 intend:1 concentrate:2 inhale:36 include:6 organic:1 find:4 cleaning:2 fast:1 dry:1 glue:22 nail:1 polish:1 remover:1 fuel:5 gasoline:16 petrol:11 kerosene:1 propellant:5 freon:1 compress:1 hydrofluorocarbon:1 hairspray:2 whip:3 cream:3 stick:4 cooking:2 spray:10 small:3 number:8 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5,443 | Cowboy_Bebop | is a Japanese anime series. Directed by Shinichirō Watanabe and written by Keiko Nobumoto, the series was produced by Sunrise in the late 1990s. Its 26 episodes comprise a complete storyline: the series, set in 2071, follows the misadventures and tragedies of a group of bounty hunters, or "cowboys", traveling on their spaceship, the Bebop. Despite its title, the series only makes a nod to the western and space western genres. It is also categorized in the seinen manga genre. Cowboy Bebop'''s art direction centers around American music and counterculture, especially the beat and jazz movements of the 1940s-60s and the early rock era of the 1950s-70s, which the original soundtrack by Yoko Kanno and The Seatbelts recreates. Episodes are called "sessions", each episode follows a different musical theme, and episode titles are borrowed from notable album or song names (i.e. "Sympathy for the Devil", "Bohemian Rhapsody", "Honky Tonk Women", "My Funny Valentine") or make use of a genre name ("Mushroom Samba", "Heavy Metal Queen").Cowboy Bebop was a commercial success both in Japan and international markets, notably in the United States. After this reception, Sony Pictures released a feature film, Knockin' on Heaven's Door, to theaters worldwide and followed up with an international DVD release. Two manga adaptations were serialized in Kadokawa Shoten's Asuka Fantasy DX. In 2004, it ranked second in Newtype USAs survey of their readers' favorite anime of all time. Newtype Press Release - Anime News Network Plot The crew of the spaceship Bebop are a partnership of bounty hunters, called "cowboys", who travel the solar system trying to apprehend bounties. Jet Black is the owner of the Bebop, but has partnered with Spike for his diverse combat skills. Though he is reluctant to admit it, Jet has also come to rely on Spike for companionship in the normally solitary field of bounty hunting. Most episodes revolve around attempts to bring in a specific bounty, but the show also examines the pasts of the main characters and more general past events, which are revealed and brought together as the series progresses. Some of the Bebops varied targets include small time thugs, gangsters, hackers (known as "net divers" in slang), religious leaders, psychopaths, genetic experiments, mutant creatures and petty thieves. Setting In 2022, the explosion of an experimental warp gateway caused major damage to the Moon and the Earth, killing nearly all life and effectively ending Earth civilization. As a result, the survivors abandoned the now-uninhabitable Earth to colonize the inner planets and moons of Jupiter. Little to no knowledge remains of the history of Earth and humanity prior to the accident, creating a cultural void. In the show's timeline, decades after the accident, the entire solar system has been made accessible via reliable warp gates, but the crew of the Bebop spend much of their time on Mars, the new central hub of human civilization. Characters Promotional poster of Cowboy Bebop, featuring the crew of the Bebop. From left to right: Ein, Edward, Spike, Jet and Faye The series features a crew of distinct main characters. The first two introduced in the series are Spike Spiegel and Jet Black. The two pilot their former fishing trawler spaceship, the Bebop, and work as bounty hunters. As the series progresses, more characters are introduced and become members of the Bebop crew. Antagonists include a variety of bounties that the crew hunt to collect funding, including Faye. Although the Bebop crew is typically broke, its members manage to keep themselves afloat financially by capturing the occasional bounty-head.Spike Spiegel is a former member of the Red Dragon Crime Syndicate who is haunted by the memory of his time in the organization, particularly his romantic relationship with a mysterious woman named Julia, and his arch-rival and former syndicate partner, Vicious.Jet Black, a former Inter-Solar System Police (ISSP) officer and the owner of the Bebop. Once called "The Black Dog" by his fellow officers for his relentless nature, he bears a cybernetic arm as constant reminder of what happened when he rushed into trouble without looking first. Like Spike, he is haunted by the memory of a woman: Alisa, his longtime girlfriend who left him without notice.Ein, a Welsh Corgi and former lab animal identified as a "data dog" by the scientists who created him. The reason for this title is never explained, but it is suggested that he possesses enhanced intelligence, which he displays in subtle ways throughout the series. Despite his enhanced intelligence and comprehension, the rest of the Bebop crew typically fail to notice these qualities.Faye Valentine, an amnesiac awakened from a 54-year cryogenic slumber after being injured. She is tricked into assuming the massive debt of the man who woke her, and constantly attempts to gamble on quick cash as a solution to her debt. Her gambling and competitive skills, as well as cheating, are unrivaled as she has won every game in her life, except when playing Spike. Her past and her real name are a mystery, as the name "Valentine" was given to her by a doctor. Her history is unraveled progressively throughout the series.Edward, a young, eccentric computer genius and master hacker. Ed is a girl, but people are often confused as to her gender due to her name and androgynous appearance. She gave herself the fanciful name "Edward Wong Hau Pepelu Tivrusky IV" after running away to an orphanage, but after her father is found, it is revealed that her real name is Françoise Appledelhi. She goes by the name Radical Edward when hacking, and commonly spends the most time with Ein.Vicious, Spike's former syndicate partner and the only recurring antagonist of the series. He is seen in several episodes striving for power within the organization by killing members of the organization's leadership. His relationship with Spike and Julia is displayed through flashbacks that Spike experiences, but never explained in detail.Julia''', a beautiful and mysterious woman from both Spike and Vicious' pasts. Despite being among the main driving points for the entire series, Julia only appears in flashbacks until the final two episodes of the series. She is a stark contrast to the world she inhabits: her blond hair, bright red umbrella, and automobile stand out noticeably in the otherwise drab environments in which she is seen. Production Staff Director: Shinichirō Watanabe Management: Noriko Kobayashi, Tetsuo Yamazaki Planning: Sunrise Original Concept: Hajime Yatate Series Composition: Keiko Nobumoto Character Design: Toshihiro Kawamoto Mechanical Design: Kimitoshi Yamane Set Design: Isamu Imakake Art Director: Junichi Higashi Color Coordinator: Shihoko Nakayama Director of Photography: Yoichi Ōgami Sound Director: Katsuyoshi Kobayashi Music: Yoko Kanno Music Production: Victor Entertainment Music Producer: Toshiaki Ōta Music Director: Shirō Sasaki, Yukako Inoue Cultural settings: Satoshi Toba Stage Settings: Shōji Kawamori, Dai Satō Producers: Masahiko Minami, Kazuhiko Ikeguchi Production: Sunrise, Bandai Visual Distribution In the United States, on September 2, 2001, Cowboy Bebop became the first anime title to be shown as part of the U.S. Cartoon Network's Adult Swim programming block. Cowboy Bebop on Cartoon Network - Cowboy Bebop Spoilers, Episode Guides, Message Board | TVGuide.com It was successful enough to be broadcast repeatedly for four years. It was rerun again in 2007, 2008, and the first part of 2009. In the United Kingdom, Cowboy Bebop was first broadcast in 2002 as one of the highlights of the ill-fated "cartoon network for adults", CNX. As of November 6, 2007, it is being repeated on AnimeCentral. In Australia, Cowboy Bebop was first broadcast in 2002 on Cartoon Network's Adult Swim, and began broadcasting on ABC2, a digital free-to-air network, on January 2, 2007. It has recently started broadcasting on the Sci Fi Channel on Foxtel. It has also recently started airing again on ABC2. Cowboy Bebop: The Movie also aired on February 23, 2009, on SBS. In France, Cowboy Bebop was broadcast during summer 2000 on Canal+. In Germany, Cowboy Bebop was broadcast during 2003-2004 on MTV. In Poland, Cowboy Bebop was broadcast several times by Hyper and TVP Kultura. In Israel, Cowboy Bebop was broadcast during 2001-2002 on Bip's late-night anime block. In Spain, Cowboy Bebop was broadcast during 1999 on Cartoon Network in the first Toonami programming block, during the early 2000s on K3's 3XL.net, and during summer 2006 on Cuatro's late-night show Cuatrosfera. In Canada, Cowboy Bebop was first broadcast on December 24, 2006, on Razer. In Italy, Cowboy Bebop was broadcast after November 1999 on MTV and again in 2007. In Singapore, Cowboy Bebop was broadcast on Arts Central at the 11 pm time slot, and had several scenes cut for violence and other graphic content. In Portugal, Cowboy Bebop was broadcast on SIC Radical in 2001, 2007, and 2008. In The Netherlands, the first five episodes of Cowboy Bebop were broadcast by TMF in 2005. In Latin America, Cowboy Bebop was broadcast in 2001 on Locomotion. In The Philippines, Cowboy Bebop was first broadcast in 2004 on GMA Network. It was recently shown on TV5. In India, Cowboy Bebop was broadcast several times since 2006 on Animax. Reception JapanCowboy Bebop almost did not appear on Japanese broadcast television due to its depictions of violence. It was first sent to TV Tokyo, one of the main broadcasters of anime in Japan. The show had an aborted first run from April 3, 1998, until June 19, 1998, on TV Tokyo, broadcasting only episodes 2, 3, 7 to 15, and 18. Later that year, the series was shown in its entirety from October 23 until April 23, 1999, on the satellite network WOWOW. Because of the TV Tokyo broadcast slot fiasco, the production schedule was disrupted to the extent that the last episode was delivered to WOWOW on the day of its broadcast. Cowboy Bebop won the Seiun Award in 2000. The full series has also been broadcast across Japan by the anime television network Animax, which has also aired the series via its respective networks across Southeast Asia, South Asia and East Asia. Cowboy Bebop was popular enough that the movie, Cowboy Bebop: Tengoku no Tobira (Knockin' on Heaven's Door), was commissioned and released in Japan in 2001, and later released in the United States as Cowboy Bebop: The Movie in 2003. Legacy A poll in the Japanese magazine Newtype asked its readers to rank the "Top 25 Anime Titles of All Time"; Cowboy Bebop placed second (behind Neon Genesis Evangelion) on a list that included such anime as Mobile Suit Gundam. In a recent poll by TV Asahi, Cowboy Bebop was 40th for Japan's Favorite Anime of 2006. Japan's Favorite TV Anime. Anime News Network (October 13, 2006). Retrieved on September 10, 2007. The American Anime magazine Anime Insider (No. 50, November 2007) ranked the 50 best anime (available in America) by compiling lists of industry regulars and magazine staff, with Cowboy Bebop ranked as #1. In the U.S., Cartoon Network has regularly rotated Cowboy Bebop in and out of its Adult Swim block line-up.T.H.E.M Anime Reviews said the series has "sophistication and subtlety that is practically one-of-a-kind" and that "puts most anime...and Hollywood, to shame." THEM Anime reviews - Cowboy Bebop In March 2009, the print and web editions of The Onions A.V. Club called Cowboy Bebop "rightly a huge hit", and listed it as a gateway series to understanding the medium of anime as a whole. Influence on pop culture At the conclusion of the final broadcast of Cartoon Network's long-standing Toonami block, the host character TOM (who had been voiced by Steven Blum, the American voice actor who played Spike Spiegel) uttered "Bang" right before the broadcast signed off for the final time, which was also the final line spoken by Spike in the final episode of Cowboy Bebop. DVD release DVD nameEp #Release dateAdditional informationSession One1-5April 4, 2000 Session Two6-10May 2, 2000Session Three11-14July 13, 2000Session Four15-18April 4, 2000 Session Five19-22May 2, 2000Session Six23-26July 13, 2000The Perfect Sessions1-26November 6, 2001Cowboy Bebop OST 1 Collectors Art Box Cowboy Bebop has been released in three separate editions in North America. The first release was sold in 2000 individually, and featured uncut versions of the original 26 episodes. In 2001, these DVDs were collected in the special edition "Perfect Sessions" which included the first 6 DVDs, the first Cowboy Bebop soundtrack, and a collector's box. At the time of release, the art box from the Perfect Sessions was made available for purchase on The Right Stuff International as a solo item for collectors who already owned the series. The second release, The Best Sessions, was sold in 2002 and featured what Bandai considered to be the best 6 episodes of the series remastered in Dolby Digital 5.1 and DTS surround sound. The third release, Cowboy Bebop Remix, was also distributed on 6 discs and included the original 26 episodes, with sound remastered in Dolby Digital 5.1 and DTS surround sound and video remastered under the supervision of Shinichiro Watanabe. This release also included various extras that were not present in the original release. Cowboy Bebop Remix was itself collected as the Cowboy Bebop Remix DVD Collection in 2008. Soundtrack One of the most notable elements of Cowboy Bebop is its music. Performed by Yoko Kanno and The Seatbelts, a band Kanno assembled to perform music for the series, the jazz and blues themed soundtrack helps to define the show as much as the characters, writing, and animation. Cowboy Bebop was voted by IGN in 2006 as having the greatest soundtrack for an anime. IGN: Top Ten Anime Themes and Soundtracks of All-Time, IGN. Cowboy Bebop The Series Cowboy Bebop Vitaminless No Disc Blue Remixes: Music for Freelance sets itself in the Cowboy Bebop universe, and purports to be a broadcast from the pirate radio station Radio Free Mars. This album includes remixes of Seatbelts tracks from the previous 4 albums, remixed by popular American and British DJs. Box Set: CD box set - A compilation of tracks from the first 4 albums, and previously unreleased/live material as well as dialogue tracks. Greatest Hits: Tank! THE! BEST! Cowboy Bebop The Movie Future Blues Ask DNA Cowgirl Ed Theme songs Tim Jensen produced lyrics on some songs: "Ask DNA" sung by Raj Ramayya "Gotta knock a little harder" sung by Mai Yamane "Call me, call me" sung by Steve Conte Other media An official side story to Cowboy Bebop was released on the original website called Cowboy Bebop: UT. Taking place long before the series started, it features Ural and Victoria Terpsichore (V.T. from the episode "Heavy Metal Queen") when they were bounty hunters. The story is available at the site mirror hosted by jazzmess.com. Bandai released a Cowboy Bebop shoot 'em up video game in Japan for the PlayStation in 1998. A PlayStation 2 Cowboy Bebop video game was released in Japan, and the English version had been set for release in North America during the first quarter of 2006. However, as of November 2007, GameSpot reports that the North American release has been canceled. Two short manga series based on the Cowboy Bebop property were released in the US by Tokyopop. Live-action movie On July 22, 2008, IF Magazine published an article on its website regarding a rumor of a live-action Cowboy Bebop movie in development by 20th Century Fox. Producer Erwin Stoff said that the film's development was in the early stages, and that they had "just signed it". IF Magazine: Live-Action 'Cowboy Bebop' Movie Is In The Works, IF Magazine. FirstShowing.Net, Cowboy Bebop Movie Keanu Reeves has been confirmed as playing the role of Spike Spiegel. Variety confirmed on January 15, 2009, that the production company Sunrise will be "closely involved with the development of the English language project." The site also confirmed Kenji Uchida, Shinichiro Watanabe, and series writer Keiko Nobumoto as associate producers, series producer Masahiko Minami as a production consultant, and Peter Craig as screenwriter. It is currently slated for release in 2011. Continuation rumors After the creation of the series, an interviewer asked Watanabe if he had any plans to create more Cowboy Bebop material. Watanabe responded by saying that he does not believe that he "should just keep on making Cowboy Bebop sequels for the sake of it." Watanabe added that ending production and "to quit while we're ahead when people still want more" is more "in keeping with the Bebop spirit". "The Director's Voice Shinichiro Watanabe Interview." CowboyBebop.com. In a more recent interview from 2006 with the Daily Texan Watanabe was asked if there would ever be more Cowboy Bebop. Watanabe's answer was "someday... maybe, someday." References External links Adult Swim - Official Adult Swim Cowboy Bebop | Cowboy_Bebop |@lemmatized japanese:3 anime:21 series:28 direct:1 shinichirō:2 watanabe:10 write:1 keiko:3 nobumoto:3 produce:2 sunrise:4 late:3 episode:14 comprise:1 complete:1 storyline:1 set:7 follow:3 misadventure:1 tragedy:1 group:1 bounty:9 hunter:4 cowboy:58 travel:2 spaceship:3 bebop:70 despite:3 title:5 make:5 nod:1 western:2 space:1 genre:3 also:11 categorize:1 seinen:1 manga:3 art:5 direction:1 center:1 around:2 american:5 music:8 counterculture:1 especially:1 beat:1 jazz:2 movement:1 early:3 rock:1 era:1 original:6 soundtrack:6 yoko:3 kanno:4 seatbelt:3 recreates:1 call:7 session:6 different:1 musical:1 theme:4 borrow:1 notable:2 album:4 song:3 name:9 e:2 sympathy:1 devil:1 bohemian:1 rhapsody:1 honky:1 tonk:1 woman:4 funny:1 valentine:3 use:1 mushroom:1 samba:1 heavy:2 metal:2 queen:2 commercial:1 success:1 japan:8 international:3 market:1 notably:1 united:4 state:3 reception:2 sony:1 picture:1 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5,444 | Ambush | An ambush is a long-established military tactic, in which the aggressors (the ambushing force) use concealment to attack a passing enemy. Ambushers strike from concealed positions, such as among dense underbrush or behind hilltops. Ambushes have been used consistently throughout history, from ancient to modern warfare. An ambush predator is an animal which uses similar tactics to capture prey, without the difficulty and wasted energy of a chase. History During ancient warfare, an ambush often might involve thousands of soldiers on a large scale, such as over a mountain pass. Ambushes appear many times in military history. One outstanding example from ancient times is the Battle of the Trebia river. Hannibal encamped within striking distance of the Romans with the trebia River between them, and placed a strong force of cavalry and infantry in concealment, near the battle zone. He had noticed, says Polybius, a “place between the two camps, flat indeed and treeless, but well adapted for an ambuscade, as it was traversed by a water-course with steep banks, densely overgrown with brambles and other thorny plants, and here he proposed to lay a stratagem to surprise the enemy”. When the Roman infantry became entangled in combat with his army, the hidden ambush force attacked the legionnaires in the rear. The result was slaughter and defeat for the Romans. Nevertheless the battle also displays the effects of good tactical discipline on the part of the ambushed force. Although most of the legions were lost, about 10,000 Romans cut their way through to safety, maintaining unit cohesion. This ability to maintain discipline and break out or maneuver away from a killing zone is a hallmark of good troops and training in any ambush situation. See Ranger reference below. Another famous ambush was that sprung by Germanic warchief Arminius against the Romans at Battle of the Teutoburg Forest. This particular ambush was to have an impact on the course of Western history. The Germanic forces demonstrated several principles needed for a successful ambush. They took cover in difficult forested terrain, allowing the warriors time and space to mass without detection. They had the element of surprise, and this was also aided by the defection of Arminius from Roman ranks prior to the battle. They sprung the attack when the Romans were most vulnerable- when they had left their fortified camp, and were on the march in a pounding rainstorm. They did not dawdle at the hour of decision but attacked quickly, using a massive series of short, rapid, vicious charges against the length of the whole Roman line, with charging units sometimes withdrawing to the forest to regroup while others took their place. The Germans also made use of blocking obstacles, erecting a trench and earthen wall to hinder Roman movement along the route of the killing zone. The result was mass slaughter of the Romans, and the destruction of 3 legions. The Germanic victory caused a limit on Roman expansion in the West. Ultimately, it established the Rhine as the boundary of the Roman Empire for the next four hundred years, until the decline of the Roman influence in the West. The Roman Empire made no further concerted attempts to conquer Germania beyond the Rhine. The importance of such principles as the use of rugged terrain allowing cover and concealment, the element of surprise, and the quick assault/advance comes down to the present day, and is stressed in US Army Ranger doctrine concerning ambushes. Procedure In modern warfare, an ambush is most often employed by ground troops up to platoon size against enemy targets, which may be other ground troops, or possibly vehicles. However, in some situations, especially when deep behind enemy lines, the actual attack will be carried out by a platoon, a company-sized unit will be deployed to support the attack group, setting up and maintaining a forward patrol harbour from which the attacking force will deploy, and to which they will retire after the attack. Planning Ambushes are complex, multi-phase operations, and are, therefore, usually planned in some detail. First, a suitable “killing zone” is identified. This is the place where the ambush will be laid. It's generally a place where enemy units are expected to pass, and which gives reasonable cover for the deployment, execution, and extraction phases of the ambush patrol. A path along a wooded valley floor would be a typical example. Ambush can be described geometrically as: Linear, when a number of firing units are equally distant from the linear kill zone. L-shaped, when a short leg of firing units are placed to enfilade the sides of the linear kill zone. V-shaped, when the firing units are distant from the kill zone at the end where the enemy enters, so the firing units lay down bands of intersecting and interlocking fire. This ambush is normally triggered only when the enemy is well into the kill zone. The intersecting bands of fire prevent any attempt of moving out of the kill zone. FM 7-85 Chapter 6 Special Light Infantry Operations Preparation To be successful, an ambush patrol must deploy into the area covertly, ideally under the cover of darkness. The patrol will establish secure and covert positions overlooking the killing zone. Usually, two or more “cut-off” groups will be sent out a short distance from the main ambushing group, into similarly covert positions. Their job is twofold; first, to give the ambush commander early warning of the approaching enemy, and second, when the ambush is initiated, to prevent any enemies from escaping. Another group will cover the front and rear of the ambush position (blocking force), and thus provide all round defence. Care must be taken by the ambush commander to ensure that fire from any weapon cannot inadvertently hit any other friendly unit (this is known as crossfire). Waiting Having set up the ambush, the next phase is to wait. This could be for a few hours, or a few days, depending on the tactical and supply situation. It is obviously much harder for an ambush patrol to remain covert and alert if sentry rosters, shelter, sleeping, sanitary arrangements, food and water, have to be considered; so this should be done in a patrol harbour, away from the site chosen for the ambush. Ambush patrols will almost always have to be self-sufficient, as re-supply would not be possible without compromising their position. Execution Support elements needed for a successful large scale attack. Diagram of a Viet Cong ambush. The arrival of an enemy in the area should be signalled by one of the cut-off units. This may be done by radio or by some other signal, but the enemy must not detect the signal. If radio silence is necessary, the pre-electronic expedient of a cord linking the groups, tugged once or twice as a signal, may be employed. The ambush commander will have given a clear instruction for initiating the ambush. An ambush is ideally initiated by the most effective casualty-producing device available to the attacking elements. This might be a burst from an automatic weapon, or the use of an antipersonnel explosive device (such as a Claymore mine or other directional weapon). Some military doctrines call for an ambush to be initiated by a signal from a whistle, though in US practice, whistles are not favored, since they do nothing to inflict damage on the enemy. The ambush commander may judge when the ambush will be most effective, and give the signal manually, or the ambush patrol may rely on tripwire or pressure-detonated mines in the kill zone to initiate firing. Against vehicles, the lead and rear vehicles are the primary targets; this traps the remaining vehicles in the kill zone for as long as possible. Targets are prioritised to rapidly destroy the target's unit cohesion. It is vital to obtain fire superiority as rapidly as possible, to prevent enemy counter-ambush tactics from being executed. The order of priorities against an enemy infantry unit is the enemy radio operator (in the past identified by the whip aerial of the backpack radio unit such as the British Army's Clansman system), the enemy's unit commander (a more difficult task today when officers and NCOs are dressed and armed in an identical manner to the rest of the infantry squad), and the platoon or section machine-gunner. After the firefight has been won, the now compromised ambush patrol must leave the area as soon as it is practical to do so. In hit-and-run operations, especially against superior numbers and forces, the ambush force will begin disengaging even before the firefight has been won. In the past, accepted protocol was to check bodies for intelligence, take prisoners, and treat any wounded enemy. Once this was accomplished, the ambush patrol would then exfiltrate the area by a pre-determined route. If time has allowed for it, the ambush force will have prepared their exit; for example, placing land mines to cover their retreat, with the members of the force making, and following, a safe route through the mines. If possible, a subsidiary ambush may be planned along the exit route to catch pursuing troops, and, if available, the egress may be covered by mortar or artillery fire. Surviving an ambush By definition, the ambush contains the element of total surprise; which means the victims of the ambush have no knowledge of how it has been constructed, or of what measures may have been employed to prevent escape. Therefore - and this has been proven by the experience of war - the only likely method of survival is withdrawal from the killing zone "the way you came in". All other routes out of the killing zone may be blocked, and in a very well-planned and well-executed ambush, even the "back door" will have been closed by the time the ambush is sprung. The published military doctrine is "immediate, positive, and offensive action"(ref: FM 55-30 USARMY, also PFN-T8M20024), but this is very likely to have been anticipated by the ones who set the ambush, and often plays into their hands. The value of withdrawal is the preservation of the force to "live to fight another day", when not taken by surprise. There is an old saying amongst line troops whose source is lost in history which is often passed from generation to generation: "When they have the drop on you, don't draw!" This is an expression that probably originated in US cavalry days, or perhaps with the Texas Rangers. Avoiding the ambush The best way to survive an ambush is not to encounter them. In order for this to happen, patrol movement mustn't be predictable in timing or route, and should avoid the most obvious routes. Rather than moving at a constant speed and direction, the patrol should vary these, with occasional stops to observe both the route ahead, and changes behind. Units should move in such a way that they are close enough together for mutual support, but far enough apart so that one burst of automatic fire wouldn't take out the entire unit. When on foot, if possible, the patrol should move in such a way as to maximise their firepower; for example, with the arrowhead and spearhead formation, they should not allow themselves to be skylined. Units on foot should have a point man some way ahead of the main body, and, if possible, a rearguard as well. Those travelling in vehicles follow the same procedures, with lead and trailing vehicles well ahead of, and well behind, the main body of vehicles. Countering an ambush In the modern day warfare, this is much easier than before, since a route can be sanitized beforehand by aerial assets, and any obvious ambush sites noted, and counter measures taken. In Afghanistan, Mi-24 Hind gunships were used to locate concentrations of mujahideen guerrilla, and these would then be attacked by the Hinds themselves, or by artillery, using the aircraft as spotters. See also Ambush techniques and types of ambush, from VietCong and PAVN article Flanking maneuver List of military tactics Sniper References extract from Lt Col Anthony B. Herbert's Soldiers handbook US Army Ranger Handbook section 5-14 for ambushes and 6-11 for reaction to ambushes External links | Ambush |@lemmatized ambush:55 long:2 establish:3 military:5 tactic:4 aggressor:1 force:12 use:9 concealment:3 attack:11 passing:1 enemy:17 ambusher:1 strike:2 conceal:1 position:5 among:1 dense:1 underbrush:1 behind:4 hilltop:1 consistently:1 throughout:1 history:5 ancient:3 modern:3 warfare:4 predator:1 animal:1 similar:1 capture:1 prey:1 without:3 difficulty:1 waste:1 energy:1 chase:1 often:4 might:2 involve:1 thousand:1 soldier:2 large:2 scale:2 mountain:1 pas:1 appear:1 many:1 time:5 one:4 outstanding:1 example:4 battle:5 trebia:2 river:2 hannibal:1 encamp:1 within:1 distance:2 roman:14 place:7 strong:1 cavalry:2 infantry:5 near:1 zone:14 notice:1 say:2 polybius:1 two:2 camp:2 flat:1 indeed:1 treeless:1 well:7 adapt:1 ambuscade:1 traverse:1 water:2 course:2 steep:1 bank:1 densely:1 overgrown:1 bramble:1 thorny:1 plant:1 propose:1 lay:3 stratagem:1 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5,445 | Mycology | A mushroom is a reproductive structure of a fungus. Mycology (from the Greek μύκης, meaning "fungus") is the branch of biology concerned with the study of fungi, including their genetic and biochemical properties, their taxonomy, and their use to humans as a source for tinder, medicinals (e.g., penicillin), food (e.g., beer, wine, cheese, edible mushrooms), entheogens, as well as their dangers, such as poisoning or infection. From mycology arose the field of phytopathology, the study of plant diseases, and the two disciplines remain closely related because the vast majority of plant pathogens are fungi. A biologist who studies mycology is called a mycologist. Historically, mycology was a branch of botany (fungi are evolutionarily more closely related to animals than to plants but this was not recognized until a few decades ago). Pioneer mycologists included Elias Magnus Fries, Christian Hendrik Persoon, Anton de Bary and Lewis David von Schweinitz. Today, the most comprehensively studied and understood fungi are the yeasts and eukaryotic model organisms Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Schizosaccharomyces pombe. Many fungi produce toxins, antibiotics, and other secondary metabolites. For example, the cosmopolitan (worldwide) genus Fusarium and their toxins associated with fatal outbreaks of alimentary toxic aleukia in humans were extensively studied by Abraham Joffe. Fungi are fundamental for life on earth in their roles as symbionts, e.g. in the form of mycorrhizae, insect symbionts and lichens, potency in breaking down complex organic biomolecules such as lignin, the more durable component of wood, and by playing a role in xenobiotics, a critical step in the global carbon cycle. Fungi and other organisms traditionally recognized as fungi, such as oomycetes and myxomycetes (slime molds), often are economically and socially important as some cause diseases of animals (such as histoplasmosis) as well as plants (such as Dutch elm disease and Rice blast). Field meetings to find interesting species of fungi are known as 'forays', after the first such meeting organized by the Woolhope Naturalists' Field Club in 1868 and entitled "a foray among the fungi." Some fungi can cause disease in humans or other organisms. The study of pathogenic fungi is referred to as medical mycology. History Ancient and antiquity Humans probably started collecting mushrooms as food already in prehistoric times. Mushrooms were first written about in the works of Euripides (480-406 B.C.). The Greek philosopher Theophrastos of Eressos (371-288 B.C.) was perhaps the first to try to systematically classify plants; mushrooms were considered to be plants that were missing certain organs. It was later Pliny the elder (23–79 B.C.), who wrote about truffles in his encyclopedia Naturalis historia. Middle Ages The middle ages saw little advancement in the body of knowledge about fungi. Rather, the invention of the printing press allows some authors to disseminate superstitions and misconceptions about the fungi that had been perpetuated by the classical authors. Ainsworth, p. 13. {{Rquote|right|Fungi and truffles are neither herbs, nor roots, nor flowers, nor seeds, but merely the superfluous moisture or earth, of trees, or rotten wood, and of other rotting things. This is plain from the fact that all fungi and truffles, especially those that are used for eating, grow most commonly in thundery and wet weather. |Jerome Bock (Hieronymus Tragus)|1552<ref>De stirpium maxime earum quae in Germania nostra nascuntur, usitatis nomenclaturis. Strasbourg. In Ainsworth, p. 13, quoting Buller, AHR. (1915). Micheli and the discovery of reproduction in fungi. Transactions of the royal Society of Canada, series 3 9: 1–25.</ref>}} 16th to 18th century The start of the modern age of mycology begins with Pier Antonio Micheli's 1737 publication of Nova plantarum genera. Ainsworth, p. 4. Published in Florence, this seminal work laid the foundations for the systematic classification of grasses, mosses, and fungi. 19th century 20th century See also Mycotoxicology List of mycologists List of mycology journals Pathogenic fungi Fungal Biochemical Tests Notes Elias Magnus Fries, Systema mycologicum'' (1821) Hawksworth, D. L. Mycologist's Handbook. (1974) Kew: U.K., CAB International. Cited texts External links Professional organizations BMS: British Mycological Society (United Kingdom) Centre for Research in Fungal Diversity (Hong Kong, China) La società di micoterapia (Italia) Medicinal Mushroom Society MSA: Mycological Society of America (North America) Amateur organizations Mycological Society of San Francisco North American Mycological Association North American Truffling Society Oregon Mycological Society Miscellaneous links Online lectures in mycology University of South Carolina Shroomtalk Mycology Forums The WWW Virtual Library: Mycology MykoWeb links page Pacific Northwest Fungi Online Journal Mycological Glossary at the Illinois Mycological Association The Fifth Kingdom Acta Fungorum (Italy) Fungi in the Tree of Life web project Fungal Cell Biology Group at University of Edinburgh, UK. Mycological Marvels Cornell University, Mann Library The Mushroom Project Game Learn to identify mushrooms using this in depth, well-structured game. | Mycology |@lemmatized mushroom:8 reproductive:1 structure:2 fungus:2 mycology:10 greek:2 μύκης:1 mean:1 branch:2 biology:2 concern:1 study:6 fungi:21 include:2 genetic:1 biochemical:2 property:1 taxonomy:1 use:3 human:4 source:1 tinder:1 medicinals:1 e:3 g:3 penicillin:1 food:2 beer:1 wine:1 cheese:1 edible:1 entheogens:1 well:3 danger:1 poisoning:1 infection:1 arise:1 field:3 phytopathology:1 plant:6 disease:4 two:1 discipline:1 remain:1 closely:2 relate:2 vast:1 majority:1 pathogen:1 biologist:1 call:1 mycologist:4 historically:1 botany:1 evolutionarily:1 animal:2 recognize:2 decade:1 ago:1 pioneer:1 elias:2 magnus:2 fry:2 christian:1 hendrik:1 persoon:1 anton:1 de:2 bary:1 lewis:1 david:1 von:1 schweinitz:1 today:1 comprehensively:1 understood:1 yeast:1 eukaryotic:1 model:1 organism:3 saccharomyces:1 cerevisiae:1 schizosaccharomyces:1 pombe:1 many:1 produce:1 toxin:2 antibiotic:1 secondary:1 metabolite:1 example:1 cosmopolitan:1 worldwide:1 genus:2 fusarium:1 associate:1 fatal:1 outbreak:1 alimentary:1 toxic:1 aleukia:1 extensively:1 abraham:1 joffe:1 fundamental:1 life:2 earth:2 role:2 symbionts:2 form:1 mycorrhizae:1 insect:1 lichen:1 potency:1 break:1 complex:1 organic:1 biomolecules:1 lignin:1 durable:1 component:1 wood:2 play:1 xenobiotics:1 critical:1 step:1 global:1 carbon:1 cycle:1 traditionally:1 oomycetes:1 myxomycete:1 slime:1 mold:1 often:1 economically:1 socially:1 important:1 cause:2 histoplasmosis:1 dutch:1 elm:1 rice:1 blast:1 meeting:2 find:1 interesting:1 specie:1 know:1 foray:2 first:3 organize:1 woolhope:1 naturalist:1 club:1 entitle:1 among:1 pathogenic:2 refer:1 medical:1 history:1 ancient:1 antiquity:1 probably:1 start:2 collect:1 already:1 prehistoric:1 time:1 write:2 work:2 euripides:1 b:3 c:3 philosopher:1 theophrastos:1 eressos:1 perhaps:1 try:1 systematically:1 classify:1 consider:1 miss:1 certain:1 organ:1 later:1 pliny:1 elder:1 truffle:3 encyclopedia:1 naturalis:1 historia:1 middle:2 age:3 saw:1 little:1 advancement:1 body:1 knowledge:1 rather:1 invention:1 printing:1 press:1 allow:1 author:2 disseminate:1 superstition:1 misconception:1 perpetuate:1 classical:1 ainsworth:3 p:3 rquote:1 right:1 neither:1 herb:1 root:1 flower:1 seed:1 merely:1 superfluous:1 moisture:1 tree:2 rotten:1 rot:1 thing:1 plain:1 fact:1 especially:1 eating:1 grow:1 commonly:1 thundery:1 wet:1 weather:1 jerome:1 bock:1 hieronymus:1 tragus:1 ref:2 stirpium:1 maxime:1 earum:1 quae:1 germania:1 nostra:1 nascuntur:1 usitatis:1 nomenclaturis:1 strasbourg:1 quote:1 buller:1 ahr:1 micheli:2 discovery:1 reproduction:1 transaction:1 royal:1 society:7 canada:1 series:1 century:3 modern:1 begin:1 pier:1 antonio:1 publication:1 nova:1 plantarum:1 publish:1 florence:1 seminal:1 lay:1 foundation:1 systematic:1 classification:1 grass:1 moss:1 see:1 also:1 mycotoxicology:1 list:2 journal:2 fungal:3 test:1 note:1 systema:1 mycologicum:1 hawksworth:1 l:1 handbook:1 kew:1 u:1 k:1 cab:1 international:1 cite:1 texts:1 external:1 link:3 professional:1 organization:2 bms:1 british:1 mycological:8 united:1 kingdom:2 centre:1 research:1 diversity:1 hong:1 kong:1 china:1 la:1 società:1 di:1 micoterapia:1 italia:1 medicinal:1 msa:1 america:2 north:3 amateur:1 san:1 francisco:1 american:2 association:2 truffling:1 oregon:1 miscellaneous:1 online:2 lecture:1 university:3 south:1 carolina:1 shroomtalk:1 forums:1 www:1 virtual:1 library:2 mykoweb:1 page:1 pacific:1 northwest:1 glossary:1 illinois:1 fifth:1 acta:1 fungorum:1 italy:1 web:1 project:2 cell:1 group:1 edinburgh:1 uk:1 marvel:1 cornell:1 mann:1 game:2 learn:1 identify:1 depth:1 |@bigram edible_mushroom:1 closely_relate:2 vast_majority:1 saccharomyces_cerevisiae:1 secondary_metabolite:1 slime_mold:1 economically_socially:1 pliny_elder:1 naturalis_historia:1 external_link:1 hong_kong:1 san_francisco:1 |
5,446 | Ordinary_differential_equation | In mathematics, an ordinary differential equation (or ODE) is a relation that contains functions of only one independent variable, and one or more of its derivatives with respect to that variable. A simple example is Newton's second law of motion, which leads to the differential equation for the motion of a particle of constant mass m. In general, the force F depends upon the position of the particle x(t) at time t, and thus the unknown function x(t) appears on both sides of the differential equation, as is indicated in the notation F(x(t)). Ordinary differential equations are distinguished from partial differential equations, which involve partial derivatives of several variables. Ordinary differential equations arise in many different contexts including geometry, mechanics, astronomy and population modelling. Many famous mathematicians have studied differential equations and contributed to the field, including Newton, Leibniz, the Bernoulli family, Riccati, Clairaut, d'Alembert and Euler. Much study has been devoted to the solution of ordinary differential equations. In the case where the equation is linear, it can be solved by analytical methods. Unfortunately, most of the interesting differential equations are non-linear and, with a few exceptions, cannot be solved exactly. Approximate solutions are arrived at using computer approximations (see numerical ordinary differential equations). The trajectory of a projectile launched from a cannon follows a curve determined by an ordinary differential equation that is derived from Newton's second law. Definitions Ordinary differential equation Let y be an unknown function in x with the nth derivative of y, then an equation of the form is called an ordinary differential equation (ODE) of order n; for vector valued functions, , it is called a system of ordinary differential equations of dimension m. When a differential equation of order n has the form it is called an implicit differential equation whereas the form is called an explicit differential equation. A differential equation not depending on x is called autonomous. A differential equation is said to be linear if F can be written as a linear combination of the derivatives of y with ai(x) and r(x) continuous functions in x. The function r(x) is called the source term; if r(x)=0 then the linear differential equation is called homogeneous, otherwise it is called non-homogeneous or inhomogeneous. Solutions Given a differential equation a function is called the solution or integral curve for F, if u is n-times differentiable on I, and Given two solutions and , u is called an extension of v if and A solution which has no extension is called a global solution. A general solution of an n-th order equation is a solution containing n arbitrary variables, corresponding to n constants of integration. A particular solution is derived from the general solution by setting the constants to particular values, often chosen to fulfill set 'initial conditions or boundary conditions'. A singular solution is a solution that can't be derived from the general solution. Examples Reduction to a first order system Any differential equation of order n can be written as a system of n first-order differential equations. Given an explicit ordinary differential equation of order n and dimension 1, we define a new family of unknown functions We can then rewrite the original differential equation as a system of differential equations with order 1 and dimension n. which can be written concisely in vector notation as with Linear ordinary differential equations A well understood particular class of differential equations is linear differential equations. We can always reduce an explicit linear differential equation of any order to a system of differential equation of order 1 which we can write concisely using matrix and vector notation as with Homogeneous equations The set of solutions for a system of homogeneous linear differential equations of order 1 and dimension n forms an n-dimensional vector space. Given a basis for this vector space , which is called a fundamental system, every solution can be written as The n × n matrix is called fundamental matrix. In general there is no method to explicitly construct a fundamental system, but if one solution is known d'Alembert reduction can be used to reduce the dimension of the differential equation by one. Nonhomogeneous equations The set of solutions for a system of inhomogeneous linear differential equations of order 1 and dimension n can be constructed by finding the fundamental system to the corresponding homogeneous equation and one particular solution to the inhomogeneous equation. Every solution to nonhomogeneous equation can then be written as A particular solution to the nonhomogeneous equation can be found by the method of undetermined coefficients or the method of variation of parameters. Fundamental systems for homogeneous equations with constant coefficients If a system of homogeneous linear differential equations has constant coefficients then we can explicitly construct a fundamental system. The fundamental system can be written as a matrix differential equation with solution as a matrix exponential which is a fundamental matrix for the original differential equation. To explicitly calculate this expression we first transform A into Jordan normal form and then evaluate the Jordan blocks of J separately as Theories of ODEs Singular solutions The theory of singular solutions of ordinary and partial differential equations was a subject of research from the time of Leibniz, but only since the middle of the nineteenth century did it receive special attention. A valuable but little-known work on the subject is that of Houtain (1854). Darboux (starting in 1873) was a leader in the theory, and in the geometric interpretation of these solutions he opened a field which was worked by various writers, notably Casorati and Cayley. To the latter is due (1872) the theory of singular solutions of differential equations of the first order as accepted circa 1900. Reduction to quadratures The primitive attempt in dealing with differential equations had in view a reduction to quadratures. As it had been the hope of eighteenth-century algebraists to find a method for solving the general equation of the th degree, so it was the hope of analysts to find a general method for integrating any differential equation. Gauss (1799) showed, however, that the differential equation meets its limitations very soon unless complex numbers are introduced. Hence analysts began to substitute the study of functions, thus opening a new and fertile field. Cauchy was the first to appreciate the importance of this view. Thereafter the real question was to be, not whether a solution is possible by means of known functions or their integrals, but whether a given differential equation suffices for the definition of a function of the independent variable or variables, and if so, what are the characteristic properties of this function. Fuchsian theory Two memoirs by Fuchs (Crelle, 1866, 1868), inspired a novel approach, subsequently elaborated by Thomé and Frobenius. Collet was a prominent contributor beginning in 1869, although his method for integrating a non-linear system was communicated to Bertrand in 1868. Clebsch (1873) attacked the theory along lines parallel to those followed in his theory of Abelian integrals. As the latter can be classified according to the properties of the fundamental curve which remains unchanged under a rational transformation, so Clebsch proposed to classify the transcendent functions defined by the differential equations according to the invariant properties of the corresponding surfaces f = 0 under rational one-to-one transformations. Lie's theory From 1870 Lie's work put the theory of differential equations on a more satisfactory foundation. He showed that the integration theories of the older mathematicians can, by the introduction of what are now called Lie groups, be referred to a common source; and that ordinary differential equations which admit the same infinitesimal transformations present comparable difficulties of integration. He also emphasized the subject of transformations of contact. Sturm-Liouville theory Sturm-Liouville theory is a general method for resolution of second order linear equations with variable coefficients. See also Differential equation Difference equation Matrix differential equation Laplace transform applied to differential equations Boundary value problem List of dynamical systems and differential equations topics Bibliography A. D. Polyanin and V. F. Zaitsev, Handbook of Exact Solutions for Ordinary Differential Equations (2nd edition)", Chapman & Hall/CRC Press, Boca Raton, 2003. ISBN 1-58488-297-2 A. D. Polyanin, V. F. Zaitsev, and A. Moussiaux, Handbook of First Order Partial Differential Equations, Taylor & Francis, London, 2002. ISBN 0-415-27267-X D. Zwillinger, Handbook of Differential Equations (3rd edition), Academic Press, Boston, 1997. Hartman, Philip, Ordinary Differential Equations, 2nd Ed., Society for Industrial & Applied Math, 2002. ISBN 0-89871-510-5. W. Johnson, A Treatise on Ordinary and Partial Differential Equations, John Wiley and Sons, 1913, in University of Michigan Historical Math Collection E.L. Ince, Ordinary Differential Equations, Dover Publications, 1958, ISBN 0486603490 Witold Hurewicz, Lectures on Ordinary Differential Equations, Dover Publications, ISBN 0-486-49510-8 External links (includes a list of software for solving differential equations). EqWorld: The World of Mathematical Equations, containing a list of ordinary differential equations with their solutions. Online Notes / Differential Equations by Paul Dawkins, Lamar University. Differential Equations, S.O.S. Mathematics. A primer on analytical solution of differential equations from the Holistic Numerical Methods Institute, University of South Florida. Mathematical Assistant on Web online solving first order (linear and with separated variables) and second order linear differential equations (with constant coefficients), including intermediate steps in the solution Ordinary Differential Equations and Dynamical Systems lecture notes by Gerald Teschl | Ordinary_differential_equation |@lemmatized mathematics:2 ordinary:20 differential:64 equation:78 ode:3 relation:1 contain:3 function:13 one:7 independent:2 variable:8 derivative:4 respect:1 simple:1 example:2 newton:3 second:4 law:2 motion:2 lead:1 particle:2 constant:6 mass:1 general:8 force:1 f:7 depend:2 upon:1 position:1 x:11 time:3 thus:2 unknown:3 appear:1 side:1 indicate:1 notation:3 distinguish:1 partial:5 involve:1 several:1 arise:1 many:2 different:1 context:1 include:4 geometry:1 mechanic:1 astronomy:1 population:1 modelling:1 famous:1 mathematician:2 study:3 contribute:1 field:3 leibniz:2 bernoulli:1 family:2 riccati:1 clairaut:1 alembert:2 euler:1 much:1 devote:1 solution:31 case:1 linear:15 solve:5 analytical:2 method:9 unfortunately:1 interesting:1 non:3 exception:1 cannot:1 exactly:1 approximate:1 arrive:1 use:3 computer:1 approximation:1 see:2 numerical:2 trajectory:1 projectile:1 launch:1 cannon:1 follow:2 curve:3 determine:1 derive:3 definition:2 let:1 nth:1 form:5 call:14 order:17 n:15 vector:5 value:3 system:17 dimension:6 implicit:1 whereas:1 explicit:3 autonomous:1 say:1 write:7 combination:1 ai:1 r:3 continuous:1 source:2 term:1 homogeneous:7 otherwise:1 inhomogeneous:3 give:5 integral:3 u:2 differentiable:1 two:2 extension:2 v:3 global:1 th:2 arbitrary:1 correspond:2 integration:3 particular:5 set:4 often:1 choose:1 fulfill:1 initial:1 condition:2 boundary:2 singular:4 reduction:4 first:7 define:2 new:2 rewrite:1 original:2 concisely:2 well:1 understood:1 class:1 always:1 reduce:2 matrix:7 dimensional:1 space:2 basis:1 fundamental:9 every:2 explicitly:3 construct:3 know:2 nonhomogeneous:3 find:4 undetermined:1 coefficient:5 variation:1 parameter:1 exponential:1 calculate:1 expression:1 transform:2 jordan:2 normal:1 evaluate:1 block:1 j:1 separately:1 theory:12 subject:3 research:1 since:1 middle:1 nineteenth:1 century:2 receive:1 special:1 attention:1 valuable:1 little:1 work:3 houtain:1 darboux:1 start:1 leader:1 geometric:1 interpretation:1 open:2 various:1 writer:1 notably:1 casorati:1 cayley:1 latter:2 due:1 accept:1 circa:1 quadratures:1 primitive:1 attempt:1 deal:1 view:2 quadrature:1 hope:2 eighteenth:1 algebraist:1 degree:1 analyst:2 integrate:2 gauss:1 show:2 however:1 meet:1 limitation:1 soon:1 unless:1 complex:1 number:1 introduce:1 hence:1 begin:2 substitute:1 fertile:1 cauchy:1 appreciate:1 importance:1 thereafter:1 real:1 question:1 whether:2 possible:1 mean:1 known:1 suffices:1 characteristic:1 property:3 fuchsian:1 memoir:1 fuchs:1 crelle:1 inspire:1 novel:1 approach:1 subsequently:1 elaborate:1 thomé:1 frobenius:1 collet:1 prominent:1 contributor:1 although:1 communicate:1 bertrand:1 clebsch:2 attack:1 along:1 line:1 parallel:1 abelian:1 classify:2 accord:2 remain:1 unchanged:1 rational:2 transformation:4 propose:1 transcendent:1 invariant:1 corresponding:1 surface:1 lie:3 put:1 satisfactory:1 foundation:1 old:1 introduction:1 group:1 refer:1 common:1 admit:1 infinitesimal:1 present:1 comparable:1 difficulty:1 also:2 emphasize:1 contact:1 sturm:2 liouville:2 resolution:1 difference:1 laplace:1 apply:1 problem:1 list:3 dynamical:2 topic:1 bibliography:1 polyanin:2 zaitsev:2 handbook:3 exact:1 edition:2 chapman:1 hall:1 crc:1 press:2 boca:1 raton:1 isbn:5 moussiaux:1 taylor:1 francis:1 london:1 zwillinger:1 academic:1 boston:1 hartman:1 philip:1 ed:1 society:1 industrial:1 applied:1 math:2 w:1 johnson:1 treatise:1 john:1 wiley:1 son:1 university:3 michigan:1 historical:1 collection:1 e:1 l:1 ince:1 dover:2 publication:2 witold:1 hurewicz:1 lecture:2 external:1 link:1 software:1 eqworld:1 world:1 mathematical:2 online:2 note:2 paul:1 dawkins:1 lamar:1 primer:1 holistic:1 institute:1 south:1 florida:1 assistant:1 web:1 separated:1 intermediate:1 step:1 gerald:1 teschl:1 |@bigram ordinary_differential:18 differential_equation:64 partial_differential:4 newton_leibniz:1 trajectory_projectile:1 nineteenth_century:1 laplace_transform:1 polyanin_v:2 crc_press:1 boca_raton:1 taylor_francis:1 wiley_son:1 dover_publication:2 external_link:1 holistic_numerical:1 |
5,447 | Acupuncture | Acupuncture Medicine: CAM NCCAM: Alternative Medical Systems Whole Medical Systems: An Overview [NCCAM Backgrounder] NCCAM: Energy Medicine Energy Medicine: An Overview [NCCAM Backgrounder] Modality: Professionalized Culture: East/West Acupuncture chart from Hua Shou (fl. 1340s, Ming Dynasty). This image from Shi si jing fa hui (Expression of the Fourteen Meridians). (Tokyo : Suharaya Heisuke kanko, Kyoho gan 1716). Acupuncture is a technique of inserting and manipulating fine filiform needles into specific points on the body to relieve pain or for therapeutic purposes. Acupuncture: the Chinese practice of piercing specific areas of the body along peripheral nerves with fine needles to relieve pain, induce surgical anesthesia, and for therapeutic purposes. Dorland's Pocket Medical Dictionary, 25th ed. W. B. Saunders Co., 1995. ISBN 0-7216-5738-9 The word acupuncture comes from the Latin acus, "needle", and pungere, "to prick". In Standard Mandarin, 針砭 (zhēn biān) (a related word, 針灸 (zhēn jiǔ), refers to acupuncture together with moxibustion). ABC Chinese-English Comprehensive Dictionary edited by John DeFrancis, as used in Wenlin version 3.4.1 According to traditional Chinese medical theory, acupuncture points are situated on meridians along which qi, the vital energy, flows. There is no known anatomical or histological basis for the existence of acupuncture points or meridians. Felix Mann. Chinese Medicine Times, vol 1 issue 4, August 2006, "The Final Days of Traditional Beliefs? - Part One" Modern acupuncture texts present them as ideas that are useful in clinical practice. Cheng Xinnong. Chinese Acupuncture and Moxibustion, p. 53. Foreign Languages Press, 1987 (First edition; Fourth Printing, 1996). ISBN 7-119-00378-X Kaptchuk, The Web That Has No Weaver, 1983, pp. 34-35 According to the NIH consensus statement on acupuncture, these traditional Chinese medical concepts "are difficult to reconcile with contemporary biomedical information but continue to play an important role in the evaluation of patients and the formulation of treatment in acupuncture." The earliest written record that is available about acupuncture is Huangdi Neijing (黄帝内经 or Yellow Emperor's Inner Canon), which suggests acupuncture originated in China and would explain why it is most commonly associated with traditional Chinese medicine (TCM). Different types of acupuncture (Classical Chinese, Japanese, Tibetan, Vietnamese and Korean acupuncture) are practiced and taught throughout the world. Acupuncture has been the subject of active scientific research since the late 20th century, and its effects and application remain controversial among Western medical researchers and clinicians. Because it is a procedure rather than a pill, the design of controlled studies is challenging, as with surgical and other procedures. Some scholarly reviews conclude that acupuncture's effects are mainly placebo, and others find likelihood of efficacy for particular conditions. The WHO endorses acupuncture for approximately two dozen conditions, and says evidence is suggestive but inconclusive for several dozen more. Additionally, the National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine (NCCAM) of the National Institutes of Health (NIH), the American Medical Association (AMA) and various government reports have studied and commented on the efficacy (or lack thereof) of acupuncture. There is general agreement that acupuncture is safe when administered by well-trained practitioners using sterile needles, and that further research is appropriate. History Antiquity In China, the practice of acupuncture can perhaps be traced as far back as the Stone Age, with the Bian shi, or sharpened stones. Stone acupuncture needles dating back to 3000 B.C. have been found by archeologists in Inner Mongolia. MoonDragon's Health & Wellness Therapy: Acupuncture Acupuncture Clearer evidence exists from the 1st millennium BCE, and archeological evidence has been identified with the period of the Han dynasty (202 BC–220 AD). Recent examinations of Ötzi, a 5,000-year-old mummy found in the Alps, have identified over 50 tattoos on his body, some of which are located on acupuncture points that would today be used to treat ailments Ötzi suffered from. Some scientists believe that this is evidence that practices similar to acupuncture were practiced elsewhere in Eurasia during the early Bronze Age. According to an article published in The Lancet by Dorfer et al., "We hypothesised that there might have been a medical system similar to acupuncture (Chinese Zhenjiu: needling and burning) that was practiced in Central Europe 5,200 years ago... A treatment modality similar to acupuncture thus appears to have been in use long before its previously known period of use in the medical tradition of ancient China. This raises the possibility of acupuncture having originated in the Eurasian continent at least 2000 years earlier than previously recognised.", http://www.ogka.at/a_p_oetzi.asp?nav_reihenfolge=9 Elsevier . Acupuncture's origins in China are uncertain. The earliest Chinese medical text that first describes acupuncture is the Yellow Emperor’s Classic of Internal Medicine (History of Acupuncture) Huangdi Neijing, which was compiled around 305–204 B.C. However, the Chinese medical texts (Ma-wang-tui graves, 68 BC) do not mention acupuncture. Some hieroglyphics have been found dating back to 1000 B.C. that may indicate an early use of acupuncture. Bian stones, sharp pointed rocks used to treat diseases in ancient times, have also been discovered in ruins; some scholars believe that the bloodletting for which these stones were likely used presages certain acupuncture techniques. http://www.redwingbooks.com/html/catalog/index.cfm/action_search/type_detail/InventoryKey_UndAcu/file_Chapter According to one legend, History Of Acupuncture , acupuncture started in China when some soldiers who were wounded by arrows in battle experienced a relief of pain in other parts of the body, and consequently people started experimenting with arrows (and later needles) as therapy. Middle history Acupuncture spread from China to Korea, Japan and Vietnam and elsewhere in East Asia. Portuguese missionaries in the 16th century were among the first to bring reports of acupuncture to the West. Unschuld, Paul. Chinese Medicine, p. 94. 1998, Paradigm Publications Modern era In the 1970s, acupuncture became better known in the United States after an article appeared in The New York Times by James Reston, who underwent an emergency appendectomy while visiting China. While standard anesthesia was used for the actual surgery, Mr. Reston was treated with acupuncture for post-operative discomfort. http://www.acupuncture.com/testimonials/restonexp.htm The National Acupuncture Association (NAA), the first national association of acupuncture in the US, introduced acupuncture to the West through seminars and research presentations. The NAA created and staffed the UCLA Acupuncture Pain clinic in 1972. This was the first legal clinic in a medical school setting in the US. The first acupuncture clinic in the United States is claimed to have been opened by Dr. Yao Wu Lee in Washington, D.C. on July 9, 1972. http://www.acupunctureflorida.com/sacr.html The Internal Revenue Service allowed acupuncture to be deducted as a medical expense beginning in 1973. Traditional theory Traditional Chinese medicine Chinese medicine is based on a pre-scientific paradigm of medicine that developed over several thousand years. Today, traditional Chinese medical concepts "are difficult to reconcile with contemporary biomedical information but continue to play an important role in the evaluation of patients and the formulation of treatment in acupuncture," according to the NIH. Its theory holds the following explanation of acupuncture: Health is a condition of balance of yin and yang within the body. Particularly important in acupuncture is the free flow of Qi, a difficult-to-translate concept that pervades Chinese philosophy and is commonly translated as "vital energy". Qi is immaterial and hence yang; its yin, material counterpart is Blood (capitalized to distinguish it from physiological blood, and very roughly equivalent to it). Acupuncture treatment regulates the flow of Qi and Blood, tonifying where there is deficiency, draining where there is excess, and promoting free flow where there is stagnation. An axiom of the medical literature of acupuncture is "no pain, no blockage; no blockage, no pain." Many patients claim to experience the sensations of stimulus known in Chinese as de qi ("obtaining the Qi" or "arrival of the Qi"). This kind of sensation was historically considered to be evidence of effectively locating the desired point. (There are some electronic devices now available which will make a noise when what they have been programmed to describe as the "correct" acupuncture point is pressed). TCM treats the human body as a whole that involves several "systems of function" generally named after anatomical organs but not directly associated with them. The Chinese term for these systems is Zang Fu, where zang is translated as "viscera" or solid organs and fu is translated as "bowels" or hollow organs. In order to distinguish systems of function from physical organs, Zang Fu are capitalized in English, thus Lung, Heart, Kidney, etc. Disease is understood as a loss of balance of Yin, Yang, Qi and Blood (which bears some resemblance to homeostasis). Treatment of disease is attempted by modifying the activity of one or more systems of function through the activity of needles, pressure, heat, etc. on sensitive parts of the body of small volume traditionally called "acupuncture points" in English, or "xue" (穴, cavities) in Chinese. This is referred to in TCM as treating "patterns of disharmony." Acupuncture points and meridians Needles being inserted into a patient's skin. Most of the main acupuncture points are found on the "twelve main meridians" and two of the "eight extra meridians" (Du Mai and Ren Mai) a total of "fourteen channels", which are described in classical and traditional Chinese medical texts, as pathways through which Qi and "Blood" flow. There also exist "extra points" not belonging to any channel. Other tender points (known as "ashi points") may also be needled as they are believed to be where stagnation has gathered. Treatment of acupuncture points may be performed along several layers of pathways, most commonly the twelve primary channels, or mai, located throughout the body. The first twelve channels correspond to systems of function: Lung, Large Intestine, Stomach, Spleen, Heart, Small Intestine, Bladder, Kidney, Pericardium, San Jiao (an intangible, also known as Triple Burner), Gall Bladder, and Liver. Other pathways include the Eight Extraordinary Pathways (Qi Jing Ba Mai), the Luo Vessels, the Divergents and the Sinew Channels. Ashi (tender) points are generally used for treatment of local pain. Of the eight extraordinary pathways, only two have acupuncture points of their own: the Ren Mai and Du Mai, which are situated on the midline of the anterior and posterior aspects of the trunk and head respectively. The other six meridians are "activated" by using a master and couple point technique which involves needling the acupuncture points located on the twelve main meridians that correspond to the particular extraordinary pathway. The twelve primary pathways run vertically, bilaterally, and symmetrically and every channel corresponds to and connects internally with one of the twelve Zang Fu ("organs"). This means that there are six yin and six yang channels. There are three yin and three yang channels on each arm, and three yin and three yang on each leg. The three yin channels of the hand (Lung, Pericardium, and Heart) begin on the chest and travel along the inner surface (mostly the anterior portion) of the arm to the hand. The three yang channels of the hand (Large intestine, San Jiao, and Small intestine) begin on the hand and travel along the outer surface (mostly the posterior portion) of the arm to the head. The three yin channels of the foot (Spleen, Liver, and Kidney) begin on the foot and travel along the inner surface (mostly posterior and medial portion) of the leg to the chest or flank. The three yang channels of the foot (Stomach, Gallbladder, and Urinary Bladder) begin on the face, in the region of the eye, and travel down the body and along the outer surface (mostly the anterior and lateral portion) of the leg to the foot. The movement of Qi through each of the twelve channels comprises an internal and an external pathway. The external pathway is what is normally shown on an acupuncture chart and is relatively superficial. All of the acupuncture points of a channel lie on its external pathway. The internal pathways are the deep course of the channel where it enters the body cavities and related Zang Fu organs. The superficial pathways of the twelve channels describe three complete circuits of the body, chest to hands, hands to head, head to feet, feet to chest, etc. The distribution of Qi through the pathways is said to be as follows (the based on the demarcations in TCM's Chinese Clock): Lung channel of hand taiyin to Large Intestine channel of hand yangming to Stomach channel of foot yangming to Spleen channel of foot taiyin to Heart channel of hand shaoyin to Small Intestine channel of hand taiyang to Bladder channel of foot taiyang to Kidney channel of foot shaoyin to Pericardium channel of hand jueyin to San Jiao channel of hand shaoyang to Gallbladder channel of foot shaoyang to Liver channel of foot jueyin then back to the Lung channel of hand taiyin. According to the "Chinese clock", each channel occupies two hours, beginning with the Lung, 3AM-5AM, and coming full circle with the Liver 1AM-3AM. A standard teaching text comments on the nature and relationship of meridians (or channels) and the Zang Fu organs: "The theory of the channels is interrelated with the theory of the Organs. Traditionally, the internal Organs have never been regarded as independent anatomical entities. Rather, attention has centered upon the functional and pathological interrelationships between the channel network and the Organs. So close is this identification that each of the twelve traditional Primary channels bears the name of one or another of the vital Organs. "In the clinic, the entire framework of diagnostics, therapeutics and point selection is based upon the theoretical framework of the channels. "It is because of the twelve Primary channels that people live, that disease is formed, that people are treated and disease arises." [(Spiritual Axis, chapter 12)]. From the beginning, however, we should recognize that, like other aspects of traditional medicine, channel theory reflects the limitations in the level of scientific development at the time of its formation, and is therefore tainted with the philosophical idealism and metaphysics of its day. That which has continuing clinical value needs to be reexamined through practice and research to determine its true nature. Acupuncture: A Comprehensive Text, p. 35. Shanghai College of Traditional Chinese Medicine. Translated and edited by John O'Connor and Dan Bensky. Eastland Press, Seattle, 1981 (Fourteenth Printing, 1997). ISBN 0-939616-00-9. Traditional diagnosis The acupuncturist decides which points to treat by observing and questioning the patient in order to make a diagnosis according to the tradition which he or she utilizes. In TCM, there are four diagnostic methods: inspection, auscultation and olfaction, inquiring, and palpation (Cheng, 1987, ch. 12). Inspection focuses on the face and particularly on the tongue, including analysis of the tongue size, shape, tension, color and coating, and the absence or presence of teeth marks around the edge. Auscultation and olfaction refer, respectively, to listening for particular sounds (such as wheezing) and attending to body odor. Inquiring focuses on the "seven inquiries", which are: chills and fever; perspiration; appetite, thirst and taste; defecation and urination; pain; sleep; and menses and leukorrhea. Palpation includes feeling the body for tender "ashi" points, and palpation of the left and right radial pulses at two levels of pressure (superficial and deep) and three positions Cun, Guan, Chi(immediately proximal to the wrist crease, and one and two fingers' breadth proximally, usually palpated with the index, middle and ring fingers). Other forms of acupuncture employ additional diagnostic techniques. In many forms of classical Chinese acupuncture, as well as Japanese acupuncture, palpation of the muscles and the hara (abdomen) are central to diagnosis. TCM perspective on treatment of disease Although TCM is based on the treatment of "patterns of disharmony" rather than biomedical diagnoses, practitioners familiar with both systems have commented on relationships between the two. A given TCM pattern of disharmony may be reflected in a certain range of biomedical diagnoses: thus, the pattern called Deficiency of Spleen Qi could manifest as chronic fatigue, diarrhea or uterine prolapse. Likewise, a population of patients with a given biomedical diagnosis may have varying TCM patterns. These observations are encapsulated in the TCM aphorism "One disease, many patterns; one pattern, many diseases". (Kaptchuk, 1982) Classically, in clinical practice, acupuncture treatment is typically highly individualized and based on philosophical constructs as well as subjective and intuitive impressions, and not on controlled scientific research. Medical Acupuncture - Spring / Summer 2000- Volume 12 / Number 1 Criticism of TCM theory Felix Mann, founder and past-president of the Medical Acupuncture Society (1959–1980), the first president of the British Medical Acupuncture Society British Medical Acupuncture Society (1980), and the author of the first comprehensive English language acupuncture textbook Acupuncture: The Ancient Chinese Art of Healing''' first published in 1962, has stated in his book Reinventing Acupuncture: A New Concept of Ancient Medicine: "The traditional acupuncture points are no more real than the black spots a drunkard sees in front of his eyes." (p. 14) and... "The meridians of acupuncture are no more real than the meridians of geography. If someone were to get a spade and tried to dig up the Greenwich meridian, he might end up in a lunatic asylum. Perhaps the same fate should await those doctors who believe in [acupuncture] meridians." (p. 31) Felix Mann, quoted by Matthew Bauer in Chinese Medicine Times, vol 1 issue 4, August 2006, "The Final Days of Traditional Beliefs? - Part One" A report for CSICOP on pseudoscience in China written by Wallace Sampson and Barry Beyerstein said: "A few Chinese scientists we met maintained that although Qi is merely a metaphor, it is still a useful physiological abstraction (e.g., that the related concepts of Yin and Yang parallel modern scientific notions of endocrinologic and metabolic feedback mechanisms). They see this as a useful way to unite Eastern and Western medicine. Their more hard-nosed colleagues quietly dismissed Qi as only a philosophy, bearing no tangible relationship to modern physiology and medicine." George A. Ulett, MD, PhD, Clinical Professor of Psychiatry, University of Missouri School of Medicine states: "Devoid of metaphysical thinking, acupuncture becomes a rather simple technique that can be useful as a nondrug method of pain control." He believes that the traditional Chinese variety is primarily a placebo treatment, but electrical stimulation of about 80 acupuncture points has been proven useful for pain control." Ulett GA, Acupuncture update 1984, Southern Medical Journal 78:233234, 1985. Comment found at NCBI - Traditional and evidence-based acupuncture: history, mechanisms, and present status. Ulett GA, Han J, Han S. Ted J. Kaptchuk, Ted J. Kaptchuk, member of NCCAM's National Advisory Council. author of The Web That Has No Weaver, refers to acupuncture as "prescientific." Regarding TCM theory, Kaptchuk states: "These ideas are cultural and speculative constructs that provide orientation and direction for the practical patient situation. There are few secrets of Oriental wisdom buried here. When presented outside the context of Chinese civilization, or of practical diagnosis and therapeutics, these ideas are fragmented and without great significance. The "truth" of these ideas lies in the way the physician can use them to treat real people with real complaints." (1983, pp. 34-35) Kaptchuk, Ted J., The Web That Has No Weaver: Understanding Chinese Medicine, McGraw-Hill Professional, 2000 ISBN 0809228408, 9780809228409 500 pages According to the 1997 NIH consensus statement on acupuncture: "Despite considerable efforts to understand the anatomy and physiology of the "acupuncture points", the definition and characterization of these points remains controversial. Even more elusive is the basis of some of the key traditional Eastern medical concepts such as the circulation of Qi, the meridian system, and the five phases theory, which are difficult to reconcile with contemporary biomedical information but continue to play an important role in the evaluation of patients and the formulation of treatment in acupuncture." At least one study found that acupuncture "seems to alleviate pain just barely better than sticking needles into nonspecified parts of the body" http://www.sciencenews.org/view/generic/id/40535/title/Needles_can_stick_it_to_pain and concluded that some of acupuncture's effects may be due to the placebo effect. Clinical practice Acupuncture needle Most modern acupuncturists use disposable stainless steel needles of fine diameter (, sterilized with ethylene oxide or by autoclave. These needles are far smaller in diameter (and therefore less painful) than hypodermic injection needles since they do not have to be hollow for purposes of injection. The upper third of these needles is wound with a thicker wire (typically bronze), or covered in plastic, to stiffen the needle and provide a handle for the acupuncturist to grasp while inserting. The size and type of needle used, and the depth of insertion, depend on the acupuncture style being practiced. Warming an acupuncture point, typically by moxibustion (the burning of a combination of herbs, primarily mugwort), is a different treatment than acupuncture itself and is often, but not exclusively, used as a supplemental treatment. The Chinese term zhēn jǐu (針灸), commonly used to refer to acupuncture, comes from zhen meaning "needle", and jiu meaning "moxibustion". Moxibustion is used to varying degrees among current schools of oriental medicine. For example, one well-known technique is to insert the needle at the desired acupuncture point, attach dried moxa to the external end of an acupuncture needle, and then ignite it. The moxa will then smolder for several minutes (depending on the amount adhered to the needle) and conduct heat through the needle to the tissue surrounding the needle in the patient's body. Another common technique is to hold a large glowing stick of moxa over the needles. Moxa is also sometimes burned at the skin surface, usually by applying an ointment to the skin to protect from burns, though burning of the skin is general practice in China. An example of acupuncture treatment In Western medicine, vascular headaches (the kind that are accompanied by throbbing veins in the temples) are typically treated with analgesics such as aspirin and/or by the use of agents such as niacin that dilate the affected blood vessels in the scalp, but in acupuncture a common treatment for such headaches is to stimulate the sensitive points that is located roughly in the centers of the webs between the thumbs and the palms of the patient's hands, the hé gǔ points. These points are described by acupuncture theory as "targeting the face and head" and are considered to be the most important points when treating disorders affecting the face and head. The patient reclines, and the points on each hand are first sterilized with alcohol, and then thin, disposable needles are inserted to a depth of approximately 3-5 mm until a characteristic "twinge" is felt by the patient, often accompanied by a slight twitching of the area between the thumb and hand. Most patients report a pleasurable "tingling" sensation and feeling of relaxation while the needles are in place. The needles are retained for 15–20 minutes while the patient rests, and then are removed. In the clinical practice of acupuncturists, patients frequently report one or more of certain kinds of sensation that are associated with this treatment: Extreme sensitivity to pain at the points in the webs of the thumbs. In bad headaches, a feeling of nausea that persists for roughly the same period as the stimulation being administered to the webs of the thumbs. Simultaneous relief of the headache. (See Zhen Jiu Xue, p. 177f et passim.) Indications according to acupuncturists in the West The American Academy of Medical Acupuncture (2004) states: "In the United States, acupuncture has its greatest success and acceptance in the treatment of musculoskeletal pain.". They say that acupuncture may be considered as a complementary therapy for the conditions in the list below, noting: "Most of these indications are supported by textbooks or at least 1 journal article. However, definitive conclusions based on research findings are rare because the state of acupuncture research is poor but improving." Abdominal distention/flatulence Acute and chronic pain control Allergic sinusitis Anesthesia for high-risk patients or patients with previous adverse responses to anesthetics Anorexia Anxiety, fright, panic Arthritis/arthrosis Atypical chest pain (negative workup) Bursitis, tendinitis, carpal tunnel syndrome Certain functional gastrointestinal disorders (nausea and vomiting, esophageal spasm, hyperacidity, irritable bowel) * Cervical and lumbar spine syndromes Constipation, diarrhea Cough with contraindications for narcotics Drug detoxification Dysmenorrhea, pelvic pain Frozen shoulder Headache (migraine and tension-type), vertigo (Meniere disease), tinnitus Idiopathic palpitations, sinus tachycardia In fractures, assisting in pain control, edema, and enhancing healing process Muscle spasms, tremors, tics, contractures Neuralgias (trigeminal, herpes zoster, postherpetic pain, other) Paresthesias Persistent hiccups Phantom pain Plantar fasciitis Post-traumatic and post-operative ileus Selected dermatoses (urticaria, pruritus, eczema, psoriasis) Sequelae of stroke syndrome (aphasia, hemiplegia) Seventh nerve palsy Severe hyperthermia Sprains and contusions Temporo-mandibular joint derangement, bruxism Urinary incontinence, retention (neurogenic, spastic, adverse drug effect) Weight Loss Scientific theories and mechanisms of action Many hypotheses have been proposed to address the physiological mechanisms of action of acupuncture. MedlinePlus: Acupuncture Gate-control theory of pain The "gate control theory of pain" (developed by Ronald Melzack and Patrick Wall in 1962 P.D. Wall, R. Melzack, On nature of cutaneous sensory mechanisms, Brain, 85:331, 1962. and in 1965 R. Melzack, P.D. Wall, Pain mechanisms: A new theory, Science, 150:171-9, 1965. ) proposed that pain perception is not simply a direct result of activating pain fibers, but modulated by interplay between excitation and inhibition of the pain pathways. According to the theory, the "gating of pain" is controlled by the inhibitory action on the pain pathways. That is, the perception of pain can be altered (gated on or off) by a number of means physiologically, psychologically and pharmacologically. The gate-control theory was developed in neuroscience independent of acupuncture, which later was proposed as a mechanism to account for the hypothesized analgesic action of acupuncture in the brainstem reticular formation by a German neuroscientist in 1976. Melzack R. Acupuncture and pain mechanisms Anaesthesist. 1976;25:204-7. This leads to the theory of central control of pain gating, i.e., pain blockade at the brain (i.e., central to the brain rather than at the spinal cord or periphery) via the release of endogenous opioid (natural pain killers in the brain) neurohormones, such as endorphins and enkephalins (naturally occurring morphines). Neurohormonal theory Modern acupuncture model. Pain transmission can also be modulated at many other levels in the brain along the pain pathways, including the periaqueductal gray, thalamus, and the feedback pathways from the cerebral cortex back to the thalamus. Pain blockade at these brain locations is often mediated by neurohormones, especially those that bind to the opioid receptors (pain-blockade site). Some studies suggest that the analgesic (pain-killing) action of acupuncture is associated with the release of natural endorphins in the brain. This effect can be inferred by blocking the action of endorphins (or morphine) using a drug called naloxone. When naloxone is administered to the patient, the analgesic effects of morphine can be reversed, causing the patient to feel pain again. When naloxone is administered to an acupunctured patient, the analgesic effect of acupuncture can also be reversed, causing the patient to report an increased level of pain. Bishop B. - Pain: its physiology and rationale for management. Part III. Consequences of current concepts of pain mechanisms related to pain management. Phys Ther. 1980, 60:24-37. It should be noted, however, that studies using similar procedures, including the administration of naloxone, have suggested a role of endogenous opioids in the placebo response, demonstrating that this response is not unique to acupuncture. One study performed on monkeys by recording the neural activity directly in the thalamus of the brain indicated that acupuncture's analgesic effect lasted more than an hour. Furthermore, there is a large overlap between the nervous system and acupuncture trigger points (points of maximum tenderness) in myofascial pain syndrome. Evidence suggests that the sites of action of analgesia associated with acupuncture include the thalamus using fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging) and PET (positron emission tomography) brain imaging techniques, and via the feedback pathway from the cerebral cortex using electrophysiological recording of the nerve impulses of neurons directly in the cortex, which shows inhibitory action when acupuncture stimulus is applied. Similar effects have been observed in association with the placebo response. One study using fMRI found that placebo analgesia was associated with decreased activity in the thalamus, insula and anterior cingulate cortex. Recently, acupuncture has been shown to increase the nitric oxide levels in treated regions, resulting in increased local blood circulation. Effects on local inflammation and ischemia have also been reported. Scientific research into efficacy Issues in study design One of the major challenges in acupuncture research is in the design of an appropriate placebo control group. In trials of new drugs, double blinding is the accepted standard, but since acupuncture is a procedure rather than a pill, it is difficult to design studies in which both the acupuncturist and patient are blinded as to the treatment being given. The same problem arises in double-blinding procedures used in biomedicine, including virtually all surgical procedures, dentistry, physical therapy, etc. As the Institute of Medicine states: Blinding of the practitioner in acupuncture remains challenging. One proposed solution to blinding patients has been the development of "sham acupuncture", i.e., needling performed superficially or at non-acupuncture sites. Controversy remains over whether, and under what conditions, sham acupuncture may function as a true placebo, particularly in studies on pain, in which insertion of needles anywhere near painful regions may elicit a beneficial response. A review in 2007 noted several issues confounding sham acupuncture: In a 2004 study of 570 people with osteoarthritis, the average WOMAC pain score for those receiving acupuncture had declined 40% after 14 weeks; for sham acupuncture, it was 30 percent; for those receiving only education about their condition, it was 22 percent. A controlled study of 300 migraine patients, reported in 2005, found that both needling at non-acupuncture sites and real acupuncture resulted in improvements compared with patients on a waiting list, with no significant difference in benefit between the two groups. A study by Ted Kaptchuk et al., of 270 participants with arm pain, reported in 2006, showed that sham acupuncture exerted a stronger effect on pain than an inert pill did, and concluded: "Placebo effects seem to be malleable and depend on the behaviours embedded in medical rituals." "Sham device v inert pill: randomised controlled trial of two placebo treatments", Kaptchuk et al., BMJ 2006;332:391-397 In a Mayo Clinic study, they recruited 103 postmenopausal women between the ages of 45 and 59 who reported that they had at least five hot flashes per day and were not using any other treatments for them. Half were randomly assigned to receive a series of standardized acupuncture treatments. For those receiving real acupuncture, the needles were placed at the same spots in the arms, legs and lower belly and the other half received sham treatments in which needles were placed superficially near the same locations but away from so-called pressure points. The researchers knew who was receiving sham treatment, but the women did not. By the end of the six weeks, there was no difference between the groups. 61 percent of the sham group were still experiencing hot flashes, while 62 percent of the women who got actual acupuncture still reported having hot flashes as well. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/06/19/AR2006061900833_pf.html An analysis of 13 studies of pain treatment with acupuncture, published in January 2009 in the journal BMJ, concluded there was little difference in the effect of real, sham and no acupuncture. In study done by H. H. Moffet, acupuncture was determined to be more than just a placebo effect, but sham acupuncture was also considered not to be just a placebo effect. "Thus, the traditional theories that describe specific points and stimulation techniques to differentiate ‘‘true’’ from ‘‘sham’’ are unreliable and yield null outcomes, that is, do not result in different outcomes." Evidence-based medicine There is scientific agreement that an evidence-based medicine (EBM) framework should be used to assess health outcomes and that systematic reviews with strict protocols are essential. Organizations such as the Cochrane Collaboration and Bandolier publish such reviews. In practice, EBM is "about integrating individual clinical expertise and the best external evidence" and thus does not demand that doctors ignore research outside its "top-tier" criteria. [http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=32159 Message to complementary and alternative medicine: evidence is a better friend than power. Andrew J Vickers] The development of the evidence base for acupuncture was summarized in a review by researcher Edzard Ernst and colleagues in 2007. They compared systematic reviews conducted (with similar methodology) in 2000 and 2005: The effectiveness of acupuncture remains a controversial issue. ... The results indicate that the evidence base has increased for 13 of the 26 conditions included in this comparison. For 7 indications it has become more positive (i.e. favoring acupuncture) and for 6 it had changed in the opposite direction. It is concluded, that acupuncture research is active. The emerging clinical evidence seems to imply that acupuncture is effective for some but not all conditions. For low back pain, a Cochrane review (2005) stated: Thirty-five RCTs covering 2861 patients were included in this systematic review. There is insufficient evidence to make any recommendations about acupuncture or dry-needling for acute low-back pain. For chronic low-back pain, results show that acupuncture is more effective for pain relief than no treatment or sham treatment, in measurements taken up to three months. The results also show that for chronic low-back pain, acupuncture is more effective for improving function than no treatment, in the short-term. Acupuncture is not more effective than other conventional and "alternative" treatments. When acupuncture is added to other conventional therapies, it relieves pain and improves function better than the conventional therapies alone. However, effects are only small. Dry-needling appears to be a useful adjunct to other therapies for chronic low-back pain. A review by Manheimer et al. in Annals of Internal Medicine (2005) reached conclusions similar to Cochrane's review on low back pain. A review for the American Pain Society/American College of Physicians found fair evidence that acupuncture is effective for chronic low back pain. A 2008 review suggested that combining acupuncture with conventional infertility treatments such as IVF significantly improves the success rates of such medical interventions. For nausea and vomiting: The Cochrane review (Lee and Done, 2006) on the use of the P6 acupoint for the reduction of post-operative nausea and vomiting concluded that the use of P6 acupoint stimulation can reduce the risk of postoperative nausea and vomiting with minimal side effects, albeit with efficacy less than or equal to prophylactic (i.e., preventative) treatment with antiemetic drugs. For nausea, acupuncture at first appeared to be more effective than antiemetic drugs, per Lee and Done (2006); however, the authors later retracted this conclusion, finding that publication bias (in Asian countries) had skewed their results, and that acupuncture's efficacy in treating nausea did not exceed (but approximately equalled) that of antiemetic prophylaxis. Cochrane also stated: "Electroacupuncture is effective for first day vomiting after chemotherapy, but trials considering modern antivomiting drugs are needed." A 2007 Cochrane Review for the use of acupuncture for neck pain stated: There is moderate evidence that acupuncture relieves pain better than some sham treatments, measured at the end of the treatment. There is moderate evidence that those who received acupuncture reported less pain at short term follow-up than those on a waiting list. There is also moderate evidence that acupuncture is more effective than inactive treatments for relieving pain post-treatment and this is maintained at short-term follow-up. Cochrane review of Acupuncture for neck disorders For headache, Cochrane concluded (2006) that "(o)verall, the existing evidence supports the value of acupuncture for the treatment of idiopathic headaches. However, the quality and amount of evidence are not fully convincing. There is an urgent need for well-planned, large-scale studies to assess the effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of acupuncture under real-life conditions." Acupuncture for idiopathic headache Several trials have indicated that migraine patients benefit from acupuncture, although the correct placement of needles seems to be less relevant than is usually thought by acupuncturists. Overall in these trials acupuncture was associated with slightly better outcomes and fewer adverse effects than prophylactic drug treatment. Acupuncture for migraine prophylaxis For osteoarthritis, reviews since 2006 show a trivial difference between sham and true acupuncture. Meta-analysis: acupuncture for osteoarthritis of the knee. Eric Manheimer, Klaus Linde, Lixing Lao, Lex M Bouter, Brian M Berman. Ann Intern Med. June 19, 2007;146 (12):868-77. Full text (PDF) Acupuncture for osteoarthritis For fibromyalgia, a systematic review of the best 5 randomized controlled trials available found mixed results. Three positive studies, all using electro-acupuncture, found short term benefits. The methodological quality of the 5 trials was mixed and frequently low. For the following conditions, the Cochrane Collaboration has concluded there is insufficient evidence to determine whether acupuncture is beneficial, often because of the paucity and poor quality of the research, and that further research is needed: Chronic asthma Bell's palsy Cocaine dependence (auricular acupuncture) Depression Primary dysmenorrhoea (acupuncture plus transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation) Epilepsy Glaucoma Insomnia Irritable bowel syndrome Induction of childbirth Rheumatoid arthritis Shoulder pain Schizophrenia Smoking cessation Acute stroke Stroke rehabilitation Tennis elbow (lateral elbow pain) Vascular dementia Positive results from some studies on the efficacy of acupuncture may be as a result of poorly designed studies or publication bias. Evidence from neuroimaging studies Acupuncture appears to have effects on cortical activity, as demonstrated by magnetic resonance imaging and positron emission tomography. A 2005 literature review concluded that neuroimaging data to date show some promise for being able to distinguish the effects of expectation, placebo, and real acupuncture. The studies reviewed were mostly small and pain-related, and more research is needed to determine the specificity of neural substrate activation in non-painful indications. NIH consensus statement In 1997, the United States Department of Health and Human Services National Institutes of Health (NIH) issued a consensus statement on acupuncture that concluded that The statement was not a policy statement of the NIH but is the considered assessment of a panel convened by the NIH. The consensus group also noted the relative safety of acupuncture compared to certain other medical interventions. They stated that deciding when to use it in clinical practice depends on multiple factors, including "characteristics of the patient, clinical experience, potential for harm, and information from colleagues and the medical literature." The NIH's National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine continues to abide by the recommendations of the NIH Consensus Statement, stating that: World Health Organization statement In 2003, the World Health Organization (WHO) published a review and analysis of controlled clinical trials on acupuncture. They listed the following as "Diseases, symptoms or conditions for which acupuncture has been proved - through controlled trials - to be an effective treatment": Acupuncture: Review and Analysis of Reports on Controlled Clinical Trials. World Health Organization, 2003. Section 3. Section 3 (HTML); Adverse reactions to radiotherapy and/or chemotherapy Allergic rhinitis (including hay fever) Biliary colic Depression (including depressive neurosis and depression following stroke) Dysentery, acute bacillary Dysmenorrhoea, primary Epigastralgia, acute (in peptic ulcer, acute and chronic gastritis, and gastrospasm) Facial pain (including craniomandibular disorders) Headache Hypertension, essential Hypotension, primary Induction of labour Knee pain Leukopenia Low back pain Malposition of fetus, correction of Morning sickness Nausea and vomiting Neck pain Pain in dentistry (including dental pain and temporomandibular dysfunction) Periarthritis of shoulder Postoperative pain Renal colic Rheumatoid arthritis Sciatica Sprain Stroke Tennis elbow Additionally, the WHO listed several dozen additional conditions "for which the therapeutic effect of acupuncture has been shown but for which further proof is needed". American Medical Association statement In 1997, the following statement was adopted as policy of the American Medical Association (AMA), an association of medical doctors and medical students, after a report on a number of alternative therapies including acupuncture: "There is little evidence to confirm the safety or efficacy of most alternative therapies. Much of the information currently known about these therapies makes it clear that many have not been shown to be efficacious. Well-designed, stringently controlled research should be done to evaluate the efficacy of alternative therapies."Safety and risks Because acupuncture needles penetrate the skin, many forms of acupuncture are invasive procedures, and therefore not without risk. Injuries are rare among patients treated by trained practitioners. In most jurisdictions, needles are required by law to be sterile, disposable and used only once; in some places, needles may be reused if they are first resterilized, e.g. in an autoclave. Several styles of Japanese acupuncture use non-inserted needling, making for an entirely non-invasive procedure. In non-inserted needling the needle is brought to the skin, but never penetrates it, and various other acupuncture tools are used to tap or stroke along the meridians. Notable examples of these styles are Tōyōhari and the pediatric acupuncture style Shōnishin. Common, minor adverse events In a Japanese survey of 55,291 acupuncture treatments given over five years by 73 acupuncturists, 99.8% of them were performed with no significant minor adverse effects and zero major adverse incidents (Hitoshi Yamashita, Bac, Hiroshi Tsukayama, BA, Yasuo Tanno, MD, PhD. Kazushi Nishijo, PhD, JAMA). Two combined studies in the UK of 66,229 acupuncture treatments yielded only 134 minor adverse events. (British Medical Journal September 1, 2001). The total of 121,520 treatments with acupuncture therapy were given with no major adverse incidents (for comparison, a single such event would have indicated a 0.0008% incidence). A survey by Ernst et al. of over 400 patients receiving over 3500 acupuncture treatments found that the most common adverse effects from acupuncture were: Minor bleeding after removal of the needles, seen in roughly 3% of patients. (Holding a cotton ball for about one minute over the site of puncture is usually sufficient to stop the bleeding.) Hematoma, seen in about 2% of patients, which manifests as bruises. These usually go away after a few days. Dizziness, seen in about 1% of patients. Some patients have a conscious or unconscious fear of needles which can produce dizziness and other symptoms of anxiety. Patients are usually treated lying down in order to reduce likelihood of fainting. The survey concluded: "Acupuncture has adverse effects, like any therapeutic approach. If it is used according to established safety rules and carefully at appropriate anatomic regions, it is a safe treatment method."Other injury Other risks of injury from the insertion of acupuncture needles include: Nerve injury, resulting from the accidental puncture of any nerve. Brain damage or stroke, which is possible with very deep needling at the base of the skull. Pneumothorax from deep needling into the lung. Kidney damage from deep needling in the low back. Haemopericardium, or puncture of the protective membrane surrounding the heart, which may occur with needling over a sternal foramen (a hole in the breastbone that occurs as the result of a congenital defect.) Risk of terminating pregnancy with the use of certain acupuncture points that have been shown to stimulate the production of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) and oxytocin. With unsterilized needles: transmission of infectious diseases The chance of these is very small; the risk can be further reduced through proper training of acupuncturists. Graduates of medical schools and (in the US) accredited acupuncture schools receive thorough instruction in proper technique so as to avoid these events. (Cf. Cheng, 1987) Risks from omitting orthodox medical care Receiving alternative medicine as a replacement for orthodox Western medicine could result in inadequate diagnosis or treatment of conditions for which orthodox medicine has a better treatment record. For this reason many acupuncturists and doctors prefer to consider acupuncture a complementary therapy rather than an alternative therapy. Researchers also express concern that unethical or naive practitioners may induce patients to exhaust financial resources by pursuing ineffective treatment. Be Wary of Acupuncture, Qigong, and "Chinese Medicine" Final Report, Report into Traditional Chinese Medicine - NSW Parliament Some public health departments regulate acupuncture. Government of Ontario, Canada - News http://www.e-laws.gov.on.ca/DBLaws/Statutes/English/06t27_e.htm CTCMA Safety compared with other treatments Commenting on the relative safety of acupuncture compared with other treatments, the NIH consensus panel stated that "(a)dverse side effects of acupuncture are extremely low and often lower than conventional treatments." They also stated:"the incidence of adverse effects is substantially lower than that of many drugs or other accepted medical procedures used for the same condition. For example, musculoskeletal conditions, such as fibromyalgia, myofascial pain, and tennis elbow... are conditions for which acupuncture may be beneficial. These painful conditions are often treated with, among other things, anti-inflammatory medications (aspirin, ibuprofen, etc.) or with steroid injections. Both medical interventions have a potential for deleterious side effects but are still widely used and are considered acceptable treatments."Legal and political status Acupuncturists may also practice herbal medicine or tui na, or may be medical acupuncturists, who, as well as being qualified physicians, also practice acupuncture in a simplified form. In most states, medical doctors are not required to have any formal training to perform acupuncture. Over 20 states allow chiropractors to perform acupuncture with less than 200 hours training. The typical amount of hours of medical training by licensed acupuncturists is over 3,000 hours. License is regulated by the state or province in many countries, and often requires passage of a board exam. In the US, acupuncture is practiced by a variety of healthcare providers. Those who specialize in Acupuncture and Oriental Medicine are usually referred to as "licensed acupuncturists", or L.Ac.'s. The abbreviation "Dipl. Ac." stands for "Diplomate of Acupuncture" and signifies that the holder is board-certified by the NCCAOM NCCAOM . Professional degrees are usually at the level of a Master's degree. A poll of American doctors in 2005 showed that 59% believe acupuncture was at least somewhat effective. "More than half of the physicians (59%) believed that acupuncture can be effective to some extent." Physicians Divided on Impact of CAM on U.S. Health Care; Aromatherapy Fares Poorly; Acupuncture Touted. HCD Research, 9 September 2005. convenience links: Business Wire, 2005; AAMA, 2005. Link to internet archive version: Cumulative Report In 1996, the United States Food and Drug Administration changed the status of acupuncture needles from Class III to Class II medical devices, meaning that needles are regarded as safe and effective when used appropriately by licensed practitioners. Updates-June 1996 FDA Consumer US FDA/CDRH: Premarket Approvals . In addition, nearly 50% of U.S. health care plans now cover acupuncture, showing increased acceptance of acupuncture as a viable treatment. Grant, Kelli B. “Insurance Companies Now Cover Range of Alternative Therapies.” Deal of the Day 9 January 2009. <http://www.smartmoney.com/spending/deals/insurers-now-cover-range-of-alternative-therapies-22379/> Canadian acupuncturists have been licensed in British Columbia since 2003. In Ontario, the practice of acupuncture is now regulated by the Traditional Chinese Medicine Act, 2006, S.o. 2006, chapter 27. Traditional Chinese Medicine Act, 2006, S.O. 2006, c. 27 The government is in the process of establishing a College whose mandate will be to oversee the implementation of policies and regulations relating to the profession. In the United Kingdom, acupuncturists are not yet regulated by the government. In Australia, the legalities of practicing acupuncture also vary by state. Victoria is the only state of Australia with an operational registration board. Welcome to the Chinese Medicine Registration Board of Victoria Currently acupuncturists in New South Wales are bound by the guidelines in the Public Health (Skin Penetration) Regulation 2000, which is enforced at local council level. Other states of Australia have their own skin penetration acts. Many other countries do not license acupuncturists or require them be trained. See also Acupoint therapy Acupressure Acupuncture detoxification Auriculotherapy Chin Na Alternative Medicine Dry needling Electroacupuncture Medical acupuncture Pressure point Qigong Seitai Susuk T'ai chi ch'uan Trigger point Veterinary acupuncture Thought Field Therapy Emotional Freedom Technique Tapas Acupressure Technique Bibliography Cheng Xinnong. Chinese Acupuncture and Moxibustion, First Edition (1987), Fourth Printing (1996. Foreign Languages Press, First ed., 1987. ISBN 7-119-00378-X G. Maciocia. The Foundations of Chinese Medicine: A Comprehensive Text for Acupuncturists and Herbalists. Second Edition. Churchill Livingstone. 1989 P. Deadman, K. Baker, M. Al-Khafaji. A Manual of Acupuncture. Eastland Press Edwards, J. Acupuncture and Heart Health. Access, February 2002 Altshul, Sara. "Incontinence: Finally, Relief That Works." Prevention December 2005: 33. Academic Search Premier. EBSCO. 30 January 2006 Cademartori, Lorraine. "Facing the Point." Forbes October 2005: 85. Academic Search Jin, Guanyuan, Xiang, Jia-Jia and Jin, Lei: Clinical Reflexology of Acupuncture and Moxibustion (Chinese). Beijing Science and Technology Press, Beijing, 2004. ISBN 7-5304-2862-4 Jin, Guan-Yuan, Jin, Jia-Jia X. and Jin, Louis L.: Contemporary Medical Acupuncture - A Systems Approach (English). Springer, USA & Higher Education Press, PRC, 2006. ISBN 7-04-019257-8 Premier. EBSCO. 30 January 2006 "History of Acupuncture in China." Acupuncture Care. 2 February 2006 <http://www.acupuncturecare.com/acupunct.htm> Howard, Cori. "An Ancient Helper for Making a Baby." Maclean’s 23 January 2006: 40. Academic Search Premier. EBSCO. 30 January 2006 Health Professions Regulatory Advisory Council, Minister’s Referral Letter January 18, 2006 – Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM)'' <http://www.hprac.org/english/projects.asp> 20 March 2006 Footnotes External links | Acupuncture |@lemmatized acupuncture:221 medicine:40 cam:2 nccam:6 alternative:13 medical:42 system:12 whole:2 overview:2 backgrounder:2 energy:4 modality:2 professionalized:1 culture:1 east:2 west:4 chart:2 hua:1 shou:1 fl:1 ming:1 dynasty:2 image:2 shi:2 si:1 jing:2 fa:1 hui:1 expression:1 fourteen:2 meridian:15 tokyo:1 suharaya:1 heisuke:1 kanko:1 kyoho:1 gan:1 technique:12 insert:6 manipulate:1 fine:3 filiform:1 needle:44 specific:3 point:41 body:15 relieve:5 pain:73 therapeutic:6 purpose:3 chinese:40 practice:20 pierce:1 area:2 along:9 peripheral:1 nerve:6 induce:2 surgical:3 anesthesia:3 dorland:1 pocket:1 dictionary:2 ed:2 w:1 b:6 saunders:1 co:1 isbn:7 word:2 come:3 latin:1 acus:1 pungere:1 prick:1 standard:4 mandarin:1 針砭:1 zhēn:3 biān:1 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5,448 | Orgasm | An orgasm (including sexual climax) is the peak conclusion of the plateau phase of sexual response cycle, and may be experienced by both males and females. Orgasm is characterized by intense physical pleasure, controlled by the involuntary, or autonomic, limbic nervous system. What Every Woman Needs to Know About Sexual Satisfaction - Marriage It is accompanied by quick cycles of muscle contraction in the lower pelvic muscles, which surround the primary sexual organs and the anus. Orgasms are often associated with other involuntary actions, including muscular spasms in multiple areas of the body, a general euphoric sensation and, frequently, body movements and vocalizations are expressed. Orgasm is a natural body limbic system autonomic physiologic response to sexual stimulation by self or between partners and most specifically genital stimulation. In humans orgasm is typically correlated with the stimulation of the penis in males and with the stimulation of the clitoris in females. Stimulation can be by self (masturbation) or by partner (mutual masturbation) or by other sexual activities. Partners simultaneously stimulating both the male's penis and female's clitoris by mutual or simultaneous masturbation, rhythmic inter-genital contact friction or actual penetrative intercourse can lead to orgasm in one or both partners, sometimes simultaneously, known as simultaneous orgasm. Mixed gender or same gender partners can both stimulate and learn to control each other's orgasms. The moments after orgasm are often a relaxing experience, which is attributed to the release of neuro hormones oxytocin and prolactin. Male and female brains demonstrate similar changes during orgasm (by partner controlled orgasm), with brain activity scans showing a temporary reduction decrease in the metabolic activity of large parts of the cerebral cortex with normal or increased metabolic activity in the limbic areas of the brain. Achieving orgasm In men, the most common way of achieving orgasm is by the stimulation of the penis; while in women it is the stimulation of the clitoris. Such stimulation can be achieved from a variety of activities. In men, sufficient stimulation can be achieved during vaginal or anal sexual intercourse, oral sex (fellatio), or by masturbation. This is usually accompanied by ejaculation. In women, orgasm may be achieved during vaginal sexual intercourse, oral sex (cunnilingus), masturbation, or other non-penetrative sex, and may be by the use of a sensual vibrator or an erotic electrostimulation, besides other activities. Orgasm may also be achieved by stimulation of the nipples, uterus, or other erogenous zones. In addition to physical stimulation, orgasm can be achieved from psychological arousal alone, such as during dreaming (which may be a nocturnal emission). Important in sexual stimulation are internal glands, called the Skene's glands in women and the prostate in men, two homologous structures. In common use, the term G-spot refers to these areas. The stimulation can come from receptive intercourse, fingering, fisting, or penetration with a dildo or other sex toy. Orgasm control Orgasm control by self or by a partner managing the physical stimulation and sensation connected with the emotional and physiologic excitement levels. Through the practice of masturbation, an individual can learn to develop control of their own body's orgasmic response and timing. In partnered stimulation, either partner can control their own orgasmic response and timing. With mutual agreement, either partner can similarly learn to control or enhance their partners orgasmic response and timing. Partner stimulation orgasm techniques referred to as mutual masturbation, expanded orgasm, extended orgasm or orgasm control can be learned and practiced for either partner to refine their control of the orgasmic response of the other. Partners mutually choose which is in control or in response to the other. By learning and practice of the shared orgasmic response between partners, orgasm control can be expanded. This technique is known as expanded orgasm, a method of both controlling, enhancing, and extending the orgasmic response of either partner. Orgasm control is often most effectively practiced first by self masturbation, then by non-simultaneous mutual masturbation techniques shared with a partner as described with expanded orgasm. Practiced learned orgasmic partner responses learned this way can improve both orgasm control and orgasm expansiveness in any sexual interaction. Female orgasm Discussions of female orgasm are complicated by the fact that, perhaps artificially, orgasm in women has sometimes been labelled as two different things: the clitoral orgasm and the vaginal orgasm. The concept of vaginal orgasm as a separate phenomenon was first postulated by Sigmund Freud. In 1905, Freud stated that clitoral orgasm was purely an adolescent phenomenon, and upon reaching puberty the proper response of mature women was a change-over to vaginal orgasms, meaning orgasms without any clitoral stimulation. While Freud provided no evidence for this basic assumption, the consequences of this theory were considerable. Many women felt inadequate when they could not achieve orgasm via vaginal intercourse alone, involving little or no clitoral stimulation. In 1966, Masters and Johnson published pivotal research about the phases of sexual stimulation. Their work included women and men, and unlike Alfred Kinsey earlier (in 1948 and 1953), tried to determine the physiological stages before and after orgasm. Masters and Johnson observed that both clitoral and vaginal orgasms had the same stages of physical response. They argued that clitoral stimulation is in fact the primary source of both kinds of orgasms. Recent discoveries about the size of the clitoris show that clitoral tissue extends some considerable distance inside the body, around the vagina. This discovery may possibly invalidate any attempt to claim that clitoral orgasm and vaginal orgasm are two different things. O'Connell HE, Sanjeevan KV, Hutson JM. Anatomy of the Clitoris J Urol. 2005 Oct;174 (4 Pt 1):1189-95; Time for rethink on the clitoris at BBC News site. The link between the clitoris and the vagina reinforces the idea that the clitoris is the 'seat' of the female orgasm. It is now clear that clitoral tissue is far more widespread than the small visible part most people associate with the word. It is possible that some women have more extensive clitoral tissues and nerves than others, and therefore whereas many women can only achieve orgasm by direct stimulation of the external parts of the clitoris, for others the stimulation of the more generalized tissues of the clitoris via intercourse may be sufficient. A recent theory receiving some publicity is that the female body can achieve orgasm both from stimulation of the clitoris and from stimulation of the G-spot. The Gräfenberg spot, or G-spot, is a small area behind the female pubic bone surrounding the urethra and accessible through the anterior wall of the vagina. The G-spot orgasm is sometimes referred to as "vaginal," because it results from stimulation inside the vagina, including during sexual intercourse. The size of this spot appears to vary very considerably from person to person. Anal stimulation An "anal orgasm" is an orgasm brought on by anal stimulation, such as from anal sex, an inserted finger, or a sex toy. Anecdotal evidence suggests that some women experience anal orgasm as qualitatively different from clitoral or vaginal orgasm, though for many others the distinction is less clear. In both sexes, pleasure can be derived from the nerve endings around the anus and the anus itself. Hence, anal-oral contact can still be pleasurable without stimulation of the clitoris. Jack Morin has claimed that anal orgasm has nothing to do with the prostate orgasm, although the two are often confused. Breast and nipple stimulation A "breast orgasm" is a female orgasm that is triggered from the stimulation of a woman's breast. Not all women experience this effect when the breasts are stimulated; however, some women claim that the stimulation of the breast area during sexual intercourse and foreplay, or just the simple act of having their breasts fondled, has created mild to intense orgasms. According to one study that questioned 213 women, 29% of them had experienced a breast orgasm at one time or another. Otto, Herbert A. (1988) New Orgasm Options: Expanding Sexual Pleasure. This shows that it is not common, but it is possible. An orgasm is believed to occur in part because of the hormone oxytocin, which is produced in the body during sexual excitement and arousal. It has also been shown that oxytocin is produced when an individual's nipples are stimulated and become erect. Spontaneous orgasms Orgasms can be spontaneous, seeming to occur with no direct stimulation. Occasionally, orgasms can occur during sexual dreams (see Nocturnal emission). The first orgasm of this type was reported among people who had spinal cord injury (SCI). Although SCI very often leads to loss of certain sensations and altered self-perception, a person with this disturbance is not deprived of sexual feelings such as sexual arousal and erotic desires. Thus some individuals are able to initiate orgasm by mere mental stimulation. Some non-sexual activity may result in a spontaneous orgasm. The best example of such activity is a release of tension that unintentionally involves slight genital stimulation, like rubbing of the seat of the bicycle against genitals during riding, exercising, when pelvic muscles are tightened or when yawning or sneezing. It was also discovered that some anti-depressant drugs may provoke spontaneous climax as a side effect. There is no accurate data for how many patients who were on treatment with antidepressant drugs experienced spontaneous orgasm, as most were unwilling to acknowledge the fact. Involuntary orgasms Orgasms can happen as the result of forced sexual contact as during rape or sexual assault, and are often associated with feelings of shame caused by internalization of victim-blaming attitudes. Nancy Tuana, Rosemarie Tong, Feminism and Philosophy, Westview Press, (ISBN 0813322138, 9780813322131), 1995 D. John Anthony, "Trauma Counseling", Anugraha Publications, Tamil Nadu, India, Sep. 2005. The incidence of those who experience unsolicited sexual contact and experience orgasm is very low, though possibly underreported due to shame or embarrassment. Involuntary orgasms can happen regardless of gender. Multiple orgasms In some cases, women either do not have a refractory period or have a very short one and thus can experience a second orgasm, and perhaps further ones, soon after the first. After the first, subsequent climaxes may be stronger or more pleasurable as the stimulation accumulates. For some women, their clitoris and nipples are very sensitive after climax, making additional stimulation initially painful. There are sensational reports of women having too many orgasms, including an unauthenticated claim that a young British woman has them constantly throughout the day, whenever she experiences the slightest vibration. It is possible for a man to have an orgasm without ejaculation (dry orgasm) or to ejaculate without reaching orgasm. Some men have reported having multiple consecutive orgasms, particularly without ejaculation. Males who experience dry orgasms can often produce multiple orgasms, as the refractory period, is reduced. Some males are able to masturbate for hours at a time, achieving orgasm many times. In recent years, a number of books have described various techniques to achieve multiple orgasms. Most multi-orgasmic men (and their partners) report that refraining from ejaculation results in a far more energetic post-orgasm state. Havelock Ellis Studies in the Psychology of Sex, vol. vi, p. 552, F. A. Davis Co., 1910, Kindle Edition 2008 ISBN-10: B0016PEMOS Additionally, some men have also reported that this can produce more powerful ejaculatory orgasms when they choose to have them. One dangerous technique is to put pressure on the perineum, about halfway between the scrotum and the anus, just before ejaculating to prevent ejaculation. This can, however, lead to retrograde ejaculation, i.e. redirecting semen into the urinary bladder rather than through the urethra to the outside. It may also cause long term damage due to the pressure put on the nerves and blood vessels in the perineum. Men who have had prostate or bladder surgery, for whatever reason, may also experience dry orgasms because of retrograde ejaculation. Other techniques are analogous to reports by multi-orgasmic women indicating that they must relax and "let go" to experience multiple orgasms. These techniques involve mental and physical controls over pre-ejaculatory vasocongestion and emissions, rather than ejaculatory contractions or forced retention as above. Anecdotally, successful implementation of these techniques can result in continuous or multiple "full-body" orgasms. Gentle digital stimulation of the prostate, seminal vesicles, and vas deferens provides erogenous pleasure that sustains intense emissions orgasms for some men. A dildo device (the Aneros) claims to stimulate the prostate and help men reach these kinds of orgasms. Many men who began masturbation or other sexual activity prior to puberty report having been able to achieve multiple non-ejaculatory orgasms. Young male children are capable of having multiple orgasms due to the lack of refractory period until they reach their first ejaculation. In female children it is always possible, even after the onset of puberty. This capacity generally disappears in males with the subject's first ejaculation. Some evidence indicates that orgasms of men before puberty are qualitatively similar to the "normal" female experience of orgasm, suggesting that hormonal changes during puberty have a strong influence on the character of male orgasm. A number of studies have pointed to the hormone prolactin as the likely cause of male refractory period. Because of this, there is currently an experimental interest in drugs which inhibit prolactin, such as cabergoline (also known as Cabeser, or Dostinex). Anecdotal reports on cabergoline suggest it may be able to eliminate the refractory period altogether, allowing men to experience multiple ejaculatory orgasms in rapid succession. At least one scientific study supports these claims. Cabergoline is a hormone-altering drug and has many potential side effects. It has not been approved for treating sexual dysfunction. Another possible reason may be an increased infusion of the hormone oxytocin. Furthermore, it is believed that the amount by which oxytocin is increased may affect the length of each refractory period. A scientific study to successfully document natural, fully ejaculatory, multiple orgasms in an adult man was conducted at Rutgers University in 1995. During the study, six fully ejaculatory orgasms were experienced in 36 minutes, with no apparent refractory period. It can also be said that in some cases, the refractory period can be reduced or even eliminated through the course of puberty and on into adulthood. Later, P. Haake et al. observed a single male individual producing multiple orgasms without elevated prolactin response. Definitions of "orgasm" There is some debate whether certain types of sexual sensation should be accurately classified as 'orgasm', including female orgasms caused by G-spot stimulation alone, and the demonstration of extended or continuous orgasms lasting several minutes or even an hour. The question centers around clinical definition of orgasm. Orgasm is usually defined in a clinical context strictly by the muscular contractions involved. In these and similar cases, the sensations experienced are subjective and do not necessarily involve the involuntary contractions characteristic of orgasm. However, the sensations in both sexes are extremely pleasurable and are often felt throughout the body, causing a mental state that is often described as transcendental, and with vasocongestion and associated pleasure comparable to that of a full contractionary orgasm. For this reason, there are views on both sides as to whether these can be accurately defined as orgasms. Evolutionary function of orgasms Most male orgasms expel sperm from the body during vaginal intercourse, which can result in conception. Evolutionary biologists have several hypotheses about the role, if any, of the female orgasm in the reproductive process. In 1967, Desmond Morris first suggested in his popular-science book The Naked Ape that female orgasm evolved to encourage physical intimacy with a male partner and help reinforce the pair bond. Morris suggested that the relative difficulty in achieving female orgasm, in comparison to the male's, might be favorable in Darwinian evolution by leading the female to select mates who bear qualities like patience, care, imagination, intelligence, as opposed to qualities like size and aggression, which pertain to mate selection in other primates. Such advantageous qualities thereby become accentuated within the species, driven by the differences between male and female orgasm. If males were motivated by, and taken to the point of, orgasm in the same way as females, those advantageous qualities would not be needed, since self-interest would be enough. Morris also proposed that orgasm might facilitate conception by exhausting the female and keeping her horizontal, thus preventing the sperm from leaking out. This possibility, sometimes called the "Poleax Hypothesis" or the "Knockout Hypothesis," is now considered highly doubtful. Other theories are based on the idea that the female orgasm might increase fertility. For example, the 30% reduction in size of the vagina could help clench onto the penis (much like, or perhaps caused by, the pubococcygeus muscles), which would make it more stimulating for the male (thus ensuring faster or more voluminous ejaculation). The British biologists Baker and Bellis have suggested that the female orgasm may have an "upsuck" action (similar to the esophagus' ability to swallow when upside down), resulting in the retaining of favorable sperm and making conception more likely. Baker, R. R., and Bellis, M. A. (1993). Human sperm competition: Ejaculation manipulation by females and a function for the female orgasm. Animal Behavior, 46, 887-909. They posited a role of female orgasm in sperm competition. A 1994 Learning Channel documentary on sex had fiber optic cameras inside the vagina of a woman while she had sexual intercourse. During her orgasm, her pelvic muscles contracted and her cervix repeatedly dipped into a pool of semen in the vaginal fornix, as if to ensure that sperm would proceed by the external orifice of the uterus, making conception more likely. Elisabeth Lloyd has criticized the accompanying narration of this film clip which describes it as an example of "Sperm Upsuck", saying that it depicted normal contractions during a uterine orgasm, which have not been shown to have any effect on fertility. Reviews The fact that women tend to reach orgasm more easily when they are ovulating suggests that it is tied to increasing fertility. Other biologists surmise that the orgasm simply serves to motivate sex, thus increasing the rate of reproduction, which would be selected for during evolution. Since males typically reach orgasms faster than females, it potentially encourages a female's desire to engage in intercourse more frequently, increasing the likelihood of conception. Function of female orgasm The clitoris is homologous to the penis; that is, they both develop from the same embryonic structure. Stephen Jay Gould and other researchers have claimed that the clitoris is vestigial in females, and that female orgasm serves no particular evolutionary function. Proponents of this hypothesis, such as Dr. Elisabeth Lloyd, point to the relative difficulty of achieving female orgasm through vaginal sex, the limited evidence for increased fertility after orgasm and the lack of statistical correlation between the capacity of a woman to orgasm and the likelihood that she will engage in intercourse. Reviews Science writer Natalie Angier has criticized this hypothesis as understating and devaluing the psychosocial value of female orgasm. Catherine Blackledge in The Story of V, citing studies that indicate a possible connection between orgasm and successful conception, has criticized the hypothesis as ignoring the ongoing evolutionary advantages that result from successful conception. The anthropologist and primatologist Sarah Blaffer Hrdy has also criticized the argument that female orgasm as vestigial, writing that the idea smacked of sexism. Evolutionary biologist Robin Baker argues in Sperm Wars that occurrence and timing of orgasms are all a part of the female body's unconscious strategy to collect and retain sperm from more evolutionarily fit men. An orgasm during intercourse functions as a bypass button to a woman's natural cervical filter against sperm and pathogens. An orgasm before functions to strengthen the filter. Genetic basis of individual variation A 2005 twin study found that one in three women reported never or seldom achieving orgasm during intercourse, and only one in ten always orgasmed. This variation in ability to orgasm, generally thought to be psychosocial, was found to be 34% to 45% genetic. The study, examining 4000 women, was published in Biology letters, a Royal Society journal. Dr. Elisabeth Lloyd has cited this as evidence for the notion that female orgasm is not adaptive. Reviews Medical aspects of orgasm Physiological responses In men During orgasm, a human male experiences rapid, rhythmic contractions of the anal sphincter, the prostate, and the muscles of the penis. The sperm are transmitted up the vas deferens from the testicles, into the prostate gland as well as through the seminal vesicles to produce what is known as semen. The prostate produces a secretion that forms one of the components of ejaculate. Contraction of the sphincter and prostate force stored semen to be expelled through the penis's urethral opening. The process takes from three to ten seconds, and produces a warm and highly pleasurable feeling. Normally, as a man ages, the amount of semen he ejaculates diminishes, and so does the duration of orgasms. This does not normally affect the intensity of pleasure, but merely shortens the duration. After ejaculation, a refractory period usually occurs, during which a man cannot achieve another orgasm. This can last anywhere from less than a minute to several hours, depending on age and other individual factors. Sensation As a man nears orgasm during stimulation of the penis, he feels an intense and highly pleasurable pulsating sensation of neuromuscular euphoria. These pulses begin with a throb of the anal sphincter and travel to the tip of the penis. They eventually increase in speed and intensity as the orgasm approaches, until a final "plateau" of pleasure sustained for several seconds, the orgasm. During orgasm, semen is usually ejaculated and may continue to be ejaculated for a few seconds after the euphoric sensation gradually tapers off. It is believed that the exact feeling of "orgasm" varies from one man to another, but most male human beings agree that it is highly pleasurable, although Tertullian whistfully mourned: In that last breaking wave of delight, do we not feel something of our very soul go out from us? Tertullian, de anima, 27:5 In women A typical woman's orgasm lasts much longer than that of a man. It is preceded by erection of the clitoris and moistening of the opening of the vagina. Some women exhibit a sex flush, a reddening of the skin over much of the body due to increased blood flow to the skin. As a woman nears orgasm, the clitoral glans moves inward under the clitoral hood, and the labia minora (inner lips) become darker. As orgasm becomes imminent, the outer third of the vagina tightens and narrows, while overall the vagina lengthens and dilates and also becomes congested from engorged soft tissue. The uterus then experiences muscular contractions. A woman experiences full orgasm when her uterus, vagina, anus, and pelvic muscles undergo a series of rhythmic contractions. Most women find these contractions very pleasurable. Recently, researchers from the University Medical Center of Groningen, the Netherlands, showed that it is possible to objectively recognize orgasms just by the specific frequencies of these contractions. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=search&db=pubmed&term=17186125 After orgasm, the clitoris re-emerges from under the clitoral hood, and returns to its normal size, typically within ten minutes. Orgasm and health Orgasm, and indeed sex as a whole, are physical activities that can require exertion of many major bodily systems. A 1997 study in the British Medical Journal Sex and Death, Are They Related? based upon 918 men age 45-59 found that after a ten year follow-up, men who had fewer orgasms were twice as likely to die of any cause as those having two or more orgasms a week. A follow-up in 2001 which focused more specifically on cardiovascular health found that having sex three or more times a week was associated with a 50% reduction in the risk of heart attack or stroke. (Note that as a rule, correlation does not imply causation). Orgasmic dysfunction The inability to have orgasm is called anorgasmia, ejaculatory anhedonia, or inorgasmia. If a male experiences erection and ejaculation but no orgasm, he is said to have sexual anhedonia. For a variety of reasons, some people choose to fake an orgasm. A recent Redbook survey shows that 52% of women regularly fake orgasms. Only 17% are likely to have an orgasm during sexual intercourse, because the clitoris often is not stimulated enough by intercourse alone. 43% of women report “some kind of sexual problem,” such as inability to achieve orgasm, boredom with sex, or total lack of interest in sex. If orgasm is desired, anorgasmia is mainly attributed to an inability to relax, or "let go." It seems to be closely associated with performance pressure and an unwillingness to pursue pleasure, as separate from the other person's satisfaction. Often, women worry so much about the pleasure of their partner that they become anxious, which manifests as impatience with the delay of orgasm for them. This delay can lead to frustration of not reaching orgasmic sexual satisfaction. Psychoanalyst Wilhelm Reich, in his 1927 book The Function of the Orgasm was the first to make orgasm central to the concept of mental health, and defined neurosis in terms of blocks to having full orgasm. Although orgasm dysfunction can have psychological components, physiological factors often play a role. For instance, delayed orgasm or the inability to achieve orgasm is a common side effect of many medications. Specifically in relation to simultaneous orgasm and similar practices, many sexologists claim that the problem of premature ejaculation The International Encyclopedia of Sexuality: Italy is closely related to the idea encouraged by a scientific approach in early 20th century when mutual orgasm was overly emphasized as an objective and a sign of true sexual satisfaction in intimate relationships. Drugs and orgasm Certain drugs have been reported to have enhancing effects on orgasm. Nitrite inhalants are used by both men and women to enhance orgasm. GHB, GBL and 1,4 Butanediol are commonly used to enhance orgasms. Cocaine also increases sexual desire while delaying orgasm. thegooddrugsguide.com Both male and female users of stimulants, such as 3,4-MDMA (ecstasy) and amphetamine, and psychedelics like LSD and psilocybin-containing mushrooms sometimes report heightened sexual pleasure. Throughout history, recreational drugs have been used to enhance orgasm Marijuana and Sex: A Classic Combination but, due to lack of research (or government-mandated research restrictions), may be unreliable or have hazardous side effects. Anecdotal evidence suggests that women have enhanced orgasms with sildenafil (commercially known as Viagra). Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy In tantric sex Tantric sex is the ancient Indian spiritual tradition of sexual practices. It attributes a different value to orgasm than traditional cultural approaches to sexuality. Some practitioners of tantric sex aim to eliminate orgasm from sexual intercourse by remaining for a long time in the pre-orgasmic and non-emission state. Advocates of this, such as Rajneesh, claim that it eventually causes orgasmic feelings to spread out to all of one's conscious experience. Some advocates of tantric and neotantric sex claim that Western culture focuses too much on the goal of climactic orgasm, which reduces our ability to have intense pleasure during other moments of the sexual experience. Eliminating this enables a richer, fuller and more intense connection. These practices should not be confused with Buddhist tantra (Vajrayana). In animals The mechanics of male orgasm are similar in most mammals. Females of some mammal and some non-mammal species such as alligators Crocodilian Captive Care FAQ (Caiman, Alligator, Crocodile) have clitorises. There has been ongoing research about the sexuality and orgasms of dolphins, a species which apparently engages in sexual intercourse for reasons other than procreation. National Geographic's Dolphins: The wild side documentary (1999), IMDb. "Sex is as frequent as it is casual, a social tool used to strengthen and maintain bonds. But beneath the harmony lies a darker side of dolphins. Gangs of strong males pick on younger or smaller dolphins.", quote from National Geographic website See Animal sexuality. See also Child sexuality Female ejaculation Female sexual arousal disorder Forced orgasm (a BDSM term) Erogenous zone Human sexual behavior Male ejaculation Orgasm control Persistent sexual arousal syndrome Sexual function The little death - translation of the French la petite mort, a euphemism for orgasm. List of sex positions References Further reading Gabriele Froböse, Rolf Froböse, Michael Gross (Translator): Lust and Love: Is it more than Chemistry? Publisher: Royal Society of Chemistry, ISBN 0-85404-867-7, (2006). Komisaruk, Barry R.; Beyer-Flores, Carlos; Whipple, Beverly. The Science of Orgasm. Baltimore, MD; London: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2006 (hardcover, ISBN 0-8018-8490-X). Notes External links Men's Health: Male Orgasm Net Doctor: Female Orgasm The Science of Orgasm, by Barry R. 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5,449 | Sara_Jane_Olson | Sara Jane Olson, formerly Kathleen Ann Soliah (born January 16, 1947), was a member of the Symbionese Liberation Army (SLA) in the 1970s. She grew up in Palmdale, California, the daughter of Palmdale High School teacher and coach Martin Soliah. Free Library.com She has lived most of her life under the alias Sara Jane Olson, which she now uses as her legal name. In 2001, she pled guilty to two counts of possessing explosives with intent to murder stemming from her SLA activities in the 1970s. She was mistakenly released for five days in March 2008 and then rearrested due to an error made in calculating her parole. 70's radical-turned-housewife back in prison, CNN, March 22, 2008 She was released again on March 17, 2009. Former 1970s radical freed from Calif. prison, to be paroled home in Minnesota, AP, March 17, 2009 Symbionese Liberation Army Kathleen Soliah was born in Barnesville, Minnesota. When she was eight, her family relocated to Southern California. After graduating from the University of California, Santa Barbara, Soliah moved to Berkeley, California with her boyfriend, Jim Kilgore. There, she met Angela Atwood at an acting audition where they both won lead roles. They became inseparable during the play's run. Atwood tried to sponsor Soliah into the SLA. Regardless, Soliah and Jim Kilgore, along with her brother Steve and sister Josephine followed the SLA closely, but did not join. The Last Revolutionary: Sara Jane Olson Speaks by Greg Goldin, LA Weekly, January 18, 2002 When Atwood and other core members of the SLA were killed in 1974 during a standoff with police near Watts, California following their murder of the Oakland school superintendent, The Case Against Kathleen Soliah the Soliahs organized memorial rallies, including a rally in Berkeley's Ho Chi Minh Park where Soliah spoke in support of her friend Atwood, while being covertly filmed by the FBI. Soliah-Olson timeline: Radical, bank robber, mom, inmate June 27, 1999: The life and times of Sara Jane Olson At that rally, Soliah said that her fellow SLA members had been: She asserted that Atwood "was a truly revolutionary woman ... among the first white women to fight so righteously for their beliefs and to die for what they believed in." The Last Revolutionary: Sara Jane Olson Speaks, Page 2 by Greg Goldin, LA Weekly, January 18, 2002 Now a fugitive, founding SLA member Emily Harris disguised herself and visited Soliah, who was on the job at a bookstore. Soliah later recalled, "I was glad she was alive. I expected them to be killed at any time." She felt sorry for the group and agreed to help the remaining group hide from the police and FBI. She assisted them by procuring supplies for their San Francisco hideout and birth certificates of dead infants that could be used for identification purposes. Crocker National Bank robbery and Myrna Opsahl murder On April 21, 1975, SLA members robbed the Crocker National Bank in Carmichael, California, in the process killing 42-year-old Myrna Opsahl, a mother of four depositing money for her church. Sara Jane Olson charged with murder, Frank Stoltze, Minnesota Public Radio, January 17, 2002 The Last Revolutionary: Sara Jane Olson Speaks, Page 3 by Greg Goldin, LA Weekly, January 18, 2002 Patty Hearst, who admitted to being a getaway driver during the crime, provided the original information that led the police to implicate the SLA in the robbery and murder; she also stated that Soliah was one of the actual robbers. According to Hearst, Soliah also kicked a pregnant teller in the abdomen, leading to a miscarriage. Payback from a long-forgotten account, Dennis Roddey, Pittsburgh Post Gazette, March 10, 2001 Several rounds of 9 mm ammunition spilled on the floor and found in Opsahl's body during the robbery bore manufacturing marks that matched that of ammunition loaded in a 9 mm Browning Hi-Power semi-automatic pistol found by police in Soliah’s bedroom dresser drawer at the SLA safehouse on Precita Avenue in San Francisco. In 2002, new forensics technology allowed police to link these shells definitively to those found at Crocker Bank prior to charging the former members of SLA, including Soliah, with the crime. Prosecutor Michael Latin said that Soliah was tied to the crime through fingerprints, a palm print, and handwriting evidence. The palm print was found on a garage door from a garage in which the SLA kept a getaway car. Ex-Fugitive Sara Jane Olson Gets 20 Years to Life for 1975 Bomb Plot Fox News, January 18, 2002 Los Angeles Police Department bombs On August 21, 1975, a bomb that came within 1/16 of an inch of detonating was discovered where a Los Angeles Police Department patrol car had been parked in front of an International House of Pancakes restaurant earlier in the day. After the bomb was discovered, all Los Angeles police were ordered to search under their cars, and another bomb was found in front of a police department about a mile away. Soliah was accused of planting the bombs in an attempt to avenge the SLA members who had died a year earlier in the standoff with LA police. The pipe bombs were rigged to detonate as the patrol cars drove away. One police officer present that day described the first bomb as one of "the most dangerous pipe bombs he had ever seen" and went on to say: At Soliah's 2002 sentencing hearing on the bombing, police officer John Hall, who had been in the car on top of the bomb described a little girl who stood feet away with her family: Soliah was indicted in 1976 for setting the police bombs along with five other SLA members, but vanished before the trial could commence. When Soliah was eventually brought to trial years later, the evidence against her was not considered by prosecutors to be a "slam dunk," although enough to convince a jury of her guilt. Two witnesses who had originally testified in her grand jury indictment had died by the time she was found and brought to trial: a plumber who had sold materials used in the bomb had picked Soliah out of a lineup as one of the buyers, and a bomb expert had stated the explosive could have been built in Soliah's apartment. Police could not identify any fingerprints on the devices other than those of the officers who had disarmed them; however, Soliah's fingerprint, handwriting and signature were identified on a letter sent to order a fuse that could only be used for bomb-making purposes, and components matching those used in the police car bombs were found in a locked closet at the Precida Avenue hideout that Soliah lived in with the other members of SLA. Underground life, capture, and prosecution In February 1976, a grand jury indicted Soliah in the bombing case. Soliah went underground and became a fugitive for 23 years. She had built a life with her husband (who was a doctor) and three daughters from Zimbabwe to St. Paul, Minnesota, having assumed the alias Sara Jane Olson. She was active in St. Paul on community issues and human rights campaigns, and was a semi-professional stage actress. Her husband described the family as interested in progressive social causes. On March 3, 1999, and again on May 15, 1999, Soliah was profiled on the America's Most Wanted television program. After a tip generated by the show, she was arrested on June 16, 1999. Soliah was then charged with conspiracy to commit murder, possession of explosives, explosion, and attempt to ignite an explosive with intent to murder. Shortly after her arrest, Soliah legally changed her name to her alias, Sara Jane Olson. She also published a cookbook entitled Serving Time: America's Most Wanted Recipes. She liquidated her children's college funds to hire two attorneys. On October 31, 2001, she accepted a plea bargain and pled guilty to two counts of possessing explosives with intent to murder. Sara Jane Olson's 14-year prison sentence thrown out by Marisa Helms, Minnesota Public Radio, July 13, 2004 As part of a plea bargain, the other charges were dropped. Plea controversy Immediately after entering the plea, however, Olson told reporters that she was innocent and that she had decided to take a plea bargain due to the climate after the September 11 attacks, in which she felt an accused bomber could not receive a fair trial from a jury. "It became clear to me that the incident would have a remarkable effect on the outcome of this trial ... the effect was probably going to be negative," she said. "That's really what governed this decision, not the truth or honesty, but what was probably in my best interests and the interests of my family." Angered by Olson's announcement that she had lied in court, Superior Court Judge Larry Fidler Now ex-fugitive Olson wants to stand trial by Larry D. Hatfield, San Francisco Chronicle, November 14, 2001 ordered another hearing on November 6, at which he asked her several times if she was indeed guilty of the charges. Olson replied "I want to make it clear, Your Honor, that I did not make that bomb. I did not possess that bomb. I did not plant that bomb. But under the concept of aiding and abetting, I plead guilty." On November 13, Olson filed a motion requesting to withdraw her guilty plea and acknowledged that she did not misunderstand the judge when he read the charges against her. Rather, she said: Sentencing in explosives charges On December 3, 2001, Fidler offered to let Olson testify under oath about her role in the case. She refused. He then wondered "I took those pleas twice ... were you lying to me then or are you lying to me now?" -- and denied her request to withdraw her plea. Observers expected her to serve only three to five years, but on January 18, 2002, she was sentenced to two consecutive 10-years-to-life terms. Fidler warned that according to California law, the Board of Prison Terms could later change the sentence to a lesser term; at the time, Olson's lawyers asserted that due to discrepancies between 1970s laws and current California laws, their client would most likely serve only five years, which could turn into two years for good behavior. The Board of Prison Terms did later change the sentence. At her sentencing hearing, Olson's teenage daughter Leila, her pastor, and her husband spoke in her defense, while Olson's mother claimed on the stand that Olson had never been a part of the SLA and spoke against prosecutors and police she asserted had harassed the family. Sentencing in Opsahl murder On January 16, 2002, first-degree murder charges for the killing of Myrna Opsahl were filed against Olson and five other SLA members: Emily Harris, Bill Harris, Michael Bortin (Olson's brother-in law who had married her sister Josephine), and James Kilgore, who remained a fugitive. Judge Fidler arraigned Olson on the murder charges immediately following her sentencing hearing on January 18. Olson pled not guilty to that charge at the time, but on November 7, she changed her mind and pled guilty. She was sentenced on February 14, 2003 for the maximum term allowed under her plea bargain, which was a six-year term concurrent to the 14-year sentence she was already serving. Aftermath of prosecution and sentencing Olson served her time at the Central California Women's Facility in Chowchilla. Her custody status was "Close A," A Life on Hold in California Prison Page 2 Los Angeles Times, August 14 2006 which is reserved for inmates requiring the most supervision. This status limited her privileges and required that she be counted seven times a day. It also prevented her from being able to seek a relocation to a facility closer to her home. David Nickerson, Olson's attorney stated that this status reflected the Department of Corrections' view that she was a potential flight risk. A Life on Hold in California Prison Page 3 Los Angeles Times, August 14 2006 Olson's husband and three daughters continued to support her during her imprisonment and took turns visiting her frequently in Chowchilla. When Mom Has A Secret: An Exclusive Report on a Family Torn Apart By Tara McKelvey Page 8 from Marie Claire June 2007. Accessede June 26 2007 In an article for the magazine Marie Claire (published by Hearst Corporation), Olson's 23-year-old daughter Emily Peterson dismissed her mother's radical past with the SLA, saying: Judge reduces sentence The state Board of Prison Terms had scrapped her original sentence in October 2002 in exchange for a 14-year sentence, saying Olson's crimes had the potential for great violence and targeted multiple victims. In July 2004, a judge said there was "no analysis" of how the state Board of Prison Terms decided 14 years was appropriate and threw out the sentence. Her sentence was converted to five years, four months Minnesota Public Radio Newsby Marisa Helms, July 13, 2004 . Appeals court panel restores sentence An appeals court panel restored her full sentence as of April 12, 2007. They ruled that a lower court did not follow procedure when they allowed Olson to appeal. Sentence restored for Sara Jane Olson, former SLA member Star Tribune - April 14, 2007 Release from prison and rearrest Olson was released from the Central California Women's Facility in Chowchilla on parole March 17, 2008 Sara Jane Olson released from prison , and was blocked from boarding her flight to Minnesota at Los Angeles International Airport on March 21. She stayed at her mother's home in Palmdale during the brief time she was out of prison and spent some time hiking with her husband. SLA's Olson will fight return to state prison She was rearrested when it was decided that she had been mistakenly released a year early from prison due to a miscalculation by the parole board. Her attorney said Olson would fight the action and added that the action was a political move. Olson was taken back into custody by the California Department of Corrections and placed in the California Institution for Women in Corona. Release and parole After serving seven years, about half of her sentence, Olson was released from prison on March 17, 2009, and will serve her parole in Minnesota. However, there has been considerable criticism over the race and class privilege exemplified by her parole. New York Times, March 22, 2009, Symbionese Liberation Parolee, CAITLIN FLANAGAN Police unions in both Minnesota and California have protested the arrangement, stating that they believe her parole should be served in California, where her crimes were committed. The effort to force Olson to serve her parole in California is also directly supported by Minnesota Governor Tim Pawlenty and police union officials in that state. A Minnesota State Senator, Bill Ingebrigtsen, and State Representative Laura Brod introduced a resolution March 16, 2009, seeking to require Olson to serve her parole in California. Sara Jane Olson released from prison today, Los Angeles Daily News, March 17, 2009 Notes and references Further reading Hendry, Sharon Darby, Soliah: The Sara Jane Olson Story, Cable Publishing, 2002 ISBN 1893088359 External links Chronology of the SLA from CourtTV News (only goes up to 2002) Profile of Sara Jane Olson Full Court TV coverage of the Kathleen Soliah bombing case Myrna Opsahl, woman murdered by SLA at Crocker Bank | Sara_Jane_Olson |@lemmatized sara:16 jane:16 olson:44 formerly:1 kathleen:4 ann:1 soliah:32 born:1 january:9 member:11 symbionese:3 liberation:3 army:2 sla:22 grow:1 palmdale:3 california:18 daughter:5 high:1 school:2 teacher:1 coach:1 martin:1 free:1 library:1 com:1 live:2 life:8 alias:3 use:5 legal:1 name:2 plead:5 guilty:7 two:6 count:3 possess:3 explosive:6 intent:3 murder:12 stem:1 activity:1 mistakenly:2 release:9 five:6 day:4 march:12 rearrested:2 due:4 error:1 make:3 calculate:1 parole:10 radical:4 turn:3 housewife:1 back:2 prison:16 cnn:1 former:3 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5,450 | History_of_Malawi | The History of Malawi covers the area of present-day Malawi. The region was once part of the Maravi Empire. In colonial times it was known as British Central Africa and Nyasaland and was at one time part of the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland. The country reached full independence, as Malawi, in 1964. Oil was first found there in the late 1800's. It was the first oil found around the world. Prehistory Hominid remains and stone implements have been identified in Malawi dating back more than one million years, and early humans inhabited the vicinity of Lake Malawi 50,000 to 60,000 years ago. Human remains at a site dated about 8000 BC show physical characteristics similar to peoples living today in the Horn of Africa. At another site, dated 1500 BC, the remains possess features resembling Bushmen people. These short people with copper colored skin were known as the Akufula or Batwa. They are responsible for rock paintings found south of Lilongwe in Chencherere and Mphunzi. The Maravi Empire The name Malawi is thought to derive from the word Maravi. The people of the Maravi Empire were iron workers. Maravi is thought to mean "rays of light" and may have come from the sight of many kilns lighting up the night sky. A dynasty known as the Maravi Empire was founded by the Amaravi people in the late 15th century. The Amaravi, who eventually became known as the Chewa (a word possibly derived from a term meaning "foreigner"), migrated to Malawi from the region of the modern day Republic of Congo to escape unrest and disease. The Chewa attacked the Akafula, who settled in small family clans without a unified system of protection. Using a system of destruction they would later employ in hunting predatory animals, the Chewa hunted down and butchered the Akafula. Eventually encompassing most of modern Malawi, as well as parts of modern day Mozambique and Zambia, the Maravi Empire began on the southwestern shores of Lake Malawi. The head of the empire during its expansion was the Kalonga (also spelt Karonga). The Kalonga ruled from his headquarters in Mankhamba. Under the leadership of the Kalonga, sub-chiefs were appointed to occupy and subdue new areas. The empire began to decline during the early 18th century when fighting among the sub-chiefs and the burgeoning slave trade weakened the Maravi Empire’s authority. Trade and invasions The Portuguese Initially the Maravi Empire’s economy was largely dependent on agriculture, the majority being the production of millet and sorghum. It was during the Maravi Empire, some time during the 16th century, that Europeans first came into contact with the people of Malawi. Under the Maravi Empire, the Chewa had access to the coast of modern day Mozambique. Through this coastal area, the Chewa traded ivory, iron, and slaves with the Portuguese and Arabs. Trade was enhanced by the common language of Chewa which was spoken throughout the Maravi Empire. The Portuguese reached the area via the Mozambican port of Tete in the 16th century and gave the first written reports on the people of Malawi. The Portuguese were also responsible for the introduction of maize to the region. Maize would eventually replace sorghum as the staple of the Malawian diet. Malawian tribes traded slaves with the Portuguese. These slaves were sent mainly to work on Portuguese plantations in Mozambique or to Brazil. The Angoni The downfall of the Maravi Empire correlates to the entrance of two powerful groups into the region of Malawi. The Angoni or Ngoni people and their chief Zwangendaba arrived from the Natal region of modern day South Africa. The Angoni were part of a great migration, known as the mfecane, of people fleeing from the head of the Zulu Empire, Shaka Zulu. This migration had a significant impact on Malawi, as it did on all of Southern Africa. While fleeing from Shaka, the Angoni had adopted many of his military tactics. They made use of these tactics to attack and conquer the people of the Maravi Empire. Settling in rocky areas, the Angoni would conduct annual raids on their Chewa, also called Achewa, neighbors to take both food and slaves. The Angoni used most of their slaves as farm labourers to keep their large armies supplied with food. Some slaves were sold to slave traders. The Ayao The second group to take power around this time were the Ayao (or Yao). The Yao came to Malawi from northern Mozambique to escape famine and conflict with the Makua tribe. The Makua tribe had become enemies of the Yao because of the wealth the Yao were amassing through trading ivory and slaves to Arabs from Zanzibar. The Yao, upon migrating to Malawi, soon began attacking both the Achewa and Angoni people to capture prisoners who they later sold as slaves. The Yao were the first, and for a long while, the only group to use firearms in conflict with other tribes. The Yao ruling class chose in 1870 to follow Islam like their Arab trading partners rather than the traditional animism. As a benefit of their conversion, the Yao were provided with sheikhs who promoted literacy and founded mosques. The Arab traders also introduced the cultivation of rice, which became a major crop in the lake region. The Arabs and their Swahili allies Using their strong partnership with the Yao, the Arab traders set up several trading posts along the shore of Lake Malawi. The largest of these posts was founded in 1840 at Nkhotakota by an Arabic trader from the coast, Jumbe Salim Bin Abdalla. During the height of his power, Jumbe transported between 5,000 and 20,000 slaves through Nkhotakota annually. From Nkhotakota, the slaves were transported in caravans of no less than 500 slaves to the small island of Kilwa Kisiwani off the coast of modern day Tanzania. The founding of these various posts effectively shifted the slave trade in Malawi from the Portuguese in Mozambique to the Arabs of Zanzibar. Although the Yao and the Angoni continually clashed with each other, neither was able to win a decisive victory. The remaining members of the Maravi Empire, however, were nearly wiped out in attacks from both sides. Some Achewa chiefs saved themselves by creating alliances with the Swahili people who were allied with the Arab slave traders. European explorers, missionaries and traders Although the Portuguese reached the area in the 16th century, the first significant Western contact was the arrival of David Livingstone along the shore of Lake Malawi in 1859. Subsequently, Scottish Presbyterian churches established missions in Malawi. One of their objectives was to end the slave trade to the Persian Gulf that continued until the end of the 19th century. In 1878, a number of traders, mostly from Glasgow, formed the African Lakes Company to supply goods and services to the missionaries. Other missionaries, traders, hunters, and planters soon followed. British Central Africa Protectorate In 1883, a consul of the British Government was accredited to the "Kings and Chiefs of Central Africa" and in 1891, the British established the British Central Africa Protectorate. Nyasaland Flag of Nyasaland In 1907 the name was changed to Nyasaland or the Nyasaland Protectorate. (Nyasa is the Chiyao word for "lake"). The independence struggle The history of Nyasaland was marked by a number of unsuccessful Malawian attempts to obtain independence. A growing European and US-educated African elite became increasingly vocal and politically active - first through associations, and after 1944, through the Nyasaland African Congress (NAC). The Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland During the 1950s, pressure for independence increased when Nyasaland was joined with Northern and Southern Rhodesia in 1953 to form the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland. In July 1958, Dr Hastings Kamuzu Banda returned to the country after a long absence in the United States (where he had obtained his medical degree at Meharry Medical College in Nashville, Tennessee in 1937), the United Kingdom (where he practised medicine), and Ghana. He assumed leadership of the NAC, which later became the Malawi Congress Party (MCP). In 1959, Banda was sent to Gwelo Prison for his political activities but was released in 1960 to participate in a constitutional conference in London. On 15 April 1961, the MCP won an overwhelming victory in elections for a new Legislative Council. It also gained an important role in the new Executive Council and ruled Nyasaland in all but name a year later. In a second constitutional conference in London in November 1962, the British Government agreed to give Nyasaland self-governing status the following year. The Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland was dissolved on 31 December 1963. Self-governing status for Nyasaland Hastings Banda became Prime Minister on 1 February 1963, although the British still controlled the country's financial, security, and judicial systems. A new constitution took effect in May 1963, providing for virtually complete internal self-government. Malawian independence Malawi became a fully independent member of the Commonwealth (formerly the British Commonwealth) on 6 July 1964. Two years later, Malawi adopted a republican constitution and became a one-party state with Hastings Banda as its first president. One-party rule In 1970 Hastings Banda was declared President for life of the MCP, and in 1971 Banda consolidated his power and was named President for life of Malawi itself. The paramilitary wing of the Malawi Congress Party, the Young Pioneers, helped keep Malawi under authoritarian control until the 1990s. Banda, who was always referred to as "His Excellency the Life President Ngwazi Dr. Hastings Kamuzu Banda", was a dictator. Allegiance to him was enforced at every level. Every business building was required to have an official picture of Banda hanging on the wall. No other poster, clock, or picture could be placed higher on the wall than the president's picture. The national anthem was played before most events - including movies, plays, and school assemblies. At the movie theaters, a video of His Excellency waving to his subjects was shown while the anthem played. When Banda visited a city, a contingent of women were expected to greet him at the airport and dance for him. A special cloth, bearing the president’s picture, was the required attire for these performances. The one radio station in the country aired the president's speeches and government propaganda. Among the laws enforced by Banda, it was illegal for women to wear pants of any kind or skirts which showed any part of the knee. Men were not allowed to have hair below the collar. Churches had to be government sanctioned. Members of certain religious groups, such as Jehovah's Witnesses, were persecuted and kicked around the country. All Malawian citizens of Indian heritage were forced to leave their homes and businesses and move into designated Indian areas in the larger cities. It was illegal to transfer or take privately earned funds out of the country or to bring in foreign currency. Thus, one could not leave the country without giving up goods and earnings. For those who were willing to leave almost everything and start over, visas were rarely granted. Every passenger boarding a plane to leave the country was searched, as was baggage entering and leaving the country. All movies shown in theaters were first viewed by the Malawi Censorship Board. Content considered unsuitable — particularly nudity or political content — was edited. Mail was also monitored by the Censorship Board. Most overseas mail was opened, read, and sometimes edited. Videotapes had to be sent to the Censorship Board to be viewed by censors. Once edited, the movie was given a sticker stating that it was now suitable for viewing, and sent back to the owner. Telephone calls were monitored and disconnected if the conversation was politically critical. Items to be sold in bookstores were also edited. Pages, or parts of pages, were cut out of magazines such as Newsweek and Time. While Malawi was the 10th poorest country in the world during much of Banda's tenure, the president was a very wealthy man. He owned several palaces, businesses, private helicopters, cars, and other such luxuries. Speaking out against the president was strictly prohibited. Those who did so were often deported or imprisoned. Banda and his government were criticized for human rights violations by Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International. After he was deposed, Banda was put on trial for murder and attempts to destroy evidence. During his rule, Banda was one of the very few post-colonial African leaders to maintain diplomatic relations with apartheid South Africa. Multi-party democracy Increasing domestic unrest and pressure from Malawian churches and from the international community led to a referendum in which the Malawian people were asked to vote for either a multi-party democracy or the continuation of a one-party state. On June 14, 1993, the people of Malawi voted overwhelmingly in favor of multi-party democracy. Free and fair national elections were held on May 17, 1994 under a provisional constitution, which took full effect the following year. Bakili Muluzi, leader of the United Democratic Front (UDF), was elected President in those elections. The UDF won 82 of the 177 seats in the National Assembly and formed a coalition government with the Alliance for Democracy (AFORD). That coalition disbanded in June 1996, but some of its members remained in the government. The President is referred to as Dr Muluzi, having received an honorary degree at Lincoln University in Missouri in 1995. Malawi's newly written constitution (1995) eliminated special powers previously reserved for the Malawi Congress Party. Accelerated economic liberalization and structural reform accompanied the political transition. On June 15, 1999, Malawi held its second democratic elections. Bakili Muluzi was re-elected to serve a second five-year term as President, despite an MCP-AFORD Alliance that ran a joint slate against the UDF. The aftermath of elections brought country close to the brink of civil strife. Disgruntled Tumbuka, Ngoni and Nkhonde Christian tribes dominant in the north were irritated by the election of Muluzi, a Muslim from the south. The campaign of terror against Muslims of the Yao tribe (Muluzi tribe) thus begun. Property, valued at over millions of dollars, were either vandalized or stolen and 200 mosques were torched down. http://www.islamonline.net/servlet/Satellite?c=Article_C&cid=1235628763190&pagename=Zone-English-News/NWELayout Malawi in the 21st century In 2001, the UDF held 96 seats in the National Assembly, while the AFORD held 30, and the MCP 61. Six seats were held by independents who represent the National Democratic Alliance (NDA) opposition group. The NDA was not recognized as an official political party at that time. The National Assembly had 193 members, of whom 17 were women, including one of the Deputy Speakers. Malawi saw its first transition between democratically elected presidents in May 2004, when the UDF’s presidential candidate Bingu wa Mutharika defeated MCP candidate John Tembo and Gwanda Chakuamba, who was backed by a grouping of opposition parties. The UDF, however, did not win a majority of seats in Parliament, as it had done in 1994 and 1999 elections. It successfully secured a majority by forming a "government of national unity" with several opposition parties. Bingu wa Mutharika left the UDF party on 5 February, 2005 citing differences with the UDF, particularly over his anti-corruption campaign. References External links Background Note: Malawi History of Malawi | History_of_Malawi |@lemmatized history:3 malawi:35 cover:1 area:7 present:1 day:6 region:6 part:6 maravi:15 empire:16 colonial:2 time:6 know:5 british:8 central:4 africa:8 nyasaland:15 one:10 federation:4 rhodesia:5 country:11 reach:3 full:2 independence:5 oil:2 first:10 find:3 late:2 around:3 world:2 prehistory:1 hominid:1 remains:2 stone:1 implement:1 identify:1 date:2 back:3 million:2 year:7 early:2 human:4 inhabit:1 vicinity:1 lake:7 ago:1 remain:3 site:2 bc:2 show:4 physical:1 characteristic:1 similar:1 people:14 live:1 today:1 horn:1 another:1 dated:1 possess:1 feature:1 resemble:1 bushman:1 short:1 copper:1 color:1 skin:1 akufula:1 batwa:1 responsible:2 rock:1 painting:1 south:4 lilongwe:1 chencherere:1 mphunzi:1 name:4 think:2 derive:2 word:3 iron:2 worker:1 mean:1 ray:1 light:2 may:4 come:3 sight:1 many:2 kiln:1 night:1 sky:1 dynasty:1 found:3 amaravi:2 century:7 eventually:3 become:8 chewa:7 possibly:1 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5,451 | Chojnów | Chojnów () is a small town (14,389 inhabitants as of 2006) on the Skora river, in Legnica County, (Lower Silesian Voivodeship), in south-western Poland. Its average altitude is 170 meters above sea level. It is the administrative seat of the rural gmina called Gmina Chojnów, although the town is not part of its territory (Chojnów forms a separate urban gmina). The first reference to Chojnów is dated 1272 (as Haynow settlement). In 1288 it was called a city (civitas) in documents of the Prince of Legnica Henryk V Gruby, but as soon as 1333 it had gained town privileges. Chojnów is located 18 kilometers from Legnica (east), 26 from Bolesławiec (west) and 18 from Złotoryja (south), 5 kilometers from A4 highway. It has railroad connections to Bolesławiec and Legnica. The local government-run weekly newspaper is Gazeta Chojnowska, which has been published since 1992. Every year in the first days of June, the Days of Chojnów (Dni Chojnowa) are celebrated. The Whole-Poland bike race Masters has been organized yearly in Chojnów for the past few years. Chojnów is an industrial and agricultural city. Among products produced in Chojnów are: paper products, agricultural machinery, chains, metal furniture for hospitals, equipment for the meat industry, beer, wine, leather clothing, and clothing for infants, children and adults. Among the interesting monuments of Chojnów are the 13th century castle of the Prince of Legnica (currently used as a museum), two old churches, the Baszta Tkaczy (Weavers' Tower) and preserved fragments of city walls. The biggest green area in Chojnów is small forest Park Piastowski (Piast's Park), which was named after the Piast dynasty as part of Communist anti-German propaganda upon its annexation to Poland according to the Potsdam Conference. From the Late Middle Ages until 1945 Haynau (Chojnów) was thoroughly ethnic German, part of the German Empire and the Weimar Republic. After the war the German population was ethnically cleansed from the region. Wild animals that can be found in the Chojnów area are roe-deer (sarna, Capreolus capraea ?), foxes, rabbits and wild domestic animals, especially cats. Born in Chojnów-Haynau Johann Wilhelm Ritter, chemist and physicist, born December 16, 1776, died January 23, 1810 in Munich Georg Michaelis, politician, former prime minister of Prussia, born September 8 1857, died July 24, 1936 in Bad Saarow Horst Mahler, former Rote Armee Fraktion militant, now neonazi activist, born January 23, 1936 Bogusław Bidziński, opera singer. Twin towns Egelsbach, Germany Commentry, France References External links City hall homepage Chojnow Online E-info about Chojnow | Chojnów |@lemmatized chojnów:14 small:2 town:4 inhabitant:1 skora:1 river:1 legnica:5 county:1 low:1 silesian:1 voivodeship:1 south:2 western:1 poland:3 average:1 altitude:1 meter:1 sea:1 level:1 administrative:1 seat:1 rural:1 gmina:3 call:2 although:1 part:3 territory:1 form:1 separate:1 urban:1 first:2 reference:2 dated:1 haynow:1 settlement:1 city:4 civitas:1 document:1 prince:2 henryk:1 v:1 gruby:1 soon:1 gain:1 privilege:1 locate:1 kilometer:2 east:1 bolesławiec:2 west:1 złotoryja:1 highway:1 railroad:1 connection:1 local:1 government:1 run:1 weekly:1 newspaper:1 gazeta:1 chojnowska:1 publish:1 since:1 every:1 year:2 day:2 june:1 dni:1 chojnowa:1 celebrate:1 whole:1 bike:1 race:1 master:1 organize:1 yearly:1 past:1 industrial:1 agricultural:2 among:2 product:2 produce:1 paper:1 machinery:1 chain:1 metal:1 furniture:1 hospital:1 equipment:1 meat:1 industry:1 beer:1 wine:1 leather:1 clothing:2 infant:1 child:1 adult:1 interesting:1 monument:1 century:1 castle:1 currently:1 use:1 museum:1 two:1 old:1 church:1 baszta:1 tkaczy:1 weaver:1 tower:1 preserve:1 fragment:1 wall:1 big:1 green:1 area:2 forest:1 park:2 piastowski:1 piast:2 name:1 dynasty:1 communist:1 anti:1 german:4 propaganda:1 upon:1 annexation:1 accord:1 potsdam:1 conference:1 late:1 middle:1 age:1 haynau:2 thoroughly:1 ethnic:1 empire:1 weimar:1 republic:1 war:1 population:1 ethnically:1 cleanse:1 region:1 wild:2 animal:2 find:1 roe:1 deer:1 sarna:1 capreolus:1 capraea:1 fox:1 rabbit:1 domestic:1 especially:1 cat:1 bear:2 johann:1 wilhelm:1 ritter:1 chemist:1 physicist:1 born:2 december:1 die:2 january:2 munich:1 georg:1 michaelis:1 politician:1 former:2 prime:1 minister:1 prussia:1 september:1 july:1 bad:1 saarow:1 horst:1 mahler:1 rote:1 armee:1 fraktion:1 militant:1 neonazi:1 activist:1 bogusław:1 bidziński:1 opera:1 singer:1 twin:1 egelsbach:1 germany:1 commentry:1 france:1 external:1 link:1 hall:1 homepage:1 chojnow:2 online:1 e:1 info:1 |@bigram silesian_voivodeship:1 piast_dynasty:1 potsdam_conference:1 weimar_republic:1 roe_deer:1 chemist_physicist:1 prime_minister:1 external_link:1 |
5,452 | Colonialism | See colony and colonization for examples of colonialism which do not refer to Western colonialism. Also see Colonization (disambiguation) The Pith helmet (in this case, of the Second French Empire) is an iconic representation of colonialism. Colonialism is the building and maintaining of colonies in one territory by people from another territory. Colonialism. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Sovereignty over the colony is claimed by the metropole. Social structure, government and economics within the territory of the colony are changed by the colonists. Colonialism normally refers to a period of history from the 15th to the 20th century when people from Europe built colonies on other continents. The reasons for the practice of colonialism at this time include: The profits to be made. To expand the power of the metropole. To escape persecution in the metropole. To convert the indigenous population to the colonists' religion. Some colonists also felt they were helping the indigenous population by bringing them Christianity and civilization. However, the reality was often subjugation, displacement or death. Smallpox: Eradicating the Scourge. BBC - History. A colony is part of an empire and so colonialism is closely related to imperialism. Types of colonialism Historians often distinguish between two forms of colonialism, chiefly based on the number of people from the colonising country who settle in the colony: Settler colonialism involved a large number of colonists, typically seeking fertile land to farm. Exploitation colonialism involved fewer colonists, typically interested in extracting resources to export to the metropole. This category includes trading posts but it also includes much larger colonies where the colonists would provide much of the administration and own much of the land and other capital but rely on indigenous people for labour. There is a certain amount of overlap between these models of colonialism. In both cases people moved to the colony and goods were exported to the metropole. A plantation colony is normally considered to fit the model of exploitation colonialism. However, in this case there may be other immigrants to the colony - slaves to grow the cash crop for export. In some cases, settler colonialism took place in substantially pre-populated areas and the result was either an ethnically mixed population (such as the mestizos of the Americas), or a racially divided population, such as in French Algeria or Southern Rhodesia. A League of Nations mandate was legally very different to a colony. However, there was some similarity with exploitation colonialism. History of colonialism World map of colonialism in 1800. The historical phenomenon of colonisation is one that stretches around the globe and across time, including such disparate peoples as the Hittites, the Incas and the British, although the term colonialism is normally used with reference to discontiguous European overseas empires rather than contiguous land-based empires, European or otherwise. Land-based empires are conventionally described by the term imperialism, such as Age of Imperialism which includes Colonialism as a sub-topic, but in the main refers to conquest and domination of nearby lesser geographic powers. Examples of land-based empires include the Mongol Empire, a large empire stretching from the Western Pacific to Eastern Europe, the Empire of Alexander the Great, the Umayyad Caliphate, the Persian Empire, the Roman Empire, the Byzantine Empire. The Ottoman Empire was created across Mediterranean, North Africa and into South-Eastern Europe and existed during the time of European colonization of the other parts of the world. This map of the world in 1900 shows the large colonial empires that powerful nations established across the globe World map of colonialism at the end of the Second World War in 1945. After the Portuguese Reconquista period when the Kingdom of Portugal fought against the Muslim domination of Iberia, in the 12th and 13th centuries, the Portuguese started to expand overseas. European colonialism began in 1415, with Portugal's conquest of the Muslim port of Ceuta, Northern Africa. In the following decades Portugal braved the coast of Africa establishing trading posts, ports and fortresses. Colonialism was led by Portuguese and Spanish exploration of the Americas, and the coasts of Africa, the Middle East, India, and East Asia. On June 7, 1494, Pope Alexander VI divided the world in half, bestowing the western portion on Spain, and the eastern on Portugal, a move never accepted by the rulers of England or France. (See also the Treaty of Tordesillas that followed the papal decree.) The latter half of the sixteenth century witnessed the expansion of the English colonial state throughout Ireland. Ciaran Brady, The Chief Governors (Cambridge, 1994); Colm Lennon, Sixteenth-Century Ireland: The Incomplete Conquest(Dublin, 1994) Despite some earlier attempts, it was not until the 17th century that Britain, France and the Netherlands successfully established overseas empires outside Europe, in direct competition with Spain and Portugal and with each other. In the 19th century the British Empire grew to become the largest empire yet seen (see list of largest empires). The end of the 18th and early 19th century saw the first era of decolonization when most of the European colonies in the Americas gained their independence from their respective metropoles. Spain and Portugal were irreversibly weakened after the loss of their New World colonies, but Britain (after the union of England and Scotland), France and the Netherlands turned their attention to the Old World, particularly South Africa, India and South East Asia, where coastal enclaves had already been established. The German Empire (now Republic), created by most of Germany being united under Prussia (omitting Austria, and other ethnic-German areas) also sought colonies in German East Africa. Territories in other parts of the world were also added to the trans-oceanic, or extra-European, German colonial empire. Italy occupied Eritrea, Somalia and Libya. During the First and the Second Italo-Ethiopian War, Italy invaded Abyssinia, and in 1936 the Italian Empire was created. World Colonization 1492-2008 The industrialization of the 19th century led to what has been termed the era of New Imperialism, when the pace of colonization rapidly accelerated, the height of which was the Scramble for Africa. In 1823, the United States, while expanding westward for the Pacific, had published the Monroe Doctrine in which it gave fair warning to western European expansionists to stay out of American affairs. Originally, the document targeted the spread of colonialism in Latin America and the Caribbean, deeming it oppressive and intolerable. By the end of the 19th century, interpretation of the Monroe Doctrine by individuals such as Theodore Roosevelt, viewed it as an American responsibility to ensure Central American, Caribbean, and South American economic stability that would allow those nations to repay their debts to their colonizers. In fact, under Roosevelt’s presidency in 1904, the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine was added to the original document in order to justify colonial expansionist policies and actions by the U.S. under Roosevelt (Marks, 1979) Marks III, Frederick W., Velvet on Iron: The Diplomacy of Theodore Roosevelt, University of Nebraska Press, 1979. . Roosevelt defended the amendment to congress in 1904 when he expressed: All that this country desires is to see the neighboring countries stable, orderly, and prosperous. Any country whose people conduct themselves well can count upon our hearty friendship. If a nation shows that it knows how to act with reasonable efficiency and decency in social and political matters, if it keeps order and pays its obligations, it need fear no interference from the United States. Chronic wrongdoing, or an impotence which results in a general loosening of the ties of civilized society, may in America, as elsewhere, ultimately require intervention by some civilized nation, and in the Western Hemisphere the adherence of the United States to the Monroe Doctrine may force the United States, however reluctantly, in flagrant cases of such wrongdoing or impotence, to the exercise of an international police power (Roosevelt, 1904). In this case imperialism would now, for the first time in American history, begin to manifest itself across the bordering waters and incorporating the Philippines, Guam, Cuba, Puerto Rico, and Hawaii as American territories. America was successful in “liberating” the territories of Cuba, Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines. U.S. government replaced the existing government in Hawaii in 1893; it was annexed into the American union as an offshore territory in 1898. Between 1898 and 1902, Cuba was a territory of the United States along with Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines, which were all colonies gained by the United States from Spain. In 1946, the Philippines was granted independence from the United States and Puerto Rico still to this day remains a territory of the United States along with America Samoa, Guam, and The U.S. Virgin Islands. In Cuba, the Platt Amendment was replaced in 1934 by the Treaty of Relations which granted Cuba less intervention by U.S. government on matters of economy and international relations. 1934 would also be the year that, under the presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt, that the Good Neighbor Policy was adopted in order to limit American intervention in South and Central America. Anderson, Benedict, Under Three Flags; Anarchism and the Anti-Colonial Imagination, Verso, New York, 2005. Ayala, Cesar J., American Sugar Kingdom; The Plantation Economy of the Spanish Caribbean, 1898-1934, The University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, 1999. Destiny of Empires, Presented by Café Productions, Princeton, NJ: Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 1998. Fernos-Isern, Antonio, “From Colony to Commonwealth,” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Vol. 285, Puerto Rico a Study in Democratic Development, Jan., 1953, pp. 16-22. Go, Julian, “Chains Empire, Projects of State: Political Education and U.S. Colonial Rule in Puerto Rico and the Philippines,” Comparative Studies in Society and History, Vol. 42, No. 2, Apr. 2000, pp. 333-362. Santamarina, Juan C., “The Cuba Company and the Expansion of American Business in Cuba, 1898-1915,” The Business History Review, Vol. 74, No. 1, Spring 2000, pp. 41-83. During the 20th century, the overseas colonies of the losers of World War I were distributed amongst the victors as mandates, but it was not until the end of World War II that the second phase of decolonization began in earnest. Neocolonialism The term neocolonialism has been used to refer to a variety of things since the decolonisation efforts after World War II. Generally it does not refer to a type of colonialism but rather colonialism by other means. Specifically, the accusation that the relationship between stronger and weaker countries is similar to exploitation colonialism, without the stronger country having to build or maintain colonies. Such accusations typically focus on economic relationships and interference in the politics of weaker countries by stronger countries. Post-colonialism Post-colonialism (aka post-colonial theory) refers to a set of theories in philosophy and literature that grapple with the legacy of colonial rule. In this sense, postcolonial literature may be considered a branch of Postmodern literature concerned with the political and cultural independence of peoples formerly subjugated in colonial empires. Many practitioners take Edward Said's book Orientalism (1978) to be the theory's founding work (although French theorists such as Aimé Césaire and Frantz Fanon made similar claims decades before Said). Edward Said analyzed the works of Balzac, Baudelaire and Lautréamont, exploring how they were both influenced by and helped to shape a societal fantasy of European racial superiority. Post-colonial fictional writers interact with the traditional colonial discourse, but modify or subvert it; for instance by retelling a familiar story from the perspective of an oppressed minor character in the story. Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak's Can the Subaltern Speak? (1998) gave its name to the Subaltern Studies. In A Critique of Postcolonial Reason (1999), Spivak explored how major works of European metaphysics (e.g., Kant, Hegel) not only tend to exclude the subaltern from their discussions, but actively prevent non-Europeans from occupying positions as fully human subjects. Hegel's Phenomenology of Spirit (1807) is famous for its explicit ethnocentrism, in considering the Western civilization as the most accomplished of all, while Kant also allowed some traces of racialism to enter his work. "Robert Clive and his family with an Indian maid", painted by Joshua Reynolds, 1765. Impact of colonialism and colonisation Debate about the perceived negative and positive aspects (spread of virulent diseases, unequal social relations, exploitation, enslavement, infrastructures, medical advances, new institutions,technological advancements etc.) of colonialism has occurred for centuries, amongst both colonizer and colonized, and continues to the present day. Come Back, Colonialism, All is Forgiven The questions of miscegenation; the alleged ties between colonial enterprises, genocides — see the Herero Genocide and the Armenian Genocide — and the Holocaust; and the questions of the nature of imperialism, dependency theory and neocolonialism (in particular the Third World debt) continue to retain their actuality. Impact on health Encounters between European explorers and populations in the rest of the world often introduced local epidemics of extraordinary virulence. Disease killed the entire native (Guanches) population of the Canary Islands in the 16th century. Half the native population of Hispaniola in 1518 was killed by smallpox. Smallpox also ravaged Mexico in the 1520s, killing 150,000 in Tenochtitlán alone, including the emperor, and Peru in the 1530s, aiding the European conquerors. Measles killed a further two million Mexican natives in the 1600s. In 1618–1619, smallpox wiped out 90% of the Massachusetts Bay Native Americans. Smallpox The Fight to Eradicate a Global Scourge, David A. Koplow Smallpox epidemics in 1780–1782 and 1837–1838 brought devastation and drastic depopulation among the Plains Indians. "The first smallpox epidemic on the Canadian Plains: In the fur-traders' words", National Institutes of Health Some believe that the death of up to 95% of the Native American population of the New World was caused by Old World diseases. The Story Of... Smallpox – and other Deadly Eurasian Germs Over the centuries, the Europeans had developed high degrees of immunity to these diseases, while the indigenous peoples had no such immunity. Stacy Goodling, "Effects of European Diseases on the Inhabitants of the New World" Smallpox decimated the native population of Australia, killing around 50% of Indigenous Australians in the early years of British colonisation. Smallpox Through History It also killed many New Zealand Māori. New Zealand Historical Perspective As late as 1848–49, as many as 40,000 out of 150,000 Hawaiians are estimated to have died of measles, whooping cough and influenza. Introduced diseases, notably smallpox, nearly wiped out the native population of Easter Island. How did Easter Island's ancient statues lead to the destruction of an entire ecosystem?, The Independent In 1875, measles killed over 40,000 Fijians, approximately one-third of the population. Fiji School of Medicine Ainu population decreased drastically in the 19th century, due in large part to infectious diseases brought by Japanese settlers pouring into Hokkaido. Meeting the First Inhabitants, TIMEasia.com, 8/21/2000 Researchers concluded that syphilis was carried from the New World to Europe after Columbus's voyages. The findings suggested Europeans could have carried the nonvenereal tropical bacteria home, where the organisms may have mutated into a more deadly form in the different conditions of Europe. Genetic Study Bolsters Columbus Link to Syphilis, New York Times, January 15, 2008 The disease was more frequently fatal than it is today. Syphilis was a major killer in Europe during the Renaissance. Columbus May Have Brought Syphilis to Europe, LiveScience The first cholera pandemic began in Bengal, then spread across India by 1820. 10,000 British troops and countless Indians died during this pandemic. Cholera's seven pandemics. CBC News. December 2, 2008 Between 1736 and 1834 only some 10% of East India Company's officers survived to take the final voyage home. Sahib: The British Soldier in India, 1750-1914 by Richard Holmes Waldemar Haffkine, who mainly worked in India, was the first microbiologist who developed and used vaccines against cholera and bubonic plague. As early as 1803, the Spanish Crown organized a mission (the Balmis expedition) to transport the smallpox vaccine to the Spanish colonies, and establish mass vaccination programs there. Dr. Francisco de Balmis and his Mission of Mercy, Society of Philippine Heath History By 1832, the federal government of the United States established a smallpox vaccination program for Native Americans. Lewis Cass and the Politics of Disease: The Indian Vaccination Act of 1832 Under the direction of Mountstuart Elphinstone a program was launched to propagate smallpox vaccination in India. Smallpox History - Other histories of smallpox in South Asia From the beginning of the 20th century onwards, the elimination or control of disease in tropical countries became a driving force for all colonial powers. Conquest and Disease or Colonialism and Health?, Gresham College | Lectures and Events The sleeping sickness epidemic in Africa was arrested due to mobile teams systematically screening millions of people at risk. In the 20th century, the world saw the biggest increase in its population in human history due to lessening of the mortality rate in many countries due to medical advances. The Origins of African Population Growth, by John Iliffe, The Journal of African HistoryVol. 30, No. 1 (1989), pp. 165-169 World population has grown from 1.6 billion in 1900 to an estimated 6.7 billion today. World Population Clock - Worldometers Food security After 1492, a global exchange of previously local crops and livestock breeds occurred. Key crops involved in this exchange included the tomato, maize, potato and manioc going from the New World to the Old. At the founding of the Ming dynasty in 1368, China's population was reported to be close to 60 million, and toward the end of the dynasty in 1644 it might have approached 150 million. Ming Dynasty. MSN.com. New crops that had come to Asia from the Americas via the Spanish colonizers in the 16th century, including maize and sweet potatoes, contributed to the population growth. China's Population: Readings and Maps. Columbia University, East Asian Curriculum Project Although it was initially considered to be unfit for human consumption, the potato became an important staple crop in northern Europe. The Impact of the Potato. History Magazine Maize (corn) was introduced to Europe in the 15th century. Due to its high yields, it quickly spread through Europe, and later to Africa and India. Maize was probably introduced into India by the Portuguese in the 16th century. Antiquity of maize in India. Rajendra Agricultural University Since being introduced by Portuguese traders in the 16th century, Super-Sized Cassava Plants May Help Fight Hunger In Africa. The Ohio State University maize and manioc have replaced traditional African crops as the continent’s most important staple food crops. Maize Streak Virus-Resistant Transgenic Maize: an African solution to an African Problem. Scitizen. August 7, 2007 Manioc (cassava) is sometimes described as the ‘bread of the tropics'. http://www.springerlink.com/index/t514426365436ur2.pdf Alfred W. Crosby speculated that increased production of maize, manioc, and other American crops "enabled the slave traders drew many, perhaps most, of their cargoes from the rain forest areas, precisely those areas where American crops enabled heavier settlement than before." Savoring Africa in the New World by Robert L. Hall Millersville University Slave trade Slavery has existed to varying extents, forms and periods in almost all cultures and continents. Historical survey > Slave-owning societies, Encyclopædia Britannica Between the 7th and 20th centuries, Arab slave trade (also known as slavery in the East) took approximately 18 million slaves from Africa via trans-Saharan and Indian Ocean routes. Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History, Encyclopædia Britannica Between the 15th and the 19th centuries, the Atlantic slave trade took up to 12 million slaves to the New World. Focus on the slave trade, BBC From 1654 until 1865, slavery for life was legal within the boundaries of the present United States. The shaping of Black America: forthcoming 400th celebration reminds America that Blacks came before The Mayflower and were among the founders of this country.(BLACK HISTORY)(Jamestown, VA)(Interview)(Excerpt) - Jet | Encyclopedia.com According to the 1860 U.S. census, nearly four million slaves were held in a total population of just over 12 million in the 15 states in which slavery was legal. 1860 Census Results, The Civil War Home Page. Of all 1,515,605 families in the 15 slave states, 393,967 held slaves (roughly one in four), amounting to 8% of all American families. American Civil War Census Data In 1807, the United Kingdom became one of the first nations to end its own participation in the slave trade. Royal Navy and the Slave Trade Between 1808 and 1860, the British West Africa Squadron seized approximately 1,600 slave ships and freed 150,000 Africans who were aboard. Sailing against slavery. By Jo Loosemore BBC Action was also taken against African leaders who refused to agree to British treaties to outlaw the trade, for example against "the usurping King of Lagos", deposed in 1851. Anti-slavery treaties were signed with over 50 African rulers. The West African Squadron and slave trade In 1827, Britain declared the slave trade piracy, punishable by death. Anti-slavery Operations of the US Navy Non-canonical colonialism 1900 Campaign poster for the Republican Party. "The American flag has not been planted in foreign soil to acquire more territory but for humanity's sake.", president William McKinley, July 12, 1900. On the left hand, we see how the situation allegedly was in 1896, before Mc Kinley's victory during the elections: "Gone Democratic: A run on the bank, Spanish rule in Cuba". On the right hand, we see how the situation allegedly is in 1900, after four years of McKinley's rule: "Gone Republican: a run to the bank, American rule in Cuba" (the Spanish-American War took place in 1898). The USA is becoming, as other European powers, an imperialist power. As did France before with its universalist doctrine, it claims that it acts for "Humanity". The Roman Empire under Trajan in 117 AD. The expansion of the Arab Empire under the Umayyads. The Mongol Empire and its successor Khanates. Conquests of the Ottoman Empire. Colonialism is not a modern phenomenon. A variety of ancient and more recent examples whereby ethnically distinct groups settle in areas other than their original settlement that are either adjacent or across land or sea. From about 750 BC the Greeks began 250 years of expansion, settling colonies in all directions. Phoenician civilization was an enterprising maritime trading culture that spread across the Mediterranean during the period 1550 BC to 300 BC. Other examples range from large empire like the Roman Empire, the Arab Empire, the Mongol Empire, the Ottoman Empire or small movements like ancient Scots moving from Hibernia to Caledonia and Magyars into Pannonia (modern-day Hungary). Turkic peoples spread across most of Central Asia into Europe and the Middle East between the 6th and 11th centuries. Recent research suggests that Madagascar was uninhabited until Malay seafarers from Indonesia arrived during the 5th and 6th centuries A.D. Subsequent migrations from both the Pacific and Africa further consolidated this original mixture, and Malagasy people emerged. Malagasy languages, Encyclopædia Britannica Before the expansion of the Bantu languages and their speakers, the southern half of Africa is believed to have been populated by Pygmies and Khoisan speaking people, today occupying the arid regions around the Kalahari and the forest of Central Africa. By about 1000 AD Bantu migration had reached modern day Zimbabwe and South Africa. The Banu Hilal and Banu Ma'qil were a collection of Arab Bedouin tribes from the Arabian peninsula who migrated westwards via Egypt between the 11th and 13th centuries. Their migration strongly contributed to the arabization and islamization of the western Maghreb, which was until then dominated by Berber tribes. Ostsiedlung was the medieval eastward migration and settlement of Germans. The 13th century was the time of the great Mongol and Turkic migrations across Eurasia. Between the 11th and 18th centuries, the Vietnamese expanded southward in a process known as nam tiến (southward expansion). The Le Dynasty and Southward Expansion More recent examples of internal colonialism are the movement of ethnic Chinese into Tibet Han Chinese describe life in Tibet, April 29, 2006, BBC News Revolt in Tibet | A colonial uprising, March 19, 2008, The Economist and Eastern Turkestan Xinjiang: China's 'other Tibet', March 25, 2008, Al Jazeera , ethnic Javanese into Western New Guinea and Kalimantan Ethnic violence continues to rage in Central Kalimantan (see Transmigration program), Brazilians into Amazonia Scientists demand Brazil suspend Amazon colonization project , Israelis into the West Bank and Gaza, ethnic Arabs into Iraqi Kurdistan, and ethnic Russians into Siberia and Central Asia. Robert Greenall, Russians left behind in Central Asia, BBC News, 23 November 2005. The local populations or tribes, such as the aboriginal people in Canada, Australia, Argentina, Brazil, Japan Report on a New Policy for the Ainu: A Critique , Siberia and the United States, were usually far overwhelmed numerically by the settlers. In some cases, for example the Vandals, Huguenots, Boers, Matabeles and Sioux, the colonizers were fleeing more powerful enemies, as part of a chain reaction of colonization. The Empire of Japan was in some ways modelled on Western colonial Empires. See also African independence movements Age of discovery Civilising mission Colony Colonies in antiquity Cold War Anticolonialism Settler colonialism Chartered companies Empire Exploration European colonization of the Americas Global Empire Hellenistic period Imperialism Protectorate Concession (territory) Colonial wars Postcolonialism German eastward expansion Plantations of Ireland Muslim conquests Mongol invasions Ottoman wars in Europe Turkic migration Transmigration program Sino-African relations Soviet Empire Soviet occupations American Empire Arab Empire Austria-Hungary Belgian colonial empire British Empire Chinese Empire Danish colonial empire Dutch Empire French colonial empire German colonial empire Inca Empire Italian Empire Japanese Empire Mexican Empire Mongol Empire Mughal Empire Ottoman Empire Persian Empire Portuguese Empire Right to exist Russian Empire Spanish Empire Swedish empire Timurid empire Historical migration Notes References Guy Ankerl, Coexisting Contemporary Civilizations: Arabo-Muslim, Bharati, Chinese, and Western,(2000) ISBN 2881550045 Arendt, Hannah, The Origins of Totalitarianism (1951) (second chapter on Imperialism examines ties between colonialism and totalitarianism) Conrad, Joseph, Heart of Darkness, 1899 Fanon, Frantz, The Wretched of the Earth, Pref. by Jean-Paul Sartre. Translated by Constance Farrington. London : Penguin Book, 2001 Gobineau, Arthur de, An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races, 1853-55 Gutiérrez, Gustavo, A Theology of Liberation: History, Politics, Salvation, 1971 Kipling, Rudyard, The White Man's Burden, 1899 Las Casas, Bartolomé de, A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies (1542, published in 1552) LeCour Grandmaison, Olivier, Coloniser, Exterminer - Sur la guerre et l'Etat colonial, Fayard, 2005, ISBN 2213623163 Lindqvist, Sven, Exterminate All The Brutes, 1992, New Press; Reprint edition (June 1997), ISBN 978-1-56584-359-2 Maria Petringa, Brazza, A Life for Africa (2006), ISBN 978-1-4259-1198-0 Jürgen Osterhammel, Colonialism: A Theoretical Overview, Princeton, NJ: M. Wiener, 1997. Said, Edward, Orientalism, 1978; 25th-anniversary edition 2003 ISBN 978-0-394-74067-6 Whaites, Alan, "States in Development," DFID, London 2007 External links Liberal opposition to colonialism, imperialism and empire (pdf) - by professor Daniel Klein Globalization (and the metaphysics of control in a free market world) - an online video on globalization, colonialism, and control. | Colonialism |@lemmatized see:11 colony:23 colonization:8 example:7 colonialism:41 refer:4 western:10 also:13 disambiguation:1 pith:1 helmet:1 case:7 second:5 french:4 empire:60 iconic:1 representation:1 building:1 maintaining:1 one:5 territory:11 people:14 another:1 stanford:1 encyclopedia:2 philosophy:2 sovereignty:1 claim:3 metropole:5 social:4 structure:1 government:5 economics:1 within:2 change:1 colonist:6 normally:3 period:5 history:15 century:27 europe:13 build:2 continent:3 reason:2 practice:1 time:6 include:9 profit:1 make:2 expand:4 power:6 escape:1 persecution:1 convert:1 indigenous:5 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5,453 | BT_Group | BT Group plc (formerly known as British Telecom and still occasionally referred to by that name), is the privatised UK state telecommunications operator. It is the dominant fixed line telecommunications and broadband Internet provider in the United Kingdom. BT operates in more than 170 countries BT around the world and over a third of its revenue now comes from its Global Services division. Summary of BT results for 2008 BT Group is the largest communications service provider in the United Kingdom. It is also one of the largest communication companies in the world. The Company is listed on the London Stock Exchange and is a constituent of the FTSE 100 Index. History Early years Prior to the formation of British Telecom, telecommunications were handled by the General Post Office British Telecom "T" symbol, 1980–1991 British Telecom logotype, 1980–1991 BT "piper" logo, 1991–2003. This logo can still be seen on some public telephone boxes in the UK BT "Connected World" logo, 2003–present A number of privately owned telegraph companies operated in Britain from 1846 onwards. Among them were The Electric Telegraph Company, British and Irish Magnetic Telegraph Company, British Telegraph Company, London District Telegraph Company, and the United Kingdom Telegraph Company The Telegraph Act 1868 passed the control of all these to the newly formed GPO (General Post Office)'s "Postal Telegraphs Department" With the invention of the telephone by Alexander Graham Bell in 1876 the GPO began to provide telephone services from some of its telegraph exchanges. However in 1882 the Postmaster-General, Henry Fawcett started to issue licences to operate a telephone service to private businesses and the telephone system grew under the GPO in some areas and private ownership in others. The GPO's main competitor the National Telephone Company emerged in this market by absorbing other private telephone companies, prior to its absorption into the GPO in 1912. The trunk network was unified under GPO control in 1896 and the local distribution network in 1912. A few municipally-owned services remained outside of GPO control. These were Kingston upon Hull, Portsmouth and Guernsey. Hull still retains an independent operator, Kingston Communications, though it is no longer municipally controlled. In 1969 the GPO, a government department, became the Post Office, a nationalised industry separate from government. Post Office Telecommunications was one of the divisions. Formation of British Telecom The British Telecom brand was introduced in 1980. On 1 October 1981, this became the official name of Post Office Telecommunications, which became a state-owned corporation independent of the Post Office. In 1982 BT's monopoly on telecommunications was broken, with the granting of a licence to Mercury Communications. Privatisation The privatisation took place in 1984, with the sale of 50.2% of the shares in the company (incorporated in 1984 as British Telecommunications plc) to the public in November. The company changed its trading name to "BT" on 2 April 1991. The remaining state holdings in the company were sold in 1991 and 1993. In 1996 Peter Bonfield was appointed CEO and Chairman of the Executive Committee, promising a "rollercoaster ride". BBC News | BUSINESS | Sir Peter Bonfield: A profile On 18 June 1992 BT registered its domain name BT.com — today it is one of the few companies to own a two letter domain name. List of Large Corporations that own a Two Letter Domain In the 1990s, BT entered the Irish telecommunications market through a joint venture with the Electricity Supply Board, the Irish state owned power provider. This venture, entitled Ocean, found its main success through the launch of Ireland's first subscription-free dial-up ISP, oceanfree.net. As a telecoms company it found much less success, mainly targeting corporate customers. BT acquired 100% of this venture in 1999. BT’s attempted global alliances MCI In June 1994 BT and MCI launched Concert Communications Services which was a $1 billion joint venture between the two companies. Its aim was to build a network which would provide easy global connectivity to multinational corporations. This alliance progressed further on 3 November 1996 when the two companies announcement that they had entered into a full merger agreement to create a global telecommunications company to be called Concert plc, which would be incorporated in the UK with headquarters in both London and Washington DC. This would have given BT an entry into the US market and MCI a global reach. The merger proposition gained approval from the European Commission, the US Department of Justice and the US Federal Communications Commission and looked set to proceed. However, in light of pressure from investors reacting to the slide in BT's share price on the London Stock Exchange, BT reduced its bid price for MCI, releasing MCI from its exclusivity clause and allowing it to speak to other interested parties. MCI to weigh WorldCom bid as BT merger process grinds on On 1 October 1997, Worldcom made a rival bid for MCI which was followed by a counter-bid from GTE GTE Plans a $25 Billion Cash Bid to Make It a 3-Way Fight : Battle to Acquire MCI Heats Up - International Herald Tribune . Because Worldcom used its stock to leverage its purchase, as opposed to cash (used by BT), it was able to outbid BT. MCI accepted the Worldcom bid and BT pulled out of its deal with a generous severance fee of $465 million. BT made even more money when it sold its stake in MCI to Worldcom in 1998 for £4,159 million on which it made an exceptional pre-tax profit of £1,133 million. As part of the deal, BT also bought out from MCI its 24.9% interest in Concert Communications, thereby making Concert a wholly-owned part of BT. The reaction to the failure of the deal in the City of London was critical to the future of then Chairman Iain Vallance and CEO Peter Bonfield, and the lack of confidence from the failed merger would ultimately lead to their removal. MCI and WorldCom - How British Telecom Fell Short at Competitive Intelligence AT&T As BT now owned Concert, and still wanted access to the North American market, it needed a new partner. An AT&T/BT option had been mooted in the past, but stopped on regulatory grounds due to their individual virtual monopolies in their home markets. By 1996, this had receded to the point where a deal was possible. However, the former monopolies clashed in management and culture – and the alliance never really worked from the start. Also, during the proposed MCI merger position, BT/MCI had placed a series of nominated customers inside Concert to overcome regulatory issues, leaving Concert with a sales force. On merger with AT&T, it was reversion to delivery of a series of Global products, and two competing owners – which robbed Concert of revenues and left its management disillusioned. At its height, the Concert managed network directly reached more than 800 cities in 52 countries, and interlinked to about 240 other networks to extend access to 1,300 cities in 130 countries. Although Concert continued signing customers, its rate of revenue growth slowed, so that in 1999 David Dorman was made CEO with a brief to revive it. In late 2000 the BT and AT&T boards fell-out – partly due to each partner's excess debt, and the resulting board room clear-outs – partly due to Concert's $800 million annual losses. AT&T recognized that Concert was a threat to its ambitions if left intact, and so negotiated a deal where Concert was split in two in 2001: North America and Eastern Asia went to AT&T, the rest of the world and $400M to BT. BT's remaining Concert assets were merged into its BT Ignite, later BT Global Solutions group Articles . BT Ireland In 2000, BT acquired Esat Telecom Group plc, and all its subsidiary companies, and Ireland On Line. BT beats conflict of interest by buying both sides It also purchased Telenor's minority shareholding in Esat Digifone. The Esat Telecom Group was split in two: the landline and internet operations were combined with Ocean and became part of BT Ignite. Esat Group was renamed Esat BT in July 2002, and eventually BT Ireland in April 2005. Esat Digifone became part of BT Wireless before being spun off into a separate independent company mmo2 plc (now Telefónica Europe). EsatBT installed the first DSL lines in Ireland, to try and compete heavily with former state telecoms company Eircom and operate one exchange, in Limerick. They are the second largest fixed line telecommunications company in Ireland behind incumbent Eircom. BT Irelands CEO is Chris Clark, known for his indepth speeches and penchant for the Young Scientist Competition. 2001 debt crisis By 2001, BT had a debt of £30 billion, much of which was acquired during the bidding round for the 3rd generation mobile telephony (commonly known as 3G) licences. BBC News | BUSINESS | BT attacks debt mountain It had also failed in its series of proposed global mergers, and the funds flowing from its then virtual monopoly of the UK market place had been largely removed. It was also headed by two executives who had little support from the London Stock Exchange, particularly in light of a 60% drop in share price in sixteen months. BBC News | BUSINESS | Vallance resigns from BT The first manoeuvre was to create confidence in the management team. Philip Hampton joined as CFO, and in April 2001 Sir Iain Vallance was replaced as Chairman by recognised turn around expert Sir Christopher Bland. The company then began to sell off or sell and lease back a large part of its assets. Europe’s largest rights issue In May 2001 BT carried out corporate Europe’s largest ever rights issue, allowing it to raise £5.9 billion. BT wraps up share sale A few days before, it also sold stakes in Japan Telecom, in mobile operator J-Phone Communications, and in Airtel of Spain to Vodafone. BT retreats from Japan and Spain Sale of Yell Group, and the demerger of O2 In June 2001 BT's directory business was sold as Yell Group to a combination of private equity firms Apax Partners and Hicks, Muse, Tate & Furst for £2.1 billion. BT sells Yell for £2.1 billion A large demerger followed in November 2001, when the former mobile telecommunications business of BT, BT Cellnet, was hived off as a separate business named "mmO2". Shareholders give thumbs up to BT wireless spin-off This included BT owned or operated networks in other countries, including BT Cellnet (UK), Esat Digifone (Ireland), and Viag Interkom (Germany). All networks now owned or operated by mmO2 (except Manx Telecom) were renamed as O2. The de-merger was accomplished via a share-swap, all British Telecommunications plc shareholders received one mmO2 plc and one BT Group plc (of which British Telecommunications is now a wholly owned subsidiary) share for each share they owned. British Telecommunications plc was de-listed on 16 November, and the two new companies started trading on 19 November. Aftermath At the end of the series of sales, in October 2001 Sir Peter Bonfield resigned, BBC News | BUSINESS | BT chief quits early and was replaced by former Lucent CEO Ben Verwaayen BBC News | BUSINESS | BT lures Lucent boss with £7m package . Having promised a "rollercoaster ride", during Bonfield's tenure the share price went from £4 to £15, and back again to £5. Bonfield's salary to 31 March 2001, was a basic of £780,000 (increasing to £820,000) plus a £481,000 bonus and £50,000 of other benefits including pension. He also received a deferred bonus, payable in shares three years' later, of £481,000, and additional bonuses of £3.3 million. BT's Sir Peter Bonfield stands to gain extra £3.3m in share bonuses Andreas Whittam Smith writing in The Independent newspaper called Bonfield, Chairman Vallance and Deputy Chairman Lord King "The men who broke the bank at British Telecom". Andreas Whittam Smith: The men who broke the bank at British Telecom mmO2 plc was replaced by O2 plc in a further share-swap in 2005, and subsequently bought in an agreed takeover by Telefónica for £18 billion and delisted. BBC NEWS | Business | Telefonica bids £18bn for UK's O2 BT's recent developments In February 2005, BT acquired El Segundo, California-based telecoms giant Infonet (now re-branded BT Infonet), giving BT access to new geographies. In April 2005, it bought Radianz (now rebranded as BT Radianz), which expanded BT's coverage, provided BT with more buying power in certain countries and importantly gave access to the financial markets. BT goes home Openreach was announced in September 2005 at the instigation of Ofcom to provide an open and equal service of provision and repair in the "last mile" of copper wire. This business was formed from 25,000 engineers previously employed by BT's Retail and Wholesale divisions. It is designed to ensure that other communications providers (CPs) have exactly the same operational conditions as parts of the BT group. It opened for business on 11 January 2006. BT's Openreach could have to list separately In August 2006 BT acquired online electrical retailer Dabs.com for £30.6 million. BT buys on-line retailer Dabs.com The BT Home Hub was also launched in June 2006. Thomson ships BT home hub In October 2006 BT confirmed that it would be investing 75% of its total capital spending, put at £10 billion over five years, in its new Internet Protocol (IP) based 21st century network (21CN). Annual savings of £1 billion per annum are expected when the transition to the new network is complete in 2010, with over 50% of its customers transferred by 2008. That month BT took a major step forward when the actual process that will be used to transfer the first customers on to 21CN was successfully tested at Adastral Park in Suffolk. BT transfers first customer lines to 21CN network In January 2007, BT acquired Sheffield based ISP, PlusNet plc, adding an additional 200,000 customers. BT have stated that PlusNet will continue to operate separately out of their Sheffield head-office. Bt buys PlusNet for CRM system On 1 February 2007 BT announced it had agreed terms to acquire International Network Services Inc. (“INS”), a leading global provider of IT consulting and software solutions. This professional services acquisition will increase BT's presence in North America and will significantly enhance BT's consulting capabilities. BT buys former Lucent division INS On 20 February 2007 BT announced that Sir Michael Rake, then chairman of accountancy firm KPMG International, would succeed Sir Christopher Bland, who stepped down in September of that year. Datamonitor ComputerWire - BT Appoints New Chairman to Replace Bland On 20 April 2007 BT announced the acquisition of Comsat International which provides network services to the South American corporate market. BT buys Comsat BT acquired Wire One Communications in June 2008 and folded them into BT Conferencing, their existing conferencing unit as a new video business unit. BT Conferencing is now the global leader in video conferencing services and solutions. BT buys Wire One On 28 July 2008, BT announced the acquisition of Ribbit, of Mountain View, California, "Silicon Valley's First Phone Company." Ribbit provides Adobe Flash/Flex APIs, allowing web developers to incorporate telephony features into their Software as a Service (SaaS) applications. BT buys Ribbit for $105m On 14 May 2009 BT said it was cutting up to 15,000 jobs in the coming year after it announced its results for the year to 31 March 2009. BT to shed a further 15,000 job losses BBC News, 14 May 2009 Operations British Telecommunications plc (BT) is a wholly-owned subsidiary of BT Group plc and encompasses virtually all businesses and assets of the BT Group. BT Group plc is listed on stock exchanges in London and New York. BT runs the telephone exchanges, trunk network and local loop connections for the vast majority of British fixed-line telephones. Currently BT is responsible for approximately 28 million telephone lines in the UK. Apart from Kingston Communications, which serves Kingston-upon-Hull, BT is the only UK telecoms operator to have a Universal Service Obligation (USO) which means it must provide a fixed telephone line to any address in the UK. It is also obliged to provide public call boxes. BT's businesses are operated under special government regulation by the British telecoms regulator Ofcom (formerly Oftel). BT has been found to have Significant Market Power in some markets following Market Reviews by Ofcom. In these markets, BT is required to comply with additional obligations such as meeting reasonable requests to supply services and not to discriminate. As well as continuing to provide service in those traditional areas in which BT has an obligation to provide services or is closely regulated, BT has expanded into more profitable products and services where there is less regulation. These are principally, broadband internet service and bespoke solutions in telecommunications and information technology. BT Group is organised into the following business divisions: BT Retail: Retail telecoms services to consumers BT Wholesale: Wholesale telecoms core trunk network Openreach: fenced-off wholesale division, tasked with ensuring that all rival operators have equality of access to BT's own local network BT Global Services: Business services and solutions (formerly BT Ignite and BT Syntegra) BT Exact / One IT: used to handle consultancy and internal IT. Now been replaced by BT Design. Group operations: handles security, research and development, and other functions for BT Group Plc such as legal services From 1 July 2007 two additional divisions were put in place:- BT Operate took responsibility from BT Wholesale for the roll-out and maintenance of the group's new IP based fixed-line network, known as 21st Century Network (21C). BT Design pulled together IT designers from BT Retail, BT Wholesale, BT Global Services and OneIT to design services on the 21C network. Financial performance Year ended Turnover (£m) Profit/(loss) before tax (£m) Net profit/(loss) (£m) Basic eps (p) 31 March 2009 21,390 238 248 3.2 31 March 2008 20,704 1,976 1,738 21.5 31 March 2007 20,223 2,484 2,852 34.4 31 March 2006 19,514 2,633 1,644 19.5 31 March 2005 18,429 2,693 1,539 18.1 31 March 2004 18,519 1,945 1,414 16.4 31 March 2003 18,727 3,157 2,702 31.4 31 March 2002 18,447 1,461 1,008 12.1 31 March 2001 17,141 (1,031) (1,875) (25.8) 31 March 2000 18,715 2,942 2,055 31.7 31 March 1999 16,953 4,295 2,983 46.3 31 March 1998 15,640 3,214 1,702 26.6 31 March 1997 14,935 3,203 2,077 32.8 31 March 1996 14,446 3,019 1,986 31.6 31 March 1995 13,893 2,662 1,731 27.8 31 March 1994 13,675 2,756 1,767 28.5 31 March 1993 13,242 1,972 1,220 19.8 31 March 1992 13,337 3,073 2,044 33.2 Analysis of figures After a pay rise of over 40%, BT's chief financial officer, Hanif Lalani, became one of the very few UK financial directors whose annual remuneration exceeds £1 million. He became CEO of BT Global Services in October 2008 and was replaced as BT Group CFO by Tony Chanmugam on 1 December 2008. In recent years, the strategy of BT plc has been to reduce its dependence on traditional voice revenues and instead obtain an increasing portion of its turnover from so-called New Wave revenues. At the heart of this strategy is BT Global Services, which has won many significant contracts in the commercial and public sectors, in part through its portrayal as a "momentum story". There is, however, increasing disquiet among analysts that the annual growth of the Global Services business has been unimpressive, and that BT has been using prior year adjustments to achieve favourable growth figures. Take the quarter ended 30 September 2005, for example. At the time, BT said the external revenues of its Global Services division were £1,740m. However, a year later, BT revised this figure downwards to £1,703m. This enabled BT to claim growth of 3.5%, instead of the dismal 1.3% it would have been forced to announce if it hadn't adjusted the prior year's figures. BT has made a habit of adjusting the previous year's revenue figure every quarter. Only once in the past year has BT adjusted the figure upwards rather than downwards. Sources Financial Director Google spreadsheet based on BT's quarterly financial reports Environment In 2004, the BT Group signed the world's largest renewable energy deal with npower and British Gas, and now all of their exchanges, satellite networks and offices are powered by renewable energy. BT is a member of the Corporate Leaders Group on Climate Change. They signed a letter urging the government to do more to tackle this problem. Janet Blake, head of global corporate social responsibility (CSR) at BT, says that she would like to see incentives that find ways of awarding those companies that focus on climate change by making investments in green business models. Interview: CSR delivers £2.2bn for BT - 30 Oct 2006 - IT Week BT has made it clear that it has an ambitious plan to reduce carbon dioxide emissions. Climate change Its strategy includes steps to reduce the customer's, supplier's, employee's, and its own footprints. BT has actually pledged to achieve an 80% reduction by the year 2016, which will require further efficiency improvements. Climate change - BT's Vision and Strategy Market position and power In 1984 the Telecommunications Act set the framework for a competitive market for telecoms services by abolishing BT's exclusive right to provide services. In the early 1990s the market was opened up and a number of new national Public Telecommunications Operators (PTOs) were given licences. This ended the duopoly that had existed in the 1980s when only BT and Mercury were licensed to provide fixed line telecom networks in the UK. Recent and future plans BT's 21st Century Network (21CN) is a network transformation project which will see the UK's telephone network move from the present AXE 10/System X Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN) to an IP/MPLS system. BT envisages annual savings of £1 billion when the transition to the new network is complete. Capital expenditure is put at £10 billion. BT's 21CN website In April 2007, BT launched a new online service called BT Tradespace. According to BT the new service is a "social media platform dedicated to small businesses." BT's corporate website In December 2006, BT launched BT Vision, a broadband Television service with the ability to watch programmes from previous weeks or months. According to BT PLC Today, companies including BBC Worldwide, Paramount, Warner Music Group, Cartoon Network and the National Geographic Channel, have already signed deals with BT Vision. Microsoft announced on 9 January 2008 that BT Vision services will shortly be made available on the Xbox 360. BBC NEWS | Technology | Xbox will host BT's TV service In May 2008, BT launched BT Total Broadband Anywhere, an all-inclusive package which offers a free, internet-capable smartphone – the BT ToGo and BT’s Total Broadband service in the home. BT's "Web patent" In 2001 BT discovered it owned a patent () which it believed gave it patent rights on the use of hyperlink technology on the World Wide Web. The corresponding UK patent had already expired, but the US patent was valid until 2006. Opponents of BT's claim held that the patent had never been valid, due to prior art by both Douglas Engelbart and Ted Nelson's Project Xanadu. Nevertheless on 11 February 2002, BT began a court case relating to its claims in a U.S. federal court against the Internet service provider Prodigy Communications Corporation. The U.S. court ruled on 22 August 2002 that the BT patent was not applicable to Web technology, and granted Prodigy's request for summary judgement. BT’s “Hyperlinking” Patent Litigation Fails The issue of prior art was thus not addressed. Controversy Behavioural targeting In early 2008 it was announced that BT had entered into a contract (along with Virgin Media and Talk Talk) with the spyware company Phorm (responsible under their 121Media guise for the Apropos rootkit) F-Secure Spyware Information Pages: Apropos F-Secure Spyware Information Pages: PeopleOnPage to intercept and analyse their users' click-stream data, and sell the anonymised aggregate information as part of Phorm's OIX advertising service. ISP data deal with former 'spyware' boss triggers privacy fears How Phorm plans to tap your internet connection The practice, known as "behavioural targeting" and condemned by critics as "data pimping", came under intense fire from various internet communities and other interested-parties who believe that the interception of data without the consent of users and web site owners is illegal under UK law (RIPA). Web users angry at ISPs' spyware tie-up Data pimping: surveillance expert raises illegal wiretap worries Net think thank: Phorm is illegal The Phorm “Webwise” System - a Legal Analysis At a more fundamental level, many have argued that the ISPs and Phorm have no right to sell a commodity (a user's data, and the copyright content of web sites) to which they have no claim of ownership. In response to questions about Phorm and the interception of data by the Webwise system Sir Tim Berners-Lee is quoted as saying: "It's mine - you can't have it. If you want to use it for something, then you have to negotiate with me." —Sir Tim Berners-Lee, 2008 Web creator rejects net tracking See also Beatrice Bellman British Telecom microwave network British Telecom Tower (Birmingham) BT Archives BT Centre BT Ireland BT Italy BT Mobile BT Research BT site engineering code BT Spain BT Tower BT Vision Buzby Customer Service System Telefónica Europe (formerly O2 plc, and formerly BT Wireless) Prestel Telecom Gold Telecomsoft UK telephone area codes (STD codes) References External links BT advert BT Group home page BT Business 21st Century Network BT At Home BT Bigger Thinking BT Total Broadband BT Broadband Speed test BT Ireland BT Italy BT Business Store BT Conferencing BT Convergent Solutions BT Digital Networked Economy BT Fusion BT Innovation BT Media and Broadcast BT BuyNet BT Mobile BT Movio BT Vision (IPTV) BT Digital Vault Web21C SDK BT Wholesale BT Shop Archive for BT and its predecessors BT Global Services home page BT France BT Deutschland BT España BT Nederland BT Business Collaboration BT Counterpane home page BT Infonet home page BT INS home page Openreach home page Data Yahoo! - BT Group plc Company Profile BT Group plc stock chart at Gstock Other BT's 'Events in Telecommunications History' webpage Distant Writing - The History of the Telegraph Companies in Britain between 1838 and 1868 National Telephone Company history BBC news story on BT's claimed 'web patent' Patent case court judgement against BT BT Broadband - Wholesale ADSL enabled exchanges from Samknows.com BT Network - a useful overview as at year 2000 | BT_Group |@lemmatized bt:219 group:24 plc:21 formerly:5 know:5 british:21 telecom:24 still:4 occasionally:1 refer:1 name:6 privatised:1 uk:15 state:6 telecommunication:19 operator:6 dominant:1 fixed:3 line:11 broadband:8 internet:8 provider:6 united:3 kingdom:3 operate:8 country:5 around:2 world:6 third:1 revenue:7 come:3 global:18 service:40 division:8 summary:2 result:3 large:9 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5,454 | Georg_Henrik_von_Wright | Georg Henrik von Wright (IPA: [je:ɔrj hɛn:rik fɔn-vrik:t],) (June 14, 1916 – June 16, 2003) was a Finnish philosopher, who succeeded Ludwig Wittgenstein as professor at the University of Cambridge. He published in English, Finnish, German, and in his mother tongue Swedish. He was of Scottish descent . Von Wright's writings come under two broad categories. The first is analytic philosophy and philosophical logic in the Anglo-American vein. His 1951 books, An Essay in Modal Logic and Deontic Logic, were landmarks in the postwar rise of formal modal logic and its deontic version. He was an authority on Wittgenstein, editing his later works. He was the leading figure in the Finnish philosophy of his time, specializing in philosophical logic, analysis, philosophy of language, philosophy of mind, and the close study of Charles Sanders Peirce. The other vein in von Wright's writings is moralist and pessimist. During the last twenty years of his life, under the influence of Oswald Spengler, Jurgen Habermas and the Frankfurt school's reflections about modern Rationality, he wrote prolifically. His best known article from this period is titled The Myth of Progress, and it questions whether our apparent material and technological progress can really be considered progress. Works The Logical Problem of Induction, PhD thesis, 31 May 1941 Den logiska empirismen (Logical Empirism), in Swedish, 1945 Über Wahrscheinlichkeit (On Chance), in German, 1945 An Essay in Modal Logic, 1951 A Treatise on Induction and Probability, 1951 Deontic Logic, 1951 Tanke och förkunnelse (Thought and Preaching), in Swedish, 1955 Logical Studies, 1957 Logik, filosofi och språk (Logic, philosophy and language), in Swedish, 1957 The Varieties of Goodness, 1963. (1958-60 Gifford Lectures in the University of St. Andrews, online) He considered this his best and most personal work. Norm and Action, 1963 (1958-60 Gifford Lectures, St. Andrews, online) The Logic of Preference, 1963 Essay om naturen, människan och den vetenskaplig-tekniska revolutionen (Essay on Nature, Man and the Scientific-Technological Revolution), in Swedish, 1963 An Essay in Deontic Logic, 1968 Time, Change and Contradiction, 1969 Tieteen filosofian kaksi perinnettä (The Two Traditions of the Philosophy of Science), in Finnish, 1970 Explanation and Understanding, 1971 Causality and Determinism, 1974 Handlung, Norm und Intention (Action, Norm and Intention), in German, 1977 Humanismen som livshållning (Humanism as an approach to Life), in Swedish, 1978 Freedom and Determination, 1980 Wittgenstein, 1982 Philosophical Papers I-III, 1983-1984 Filosofisia tutkielmia (Philosophical Dissertations), in Finnish, 1985 Vetenskapen och förnuftet (Science and Reason), in Swedish, 1986 Minervan Pöllö (The Owl of Minerva), in Finnish, 1991 Myten om framsteget (The Myth of Progress), in Swedish, 1993 The Tree of Knowledge, 1993 Att förstå sin samtid (To Understand one's own Time), in Swedish, 1994 Six Essays in Philosophical Logic, 1996 Viimeisistä ajoista. Ajatusleikki (On the End Times. A Thought Experiment.), in Finnish, 1997 Logiikka ja humanismi (Logic and Humanism), in Finnish, 1998 In the Shadow of Descartes, 1998 Mitt liv som jag minns det (My Life as I Remember it), in Swedish, 2001 Works by Wittgenstein von Wright helped edit, published by Blackwell unless otherwise stated: 1961. Notebooks 1914-1916. 1967. Zettel. 1969. On Certainty. 1971. ProtoTractatus -- An Early Version of Tractatus Logico- Philosophicus. Cornell University Press. 1973. Letters to C.K. Ogden with Comments on the English Translation of the Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus. 1974. Letters to Russell, Keynes and Moore. 1978 (1956). Remarks on the Foundations of Mathematics. 1980. Remarks on the Philosophy of Psychology. Vols 1,2. 1980. Culture and Value. 1982. Last Writings on the Philosophy of Psychology, Vol. 1. Vol. 2, 1992. 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5,455 | Domitian | Titus Flavius Domitianus (24 October 51 – 18 September 96), known as Domitian, was a Roman Emperor who reigned from 14 September 81 until his death. Domitian was the third and last emperor of the Flavian dynasty, the house which ruled the Roman Empire between 69 and 96 and encompassed the reigns of Domitian's father Vespasian (69–79), his older brother Titus (79–81), and that of Domitian himself. Domitian's youth and early career was largely spent in the shadow of his brother Titus, who gained military renown during the First Jewish-Roman War. This situation continued under the rule of Vespasian, who became emperor on 21 December 69 following the civil war known as the Year of the Four Emperors. While Titus effectually reigned as co-emperor with his father, Domitian was left with honours but no responsibilities. Vespasian died on 23 June 79 and was succeeded by Titus, whose own reign came to an unexpected end when he was struck by a fatal illness on 13 September 81. The following day Domitian was declared emperor by the Praetorian Guard, commencing a reign which lasted fifteen years—longer than any man who had governed Rome since Tiberius. As emperor, Domitian strengthened the economy by revaluing the Roman coinage, expanded the border defenses of the Empire, and initiated a massive building programme to restore the damaged city of Rome. Significant wars were fought in Britain, where Gnaeus Julius Agricola expanded the Roman Empire as far as modern day Scotland, and in Dacia, where Domitian was unable to procure a decisive victory against king Decebalus. Domitian's government nonetheless exhibited totalitarian characteristics. As emperor, he saw himself as the new Augustus, an enlightened despot destined to guide the Roman Empire into a new era of Flavian renaissance. Religious, military and cultural propaganda fostered a cult of personality, and by nominating himself perpetual censor, he sought to control public and private morals. As a consequence, Domitian was popular with the people and the army but despised by members of the Roman Senate as a tyrant. Domitian's reign came to an end on 18 September 96 when he was assassinated by court officials. The same day he was succeeded by his friend and advisor Nerva, who founded the long-lasting Nerva-Antonine dynasty. After his death, Domitian's memory was condemned to oblivion by the Roman Senate, while senatorial authors such as Tacitus, Pliny the Younger and Suetonius published histories propagating the view of Domitian as a cruel and paranoid tyrant. Modern history has rejected these views, instead characterising Domitian as a ruthless but efficient autocrat, whose cultural, economic and political programme provided the foundation of the peaceful 2nd century. Early life Family Domitian was born in Rome on 24 October 51, as the youngest son of Titus Flavius Vespasianus—commonly known as Vespasian—and Flavia Domitilla Maior. Jones (1992), p. 1 He had one older sister, Domitilla the Younger (b. 45), and one older brother, also named Titus Flavius Vespasianus (b. 39), but commonly referred to as Titus. Townend (1961), p. 62 Flavian family tree, indicating the descendants of Titus Flavius Petro and Tertulla. Decades of civil war during the 1st century BC had contributed greatly to the demise of the old aristocracy of Rome, which was gradually replaced in prominence by a new Italian nobility during the early part of the 1st century AD. Jones (1992), p. 3 One such family were the Flavians, or gens Flavia, which rose from relative obscurity to prominence in just four generations, acquiring wealth and status under the emperors of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. Domitian's great-grandfather, Titus Flavius Petro, had served as a centurion under Pompey during Caesar's civil war. His military career ended in disgrace when he fled the battlefield at the Battle of Pharsalus in 48 BC. Nevertheless, Petro managed to improve his status by marrying the extremely wealthy Tertulla, whose fortune guaranteed the upwards mobility of Petro's son Titus Flavius Sabinus I, Domitian's grandfather. Jones (1992), p. 2 Sabinus himself amassed further wealth and possible equestrian status through his services as tax collector in Asia and banker in Helvetia (modern Switzerland). By marrying Vespasia Polla he allied himself to the more prestigious patrician gens Vespasia, ensuring the elevation of his sons Titus Flavius Sabinus II and Vespasian to the senatorial rank. The political career of Vespasian included the offices of quaestor, aedile and praetor, and culminated with a consulship in 51, the year Domitian was born. As a military commander, he gained early renown by participating in the Roman invasion of Britain in 43. Jones (1992), p. 8 Nevertheless, ancient sources allege poverty for the Flavian family at the time of Domitian's upbringing, Suetonius, Life of Domitian 1 even claiming Vespasian had fallen into disrepute under the emperors Caligula (37–41) and Nero (54–68). Suetonius, Life of Domitian 4 Modern history has refuted these claims, suggesting these stories were later circulated under Flavian rule as part of a propaganda campaign to diminish success under the less reputable Emperors of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, and maximize achievements under Emperor Claudius (41–54) and his son Britannicus. Jones (1992), p. 7 By all appearances, imperial favour for the Flavians was high throughout the 40s and 60s. While Titus received a court education in the company of Britannicus, Vespasian pursued a successful political and military career. Following a prolonged period of retirement during the 50s, he returned to public office under Nero, serving as proconsul of the Africa province in 63, and accompanying the emperor during an official tour of Greece in 66. Jones (1992), pp. 9–11 The same year the Jews of the Judaea province revolted against the Roman Empire, in what is now known as the First Jewish-Roman War. Vespasian was assigned to lead the Roman army against the insurgents, with Titus—who had completed his military education by this time —in charge of a legion. Jones (1992), p. 11 Youth and character Vespasian (Pushkin Museum) By 66, Domitian's mother and sister had long died, Waters (1964), pp. 52–53 while his father and brother were continuously active in the Roman military, commanding armies in Germania and Judaea. For Domitian, this meant that a significant part of his adolescence was spent in the absence of his near relatives. During the Jewish-Roman wars, he was likely taken under the care of his uncle Titus Flavius Sabinus II, at the time serving as city prefect of Rome; or possibly even Marcus Cocceius Nerva, a loyal friend of the Flavians and the future successor to Domitian. Jones (1992), p. 13 Murison (2003), p. 149 He received the education of a young man of the privileged senatorial class, studying rhetoric and literature. In his biography in the Lives of the Twelve Caesars, Suetonius attests to Domitian's ability to quote the important poets and writers such as Homer or Virgil on appropriate occasions, Suetonius, Life of Domitian 9 Suetonius, Life of Domitian 12.3 and describes him as a learned and educated adolescent, with elegant conversation. Suetonius, Life of Domitian 20 Among his first published works were poetry, as well as writings on law and administration. Unlike his brother Titus, Domitian was not educated at court. Whether he received formal military training is not recorded, but according to Suetonius, he displayed considerable marksmanship with the bow and arrow. Jones (1992), p. 16 Suetonius, Life of Domitian 19 A detailed description of Domitian's appearance and character is provided by Suetonius, who devotes a substantial part of his biography to his personality. Domitian was allegedly extremely sensitive regarding his baldness, which he disguised in later life by wearing wigs. Morgan (1997), p. 214 According to Suetonius, he even wrote a book on the subject of hair care. Suetonius, Life of Domitian 18 With regard to Domitian's personality, however, the account of Suetonius alternates sharply between portraying Domitian as the emperor-tyrant, a man both physically and intellectually lazy, and the intelligent, refined personality drawn elsewhere. Jones (1992), p. 198 Brian Jones concludes in The Emperor Domitian that assessing the true nature of Domitian's personality is inherently complicated by the bias of the surviving sources. Common threads nonetheless emerge from the available evidence. He appears to have lacked the natural charisma of his brother and father. He was prone to suspicion, displayed an odd, sometimes self-deprecating sense of humour, Morgan (1997), p. 209 Suetonius, Life of Domitian 21 and often communicated in cryptic ways. This ambiguity of character was further exacerbated by his remoteness, and as he grew older, he increasingly displayed a preference for solitude, which may have stemmed from his isolated upbringing. Indeed, by the age of eighteen nearly all of his closest relatives had died by war or disease. Having spent the greater part of his early life in the twilight of Nero's reign, his formative years would have been strongly influenced by the political turmoil of the 60s, culminating with the civil war of 69, which brought his family to power. Waters (1964), p. 54 Rise of the Flavian dynasty Year of the Four Emperors The Roman Empire during the Year of the Four Emperors (69 AD). Blue areas indicate provinces loyal to Vespasian and Gaius Licinius Mucianus. Green areas indicate provinces loyal to Vitellius. On 9 June 68, amidst growing opposition of the Senate and the army, Nero committed suicide, and with him the Julio-Claudian dynasty came to an end. Chaos ensued, leading to a year of brutal civil war known as the Year of the Four Emperors, during which the four most influential generals in the Roman Empire—Galba, Otho, Vitellius and Vespasian—successively vied for imperial power. News of Nero's death reached Vespasian as he was preparing to besiege the city of Jerusalem. Almost simultaneously the Senate had declared Galba, then governor of Hispania Tarraconensis (modern Spain), as Emperor of Rome. Rather than continue his campaign, Vespasian decided to await further orders and send Titus to greet the new Emperor. Sullivan (1953), p. 69 Before reaching Italy however, Titus learnt that Galba had been murdered and replaced by Otho, the governor of Lusitania (modern Portugal). At the same time Vitellius and his armies in Germania had risen in revolt, and prepared to march on Rome, intent on overthrowing Otho. Not wanting to risk being taken hostage by one side or the other, Titus abandoned the journey to Rome and rejoined his father in Judaea. Wellesley (2000), p. 44 Otho and Vitellius realised the potential threat posed by the Flavian faction. With four legions at his disposal, Vespasian commanded a strength of nearly 80,000 soldiers. His position in Judaea further granted him the advantage of being nearest to the vital province of Egypt, which controlled the grain supply to Rome. His brother Titus Flavius Sabinus II, as city prefect, commanded the entire city garrison of Rome. Tensions among the Flavian troops ran high, but so long as either Galba or Otho remained in power, Vespasian refused to take action. Wellesley (2000), p. 45 When Otho was defeated by Vitellius at the First Battle of Bedriacum however, the armies in Judaea and Egypt took matters into their own hands and declared Vespasian emperor on 1 July 69. Sullivan (1953), p. 68 Vespasian accepted, and entered an alliance with Gaius Licinius Mucianus, the governor of Syria, against Vitellius. A strong force drawn from the Judaean and Syrian legions marched on Rome under the command of Mucianus, while Vespasian himself travelled to Alexandria, leaving Titus in charge of ending the Jewish rebellion. Wellesley (2000), p. 126 Emperor Vitellius (Louvre) In Rome meanwhile, Domitian was placed under house arrest by Vitellius, as a safeguard against future Flavian aggression. Support for the old emperor was waning however, as more legions throughout the empire pledged their allegiance to Vespasian. On 24 October 69 the forces of Vitellius and Vespasian clashed at the Second Battle of Bedriacum, which ended in a crushing defeat for the armies of Vitellius. Tacitus, Histories III.34 In despair, he attempted to negotiate a surrender. Terms of peace, including a voluntary abdication, were agreed upon with Titus Flavius Sabinus II, Wellesley (2000), p. 166 but the soldiers of the Praetorian Guard—the imperial bodyguard—considered such a resignation disgraceful, and prevented Vitellius from carrying out the treaty. Wellesley (2000), p. 189 On the morning of 18 December, the emperor appeared to deposit the imperial insignia at the Temple of Concord, but at the last minute retraced his steps to the imperial palace. In the confusion, the leading men of the state gathered at Sabinus' house, proclaiming Vespasian Emperor, but the multitude dispersed when Vitellian cohorts clashed with the armed escort of Sabinus, who was forced to retreat to the Capitoline Hill. Jones (1992), p. 14 During the night, he was joined by his relatives, including Domitian. The armies of Mucianus were nearing Rome, but the besieged Flavian party did not hold out for longer than a day. On 19 December, Vitellianists burst onto the Capitol, and in the resulting skirmish, Sabinus was captured and executed. Domitian himself managed to escape by disguising himself as a worshipper of Isis, and spent the night in safety with one of his father's supporters. By the afternoon of 20 December Vitellius was dead, his armies having been defeated by the Flavian legions. With nothing more to be feared from the enemy, Domitian came forward to meet the invading forces; he was universally saluted by the title of Caesar, and the mass of troops conducted him to his father's house. The following day, 21 December, the Senate proclaimed Vespasian emperor of the Roman Empire. Wellesley (1956), p. 213 Aftermath of the war The Conspiracy of Gaius Julius Civilis (detail), by Rembrandt (1661). During the Batavian rebellion, Domitian eagerly sought the opportunity to attain military glory, but was denied command of a legion by superior officers. Although the war had officially ended, a state of anarchy and lawlessness pervaded in the first days following the demise of Vitellius. Order was properly restored by Mucianus in early 70, but Vespasian did not return to Rome until September of that year. In the meantime Domitian acted as the representative of the Flavian family in the Roman Senate. In addition to receiving the title of Caesar, he was appointed praetor with consular power. Jones (1992), p. 15 Domitian's authority was merely nominal however, foreshadowing what was to be his role for at least ten more years. By all accounts, Mucianus held the real power in Vespasian's absence, and he was careful to ensure that Domitian, still only eighteen years old, did not overstep the boundaries of his function. The ancient historian Tacitus describes Domitian's first speech in the Senate as brief and measured, at the same time noting his ability to elude awkward questions. Tacitus, Histories IV.40 Strict control was also maintained over the young Caesar's entourage, promoting away influential generals such as Arrius Varus, Praetorian prefect, and Antonius Primus, who had led the Flavian forces at Bedriacum, and replacing them by more reliable men such as Arrecinus Clemens. Equally curtailed by Mucianus were Domitian's military ambitions. The civil war of 69 had severely destabilized the provinces, leading to several local uprisings such as the Batavian revolt in Gaul. Batavian auxiliaries of the Rhine legions, led by Gaius Julius Civilis, had rebelled with the aid of a faction of Treveri under the command of Julius Classicus. Seven legions were sent from Rome, led by Vespasian's brother-in-law Quintus Petillius Cerialis. Although the revolt was quickly suppressed, exaggerated reports of disaster prompted Mucianus to depart the capital with reinforcements of his own. Domitian eagerly sought the opportunity to attain military glory, and joined the other officers with the intention of commanding a legion of his own. According to Tacitus, Mucianus was not keen on this prospect, but he considered Domitian a liability in any capacity that was entrusted to him and therefore preferred to keep him close at hand rather than in Rome. Tacitus, Histories IV.68 When news arrived of Cerialis' victory over Civilis, Mucianus tactfully dissuaded Domitian from pursuing further military endeavours. Domitian then wrote to Cerialis personally, suggesting he hand over command of his army but, once again, he was snubbed. With the return of Vespasian in late September, his political role was rendered all but obsolete, and Domitian withdrew from government devoting his time to arts and literature. Jones (1992), p. 17 Marriage Where his political and military career had ended in disappointment, Domitian's private affairs were more successful in 70. Vespasian attempted to arrange a dynastic marriage between his youngest son and the daughter of Titus, Julia Flavia, Jones (1992), p. 33 but Domitian was adamant in his love for Domitia Longina, going so far as to persuade her husband, Lucius Aelius Lamia, to divorce her so that Domitian could marry her himself. Domitia Longina, with Flavian hairstyle (Louvre) Despite its initial recklessness, the alliance was very prestigious for both families. Domitia Longina was the younger daughter of Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo, a respected general and honoured politician. Following the failed Pisonian conspiracy against Nero in 65, he had been forced to commit suicide. The new marriage not only re-established ties to senatorial opposition, but also served the broader Flavian propaganda of the time, which sought to diminish Vespasian's political success under Nero. Instead connections to Claudius and Britannicus were emphasised, and Nero's victims, or those otherwise disadvantaged by him, rehabilitated. Jones (1992), p. 34 In 73, Domitia and Domitian's only attested son was born. It is not known what the boy's name was, but he died in childhood sometime between 77 and 81. Jones (1993), p. 36 Shortly following his accession as Emperor, Domitian bestowed the honorific title of Augusta upon Domitia, while their son was deified, appearing as such on the reverse of coin types from this period. Jones (1992), pp. 161–162 Nevertheless, the marriage appears to have faced a significant crisis in 83. For reasons unknown, Domitian briefly exiled Domitia, and then soon recalled her, either out of love or due to rumours that he was carrying on a relationship with his niece Julia Flavia. Jones (1992), p. 39 Jones argues that most likely he did so for her failure to produce an heir. By 84, Domitia had returned to the palace, Varner (1995), p. 200 where she lived for the remainder of Domitian's reign without incident. Jones (1992), pp. 34–35 Little is known of Domitia's activities as Empress, or how much influence she wielded in Domitian's government, but it seems her role was limited. From Suetonius, we know that she at least accompanied the Emperor to the amphitheatre, while the Jewish writer Josephus speaks of benefits he received from her. Jones (1992), p. 37 It is not known whether Domitian had other children, but he did not marry again during his lifetime. Despite allegations by Roman sources of adultery and divorce, the marriage appears to have been happy. Jones (1992), p. 35 Ceremonial heir The Triumph of Titus, by Sir Lawrence Alma-Tadema (1885), depicting the Flavian family during the triumphal procession of 71. Vespasian proceeds at the head of the family, dressed as pontifex maximus, followed by Domitian with Domitia Longina, and finally Titus, also dressed in religious regalia. Prior to becoming Emperor, Domitian's role in the Flavian government was largely ceremonial. In June of 71, Titus returned triumphant from the war in Judaea. Ultimately, the rebellion had claimed the lives of over 1 million people, a majority of which were Jewish. Josephus, The Wars of the Jews VI.9.3 The city and temple of Jerusalem were completely destroyed, its most valuable treasures carried off by the Roman army, and nearly 100,000 people were captured and enslaved. For his victory, the Senate awarded Titus a Roman triumph. On the day of the festivities, the Flavian family rode into the capital, preceded by a lavish parade which displayed the spoils of the war. Josephus, The Wars of the Jews VII.5.5 The family procession was headed by Vespasian and Titus, while Domitian, riding a magnificent white horse, followed with the remaining Flavian relatives. Suetonius, Life of Domitian 2 Leaders of the Jewish resistance were executed in the Forum Romanum, after which the procession closed with religious sacrifices at the Temple of Jupiter. A triumphal arch, the Arch of Titus, was erected at the south-east entrance to the Forum to commemorate the successful end of the war. Jones (1992), p. 93 Yet the return of Titus further highlighted the comparative insignificance of Domitian, both militarily and politically. As the eldest and most experienced of Vespasian's sons, Titus shared tribunician power with his father, received seven consulships, the censorship, and was given command of the Praetorian Guard; powers which left no doubt he was the designated heir to the Empire. Jones (1992), p. 18 As a second son, Domitian held honorary titles, such as Caesar or Princeps Iuventutis, and several priesthoods, including those of augur, pontifex, frater arvalis, magister frater arvalium, and sacerdos collegiorum omnium, but no office with imperium. He held six consulships during Vespasian's reign but only one of these, in 73, was an ordinary consulship. The other five were less prestigious suffect consulships, which he held in 71, 75, 76, 77 and 79 respectively, usually replacing his father or brother in mid-January. While ceremonial, these offices no doubt gained Domitian valuable experience in the Roman Senate, and may have contributed to his later reservations about its relevance. Jones (1992), p. 19 Under Vespasian and Titus, non-Flavians were virtually excluded from the important public offices. Mucianus himself all but disappeared from historical records during this time, and it is believed he died sometime between 75 and 77. Real power was unmistakably concentrated in the hands of the Flavian faction; the weakened Senate only maintained the facade of democracy. Jones (1992), p. 163 Because Titus effectively acted as co-emperor with his father, no abrupt change in Flavian policy occurred when Vespasian died on 23 June 79. Titus assured Domitian that full partnership in the government would soon be his, but neither tribunician power nor imperium of any kind was conferred upon him during Titus' brief reign. Jones (1992), p. 20 Understandably, the new emperor was not eager to alter this arrangement: he would have expected to rule for at least another twenty or thirty years, and urgent attention was required to address the multitude of disasters which struck during 79 and 80. On 24 August 79, Mount Vesuvius erupted, Cassius Dio, Roman History LXVI.22 burying the surrounding cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum under metres of ash and lava; the following year, a fire broke out in Rome which lasted three days and which destroyed a number of important public buildings. Jones (1992), p. 80 Consequently, Titus spent much of his reign coordinating relief efforts and restoring damaged property. On 13 September 81 after barely two years in office, he unexpectedly died of fever during a trip to the Sabine territories. Ancient authors have implicated Domitian in the death of his brother, either by directly accusing him of murder, Philostratus, The Life of Apollonius of Tyana 6.32 or implying he left the ailing Titus for dead, Cassius Dio, Roman History LXVI.26 even alleging that during his lifetime, Domitian was openly plotting against his brother. It is difficult to assess the factual veracity of these statements given the known bias of the surviving sources. Brotherly affection was likely at a minimum, but this was hardly surprising, considering that Domitian had barely seen Titus after the age of seven. Whatever the nature of their relationship, Domitian seems to have displayed little sympathy when his brother lay dying, instead making for the Praetorian camp where he was proclaimed emperor. The following day, 14 September, the Senate confirmed Domitian's powers, granting tribunician power, the office of Pontifex Maximus, and the titles of Augustus, and Pater Patriae. Jones (1992), p. 21 Emperor Administration As Emperor, Domitian quickly dispensed with the Republican facade his father and brother had maintained during their reign. Jones (1992), p. 22 By moving the centre of government (more or less formally) to the imperial court, Domitian openly rendered the Senate's powers obsolete. In his view, the Roman Empire was to be governed as a divine monarchy with himself as the benevolent despot at its head. In addition to exercising absolute political power, Domitian believed the emperor's role encompassed every aspect of daily life, guiding the Roman people as a cultural and moral authority. Jones (1992), p. 99 To usher in the new era, he embarked on ambitious economic, military and cultural programmes with the intention of restoring the Empire to the splendour it had seen under the emperor Augustus. Jones (1992), p. 72 Despite these grand designs Domitian was determined to govern the Empire conscientiously and scrupulously. He became personally involved in all branches of the administration: edicts were issued governing the smallest details of everyday life and law, while taxation and public morals were rigidly enforced. Jones (1992), p. 107 According to Suetonius, the imperial bureaucracy never ran more efficiently than under Domitian, whose exacting standards and suspicious nature maintained historically low corruption among provincial governors and elected officials. Jones (1992), p. 109 Although he made no pretence regarding the significance of the Senate under his absolute rule, those senators he deemed unworthy were expelled from the Senate, and in the distribution of public offices he rarely favoured family members; a policy which stood in contrast to the nepotism practiced by Vespasian and Titus. Jones (1992), p. 164 Above all, however, Domitian valued loyalty and malleability in those he assigned to strategic posts, qualities he found more often in men of the equestrian order than in members of the Senate or his own family, whom he regarded with suspicion, and promptly removed from office if they disagreed with imperial policy. Jones (1992), pp. 178–179 The reality of Domitian's autocracy was further highlighted by the fact that, more than any emperor since Tiberius, he spent significant periods of time away from the capital. Although the Senate's power had been in decline since the fall of the Republic, under Domitian the seat of power was no longer even in Rome, but rather wherever the Emperor was. Until the completion of the Flavian Palace on the Palatine Hill, the imperial court was situated at Alba or Circeo, and sometimes even farther afield. Domitian toured the European provinces extensively, and spent at least three years of his reign in Germania and Illyricum, conducting military campaigns on the frontiers of the Empire. Jones (1992), pp. 26–28 Economy Domitian's tendency towards micromanagement was nowhere more evident than in his financial policy. The question of whether Domitian left the Roman Empire in debt or with a surplus at the time of his death has been fiercely debated. However the evidence points to a balanced economy for the greater part of Domitian's reign. Jones (1992), p. 73 Upon his accession he revalued the Roman currency to the standard of Augustus, increasing the silver content of the denarius by 12%. An imminent crisis in 85 forced a devaluation to the Neronian standard of 65, Jones (1992), p. 75 but this was still higher than the level which Vespasian and Titus had maintained during their reign. Domitian's rigorous taxation policy ensured that this standard was sustained for the following eleven years. Coinage from this era displays a highly consistent degree of quality including meticulous attention to Domitian's titulature and refined artwork on the reverse portraits. Upon his accession, Domitian revalued the Roman currency by increasing the silver content of the denarius by 12%. This coin commemorates the deification of Domitian's son. Jones estimates Domitian's annual income at more than 1,200 million sestertii, of which over one third would presumably have been spent maintaining the Roman army. The other major expense was the extensive reconstruction of Rome. At the time of Domitian's accession the city was still suffering from the damage caused by the Great Fire of 64, the civil war of 69 and the fire in 79. Much more than a renovation project however, Domitian's building programme was intended to be the crowning achievement of an Empire-wide cultural renaissance. Around fifty structures were erected, restored or completed, achievements second only to the those of Augustus. Jones (1992), p. 79 Among the most important new structures were an Odeum, a Stadium, and an expansive palace on the Palatine Hill known as the Flavian Palace which was designed by Domitian's master architect Rabirius. Jones (1992), pp. 84–88 The most important building Domitian restored was the Temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline Hill, said to have been covered with a gilded roof. Among those completed were the Temple of Vespasian and Titus, the Arch of Titus, and the Colosseum, to which he added a fourth level and finished the interior seating area. In order to appease the people of Rome an estimated 135 million sestertii was spent on donatives, or congiaria, throughout Domitian's reign. Jones (1992), p. 74 The Emperor also revived the practice of public banquets, which had been reduced to a simple distribution of food under Nero, while he invested large sums on entertainment and games. In 86 he founded the Capitoline Games, a quadrennial contest comprising athletic displays, chariot racing, and competitions for oratory, music and acting. Jones (1992), p. 103 Domitian himself supported the travel of competitors from all corners of the Empire to Rome and distributed the prizes. Innovations were also introduced into the regular gladiatorial games such as naval contests, nighttime battles, and female and dwarf gladiator fights. Lastly, he added two new factions to the chariot races, Gold and Purple, to race against the existing White, Red, Green and Blue factions. Jones (1992), p. 105 Military activity Reconstructed Roman watchtower along the Limes Germanicus. Domitian's most significant military contribution was the expansion of the border defences. The military campaigns undertaken during Domitian's reign were generally defensive in nature, as the Emperor rejected the idea of expansionist warfare. His most significant military contribution was the development of the Limes Germanicus, which encompassed a vast network of roads, forts and watchtowers constructed along the Rhine river to defend the Empire. Jones (1992), p. 131 Nevertheless, several important wars were fought in Gaul, against the Chatti, and across the Danube frontier against the Suebi, the Sarmatians, and the Dacians. The conquest of Britain continued under the command of Gnaeus Julius Agricola, who expanded the Roman Empire as far as Caledonia, or modern day Scotland. Domitian also founded a new legion in 82, the Legio I Minervia, to fight against the Chatti. Domitian's administration of the Roman army was characterized by the same fastidious involvement he exhibited in other branches of the government. His competence as a military strategist was criticised by his contemporaries however. Jones (1992), p. 127 Although he claimed several triumphs, these were largely propaganda manoeuvres. Tacitus derided Domitian's victory against the Chatti as a "mock triumph", and criticised his decision to retreat from Britain following the conquests of Agricola. Tacitus, Agricola 39 Tacitus, Histories I.2 Nevertheless, Domitian appears to have been very popular amongst the soldiers, spending an estimated three years of his reign among the army on campaigns—more than any emperor since Augustus—and raising their pay by one third. Syme (1930), p. 64 While the army command may have disapproved of his tactical and strategic decisions, the loyalty of the common soldier was unquestioned. Jones (1992), p. 144 Campaign against the Chatti Once Emperor, Domitian immediately sought to attain his long delayed military glory. As early as 82, or possibly 83, he went to Gaul, ostensibly to conduct a census, and suddenly ordered an attack on the Chatti. Jones (1992), p. 128 For this purpose, a new legion was founded, Legio I Minervia, which constructed some 75 kilometres (46 mi) of roads through Chattan territory to uncover the enemy's hiding places. Jones (1992), p. 130 Although little information survives of the battles fought, enough early victories were apparently achieved for Domitian to be back in Rome by the end of 83, where he celebrated an elaborate triumph and conferred upon himself the title of Germanicus. Jones (1992), p. 129 Domitian's supposed victory was much scorned by ancient authors, who described the campaign as "uncalled for", Suetonius, Life of Domitian 6 and a "mock triumph". The evidence lends some credence to these claims, as the Chatti would later play a significant role during the revolt of Saturninus in 89. Conquest of Britain One of the most detailed reports of military activity under the Flavian dynasty was written by Tacitus, whose biography of his father-in-law Gnaeus Julius Agricola largely concerns the conquest of Britain between 77 and 84. Agricola arrived c. 77 as governor of Roman Britain, immediately launching campaigns into Caledonia: modern day Scotland. Gnaeus Julius Agricola (Bath) In 82 Agricola crossed an unidentified body of water and defeated peoples unknown to the Romans until then. Tacitus, Agricola 24 He fortified the coast facing Ireland, and Tacitus recalls that his father-in-law often claimed the island could be conquered with a single legion and a few auxiliaries. Jones (1992), p. 132 He had given refuge to an exiled Irish king whom he hoped he might use as the excuse for conquest. This conquest never happened, but some historians believe that the crossing referred to was in fact a small-scale exploratory or punitive expedition to Ireland. Turning his attention from Ireland, the following year Agricola raised a fleet and pushed beyond the Forth into Caledonia. To aid the advance, a large legionary fortress was constructed at Inchtuthil. In the summer of 84, Agricola faced the armies of the Caledonians, led by Calgacus, at the Battle of Mons Graupius. Tacitus, Agricola 29 Although the Romans inflicted heavy losses on the enemy, two thirds of the Caledonain army escaped and hid in the Scottish marshes and Highlands, ultimately preventing Agricola from bringing the entire British island under his control. In 85, Agricola was recalled to Rome by Domitian, having served for more than six years as governor, longer than normal for consular legates during the Flavian era. Tacitus claims that Domitian ordered his recall because Agricola's successes outshone the Emperor's own modest victories in Germania. The relationship between Agricola and the Emperor is unclear: on the one hand, Agricola was awarded triumphal decorations and a statue, on the other, Agricola never again held a civil or military post in spite of his experience and renown. He was offered the governorship of the province of Africa, but declined it, either due to ill health or, as Tacitus claims, the machinations of Domitian. Tacitus, Agricola 42 Not long after Agricola's recall from Britain, the Roman Empire entered into war with the Kingdom of Dacia in the East. Reinforcements were needed, and in 87 or 88, Domitian ordered a large-scale strategic withdrawal of troops in the British province. The fortress at Inchtuthil was dismantled and the Caledonian forts and watchtowers abandoned, moving the Roman frontier some 120 kilometres (75 mi) further south. Jones (1992), p. 133 The army command may have resented Domitian's decision to retreat, but to him the Caledonian territories never represented anything more than a loss to the Roman treasury. Dacian wars The Roman province of Dacia (red area) after the conquest of Trajan in 106, with the Black Sea to the far right The most significant threat the Roman Empire faced during the reign of Domitian arose from the northern provinces of Illyricum, where the Suebi, the Sarmatians and the Dacians continuously harassed Roman settlements along the Danube river. Of these, the Sarmatians and the Dacians were the most formidable. In approximately 84 or 85 the Dacians, led by King Decebalus, crossed the Danube into the province of Moesia, wreaking havoc and killing the Moesian governor Oppius Sabinus. Jones (1992), p. 138 Domitian immediately launched a counteroffensive, personally travelling to the region accompanied by a large force commanded by his Praetorian prefect Cornelius Fuscus. Fuscus successfully drove the Dacians back across the border in mid-85, prompting Domitian to return to Rome and celebrate his second triumph. Jones (1992), p. 139 The victory proved to be short-lived however, as early in 86, Fuscus embarked on an ill-fated expedition into Dacia, which resulted in the complete destruction of the fifth legion, Legio V Alaudae, in the First Battle of Tapae. Fuscus was killed, and the battle standard of the Praetorian Guard was lost. Jones (1992), p. 141 The loss of the battle standard, or aquila, was indicative of a crushing defeat and a serious affront to Roman national pride. Domitian returned to Moesia in August of 86. He divided the province into Lower Moesia and Upper Moesia, and transferred three additional legions to the Danube. In 87, the Romans invaded Dacia once more, this time under the command of Tettius Julianus, and finally defeated Decebalus in late 88 at the same site where Fuscus had previously perished. Jones (1992), p. 142 An attack on the Dacian capital Sarmizegetusa was forestalled however, when new troubles arose on the German frontier in 89. In order to avert having to conduct a war on two fronts, Domitian agreed to terms of peace with Decebalus, negotiating free access of Roman troops through the Dacian region while granting Decebalus an annual subsidy of 8 million sesterces. Jones (1992), p. 150 Contemporary authors severely criticised this treaty, which was considered shameful to the Romans and left the deaths of Sabinus and Fuscus unavenged. Jones (1992), p. 195 For the remainder of Domitian's reign Dacia remained a relatively peaceful client kingdom, but Decebalus used the Roman money to fortify his defences, and continued to defy Rome. It was not until the reign of Trajan that the Romans achieved a decisive victory against Decebalus in 106. Again, the Roman army sustained heavy losses, but Trajan succeeded in capturing Sarmizegetusa and, importantly, annexed the Dacian gold and silver mines. Religious policy Domitian firmly believed in the traditional Roman religion, and personally saw to it that ancient customs and morals were observed throughout his reign. In order to justify the divine nature of the Flavian rule, Domitian emphasized connections with the chief deity Jupiter, perhaps most significantly through the impressive restoration of the Temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline Hill. A small chapel dedicated to Jupiter Conservator was also constructed near the house where Domitian had fled to safety on 20 December, 69. Later in his reign, he replaced it with a more expansive building, dedicated to Jupiter Custos. Jones (1992), p. 88 The goddess he worshipped the most zealously however was Minerva. Not only did he keep a personal shrine dedicated to her in his bedroom, she regularly appeared on his coinage—in four different attested reverse types—and he founded a legion, Legio I Minervia, in her name. Jones (1992), p. 100 Roman aureus minted under Domitian. The reverse depicts the Roman goddess Minerva, who was Domitian's favoured deity, and appeared on numerous coin types throughout his reign. This particular reverse depicts the goddess advancing with a javelin and a shield in hand. Domitian also revived the practice of the imperial cult, which had fallen somewhat out of use under Vespasian. Significantly, his first act as an Emperor was the deification of his brother Titus. Upon their deaths, his infant son, and niece, Julia Flavia, were likewise enrolled among the Gods. To foster the worship of the imperial family, he erected a dynastic mausoleum on the site of Vespasian's former house on the Quirinal, Jones (1992), p. 87 and completed the Temple of Vespasian and Titus, a shrine dedicated to the worship of his deified father and brother. To memorialize the military triumphs of the Flavian family, he ordered the construction of the Templum Divorum and the Templum Fortuna Redux, and completed the Arch of Titus. Construction projects such as these constituted only the most visible part of Domitian's religious policy, which also concerned itself with the fulfilment of religious law and public morals. In 85, he nominated himself perpetual censor, the office which held the task of supervising Roman morals and conduct. Jones (1992), p. 106 Once again, Domitian acquitted himself of this task dutifully, and with care. He renewed the Lex Iulia de Adulteriis Coercendis, under which adultery was punishable by exile. From the list of jurors he struck an equestrian who had divorced his wife and taken her back, while an ex-quaestor was expelled from the Senate for acting and dancing. Domitian also heavily prosecuted corruption among public officials, removing jurors if they accepted bribes and rescinding legislation when a conflict of interest was suspected. He ensured that libellous writings, especially those directed against himself, were punishable by exile or death. Actors were likewise regarded with suspicion, as their performances provided an opportunity for satire at the expense of the government. Grainger (2003), p. 54 Consequently, he forbade mimes from appearing on stage in public. In 87, Vestal Virgins were found to have broken their sacred vows of lifelong public chastity. As the Vestals were regarded as daughters of the community, this offence essentially constituted incest. Accordingly, those found guilty of any such transgression were condemned to death, either by a manner of their choosing, or according to the ancient fashion, which dictated that Vestals should be buried alive. Jones (1992), p. 101 Foreign religions were tolerated in as much as they did not interfere with public order, or could be assimilated with the traditional Roman religion. The worship of Egyptian deities in particular flourished under the Flavian dynasty, to an extent not seen again until the reign of Commodus. Veneration of Serapis and Isis, who were identified with Jupiter and Minerva respectively, was especially prominent. A tradition based upon 4th century writings by Eusebius of Caesarea maintains that Jews and Christians were heavily persecuted toward the end of Domitian's reign. The Book of Revelation is thought to have been written during this period, as a reaction against these persecutions. However no convincing evidence exists of any widespread religious oppression under Domitian. Jones (1992), pp. 114–119 Although Jews were heavily taxed, no contemporary authors mention trials or executions based on religious offences other than those within the Roman religion. Jones (1992), p. 119 Opposition Revolt of Saturninus Domitian, Capitoline Museums, Rome On 1 January 89, the governor of Germania Superior, Lucius Antonius Saturninus, and his two legions at Mainz, Legio XIV Gemina and Legio XXI Rapax, revolted against the Roman Empire with the aid of the Chatti. The precise cause for the rebellion is uncertain, although it appears to have been planned well in advance. The Senatorial officers may have disapproved of Domitian's military strategies, such as his decision to fortify the German frontier rather than attack, as well as his recent retreat from Britain, and finally the disgraceful policy of appeasement towards Decebalus. Jones (1992), p. 145 At any rate, the uprising was strictly confined to Saturninus' province, and quickly detected once the rumour spread across the neighbouring provinces. The governor of Germania Inferior, Lappius Maximus, moved to the region at once, assisted by the procurator of Rhaetia, Titus Flavius Norbanus. From Spain, Trajan was summoned, whilst Domitian himself came from Rome with the Praetorian Guard. By a stroke of luck, a thaw prevented the Chatti from crossing the Rhine and coming to Saturninus' aid. Jones (1992), p. 146 Within twenty-four days the rebellion was crushed, and its leaders at Mainz savagely punished. The mutinous legions where sent to the front in Illyricum, while those who had assisted in their defeat were duly rewarded. Jones (1992), p. 149 Lappius Maximus received the governorship to the province of Syria, a consulship in May of 95, and finally a priesthood which he still held in 102. Titus Flavius Norbanus may have been appointed to the prefecture of Egypt, but almost certainly became prefect of the Praetorian Guard by 94, with Titus Petronius Secundus as his colleague. Jones (1992), pp. 148–149 Domitian opened the year following the revolt by sharing the consulship with Marcus Cocceius Nerva, suggesting the latter had played a part in uncovering the conspiracy, perhaps in a fashion similar to the one he played during the Pisonian conspiracy under Nero. Although little is known about the life and career of Nerva before his accession as Emperor in 96, he appears to have been a highly adaptable diplomat, surviving multiple regime changes and emerging as one of the Flavians' most trusted advisors. Grainger (2003), p. 30 His consulship may therefore have been intended to emphasise the stability and status-quo of the regime. Murison (2003), p. 150 The revolt had been suppressed and the Empire returned to order. Relationship with the Senate Since the fall of the Republic, the authority of the Roman Senate had largely eroded under the quasi-monarchical system of government established by Augustus, known as the Principate. The Principate allowed the existence of a de facto dictatorial regime, while maintaining the formal framework of the Roman Republic. Most Emperors upheld the public facade of democracy, and in return the Senate implicitly acknowledged the Emperor's status as a de-facto monarch. Some rulers handled this arrangement with less subtlety than others however, among them Domitian. From the outset of his reign, he stressed the reality of his autocracy. Jones (1992), p. 161 He disliked aristocrats and had no fear of showing it, withdrawing every decision-making power from the Senate, and instead relying on a small set of friends and equestrians to control the important offices of state. Jones (1992), p. 169 The dislike was mutual. After Domitian's assassination, the senators of Rome rushed to the Senate house, where they immediately passed a motion condemning his memory to oblivion. Jones (1992), p. 160 Under the rulers of the Nervan-Antonian dynasty, senatorial authors published histories which elaborated on the view of Domitian as a tyrant. Nevertheless, the evidence suggests that Domitian did make concessions toward senatorial opinion. Whereas his father and brother had concentrated consular power largely in the hands of the Flavian family, Domitian admitted a surprisingly large number of provincials and potential opponents to the consulship, allowing them to head the official calendar by opening the year as an ordinary consul. Jones (1992), pp. 163–168 Whether this was a genuine attempt to reconcile with hostile factions in the Senate cannot be ascertained. By offering the consulship to potential opponents, Domitian may have wanted to compromise these senators in the eyes of their supporters. When their conduct proved unsatisfactory, they were almost invariably brought to trial and exiled or executed, and their property was confiscated. Both Tacitus and Suetonius speak of escalating persecutions toward the end of Domitian's reign, identifying a point of sharp increase around 93, or sometime after the failed revolt of Saturninus in 89. Tacitus, Agricola 45 Suetonius, Life of Domitian 10 At least twenty senatorial opponents were executed, For a full list of senatorial victims, see Jones (1992), pp. 182–188 including Domitia Longina's former husband Lucius Aelius Lamia and three of Domitian's own family members, Titus Flavius Sabinus IV, Titus Flavius Clemens and Marcus Arrecinus Clemens. M. Arrecinus Clemens may have been exiled instead of executed, see Jones (1992), p. 187 Some of these men were executed as early as 83 or 85 however, lending little credit to Tacitus' notion of a "reign of terror" late in Domitian's reign. According to Suetonius, some were convicted for corruption or treason, others on trivial charges, which Domitian justified through his suspicion: Jones compares the executions of Domitian to those under Emperor Claudius (41–55), noting that Claudius executed around 35 senators and 300 equestrians, and yet was still deified by the Senate and regarded as one of the good Emperors of history. Jones (1992), p. 192 Domitian was apparently unable to gain support among the aristocracy, despite attempts to appease hostile factions with consular appointments. His autocratic style of government accentuated the Senate's loss of power, while his policy of treating patricians and even family members as equals to all Romans earned him their contempt. Death and succession According to Suetonius, Domitian worshipped Minerva as his protector goddess with superstitious veneration. In a dream, she is said to have abandoned the emperor prior to the assassination. Assassination Domitian was murdered on 18 September 96, in a palace conspiracy organized by court officials. Jones (1992), p. 193 A highly detailed account of the plot and the assassination is provided by Suetonius, who alleges that Domitian's chamberlain Parthenius was the chief instigator behind the conspiracy, citing the recent execution of Domitian's secretary Epaphroditus as the primary motive. Grainger (2003), p. 16 Suetonius, Life of Domitian 14;16 The murder itself was carried out by a freedman of Parthenius named Maximus, and a steward of Domitian's niece Flavia Domitilla, named Stephanus. The precise involvement of the Praetorian Guard is less clear. At the time the Guard was commanded by Titus Flavius Norbanus and Titus Petronius Secundus and the latter was almost certainly aware of the plot. Grainger (2003), p. 19 Cassius Dio, writing nearly a hundred years after the assassination, includes Domitia Longina among the conspirators, but in light of her attested devotion to Domitian—even years after her husband had died—her involvement in the plot seems highly unlikely. Jones (1992), p. 37 Dio further suggests that the assassination was improvised, while Suetonius implies a well organised conspiracy. Grainger (2003), p. 5 For some days before the attack took place, Stephanus feigned an injury so as to be able to conceal a dagger beneath his bandages. On the day of the assassination the doors to the servants' quarters were locked while Domitian's personal weapon of last resort, a sword he concealed beneath his pillow, had been removed in advance. Grainger (2003), pp. 1–3 In accordance with an astrological prediction the emperor believed that he would die around noon, and was therefore restless during this time of the day. On his last day, Domitian was feeling disturbed and asked a servant several times what time it was. The boy, included in the plot, lied, saying that it was much later than noon. More at ease, the emperor went to his desk to sign some decrees, where he was suddenly approached by Stephanus: Domitian and Stephanus wrestled on the ground for some time, until the emperor was finally overpowered and fatally stabbed by the conspirators. Around noon Domitian, just one month short of his 45th birthday, was dead. His body was carried away on a common bier, and unceremoniously cremated by his nurse Phyllis, who later mingled the ashes with those of his niece Julia, at the Flavian temple. Jones (1992), p. 38 According to Suetonius, a number of omens had foretold Domitian's death. Several days prior to the assassination, Minerva had appeared to him in a dream, announcing she had been disarmed by Jupiter, and would no longer be able to protect him. Suetonius, Life of Domitian 15 Succession and aftermath Upon the death of Domitian, Nerva was proclaimed Emperor by the Senate. The Fasti Ostienses, the Ostian Calendar, records that the same day the Senate proclaimed Marcus Cocceius Nerva emperor. Murison (2003), p. 153 Despite his political experience, this was a remarkable choice. Nerva was old and childless, and had spent much of his career out of the public light, prompting both ancient and modern authors to speculate on his involvement in Domitian's assassination. Murison (2003), p. 151 Grainger (2003), pp. 4–27 According to Cassius Dio, the conspirators approached Nerva as a potential successor prior to the assassination, suggesting that he was at least aware of the plot. Jones (1992), p. 194 Cassius Dio, Roman History LXVII.15 He does not appear in Suetonius' version of the events, but this may be understandable, since his works were published under Nerva's direct descendants Trajan and Hadrian. To suggest the dynasty owed its accession to murder would have been less than sensitive. On the other hand, Nerva lacked widespread support in the Empire, and as a known Flavian loyalist, his track record would not have recommended him to the conspirators. The precise facts have been obscured by history, , but modern historians believe Nerva was proclaimed Emperor solely on the initiative of the Senate, within hours after the news of the assassination broke. The decision may have been hasty so as to avoid civil war, but neither appears to have been involved in the conspiracy. Jones (1992), p. 196 The Senate nonetheless rejoiced at the death of Domitian, and immediately following Nerva's accession as Emperor, passed damnatio memoriae on his memory: his coins and statues were melted, his arches were torn down and his name was erased from all public records. Grainger (2003), p. 49 Domitian is the only known emperor to have officially received a damnatio memoriae, though others may have received de facto ones. In many instances, existing portraits of Domitian, such as those found on the Cancelleria Reliefs, were simply recarved to fit the likeness of Nerva, which allowed quick production of new images and recycling of previous material. Yet the order of the Senate was only partially executed in Rome, and wholly disregarded in most of the provinces outside Italy, indicating at least some popular support for Domitian. According to Suetonius, the people of Rome met the news of Domitian's death with indifference, but the army was much grieved, calling for his deification immediately after the assassination, and in several provinces rioting. Grainger (2003), pp. 32–33 As a compensation measure, the Praetorian guard demanded the execution of Domitian's assassins, which Nerva refused. Instead he merely dismissed Titus Petronius Secundus, and replaced him with a former commander, Casperius Aelianus. Grainger (2003), p. 40 Dissatisfaction with this state of affairs continued to loom over Nerva's reign, and ultimately erupted into a crisis in October of 97, when members of the Praetorian guard, led by Casperius Aelianus, laid siege to the Imperial Palace and took Nerva hostage. Grainger (2003), pp. 94–95 He was forced to submit to their demands, agreeing to hand over those responsible for Domitian's death and even giving a speech thanking the rebellious Praetorians. Titus Petronius Secundus and Parthenius were sought out and killed. Nerva was unharmed in this assault, but his authority was damaged beyond repair. Shortly thereafter he announced the adoption of Trajan as his successor, and with this decision all but abdicated. Legacy Ancient sources Domitian as emperor (Vatican Museums), possibly recut from a statue of Nero. The classic view of Domitian is usually negative, since most of the antique sources were related to the Senatorial or aristocratic class, with which Domitian had a notoriously difficult relation. Furthermore, contemporary historians such as Pliny the Younger, Tacitus and Suetonius all authored the information on his reign after it had ended, and his memory had been condemned to oblivion. The work of Domitian's court poets Martial and Statius constitutes virtually the only literary evidence concurrent with his reign. Perhaps equally unsurprising as the attitude of post-Domitianic historians, the poems of Martial and Statius are highly adulatory, praising Domitian's achievements as equalling those of the Gods. Jones (1992), p. 32 The most extensive account of the life of Domitian to survive was written by the historian Suetonius, who was born during the reign of Vespasian, and published his works under Emperor Hadrian (117–138). His De Vita Caesarum is the source of much of what we know of Domitian. Although his text is predominantly negative, it neither exclusively condemns nor praises Domitian, and asserts that his rule started well, but gradually declined into terror. Waters (1964), p. 51 The biography is problematic however, in that it appears to contradict itself with regards to Domitian's rule and personality, at the same time presenting him as a conscientious, moderate man, and as a decadent libertine. According to Suetonius, Domitian wholly feigned his interest in arts and literature, and never bothered to acquaint himself with classic authors. Other passages, alluding to Domitian's love of epigrammatic expression, suggest that he was in fact familiar with classic writers, while he also patronized poets and architects, founded artistic olympics, and personally restored the library of Rome at great expense after it had burned down. De Vita Caesarum is also the source of several outrageous stories regarding Domitian's marriage life. According to Suetonius, Domitia Longina was exiled in 83 because of an affair with a famous actor named Paris. When Domitian found out, he allegedly murdered Paris in the street and promptly divorced his wife, with Suetonius further adding that once Domitia was exiled, Domitian took Julia as his mistress, who later died during a failed abortion. Suetonius, Life of Domitian 22 Modern historians consider this highly implausible however, noting that malicious rumours such as those concerning Domitia's alleged infidelity were eagerly repeated by post-Domitianic authors, and used to highlight the hypocrisy of a ruler publicly preaching a return to Augustan morals, while privately indulging in excesses and presiding over a corrupt court. Levick (2002), p. 211 Nevertheless, the account of Suetonius has dominated imperial historiography for centuries. Although Tacitus is usually considered to be the most reliable author of this era, his views on Domitian are complicated by the fact that his father-in-law, Gnaeus Julius Agricola, may have been a personal enemy of the Emperor. Jones (1992), p. 58 In his biographical work Agricola, Tacitus maintains that Agricola was forced into retirement because his triumph over the Caledonians highlighted Domitian's own inadequacy as a military commander. Several modern authors such as Dorey have argued the opposite: that Agricola was in fact a close friend of Domitian, and that Tacitus merely sought to distance his family from the fallen dynasty once Nerva was in power. Tacitus' major historical works, including The Histories and Agricola's biography, were all written and published under Domitian's successors Nerva (96–98) and Trajan (98–117). Unfortunately, the part of Tacitus' Histories dealing with the reign of the Flavian dynasty is almost entirely lost. His views on Domitian survive through brief comments in its first five books, and the short but highly negative characterisation in Agricola in which he severely criticises Domitian's military endeavours. Nevertheless, Tacitus admits his debt to the Flavians with regard to his own public career. Tacitus, Histories I.1 Other influential 2nd century authors include Juvenal and Pliny the Younger, the latter whom was a friend of Tacitus and in 100 delivered his famous Panygericus Traiani before Trajan and the Roman Senate, exalting the new era of restored freedom while condemning Domitian as a tyrant. Juvenal savagely satirized the Domitianic court in his Satires, depicting the Emperor and his entourage as corrupt, violent and unjust. As a consequence, the anti-Domitianic tradition was already well established by the end of the 2nd century, and by the 3rd century, even expanded upon by early Church historians, who identified Domitian as an early persecutor of Christians. Modern revisionism Hostile views of Domitian were propagated until well into the early 20th century, before archeological and numismatic advances brought renewed attention to his reign, and necessitated a revision of the literary tradition established by Tacitus and Pliny. In 1930, Ronald Syme argued a complete reassessment of Domitian's financial policy, which had until then been largely viewed as a disaster, opening his paper with the following introduction: Over the course of the 20th century, Domitian's military, administrative and economic policies were re-evaluated. New book length studies were not published until the 1990s however, nearly a hundred years after Stéphane Gsell's Essai sur le règne de l'empereur Domitien (1894). The most important of these was The Emperor Domitian, by Brian W. Jones. In his monograph, Jones concludes that Domitian was a ruthless, but efficient autocrat. For the majority of his reign, there was no widespread dissatisfaction with the emperor or his rule. His harshness was felt by only a small, but highly vocal minority, who later exaggerated his despotism in favour of the well regarded Nervan-Antonian dynasty which followed. Domitian's foreign policy was realistic, rejecting expansionist warfare and negotiating peace at a time when Roman military tradition dictated aggressive conquest. His economic programme, which was rigorously efficient, maintained the Roman currency at a standard it would never again achieve. Persecution of religious minorities finally, such as Jews and Christians, was non-existent. Domitian's government nonetheless exhibited totalitarian characteristics. As Emperor, he saw himself as the new Augustus, an enlightened despot destined to guide the Roman Empire into a new era of Flavian renaissance. Religious, military and cultural propaganda fostered a cult of personality. He deified three of his family members and erected massive structures to commemorate the Flavian achievements. Elaborate triumphs were celebrated in order to boost his image as a warrior-emperor, but many of these were either unearned or premature. By nominating himself perpetual censor, he sought to control public and private morals. He became personally involved in all branches of the government and successfully prosecuted corruption among public officials. The dark side of his censorial power involved a restriction in freedom of speech, and an increasingly oppressive attitude toward the Roman Senate. He punished libel with exile or death and, due to his suspicious nature, increasingly accepted information from informers to bring false charges of treason if necessary. Jones (1992), p. 180 Although contemporary historians vilified Domitian after his death, his administration provided the foundation for the Principate of the peaceful 2nd century. His successors Nerva and Trajan were less restrictive, but in reality their policies differed little from Domitian's. Much more than a "gloomy coda to the...1st century" the Roman Empire prospered between 81 and 96, in a reign which Theodor Mommsen described as the sombre but intelligent despotism of Domitian. Syme (1930), p. 67 Domitian in later arts Literature Domitia and Domitian (2000), a historical novel by David Corson based on the works of Brian Jones and Pat Southern, revolving around the titular characters. The Marcus Didius Falco series of crime novels (1989— ) by Lindsey Davis, set during the reign of Vespasian. The Light Bearer (1994), a historical novel by Donna Gillespie. The Roman Actor (1626), a play by Philip Massinger which features Domitian as the main character. Painting The Triumph of Titus by Lawrence Alma-Tadema (1885). Oil on canvas. Private collection. This painting depicts the triumphal procession of Titus and his family. Alma-Tadema was known for his meticulous historical research on the ancient world. Vespasian, dressed as Pontifex Maximus, walks at the head of his family, followed by Domitian and his first wife Domitia Longina, who he had only recently married. Behind Domitian follows Titus, dressed in religious regalia. An exchange of glances between Titus and Domitia suggests an affair which historians have speculated upon. Film and television La Rivolta dei Pretoriani (1964), Italian film directed by Alfonso Brescia, concerning a fictional plot of the Praetorian guard to overthrow Domitian, with Piero Lulli as Domitian. Dacii (1967), Romanian film directed by Sergiu Nicolaescu about the Dacian campaign of Domitian, with György Kovács as Domitian. Age of Treason (1993), English television film, featuring Marcus Didius Falco from the crime novels by Lindsey Davis. The story is set during the reign of Vespasian, with Domitian, played by Jamie Glover, as a peripheral character. San Giovanni - L'apocalisse (2003), English television film concerning the purported persecution of Christians under Domitian, who appears as a major character, played by Bruce Payne. Notes References Further reading External links Primary sources Cassius Dio, Roman History Book 67, English translation Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Domitian, Latin text with English translation Tacitus, Agricola, English translation Tacitus, Histories, English translation Secondary material | Domitian |@lemmatized titus:58 flavius:15 domitianus:1 october:4 september:9 know:14 domitian:215 roman:68 emperor:67 reign:40 death:17 third:4 last:6 flavian:34 dynasty:13 house:7 rule:9 empire:26 encompass:3 father:16 vespasian:45 older:1 brother:16 youth:2 early:13 career:8 largely:7 spend:9 shadow:1 gain:4 military:30 renown:3 first:10 jewish:7 war:24 situation:1 continue:5 become:5 december:6 follow:13 civil:9 year:25 four:9 effectually:1 co:2 leave:6 honour:1 responsibility:1 die:11 june:4 succeed:3 whose:5 come:6 unexpected:1 end:14 strike:3 fatal:1 illness:1 following:7 day:18 declare:3 praetorian:14 guard:11 commence:1 fifteen:1 longer:3 man:4 govern:4 rome:31 since:7 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5,456 | Classification_of_finite_simple_groups | The classification of the finite simple groups, also called the enormous theorem, is believed to classify all finite simple groups. These groups can be seen as the basic building blocks of all finite groups, in much the same way as the prime numbers are the basic building blocks of the natural numbers. The Jordan-Hölder theorem is a more precise way of stating this fact about finite groups. The "theorem" is mainly a convenient way of describing a vast body of mathematical writing, made up of tens of thousands of pages in 500-odd journal articles written by about 100 authors, published mostly between 1955 and 1983. There has been some controversy as to whether the resulting proof is complete and correct, given its length and complexity. The classification theorem Theorem. Every finite simple group is one of 26 sporadic simple groups or belongs (up to isomorphism) to at least one of the following three infinite families: A cyclic group with prime order; An alternating group of degree at least 5; A simple group of Lie type, including both the classical Lie groups, namely the groups of projective special linear, unitary, symplectic, or orthogonal transformations over a finite field; the exceptional and twisted groups of Lie type (including the Tits group). Some consider the Tits group a 27th sporadic group because it is not strictly a group of Lie type, but this difference has no impact on the classification theorem. The first sporadic groups to be discovered were the five Mathieu groups, discovered in the 1860s by Emile Mathieu. The other 21 sporadic groups were found between 1965 and 1975. 20 of the 26 sporadic groups form three families (one of which is the family of Mathieu groups), and are subgroups or subquotients of the Monster group, the sporadic group with the largest order. The remaining six sporadic groups defy classification and are called "pariahs." The classification theorem has widespread applications in many branches of mathematics, as questions about the structure of finite groups (and their action on other mathematical objects) can often be reduced to questions about finite simple groups. Thanks to the classification theorem, such questions can often be answered by examining only finitely many configurations. In particular, each of the infinite families can often be disposed of by a single argument. Doubts about the proof Some doubts remain as to whether a proof spread over 500-odd articles is complete and correct, and these doubts were justified to a considerable extent when gaps in the argument were found, although all gaps known to date have been fixed. Parts of the alleged proof also remain unpublished. Jean-Pierre Serre is a notable skeptic about the claimed proof of the enormous theorem Interview with Jean-Pierre Serre . For over a decade, experts knew of a "serious gap" (according to Michael Aschbacher) in Geoff Mason's unpublished classification of quasithin groups. Daniel Gorenstein's 1983 announcement that the finite simple groups had all been classified was partly based on his belief that the quasithin case was finished. Aschbacher filled this gap in the early 90s, in work that remains unpublished. Aschbacher and Steve Smith have published a different proof for the quasithin case, one running about 1300 pages and filling two volumes. Second-generation classification The proof of the theorem, as it stood around 1985 or so, can be called first generation. Because of the extreme length of the first generation proof, much effort has been devoted to finding a simpler proof, called a second-generation classification proof. This effort, called "revisionism", was originally led by Daniel Gorenstein. As of 2005, six volumes of the second generation proof have been published, with most of the balance of the proof in manuscript. It is estimated that the new proof will eventually fill approximately 5,000 pages. (This length stems in part from second generation proof being written in a more relaxed style.) Aschbacher and Smith wrote their two volumes devoted to the quasithin case in such a way that those volumes can be part of the second generation proof. Gorenstein and his collaborators have given several reasons why a simpler proof is possible. The most important is that the correct, final statement of the theorem is now known. Simpler techniques can be applied that are known to be adequate for the types of groups we know to be finite simple. In contrast, those who worked on the first generation proof did not know how many sporadic groups there were, and in fact some of the sporadic groups (e.g., the Janko groups) were discovered while proving other cases of the classification theorem. As a result, many of the pieces of the theorem were proved using techniques that were overly general. Because the conclusion was unknown, the first generation proof consists of many stand-alone theorems, dealing with important special cases. Much of the work of proving these theorems was devoted to the analysis of numerous special cases. Given a larger, orchestrated proof, dealing with many of these special cases can be postponed until the most powerful assumptions can be applied. The price paid under this revised strategy is that these first generation theorems no longer have comparatively short proofs, but instead rely on the complete classification. Many first generation theorems overlap, and so divide the possible cases in inefficient ways. As a result, families and subfamiles of finite simple groups were identified multiple times. The revised proof eliminates these redundancies by relying on a different subdivision of cases. Finite group theorists have more experience at this sort of exercise, and have new techniques at their disposal. Third-generation classification Some designate the work on the classification problem by Ulrich Meierfrankenfeld, Bernd Stellmacher, Gernot Stroth, and a few others, as a third generation proof. Notes References Michael Aschbacher (2004) "The Status of the Classification of the Finite Simple Groups," Notices of the American Mathematical Society. Daniel Gorenstein (1985), "The Enormous Theorem", Scientific American, vol. 253, no. 6, pp. 104-115. Daniel Gorenstein, Richard Lyons, Ronald Solomon (1994) The Classification of the Finite Simple Groups, Vol. 1, Volume 2. AMS, Mark Ronan, Symmetry and the Monster, ISBN 978-0-19-280723-6, Oxford University Press, 2006. (Concise introduction for lay reader) Marcus du Sautoy, Finding Moonshine, Fourth Estate, 2008, ISBN 978-0-00-721461-7 (another introduction for the lay reader) Ron Solomon (1995) "On Finite Simple Groups and their Classification," Notices of the American Mathematical Society. (Not too technical and good on history) External links ATLAS of Finite Group Representations. Searchable database of representations and other data for many finite simple groups. Elwes, Richard, "An enormous theorem: the classification of finite simple groups," Plus Magazine, Issue 41, December 2006. For laypeople. Madore, David (2003) Orders of nonabelian simple groups. Includes a list of all nonabelian simple groups up to order 1010. | Classification_of_finite_simple_groups |@lemmatized classification:17 finite:18 simple:16 group:43 also:2 call:5 enormous:4 theorem:17 believe:1 classify:2 see:1 basic:2 building:2 block:2 much:3 way:5 prime:2 number:2 natural:1 jordan:1 hölder:1 precise:1 state:1 fact:2 mainly:1 convenient:1 describe:1 vast:1 body:1 mathematical:4 writing:1 make:1 ten:1 thousand:1 page:3 odd:2 journal:1 article:2 write:3 author:1 publish:3 mostly:1 controversy:1 whether:2 result:3 proof:22 complete:3 correct:3 give:3 length:3 complexity:1 every:1 one:4 sporadic:9 belongs:1 isomorphism:1 least:2 following:1 three:2 infinite:2 family:5 cyclic:1 order:4 alternate:1 degree:1 lie:4 type:4 include:3 classical:1 namely:1 projective:1 special:4 linear:1 unitary:1 symplectic:1 orthogonal:1 transformation:1 field:1 exceptional:1 twisted:1 tit:2 consider:1 strictly:1 difference:1 impact:1 first:7 discover:3 five:1 mathieu:3 emile:1 find:4 form:1 subgroup:1 subquotients:1 monster:2 large:2 remain:4 six:2 defy:1 pariah:1 widespread:1 application:1 many:8 branch:1 mathematics:1 question:3 structure:1 action:1 object:1 often:3 reduce:1 thanks:1 answer:1 examine:1 finitely:1 configuration:1 particular:1 dispose:1 single:1 argument:2 doubt:3 spread:1 justify:1 considerable:1 extent:1 gap:4 although:1 know:6 date:1 fix:1 part:3 allege:1 unpublished:3 jean:2 pierre:2 serre:2 notable:1 skeptic:1 claimed:1 interview:1 decade:1 expert:1 serious:1 accord:1 michael:2 aschbacher:5 geoff:1 mason:1 quasithin:4 daniel:4 gorenstein:5 announcement:1 partly:1 base:1 belief:1 case:9 finish:1 fill:3 early:1 work:4 steve:1 smith:2 different:2 run:1 two:2 volume:5 second:5 generation:13 stand:2 around:1 extreme:1 effort:2 devote:3 simpler:3 revisionism:1 originally:1 lead:1 balance:1 manuscript:1 estimate:1 new:2 eventually:1 approximately:1 stem:1 relaxed:1 style:1 collaborator:1 several:1 reason:1 possible:2 important:2 final:1 statement:1 technique:3 apply:2 adequate:1 contrast:1 e:1 g:1 janko:1 prove:3 piece:1 use:1 overly:1 general:1 conclusion:1 unknown:1 consist:1 alone:1 theorems:2 deal:2 analysis:1 numerous:1 orchestrate:1 postpone:1 powerful:1 assumption:1 price:1 pay:1 revise:1 strategy:1 longer:1 comparatively:1 short:1 instead:1 rely:2 overlap:1 divide:1 inefficient:1 subfamiles:1 identify:1 multiple:1 time:1 revised:1 eliminate:1 redundancy:1 subdivision:1 theorist:1 experience:1 sort:1 exercise:1 disposal:1 third:2 designate:1 problem:1 ulrich:1 meierfrankenfeld:1 bernd:1 stellmacher:1 gernot:1 stroth:1 others:1 note:1 reference:1 status:1 notice:2 american:3 society:2 scientific:1 vol:2 pp:1 richard:2 lyon:1 ronald:1 solomon:2 mark:1 ronan:1 symmetry:1 isbn:2 oxford:1 university:1 press:1 concise:1 introduction:2 lay:2 reader:2 marcus:1 du:1 sautoy:1 moonshine:1 fourth:1 estate:1 another:1 ron:1 technical:1 good:1 history:1 external:1 link:1 atlas:1 representation:2 searchable:1 database:1 data:1 elwes:1 plus:1 magazine:1 issue:1 december:1 laypeople:1 madore:1 david:1 nonabelian:2 list:1 |@bigram jean_pierre:2 pierre_serre:2 daniel_gorenstein:4 external_link:1 searchable_database:1 |
5,457 | Chemical_reaction | Vapors of hydrogen chloride in a beaker and ammonia in a test tube meet to form a cloud of a new substance, ammonium chloride A chemical reaction is a process that always results in the interconversion of chemical substances. The substance or substances initially involved in a chemical reaction are called reactants. Chemical reactions are usually characterized by a chemical change, and they yield one or more products, which usually have properties different from the reactants. Classically, chemical reactions encompass changes that strictly involve the motion of electrons in the forming and breaking of chemical bonds, although the general concept of a chemical reaction, in particular the notion of a chemical equation, is applicable to transformations of elementary particles, as well as nuclear reactions. Different chemical reactions are used in combination in chemical synthesis in order to get a desired product. In biochemistry, series of chemical reactions catalyzed by enzymes form metabolic pathways, by which syntheses and decompositions ordinarily impossible in conditions within a cell are performed. Reaction types The large diversity of chemical reactions and approaches to their study results in the existence of several concurring, often overlapping, ways of classifying them. Below are examples of widely used terms for describing common kinds of reactions. Isomerisation, in which a chemical compound undergoes a structural rearrangement without any change in its net atomic composition; see stereoisomerism Direct combination or synthesis, in which 2 or more chemical elements or compounds unite to form a more complex product: N2 + 3 H2 → 2 [[Ammonia|NH3]] Chemical decomposition or analysis, in which a compound is decomposed into smaller compounds or elements: 2 H2O → 2 H2 + O2 Single displacement or substitution, characterized by an element being displaced out of a compound by a more reactive element: 2 Na(s) + 2 HCl(aq) → 2 NaCl(aq) + H2(g) Metathesis or Double displacement reaction, in which two compounds exchange ions or bonds to form different compounds: NaCl(aq) + AgNO3(aq) → NaNO3(aq) + AgCl(s) Acid-base reactions, broadly characterized as reactions between an acid and a base, can have different definitions depending on the acid-base concept employed. Some of the most common are: Arrhenius definition: Acids dissociate in water releasing H3O+ ions; bases dissociate in water releasing OH- ions. Brønsted-Lowry definition: Acids are proton (H+) donors; bases are proton acceptors. Includes the Arrhenius definition. Lewis definition: Acids are electron-pair acceptors; bases are electron-pair donors. Includes the Brønsted-Lowry definition. Redox reactions, in which changes in oxidation numbers of atoms in involved species occur. Those reactions can often be interpreted as transferences of electrons between different molecular sites or species. An example of a redox reaction is: 2 S2O32−(aq) + I2(aq) → S4O62−(aq) + 2 I−(aq) In which I2 is reduced to I- and S2O32- (thiosulfate anion) is oxidized to S4O62-. Combustion, a kind of redox reaction in which any combustible substance combines with an oxidizing element, usually oxygen, to generate heat and form oxidized products. The term combustion is usually used for only large-scale oxidation of whole molecules, i.e. a controlled oxidation of a single functional group is not combustion. C10H8+ 12 O2 → 10 CO2 + 4 H2O CH2S + 6 F2 → CF4 + 2 HF + SF6 Disproportionation with one reactant forming two distinct products varying in oxidation state. 2 Sn2+ → Sn + Sn4+ Organic reactions encompass a wide assortment of reactions involving compounds which have carbon as the main element in their molecular structure. The reactions in which an organic compound may take part are largely defined by its functional groups. Chemical kinetics The rate of a chemical reaction is a measure of how the concentration or pressure of the involved substances changes with time. Analysis of reaction rates is important for several applications, such as in chemical engineering or in chemical equilibrium study. Rates of reaction depends basically on: Reactant concentrations, which usually make the reaction happen at a faster rate if raised through increased collisions per unit time, Surface area available for contact between the reactants, in particular solid ones in heterogeneous systems. Larger surface area leads to higher reaction rates. Pressure, by increasing the pressure, you decrease the volume between molecules. This will increase the frequency of collisions of molecules. Activation energy, which is defined as the amount of energy required to make the reaction start and carry on spontaneously. Higher activation energy implies that the reactants need more energy to start than a reaction with a lower activation energy. Temperature, which hastens reactions if raised, since higher temperature increases the energy of the molecules, creating more collisions per unit time, The presence or absence of a catalyst. Catalysts are substances which change the pathway (mechanism) of a reaction which in turn increases the speed of a reaction by lowering the activation energy needed for the reaction to take place. A catalyst is not destroyed or changed during a reaction, so it can be used again. For some reactions, the presence of electromagnetic radiation, most notably ultraviolet, is needed to promote the breaking of bonds to start the reaction. This is particularly true for reactions involving radicals. Reaction rates are related to the concentrations of substances involved in reactions, as quantified by the rate law of each reaction. Note that some reactions have rates that are independent of reactant concentrations. These are called zero order reactions. Reactions and Energy Chemical energy is part of all chemical reactions. Energy is needed to break chemical bonds in the starting substances. As new bonds form in the final substances, energy is released. By comparing the chemical energy of the original substances with the chemical energy of the final substances, you can decide if energy is released or absorbed in the overall reaction. Exothermic Reactions A chemical reaction in which energy is released is called an exothermic reaction. Exo means "go out" or "exit." Thermic means "heat" or "energy." Exothermic reactions can give off energy in several forms. If heat is released in an exothermic reaction, the nearby matter will become warmer. The nearby matter absorbs the heat released by the reaction. The reaction between gasoline and oxygen in a car's engine is an exothermic reaction See also List of reactions Organic reaction Inorganic chemical reaction List of important publications in chemistry Stoichiometry Stoichiometric coefficient Transition state theory Gas stoichiometry Thermodynamic databases for pure substances Autocatalytic reaction Coefficients Q values Further reading Is This Reaction a Substitution, Oxidation-Reduction, or Transfer? / N.S.Imyanitov. J. Chem. Educ. 1993, 70(1), 14 – 16. References External links UC Berkeley video lecture on chemical reactions | Chemical_reaction |@lemmatized vapor:1 hydrogen:1 chloride:2 beaker:1 ammonia:2 test:1 tube:1 meet:1 form:8 cloud:1 new:2 substance:13 ammonium:1 chemical:28 reaction:58 process:1 always:1 result:2 interconversion:1 initially:1 involve:5 call:3 reactant:7 usually:5 characterize:3 change:7 yield:1 one:3 product:5 property:1 different:5 classically:1 encompass:2 strictly:1 motion:1 electron:4 forming:1 breaking:2 bond:5 although:1 general:1 concept:2 particular:2 notion:1 equation:1 applicable:1 transformation:1 elementary:1 particle:1 well:1 nuclear:1 use:4 combination:2 synthesis:3 order:2 get:1 desired:1 biochemistry:1 series:1 catalyze:1 enzyme:1 metabolic:1 pathway:2 decomposition:2 ordinarily:1 impossible:1 condition:1 within:1 cell:1 perform:1 type:1 large:3 diversity:1 approach:1 study:2 existence:1 several:3 concurring:1 often:2 overlap:1 way:1 classify:1 example:2 widely:1 term:2 describe:1 common:2 kind:2 isomerisation:1 compound:9 undergo:1 structural:1 rearrangement:1 without:1 net:1 atomic:1 composition:1 see:2 stereoisomerism:1 direct:1 element:6 unite:1 complex:1 analysis:2 decompose:1 small:1 single:2 displacement:2 substitution:2 displace:1 reactive:1 na:1 hcl:1 aq:9 nacl:2 g:1 metathesis:1 double:1 two:2 exchange:1 ion:3 agcl:1 acid:6 base:6 broadly:1 definition:6 depend:2 employ:1 arrhenius:2 dissociate:2 water:2 release:7 oh:1 brønsted:2 lowry:2 proton:2 h:1 donor:2 acceptor:2 include:2 lewis:1 pair:2 redox:3 oxidation:5 number:1 atom:1 involved:2 specie:2 occur:1 interpret:1 transference:1 molecular:2 site:1 reduce:1 thiosulfate:1 anion:1 oxidize:3 combustion:3 combustible:1 combine:1 oxygen:2 generate:1 heat:4 scale:1 whole:1 molecule:4 e:1 controlled:1 functional:2 group:2 hf:1 disproportionation:1 distinct:1 vary:1 state:2 sn:1 organic:3 wide:1 assortment:1 carbon:1 main:1 structure:1 may:1 take:2 part:2 largely:1 define:2 kinetics:1 rate:8 measure:1 concentration:4 pressure:3 time:3 important:2 application:1 engineering:1 equilibrium:1 basically:1 make:2 happen:1 faster:1 raise:2 increase:5 collision:3 per:2 unit:2 surface:2 area:2 available:1 contact:1 solid:1 heterogeneous:1 system:1 lead:1 high:3 decrease:1 volume:1 frequency:1 activation:4 energy:17 amount:1 require:1 start:3 carry:1 spontaneously:1 implies:1 need:4 low:1 temperature:2 hasten:1 since:1 create:1 presence:2 absence:1 catalyst:3 mechanism:1 turn:1 speed:1 lower:1 place:1 destroy:1 electromagnetic:1 radiation:1 notably:1 ultraviolet:1 promote:1 particularly:1 true:1 radical:1 relate:1 quantify:1 law:1 note:1 independent:1 zero:1 break:1 starting:1 final:2 compare:1 original:1 decide:1 absorb:1 overall:1 exothermic:5 exo:1 mean:2 go:1 exit:1 thermic:1 give:1 nearby:2 matter:2 become:1 warmer:1 absorbs:1 gasoline:1 car:1 engine:1 also:1 list:2 inorganic:1 publication:1 chemistry:1 stoichiometry:2 stoichiometric:1 coefficient:2 transition:1 theory:1 gas:1 thermodynamic:1 database:1 pure:1 autocatalytic:1 q:1 value:1 far:1 reading:1 reduction:1 transfer:1 n:1 imyanitov:1 j:1 chem:1 educ:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 uc:1 berkeley:1 video:1 lecture:1 |@bigram ammonium_chloride:1 elementary_particle:1 reaction_catalyze:1 catalyze_enzyme:1 metabolic_pathway:1 aq_aq:5 arrhenius_definition:2 brønsted_lowry:2 proton_acceptor:1 redox_reaction:3 combustible_substance:1 organic_compound:1 electromagnetic_radiation:1 reaction_exothermic:1 exothermic_reaction:5 external_link:1 uc_berkeley:1 |
5,458 | Cy_Young_Award | The Cy Young Award is an honor given annually in baseball to the best pitcher in Major League Baseball (MLB), one each for the American League (AL) and National League (NL). The award was first introduced in by Baseball Commissioner Ford Frick in honor of Hall of Fame pitcher Cy Young, who died in . The award was originally given to the single best pitcher in the major leagues, but in , after the retirement of Frick, the award was given to one pitcher in each league. Each league's award is voted on by members of the Baseball Writers Association of America, with two representatives from each team, which means 28 ballots are cast for the American League winner, and 32 ballots are cast for the National League. Each voter places a vote for first, second, and third place among the pitchers of each league. The formula used to calculate the final scores is a weighted sum of the votes. The pitcher with the highest score in each league wins the award. If two pitchers receive the same number of votes, the award is shared. The current formula started in the season. Before that, writers only voted for the best pitcher and used a formula of one point per vote. History Cy Young, for whom the award is named The Cy Young Award was first introduced in by Commissioner of Baseball Ford Frick in honor of Hall of Fame pitcher Cy Young, who died in . The award would be given to pitchers only. Originally given to the single best pitchers in the major leagues, the award changed its format over time. From to , the award was given to one pitcher in Major League Baseball. After Frick retired in 1967, William Eckert became the new Commissioner of Baseball. Due to fan requests, Eckert announced that the award would be given out both in the American and National Leagues. From to , a pitcher was not allowed to win the award on more than one occasion; that rule was lifted in 1959. After a tie in the voting, the process was changed, in which each writer was to vote for three different pitchers: the first-place vote received five points, the second-place vote received three points, and the third-place vote received one point, a system still in use. The first recipient of the award was Don Newcombe, and the most recent winners were Tim Lincecum, from the National League, and Cliff Lee, from the American League. In , Warren Spahn became the first left-handed pitcher to win the award. In 1963, Sandy Koufax became the first pitcher to win the award in a unanimous vote; two years later he became the first multiple winner. In , Mike Marshall won the award, becoming the first relief pitcher to win the award. In , Gaylord Perry became the oldest pitcher to receive the award, only to have the record broken in by Roger Clemens. Key YearEach year is linked to an article about that year in baseballERAEarned run average Winners Major Leagues combined (1956–1966) Roger Clemens, seven-time winner YearPitcherTeamRecordSavesERADon NewcombeBrooklyn Dodgers (NL)27–703.06Warren SpahnMilwaukee Braves (NL)21–1132.69Bob TurleyNew York Yankees (AL)21–712.97Early WynnChicago White Sox (AL)22–1003.17Vern LawPittsburgh Pirates (NL)20–903.08Whitey FordNew York Yankees (AL)25–403.21Don DrysdaleLos Angeles Dodgers (NL)25–912.84Sandy KoufaxLos Angeles Dodgers (NL)25–501.88Dean ChanceLos Angeles Angels (AL)20–941.65Sandy KoufaxLos Angeles Dodgers (NL)26–822.04Sandy KoufaxLos Angeles Dodgers (NL)27–901.73 National League (1967–present) Greg Maddux, four-time winner John Smoltz, one-time winner Pedro Martínez, three-time winner Tim Lincecum, one-time winner YearPitcherTeamRecordSavesERAMike McCormickSan Francisco Giants22–1002.85Bob GibsonSt. Louis Cardinals22–901.12Tom SeaverNew York Mets25–702.21Bob GibsonSt. Louis Cardinals23–703.12Ferguson JenkinsChicago Cubs24–1302.77Steve CarltonPhiladelphia Phillies27–1001.98Tom SeaverNew York Mets19–1002.08Mike MarshallLos Angeles Dodgers15–12212.42Tom SeaverNew York Mets22–902.38Randy JonesSan Diego Padres22–1402.74Steve CarltonPhiladelphia Phillies23–1002.64Gaylord PerrySan Diego Padres21–602.73Bruce SutterChicago Cubs6–6372.22Steve CarltonPhiladelphia Phillies24–902.34Fernando ValenzuelaLos Angeles Dodgers13–702.48Steve CarltonPhiladelphia Phillies23–1103.11John DennyPhiladelphia Phillies19–602.37Rick SutcliffeChicago Cubs16–102.69Dwight GoodenNew York Mets24–401.53Mike ScottHouston Astros18–1002.22Steve BedrosianPhiladelphia Phillies5–3402.83Orel HershiserLos Angeles Dodgers23–812.26Mark DavisSan Diego Padres4–3441.85Doug DrabekPittsburgh Pirates22–602.76Tom GlavineAtlanta Braves20–1102.55Greg MadduxChicago Cubs20–1102.18Greg MadduxAtlanta Braves20–1002.36Greg MadduxAtlanta Braves16–601.56Greg MadduxAtlanta Braves19–201.63John SmoltzAtlanta Braves24–802.94Pedro MartínezMontreal Expos17–801.90Tom GlavineAtlanta Braves20–602.47Randy JohnsonArizona Diamondbacks17–902.49Randy JohnsonArizona Diamondbacks19–702.64Randy JohnsonArizona Diamondbacks21–602.49Randy JohnsonArizona Diamondbacks24–502.32Éric GagnéLos Angeles Dodgers2–3551.20Roger ClemensHouston Astros18–402.98Chris CarpenterSt. Louis Cardinals21–502.83Brandon WebbArizona Diamondbacks16-803.10Jake PeavySan Diego Padres19–602.54Tim LincecumSan Francisco Giants18–502.62 American League (1967–present) Jack McDowell, one-time winner Barry Zito, one-time winner Johan Santana, two-time winner YearPitcherTeamRecordSavesERAJim LonborgBoston Red Sox22–903.16Denny McLainDetroit Tigers31–601.96Mike CuellarDenny McLainBaltimore OriolesDetroit Tigers23–1124–9002.382.80Jim PerryMinnesota Twins24–1203.04Vida BlueOakland Athletics24–801.82Gaylord PerryCleveland Indians24–1611.92Jim PalmerBaltimore Orioles22–912.40Catfish HunterOakland Athletics25–1202.49Jim PalmerBaltimore Orioles23–1112.09Jim PalmerBaltimore Orioles22–1302.51Sparky LyleNew York Yankees13–5262.17Ron GuidryNew York Yankees25–301.74Mike FlanaganBaltimore Orioles23–903.08Steve StoneBaltimore Orioles25–703.23Rollie FingersMilwaukee Brewers6–3281.04Pete VuckovichMilwaukee Brewers18–603.34LaMarr HoytChicago White Sox24–1003.66Willie HernándezDetroit Tigers9–3321.92Bret SaberhagenKansas City Royals20–602.87Roger ClemensBoston Red Sox24–402.48Roger ClemensBoston Red Sox20–902.97Frank ViolaMinnesota Twins24–702.64Bret SaberhagenKansas City Royals23–602.16Bob WelchOakland Athletics27–602.95Roger ClemensBoston Red Sox18–1002.62Dennis EckersleyOakland Athletics7–1511.91Jack McDowellChicago White Sox22–1003.37David ConeKansas City Royals16–502.94Randy JohnsonSeattle Mariners18–202.48Pat HentgenToronto Blue Jays20–1003.22Roger ClemensToronto Blue Jays21–702.05Roger ClemensToronto Blue Jays20–602.65Pedro MartínezBoston Red Sox23–402.07Pedro MartínezBoston Red Sox18–601.74Roger ClemensNew York Yankees20–303.51Barry ZitoOakland Athletics23–502.75Roy HalladayToronto Blue Jays22–703.25Johan Santana Minnesota Twins20–602.61Bartolo ColónLos Angeles Angels21–803.48Johan SantanaMinnesota Twins19–602.77C.C. SabathiaCleveland Indians19–70 3.21Cliff LeeCleveland Indians22–30 2.54 Multiple winners Randy Johnson, five-time winner There have been 14 pitchers who have won the award multiple times. Roger Clemens currently holds the record for the most awards won, with seven. Greg Maddux (1992–1995) and Randy Johnson (1999–2002) share the record for the most consecutive awards won. Clemens, Johnson, Pedro Martínez and Gaylord Perry are the only pitchers to have won the award in both the American League and National League. Pitcher # of Awards Years Roger Clemens <center>7 1986, 1987, 1991, 1997, 1998, 2001, 2004 Randy Johnson <center>5 1995, 1999, 2000, 2001, 2002 Steve Carlton <center>4 1972, 1977, 1980, 1982 Greg Maddux <center>4 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995 Sandy Koufax <center>3 1963, 1965, 1966 Pedro Martínez <center>3 1997, 1999, 2000 Jim Palmer <center>3 1973, 1975, 1976 Tom Seaver <center>3 1969, 1973, 1975 Bob Gibson <center>2 1968, 1970 Tom Glavine <center>2 1991, 1998 Denny McLain <center>2 1968, 1969 Gaylord Perry <center>2 1972, 1978 Bret Saberhagen <center>2 1985, 1989 Johan Santana <center>2 2004, 2006 Notes The formula is: Score = 5F + 3S + T, where F is the number of first place votes, S is second place votes, and T is third place votes. See: Decision (baseball) In baseball, a save is credited to a pitcher who finishes a game for the winning team under certain prescribed circumstances. It became an official statistic in Major League Baseball in 1969. References General Specific | Cy_Young_Award |@lemmatized cy:5 young:5 award:25 honor:3 give:7 annually:1 baseball:10 best:4 pitcher:22 major:6 league:21 mlb:1 one:10 american:6 al:5 national:6 nl:8 first:10 introduce:2 commissioner:3 ford:2 frick:4 hall:2 fame:2 die:2 originally:2 single:2 retirement:1 vote:14 member:1 writer:2 association:1 america:1 two:4 representative:1 team:2 mean:1 ballot:2 cast:2 winner:14 voter:1 place:8 second:3 third:3 among:1 formula:4 use:3 calculate:1 final:1 score:3 weighted:1 sum:1 high:1 win:11 receive:5 number:2 share:2 current:1 start:1 season:1 writers:1 point:4 per:1 history:1 name:1 would:2 change:2 format:1 time:11 retire:1 william:1 eckert:2 become:7 new:1 due:1 fan:1 request:1 announce:1 allow:1 occasion:1 rule:1 lift:1 tie:1 voting:1 process:1 three:3 different:1 five:2 system:1 still:1 recipient:1 newcombe:1 recent:1 tim:2 lincecum:2 cliff:1 lee:1 warren:1 spahn:1 leave:1 hand:1 sandy:2 koufax:2 unanimous:1 year:4 later:1 multiple:3 mike:1 marshall:1 relief:1 gaylord:3 perry:3 old:1 record:3 break:1 roger:4 clemens:5 key:1 yeareach:1 link:1 article:1 baseballeraearned:1 run:1 average:1 combine:1 seven:2 yearpitcherteamrecordsaveseradon:1 newcombebrooklyn:1 dodger:5 spahnmilwaukee:1 brave:1 turleynew:1 york:9 yankee:2 wynnchicago:1 white:3 sox:1 lawpittsburgh:1 pirate:1 fordnew:1 drysdalelos:1 angeles:10 koufaxlos:3 chancelos:1 angel:1 present:2 greg:3 maddux:3 four:1 john:1 smoltz:1 pedro:3 martínez:3 yearpitcherteamrecordsaveseramike:1 mccormicksan:1 francisco:2 gibsonst:2 louis:3 seavernew:3 jenkinschicago:1 carltonphiladelphia:4 marshalllos:1 jonessan:1 diego:4 perrysan:1 sutterchicago:1 valenzuelalos:1 dennyphiladelphia:1 sutcliffechicago:1 goodennew:1 scotthouston:1 bedrosianphiladelphia:1 hershiserlos:1 davissan:1 drabekpittsburgh:1 glavineatlanta:2 madduxchicago:1 madduxatlanta:3 smoltzatlanta:1 martínezmontreal:1 johnsonarizona:4 gagnélos:1 clemenshouston:1 carpenterst:1 webbarizona:1 peavysan:1 lincecumsan:1 jack:1 mcdowell:1 barry:1 zito:1 johan:2 santana:3 yearpitcherteamrecordsaveserajim:1 lonborgboston:1 red:6 mclaindetroit:1 cuellardenny:1 mclainbaltimore:1 oriolesdetroit:1 perryminnesota:1 blueoakland:1 perrycleveland:1 palmerbaltimore:3 hunteroakland:1 lylenew:1 guidrynew:1 flanaganbaltimore:1 stonebaltimore:1 fingersmilwaukee:1 vuckovichmilwaukee:1 hoytchicago:1 hernándezdetroit:1 saberhagenkansas:2 city:3 clemensboston:3 violaminnesota:1 welchoakland:1 eckersleyoakland:1 mcdowellchicago:1 conekansas:1 johnsonseattle:1 hentgentoronto:1 blue:4 clemenstoronto:2 martínezboston:2 clemensnew:1 zitooakland:1 halladaytoronto:1 minnesota:1 colónlos:1 santanaminnesota:1 c:1 sabathiacleveland:1 leecleveland:1 randy:3 johnson:4 currently:1 hold:1 consecutive:1 center:14 steve:1 carlton:1 jim:1 palmer:1 tom:2 seaver:1 bob:1 gibson:1 glavine:1 denny:1 mclain:1 bret:1 saberhagen:1 note:1 f:1 see:1 decision:1 save:1 credit:1 finish:1 game:1 certain:1 prescribed:1 circumstance:1 official:1 statistic:1 reference:1 general:1 specific:1 |@bigram cy_young:5 league_baseball:3 hall_fame:2 weighted_sum:1 sandy_koufax:2 relief_pitcher:1 roger_clemens:4 white_sox:1 angeles_dodger:4 greg_maddux:3 john_smoltz:1 pedro_martínez:3 randy_johnson:3 steve_carlton:1 tom_seaver:1 tom_glavine:1 bret_saberhagen:1 |
5,459 | Altair | Altair (Alpha Aquilae / Alpha Aql / α Aquilae / α Aql / Atair) is the brightest star in the constellation Aquila and the twelfth brightest star in the night sky. It is an A-type main sequence star with an apparent visual magnitude of 0.77 and is one of the vertices of the Summer Triangle; the other two are Deneb and Vega. Summer Triangle, entry, The Internet Encyclopedia of Science, David Darling. Accessed on line November 26, 2008. Altair rotates rapidly, with a velocity at the equator of around 286 km/s. From values of v sin i and i in the second column of Table 1, Monnier et al. 2007. A study with the Palomar Testbed Interferometer revealed that Altair is not spherical, but is flattened at the poles due to its high rate of rotation. Altair's Oblateness and Rotation Velocity from Long-Baseline Interferometry, Gerard T. van Belle, David R. Ciardi, Robert R. Thompson, Rachel L. Akeson, and Elizabeth A. Lada, Astrophysical Journal 559 (October 1, 2001), pp. 1155–1164, , . Other interferometric studies with multiple telescopes, operating in the infrared, have imaged this phenomenon. Imaging the Surface of Altair, J. Monnier et al., Science 317, #5836 (July 20, 2007), pp. 342–345, , , . Accessed on line November 25, 2008. See second column of Table 1 for stellar parameters. Star Altair in the constellation of Aquila. Altair is located 16.8 light-years (5.14 pc) from Earth and is one of the closest stars visible to the naked eye. p. 194, The Brightest Stars: Discovering The Universe Through The Sky's Most Brilliant Stars, Fred Schaaf, Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2008, ISBN 978-0-471-70410-2. Along with Beta Aquilae and Gamma Aquilae, it forms the well-known line of stars sometimes referred to as the Family of Aquila or Shaft of Aquila. p. 190, Schaaf 2008. Altair is a type-A main sequence star with approximately 1.8 times the mass of the Sun and 11 times its luminosity. It is notable for its extremely rapid rotation; it has a rotational period of approximately 9 hours. For comparison, the equator of the Sun requires just over 25 days for a complete rotation. Rapid rotation forces Altair to be oblate: its equatorial diameter is over 20 percent greater than its polar diameter. Satellite measurements made in 1999 with the Wide-Field Infrared Explorer showed that the brightness of Altair fluctuates slightly, varying by a few thousandths of a magnitude. As a result, it was identified in 2005 as a δ Scuti variable star. Its light curve can be approximated by adding together a number of sine waves, with periods which range between 0.8 and 1.5 hours. Altair: The Brightest δ Scuti Star, D. L. Buzasi et al., The Astrophysical Journal 619, #2 (February 2005), pp. 1072–1076, , . Oblateness and surface temperature Image of the rapidly rotating star Altair, made with the MIRC imager on the CHARA array on Mt. Wilson The angular diameter of Altair was measured interferometrically by R. Hanbury Brown and his coworkers at Narrabri Observatory in the 1960s. They found a diameter of 3 milliarcseconds. The stellar interferometer at Narrabri Observatory-II. The angular diameters of 15 stars, R. Hanbury Brown, J. Davis, L. R. Allen, and J. M. Rome, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 137 (1967), pp. 393–417, . Although Hanbury Brown et al. realized that Altair would be rotationally flattened, they had insufficient data to experimentally observe its oblateness. Altair was later observed to be flattened by infrared interferometric measurements made by the Palomar Testbed Interferometer in 1999 and 2000. This work was published by G. T. van Belle and his co-authors in 2001. Theory predicts that, owing to Altair's rapid rotation, its surface gravity and effective temperature should be lower at the equator, making the equator less luminous than the poles. This phenomenon, known as gravity darkening or the von Zeipel effect, was confirmed for Altair by measurements made by the Navy Prototype Optical Interferometer in 2001, and analyzed by Ohishi et al. (2004) and Peterson et al. (2006). Asymmetric Surface Brightness Distribution of Altair Observed with the Navy Prototype Optical Interferometer, Naoko Ohishi, Tyler E. Nordgren, and Donald J. Hutter, The Astrophysical Journal 612, #1 (September 1, 2004), pp. 463–471, , . Also, A. Domiciano de Souza et al. (2005) verified gravity darkening using the measurements made by the Palomar and Navy interferometers, together with new measurements made by the VINCI instrument at the VLTI. Gravitational-darkening of Altair from interferometry, A. Domiciano de Souza, P. Kervella, S. Jankov, F. Vakili, N. Ohishi, T. E. Nordgren, and L. Abe, Astronomy and Astrophysics 442, #2 (November 2005), pp. 567–578, , . Altair is one of the few stars for which a direct image has been obtained. Gazing up at the Man in the Star?, Press Release 07-062, National Science Foundation, May 31, 2007. Accessed on line November 25, 2008. In 2006 and 2007, J. D. Monnier and his coworkers produced an image of Altair's surface from 2006 infrared observations made with the MIRC instrument on the CHARA array interferometer; this was the first time the surface of any main-sequence star, apart from the Sun, had been imaged. The image was published in 2007 and can be seen above and to the left. In this image, North (the direction towards the North Celestial Pole) is up and East is left, and the white line is the rotational axis of Altair. The black grid shows lines of latitude and longitude in an Altair-centric coordinate system. The image is false-color, with brighter regions shown in white and darker regions in blue. The von Zeipel effect can be observed in the image, which shows a white spot near the pole and a darker equator. The equatorial radius of the star was estimated to be 2.03 solar radii, and the polar radius 1.63 solar radii—a 20% increase of the stellar radius from pole to equator. Etymology, mythology and culture The name Altair has been used since medieval times. It is an abbreviation of the Arabic phrase , an-nasr aţ-ţā’ir (English: The flying eagle). This name was applied by the Arabs to the asterism of α, β, and γ Aquilae and probably goes back to the ancient Babylonians and Sumerians, who called α Aquilae the eagle star. pp. 17–18, A Dictionary of Modern Star Names, Paul Kunitzsch and Tim Smart, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Sky Publishing, 2006, ISBN 978-1-931559-44-7. The spelling Atair has also been used. p. 59–60, Star-names and Their Meanings, Richard Hinckley Allen, New York: G. E. Stechert, 1899. In Chinese, the asterism consisting of α, β, and γ Aquilae is known as (, English: River Drum). Altair is thus known as (, English: the Second Star of the Drum at the River, or more literally, Riverdrum II). 香港太空館 - 研究資源 - 亮星中英對照表, Hong Kong Space Museum. Accessed on line November 26, 2008. However, it is better known by its other names: () or (), or in English, Star of the Cowherd. pp. 97–98, 161, The Chinese Reader's Manual, William Frederick Mayers, Shanghai: American Presbyterian Mission Press, 1874. p. 72, China, Japan, Korea Culture and Customs: Culture and Customs, Ju Brown and John Brown, 2006, ISBN 9781419648939. These names are from the love story of , Qī Xī, in which Niú Láng and his two children, β and γ Aquilae, are separated from their mother, (, English: Weaver Girl), the star Vega, by the Milky Way. They are only permitted to meet once a year, when the Milky Way is crossed by a bridge of magpies. pp. 105–107, Magic Lotus Lantern and Other Tales from the Han Chinese, Haiwang Yuan and Michael Ann Williams, Libraries Unlimited, 2006, ISBN 9781591582946. The Japanese festival, in which Altair is known as , is based on this legend. pp. 238–240, The Romance of the Milky Way, Lafcadio Hearn, The Atlantic Monthly 96 (August 1905), pp. 238–250. In astrology, the star Altair was ill-omened, portending danger from reptiles. The NASA Constellation Program announced Altair as the name of the Lunar Surface Access Module (LSAM) on December 13, 2007. NASA names next-gen lunar lander Altair, December 13, 2007, collectspace.com. Accessed on line November 26, 2008. The Russian-made Beriev Be-200 Altair seaplane is also named after the star. Press release #58, Beriev Aircraft Company, February 12, 2003. Accessed on line November 26, 2008. Visual companions The A-type main sequence star has the multiple star designation WDS 19508+0852A and has three visual companion stars, WDS 19508+0852B, C, and D. Component B is not physically close to A but merely appears close to it in the sky. See also Altair in fiction Notes References External links Star with Midriff Bulge Eyed by Astronomers, JPL press release, July 25, 2001. Imaging the Surface of Altair, University of Michigan news release detailing the CHARA array direct imaging of the stellar surface in 2007. PIA04204: Altair, NASA. Image of Altair from the Palomar Testbed Interferometer. Altair at SolStation. Secrets of Sun-like star probed, BBC News, June 1, 2007. Astronomers Capture First Images of the Surface Features of Altair, astromart.com. Image of Altair from Aladin. Altair at Alycone Software's Star Data Pages. be-x-old:Альтаір | Altair |@lemmatized altair:38 alpha:2 aquilae:8 aql:2 α:5 atair:2 bright:4 star:31 constellation:3 aquila:4 twelfth:1 night:1 sky:4 type:3 main:4 sequence:4 apparent:1 visual:3 magnitude:2 one:3 vertex:1 summer:2 triangle:2 two:2 deneb:1 vega:2 entry:1 internet:1 encyclopedia:1 science:3 david:2 darling:1 access:7 line:9 november:7 rotate:2 rapidly:2 velocity:2 equator:6 around:1 km:1 value:1 v:1 sin:1 second:3 column:2 table:2 monnier:3 et:7 al:7 study:2 palomar:4 testbed:3 interferometer:8 reveal:1 spherical:1 flatten:3 pole:5 due:1 high:1 rate:1 rotation:6 oblateness:3 long:1 baseline:1 interferometry:2 gerard:1 van:2 belle:2 r:5 ciardi:1 robert:1 thompson:1 rachel:1 l:4 akeson:1 elizabeth:1 lada:1 astrophysical:3 journal:3 october:1 pp:11 interferometric:2 multiple:2 telescope:1 operate:1 infrared:4 image:14 phenomenon:2 surface:10 j:5 july:2 see:3 stellar:4 parameter:1 locate:1 light:2 year:2 pc:1 earth:1 close:3 visible:1 naked:1 eye:2 p:5 discover:1 universe:1 brilliant:1 fred:1 schaaf:2 hoboken:1 nj:1 john:2 wiley:1 son:1 inc:1 isbn:4 along:1 beta:1 gamma:1 form:1 well:2 know:6 sometimes:1 refer:1 family:1 shaft:1 approximately:2 time:4 mass:1 sun:4 luminosity:1 notable:1 extremely:1 rapid:3 rotational:2 period:2 hour:2 comparison:1 require:1 day:1 complete:1 force:1 oblate:1 equatorial:2 diameter:5 percent:1 great:1 polar:2 satellite:1 measurement:5 make:9 wide:1 field:1 explorer:1 show:4 brightness:2 fluctuates:1 slightly:1 vary:1 thousandth:1 result:1 identify:1 δ:2 scuti:2 variable:1 curve:1 approximate:1 add:1 together:2 number:1 sine:1 wave:1 range:1 buzasi:1 february:2 temperature:2 mirc:2 imager:1 chara:3 array:3 mt:1 wilson:1 angular:2 measure:1 interferometrically:1 hanbury:3 brown:5 coworkers:2 narrabri:2 observatory:2 find:1 milliarcseconds:1 ii:2 davis:1 allen:2 rome:1 monthly:2 notice:1 royal:1 astronomical:1 society:1 although:1 realize:1 would:1 rotationally:1 insufficient:1 data:2 experimentally:1 observe:4 later:1 work:1 publish:2 g:2 co:1 author:1 theory:1 predict:1 owe:1 gravity:3 effective:1 low:1 less:1 luminous:1 darkening:2 von:2 zeipel:2 effect:2 confirm:1 navy:3 prototype:2 optical:2 analyze:1 ohishi:3 peterson:1 asymmetric:1 distribution:1 naoko:1 tyler:1 e:3 nordgren:2 donald:1 hutter:1 september:1 also:4 domiciano:2 de:2 souza:2 verify:1 darken:1 use:3 new:2 vinci:1 instrument:2 vlti:1 gravitational:1 kervella:1 jankov:1 f:1 vakili:1 n:1 abe:1 astronomy:1 astrophysics:1 direct:2 obtain:1 gaze:1 man:1 press:4 release:4 national:1 foundation:1 may:1 produce:1 observation:1 first:2 apart:1 left:1 north:2 direction:1 towards:1 celestial:1 east:1 leave:1 white:3 axis:1 black:1 grid:1 latitude:1 longitude:1 centric:1 coordinate:1 system:1 false:1 color:1 brighter:1 region:2 darker:2 blue:1 spot:1 near:1 radius:5 estimate:1 solar:2 increase:1 etymology:1 mythology:1 culture:3 name:9 since:1 medieval:1 abbreviation:1 arabic:1 phrase:1 nasr:1 aţ:1 ţā:1 ir:1 english:5 fly:1 eagle:2 apply:1 arab:1 asterism:2 β:3 γ:3 probably:1 go:1 back:1 ancient:1 babylonian:1 sumerian:1 call:1 dictionary:1 modern:1 paul:1 kunitzsch:1 tim:1 smart:1 cambridge:1 massachusetts:1 publishing:1 spell:1 meaning:1 richard:1 hinckley:1 york:1 stechert:1 chinese:3 consist:1 river:2 drum:2 thus:1 literally:1 riverdrum:1 香港太空館:1 研究資源:1 亮星中英對照表:1 hong:1 kong:1 space:1 museum:1 however:1 cowherd:1 reader:1 manual:1 william:1 frederick:1 mayer:1 shanghai:1 american:1 presbyterian:1 mission:1 china:1 japan:1 korea:1 custom:2 ju:1 love:1 story:1 qī:1 xī:1 niú:1 láng:1 child:1 separate:1 mother:1 weaver:1 girl:1 milky:3 way:3 permit:1 meet:1 cross:1 bridge:1 magpie:1 magic:1 lotus:1 lantern:1 tale:1 han:1 haiwang:1 yuan:1 michael:1 ann:1 williams:1 library:1 unlimited:1 japanese:1 festival:1 base:1 legend:1 romance:1 lafcadio:1 hearn:1 atlantic:1 august:1 astrology:1 ill:1 omen:1 portend:1 danger:1 reptile:1 nasa:3 program:1 announce:1 lunar:2 module:1 lsam:1 december:2 next:1 gen:1 lander:1 collectspace:1 com:2 russian:1 beriev:2 seaplane:1 aircraft:1 company:1 companion:2 designation:1 wds:2 three:1 c:1 component:1 b:1 physically:1 merely:1 appear:1 fiction:1 note:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 midriff:1 bulge:1 astronomer:2 jpl:1 university:1 michigan:1 news:2 detail:1 imaging:1 solstation:1 secret:1 like:1 probe:1 bbc:1 june:1 capture:1 feature:1 astromart:1 aladin:1 alycone:1 software:1 page:1 x:1 old:1 альтаір:1 |@bigram et_al:7 astrophysical_journal:3 visible_naked:1 naked_eye:1 hoboken_nj:1 wiley_son:1 sine_wave:1 astronomy_astrophysics:1 latitude_longitude:1 equatorial_radius:1 polar_radius:1 α_β:2 β_γ:3 richard_hinckley:1 hinckley_allen:1 hong_kong:1 milky_way:3 lafcadio_hearn:1 lunar_lander:1 external_link:1 bbc_news:1 |
5,460 | Couscous | Couscous or kuskus as it is known in Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya and Egypt ( in the United States, in the United Kingdom; Berber Seksu - , called maftoul in Lebanon and the Palestinian territories) is a Berber dish consisting of spherical granules made by rolling and shaping moistened semolina wheat and then coating them with finely ground wheat flour. The finished granules are about one millimetre in diameter before cooking. The Levantine variant, popular also in Israel, is about twice the diameter and made of hard wheat instead of semolina. http://www.shop.com/Israeli_Couscous-33735417-44148668-p!.shtml?sourceid=298 Traditional couscous requires considerable preparation time and is usually steamed. In many places, a more-processed, quick-cook couscous is available and is particularly valued for its short preparation time. The dish is a primary staple throughout the Maghreb; SHORT VERSION OF - VERSION MODIFICADA DE: Teresa de Castro, «Couscous», Encyclopaedia of Food. New York, USA. Scribner and Sons. 2003, vol. 1, pp. 465-466. (Cuscús) in much of Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya it is also known as ṭa`aam طعام, "food". It is also popular in the West African Sahel, in France, Madeira, in western Sicily's Province of Trapani, as well as in Greece, Cyprus and other parts of the Middle East. It is particularly popular among Jews of North African descent such as the Berber Jews, and is eaten in many other parts of the world as well. Couscous is traditionally served under a meat or vegetable stew. It can also be eaten alone, flavoured or plain, warm or cold, as a dessert or a side dish. Manufacturing The couscous granules are made from semolina (coarsely ground durum wheat) or, in some regions, from coarsely ground barley or pearl millet. In Brazil, the traditional couscous is made from pre-cooked sweet-corn flakes. Receitas Couscous from semolina (wheat) The semolina is sprinkled with water and rolled with the hands to form small pellets, sprinkled with dry flour to keep them separate, and then sieved. The pellets which are too small to be finished granules of couscous fall through the sieve to be again sprinkled with dry semolina and rolled into pellets. This process continues until all the semolina has been formed into tiny granules of couscous. Sometimes salt is added to the semolina and water. This process is very labour-intensive. In the traditional method of preparing couscous, groups of women would come together and make large batches over several days. These would then be dried in the sun and used for several months. Couscous was traditionally made from the hard part of the durum, the part of the grain that resisted the grinding of the relatively primitive millstone. In modern times, couscous production is largely mechanized, and the product sold in markets around the world. Couscous from pearl millet In the Sahel, pearl millet is pounded or milled to the size and consistency necessary for the couscous. Background History One of the first written references is from an anyonymous 13th-century Hispano-Muslim cookery book, Kitāb al-tabǐkh fǐ al-Maghrib wa'l-Andalus (Arabic) "The book of cooking in the Maghreb and Al-Andalus", with a recipe for couscous that was 'known all over the world'. Couscous was known to the Nasrid royalty in Granada as well. And in the 13th century a Syrian historian from Aleppo includes four references for couscous. These early mentions show that couscous spread rapidly, but generally that couscous was common from Tripolitania to the west, while from Cyrenaica to the east the main cuisine was Egyptian, with couscous as an occasional dish. Today, in Egypt and the Middle East, couscous is known, but in Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Western Libya couscous is a staple. Couscous was taken from Syria to Turkey in 16th century and is eaten in most of southern provinces. Couscous is a staple of Sicilian cuisine, perhaps as ancient as the dominant Berber culture of Sicily in the early Middle Ages. In Rome Bartolomeo Scappi's culinary guide of 1570 describes a Moorish dish, succussu; in Tuscany it is thought of as Jewish food because it was introduced by the Sephardic Jews who arrived in Livorno in the 16th century; from his acquaintances among Tuscan Jews, Pellegrino Artusi included "Jewish" couscous in his La Scienza in cucina (Milan, 1897). John Dickie, Delizia! The Epic History of the Italians and Their Food (New York, 2008) pp. 15, 115, 264f. One of the earliest references to couscous in Northern Europe is in Brittany, in a letter dated 12 January 1699. But it made an earlier appearance in Provence, where the traveler Jean Jacques Bouchard wrote of eating it in Toulon in 1630. Cooking Properly cooked couscous should be light and fluffy, not gummy or gritty; steam couscous two to three times to achieve this consistency. Traditionally, North Africans use a food steamer (called a kiskas in Arabic or couscoussière in French). The base is a tall metal pot shaped rather like an oil jar in which the meat and vegetables are cooked as a stew. On top of the base a steamer sits where the couscous is cooked, absorbing the flavours from the stew. The lid to the steamer has holes around its edge so steam can escape. It is also possible to use a pot with a steamer insert. If the holes are too big the steamer can be lined with damp cheesecloth. There is little archaeological evidence of early diets including couscous, possibly because the original couscoussière was probably made from organic materials which could not survive extended exposure to the elements. Instant couscous The couscous sold in most Western supermarkets has been pre-steamed and dried, the package directions usually instruct to add a small amount of boiling water or stock to the couscous and to cover tightly for 5 minutes. The couscous swells and within a few minutes it is ready to fluff with a fork and serve. Pre-steamed couscous takes less time to prepare than regular couscous, most dried pasta, or dried grains (such as rice). Recipes and combinations In Algeria and Tunisia, couscous is generally served with vegetables (carrots, turnips, et al.) cooked in a spicy or mild broth or stew, and some meat (generally, chicken, lamb or mutton); in Algeria, couscous can also be topped with fish in a sweet sauce with raisins and caramelized onions. In Algeria it is also served, sometimes at the end of a meal or just by itself, as a delicacy called "seffa". The couscous is usually steamed several times until it is very fluffy and pale in color. It is then sprinkled with almonds, cinnamon and sugar. Traditionally, this dessert will be served with milk perfumed with orange flower water, or it can be served plain with buttermilk in a bowl as a cold light soup for supper. Couscous is very popular in France where it is now considered a traditional dish. Indeed many polls have indicated that it is often a favorite dish. Although introduced in France by the pieds noirs (people of European descent who used to live in Algeria), many couscous restaurants are now owned by people originating from Algeria. In France the word "couscous" usually refers to couscous together with the stew. Packaged sets containing a box of quick-preparation couscous and a can of vegetables and, generally, meat are sold in French grocery stores and supermarkets. In France it is generally served with harissa sauce. In North America and the United Kingdom couscous is available most commonly as either plain or pre-flavoured, quick preparation boxes. In the United States it is widely available but largely confined to the ethnic or health-food section of larger grocery stores. There are recipes from Brazil that use boiled couscous molded into a timbale with other ingredients. Tabbouleh, a salad of Levantine origins is today more often made with the easier, quicker, couscous. The traditional recipe used crushed wheat, olive oil, chopped tomatoes, onion, parsley, mint, salt and pepper, mixed together and, where possible, chilled. It is often served as a side dish, or in salad buffets. Prepacked tabbouleh, in various combinations, is sold in shops, especially in France where the Maghreb influence is strong. Similar products The name couscous is also used for prepared dishes made from other grains, such as barley, pearl millet, sorghum, rice or maize. Attiéké, a variety of couscous that is a staple food in Côte d'Ivoire and is also known to surrounding areas of West Africa, made from grated cassava. Berkoukesh (Moroccan speciality) are pasta bullets made by the same process, but are larger than the grains of couscous. Fregula, a pasta from Sardinia, consists of pellets that are larger than couscous and toasted. Kouskousaki (Κουσκουσάκι in Greek or Kuskus in Turkish, a pasta from Greece that is also eaten in the Aegean Region of Turkey, is boiled and served with cheese and walnuts. In Hungarian cuisine, the tarhonya is a similar type of pasta, often labeled as couscous on the packaging. Israeli couscous "Israeli couscous" (in Hebrew פתיתים אפויים 'baked flakes'), also called "ptitim", is a pasta product similar to the Italian orzo. In North America, it is considered as a larger version of couscous and is used in slightly different ways. http://www.canadianliving.com/food/cooking_school/discover_couscous.php Canadian Living Magazine: Discovering Couscous In Western cooking it is often used as a bed for salmon or chicken dishes, or put into salads. One of its purposes was to provide a rice substitute for Mizrahi Jews, for whom rice was the staple grain. Unlike North African couscous, it is not semolina at all, but rather baked wheat. See also Berber cuisine References and notes External links Couscous: A tutorial video for making couscous Couscous: about the etymology of the word BBC Food Glossary: Couscous Mediterranean and World Cuisine: Couscous: History of Couscous by Clifford A. Wright Saudi Aramco World article on Couscous: Couscous - The Measure of the Maghrib. Written by Greg Noakes and Laidia Chouat Noakes 1998. 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5,461 | Horse | {{Taxobox | name = Domestic horse | status = DOM | image = Mangalarga Marchador.jpg | image_width = 250px | regnum = Animalia | phylum = Chordata | classis = Mammalia | ordo = Perissodactyla | familia = Equidae | genus = Equus | species = E. ferus | subspecies= E. f. caballus| trinomial = Equus ferus caballus| trinomial_authority = Linnaeus, 1758 | synonyms = 48, listed here }} The horse (Equus ferus caballus) is a hoofed (ungulate) mammal, a subspecies of one of seven extant species of the family Equidae. The horse has evolved over the past 45 to 55 million years from a small multi-toed creature into the large, single-toed animal of today. Humans began to domesticate horses around 4000 BC, and their domestication is believed to have been widespread by 3000 BC; by 2000 BC the use of domesticated horses had spread throughout the Eurasian continent. Although most horses today are domesticated, there are still endangered populations of the Przewalski's Horse, the only remaining true wild horse, as well as more common feral horses which live in the wild but are descended from domesticated ancestors. There is an extensive, specialized vocabulary used to describe equine-related concepts, covering everything from anatomy to life stages, size, colors, markings, breeds, locomotion, and behavior. Horses are anatomically designed to use speed to escape predators, and have a well-developed sense of balance and a strong fight-or-flight instinct. Related to this need to flee from predators in the wild is an unusual trait: horses are able to sleep both standing up and lying down. Female horses, called mares, carry their young for approximately 11 months, and a young horse, called a foal, can stand and run shortly following birth. Most domesticated horses begin training under saddle or in harness between the ages of two and four. They reach full adult development by age five, and have an average lifespan of between 25 and 30 years. Horse breeds are loosely divided into three categories based on general temperament: spirited "hot bloods" with speed and endurance; "cold bloods", such as draft horses and some ponies, suitable for slow, heavy work; and "warmbloods", developed from crosses between hot bloods and cold bloods, often focusing on creating breeds for specific riding purposes, particularly in Europe. There are over 300 breeds of horses in the world today, developed for many different uses. Horses and humans interact in many ways, not only in a wide variety of sport competitions and non-competitive recreational pursuits, but also in working activities including police work, agriculture, entertainment, assisted learning and therapy. Horses were historically used in warfare. A wide variety of riding and driving techniques have been developed, using many different styles of equipment and methods of control. Many products are derived from horses, including meat, milk, hide, hair, bone, and pharmaceuticals extracted from the urine of pregnant mares. Humans provide domesticated horses with food, water and shelter, as well as attention from specialists such as veterinarians and farriers. Biology Parts of a horse Horse anatomy is described by a large number of specific terms, as illustrated by the chart to the right. Specific terms also describe various ages, colors and breeds. Age Depending on breed, management and environment, the domestic horse today has a life expectancy of 25 to 30 years. It is uncommon, but a few animals live into their 40s and, occasionally, beyond. The oldest verifiable record was "Old Billy", a 19th-century horse that lived to the age of 62. In modern times, Sugar Puff, who had been listed in the Guinness Book of World Records as the world's oldest living pony, died in 2007, aged 56. Regardless of a horse's actual birth date, for most competition purposes an animal is considered a year older on January 1 of each year in the northern hemisphere British Horse Society The Manual of Horsemanship of the British Horse Society p. 255 and August 1 in the southern hemisphere. The exception is in endurance riding, where the minimum age to compete is based on the animal's calendar age. A very rough estimate of a horse's age can be made from looking at its teeth. The following terminology is used to describe horses of various ages: Foal: a horse of either sex less than one year old. A nursing foal is sometimes called a suckling and a foal that has been weaned is called a weanling. Ensminger Horses and Horsemanship p. 418 Most domesticated foals are weaned at 5 to 7 months of age, although foals can be weaned at 4 months with no adverse effects. Giffen, et al., Horse Owner's Veterinary Handbook, p. 431 Yearling: a horse of either sex that is between one and two years old. Ensminger Horses and Horsemanship p. 430 Colt: a male horse under the age of four. Ensminger Horses and Horsemanship p. 415 A common terminology error is to call any young horse a "colt", when the term actually only refers to young male horses. Filly: a female horse under the age of four. Mare: a female horse four years old and older. Ensminger Horses and Horsemanship p. 422 Stallion: a non-castrated male horse four years old and older. Ensminger Horses and Horsemanship p. 427 Some people, particularly in the UK, refer to a stallion as a "horse". Ensminger Horses and Horsemanship p. 420 A ridgling or "rig" is a male horse which has an undescended testicle or is improperly castrated. Delbridge, Arthur & others; The Macquarie Dictionary, p. 1511, The Macquarie Library Pty Ltd, Sydney, 1991, ISBN 0 949757 63 2 If both testicles are not descended, the horse may appear to be a gelding, but will still behave like a stallion. Gelding: a castrated male horse of any age, though for convenience sake, many people also refer to a young gelding under the age of four as a "colt". In horse racing, the definitions of colt, filly, mare, and stallion may differ from those given above. In the UK, Thoroughbred horse racing defines a colt as a male less than five years old, and a filly as a female less than five years old. Hammond The Language of Horse Racing pp. 49,79 In the USA, both Thoroughbred racing and harness racing defines colts and fillies as four years old and younger. Size The English-speaking world measures the height of horses in hands, abbreviated "h" or "hh", for "hands high", measured at the highest point of an animal's withers, where the neck meets the back, chosen as a stable point of the anatomy, unlike the head or neck, which move up and down; one hand is . Intermediate heights are defined by hands and inches, rounding to the lower measurement in hands, followed by a decimal point and the number of additional inches between 1 and 3. Thus a horse described as "15.2 h", is 15 hands, 2 inches () in height. Ensminger Horses and Horsemanship p. 51 The size of horses varies by breed, but can also be influenced by nutrition. Size varies greatly among horse breeds, as with this full-sized horse and a miniature horse. The general rule for cutoff in height between what is considered a horse and a pony at maturity is 14.2 hands (). An animal 14.2 h or over is usually considered to be a horse and one less than 14.2 h a pony. Ensminger Horses and Tack pp. 11–12 However, there are exceptions to the general rule. Some breeds which typically produce individuals both under and over 14.2 h are considered horses regardless of their height. For example, the Missouri Fox Trotter or the Arabian horse. See McBane The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Horse Breeds pp. 192, 218 Conversely, some pony breeds may have features in common with horses, and individual animals may occasionally mature at over 14.2 h, but are still considered to be ponies. For example, the Welsh Pony. See McBane The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Horse Breeds pp. 52–63 The distinction between a horse and pony is not simply a difference in height, but takes account of other aspects of phenotype or appearance, such as conformation and temperament. Ponies often exhibit thicker manes, tails and overall coat. They also have proportionally shorter legs, wider barrels, heavier bone, shorter and thicker necks, and short heads with broad foreheads. They often have calmer temperaments than horses and also a high level of equine intelligence that may or may not be used to cooperate with human handlers. In fact, small size, by itself, is sometimes not a factor at all. While the Shetland pony stands on average 10 hands high (), Ensminger Horses and Tack p. 12 the Falabella and other miniature horses, which can be no taller than , the size of a medium-sized dog, are classified by their respective registries as very small horses rather than as ponies. McBane The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Horse Breeds p. 200 Light riding horses such as Arabians, Morgans, or Quarter Horses usually range in height from 14 to 16 hands () and can weigh from . Larger riding horses such as Thoroughbreds, American Saddlebreds or Warmbloods usually start at about 15.2 hands () and often are as tall as 17 hands (), weighing from . Heavy or draft horses such as the Clydesdale, Belgian, Percheron, and Shire are usually at least 16 to 18 hands () high and can weigh from about . The largest horse in recorded history was probably a Shire horse named Sampson, who lived during the late 1800s. He stood 21.2½ hands high (), and his peak weight was estimated at . The current record holder for the world's smallest horse is Thumbelina, a fully mature miniature horse affected by dwarfism. She is tall and weighs . Colors and markings Bay (left) and chestnut (sometimes called "sorrel") are two of the most common coat colors, seen in almost all breeds. Horses exhibit a diverse array of coat colors and distinctive markings, described with a specialized vocabulary. Often, a horse is classified first by its coat color, before breed or sex. Vogel, The Complete Horse Care Manual, p. 14 Flashy or unusual colors are sometimes very popular, as are horses with particularly attractive markings. Horses of the same color may be distinguished from one another by their markings. Mills, et al., A Basic Guide to Horse Care and Management, pp. 72–73 The genetics that create many horse coat colors have been identified, although research continues on specific genes and mutations that result in specific color traits. Essentially, all horse colors begin with a genetic base of "red" (chestnut) or "black", with the addition of alleles for spotting, graying, suppression or dilution of color, or other effects acting upon the base colors to create the dozens of possible coat colors found in horses. Horses which are light in color are often misnamed as being "white" horses. A horse that looks pure white is, in most cases, actually a middle-aged or older gray. Grays have black skin underneath their white hair coat (with the exception of small amounts of pink skin under white markings). The only horses properly called white are those with pink skin under a white hair coat, a fairly rare occurrence. There are no truly albino horses, with pink skin and red eyes, as albinism is a lethal condition in horses. Reproduction and development Pregnancy lasts for approximately 335–340 days Ensminger Horses and Tack p. 129 and usually results in one foal. Twins are very rare. Colts are carried on average about 4 days longer than fillies. Horses are a precocial species, and foals are capable of standing and running within a short time following birth.<ref>Miller, '"Revolution, pp. 102–103</ref> Mares and foals Horses, particularly colts, may sometimes be physically capable of reproduction at about 18 months. In practice, individuals are rarely allowed to breed before the age of three, especially females. Horses four years old are considered mature, although the skeleton normally continues to develop until the age of six; the precise time of completion of development also depends on the horse's size, breed, gender, and the quality of care provided by its owner. Also, if the horse is larger, its bones are larger; therefore, not only do the bones take longer to actually form bone tissue, but the epiphyseal plates are also larger and take longer to convert from cartilage to bone. These plates convert after the other parts of the bones, but are crucial to development. Depending on maturity, breed, and the tasks expected, young horses are usually put under saddle and trained to be ridden between the ages of two and four. Although Thoroughbred race horses are put on the track at as young as two years old in some countries, horses specifically bred for sports such as dressage are generally not entered into top-level competition until they are a minimum of four years old, because their bones and muscles are not solidly developed, nor is their advanced training complete. For endurance riding competition, horses are not deemed mature enough to compete until they are a full 60 calendar months (5 years) old. Anatomy Skeletal system The skeletal system of a modern horse Horses have a skeleton that averages 205 bones. Evans The Horse p. 90 A significant difference between the horse skeleton, compared to that of a human, is the lack of a collarbone—the horse's front limb system is attached to the spinal column by a powerful set of muscles, tendons and ligaments that attach the shoulder blade to the torso. The horse's legs and hooves are also unique structures. Their leg bones are proportioned differently from those of a human. For example, the body part that is called a horse's "knee" is actually made up of the carpal bones that correspond to the human wrist. Similarly, the hock, contains the bones equivalent to those in the human ankle and heel. The lower leg bones of a horse correspond to the bones of the human hand or foot, and the fetlock (incorrectly called the "ankle") is actually the proximal sesamoid bones between the cannon bones (a single equivalent to the human metacarpal or metatarsal bones) and the proximal phalanges, located where one finds the "knuckles" of a human. A horse also has no muscles in its legs below the knees and hocks, only skin, hair, bone, tendons, ligaments, cartilage, and the assorted specialized tissues that make up the hoof. Ensminger Horses and Horsemanship pp. 21–25 Hooves The critical importance of the feet and legs is summed up by the traditional adage, "no foot, no horse". The horse hoof begins with the distal phalanges, the equivalent of the human fingertip or tip of the toe, surrounded by cartilage and other specialized, blood-rich soft tissues such as the laminae. The exterior hoof wall and horn of the sole is made of essentially the same material as a human fingernail. Giffin Horse Owner's Veterinary Handbook p. 304 The end result is that a horse, weighing on average , Giffin Horse Owner's Veterinary Handbook p. 457 travels on the same bones as a human on tiptoe. For the protection of the hoof under certain conditions, some horses have horseshoes placed on their feet by a professional farrier. The hoof continually grows, and needs to be trimmed (and horseshoes reset, if used) every five to eight weeks. Giffin Horse Owner's Veterinary Handbook pp. 310–312 Teeth Horses are adapted to grazing. In an adult horse, there are 12 incisors, adapted to biting off the grass or other vegetation, at the front of the mouth. There are 24 teeth adapted for chewing, the premolars and molars, at the back of the mouth. Stallions and geldings have four additional teeth just behind the incisors, a type of canine teeth that are called "tushes". Some horses, both male and female, will also develop one to four very small vestigial teeth in front of the molars, known as "wolf" teeth, which are generally removed because they can interfere with the bit. There is an empty interdental space between the incisors and the molars where the bit rests directly on the bars (gums) of the horse's mouth when the horse is bridled. Kreling Horses' Teeth and Their Problems pp. 12–13 The incisors show a distinct wear and growth pattern as the horse ages, as well as change in the angle at which the chewing surfaces meet. The teeth continue to erupt throughout life as they are worn down by grazing, so a very rough estimate of a horse's age can be made by an examination of its teeth, although diet and veterinary care can affect the rate of tooth wear. Ensminger Horses and Horsemanship pp. 46–50 Digestion Horses are herbivores with a digestive system adapted to a forage diet of grasses and other plant material, consumed steadily throughout the day. Therefore, compared to humans, they have a relatively small stomach but very long intestines to facilitate a steady flow of nutrients. A horse will eat of food per day and, under normal use, drink to of water. Horses are not ruminants, so they have only one stomach, like humans, but unlike humans, they can also digest cellulose from grasses due to the presence of a "hind gut" called the cecum, or "water gut", which food goes through before reaching the large intestine. Unlike humans, horses cannot vomit, so digestion problems can quickly cause colic, a leading cause of death. Giffin Horse Owner's Veterinary Handbook p. 175 Senses A horse's eye The horse's senses are generally superior to those of a human. As prey animals, they must be aware of their surroundings at all times. Ensminger Horses and Horsemanship pp. 309–310 They have the largest eyes of any land mammal, and because their eyes are positioned on the sides of their heads, horses have a range of vision of more than 350°, with approximately 65° of this being binocular (seen with both eyes) and the remaining 285° monocular (seen with only one eye). Sellnow, Happy Trails, p. 46 Horses have excellent day and night vision, but studies indicate that they have two-color, or dichromatic vision; their color vision is somewhat like red-green color blindness in humans. This means that certain colors, especially red and related colors, appear more green. Their hearing is good, and the pinna of each ear can rotate up to 180°, giving the potential for 360° hearing without having to move the head. Myers Horse Safe p.7 Their sense of smell, while much better than that of humans, is not their strongest asset; they rely to a greater extent on vision. Horses have a great sense of balance, due partly to their ability to feel their footing and partly to highly developed proprioceptive abilities (the unconscious sense of where the body and limbs are at all times). A horse's sense of touch is well developed. The most sensitive areas are around the eyes, ears and nose. Via touch, horses perceive and respond immediately to changes in their environment, sensing contact as subtle as an insect landing anywhere on the body. Hairston, et al., The Essentials of Horsekeeping, p. 77 Horses have an advanced sense of taste that allows them to sort through grains and grasses to choose what they would most like to eat, Miller, Understanding the Ancient Secrets of the Horse's Mind, p. 28 and their prehensile lips can easily sort even the smallest grains. Horses generally will not eat poisonous plants. However, there are exceptions and horses will occasionally eat toxic amounts of poisonous plants even when there is adequate healthy food. Movement The gallop All horses move naturally with four basic gaits: the four-beat walk, which averages four miles per hour; the two-beat trot or jog, which averages per hour (faster for harness racing horses); and the leaping gaits known as the canter or lope (a three-beat gait that is per hour), and the gallop. Harris Horse Gaits, Balance and Movement p. 32 The gallop averages per hour. Harris, Horse Gaits, Balance and Movement p. 47–49 The world record for a horse galloping over a short, sprint distance is per hour. Besides these basic gaits, some horses perform a two-beat pace, instead of the trot. Harris Horse Gaits, Balance and Movement p. 50 In addition, there are several four-beat "ambling" gaits that are approximately the speed of a trot or pace, though smoother to ride. These include the lateral slow gait, rack, running walk, and tölt as well as the diagonal fox trot. Ambling gaits are often genetic traits in specific breeds, known collectively as gaited horses. In most cases, gaited horses replace the standard trot with one of the ambling gaits. Harris Horse Gaits, Balance and Movement pp. 50–55 Behavior Horses are prey animals with a well-developed fight-or-flight instinct. Their first response to threat is to startle and usually flee, although they are known to stand their ground and defend themselves or their offspring in cases where flight is not possible, or when their young are threatened. They also tend to be curious; when startled, they will often hesitate an instant to ascertain the cause of their fright, and may not always flee from something that they perceive as non-threatening. Through selective breeding, some breeds of horses are quite docile, particularly certain large draft horses. Most light horse riding breeds were developed for speed, agility, alertness and endurance; natural qualities that extend from their wild ancestors. McBane A Natural Approach to Horse Management pp. 226–228 Horses are herd animals, with a clear hierarchy of rank, led by a dominant animal (usually a mare). They are also social creatures who are able to form companionship attachments to their own species and to other animals, including humans. They communicate in various ways, including vocalizations such as nickering or whinnying, mutual grooming, and body language. Many horses will become difficult to manage if they are isolated. Through proper training, it is possible to teach any horse to accept a human as a type of companion, and thus be comfortable away from other horses. Ensminger Horses and Horsemanship pp. 305–309 When confined with insufficient companionship, exercise or stimulation, individuals may develop stable vices, an assortment of bad habits, mostly psychological in origin, that include wood chewing, wall kicking, "weaving" (rocking back and forth) and other problems. Prince Basic Horsemanship pp. 214–223 Intelligence and learning In the past, horses were considered unintelligent, with no abstract thinking ability, unable to generalize, and driven primarily by a herd mentality. However, recent studies show that they perform a number of cognitive tasks on a daily basis, and frequently engage in mental challenges that include food procurement and social system identification. They have also been shown to have good spatial discrimination abilities. Studies have assessed equine intelligence in the realms of problem solving, learning speed, and knowledge retention. Results show that horses excel at simple learning, but also are able to solve advanced cognitive challenges that involve categorization and concept learning. They have been shown to learn from habituation, desensitization, Pavlovian conditioning, and operant conditioning. They respond to and learn from both positive and negative reinforcement. Domesticated horses tend to face greater mental challenges than wild horses, due to living in artificial environments that stifle instinctual behavior while learning tasks that are not natural. Horses are creatures of habit that respond and adapt well to regimentation, and respond best when the same routines and techniques are used consistently. Some trainers believe that "intelligent" horses are reflections of intelligent trainers who effectively use response conditioning techniques and positive reinforcement to train in the style that fits best with an individual animal's natural inclinations. Others who handle horses regularly note that personality also may play a role separate from intelligence in determining how a given animal responds to various experiences. Temperament Horses are mammals, and as such are "warm-blooded" creatures, as opposed to cold-blooded reptiles. However, these words have developed a separate meaning in the context of equine terminology, used to describe temperament, not body temperature. For example, the "hot-bloods", such as many race horses, exhibit more sensitivity and energy, while the "cold-bloods", such as most draft breeds, are quieter and calmer. Henry All About Horses pp. 59–60, 69–70 "Hot blooded" breeds include "oriental horses" such as the Akhal-Teke, Barb, Arabian horse and now-extinct Turkoman horse, as well as the Thoroughbred, a breed developed in England from the older oriental breeds. Hot bloods tend to be spirited, bold, and learn quickly. They are bred for agility and speed. They tend to be physically refined—thin-skinned, slim, and long-legged. DeFilippis The Everything Horse Care Book p. 4 The original oriental breeds were brought to Europe from the Middle East and North Africa when European breeders wished to infuse these traits into racing and light cavalry horses. Henry All About Horses pp. 59–60 Muscular, heavy draft horses are known as "cold bloods", as they are bred not only for strength, but also to have the calm, patient temperament needed to pull a plow or a heavy carriage full of people. They are sometimes nicknamed "gentle giants". Henry,All About Horses, pp. 70–75 Well-known draft breeds include the Belgian and the Clydesdale. Some, like the Percheron are lighter and livelier, developed to pull carriages or to plow large fields in drier climates. Others, such as the Shire, are slower and more powerful, bred to plow fields with heavy, clay-based soils. The cold-blooded group also includes some pony breeds. Bennett, Conquerors, p. 7 "Warmblood" breeds, such as the Trakehner or Hanoverian, developed when European carriage and war horses were crossed with Arabians or Thoroughbreds, producing a riding horse with more refinement than a draft horse, but greater size and more phlegmatic temperament than a lighter breed. Edwards, The Encyclopedia of the Horse, pp. 122–123 Certain pony breeds with warmblood characteristics have been developed for smaller riders. Examples are the Australian Riding Pony and the Connemara, see Edwards, The Encyclopedia of the Horse, pp. 178–179, 208–209 Today, the term "Warmblood" refers to a specific subset of sport horse breeds that have dominated the Olympic Games and international FEI competition in dressage and show jumping since the 1970s. Prior to that time, the term "warm blood" often referred to any cross between cold-blooded and hot-blooded breeds. Examples included breeds such as the Irish Draught or the Cleveland Bay. Less often, the term was even used to refer to breeds of light riding horse other than Thoroughbreds or Arabians, such as the Morgan horse. Henry,All About Horses pp. 77, 83 Sleep patterns When horses lie down to sleep, others in the herd remain standing, awake or in a light doze, keeping watch. Horses are able to sleep both standing up and lying down. In an adaptation from life in the wild, horses are able to enter light sleep by using a "stay apparatus" in their legs, allowing them to doze without collapsing. Horses sleep better when in groups because some animals will sleep while others stand guard to watch for predators. A horse kept alone will not sleep well because its instincts are to keep a constant eye out for danger. Unlike humans, horses do not sleep in a solid, unbroken period of time, but take many short periods of rest. Horses may spend anywhere from four to fifteen hours a day in standing rest, and from a few minutes to several hours lying down. Total sleep time in a day may range from several minutes to a couple of hours, mostly in short intervals of about 15 minutes each. Ensminger Horses and Horsemanship p. 310. Horses must lie down to reach REM sleep. They only have to lie down for an hour or two every few days to meet their minimum REM sleep requirements. However, if a horse is never allowed to lie down, after several days it will become sleep-deprived, and in rare cases may suddenly collapse as it involuntarily slips into REM sleep while still standing. This condition differs from narcolepsy, although horses may also suffer from that disorder. Smith Large Animal Internal Medicine pp. 1086–1087. Taxonomy and evolution Mesohippus, an ancestor of the modern horse The horse as it is known today adapted by evolution to survive in areas of wide-open terrain with sparse vegetation, surviving in an ecosystem where other large grazing animals, especially ruminants, could not. Budiansky The Nature of Horses p. 31 Horses and other equids are odd-toed ungulates of the order Perissodactyla, a group of mammals that was dominant during the Tertiary period. In the past, this order contained 14 families and many species, but only three families—Equidae (the horse and related species), the tapir and the rhinoceros—containing 18 known species have survived to the present day. The earliest known member of the Equidae family was the Hyracotherium, which lived between 45 and 55 million years ago, during the Eocene period and had 4 toes on each front foot, and 3 toes on each back foot. The extra toe on the front feet soon disappeared with the Mesohippus, which lived 32 to 37 million years ago, and by about 5 million years ago, the modern Equus had developed. The extra side toes shrank in size until they vanished. All that remains of them in modern horses is a set of small vestigial bones on the leg above the hoof, known informally as ergots, chestnuts, or splint bones. Miller, Understanding the Ancient Secrets of the Horse's Mind, p. 20 Their legs also lengthened as their toes disappeared and until they were a hoofed animal capable of running at great speed. Over millions of years, equid teeth also evolved from browsing on soft, tropical plants to adapt to browsing of drier plant material, and grazing of tougher plains grasses. Thus the proto-horses changed from leaf-eating forest-dwellers to grass-eating inhabitants of semi-arid regions worldwide, including the steppes of Eurasia and the Great Plains of North America. About 15,000 years ago Equus ferus was a widespread, holarctic species. Horse bones from this time period, the late Pleistocene, are found in Europe, Eurasia, Beringia, and North America. But by 10,000 years ago, the horse became extinct in North America and rare elsewhere. The reasons for this extinction are unknown, but at least in Alaska and Yukon, it was contemporary with human arrival. Wild species surviving into modern times A truly wild horse is a species or subspecies which has no ancestors that were ever domesticated. Therefore, most "wild" horses today are actually feral horses, animals that escaped or were turned loose from domestic herds and the descendants of those animals. Olsen, "Horse Hunters of the Ice Age", Horses Through Time, p. 46 Only two types of truly wild horses survived into recorded history. One, the Tarpan (Equus ferus ferus) survived into the historical era, but became extinct in 1887. Its pure genetic line was lost, but three attempts have been made to re-create the Tarpan. In the early 1930s, Berlin Zoo Director Lutz Heck and Heinz Heck of the Munich Zoo began a program that by the 1960s produced the Heck horse. In 1936, Polish university professor Tadeusz Vetulani began a program using Konik horses, and in the mid-1960s Harry Hegard started a program in the United States using feral mustangs and local working ranch horses that has resulted in the Hegardt or Stroebel's Horse. None of the breeding programs were completely successful, although all three resulted in horses with many similarities to the Tarpan. There is only one true wild horse species alive today, the Przewalski's Horse (Equus ferus przewalskii). It is a rare Asian animal, also known as the Mongolian Wild Horse; Mongolian people know it as the taki, and the Kyrgyz people call it a kirtag. Small wild breeding populations of this animal, named after the Russian explorer Nikolai Przhevalsky, exist in Mongolia. There are also small populations maintained at zoos throughout the world. The species was considered extinct in the wild between 1969 and 1992, but a small breeding population was reestablished in the wild due to the conservation efforts of numerous zoos. Other modern equids Besides the horse, there are seven other species of genus equus in the equidae family. These are the ass or donkey, Equus asinus; the Mountain Zebra, Equus zebra; Plains Zebra, Equus burchelli; Grévy's Zebra, Equus grevyi; the Kiang, Equus kiang; and the Kulan, Equus hemionus, including its subspecies, the Onager, Equus hemionus onager. Horses can crossbreed with other members of the equus genus. The most common hybrid is the mule, a cross between a "jack" (male donkey) and a mare. A related hybrid, a hinny, is a cross between a stallion and a jenny (female donkey). Other hybrids include the zorse, a cross between a zebra and a horse that is bred in Africa and used for trekking on Mount Kenya. With rare exceptions, most hybrids are sterile and cannot reproduce. Domestication Competing theories exist as to the time and place of initial domestication. The earliest evidence for the domestication of the horse comes from sites in Ukraine and Kazakhstan, dating to approximately 3,500-4,000 BC. Matossian Shaping World History p. 43 It is thought that the horse was completely domesticated by 3000 BC, and by 2000 BC there was a sharp increase in the number of horse bones found in human settlements in northwestern Europe, indicating the spread of domesticated horses throughout the continent. Evans Horse Breeding and Management p. 56 The "Four Foundations" theory Modern DNA evidence suggests that domesticated horses evolved from multiple wild populations. Specifically, the "Four Foundations" theory suggests that the modern horse evolved from multiple ancient wild prototypes, each adapted to a given habitat. Bennett, Conquerors pp. 6–8 However, an older theory holds that there was only one type of wild horse, the Tarpan subtype, and all other types diverged in form after domestication to meet human needs. Edwards, The Arabian, pp 1, 3 Under the four foundations theory, all types and breeds of horses are thought to have developed from the following base prototypes: Bennett, Conquerors, p.7 Przewalski's Horse, the last surviving wild horse species Feral populations Feral horses are born and live in the wild, but are descended from domesticated animals. Many populations of feral horses exist throughout the world. Edwards, The Encyclopedia of the Horse, p. 291 Anthony, "Bridling Horse Power: The Domestication of the Horse", Horses Through Time, pp. 66–67 Studies of feral herds have provided useful insights into the behavior of prehistoric horses, as well as greater understanding of the instincts and behaviors that drive horses that live in domesticated conditions. Dines, "American Mustang Guidebook", pp. 10, 30, 33 Breeds Horse breeds are groups of horses with distinctive characteristics that are transmitted consistently to their offspring, such as conformation, color, performance ability, or disposition. These inherited traits are usually the result of a combination of natural crosses and artificial selection methods aimed at producing horses for specific tasks. Certain breeds are known for certain talents. For example, Standardbreds are known for their speed in harness racing. Some breeds have been developed through centuries of crossings with other breeds, while others, such as Tennessee Walking Horses and Morgans, developed from a single sire from which all current breed members descend. There are more than 300 horse breeds in the world today. Hedge Horse Conformation pp. 307–308 Origin of breeds Modern horse breeds developed in response to a need for "form to function", the necessity to develop certain physical characteristics in order to perform a certain type of work. Sponenberg, "The Proliferation of Horse Breeds", Horses Through Time, p. 155 Thus, powerful but refined breeds such as the Andalusian or the Lusitano developed in the Iberian peninsula as riding horses that also had a great aptitude for dressage, while heavy draft horses such as the Clydesdale and the Shire developed out of a need to perform demanding farm work and pull heavy wagons. Sponenberg, "The Proliferation of Horse Breeds", Horses Through Time, pp. 156–57 Ponies of all breeds originally developed mainly from the need for a working animal that could fulfill specific local draft and transportation needs while surviving in harsh environments. However, by the 20th century, many pony breeds had Arabian and other blood added to make a more refined pony suitable for riding. Sponenberg, "The Proliferation of Horse Breeds", Horses Through Time, pp. 155, 170–173 Other horse breeds developed specifically for light agricultural work, heavy and light carriage and road work, various equestrian disciplines, or simply as pets. Sponenberg, "The Proliferation of Horse Breeds", Horses Through Time, p. 162 Purebreds and registries Horses have been selectively bred since their domestication. Today, there are over 300 breeds of horses in the world. However, the concept of purebred bloodstock and a controlled, written breed registry only became of significant importance in modern times. Today, the standards for defining and registration of different breeds vary. Sometimes purebred horses are called Thoroughbreds, which is incorrect; "Thoroughbred" is a specific breed of horse, while a "purebred" is a horse (or any other animal) with a defined pedigree recognized by a breed registry. Ensminger Horses and Horsemanship p. 424 An early example of people who practiced selective horse breeding were the Bedouin, who had a reputation for careful breeding practices, keeping extensive pedigrees of their Arabian horses and placing great value upon pure bloodlines. Edwards The Arabian, pp. 22–23 Though these pedigrees were originally transmitted via an oral tradition, written pedigrees of Arabian horses can be found that date to the 14th century. In the same period of the early Renaissance, the Carthusian monks of southern Spain bred horses and kept meticulous pedigrees of the best bloodstock; the lineage survives to this day in the Andalusian horse. One of the earliest formal registries was General Stud Book for Thoroughbreds, which began in 1791 and traced back to the Arabian stallions imported to England from the Middle East that became the foundation stallions for the breed. Some breed registries have a closed stud book, where registration is based on pedigree, and no outside animals can gain admittance. For example, a registered Thoroughbred or Arabian must have two registered parents of the same breed. Other breeds have a partially closed stud book but still allow certain infusions from other breeds. For example, the modern Appaloosa must have at least one Appaloosa parent, but may also have a Quarter Horse, Thoroughbred, or Arabian parent so long as the offspring exhibits appropriate color characteristics. The Quarter Horse normally requires both parents to be registered Quarter Horses, but allows "Appendix" registration of horses with one Thoroughbred parent, and the horse may earn its way to full registration by completing certain performance requirements. Others, such as most of the warmblood breeds used in sport horse disciplines, have open stud books to varying degrees. While pedigree is considered, outside bloodlines are admitted to the registry if the horses meet the set standard for the registry. These registries usually require a studbook selection process involving judging of an individual animal's quality, performance, and conformation before registration is finalized. A few "registries", particularly some color breed registries, are very open and will allow membership of all horses that meet limited criteria, such as coat color and species, regardless of pedigree or conformation. Breed registries also differ as to their acceptance or rejection of breeding technology. For example, all Jockey Club Thoroughbred registries require that a registered Thoroughbred be a product of a natural mating, so called "live cover". A foal born of two Thoroughbred parents, but by means of artificial insemination or embryo transfer, cannot be registered in the Thoroughbred studbook. On the other hand, since the advent of DNA testing to verify parentage, most breed registries now allow artificial insemination (AI), embryo transfer (ET), or both. The high value of stallions has helped with the acceptance of these techniques because they allow a stallion to breed more mares with each "collection", and greatly reduce the risk of injury during mating. Cloning of horses is highly controversial, and at the present time most mainstream breed registries will not accept cloned horses, though several cloned horses and mules have been produced. Interaction with humans Horse headcount in 2003 Around the world, horses play a role within human cultures. Horses are used for leisure activities, sports, and working purposes. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) reports that in 2003, China had the largest number of horses in the world with over 8 million, followed by Mexico (6,260,000), Brazil (5,900,500), the United States (5,300,000), and Argentina (3,655,000). The American Horse Council estimates that horse-related activities have a direct impact on the economy of the United States of over $39 billion, and when indirect spending is considered, the impact is over $102 billion. In a 2004 "poll" conducted by Animal Planet, more than 50,000 viewers from 73 countries voted for the horse as the world's 4th favorite animal. Sport Historically, equestrians honed their skills through competitions, games and races. Equestrian sports have the dual purpose of providing entertainment for crowds and creating and preserving the excellent horsemanship that was needed in battle. Many sports, such as dressage, eventing and show jumping, had origins in military training, which were focused on control and balance in both the horse and the rider. Other sports, such as rodeo, developed from practical skills such as those needed on working ranches. Sport hunting from horseback evolved from earlier practical hunting techniques. Olsen, "In the Winner's Circle", Horses Through Time, pp. 105, 111–113, 121 Horse racing, whether the horse was ridden or driven, evolved out of impromptu competitions between riders or drivers. The evolving competitions, requiring ever more demanding and specialized skills from both horse and rider, resulted in the systematic development of specialized breeds and equipment for each sport. The popularity of equestrian sports through the centuries has resulted in the preservation of skills that would otherwise have rapidly disappeared after horses stopped being used in combat. Olsen, "In the Winner's Circle", Horses Through Time, p. 105 A horse performing a dressage test Horses are trained to be ridden or driven in many different sporting events and competitions. Examples include show jumping, dressage, three-day eventing, competitive driving, endurance riding, gymkhana, rodeos and fox hunting. Edwards, The Encyclopedia of the Horse, pp. 346–356, 366–371 Horse shows, which have their origins in medieval European fairs, are held around the world as venues in which horses are competed, exhibited and sold. They host a huge range of classes, covering all of the mounted and harness disciplines, as well as "In-hand" classes where the horses are led, rather than ridden, to exhibit their conformation. The method of judging classes varies depending on the discipline, but winning awards usually depends on style and ability of both horse and rider. Edwards, The Encyclopedia of the Horse, pp. 376–377 Sports such as polo do not judge the horse itself, but rather use the horse as a partner for human competitors as a necessary part of the game. Although the horse assists this process and requires specialized training to do so, the details of its performance are not judged, only the result of the rider's actions—be it getting a ball through a goal or some other achievement. Edwards, The Encyclopedia of the Horse, p. 360 Examples of these sports of partnership between human and animal also include jousting (reenacting the skills used by medieval knights), in which the main goal is for one rider to unseat the other, Collins, Encyclopedia of Traditional British Rural Sports, pp. 173–174 and buzkashi, a team game played throughout Central Asia, the aim being to capture a goat carcass while on horseback. Horse racing is an equestrian sport and also a huge international industry, watched in almost every nation of the world. There are three types: "flat" racing; steeplechasing, i.e. racing over jumps; and harness racing, where horses trot or pace while pulling a driver in a small, light cart known as a sulky. Edwards, The Encyclopedia of the Horse, pp. 332–337 A major part of horse racing's economic importance lies in the gambling associated with it. Campbell, National Gambling Impact Study Commission Final Report, p. 111 Communication between human and horse is paramount in any equestrian activity; to aid this process horses are usually ridden with a saddle on their backs to assist the rider with balance and positioning, and a bridle or related headgear to assist the rider in maintaining control. Edwards, Horses, pp. 32–34 Sometimes horses are ridden without a saddle, Self, Riding Simplified, p. 55 and occasionally, horses are trained to perform without a bridle or other headgear. Many horses are also driven, which requires a harness, bridle and some type of vehicle. Mettler, Horse Sense, pp. 47–54 Work A mounted police officer in Poland There are certain jobs that horses do very well, and no technology has yet developed that can fully replace them. For example, mounted police horses are still effective for certain types of patrol duties and crowd control. Cattle ranches still require riders on horseback to round up cattle that are scattered across remote, rugged terrain. Edwards, The Encyclopedia of the Horse, pp. 226–227 Search and rescue organizations in some countries depend upon mounted teams to locate people, particularly hikers and children, and to provide disaster relief assistance. Horses can also be used in other areas where it is necessary to avoid vehicular disruption to delicate soil. Examples include areas such as nature reserves. They may also be the only form of transport allowed in wilderness areas. They are also quieter than motorized vehicles. Law enforcement officers such as park rangers or game wardens may use horses for patrols, and horses or mules may also be used for clearing trails or other work in areas of rough terrain where vehicles are less effective. Some land management practices such as cultivating and logging can be efficiently performed with horses. In agriculture, less use of fossil fuels and increased environmental conservation can be seen over time with the use of draft animals such as horses. Gifford, "Working Draught Horses as Singles and Pairs", The Working Horse Manual, p. 85 Miller, Work Horse Handbook, p. 13 In forestry, logging can be done with horses and can result in reduced damage to soil structure and less damage to trees due to more selective logging. Gifford, "Working Horses in Forestry", The Working Horse Manual, p. 145 Although machinery has replaced horses in many parts of the world, an estimated 100 million horses, donkeys and mules are still used for agriculture and transportation in less developed areas such as Morocco, Kenya and Guatemala. Entertainment and culture Modern horses are often used to reenact many of their historical work purposes. Horses are used, complete with equipment that is authentic or a meticulously recreated replica, in various live action historical reenactments of specific periods of history, especially recreations of famous battles. Horses also are used to preserve cultural traditions and for ceremonial purposes. Countries such as the United Kingdom still use horse-drawn carriages to convey royalty and other VIPs to and from certain culturally significant events. Public exhibitions are another example, such as the Budweiser Clydesdales, seen in parades and other public settings, a team of draft horses that pull a beer wagon similar to that used before to the invention of the modern motorized truck. Horses are frequently used in television and films to add authenticity to historical dramas as well as adding charm to films set in modern-day, or even futuristic science fiction settings. Both live horses and iconic images of horses are used in advertising to promote a variety of products. The horse frequently appears in coats of arms in heraldry. The horse can be represented as standing, trotting, courant (running) or salient (rearing). The horse may be saddled and bridled, harnessed, or without any harness whatsoever. The horse appears in the 12-year cycle of animals in the Chinese zodiac related to the Chinese calendar. According to Chinese folklore, each animal is associated with certain personality traits, and those born in the year of the horse are intelligent, independent and free-spirited. Assisted learning and therapy People of all ages with physical and mental disabilities obtain beneficial results from association with horses. Therapeutic riding is used to mentally and physically stimulate disabled persons and help them improve their lives through improved balance and coordination, increased self-confidence and a greater feeling of freedom and independence. Bush, et al., The Principles of Teaching Riding, p. 58 The benefits of equestrian activity for people with disabilities has also been recognized with the addition of equestrian events to the Paralympic Games and recognition of para-equestrian events by the FEI. Hippotherapy and therapeutic horseback riding are names for different physical, occupational, and speech therapy treatment strategies that utilize equine movement. In hippotherapy, a therapist uses the horse's movement to provide improve their patient's cognitive, coordination, balance and fine motor skills, whereas therapeutic horseback riding uses specific riding skills. Horses also provide psychological benefits to people whether they actually ride or not. "Equine-assisted" or "equine-facilitated" psychotherapy is a form of experiential psychotherapy that uses horses as companion animals to assist people with psychological problems, including anxiety disorders, psychotic disorders, mood disorders, behavioral difficulties, mental illness and those who are going through major life changes. Equine Assisted Learning (EAL) (also known as equine guided education or equine assisted professional development) is a field of experiential learning for corporate, professional and personal development. There are also experimental programs using horses in prison settings. Exposure to horses appears to improve the behavior of inmates in a prison setting and help reduce recidivism when they leave. Warfare A modern reenactment of a cavalry charge Horses in warfare have been seen for most of recorded history. The first archaeological evidence of horses used in warfare dates to between 3000 to 4000 BC, and the use of horses in warfare was widespread by the end of the Bronze Age. Although mechanization has largely replaced the horse as a weapon of war, horses are still seen today in limited military uses, mostly for ceremonial purposes, or for reconnaissance and transport activities in areas of rough terrain where motorized vehicles are ineffective. Horses have been used in the 21st century by the Janjaweed militias in the War in Darfur. Products Horses have been used as raw material for many products made by humans throughout history, including byproducts from the slaughter of horses as well as materials collected from living horses. Products collected from living horses include mare's milk, used by people with large horse herds, such as the Mongols, who let it ferment to produce kumis. Horse blood was once used as food by the Mongols and other nomadic tribes, who found it a convenient source of nutrition when traveling. Drinking their own horses' blood allowed the Mongols to ride for extended periods of time without stopping to eat. Today, the drug Premarin is a mixture of estrogens extracted from the urine of pregnant mares (pregnant mares' urin'''e). It is a widely used drug for hormone replacement therapy. The tail hair of horses can be used for making bows for string instruments such as the violin, viola, cello, and double bass. Horse meat has been used as food for humans and carnivorous animals throughout the ages. It is eaten in many parts of the world, though consumption is taboo in some cultures. Horsemeat has been an export industry in the United States and other countries, though legislation has periodically been introduced in the United States Congress which would end export from the United States. Horsehide leather has been used for boots, gloves, jackets, Ockerman Animal By-product Processing & Utilization p. 129 baseballs, and baseball gloves. Horse hooves can also be used to produce animal glue. Bartlett, Keeping House, pp. 34–35 Horse bones can be used to make implements. MacGregor Bone, Antler, Ivory and Horn p. 31 Specifically, in Italian cuisine, the horse tibia is sharpened into a probe called a spinto'', which is used to test the readiness of a (pig) ham as it cures. Fort Eating Up Italy p. 171 In Asia, the saba is a horsehide vessel used in the production of kumis. Hurd, Diseases of the Stomach and Intestines, p. 29 Care Shoeing a horse Horses are grazing animals, and their major source of nutrients is good-quality forage from hay or pasture. They can consume approximately 2% to 2.5% of their body weight in dry feed each day. Therefore, a adult horse could eat up to of food. Sometimes, concentrated feed such as grain is fed in addition to pasture or hay, especially when the animal is very active. Giffin Horse Owner's Veterinary Handbook pp. 476–477 When grain is fed, equine nutritionists recommend that 50% or more of the animal's diet by weight should still be forage. Horses require a plentiful supply of clean water, a minimum of to per day. Giffin Horse Owner's Veterinary Handbook p. 455 Although horses are adapted to live outside, they require shelter from the wind and precipitation, which can range from a simple shed or shelter to an elaborate stable. Giffin Horse Owner's Veterinary Handbook p. 482 Horses require routine hoof care from a farrier as well as regular vaccinations to protect against various diseases, and periodic dental examinations from a veterinarian or a specialized equine dentist. Giffin Horse Owner's Veterinary Handbook p. 62,168,310 If horses are kept inside in a barn, they require regular daily exercise for their physical health and mental well-being. When turned outside, they require well-maintained, sturdy fences to be safely contained. Wheeler Horse Stable and Riding Arena Design p. 215 Regular grooming is also helpful to help the horse maintain good health of the hair coat and underlying skin. Giffin Horse Owner's Veterinary Handbook p. 90 References Sources | Horse |@lemmatized taxobox:1 name:4 domestic:3 horse:398 status:1 dom:1 image:2 mangalarga:1 marchador:1 jpg:1 regnum:1 animalia:1 phylum:1 chordata:1 classis:1 mammalia:1 ordo:1 perissodactyla:2 familia:1 equidae:5 genus:3 equus:16 specie:15 e:4 ferus:7 subspecies:4 f:1 caballus:3 trinomial:1 linnaeus:1 synonyms:1 list:2 hoofed:2 ungulate:2 mammal:4 one:19 seven:2 extant:1 family:5 evolve:7 past:3 million:7 year:24 small:14 multi:1 toed:3 creature:4 large:15 single:4 animal:40 today:13 human:34 begin:7 domesticate:5 around:4 bc:7 domestication:7 believe:2 widespread:3 use:53 domesticated:9 spread:2 throughout:9 eurasian:1 continent:2 although:13 still:11 endanger:1 population:7 przewalski:3 remain:4 true:2 wild:20 well:19 common:5 feral:7 live:14 descend:4 ancestor:4 extensive:2 specialized:7 vocabulary:2 describe:7 equine:12 related:5 concept:3 cover:3 everything:2 anatomy:4 life:6 stage:1 size:10 color:24 marking:6 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spinto:1 readiness:1 pig:1 ham:1 cure:1 fort:1 italy:1 saba:1 vessel:1 production:1 hurd:1 disease:2 shoe:1 hay:2 pasture:2 dry:1 feed:4 concentrate:1 active:1 nutritionist:1 recommend:1 plentiful:1 supply:1 clean:1 wind:1 precipitation:1 shed:1 elaborate:1 regular:3 vaccination:1 protect:1 periodic:1 dental:1 dentist:1 inside:1 barn:1 health:2 sturdy:1 fence:1 safely:1 wheeler:1 arena:1 helpful:1 underlying:1 reference:1 |@bigram phylum_chordata:1 equus_ferus:5 horse_equus:2 domesticated_horse:6 eurasian_continent:1 przewalski_horse:3 pregnant_mare:3 life_expectancy:1 northern_hemisphere:1 southern_hemisphere:1 ensminger_horse:16 horse_horsemanship:13 adverse_effect:1 et_al:4 owner_veterinary:10 veterinary_handbook:10 castrate_male:1 macquarie_dictionary:1 pty_ltd:1 castrated_male:1 mare_stallion:1 thoroughbred_horse:1 thoroughbred_racing:1 harness_racing:4 varies_greatly:1 horse_tack:3 pony_breed:5 mare_foal:1 epiphyseal_plate:1 sesamoid_bone:1 metatarsal_bone:1 horse_hoof:2 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5,462 | Cessna | Cessna 337 Skymaster, a "push-pull" aircraft 1979 Cessna 340A 1977 Cessna 404 Titan II Cessna 350 at Sun 'n Fun 2006 Cessna 525 CitationJet Cessna 560XL Citation Excel of the Swiss Air Force The Cessna Aircraft Company is an airplane manufacturing corporation headquartered in Wichita, Kansas, USA. Their main products are general aviation aircraft. Although they are the most well-known for their small, piston-powered aircraft, they also produce business jets. The company is a subsidiary of the U.S. conglomerate Textron. History The company traces its history to June 1911, when Clyde Cessna, a farmer in Rago, Kansas, built a wood-and-fabric plane and became the first person to build and fly an aircraft between the Mississippi River and the Rocky Mountains. Clyde Cessna started his aircraft ventures in Enid, Oklahoma, testing many of his early planes on the salt flats. When bankers in Enid refused to lend him more money to build his planes, he moved to Wichita. Article in "Enid News" In 1924, Cessna partnered with Lloyd C. Stearman and Walter H. Beech to form the Travel Air, Inc., a biplane manufacturing firm. This company was based in Wichita. In 1927, Clyde Cessna left Travel Air and formed his own company, the Cessna Aircraft Company. Instead of producing biplanes, he instead decided to focus on building monoplanes. The first flew on August 13, 1927. Cessna Aircraft Company closed its doors from 1932 until 1934 due to the state of the economy. In 1934, Dwane Wallace, with the help of his brother Dwight, took control of the company and began the process of building it into what would become a global success. Phillips, Edward H: Wings of Cessna, Model 120 to the Citation III, Flying Books, 1986. ISBN 0-911139-05-2 After World War II, Cessna created the 170, which, along with later models (notably the 172), became the most widely produced light aircraft in history. Cessna's advertising boasts that it has delivered more aircraft than any other company, over 190,000 by the end of 2008. In 1972 Cessna became the first aircraft manufacturer in the world to build 100,000 aircraft. The 100,000th aircraft was one of 24 Cessnas of various models displayed at Transpo 72. "Cessna at Transpo", Flight International magazine, 1 June 1972, p797. In 1985 Cessna was bought by General Dynamics Corporation and in 1986 production of piston-engine aircraft was suspended. General Dynamics cited product liability as the cause. The then-CEO Russ Meyer said that production would resume if a more favorable product liability environment developed. In 1992, Textron Inc. bought Cessna and, after passage of the General Aviation Revitalization Act of 1994, resumed production of the piston-engine 172, 182, and 206 designs. On 27 November, 2007, Textron announced that Cessna had purchased the bankrupt Columbia Aircraft company for US$26.4M and would continue production of the Columbia 350 and 400 as the Cessna 350 and Cessna 400 at the Columbia factory in Bend, Oregon. There had been speculation that the acquisition of the Columbia line would spell the end of the Cessna NGP project, but on September 26, 2007, Cessna Vice President for Sales, Roger Whyte, confirmed that development of the NGP project will continue, unaffected by the purchase of Columbia. Since November 2007, the company has been involved in a public controversy regarding the contracting of production of the Cessna 162 SkyCatcher to the Shenyang Aircraft Corporation of the People's Republic of China. Currently, Cessna produces 2-, 4- and 6-place single-engine airplanes, utility turboprops, and business jets. Chinese production controversy On 27 November 2007, Cessna announced the new Cessna 162 would be made in the People's Republic of China by Shenyang Aircraft Corporation, which is a subsidiary of China Aviation Industry Corporation I (AVIC I), a Chinese government-owned consortium of aircraft manufacturers. By manufacturing the aircraft in China, Cessna reports it saved USD$71,000 in production costs per aircraft, or about 40% of the cost. A second reason cited for moving production to Shenyang Aircraft Corporation was Cessna has no plant capacity available in the USA. Cessna received a high degree of negative feedback from 162 customers and potential customers regarding this decision. Complaints centered around the recent problems with Chinese production of other consumer products, China's human rights record, exporting of jobs, and China's less than friendly political relationship with the USA. The backlash surprised Cessna and resulted in a company public relations campaign to try to explain the decision from a business perspective and assure customers that quality of the aircraft will not be compromised. The reaction to the explanations and assurances has been overwhelmingly negative, although a small number of customers have applauded the production in China. In early 2009 the company attracted further criticism for continuing plans to build the 162 in China while laying off large numbers of workers in the USA. 2008 economic crisis On 4 November, 2008, Cessna's parent company, Textron, indicated that Citation production would be reduced from the original 2009 target of 535 "due to continued softening in the global economic environment" and that this would result in an undetermined number of lay-offs at Cessna. On 8 November 2008, at the AOPA Expo, CEO Jack Pelton indicated that while Cessna sales of aircraft to individual buyers have fallen that piston and turboprop sales to business have not. "While the economic slowdown has created a difficult business environment, we are encouraged by brisk activity from new and existing propeller fleet operators placing almost 200 orders for 2009 production aircraft," Pelton stated. On 13 November 2008, Cessna announced that a total of 665 jobs would be cut at its Wichita and Bend, Oregon plants starting in January 2009. The Cessna factory at Independence, Kansas which builds the Cessna piston-engined aircraft and the Cessna Mustang, was not forcast to see any lay-offs, but one third of the workforce at the former Columbia Aircraft facility in Bend was laid off. This included 165 of the 460 employees who built the Cessna 350 and 400. The remaining 500 jobs were eliminated at the main Cessna Wichita plant. In January 2009 the company announced 2,000 additional layoffs, bringing the total to 4,600. The job cuts included 120 at the Bend, Oregon facility reducing the plant that builds the Cessna 350 and 400 to fewer than half the number of workers that it had when Cessna bought it. Other cuts included 200 at the Independence, Kansas plant that builds the single engined Cessnas and the Mustang, reducing that facility to 1,300 workers. On 29 April 2009 the company announced that it was suspending the Citation Columbus program and closing the Bend, Oregon facility where the Cessna 350 and 400 are built. The Columbus program may be restarted once economic conditions improve. The 350 and 400 production line will be moved to Kansas. The company indicated that it will lay off 1,600 more workers, including the remaining 150 employees at the Bend plant and up to 700 workers from the Columbus program. Marketing Initiatives Cessna has always had an active marketing department. This was especially notable during the 1950s and 1960s. During this period, the marketing department followed the lead of Detroit automobile manufacturers and came up with many marketing slogans and buzzwords to describe Cessna’s product line in an attempt to place their products ahead of the competition. Other manufacturers and the aviation press widely ridiculed and spoofed many of these marketing terms but between Cessna’s designers producing a product the flying public wanted and the work of the marketing department, Cessna built and sold more aircraft than any other manufacturer during the boom years of the 1960s and 1970s. Cessna 150s produced before 1964, such as this 1962 Cessna 150B, lacked the later Omni-Vision rear window A 1965 Cessna 150E. The 1964 model 150D and the 150E introduced Omni-Vision rear windows on the Model 150 Marketing buzzwords Cessna marketing buzzwords included: Para-Lift Flaps – these were the large fowler flaps Cessna introduced on the 170B in 1952, replacing the narrow chord plain flaps then in use. Clarke, Bill: Cessna 150 and 152 first edition, pages 5-17. TAB Books, 1987. ISBN 0 8306-9002-0 Land-O-Matic – In 1956, Cessna introduced sprung-steel tricycle landing gear on the 172. The marketing department chose “Land-O-Matic” to imply that the these aircraft were much easier to land and take-off than the preceding conventional landing gear equipped Cessna 170. They even went as far as to say pilots could do “drive-up take-offs and drive-in landings”, implying that flying these aircraft was as easy as driving a car. In later years some Cessna models had their steel sprung landing gear replaced with steel tube gear legs. The 206 retains the original spring steel landing gear today. Omni-Vision – This referred to the rear windows on some Cessna singles, starting with the 182 and 210 in 1962, the 172 in 1963 and the 150 in 1964. The term was intended to make the pilot feel visibility was improved on the notably poor-visibility Cessna line. The introduction of the rear window caused in most models a loss of cruise speed due to the extra drag, while not adding any useful visibility. Cushioned power – This was to announce the introduction of rubber mounts on the cowling of the 1967 model 150, in addition to the rubber mounts isolating the engine from the cabin. Omni-Flash - This referred to the flashing beacon on the tip of the fin that could be seen all around. Open-View – This referred to the removal of the top section of the control wheel in 1967 models. These had been rectangular, they now became “ram’s horn” shaped, thus not blocking the instrument panel as much. Quick-Scan – Cessna introduced a new instrument panel layout in the 1960s and this buzzword was to indicate Cessna’s panels were ahead of the competition. Nav-O-Matic - This was the name of the Cessna autopilot system, which implied the system was relatively simple. Aircraft models References External links Company website PilotFriend.com - Cessna company history and aircraft types details | Cessna |@lemmatized cessna:64 skymaster:1 push:1 pull:1 aircraft:31 titan:1 ii:2 sun:1 n:1 fun:1 citationjet:1 citation:4 excel:1 swiss:1 air:3 force:1 company:19 airplane:2 manufacturing:2 corporation:6 headquarter:1 wichita:5 kansa:4 usa:4 main:2 product:7 general:4 aviation:4 although:2 well:1 know:1 small:2 piston:5 power:2 also:1 produce:6 business:5 jet:2 subsidiary:2 u:2 conglomerate:1 textron:4 history:4 trace:1 june:2 clyde:3 farmer:1 rago:1 build:12 wood:1 fabric:1 plane:3 become:5 first:4 person:1 fly:4 mississippi:1 river:1 rocky:1 mountain:1 start:3 venture:1 enid:3 oklahoma:1 test:1 many:3 early:2 salt:1 flat:1 banker:1 refuse:1 lend:1 money:1 move:3 article:1 news:1 partner:1 lloyd:1 c:1 stearman:1 walter:1 h:2 beech:1 form:2 travel:2 inc:2 biplane:2 firm:1 base:1 leave:1 instead:2 decide:1 focus:1 building:1 monoplane:1 flew:1 august:1 close:2 door:1 due:3 state:2 economy:1 dwane:1 wallace:1 help:1 brother:1 dwight:1 take:3 control:2 begin:1 process:1 would:8 global:2 success:1 phillips:1 edward:1 wing:1 model:10 iii:1 book:2 isbn:2 world:2 war:1 create:2 along:1 late:3 notably:2 widely:2 light:1 advertising:1 boast:1 deliver:1 end:2 manufacturer:5 one:2 cessnas:2 various:1 display:1 transpo:2 flight:1 international:1 magazine:1 buy:3 dynamic:2 production:13 engine:4 suspend:2 cite:2 liability:2 cause:2 ceo:2 rus:1 meyer:1 say:2 resume:2 favorable:1 environment:3 develop:1 passage:1 revitalization:1 act:1 design:1 november:6 announce:6 purchase:2 bankrupt:1 columbia:6 continue:3 factory:2 bend:6 oregon:4 speculation:1 acquisition:1 line:4 spell:1 ngp:2 project:2 september:1 vice:1 president:1 sale:3 roger:1 whyte:1 confirm:1 development:1 unaffected:1 since:1 involve:1 public:3 controversy:2 regard:2 contracting:1 skycatcher:1 shenyang:3 people:2 republic:2 china:8 currently:1 place:3 single:3 utility:1 turboprop:2 chinese:3 new:3 make:2 industry:1 avic:1 government:1 consortium:1 manufacture:1 report:1 save:1 usd:1 cost:2 per:1 second:1 reason:1 plant:6 capacity:1 available:1 receive:1 high:1 degree:1 negative:2 feedback:1 customer:4 potential:1 decision:2 complaint:1 center:1 around:2 recent:1 problem:1 consumer:1 human:1 right:1 record:1 export:1 job:4 less:1 friendly:1 political:1 relationship:1 backlash:1 surprise:1 result:2 relation:1 campaign:1 try:1 explain:1 perspective:1 assure:1 quality:1 compromise:1 reaction:1 explanation:1 assurance:1 overwhelmingly:1 number:4 applaud:1 attract:1 criticism:1 plan:1 lay:5 large:2 worker:5 economic:4 crisis:1 parent:1 indicate:4 reduce:3 original:2 target:1 continued:1 softening:1 undetermined:1 offs:3 aopa:1 expo:1 jack:1 pelton:2 individual:1 buyer:1 fall:1 slowdown:1 difficult:1 encourage:1 brisk:1 activity:1 exist:1 propeller:1 fleet:1 operator:1 almost:1 order:1 total:2 cut:3 january:2 independence:2 engined:2 mustang:2 forcast:1 see:2 third:1 workforce:1 former:1 facility:4 include:5 employee:2 remain:2 eliminate:1 additional:1 layoff:1 bring:1 half:1 april:1 columbus:3 program:3 may:1 restart:1 condition:1 improve:2 kansas:1 market:1 initiative:1 always:1 active:1 marketing:8 department:4 especially:1 notable:1 period:1 follow:1 lead:1 detroit:1 automobile:1 come:1 slogan:1 buzzword:4 describe:1 attempt:1 ahead:2 competition:2 press:1 ridicule:1 spoof:1 term:2 designer:1 want:1 work:1 sell:1 boom:1 year:2 lack:1 omni:4 vision:3 rear:4 window:3 introduce:4 para:1 lift:1 flap:3 fowler:1 replace:2 narrow:1 chord:1 plain:1 use:1 clarke:1 bill:1 edition:1 page:1 tab:1 land:6 matic:3 sprung:2 steel:4 tricycle:1 gear:5 choose:1 imply:3 much:2 easy:2 preceding:1 conventional:1 landing:2 equip:1 even:1 go:1 far:1 pilot:2 could:2 drive:3 car:1 tube:1 leg:1 retain:1 spring:1 today:1 refer:3 windows:1 intend:1 feel:1 visibility:3 poor:1 introduction:2 loss:1 cruise:1 speed:1 extra:1 drag:1 add:1 useful:1 cushioned:1 rubber:2 mount:2 cowling:1 addition:1 isolate:1 cabin:1 flash:2 beacon:1 tip:1 fin:1 open:1 view:1 removal:1 top:1 section:1 wheel:1 rectangular:1 ram:1 horn:1 shape:1 thus:1 block:1 instrument:2 panel:3 quick:1 scan:1 layout:1 nav:1 name:1 autopilot:1 system:2 relatively:1 simple:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 website:1 pilotfriend:1 com:1 type:1 detail:1 |@bigram cessna_skymaster:1 wichita_kansa:1 rocky_mountain:1 piston_engine:2 vice_president:1 negative_feedback:1 economic_slowdown:1 piston_engined:1 landing_gear:1 external_link:1 |
5,463 | Eiffel_(programming_language) | Eiffel is an ISO-standardized, object-oriented programming language designed to enable programmers to efficiently develop extensible, reusable, reliable software. Eiffel is used in academia as a language for teaching computer-programming principles. Eiffel is used in the finance, aerospace, health-care, video-gaming, and other industries as a development platform. Since 1985, many suppliers have developed Eiffel programming environments. The design of the language is closely connected with the Eiffel programming method. Both are based on a set of principles, including design by contract, command-query separation, uniform-access principle, single-choice principle, open-closed principle, and option-operand separation. Many concepts initially introduced by Eiffel later found their way into Java, C#, and other languages. New language-design ideas, particularly through the ECMA/ISO standardization process, continue to be incorporated into the Eiffel language. Characteristics The key characteristics of the Eiffel language include: An object-oriented program structure in which a class serves as the basic unit of decomposition. Design by contract tightly integrated with other language constructs. Automatic memory management, typically implemented by garbage collection. Inheritance, including multiple inheritance, renaming, redefinition, "select", non-conforming inheritance, and other mechanisms intended to make inheritance safe. Constrained and unconstrained generic programming. A uniform type system handling both value and reference semantics in which all types, including basic types such as INTEGER, are class-based. Type safety (static typing). Void safety, or static protection against calls on null references, through the attached-types mechanism. Agents, or objects that wrap computations, closely connected with closures and lambda calculus. Once routines, or routines evaluated only once, for object sharing and decentralized initialization. Keyword-based syntax in the ALGOL/Pascal tradition but separator-free, insofar as semicolons are optional, with operator syntax available for routines. Case insensitivity. Design goals Eiffel emphasizes declarative statements over procedural code and attempts to eliminate the need for bookkeeping instructions. Eiffel shuns coding tricks or coding techniques intended as optimization hints to the compiler. The aim is not only to make the code more readable, but also to allow programmers to concentrate on the important aspects of a program without getting bogged down in implementation details. Eiffel's simplicity is intended to promote simple, extensible, reusable, and reliable answers to computing problems. Compilers for computer programs written in Eiffel provide extensive optimization techniques, such as automatic in-lining, that relieve the programmer of part of the optimization burden while producing code whose efficiency is comparable to that of code written in C++. Background Eiffel was originally developed by Eiffel Software, a company originally called Interactive Software Engineering Inc. (ISE) founded by Bertrand Meyer. Object-Oriented Software Construction contains a detailed treatment of the concepts and theory of the object technology that led to Eiffel's design. Object-Oriented Software Construction, Second Edition, by Bertrand Meyer, Prentice Hall, 1997, ISBN 0-13-629155-4 The design goal behind the Eiffel language, libraries, and programming methods is to enable programmers to create reliable, reusable software modules. Eiffel supports multiple inheritance, genericity, polymorphism, encapsulation, type-safe conversions, and parameter covariance. Eiffel's most important contribution to software engineering is design by contract (DbC), in which assertions, preconditions, postconditions, and class invariants are employed to help ensure program correctness without sacrificing efficiency. Eiffel's design is based on object-oriented programming theory, with only minor influence of other paradigms or concern for support of legacy code. Eiffel formally supports abstract data types. Under Eiffel's design, a software text should be able to reproduce its design documentation from the text itself, using a formalized implementation of the "Abstract Data Type". Implementations and environments EiffelStudio is an integrated development environment available under either an open source or a commercial license. It offers an object-oriented environment for software engineering. EiffelEnvision is a plug-in for Microsoft Visual Studio that allows users to edit, compile, and debug Eiffel projects from within the Microsoft Visual Studio IDE. EiffelStudio and EiffelEnvision are free for non-commercial use. Four other open source implementations are available: "The Eiffel Compiler" tecomp, Gobo Eiffel, SmartEiffel—the GNU implementation, based on an older version of the language—and Visual Eiffel. Several other programming languages incorporate elements first introduced in Eiffel. Sather, for example, was originally based on Eiffel but has since diverged, and now includes several functional programming features. The interactive-teaching language Blue, forerunner of BlueJ, is also Eiffel-based. The Apple Media Tool includes an Eiffel-based Apple Media Language. Specifications and standards The Eiffel language definition is an international standard of the ISO. The standard was developed by ECMA International, which first approved the standard on 21 June 2005 as ECMA standard 367, Eiffel: Analysis, Design and Implementation Language. In June 2006, ECMA and ISO adopted the second version. In November 2006, ISO first published that version. The standard can be found and used free of charge on the ECMA site. ECMA International: Standard ECMA-367 —Eiffel: Analysis, Design and Programming Language 2nd edition (June 2006); available online at www.ecma-international.org/publications/standards/Ecma-367.htm The ISO version International Organisation for Standardisation: Standard ISO/IEC DIS 25436, available online at is identical in all respects except formatting. Eiffel Software, "The Eiffel Compiler" tecomp and Eiffel-library-developer Gobo have committed to implementing the standard; Eiffel Software's EiffelStudio 6.1 implements some of the major new mechanisms—in particular, inline agents, assigner commands, bracket notation, non-conforming inheritance, and attached types. The SmartEiffel team has turned away from this standard to create its own version of the language, which they believe to be closer to the original style of Eiffel. Object Tools has not disclosed whether future versions of its Eiffel compiler will comply with the standard. The standard cites the following, predecessor Eiffel-language specifications: Bertrand Meyer: Eiffel: The Language, Prentice Hall, second printing, 1992 (first printing: 1991) Bertrand Meyer: Standard Eiffel (revision of preceding entry), ongoing, 1997-present, at Bertrand Meyer's ETL3 page, and Bertrand Meyer: Object-Oriented Software Construction, Prentice Hall: first edition, 1988; second edition, 1997. Syntax and semantics Overall structure An Eiffel "system" or "program" is a collection of classes. Above the level of classes, Eiffel defines cluster, which are essentially a group of classes, and possibly of subclusters (nested clusters). Clusters are not a syntactic language construct, but rather a standard organizational convention. Typically an Eiffel application will be organized with each class in a separate file, and each cluster in a directory containing class files. In this organization, subclusters are subdirectories. For example, under standard organizational and casing conventions, x.e might be the name of a file that defines a class called X. A class contains features, which are similar to "members", "attributes" or "methods" in other object-oriented programming languages. A class also defines its invariants, and contains other properties, such as a "notes" section for documentation and metadata. Eiffel's standard data types, such as INTEGER, STRING and ARRAY, are all themselves classes. Every system must have a class designated as "root", with one of its creation procedures designated as "root procedure". Executing a system consists of creating an instance of the root class and executing its root procedure. Generally, doing so creates new objects, calls new features, and so on. Eiffel has five basic executable instructions: assignment, object creation, routine call, condition, and iteration. Eiffel's control structures are strict in enforcing structured programming: every block has exactly one entry and exactly one exit. Scoping Unlike many object-oriented languages, but like Smalltalk, Eiffel does not permit any assignment into fields of objects, except within the features of an object. Eiffel emphasizes information hiding and data abstraction, by requiring formal interfaces to data mutation. To put it in the language of other object-oriented programming languages, all Eiffel fields are "private", and "setters" are needed to modify values. An upshot of this is that "setters" can, and normally do, implement the invariants Eiffel provides syntax for. "Hello, world!" A programming language's look and feel is often conveyed using a "Hello, world!" program. Such a program written in Eiffel might be: class HELLO_WORLD create make feature make do print ("Hello, world!%N") end end Design by Contract The concept of design by contract is central to Eiffel. The mechanisms are tightly integrated with the language. Contracts guide redefinition of features in inheritance. Routine precondition: The precondition may only be weakened by inheritance; any call that meets the requirements of the ancestor meets those of the descendant. Routine postcondition: The postcondition can only be strengthened by inheritance; any result guaranteed by the ancestor is still provided by the descendant. Class invariant In addition, the language supports a "check instruction" (a kind of "assert") and loop invariants. Features, commands, queries The primary characteristic of a class is that it contains a set of features. As a class represents a set of run-time objects, or "instances", a feature is an operation on these objects. There are two kinds of features: queries and commands. A query provides information about an instance. A command modifies an instance. The command-query distinction is important to the Eiffel method. In particular: Uniform-Access Principle: from the point of view of a software client making a call to a class feature, whether a query is an attribute (field in each object) or a function (algorithm) should not make any difference. For example a_vehicle.speed could be an attribute, accessed from the object's representation; or it could be computed by a function that divides distance by time. The notation is the same in both cases, so that it's easy to change representation without affecting the rest of the software. Command-Query Separation Principle: Queries must not modify the instance. This is not a language rule but a methodological principle. So in good Eiffel style, one does not find "get" functions that change something and return a result; instead there are commands (procedures) to change objects, and queries to obtain information about the object, resulting from preceding changes. Overloading Eiffel does not allow argument overloading. Each feature name within a class always maps to a specific feature within the class. One name, within one class, means one thing. This design choice helps the readability of classes, by avoiding a cause of ambiguity about which routine will be invoked by a call. It also simplifies the language mechanism; in particular, this is what makes Eiffel's multiple inheritance mechanism possible. Bertrand Meyer: Overloading vs Object Technology, in Journal of Object-Oriented Programming (JOOP), vol. 14, no. 4, October-November 2001, available online Names can, of course, be reused in different classes. For example the "+" operator is defined in several classes: INTEGER, REAL, STRING, etc. Genericity Classes can be generic, to express that they are parameterized by types. Generic parameters appear in square brackets: class LIST [G] ... G is known as a "formal generic parameter". (Eiffel reserves "argument" for routines, and uses "parameter" only for generic classes.) With such a declaration G represents within the class an arbitrary type; so a function can return a value of type G, and a routine can take an argument of that type: item: G do ... end put (x: G) do ... end The LIST [INTEGER] and LIST [WORD] are "generic derivations" of this class. Permitted combinations (with n: INTEGER, w: WORD, il: LIST [INTEGER], wl: LIST [WORD]) are n := il.item wl.put (w) INTEGER and WORD are the "actual generic parameters" in these generic derivations. It is also possible to have 'constrained' formal parameters, for which the actual parameter must inherit from a given class, the "constraint". For example in class HASH_TABLE [G, KEY -> HASHABLE] a derivation HASH_TABLE [INTEGER, STRING] is valid only if STRING inherits from HASHABLE (as it indeed does in typical Eiffel libraries). Within the class, having KEY constrained by HASHABLE means that for x: KEY it is possible to apply to x all the features of HASHABLE, as in x.hash_code. Inheritance basics To inherit from one or more others, a class will include an inherit clause at the beginning: class C inherit A B -- ... Rest of class declaration ... The class may redefine (override) some or all of the inherited features. This must be explicitly announced at the beginning of the class through a redefine subclause of the inheritance clause, as in class C inherit A redefine f, g, h end B redefine u, v end Deferred classes and features Classes may be defined with deferred class rather than with class to indicate that the class may not be directly instantiated. Non-instantiatable classes are called abstract classes in some other object-oriented programming languages. In Eiffel parlance, only an "effective" class can be instantiated (it may be a descendent of a deferred class). A feature can also be deferred by using the deferred keyword in place of a do clause. If a class has any deferred features it must be declared as deferred; however, a class with no deferred features may nonetheless itself be deferred. Deferred classes play some of the same role as interfaces in languages such as Java, though many object-oriented programming theorists believe interfaces are themselves largely an answer to Java's lack of multiple inheritance (which Eiffel has). Renaming A class that inherits from one or more others gets all its features, by default under their original names. It may, however, change their names through rename clauses. This is required in the case of multiple inheritance if there are name clashes between inherited features; without renaming, the resulting class would violate the no-overloading principle noted above and hence would be invalid. Tuples Tuples types may be viewed as a simple form of class, providing only attributes and the corresponding "setter" procedure. A typical tuple type reads TUPLE [name: STRING; weight: REAL; date: DATE] and could be used to describe a simple notion of birth record if a class is not needed. An instance of such a tuple is simply a sequence of values with the given types, given in brackets, such as ["Brigitte", 3.5, Last_night] Components of such a tuple can be accessed as if the tuple tags were attributes of a class, for example if t has been assigned the above tuple then t.weight has value 3.5. Thanks to the notion of assigner command (see below), dot notation can also be used to assign components of such a tuple, as in t.weight := t.weight + 0.5 The tuple tags are optional, so that it is also possible to write a tuple type as TUPLE [STRING, REAL, DATE]. (In some compilers this is the only form of tuple, as tags were introduced with the ECMA standard.) The precise specification of e.g. TUPLE [A, B, C] is that it describes sequences of at least three elements, the first three being of types A, B, C respectively. As a result TUPLE [A, B, C] conforms to (may be assigned to) TUPLE [A, B], to TUPLE [A] and to TUPLE (without parameters), the topmost tuple type to which all tuple types conform. Agents Eiffel's "agent" mechanism wraps operations into objects. This mechanism can be used for iteration, event-driven programming, and other contexts in which it is useful to pass operations around the program structure. Other programming languages, especially ones that emphasize functional programming, allow a similar pattern using continuations, closures, or generators; Eiffel's agents emphasize the language's object-oriented paradigm, and use a syntax and semantics similar to code blocks in Smalltalk and Ruby. For example, to execute the my_action block for each element of my_list, one would write: my_list.do_all (agent my_action) To execute my_action only on elements satisfying my_condition, a limitation/filter can be added: my_list.do_if (agent my_action, agent my_condition) In these examples, my_action and my_condition are routines. Prefixing them with agent yields an object that represents the corresponding routine with all its properties, in particular the ability to be called with the appropriate arguments. So if a represents that object (for example because a is the argument to do_all), the instruction a.call ([x]) will call the original routine with the argument x, as if we had directly called the original routine: my_action (x). Arguments to call are passed as a tuple, here [x]. It is possible to keep some arguments to an agent open and make others closed. The open arguments are passed as arguments to call: they are provided at the time of agent use. The closed arguments are provided at the time of agent definition. For example, if action2 has two arguments, the iteration my_list.do_all (agent action2 (?, y)) iterates action2 (x, y) for successive values of x, where the second arguments remained set to y. The question mark ? indicates an open argument; y is a closed argument of the agent. Note that the basic syntax agent f is a short hand for agent f (?, ?, ...) with all arguments open. It is also possible to make the target of an agent open through the notation {T}? where T is the type of the target. The distinction between open and closed operands (operands = arguments + target) corresponds to the distinction between bound and free variables in lambda calculus. An agent expression such as action2 (?, y) with some operands closed and some open corresponds to a version of the original operation curried on the closed operands. The agent mechanism has been recently generalized to allow defining an agent without reference to an existing routine (such as my_action, my_condition, action2), through inline agents as in my_list.do_all (agent (s: STRING) require not_void: s /= Void do s.append_character (',') ensure appended: s.count = old s.count + 1 end) The inline agent passed here can have all the trappings of a normal routine, including precondition, postcondition, rescue clause (not used here), and a full signature. This avoids defining routines when all that's needed is a computation to be wrapped in an agent. This is useful in particular for contracts, as in an invariant clause that expresses that all elements of a list are positive: my_list.for_all (agent (x: INTEGER): BOOLEAN do Result := (x > 0) end) The current agent mechanism leaves a possibility of run-time type error (if a routine with n arguments is passed to an agent expecting m arguments with m < n). This can be avoided by a run-time check through the precondition valid_arguments of call. Several proposals for a purely static correction of this problem are available, including a language change proposal by Ribet et al. Philippe Ribet, Cyril Adrian, Olivier Zendra, Dominique Colnet: Conformance of agents in the Eiffel language, in Journal of Object Technology, vol. 3, no. 4, April 2004, Special issue: TOOLS USA 2003, pp. 125-143. Available on line from the JOT article page . Once routines A routine's result can be cached using the once keyword in place of do. Non-first calls to a routine require no additional computation or resource allocation, but simply return a previously computed result. A common pattern for "once functions" is to provide shared objects; the first call will create the object, subsequent ones will return the reference to that object. The typical scheme is: shared_object: SOME_TYPE once create Result.make (args) -- This creates the object and returns a reference to it through `Result'. end The returned object—Result in the example—can itself be mutable, but its reference remains the same. Often "once routines" perform a required initialization: multiple calls to a libraries can include a call to the initialization procedure, but only the first such call will perform the required actions. Using this pattern initialization can be decentralized, avoiding the need for a special initialization module. "Once routines" are similar in purpose and effect to the singleton pattern in many programming languages, and to the Borg pattern used in Python. The ECMA specification allows variants of "once" (qualified by a keyword in parentheses, e.g. once (THREAD): once per process, once per thread, once per object. However, this is not yet fully implemented by current compilers (typically, only PROCESS and THREAD). Conversions Eiffel provides a mechanism to allow conversions between various types. The mechanisms coexists with inheritance and complements it. To avoid any confusion between the two mechanisms, the design enforces the following principle: (Conversion principle) A type may not both conform and convert to another. For example NEWSPAPER may conform to PUBLICATION, but INTEGER converts to REAL (and does not inherit from it). The conversion mechanism simply generalizes the ad hoc conversion rules (such as indeed between INTEGER and REAL) that exist in most programming languages, making them applicable to any type as long as the above principle is observed. For example a DATE class may be declared to convert to STRING; this makes it possible to create a string from a date simply through my_string := my_date as a shortcut for using an explicit object creation with a conversion procedure: create my_string.make_from_date (my_date) To make the first form possible as a synonym for the second, it suffices to list the creation procedure (constructor) make_from_date in a convert clause at the beginning of the class. As another example, if there is such a conversion procedure listed from TUPLE [day: INTEGER; month: STRING; year: INTEGER], then one can directly assign a tuple to a date, causing the appropriate conversion, as in Bastille_day := [14, "July", 1789] Exception handling Exception handling in Eiffel is based on the principles of design by contract. For example, an exception occurs when a routine's caller fails to satisfy a precondition, or when a routine cannot ensure a promised postcondition. In Eiffel, exception handling is not used for control flow or to correct data-input mistakes. An Eiffel exception handler is defined using the rescue keyword. Within the rescue section, the retry keyword executes the routine again. For example, the following routine tracks the number of attempts at executing the routine, and only retries a certain number of times: connect_to_server (server: SOCKET) -- Connect to a server or give up after 10 attempts. require server /= Void and then server.address /= Void local attempts: INTEGER do server.connect ensure connected: server.is_connected rescue if attempts < 10 then attempts := attempts + 1 retry end end This example is arguably flawed for anything but the simplest programs, however, because connection failure is to be expected. For most programs a routine name like attempt_connecting_to_server would be better, and the postcondition would not promise a connection, leaving it up to the caller to take appropriate steps if the connection was not opened. Concurrency A number of networking and threading libraries are available, such as EiffelNet and EiffelThreads. A concurrency model for Eiffel, based on the concepts of design by contract, is SCOOP (software), or Simple Concurrent Object-Oriented Programming, not yet part of the official language definition but available as an add-on from ETH Zurich. Operator and bracket syntax, assigner commands Eiffel's view of computation is completely object-oriented in the sense that every operation is relative to an object, the "target". So for example an addition [1] a + b is conceptually understood as if it were a function call [2] a.plus (b) with target a, feature plus and argument b. Of course [1] is the conventional syntax and usually preferred. Operator syntax makes it possible to use either form by declaring the feature (for example in INTEGER, but this applies to other basic classes and can be used in any other for which such an operator appropriate): plus alias "+" (other: INTEGER): INTEGER -- ... Normal function declaration... end The range of operators that can be used as "alias" is quite broad; they include predefined operators such as "+" but also "free operators" made of non-alphanumeric symbols. This makes it possible to design special infix and prefix notations, for example in mathematics and physics applications. Every class may in addition have one function aliased to "[]", the "bracket" operator, allowing the notation a [i, ...] as a synonym for a.f (i, ...) where f is the chosen function. This is particularly useful for container structures such as arrays, hash tables, lists etc. For example access to an element of a hash table with string keys can be written number := phone_book ["JILL SMITH"] "Assigner commands" are a companion mechanism designed in the same spirit of allowing well-established, convenient notation reinterpreted in the framework of object-oriented programming. Assigner commands allow assignment-like syntax to call "setter" procedures. An assignment proper can never be of the form a.x := v as this violates information hiding; you have to go for a setter command (procedure). For example the hash table class can have the function and the procedure item alias "[]" (key: STRING): ELEMENT [3] -- The element of key `key'. -- ("Getter" query) do ... end put (e: ELEMENT; key: STRING) -- Insert the element `e', associating it with the key `key'. -- ("Setter" command) do ... end Then to insert an element you have to use an explicit call to the setter command: [4] phone_book.put (New_person, "JILL SMITH") It is possible to write this equivalently as [5] phone_book ["JILL SMITH"] := New_person (in the same way that phone_book ["JILL SMITH"] is a synonym for number := phone_book.item ("JILL SMITH")), provided the declaration of item now starts (replacement for [3]) with item alias "[]" (key: STRING): ELEMENT assign put This declares put as the assigner command associated with item and, combined with the bracket alias, makes [5] legal and equivalent to [4]. (It could also be written, without taking advantage of the bracket, as phone_book.item ("JILL SMITH") := New_person. note: The argument list of a's assigner is constrained to be: (a's return type;all of a's argument list...) Lexical and syntax properties Eiffel is not case-sensitive. The tokens make, maKe and MAKE all denote the same identifier. See, however, the "style rules" below. Comments are introduced by -- (two consecutive dashes) and extend to the end of the line. The semicolon, as instruction separator, is optional. Most of the time the semicolon is just omitted, except to separate multiple instructions on a line. This results in less clutter on the program page. There is no nesting of feature and class declarations. As a result the structure of an Eiffel class is simple: some class-level clauses (inheritance, invariant) and a succession of feature declarations, all at the same level. It is customary to group features into separate "feature clauses" for more readability, with a standard set of basic feature tags appearing in a standard order, for example: class HASH_TABLE [ELEMENT, KEY -> HASHABLE] inherit TABLE [ELEMENT] feature -- Initialization -- ... Declarations of initialization commands (creation procedures/constructors) ... feature -- Access -- ... Declarations of non-boolean queries on the object state, e.g. item ... feature -- Status report -- ... Declarations of boolean queries on the object state, e.g. is_empty ... feature -- Element change -- ... Declarations of commands that change the structure, e.g. put ... -- etc. end In contrast to most curly bracket programming languages, Eiffel makes a clear distinction between expressions and instructions. This is in line with the Command-Query Separation principle of the Eiffel method. Style conventions Much of the documentation of Eiffel uses distinctive style conventions, designed to enforce a consistent look-and-feel. Some of these conventions apply to the code format itself, and others to the standard typographic rendering of Eiffel code in formats and publications where these conventions are possible. While the language is case-insensitive, the style standards prescribe the use of all-capitals for class names (LIST), all-lower-case for feature names (make), and initial capitals for constants (Avogadro). The recommended style also suggests underscore to separate components of a multi-word identifier, as in average_temperature. The specification of Eiffel includes guidelines for displaying software texts in typeset formats: keywords in bold, user-defined identifiers and constants are shown in italics, comments, operators, and punctuation marks in Roman, with program text in blue as in the present article to distinguish it from explanatory text. For example, the "Hello, world!" program given above would be rendered as below in Eiffel documentation: class HELLO_WORLD create make feature make do print ("Hello, world!") end end Interfaces to other tools and languages Eiffel is a purely object-oriented language but provides an open architecture for interfacing with "external" software in any other programming language. It is possible for example to program machine- and operating-system level operations in C. Eiffel provides a straightforward interface to C routines, including support for "inline C" (writing the body of an Eiffel routine in C, typically for short machine-level operations). Although there is no direct connection between Eiffel and C, many Eiffel compilers except one (Visual Eiffel) output C source code as an intermediate language, to submit to a C compiler, for optimizing and portability. The Eiffel Compiler tecomp can execute Eiffel code directly (like an interpreter) without going via an intermediate C code or emit C code which will be passed to a C compiler in order to obtain optimized native code. On .NET, the EiffelStudio compiler directly generates CIL (Common Intermediate Language) code. The SmartEiffel compiler can also output Java bytecode. References External links Basic Eiffel Language Mechanisms, Bertrand Meyer, August 2006. Eiffel Software's Open Source initiative Eiffel Software web site of the company that introduced Eiffel, was Interactive Software Engineering (ISE). Eiffel tutorial (100 pages) by Bertrand Meyer (HTML, PDF) Eiffel standard, revision 2 (2006); this is the ECMA standard, with free access, its text identical to that of the ISO standard. SmartEiffel fairly complete Eiffel compiler, released under GNU GPL license, was SmallEiffel, not ECMA standard compliant. "The Eiffel Compiler" (tecomp) an open source Eiffel compiler with documentation. 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5,464 | Masuria | Sailing on Lake Mikołajki. Masuria (; ) is an area in northeastern Poland famous for its lakes and forests. History Old Prussians By the 13th century Prussia was inhabited by the Baltic Old Prussians in the lands of Pomesania, Pogesania, Galindia, Bartia, and Sudovia. The region around the many lakes became since the 18th century unofficially known as Masuria. In the southern regions, dense wilderness existed longer than in most of Europe, enabling moose, aurochs, bears, and other mammals to survive. It is estimated that around 220,000 Old Prussians lived in the territory in 1200. During the Baltic or Northern Crusades of the 13th century the Old Prussians used this remaining wilderness as defense against the German knights of the Teutonic Order and other visiting European crusaders. The declared mission of the Teutonic Knights was to baptize and convert the native population to Christianity; they did this mostly through conquest, which culminated in 1283 when the Prussian keep at Lyck (now Ełk) was destroyed by the Order. This thick stretch of wilderness had already for centuries been a barrier against the Polish attacks and conquest attempts on the Prussians. Following the Order's conquest of the area, some Polish-speaking settlers, mainly Mazurs from Masovia, began to settle in the southeast of the conquered region. Germans, French, Flemish, Danish, Dutch, and Norwegian colonists entered the area shortly afterward. The number of Polish settlers grew significantly again in the beginning of 15th century, especially after the First Peace of Thorn (1411) and the Second Peace of Thorn (1466). At the same time the original Prussian population had already through earlier warfare with the Teutonic Knights and years of attacks by Poland as well as attacks from Daniel of Halich suffered severely. Later assimilation of the German settlers as well as the Polish immigrants and all others created the new Prussian identity. Ducal Prussia In Masuria the Polish language was still in use, because of the many settlers from Masovia. In the Second Peace of Thorn in 1466, the Teutonic Order came under the overlordship of the Polish crown. With the conversion of Albert of Prussia to Lutheranism in 1525, Masuria became part of Protestant Ducal Prussia. While much of the countryside was populated by Polish-speakers, the cities remained centres of German mixed with Polish population, with the upper class more German than the lower class. The ancient Old Prussian language survived in parts of the countryside until the early 18th century. Areas that had many Polish-language speakers were known as the Polish departments (die polnischen Ämter in German). Throughout the Northern Wars southern Prussian region (later Masuria) was devastated in 1656 by Tatar raids, fighting for the Polish Kingdom, which practically destroyed all the townships and killed 30% of the population within 2 weeks. From 1708-1711 about 50% of the inhabitants of the newly rebuilt villages died from the Black Death. Losses in population were partly compensated by migration of Protestant settlers or refugees from Scotland, Salzburg (expulsion of Protestants 1731), France (Huguenot refugees after the Edict of Fontainebleau in 1685), and especially from the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, including Polish brethren expelled from Poland in 1657. The last group of refugees to immigrate to Masuria were the Russian Filipons in 1830 when they were granted asylum by King Frederick William III of Prussia. Kingdom of Prussia Masuria in winter at Zyzdrój Wielki After the death of Albert Frederick, Duke of Prussia in 1618 his son-in-law John Sigismund, Margrave of Brandenburg, inheritet Ducal Prussia, including the lake-region (later Masuria), combining the two territories under a single dynasty and forming Brandenburg-Prussia. The still remaining nominal sovereignty of the King of Poland was revoked by the Treaty of Wehlau in 1657. The region became part of the Kingdom of Prussia after the coronation of King Frederick I of Prussia. The lake-region (Masuria) became part of the newly-created administrative province of East Prussia upon its creation in 1773. The name Masuria began to be used officially after new administrative reforms in the kingdom after 1818. Germanisation was slow and mainly done through the educational system: After the creation of the Prussian-led German Empire in 1871, the Polish language was removed from schools in 1872. Some local Poles resisted those attempts, mainly by publication of Polish newspapers such as Przyjaciel Ludu Łecki and Mazur. At the end of the 19th century Polish activists gathered around Gazeta Ludowa, first published in 1896 with 2500 copies Andreas Kossert, Masuren, p. 210 , and the Mazurska Partia Ludowa ("Mazur People's Party"). However the great majority regarded themselves more as Prussians than as Poles and were loyal to the government. The publication of the Gazety Ludowa was suspended in 1905 and Polish parties never gained a significant percentage of votes in Masuria in the Reichstag elections. Of the Masurian population in 1890, 143,397 gave German as their language (either primary or secondary), 152,186 Polish, and 94,961 Masurian. In 1910, the German language was given by 197,060, Polish by 30,121, and Masurian by 171,413. In 1925, 40,869 people gave Masurian as their native tongue and 2,297 gave Polish. However, the last result may have been a result of politics at the time and a desire to present the province as purely German; in reality the Masurian dialect was still in use. During World War I, the Battle of Tannenberg between Imperial Germany and the Russian Empire took place within the borders of Masuria in 1914. After the war, the League of Nations held the East Prussian plebiscite on June 11 1920 to determine if the people of the two southern districts of East Prussia wanted to remain within East Prussia or to join the Second Polish Republic. 97.89% of the voters chose to remain with East Prussia. The plebiscite took place during the time when Polish-Soviet War threatened to erase the Polish state. After 1933 oppression of Polish minority was carried out by the Nazis. Nazi Germany Mikołajki The Nazi government (1933-1945) changed thousands of toponyms (especially names of cities and villages) from Prussian and Polish to newly-created German names; about 50% of the existing names were changed in 1938 alone Bernd Martin, p. 55 , which was however resisted by the Prussian people, who continue using the Prussian place names. During World War II, Masuria was partially devastated by the retreating German and advancing Soviet armies during the Vistula-Oder Offensive. The region came under Polish rule at war's end in the Potsdam Conference. Most of the population fled to Germany or were killed during or after the war, while the rest were subject to "nationality verification" organized by the communist government of Poland. As a result, the number of native Masurians that remained in Masuria was initially relatively high, while most ethnic Germans were subsequently expelled. Many Poles, mostly expelled from Polish areas annexed by the Soviet Union, were resettled in Masuria, especially those from the later Lithuanian SSR around Vilnius. Towns founded in Prussia Ełk (Lyck) Iława (Deutsch Eylau) Giżycko (Lötzen) Gołdap (Goldap) Kętrzyn (Rastenburg) Morąg (Mohrungen) Mrągowo (Sensburg) Mikołajki (Nikolaiken) Nidzica (Neidenburg) Olecko (Treuburg) Ostróda (Osterode) Orzysz (Arys) Pisz (Johannisburg) Szczytno (Ortelsburg) Węgorzewo (Angerburg) Masuria after World War II Soon after 1956, some Masurians were given the opportunity to join their families in West Germany. The majority (over 100 thousand) gradually left, mostly because the standard of living was higher in West Germany, and because the communist government persecuted their separate culture and identity. Approximately 5,000 Masurians still live in the area. Most of the originally Protestant churches in Masuria are now used by the Polish Roman Catholic Church. Masuria was incorporated into the voivodeship system of administration in 1945. In 1999 Masuria was constituted with neighbouring Warmia as a single administrative province through the creation of the Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship. Landscape Lakes Masurian Lake District Masuria and the Masurian Lake District are known in Polish as Kraina Tysiąca Jezior and in German as Land der Tausend Seen, meaning "land of a thousand lakes." These lakes were ground out of the land by glaciers during the Pleistocene ice age, when ice covered northeastern Europe. By 10,000 BC this ice started to melt. Great geological changes took place and even in the last 500 years the maps showing the lagoons and peninsulas on the Baltic Sea have greatly altered in appearance. As in other parts of northern Poland, such as from Pomerania on the Oder River to the Vistula River, this continuous stretch of lakes is popular among tourists. Gallery Famous people from Masuria Richard Altmann (1852-1900), pathologist Leszek Błażyński (1949-1992), boxer Gottlieb Labusch/Bogumił Labusz (1860-1919), activist opposing Germanisation Kurt Blumenfeld (1884–1963), politician Abraham Calovius (1612-1686), Lutheran theologian Roman Czepe (born 1956), politician Lucas David (1503-1583), historian Marion Gräfin Dönhoff (1909-2002), journalist Ferdinand Gregorovius (1821–1891), historian Gustav Gisevius (1810-1848), Protestant pastor, Supporter of Polish language teaching and resistance against Germanisation Georg Andreas Helwing (1666-1748), botanist Johann Gottfried von Herder (1744-1803), philosopher, poet, and literary critic Andreas Hillgruber (1925-1989), historian Adalbert von Winkler/Wojciech Kętrzyński (1838-1918), activist and historian Hans Hellmut Kirst (1914-1989), author Georg Klebs (1857-1913), botanist Johannes Knolleisen, 15th century academic and provider of academic stipends Walter Kollo (1878-1940), composer Horst Kopkow (1910-1966), spy Udo Lattek (born 1935), football coach Siegfried Lenz (born 1926), author Wolf Lepenies (born 1941), political scientist Johannes von Leysen (1310-1388), founder and first mayor of Allenstein Albert Lieven (1906–1971), actor Christoph Coelestin Mrongovius (1764 – 1855), Protestant pastor and philosopher Rodolphe Radau (1835-1911), astronomer Karl Bogislaus Reichert (1811–1883), anatomist Fritz Richard Schaudinn (1871–1906), zoologist Paweł Sobolewski (born 1979), footballer Helmuth Stieff (1901-1944), general Bethel Henry Strousberg (1823-1884), industrialist Arno Surminski (born 1934), writer Kurt Symanzik (1923-1983), physicist Elisabeth von Thadden (1890-1944), educator August Trunz (1875-1963), founder of the Prussica-Sammlung Trunz Ernst Wiechert (1887–1950), poet and writer Wilhelm Wien (1864–1928), physicist, Nobel Prize winner Notes References Mazury Entry on the region in Polish PWN Encyclopedia. External links Tourist information (polish) Mazury (polish) Mazury (polish) Masuren (German) Natural tourism (birdwatching) in NE Poland Topographical maps 1:50 000 Mazury - Poland - canoeing information (polish) Masuren - Poland - canoeing information (German) Masuria - Poland - canoeing information (English) | Masuria |@lemmatized sail:1 lake:9 mikołajki:3 masuria:22 area:6 northeastern:2 poland:10 famous:2 forest:1 history:1 old:5 prussian:16 century:8 prussia:16 inhabit:1 baltic:3 land:4 pomesania:1 pogesania:1 galindia:1 bartia:1 sudovia:1 region:9 around:4 many:4 become:4 since:1 unofficially:1 know:3 southern:3 dense:1 wilderness:3 exist:2 long:1 europe:2 enable:1 moose:1 aurochs:1 bear:1 mammal:1 survive:2 estimate:1 live:2 territory:2 northern:3 crusade:1 use:6 remain:6 defense:1 german:16 knight:3 teutonic:4 order:4 visit:1 european:1 crusader:1 declared:1 mission:1 baptize:1 convert:1 native:3 population:7 christianity:1 mostly:3 conquest:3 culminate:1 keep:1 lyck:2 ełk:2 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5,465 | Computational_linguistics | Computational linguistics is an interdisciplinary field dealing with the statistical and/or rule-based modeling of natural language from a computational perspective. This modeling is not limited to any particular field of linguistics. Traditionally, computational linguistics was usually performed by computer scientists who had specialized in the application of computers to the processing of a natural language. Computational linguists often work as members of interdisciplinary teams, including linguists (specifically trained in linguistics), language experts (persons with some level of ability in the languages relevant to a given project), and computer scientists. In general, computational linguistics draws upon the involvement of linguists, computer scientists, experts in artificial intelligence, mathematicians, logicians, cognitive scientists, cognitive psychologists, psycholinguists, anthropologists and neuroscientists, amongst others. Origins Computational linguistics as a field predates artificial intelligence, a field under which it is often grouped. Computational linguistics originated with efforts in the United States in the 1950s to use computers to automatically translate texts from foreign languages, particularly Russian scientific journals, into English. John Hutchins: Retrospect and prospect in computer-based translation. Proceedings of MT Summit VII, 1999, pp. 30–44. Since computers had proven their ability to do arithmetic much faster and more accurately than humans, it was thought to be only a short matter of time before the technical details could be taken care of that would allow them the same remarkable capacity to process language. When machine translation (also known as mechanical translation) failed to yield accurate translations right away, automated processing of human languages was recognized as far more complex than had originally been assumed. Computational linguistics was born as the name of the new field of study devoted to developing algorithms and software for intelligently processing language data. When artificial intelligence came into existence in the 1960s, the field of computational linguistics became that sub-division of artificial intelligence dealing with human-level comprehension and production of natural languages. In order to translate one language into another, it was observed that one had to understand the grammar of both languages, including both morphology (the grammar of word forms) and syntax (the grammar of sentence structure). In order to understand syntax, one had to also understand the semantics and the lexicon (or 'vocabulary'), and even to understand something of the pragmatics of language use. Thus, what started as an effort to translate between languages evolved into an entire discipline devoted to understanding how to represent and process natural languages using computers. Subfields Computational linguistics can be divided into major areas depending upon the medium of the language being processed, whether spoken or textual; and upon the task being performed, whether analyzing language (recognition) or synthesizing language (generation). Speech recognition and speech synthesis deal with how spoken language can be understood or created using computers. Parsing and generation are sub-divisions of computational linguistics dealing respectively with taking language apart and putting it together. Machine translation remains the sub-division of computational linguistics dealing with having computers translate between languages. Some of the areas of research that are studied by computational linguistics include: Computational complexity of natural language, largely modeled on automata theory, with the application of context-sensitive grammar and linearly-bounded Turing machines. Computational semantics comprises defining suitable logics for linguistic meaning representation, automatically constructing them and reasoning with them Computer-aided corpus linguistics Design of parsers or chunkers for natural languages Design of taggers like POS-taggers (part-of-speech taggers) Machine translation as one of the earliest and least successful applications of computational linguistics draws on many subfields. The Association for Computational Linguistics defines computational linguistics as: ...the scientific study of language from a computational perspective. Computational linguists are interested in providing computational models of various kinds of linguistic phenomena. See also Artificial intelligence Association for Computational Linguistics Collostructional analysis Computational lexicology Computational Linguistics (journal) Computational science Computational semiotics Computer-assisted reviewing Dialog systems Grammar induction Human speechome project Machine translation National Centre for Text Mining Natural language processing North American Computational Linguistics Olympiad Semantic relatedness Translation memory Universal Networking Language References External links Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL) ACL Anthology of research papers ACL Wiki for Computational Linguistics CICLing annual conferences on Computational Linguistics Free online introductory book on Computational Linguistics (Internet Archive copy) Language Technology World Resources for Text, Speech and Language Processing | Computational_linguistics |@lemmatized computational:31 linguistics:24 interdisciplinary:2 field:6 deal:5 statistical:1 rule:1 base:2 modeling:2 natural:7 language:27 perspective:2 limited:1 particular:1 traditionally:1 usually:1 perform:2 computer:12 scientist:4 specialize:1 application:3 processing:3 linguist:4 often:2 work:1 member:1 team:1 include:3 specifically:1 train:1 expert:2 person:1 level:2 ability:2 relevant:1 give:1 project:2 general:1 draw:2 upon:3 involvement:1 artificial:5 intelligence:5 mathematician:1 logician:1 cognitive:2 psychologist:1 psycholinguist:1 anthropologist:1 neuroscientist:1 amongst:1 others:1 origins:1 predate:1 group:1 originate:1 effort:2 united:1 state:1 use:4 automatically:2 translate:4 text:3 foreign:1 particularly:1 russian:1 scientific:2 journal:2 english:1 john:1 hutchins:1 retrospect:1 prospect:1 translation:8 proceeding:1 mt:1 summit:1 vii:1 pp:1 since:1 prove:1 arithmetic:1 much:1 faster:1 accurately:1 human:4 think:1 short:1 matter:1 time:1 technical:1 detail:1 could:1 take:2 care:1 would:1 allow:1 remarkable:1 capacity:1 process:5 machine:5 also:3 know:1 mechanical:1 fail:1 yield:1 accurate:1 right:1 away:1 automate:1 recognize:1 far:1 complex:1 originally:1 assume:1 bear:1 name:1 new:1 study:3 devote:2 develop:1 algorithm:1 software:1 intelligently:1 data:1 come:1 existence:1 become:1 sub:3 division:3 comprehension:1 production:1 order:2 one:4 another:1 observe:1 understand:5 grammar:5 morphology:1 word:1 form:1 syntax:2 sentence:1 structure:1 semantics:2 lexicon:1 vocabulary:1 even:1 something:1 pragmatic:1 thus:1 start:1 evolve:1 entire:1 discipline:1 represent:1 subfields:2 divide:1 major:1 area:2 depend:1 medium:1 whether:2 speak:1 textual:1 task:1 analyze:1 recognition:2 synthesize:1 generation:2 speech:4 synthesis:1 spoken:1 understood:1 create:1 parsing:1 respectively:1 apart:1 put:1 together:1 remain:1 research:2 complexity:1 largely:1 model:2 automaton:1 theory:1 context:1 sensitive:1 linearly:1 bound:1 turing:1 comprises:1 define:1 suitable:1 logic:1 linguistic:2 meaning:1 representation:1 construct:1 reason:1 aided:1 corpus:1 design:2 parser:1 chunkers:1 tagger:3 like:1 po:1 part:1 early:1 least:1 successful:1 many:1 association:3 defines:1 interested:1 provide:1 various:1 kind:1 phenomenon:1 see:1 collostructional:1 analysis:1 lexicology:1 science:1 semiotics:1 assist:1 review:1 dialog:1 system:1 induction:1 speechome:1 national:1 centre:1 mining:1 north:1 american:1 olympiad:1 semantic:1 relatedness:1 memory:1 universal:1 networking:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 acl:3 anthology:1 paper:1 wiki:1 cicling:1 annual:1 conference:1 free:1 online:1 introductory:1 book:1 internet:1 archive:1 copy:1 technology:1 world:1 resource:1 |@bigram computational_linguistics:21 artificial_intelligence:5 computational_complexity:1 context_sensitive:1 turing_machine:1 computer_aided:1 po_tagger:1 external_link:1 |
5,466 | Honorius_(emperor) | Flavius Honorius (September 9, 384 –August 15, 423) was Roman Emperor (393–395) and then Western Roman Emperor from 395 until his death. He was the younger son of Theodosius I and his first wife Aelia Flaccilla, and brother of the Eastern Emperor Arcadius. Even by the standards of the later Roman Empire, Honorius was an exceptionally weak emperor. His throne was guarded by his principal general, Flavius Stilicho, who was successively Honorius's guardian (during his childhood) and his father-in-law (after the emperor became an adult). Despite Stilicho's generalship, the empire lost ground; and after the guardian's execution, Honorius's empire moved towards the verge of collapse. Rule Early reign The Western Roman Emperor Honorius, Jean-Paul Laurens (1880). Honorius became Augustus on 23 January 393, at the age of nine. After holding the consulate at the age of two, Honorius was declared Augustus, and thus co-ruler, on 23 January 393 after the death of Valentinian II and the usurpation of Eugenius. When Theodosius died, in January 395, Honorius and Arcadius divided the Empire, so that Honorius became Western Roman Emperor at the age of ten. During the first part of his reign Honorius depended on the military leadership of the general Stilicho, who was of mixed Vandal and Roman ancestry. To strengthen his bonds with the young emperor, Stilicho married his daughter Maria to him. The epithalamion written for the occasion by Stilicho's court poet Claudian survives. At first Honorius based his capital in Mediolanum, but when the Visigoths entered Italy in 402 he moved his capital to the coastal city of Ravenna, which was protected by a ring of marshes and strong fortifications. While the new capital was easier to defend, it was poorly situated to allow Roman forces to protect central Italy from the barbarian incursions. Erosion of the Western Roman Empire Honorius' reign was plagued by many threats: from the barbarians entering within the Empire's borders to several usurpers. A revolt led by Gildo, comes Africae, in Northern Africa lasted for two years (397-398). In 405, a barbarian army led by Radagaisus invaded Italy, bringing devastation to the heart of the Empire, until Stilicho defeated them in 406. Christian pendant of Empress Maria, daughter of Stilicho, and wife of Honorius. Musée du Louvre. The pendant reads, around a central cross (clockwise): HONORI MARIA SERINA VIVATIS STELICHO. The situation in Britannia was even more problematic. The British provinces were isolated, lacking support from the Empire, and the soldiers supported the revolts of Marcus (406 - 407), Gratian (407), and Constantine "III". Constantine invaded Gaul in 407, occupying Arles. While Constantine was in Gaul, his son Constans "II" ruled over Britain. An invasion of Alans, Suevi and Vandals moved from Gaul on 31 December 406, and arrived in Hispania in 409. In 408, Stilicho (after forcing the Roman Senate to pay 4,000 pounds of gold) J. Norwich, Byzantium: The Early Centuries, 131 was arrested and executed by the order of Honorius, probably because of a court conspiracy against the Arian general. The Visigoths under their King Alaric I invaded Italy in 408, besieged Rome, and extorted from the city a ransom of 5,000 pounds of gold, 30,000 pounds of silver, 4,000 silken tunics, 3,000 hides dyed scarlet, and 3,000 pounds of pepper) J. Norwich, Byzantium: The Early Centuries, 134 , while Honorius in Ravenna did nothing. In 409, Alaric returned, and with the agreement of the Senate supported the usurpation of Priscus Attalus. In 410, the Eastern Roman Empire sent six Legions (6,000 men; late Roman legions were small units) J. Norwich, Byzantium: The Early Centuries, 136 to aid Honorius. To counter Priscus, Honorius tried to negotiate with Alaric. Alaric withdrew his support for Priscus in 410, but the negotiations with Honorius broke down. Alaric again entered Italy and sacked Rome. The revolt of Constantine III in the west continued through this period. In 409, Gerontius, Constantine III's general in Hispania, rebelled against him, proclaimed Maximus Emperor, and besieged Constantine at Arles. Honorius now found himself an able commander, Constantius, who defeated Maximus and Gerontius, and then Constantine, in 411. Gaul was again a source of troubles for Honorius: just after Constantius' troops had returned to Italy, Jovinus revolted in northern Gaul, with the support of Alans, Burgundians, and the Gallic nobility. Jovinus tried to negotiate with the invading Goths of Ataulf (412), but his proclamation of his brother Sebastianus as Augustus made Ataulf seek alliance with Honorius. Honorius had Ataulf settle the matter with Jovinus, and the rebel was defeated and executed in 413. In 414, Constantius attacked Ataulf, who proclaimed Priscus Attalus emperor again. Constantius drove Ataulf into Hispania, and Attalus, having again lost Visigoth support, was captured and deposed. Northeastern Gaul became subject to even greater Frankish influence, while a treaty signed in 418 granted to the Visigoths the southwestern portion, the former Gallia Aquitania. In 417, Constantius married Honorius' sister, Galla Placidia. In 421, Honorius recognized him as co-emperor Constantius III, but he died early in 422. In 420-422, another Maximus (or perhaps the same) gained and lost power in Hispania. Death Honorius died of dropsy in 423, leaving no heir. In the subsequent interregnum Joannes was nominated emperor. The following year, however, the Eastern Emperor Theodosius II elected emperor his cousin Valentinian III, son of Galla Placidia and Constantius III. Sack of Rome The Favorites of the Emperor Honorius, by John William Waterhouse, 1883. The most notable event of his reign was the assault and Sack of Rome on August 24, 410 by the Visigoths under Alaric. The city had been under Visigothic siege since shortly after Stilicho's deposition and execution in the summer of 408. Lacking a strong general to control the by-now mostly barbarian Roman Army, Honorius could do little to attack Alaric's forces directly, and apparently adopted the only strategy he could in the situation: wait passively for the Visigoths to grow weary and spend the time marshalling what forces he could. Unfortunately, this course of action appeared to be the product of Honorius' indecisive character and he suffered much criticism for it both from contemporaries and later historians. Whether this plan could have worked is perhaps debatable. In any case it was overtaken by events. Stricken by starvation, somebody opened Rome's defenses to Alaric and the Goths poured in. The city had not been under the control of a foreign force since an invasion of Gauls some eight centuries before. The sack itself was notably mild as sacks go; Churches and religious statuary went unharmed for example. The psychological blow to the Romans was considerably more painful. The shock of this event reverberated from Britain to Jerusalem, and inspired Augustine to write his magnum opus, The City of God. The year 410 also saw Honorius reply to a British plea for assistance against local barbarian incursions. Preoccupied with the Visigoths, Honorius lacked any real capabilities to assist the distant province. According to Zosimus, "Honorius wrote letters to the cities in Britain, bidding them to guard themselves." Zosimus, vi.10.2 Judgments on Honorius 19th century engraving of Honorius, derived from his coinage In his History of the Wars, Procopius mentions a story (which Gibbon disbelieved) where, on hearing the news that Rome had "perished", Honorius was initially shocked; thinking the news was in reference to a favorite chicken he had named "Roma", he recalled in disbelief that the bird was just recently feeding out of his hand. It was then explained to him that the Rome in question was the city. Procopius, "History of the Wars", book III, section II. Summarizing his account of Honorius' reign, the historian J.B. Bury wrote, "His name would be forgotten among the obscurest occupants of the Imperial throne were it not that his reign coincided with the fatal period in which it was decided that western Europe was to pass from the Roman to the Teuton." After listing the disasters of those 28 years, Bury concludes that Honorius "himself did nothing of note against the enemies who infested his realm, but personally he was extraordinarily fortunate in occupying the throne till he died a natural death and witnessing the destruction of the multitude of tyrants who rose up against him." John Bagnall Bury, History of the Later Roman Empire, 1923 (New York: Dover, 1958), p. 213 Honorius issued a decree during his reign, prohibiting men from wearing trousers in Rome [Codex Theodosianus 14.10.2-3, tr. C. Pharr, "The Theodosian Code," p. 415]. The last known gladiatorial fight took place during the reign of Honorius. See also Usurpers during Honorius reign: Priscus Attalus in Rome (two times); Maximus in Hispania; Marcus, Gratian, Constantine "III" and Constans "II" in Gaul and Britain; Jovinus and Sebastianus. Succession to Honorius: Joannes and Valentinian III. References Mathisen, Ralph, "Honorius (395-423 A.D.)", De Imperatoribus Romanis Notes External links This list of Roman laws of the fourth century shows laws passed by Honorius relating to Christianity. | Honorius_(emperor) |@lemmatized flavius:2 honorius:42 september:1 august:2 roman:16 emperor:15 western:5 death:4 young:2 son:3 theodosius:3 first:3 wife:2 aelia:1 flaccilla:1 brother:2 eastern:3 arcadius:2 even:3 standard:1 late:3 empire:10 exceptionally:1 weak:1 throne:3 guard:2 principal:1 general:5 stilicho:9 successively:1 guardian:2 childhood:1 father:1 law:3 become:4 adult:1 despite:1 generalship:1 lose:3 ground:1 execution:2 move:3 towards:1 verge:1 collapse:1 rule:2 early:5 reign:9 jean:1 paul:1 laurens:1 augustus:3 january:3 age:3 nine:1 hold:1 consulate:1 two:3 declare:1 thus:1 co:2 ruler:1 valentinian:3 ii:5 usurpation:2 eugenius:1 die:4 divide:1 ten:1 part:1 depend:1 military:1 leadership:1 mixed:1 vandal:2 ancestry:1 strengthen:1 bond:1 marry:2 daughter:2 maria:3 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5,467 | Aalborg_Municipality | Aalborg Municipality is a municipality (Danish, kommune) in Region Nordjylland on the Jutland peninsula in northern Denmark. Bridgwater, W. & Beatrice Aldrich. (1966) The Columbia-Viking Desk Encyclopedia. Columbia University. p. 11. The municipality straddles the Limfjord, the waterway which connects the North Sea and the Kattegat east-to-west, and which separates the main body of the Jutland peninsula from the island of Vendsyssel-Thy north-to-south. It has a land area of 1,143.99 km², population 196,292 (2009) and belongs to Region Nordjylland ("North Jutland Region"). It is also the name of the municipality's main city Aalborg and the site of its municipal council, as well as the name of a seaport. The municipality and the town have chosen to retain the traditional spelling of the name as Aalborg, although the new spelling Ålborg is used in other contexts, such as Ålborg Bight (Ålborg Bugt), the body of water which lies to the east of the Jutland peninsula. Surroundings The waters splitting the municipality are called Langerak to the east and Gjøl Bredning to the west. The island of Egholm is located in Gjøl Bredning, and is connected by ferry to the city of Aalborg at its southern shore. The area is typical for the north of Jutland. To the west the Limfjord broadens into an irregular lake (salt water), with low, marshy shores and many islands. Northwest is Store Vildmose ("Greater Wild bog"), a swamp where a mirage is sometimes seen in summer. Southeast lies the similar Lille Vildmose ("Lesser Wild bog"). Store Vildmose was drained and farmed in the beginning of the 20th century, and Lille Vildmose is now the largest moor in Denmark. Municipal reform of 2007 As of January 1,, 2007 Aalborg municipality joined with the municipalities of Hals, Nibe, and Sejlflod to form a new Aalborg municipality. The former Aalborg municipality, including the island of Egholm, covered an area of 560 km², with a total population of 192,353 (2005). It last mayor was Henning G. Jensen, a member of the Social Democrats (Socialdemokraterne) political party. The former municipality was bordered by Sejlflod and Hals to the east, Dronninglund and Brønderslev to the north, Aabybro and Nibe to the west, and Støvring and Skørping to the south. It belonged to North Jutland County. External links About Aalborg from Nordjyske Medier (A local Media Group) Aalborg Municipality's official website VisitAalborg (Aalborg Tourist Office) Website for Aalborg Municipality's former Municipality Reformation Board Public Transport in Aalborg and surroundings Searchable map References Municipal statistics: NetBorger Kommunefakta, delivered from KMD aka Kommunedata (Municipal Data) Municipal mergers and neighbors: Eniro map with named municipalities Aalborg in figures 2008, a publication from Aalborg Municipality. | Aalborg_Municipality |@lemmatized aalborg:14 municipality:16 danish:1 kommune:1 region:3 nordjylland:2 jutland:6 peninsula:3 northern:1 denmark:2 bridgwater:1 w:1 beatrice:1 aldrich:1 columbia:2 viking:1 desk:1 encyclopedia:1 university:1 p:1 straddle:1 limfjord:2 waterway:1 connect:2 north:6 sea:1 kattegat:1 east:4 west:4 separate:1 main:2 body:2 island:4 vendsyssel:1 thy:1 south:2 land:1 area:3 population:2 belong:2 also:1 name:4 city:2 site:1 municipal:5 council:1 well:1 seaport:1 town:1 choose:1 retain:1 traditional:1 spelling:2 although:1 new:2 ålborg:3 use:1 context:1 bight:1 bugt:1 water:3 lie:2 surround:1 split:1 call:1 langerak:1 gjøl:2 bredning:2 egholm:2 locate:1 ferry:1 southern:1 shore:2 typical:1 broaden:1 irregular:1 lake:1 salt:1 low:1 marshy:1 many:1 northwest:1 store:2 vildmose:4 great:1 wild:2 bog:2 swamp:1 mirage:1 sometimes:1 see:1 summer:1 southeast:1 similar:1 lille:2 less:1 drain:1 farm:1 beginning:1 century:1 large:1 moor:1 reform:1 january:1 join:1 hals:2 nibe:2 sejlflod:2 form:1 former:3 include:1 cover:1 total:1 last:1 mayor:1 henning:1 g:1 jensen:1 member:1 social:1 democrat:1 socialdemokraterne:1 political:1 party:1 border:1 dronninglund:1 brønderslev:1 aabybro:1 støvring:1 skørping:1 county:1 external:1 link:1 nordjyske:1 medier:1 local:1 medium:1 group:1 official:1 website:2 visitaalborg:1 tourist:1 office:1 reformation:1 board:1 public:1 transport:1 surroundings:1 searchable:1 map:2 reference:1 statistic:1 netborger:1 kommunefakta:1 deliver:1 kmd:1 aka:1 kommunedata:1 data:1 merger:1 neighbor:1 eniro:1 figure:1 publication:1 |@bigram aalborg_municipality:7 jutland_peninsula:3 bridgwater_w:1 beatrice_aldrich:1 aldrich_columbia:1 viking_desk:1 external_link:1 |
5,468 | Riding_shotgun | To ride shotgun is to sit in the front passenger seat when riding in a car or other vehicle. It is a phrase commonly and mostly heard in the United States and Canada, but also in Australia and New Zealand. Due to the influence of American popular culture it is also heard in several European countries such as Iceland, Ireland, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, The Netherlands and the United Kingdom, as well as other countries with large English-speaking populations such as South Africa. In Mexico it is commonly heard in the derived forms "shot" or "shotto" making a phonetic allusion to the original phrase. History One of the earliest references to the phrase "riding shotgun" in print occurred in the 1905 book The Sunset Trail, by Alfred Henry Lewis The expression was used to refer to riding as an armed guard in the front of a stagecoach, next to the driver (this would usually have been on the left, as stage drivers traditionally sat on the right, near the brake). An earlier term for the same duty was "shotgun messenger." The use of the phrase in print to refer to automobiles occurred in 1954 simultaneously with the TV series Gunsmoke, which became extremely popular, and used the terminology of riding shotgun nearly weekly. Today, many automobile passengers consider riding in the front passenger seat preferable to riding in rear seats largely due to it having greater control over leg room, an unobstructed view of the road in front, and access to the vehicle's audio and air conditioning systems. Another benefit is that entry and exit from the vehicle is often easier, especially in two-door cars. In addition, some passengers find that riding in the front seat better isolates them from the road, reducing car sickness. There is also a tradition in family life that adults (and/or the older child) sit in the front and children in the rear, a tradition reinforced in modern times by airbags installed in vehicle dashboards which are positioned so as not to allow smaller children to ride in the front seat; hence sitting shotgun provides a sense of adulthood. Prior to the advent of seat belts and airbags, the front passenger seat was considered the most dangerous to be seated in if there were an accident; therefore the shotgun position also came to be known as the suicide seat. The seat located directly behind the front passenger seat is sometimes referred to as the Cobain or "Hemingway", after musician Kurt Cobain and author Ernest Hemingway, each of whom committed suicide with a shotgun (hence the seat "behind the shotgun" renders these special names). The rules of calling shotgun may vary amongst different groups. Many claim that sight of the car is needed in order for a shotgun call to be valid. Since this can lead people racing to see the car, many find this an unfair advantage to faster riders. Mostly, there is an subjective, fairly ambiguous time frame where the group riding in the car has decided that they are planning on getting back into the car. It is at this mysterious point in time that "Shotgun" can be called, thus awarding the front seat. However, if a shotgun call is called too far in advance, the callers Shotgun privileges may be revoked for that certain car ride. Other twists to the Shotgun rules include calling "Blitz" or "Rocks" after Shotgun has been called. Blitz creates a race to touch the car, the winner being awarded Shotgun. In Rocks, the rider who calls Rocks can challenge to original Shotgun caller to a game of "Paper, Scissors, Rock" (usually, best 2 out of 3) with the winner claiming Shotgun privilieges for the ride. These versions are not always accepted, however. After Shotgun is called, remaining riders may call various other seats in the car. "Back Right" and "Back Left" are self explanitory. "Bitch" is often called for the middle seat in the back since it is usually the smallest and worst seat in the car. "Penalty Box" can be called or assigned to late callers as the trunk of the car as it is usually as big as a penalty box in hockey and just as undesireable. There are many variations to how Shotgun is played, but ultimately, the final decision always rests in the jurisdiction of the driver. However, drivers should not be to strict with their Shotgun allocations, otherwise potential future drivers may use it against them at a future date. See also Dibs or Bags References External links Shotgun Constitution iPhone App! Take the rules with you! The Official Shotgun Rules Shotgun Rules at Bored.com Rules on T-shirt | Riding_shotgun |@lemmatized ride:4 shotgun:24 sit:4 front:10 passenger:6 seat:16 rid:8 car:12 vehicle:4 phrase:4 commonly:2 mostly:2 hear:3 united:2 state:1 canada:1 also:5 australia:1 new:1 zealand:1 due:2 influence:1 american:1 popular:2 culture:1 several:1 european:1 country:2 iceland:1 ireland:1 denmark:1 norway:1 sweden:1 netherlands:1 kingdom:1 well:2 large:1 english:1 speak:1 population:1 south:1 africa:1 mexico:1 derived:1 form:1 shot:1 shotto:1 make:1 phonetic:1 allusion:1 original:2 history:1 one:1 early:2 reference:2 print:2 occur:2 book:1 sunset:1 trail:1 alfred:1 henry:1 lewis:1 expression:1 use:4 refer:3 armed:1 guard:1 stagecoach:1 next:1 driver:5 would:1 usually:4 left:2 stage:1 traditionally:1 right:2 near:1 brake:1 term:1 duty:1 messenger:1 automobile:2 simultaneously:1 tv:1 series:1 gunsmoke:1 become:1 extremely:1 terminology:1 nearly:1 weekly:1 today:1 many:4 consider:2 preferable:1 rear:2 largely:1 great:1 control:1 leg:1 room:1 unobstructed:1 view:1 road:2 access:1 audio:1 air:1 condition:1 system:1 another:1 benefit:1 entry:1 exit:1 often:2 easy:1 especially:1 two:1 door:1 addition:1 find:2 isolate:1 reduce:1 sickness:1 tradition:2 family:1 life:1 adult:1 old:1 child:3 reinforce:1 modern:1 time:3 airbags:2 instal:1 dashboard:1 position:2 allow:1 small:2 hence:2 provide:1 sense:1 adulthood:1 prior:1 advent:1 belt:1 dangerous:1 accident:1 therefore:1 come:1 know:1 suicide:2 locate:1 directly:1 behind:2 sometimes:1 cobain:2 hemingway:2 musician:1 kurt:1 author:1 ernest:1 commit:1 render:1 special:1 name:1 rule:6 call:12 may:4 vary:1 amongst:1 different:1 group:2 claim:2 sight:1 need:1 order:1 valid:1 since:2 lead:1 people:1 race:2 see:2 unfair:1 advantage:1 fast:1 rider:3 subjective:1 fairly:1 ambiguous:1 frame:1 decide:1 plan:1 get:1 back:4 mysterious:1 point:1 thus:1 award:2 however:3 far:1 advance:1 caller:3 privilege:1 revoke:1 certain:1 twist:1 include:1 blitz:2 rock:4 create:1 touch:1 winner:2 challenge:1 game:1 paper:1 scissors:1 best:1 privilieges:1 version:1 always:2 accept:1 remain:1 various:1 self:1 explanitory:1 bitch:1 middle:1 bad:1 penalty:2 box:2 assign:1 late:1 trunk:1 big:1 hockey:1 undesireable:1 variation:1 play:1 ultimately:1 final:1 decision:1 rest:1 jurisdiction:1 strict:1 allocation:1 otherwise:1 potential:1 future:2 date:1 dibs:1 bag:1 external:1 link:1 constitution:1 iphone:1 app:1 take:1 official:1 bore:1 com:1 shirt:1 |@bigram kurt_cobain:1 ernest_hemingway:1 commit_suicide:1 unfair_advantage:1 external_link:1 |
5,469 | Islamic_conquest_of_Afghanistan | The Islamic conquest of Afghanistan (642–870) began after the Islamic conquest of Persia, when Arab Muslims defeated the Persian Sassanians at the battles of Walaja, al-Qādisiyyah and Nahavand. The Arabs then began to move towards the lands east of Persia and in 642 captured the city, Herat. Overview The Caliphate. The invasion of Persia was completed five years after the death of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, and all of the Persian territories came under Arab control, though pockets of tribal resistance continued for centuries in the Afghan territories. During the 7th century, Arab armies made their way into the region of Afghanistan with the new religion of Islam. At this point in time the area that is currently Afghanistan had a multi-religious population consisting of Buddhists, Zoroastrians, Hindus, Jews, as well as others. Shahis The area had been under the rule of the Buddhist and then Hindu dynasty called the Shahis since the 5th century AD. The Arabs were unable to succeed in converting the population because of constant revolts from the mountain tribes in the Afghan area, which may have been recognized as Pashtuns. The Hindushahi were defeated in the early part of the 10th century by Mahmud of Ghazna who ruled between 998 and 1030. He expelled the Hindus from Gandhara Afghanistan: a new history By Martin Ewans Edition: 2, illustrated Published by Routledge, 2002 Page 15 ISBN 0415298261, 9780415298261 Earlier In 870, Yaqub bin Laith as-Saffar, a local ruler from the Saffarid dynasty of Zaranj, conquered most of present-day Afghanistan in the name of Islam. In many cases, the people he conquered had rebelled against their Islamic overloards and reverted to prior forms of worship. Dupree, Nancy Hatch (1971) "Sites in Perspective (Chapter 3)" An Historical Guide To Afghanistan Afghan Tourist Organization, Kabul, OCLC 241390 From the eighth century to the ninth century, many inhabitants of what is present-day Afghanistan, Pakistan, and areas of northern India were converted to Sunni Islam. It is surmised from the writings of Al Biruni that some Pashtuns living in Pakhtunkhwa (present-day western Pakistan) had not been completely converted. Al Biruni, writing in Tarikh al Hind, also alludes to the Pashtun tribes of Pakhtunkhwa as being neither Muslim nor Hindu, but simply Afghans which may mean that they practiced Pashtunwali. Various historical sources such as Martin Ewans, E.J. Brill and Farishta have recorded the introduction of Islam to Kabul and other parts of Afghanistan to the invasions of Mahmud of Ghazna Al-Idirisi (1100 AD -1165/1166 AD) testifies that until as late as the 12th century, a contract of investiture for every Shahi king was performed at Kabul and that here he was obliged to agree to certain ancient conditions which completed the contract Al-Idrisi, p 67, Maqbul Ahmed; Al-Hind, the Making of the Indo-Islamic World, 1991, p 127, Andre Wink. . During the end of the ninth century, the Samanids extended its rule from Bukhara to as far south as the Indus River and west into most of Persia. Although Arab Muslim intellectual life was still centered in Baghdad, Shi'a Islam, predominated in the Samanid areas at this time. By the mid-tenth century, the Samanid Dynasty had crumbled in the face of attacks from Turkish tribes to the north and from the Ghaznavids, a rising Turkic dynasty in Afghanistan. Ghaznavid and Ghorid rule Out of the Samanid Dynasty came the first great Islamic empire of the region, the Ghaznavid Empire, whose warriors forged an empire that spanned much of Iranian plateau and Central Asia and conducted many successful raids into South Asia. Their military incursions assured the domination of Sunni Islam in what is now Afghanistan, Pakistan, and parts of India. The most renowned of the dynasty's rulers was Mahmud, who consolidated control over the areas south of the Amu Darya then carried out devastating raids into India - looting Hindu temples in his wake. With his booty from India, Mahmud built a great capital at Ghazni (modern-day Afghanistan), founded universities, and patronized scholars. Mahmud was recognized by the caliph in Baghdad as the temporal heir of the Samanids. By the time of his death, Mahmud ruled a vast empire that stretched from Kurdistan to the entire Hindu Kush region as far east as the Punjab as well as territories far north of the Amu Darya. However, as occurred so often in this region, the demise in 1030 of this military genius who had expanded the empire to its farthest reaches was the death knell of the dynasty itself. The rulers of the Ghorid Empire of Ghor in modern-day Afghanistan, captured and burned Ghazni in 1149, just as the Ghaznavids had once conquered Ghor. Not until 1186, however, was the last representative of the Ghaznavids uprooted by the Ghorids from his holdout in Lahore, in the Punjab. The Ghorids controlled most of what is now Afghanistan, eastern Iran, Pakistan, and northern India, while parts of central and western Iran were ruled by the Seljuk Turks. From 1200 to 1205 some of the Ghorid lands were conquered by the Shah of the Khwarezmid Empire, whose empire would, in turn, be defeated by the Mongols in 1220. Mongol invasion and Timurid rule 1220-1506 Area of the Mongol Empire. Followings years of conquest in China and Central Asia, the Mongol Empire had emerged as a major world power of its day and attempted to co-exist with some of their neighbors including the empire of the Khwarezmia Shah and sent emissaries to establish diplomatic and trading links. As either a bluff to dissuade the Mongols from aggression or as simply a haughty sign of disrespect, the Khwarezmia Shah Ala ad-Din Muhammad II had the diplomats executed and sent their heads back to the Mongols and this prompted a military confrontation. In 1220, the Islamic lands of Central Asia were overrun by the armies of the Mongol invader Genghis Khan (ca. 1155-1227), who laid waste to many cities and settlements and created an empire that stretched from China to the Caucasus. The Mongols under Genghis Khan responded with great severity to the insults they had taken from Muhammad II and took out their revenge against the inhabitants of Khwarezmia including, for example, exterminating every human being in the cities of Herat and Balkh. This devastation had severe consequences for the natives of Afghanistan as the destruction caused by the Mongols depopulated many of the major cities and caused much of the population to revert to an agrarian rural society. Thus, Afghanistan became dominated by cattle breeding tribes who also specialized in horseback riding. Genghis Khan failed to extinguish or even particularly hamper Islam in Central Asia, if that was even his intent, as the religion continued to define many local inhabitants culturally. In fact, by the end of the 13th century, Genghis Khan's descendants had themselves become Muslims (many speculate that the Hazaras of Afghanistan are in fact the descendants of Genghis Khan and his Mongol hordes) and even the title of 'khan' became a not so uncommon name adopted by many local inhabitants. From the death of Genghis Khan in 1227 until the rise of Timur Lenk (Tamerlane) in the 1380s, Central Asia went through a period of fragmentation. A product of both Turkish and Mongol descent, Timur claimed Genghis Khan as an ancestor. From his capital of Samarkand, Timur created an empire that, by the late fourteenth century, extended from northern India to eastern Turkey. The turn of the sixteenth century brought an end to the Timurid Empire when another Central Asian ruler of Turkic-Mongol extraction, Muhammad Shaybani, overwhelmed the weakened Timurid ruler in Herat. Shaybani (also a descendant of Genghis Khan) and his successors ruled the area around the Amu Darya for about a century, while to the south and west of what is now Afghanistan two powerful dynasties began to compete for influence. Mughal-Safavid rivalry, ca. 1500-1747 Babur made Kabul the capital of his Mughal Empire. Early in the sixteenth century, Babur, who claimed descent from Timur on his father's side and from Genghis Khan on his mother's, was driven out of his father's kingdom in the Ferghana Valley (which straddles contemporaryUzbekistan, Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan) by the Shaybani Uzbeks, who had wrested Samarkand from the Timurids. After several unsuccessful attempts to regain Ferghana and Samarkand, Babur crossed the Amu Darya and captured Kabul from the last of its Mongol rulers in 1504. In his invasion of Delhi Sultanate of India in 1526, Babur's army of 12,000 defeated a less mobile force of 100,000 at the First Battle of Panipat, about forty-five kilometers northwest of Delhi. The Delhi Sultanate was itself ruled by expatriate Afghan/Pashtun rulers, the Lodhi dynasty. Although the Mughal Empire would shift largely to India, Babur's memoirs, as related in the Baburnameh stressed his love for Kabul - both as a commercial strategic center as well as a beautiful highland city with an "extremely delightful" climate and was the Mughal Empire's first capital until being moved to Lahore and Delhi by later emperors.North-west India in 1765. Although Mughal rule technically lasted in parts of Afghanistan until the early 18th century, it came under constant challenge from local Pashtun tribesmen. The Mughals originally had come from Central Asia, but once they had taken India, the area that is now southeastern Afghanistan and western Pakistan was relegated to a mere outpost of the empire as even the name of a prominent Afghan city, Peshawar literally translates from Persian to City on the Frontier. Indeed, during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, much of Afghanistan was hotly contested between the Mughals of India and the Safavids of Iran. The Safavids had held Herat and much of western and northern Afghanistan during the same time period that the Mughals controlled Kabul, Kandahar, and Peshawar. Just as Kabul dominates the high road from Central Asia into India, Kandahar commands the only approach towards India that skirts the Hindu Kush. The strategically important Kabul-Kandahar axis was the primary focus of competition between the Mughals and the Safavids, and Kandahar itself changed hands several times during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. The Safavids and the Mughals were not the only contenders, however. Less powerful but closer at hand were the Uzbeks of Central Asia, who fought for control of Herat in western Afghanistan and for the northern regions as well where neither the Mughals nor the Safavids were able to effectively challenge them. Many of the Uzbeks of Afghanistan arrived during this phase of northern Afghanistan's history. The Mughals sought not only to block the historical western invasion routes into India but also to control the fiercely independent Pashtun tribes who accepted only nominal control from Delhi in their mountain strongholds between the Kabul-Kandahar axis and the Indus River - especially in the Pashtun area of the Suleiman Range. As the area around Kandahar changed hands back and forth between the two great empires on either side, the local Pashtun tribes exploited the situation to their advantage by extracting concessions from both sides. By the middle of the seventeenth century, the Mughals had abandoned the Hindu Kush north of Kabul to the Uzbeks, and in 1622 they lost Kandahar to the Safavids for the third and final time. Toward the end of the seventeenth century, as the power of the Safavids waned, native groups began to assert themselves in Afghanistan. Early in the eighteenth century, a clan of the Ghilzai Pashtuns, later known as the Hotaki dynasty, overturned Safavid rule in Kandahar by 1708, and subsequently took over and ruled most of Safavid Persia and Afghanistan from 1722 until 1736. The Ghilzai Pashtuns managed to briefly hold the Safavid capital of Isfahan, and two members of this tribe ascended the throne before the Ghilzai were evicted from Iran by the Turko-Iranian conqueror, Nadir Shah, who became known by some in the West as the "Persian Napoleon." Nadir Shah conquered Kandahar and Kabul in 1738 along with defeating a formidable Mughal army in India, plundering Delhi, and massacring thousands of its people. He returned home with vast treasures, including the Peacock Throne, which thereafter served as a symbol of Iranian imperial might. Nadir Shah, as a Sunni Muslim, had surrounded himself with other Sunnis, most notably those of Turkic and Pashtun background. One notable military officer was Ahmad Shah Durrani, an ethnic Pashtun who would come to shape the modern history of Afghanistan following the end of Nadir Shah's reign in 1747. See also Timeline of Afghanistan History of Afghanistan History of Arabs in Afghanistan Shahi Jayapala Hindu Temples of Kabul Muslim conquests Greater Khorasan Qutaibah bin Muslim Spread of Islam References and footnotes Further reading Elliot, Sir H. M., Edited by Dowson, John. The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians. The Muhammadan Period; published by London Trubner Company 1867–1877. (Online Copy: The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians. The Muhammadan Period; by Sir H. M. Elliot; Edited by John Dowson; London Trubner Company 1867–1877 - This online Copy has been posted by: The Packard Humanities Institute; Persian Texts in Translation; Also find other historical books: Author List and Title List) External links The Guardian: "Lost Tribe Struggles for Survival" ''Press Trust of India :"Inscription throws new light to Hindu rule in Afghanistan " Association for the protection of Afghan Archeology | Islamic_conquest_of_Afghanistan |@lemmatized islamic:7 conquest:4 afghanistan:31 begin:4 persia:5 arab:7 muslim:7 defeat:5 persian:5 sassanians:1 battle:2 walaja:1 al:7 qādisiyyah:1 nahavand:1 move:2 towards:2 land:3 east:2 capture:3 city:7 herat:5 overview:1 caliphate:1 invasion:5 complete:2 five:2 year:2 death:4 prophet:1 muhammad:4 territory:3 come:5 control:7 though:1 pocket:1 tribal:1 resistance:1 continue:2 century:20 afghan:7 army:4 make:2 way:1 region:5 new:3 religion:2 islam:8 point:1 time:6 area:11 currently:1 multi:1 religious:1 population:3 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5,470 | History_of_Laos | Earliest known history and the founding of Lan Xang The earliest Lao legal document (and the earliest sociological evidence about the existence of the Lao people) is known as "the laws of Khun Borom" (also spelled "Khun Bulom"), still preserved in manuscript form. Traditional Lao Literature This set of memoriter laws is written in a type of indigenous blank verse, and reflects the state of proto-Lao society as early as the 9th century, possibly prior to their adoption of Theravada Buddhism, and prior to (or coeval with) their southward migration into the territory now comprising modern Laos (from North-Western Vietnam). While some Lao people regard Borom/Bulom as a subject of myth only, Western scholars regard him as an historical figure, albeit there is very little factually known about him aside from the fact of his bare existence and the description of a very primitive kingdom in his laws. In general terms, these ancient laws describe an agrarian society in which life revolves around subsistence agriculture with domesticated water-buffaloes (the gayal). The strict punishments set down for stealing or killing a neighbor's elephant reflect that these were (evidently) an expensive and important possession of the time. The official History of Laos as introduced in government textbooks, is conventionally traced to the establishment of the kingdom of Lan Xang by Fa Ngum in 1353. This is a relatively conservative date to begin the history of the nation, providing a contrast to the course taken by Thai historiography (which reaches back implausibly far into proto-history). By the 14th century, when this "official history" begins, the speakers of early Lao-related languages had probably developed a reasonable base of population among the prior inhabitants of (what is now) Laos over the prior century or two. The earlier inhabitation of the land by peoples such as the Mon kingdom of Dvaravati and Proto-Khmer peoples was given a great deal of emphasis in the histories of Laos written during the French colonial period. However, post-colonial historiography has instead sought to represent all peoples of Laos as equally "indigenous", relating the early history in terms of a complex interaction with the (admittedly more ancient) Cambodian kingdoms to the south, and praising the Proto-Khmer as Lao nationalists for their heroism and modern struggles against the French and Americans (see, e.g., the Ong Keo Rebellion starting circa 1902). Both French colonial history and post-colonial (Communist) history sought to reverse the obvious racism of earlier, popular accounts that when the Lao migrated into the country, they simply conquered and enslaved the native inhabitants (viz., primarily Proto-Khmer people, described in such a context with the derogatory term "Kha-That"). This traditional view has almost no factual basis, but remains a commonly heard pseudo-history, and a special concern for teachers to address (or redress) in the classroom. Vatthana Pholsena provides a survey of the historiography on this point in Post-War Laos, 2006, Silkworm Books. It is generally assumed that, as late as the 16th century, King Photisarath helped establish Theravada Buddhism as the predominant religion of the country. However, this aspect of official history may now have to change given recent archaeological discoveries in Cambodia and Vietnam, showing intact Pali inscriptions as early as the 9th century. (See: JPTS, Vol. XXIII, 1997: Peter Skilling, "New Paali Inscriptions from Southeast Asia") While there can be no doubt that animism and fragments of Shiva-worship were popular in ancient Laos, evidence increasingly indicates a long, gradual process leading to the ascendancy of Buddhism (rather than a single king converting the country). The reverse also did occur, as with the historical layers of statuary and inscriptions at Wat Phu Champassak; the oldest are in Sanskrit, and worship Shiva, while the later evidence is Buddhist, subsequently reverting to animism (with the most recent statues simply depicting giant elephants and lizards, with no references to the organized religions of India, and neither Sanskrit nor Pali text). It is significant to note that all of these official histories exclude the (possible and actual) influence of Chinese religion in the region. In fact, the ancient Lao calendar and Thai calendar are both of Chinese origin (adapted from the "Heavenly Stem Branch Calendar"), and do not reflect Indian cosmology. These calendars were both part of the royal religion (preserved in epigraphy) and, apparently, part of popular religion (fortune telling) for centuries. Before full independence in 1954 In the 17th century Lan Xang entered a period of decline and the late 18th century Siam (now Thailand) established control over much of what is now Laos. The region was divided into three dependent states centered on Luang Prabang in the north, Vientiane in the center, and Champassak in the south. The Vientiane Lao rebelled in 1828 but were defeated, and the area was incorporated into Siam. Following its occupation of Vietnam, France absorbed Laos into French Indochina via treaties with Siam in 1893 and 1904. During World War II, the Japanese occupied French Indochina. When Japan surrendered, Lao nationalists declared Laos independent, but by early 1946, French troops had reoccupied the country and conferred limited autonomy on Laos. During the First Indochina War, the Indochinese Communist Party formed the Pathet Lao resistance organization committed to Lao independence. Laos gained full independence following the French defeat by the Vietnamese communists and the subsequent Geneva peace conference in 1954. The period of the Kingdom of Laos Elections were held in 1955, and the first coalition government, led by Prince Souvanna Phouma, was formed in 1957. The coalition government collapsed in 1958 under pressure from the United States. In 1960 Captain Kong Lae staged a coup when the cabinet was away at the royal capital of Luang Prabang and demanded reformation of a neutralist government. The second coalition government, once again led by Souvanna Phouma, was not successful in holding power. Rightist forces under General Phoumi Nosavan drove out the neutralist government from power later that same year. A second Geneva conference, held in 1961-62, provided for the independence and neutrality of Laos, but the agreement was subverted by both the United States and North Vietnam and the war soon resumed. The government and army of Laos were generally neutral during the conflict. The United States and North Vietnam subverted the agreement by forming private proxy armies. Growing American and North Vietnamese military presence in the country increasingly drew Laos into the Second Indochina War (1954-1975). For nearly a decade, eastern Laos was subjected to the heaviest bombing in the history of warfare, as the U.S. sought to destroy the Ho Chi Minh Trail that passed through Laos. The country was also repeatedly invaded by Vietnam. Shortly after the Paris Peace Accords led to the withdrawal of U.S. forces from Vietnam, a ceasefire between the Pathet Lao and the government led to a new coalition government. However, North Vietnam never really withdrew from Laos and the Pathet Lao remained little more than a proxy army for Vietnamese interests. After the fall of South Vietnam to communist forces in April 1975, the Pathet Lao with the backing of North Vietnam were able to take total power with little resistance. On December 2, 1975, the king was forced to abdicate his throne and the Lao People's Democratic Republic was established. The period of the Communist government/contemporary period The new communist government led by Kaysone Phomvihane imposed centralized economic decision-making and incarcerated many members of the previous government and military in "re-education camps" which also included the Hmongs. While nominally independent, the communist government was for many years effectively little more than a puppet regime run from Vietnam. The government's policies prompted about 10 percent of the Lao population to leave the country. Laos depended heavily on Soviet aid channeled through Vietnam up until the Soviet collapse in 1991. In the 1990s the communist party gave up centralised management of the economy but still has a monopoly of political power. See also Peopling of Laos History of Laos to 1945 History of Laos since 1945 References External links US Department of State: Background Note Laos History of Laos | History_of_Laos |@lemmatized early:10 know:3 history:16 founding:1 lan:3 xang:3 lao:36 legal:1 document:1 sociological:1 evidence:3 existence:2 people:8 law:4 khun:2 borom:2 also:5 spell:1 bulom:2 still:2 preserve:2 manuscript:1 form:4 traditional:2 literature:1 set:2 memoriter:1 write:2 type:1 indigenous:2 blank:1 verse:1 reflect:3 state:6 proto:5 society:2 century:8 possibly:1 prior:4 adoption:1 theravada:2 buddhism:3 coeval:1 southward:1 migration:1 territory:1 comprise:1 modern:2 north:7 western:2 vietnam:12 regard:2 subject:2 myth:1 scholar:1 historical:2 figure:1 albeit:1 little:4 factually:1 aside:1 fact:2 bare:1 description:1 primitive:1 kingdom:5 general:2 term:3 ancient:4 describe:2 agrarian:1 life:1 revolve:1 around:1 subsistence:1 agriculture:1 domesticated:1 water:1 buffalo:1 gayal:1 strict:1 punishment:1 steal:1 kill:1 neighbor:1 elephant:2 evidently:1 expensive:1 important:1 possession:1 time:1 official:4 introduce:1 government:14 textbook:1 conventionally:1 trace:1 establishment:1 fa:1 ngum:1 relatively:1 conservative:1 date:1 begin:2 nation:1 provide:3 contrast:1 course:1 take:2 thai:2 historiography:3 reach:1 back:1 implausibly:1 far:1 speaker:1 related:1 language:1 probably:1 develop:1 reasonable:1 base:1 population:2 among:1 inhabitant:2 two:1 inhabitation:1 land:1 mon:1 dvaravati:1 khmer:3 give:3 great:1 deal:1 emphasis:1 laos:7 french:7 colonial:4 period:5 however:3 post:3 instead:1 seek:3 represent:1 equally:1 relate:1 complex:1 interaction:1 admittedly:1 cambodian:1 south:3 praise:1 nationalist:2 heroism:1 struggle:1 american:2 see:3 e:1 g:1 ong:1 keo:1 rebellion:1 start:1 circa:1 communist:8 reverse:2 obvious:1 racism:1 popular:3 account:1 migrate:1 country:7 simply:2 conquer:1 enslave:1 native:1 viz:1 primarily:1 context:1 derogatory:1 kha:1 view:1 almost:1 factual:1 basis:1 remain:2 commonly:1 heard:1 pseudo:1 special:1 concern:1 teacher:1 address:1 redress:1 classroom:1 vatthana:1 pholsena:1 survey:1 point:1 war:5 silkworm:1 book:1 generally:2 assume:1 late:3 king:3 photisarath:1 help:1 establish:3 predominant:1 religion:5 aspect:1 may:1 change:1 recent:2 archaeological:1 discovery:1 cambodia:1 show:1 intact:1 pali:2 inscription:3 jpts:1 vol:1 xxiii:1 peter:1 skilling:1 new:3 paali:1 southeast:1 asia:1 doubt:1 animism:2 fragment:1 shiva:2 worship:2 increasingly:2 indicate:1 long:1 gradual:1 process:1 lead:6 ascendancy:1 rather:1 single:1 convert:1 occur:1 layer:1 statuary:1 wat:1 phu:1 champassak:2 old:1 sanskrit:2 buddhist:1 subsequently:1 revert:1 statue:1 depict:1 giant:1 lizard:1 reference:2 organize:1 india:1 neither:1 text:1 significant:1 note:2 exclude:1 possible:1 actual:1 influence:1 chinese:2 region:2 calendar:4 origin:1 adapt:1 heavenly:1 stem:1 branch:1 indian:1 cosmology:1 part:2 royal:2 epigraphy:1 apparently:1 fortune:1 telling:1 full:2 independence:4 enter:1 decline:1 siam:3 thailand:1 control:1 much:1 divide:1 three:1 dependent:1 center:2 luang:2 prabang:2 vientiane:2 rebel:1 defeat:2 area:1 incorporate:1 follow:2 occupation:1 france:1 absorb:1 indochina:4 via:1 treaty:1 world:1 ii:1 japanese:1 occupied:1 japan:1 surrender:1 declare:1 independent:2 troop:1 reoccupied:1 confer:1 limited:1 autonomy:1 first:2 indochinese:1 party:2 pathet:4 resistance:2 organization:1 commit:1 gain:1 vietnamese:3 subsequent:1 geneva:2 peace:2 conference:2 election:1 hold:3 coalition:4 prince:1 souvanna:2 phouma:2 collapse:2 pressure:1 united:3 captain:1 kong:1 lae:1 stag:1 coup:1 cabinet:1 away:1 capital:1 demand:1 reformation:1 neutralist:2 second:3 successful:1 power:4 rightist:1 force:4 phoumi:1 nosavan:1 drive:1 later:1 year:2 neutrality:1 agreement:2 subvert:2 soon:1 resume:1 army:3 neutral:1 conflict:1 private:1 proxy:2 grow:1 military:2 presence:1 draw:1 nearly:1 decade:1 eastern:1 heavy:1 bombing:1 warfare:1 u:3 destroy:1 ho:1 chi:1 minh:1 trail:1 pass:1 repeatedly:1 invade:1 shortly:1 paris:1 accord:1 withdrawal:1 ceasefire:1 never:1 really:1 withdraw:1 interest:1 fall:1 april:1 backing:1 able:1 total:1 december:1 abdicate:1 throne:1 democratic:1 republic:1 contemporary:1 kaysone:1 phomvihane:1 impose:1 centralized:1 economic:1 decision:1 making:1 incarcerate:1 many:2 member:1 previous:1 education:1 camp:1 include:1 hmong:1 nominally:1 effectively:1 puppet:1 regime:1 run:1 policy:1 prompt:1 percent:1 leave:1 depend:1 heavily:1 soviet:2 aid:1 channel:1 centralised:1 management:1 economy:1 monopoly:1 political:1 since:1 external:1 link:1 department:1 background:1 |@bigram lan_xang:3 blank_verse:1 theravada_buddhism:2 vietnam_lao:1 revolve_around:1 subsistence_agriculture:1 southeast_asia:1 sanskrit_pali:1 heavenly_stem:1 luang_prabang:2 pathet_lao:4 stag_coup:1 ho_chi:1 chi_minh:1 abdicate_throne:1 decision_making:1 external_link:1 |
5,471 | Foreign_relations_of_Ethiopia | Like many states in sub-Saharan Africa, Ethiopia was relatively isolated from other countries not immediately adjacent to her, until well into the 19th century. Many historians trace modern Ethiopian foreign policy to the reign of Emperor Tewodros II, whose primary concerns were the security of Ethiopia's traditional borders, obtaining technology from Europe (or modernization), and to a lesser degree Ethiopian rights to the monastery of Dar-es-Sultan in the city of Jerusalem. The political history of the Ethiopian community, and their struggle for ownership of this small monastery, is retold in Chris Proutky, Empress Taytu and Menelik II (Trenton: The Red Sea Press, 1986), pp. 247-256 Tewodros' diplomatic efforts, however, ended disastrously with the British expedition of 1868 which concluded with his death. Despite the efforts of his successor Emperor Yohannes IV to establish a relationship with the United Kingdom, Ethiopia was ignored by the world powers until the opening of the Suez Canal, and more importantly the Mahdist War, drew outside attention to her once more. Although Bahru Zewde, A History of Modern Ethiopia, second edition (Oxford: James Currey, 2001), believes that the Suez Canal brought strategic value to the Red Sea region (p. 73), Sven Rubenson, The Survival of Ethiopian Independence (Hollywood: Tsehai,1991) argues that only with the Mahdi War did the United Kingdom interest themselves once again in Ethiopia (pp. 283ff). The same major interests that Tewodros had -- the security of Ethiopia's traditional borders and modernization -- were once again foremost, as demonstrated by the outcome of the First Italo–Ethiopian War, Ethiopia's admission to the League of Nations (28 September 1923), and the 1935 Second Italo-Abyssinian War. Although Emperor Haile Selassie agreed to an agreement with the British government to help him restore order to Ethiopia, which benefited him in crushing the Woyane Rebellion, he patiently worked to its eventual termination. Since World War II, Ethiopia has played an active role in world and African affairs. Ethiopia was a charter member of the United Nations and took part in UN operations in Korea in 1951 and the Congo in 1960. Former Emperor Haile Selassie was a founder of the Organization of African Unity (OAU). Addis Ababa is the host capital for the UN Economic Commission for Africa and the OAU. Although nominally a member of the Non-Aligned Movement, after the 1974 revolution, Ethiopia moved into a close relationship with the Soviet Union and its allies and supported their international policies and positions until the change of government in 1991. Today, Ethiopia has very good relations with the U.S. and the West, especially in responding to regional instability and, increasingly, through economic involvement. Ethiopia's relations with Eritrea are extremely tense due to an ongoing border dispute. Continuing instability along Ethiopia's borders with Sudan and Somalia contributes to tension with the National Islamic Front regime in Sudan and several factions in Somalia. International disputes Somalia Most of the southern half of the boundary with Somalia is a Provisional Administrative Line, not an international boundary Somaliland secessionists provide port facilities and trade ties to landlocked Ethiopia Territorial dispute with Somalia over the Ogaden Although the Government of Ethiopia has allied with local clans in opposition to the Transitional National Government in the past, it currently is supporting the Transitional Government against its main rival, the Islamic Courts Union. Ethiopia shelters 16,576 refugees from Somalia. Eritrea Dispute over alignment of boundary with Eritrea led to the Eritrean-Ethiopian War (1998 - 2000), which was resolved by an independent boundary commission's delimitation decision in 2002. However, demarcation has been delayed, despite intense international intervention, by Ethiopian insistence that the decision ignored "human geography," made technical errors in the delimitation, and determined that certain disputed areas, specifically Badme, fall to Eritrea. Eritrea meanwhile insists on not deviating from the commission's decision. The peacekeepers monitoring the disputed boundary were forced to withdraw in July 2008 having considered their remaining options after experiencing serious difficulties in supporting its troops. Ethiopia shelters 13,078 refugees from Eritrea, most notably 4,860 Kunama. Sudan Relations between Ethiopia and Sudan were very good following the end of the Ethiopian Civil War, due to the support that the Sudanese government had given to the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front. However, relations were strained for a time following the 26 June 1995 assassination attempt against Egyptian president Hosni Mubarak as he was leaving the OAU summit meeting in Addis Ababa. The subsequent investigation revealed that Sudan was involved in this act, forcing the Ethiopian government to take a series of steps against Sudan that September, which included closing the Sudanese consulate in Gambela, reducing the number of Sudanese embassy staff, and terminating all Sudan Airways and Ethiopian Airlines flights between the two countries. However the start of the Eritrean-Ethiopian War led to Sudan and Ethiopia put this conflict between them and normalizing their relations by November 1999 when president Omar Hassan al-Bashir made a formal visit to Addis Ababa. David H. Shinn, "Ethiopia: Coping with Islamic Fundamentalism before and after September 11" (last accessed 10 December 2008) Efforts to demarcate the porous boundary with Sudan were delayed by the Second Sudanese Civil War. In May 2008, residents along the western Ethiopian border reportedly discovered that the government had agreed to demarcate this boundary when Sudanese soldiers forced them out of their homes. It was reported that as many as 2,000 people were displaced in the Gambela Region, and the Sudanese army reportedly set fire to two dozen Ethiopian farms and imprisoned 34 people in the Amhara Region. However, Prime Minister Meles Zenawi publicly denied that any Ethiopians had been displaced by this agreement. Alisha Ryu, "Border Demarcation with Sudan Causes Anger in Ethiopia", Voice of America website, 5 June 2008 (accessed 3 April 2009) Ethiopia shelters 66,980 refugees from Sudan, most of whom live in refugee camps in the Benishangul-Gumuz and Gambela Regions. Illicit drugs Transit hub for heroin originating in Southwest and Southeast Asia and destined for Europe and North America, as well as cocaine destined for markets in southern Africa. Cultivates qat (khat) for local use and regional export, principally to Djibouti and Somalia. Lack of a well-developed financial system limits the country's usefulness as a money-laundering center See also :Category:Ethiopian diaspora Diplomatic missions of Ethiopia Ethiopia-United States relations Foreign aid to Ethiopia List of diplomatic missions in Ethiopia Ministry of Foreign Affairs Notes External links Ministry of Foreign Affairs for Ethiopia's webpage A Tangled Political Landscape Raises Questions About African Ally of the U.S. by Michael Deibert, 12 June 2008 | Foreign_relations_of_Ethiopia |@lemmatized like:1 many:3 state:2 sub:1 saharan:1 africa:3 ethiopia:28 relatively:1 isolate:1 country:3 immediately:1 adjacent:1 well:3 century:1 historian:1 trace:1 modern:2 ethiopian:16 foreign:4 policy:2 reign:1 emperor:4 tewodros:3 ii:3 whose:1 primary:1 concern:1 security:2 traditional:2 border:6 obtain:1 technology:1 europe:2 modernization:2 less:1 degree:1 right:1 monastery:2 dar:1 e:1 sultan:1 city:1 jerusalem:1 political:2 history:2 community:1 struggle:1 ownership:1 small:1 retell:1 chris:1 proutky:1 empress:1 taytu:1 menelik:1 trenton:1 red:2 sea:2 press:1 pp:2 diplomatic:3 effort:3 however:5 end:2 disastrously:1 british:2 expedition:1 conclude:1 death:1 despite:2 successor:1 yohannes:1 iv:1 establish:1 relationship:2 united:4 kingdom:2 ignore:2 world:3 power:1 opening:1 suez:2 canal:2 importantly:1 mahdist:1 war:9 draw:1 outside:1 attention:1 although:4 bahru:1 zewde:1 second:3 edition:1 oxford:1 james:1 currey:1 believe:1 brought:1 strategic:1 value:1 region:4 p:1 sven:1 rubenson:1 survival:1 independence:1 hollywood:1 tsehai:1 argue:1 mahdi:1 interest:2 major:1 foremost:1 demonstrate:1 outcome:1 first:1 italo:2 admission:1 league:1 nation:2 september:3 abyssinian:1 haile:2 selassie:2 agree:2 agreement:2 government:8 help:1 restore:1 order:1 benefit:1 crush:1 woyane:1 rebellion:1 patiently:1 work:1 eventual:1 termination:1 since:1 play:1 active:1 role:1 african:3 affair:3 charter:1 member:2 take:2 part:1 un:2 operation:1 korea:1 congo:1 former:1 founder:1 organization:1 unity:1 oau:3 addis:3 ababa:3 host:1 capital:1 economic:2 commission:3 nominally:1 non:1 align:1 movement:1 revolution:1 move:1 close:2 soviet:1 union:2 ally:3 support:4 international:4 position:1 change:1 today:1 good:2 relation:6 u:2 west:1 especially:1 respond:1 regional:2 instability:2 increasingly:1 involvement:1 eritrea:6 extremely:1 tense:1 due:2 ongoing:1 dispute:4 continue:1 along:2 sudan:11 somalia:7 contributes:1 tension:1 national:2 islamic:3 front:2 regime:1 several:1 faction:1 southern:2 half:1 boundary:7 provisional:1 administrative:1 line:1 somaliland:1 secessionist:1 provide:1 port:1 facility:1 trade:1 tie:1 landlocked:1 territorial:1 ogaden:1 local:2 clan:1 opposition:1 transitional:2 past:1 currently:1 main:1 rival:1 court:1 shelter:3 refugee:4 alignment:1 lead:2 eritrean:2 resolve:1 independent:1 delimitation:2 decision:3 demarcation:2 delay:2 intense:1 intervention:1 insistence:1 human:1 geography:1 make:2 technical:1 error:1 determine:1 certain:1 disputed:2 area:1 specifically:1 badme:1 fall:1 meanwhile:1 insists:1 deviate:1 peacekeeper:1 monitor:1 force:3 withdraw:1 july:1 consider:1 remaining:1 option:1 experience:1 serious:1 difficulty:1 troop:1 notably:1 kunama:1 follow:2 civil:2 sudanese:6 give:1 people:3 revolutionary:1 democratic:1 strain:1 time:1 june:3 assassination:1 attempt:1 egyptian:1 president:2 hosni:1 mubarak:1 leave:1 summit:1 meeting:1 subsequent:1 investigation:1 reveal:1 involve:1 act:1 series:1 step:1 include:1 consulate:1 gambela:3 reduce:1 number:1 embassy:1 staff:1 terminate:1 airway:1 airline:1 flight:1 two:2 start:1 put:1 conflict:1 normalize:1 november:1 omar:1 hassan:1 al:1 bashir:1 formal:1 visit:1 david:1 h:1 shinn:1 coping:1 fundamentalism:1 last:1 access:2 december:1 demarcate:2 porous:1 may:1 resident:1 western:1 reportedly:2 discover:1 soldier:1 home:1 report:1 displace:2 army:1 set:1 fire:1 dozen:1 farm:1 imprison:1 amhara:1 prime:1 minister:1 meles:1 zenawi:1 publicly:1 deny:1 alisha:1 ryu:1 cause:1 anger:1 voice:1 america:2 website:1 april:1 live:1 camp:1 benishangul:1 gumuz:1 illicit:1 drug:1 transit:1 hub:1 heroin:1 originate:1 southwest:1 southeast:1 asia:1 destine:2 north:1 cocaine:1 market:1 cultivates:1 qat:1 khat:1 use:1 export:1 principally:1 djibouti:1 lack:1 develop:1 financial:1 system:1 limit:1 usefulness:1 money:1 laundering:1 center:1 see:1 also:1 category:1 diaspora:1 mission:2 aid:1 list:1 ministry:2 note:1 external:1 link:1 webpage:1 tangled:1 landscape:1 raise:1 question:1 michael:1 deibert:1 |@bigram sub_saharan:1 saharan_africa:1 empress_taytu:1 menelik_ii:1 yohannes_iv:1 opening_suez:1 suez_canal:2 bahru_zewde:1 james_currey:1 italo_ethiopian:1 emperor_haile:2 haile_selassie:2 unity_oau:1 addis_ababa:3 soviet_union:1 eritrean_ethiopian:2 eritrea_eritrea:1 president_hosni:1 hosni_mubarak:1 islamic_fundamentalism:1 prime_minister:1 illicit_drug:1 southeast_asia:1 money_laundering:1 diplomatic_mission:2 foreign_affair:2 external_link:1 |
5,472 | History_of_the_Internet | Commemorative plaque listing some of the early Internet pioneers Before the widespread internetworking that led to the Internet, most communication networks were limited by their nature to only allow communications between the stations on the network, and the prevalent computer networking method was based on the central mainframe computer model. Several research programs began to explore and articulate principles of networking between separate physical networks, leading to the development of the packet switching model of digital networking. These research efforts included those of the laboratories of Donald Davies (NPL), Paul Baran (RAND Corporation), and helina moges Leonard Kleinrock's MIT and UCLA.The research led to the development of several packet-switched networking solutions in the late 1960s and 1970s, Ruthfield, Scott, The Internet's History and Development From Wartime Tool to the Fish-Cam, Crossroads 2.1, September 1995. including ARPANET and the X.25 protocols. Additionally, public access and hobbyist networking systems grew in popularity, including unix-to-unix copy (UUCP) and FidoNet. They were however still disjointed separate networks, served only by limited gateways between networks. This led to the application of packet switching to develop a protocol for inter-networking, where multiple different networks could be joined together into a super-framework of networks. By defining a simple common network system, the Internet protocol suite, the concept of the network could be separated from its physical implementation. This spread of inter-network began to form into the idea of a global inter-network that would be called 'The Internet', and this began to quickly spread as existing networks were converted to become compatible with this. This spread quickly across the advanced telecommunication networks of the western world, and then began to penetrate into the rest of the world as it became the de-facto international standard and global network. However, the disparity of growth led to a digital divide that is still a concern today. Following commercialisation and introduction of privately run Internet Service Providers in the 1980s, and its expansion into popular use in the 1990s, the Internet has had a drastic impact on culture and commerce. This includes the rise of near instant communication by e-mail, text based discussion forums, and the World Wide Web. Investor speculation in new markets provided by these innovations would also lead to the inflation and collapse of the Dot-com bubble, a major market collapse. But despite this, the Internet continues to grow. Before the Internet In the 1950s and early 1960s, prior to the widespread inter-networking that led to the Internet, most communication networks were limited in that they only allowed communications between the stations on the network. Some networks had gateways or bridges between them, but these bridges were often limited or built specifically for a single use. One prevalent computer networking method was based on the central mainframe method, simply allowing its terminals to be connected via long leased lines. This method was used in the 1950s by Project RAND to support researchers such as Herbert Simon, in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, when collaborating across the continent with researchers in Sullivan, Illinois, on automated theorem proving and artificial intelligence. Three terminals and an ARPA A fundamental pioneer in the call for a global network, J.C.R. Licklider, articulated the ideas in his January 1960 paper, Man-Computer Symbiosis. In October 1962, Licklider was appointed head of the United States Department of Defense's Advanced Research Projects Agency, now known as DARPA, within the information processing office. There he formed an informal group within DARPA to further computer research. As part of the information processing office's role, three network terminals had been installed: one for System Development Corporation in Santa Monica, one for Project Genie at the University of California, Berkeley and one for the Compatible Time-Sharing System project at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Licklider's identified need for inter-networking would be made obvious by the apparent waste of resources this caused. Packet switching At the tip of the inter-networking problem lay the issue of connecting separate physical networks to form one logical network, with much wasted capacity inside the assorted separate networks. During the 1960s, Donald Davies (NPL), Paul Baran (RAND Corporation), and Leonard Kleinrock (MIT) developed and implemented packet switching. Early networks used for the command and control of nuclear forces were message switched, not packet-switched, although current strategic military networks are, indeed, packet-switching and connectionless. Baran's research had approached packet switching from studies of decentralisation to avoid combat damage compromising the entire network. Networks that led to the Internet ARPANET Len Kleinrock and the first IMP. "The history of the Internet," http://www.lk.cs.ucla.edu/personal_history.html Promoted to the head of the information processing office at DARPA, Robert Taylor intended to realize Licklider's ideas of an interconnected networking system. Bringing in Larry Roberts from MIT, he initiated a project to build such a network. The first ARPANET link was established between the University of California, Los Angeles and the Stanford Research Institute on 22:30 hours on October 29, 1969. By December 5, 1969, a 4-node network was connected by adding the University of Utah and the University of California, Santa Barbara. Building on ideas developed in ALOHAnet, the ARPANET grew rapidly. By 1981, the number of hosts had grown to 213, with a new host being added approximately every twenty days. ARPANET became the technical core of what would become the Internet, and a primary tool in developing the technologies used. ARPANET development was centered around the Request for Comments (RFC) process, still used today for proposing and distributing Internet Protocols and Systems. RFC 1, entitled "Host Software", was written by Steve Crocker from the University of California, Los Angeles, and published on April 7, 1969. These early years were documented in the 1972 film Computer Networks: The Heralds of Resource Sharing. International collaborations on ARPANET were sparse. For various political reasons, European developers were concerned with developing the X.25 networks. Notable exceptions were the Norwegian Seismic Array (NORSAR) in 1972, followed in 1973 by Sweden with satellite links to the Tanum Earth Station and University College London. X.25 and public access Following on from ARPA's research, packet switching network standards were developed by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) in the form of X.25 and related standards. In 1974, X.25 formed the basis for the SERCnet network between British academic and research sites, which later became JANET. The initial ITU Standard on X.25 was approved in March 1976. This standard was based on the concept of virtual circuits. The British Post Office, Western Union International and Tymnet collaborated to create the first international packet switched network, referred to as the International Packet Switched Service (IPSS), in 1978. This network grew from Europe and the US to cover Canada, Hong Kong and Australia by 1981. By the 1990s it provided a worldwide networking infrastructure. Unlike ARPAnet, X.25 was also commonly available for business use. Telenet offered its Telemail electronic mail service, but this was oriented to enterprise use rather than the general email of ARPANET. The first dial-in public networks used asynchronous TTY terminal protocols to reach a concentrator operated by the public network. Some public networks, such as CompuServe used X.25 to multiplex the terminal sessions into their packet-switched backbones, while others, such as Tymnet, used proprietary protocols. In 1979, CompuServe became the first service to offer electronic mail capabilities and technical support to personal computer users. The company broke new ground again in 1980 as the first to offer real-time chat with its CB Simulator. There were also the America Online (AOL) and Prodigy dial in networks and many bulletin board system (BBS) networks such as FidoNet. FidoNet in particular was popular amongst hobbyist computer users, many of them hackers and amateur radio operators. UUCP In 1979, two students at Duke University, Tom Truscott and Jim Ellis, came up with the idea of using simple Bourne shell scripts to transfer news and messages on a serial line with nearby University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Following public release of the software, the mesh of UUCP hosts forwarding on the Usenet news rapidly expanded. UUCPnet, as it would later be named, also created gateways and links between FidoNet and dial-up BBS hosts. UUCP networks spread quickly due to the lower costs involved, ability to use existing leased lines, X.25 links or even ARPANET connections, and the lack of strict use policies (commercial organizations who might provide bug fixes) compared to later networks like CSnet and Bitnet. All connects were local. By 1981 the number of UUCP hosts had grown to 550, nearly doubling to 940 in 1984. - Sublink Network, operating since 1987 and officially founded in Italy in 1989, based its interconnectivity upon UUCP to redistribute mail and news groups messages throughout its Italian nodes (about 100 at the time) owned both by private individuals and small companies. Sublink Network represented possibly one of the first examples of the internet technology becoming progress through popular diffusion. Merging the networks and creating the Internet TCP/IP Map of the TCP/IP test network in January 1982 With so many different network methods, something was needed to unify them. Robert E. Kahn of DARPA and ARPANET recruited Vinton Cerf of Stanford University to work with him on the problem. By 1973, they had soon worked out a fundamental reformulation, where the differences between network protocols were hidden by using a common internetwork protocol, and instead of the network being responsible for reliability, as in the ARPANET, the hosts became responsible. Cerf credits Hubert Zimmerman, Gerard LeLann and Louis Pouzin (designer of the CYCLADES network) with important work on this design. The specification of the resulting protocol, RFC 675 - Specification of Internet Transmission Control Program, by Vinton Cerf, Yogen Dalal and Carl Sunshine, Network Working Group, December, 1974, contains the first attested use of the term internet, as a shorthand for internetworking; later RFCs repeat this use, so the word started out as an adjective rather than the noun it is today. With the role of the network reduced to the bare minimum, it became possible to join almost any networks together, no matter what their characteristics were, thereby solving Kahn's initial problem. DARPA agreed to fund development of prototype software, and after several years of work, the first somewhat crude demonstration of a gateway between the Packet Radio network in the SF Bay area and the ARPANET was conducted. On November 22, 1977 a three network demonstration was conducted including the ARPANET, the Packet Radio Network and the Atlantic Packet Satellite network—all sponsored by DARPA. Stemming from the first specifications of TCP in 1974, TCP/IP emerged in mid-late 1978 in nearly final form. By 1981, the associated standards were published as RFCs 791, 792 and 793 and adopted for use. DARPA sponsored or encouraged the development of TCP/IP implementations for many operating systems and then scheduled a migration of all hosts on all of its packet networks to TCP/IP. On January 1, 1983, TCP/IP protocols became the only approved protocol on the ARPANET, replacing the earlier NCP protocol. Jon Postel, NCP/TCP Transition Plan, RFC 801 ARPANET to Several Federal Wide Area Networks: MILNET, NSI, and NSFNet After the ARPANET had been up and running for several years, ARPA looked for another agency to hand off the network to; ARPA's primary mission was funding cutting edge research and development, not running a communications utility. Eventually, in July 1975, the network had been turned over to the Defense Communications Agency, also part of the Department of Defense. In 1983, the U.S. military portion of the ARPANET was broken off as a separate network, the MILNET. MILNET subsequently became the unclassified but military-only NIPRNET, in parallel with the SECRET-level SIPRNET and JWICS for TOP SECRET and above. NIPRNET does have controlled security gateways to the public Internet. The networks based around the ARPANET were government funded and therefore restricted to noncommercial uses such as research; unrelated commercial use was strictly forbidden. This initially restricted connections to military sites and universities. During the 1980s, the connections expanded to more educational institutions, and even to a growing number of companies such as Digital Equipment Corporation and Hewlett-Packard, which were participating in research projects or providing services to those who were. BBN Technologies TCP/IP internet map early 1986 Several other branches of the U.S. government, the National Aeronautics and Space Agency (NASA), the National Science Foundation (NSF), and the Department of Energy (DOE) became heavily involved in Internet research and started development of a successor to ARPANET. In the mid 1980s, all three of these branches developed the first Wide Area Networks based on TCP/IP. NASA developed the NASA Science Network, NSF developed CSNET and DOE evolved the Energy Sciences Network or ESNet. In 1984 NSF developed CSNET exclusively based on TCP/IP. CSNET connected with ARPANET using TCP/IP, and ran TCP/IP over X.25, but it also supported departments without sophisticated network connections, using automated dial-up mail exchange. This grew into the NSFNet backbone, established in 1986, and intended to connect and provide access to a number of supercomputing centers established by the NSF. Transition towards the Internet The term "internet" was adopted in the first RFC published on the TCP protocol (RFC 675: Internet Transmission Control Program, December 1974) as an abbreviation of the term internetworking and the two terms were used interchangeably. In general, an internet was any network using TCP/IP. It was around the time when ARPANET was interlinked with NSFNet in the late 1980s, that the term was used as the name of the network, Internet,. being a large and global TCP/IP network. The term "internet protocol" had also been used to refer to other networking systems such as Xerox Network Services. As interest in wide spread networking grew and new applications for it were developed, the Internet's technologies spread throughout the rest of the world. The network-agnostic approach in TCP/IP meant that it was easy to use any existing network infrastructure, such as the IPSS X.25 network, to carry Internet traffic. In 1984, University College London replaced its transatlantic satellite links with TCP/IP over IPSS. Many sites unable to link directly to the Internet started to create simple gateways to allow transfer of e-mail, at that time the most important application. Sites which only had intermittent connections used UUCP or FidoNet and relied on the gateways between these networks and the Internet. Some gateway services went beyond simple e-mail peering, such as allowing access to FTP sites via UUCP or e-mail. Finally, the Internet's remaining centralized routing aspects were removed. The EGP routing protocol was replaced by a new protocol, the Border Gateway Protocol (BGP), in order to allow the removal of the NSFNet Internet backbone network. In 1994, Classless Inter-Domain Routing was introduced to support better conservation of address space which allowed use of route aggregation to decrease the size of routing tables. TCP/IP becomes worldwide CERN, the European Internet, the link to the Pacific and beyond Between 1984 and 1988 CERN began installation and operation of TCP/IP to interconnect its major internal computer systems, workstations, PCs and an accelerator control system. CERN continued to operate a limited self-developed system CERNET internally and several incompatible (typically proprietary) network protocols externally. There was considerable resistance in Europe towards more widespread use of TCP/IP and the CERN TCP/IP intranets remained isolated from the Internet until 1989. In 1988 Daniel Karrenberg, from CWI in Amsterdam, visited Ben Segal, CERN's TCP/IP Coordinator, looking for advice about the transition of the European side of the UUCP Usenet network (much of which ran over X.25 links) over to TCP/IP. In 1987, Ben Segal had met with Len Bosack from the then still small company Cisco about purchasing some TCP/IP routers for CERN, and was able to give Karrenberg advice and forward him on to Cisco for the appropriate hardware. This expanded the European portion of the Internet across the existing UUCP networks, and in 1989 CERN opened its first external TCP/IP connections. This coincided with the creation of Réseaux IP Européens (RIPE), initially a group of IP network administrators who met regularly to carry out co-ordination work together. Later, in 1992, RIPE was formally registered as a cooperative in Amsterdam. At the same time as the rise of internetworking in Europe, ad hoc networking to ARPA and in-between Australian universities formed, based on various technologies such as X.25 and UUCPNet. These were limited in their connection to the global networks, due to the cost of making individual international UUCP dial-up or X.25 connections. In 1989, Australian universities joined the push towards using IP protocols to unify their networking infrastructures. AARNet was formed in 1989 by the Australian Vice-Chancellors' Committee and provided a dedicated IP based network for Australia. The Internet began to penetrate Asia in the late 1980s. Japan, which had built the UUCP-based network JUNET in 1984, connected to NSFNet in 1989. It hosted the annual meeting of the Internet Society, INET'92, in Kobe. Singapore developed TECHNET in 1990, and Thailand gained a global Internet connection between Chulalongkorn University and UUNET in 1992. Digital divide While developed countries with technological infrastructures were joining the Internet, developing countries began to experience a digital divide separating them from the Internet. On an essentially continental basis, they are building organizations for Internet resource administration and sharing operational experience, as more and more transmission facilities go into place. Africa At the beginning of the 1990s, African countries relied upon X.25 IPSS and 2400 baud modem UUCP links for international and internetwork computer communications. In 1996 a USAID funded project, the Leland initiative, started work on developing full Internet connectivity for the continent. Guinea, Mozambique, Madagascar and Rwanda gained satellite earth stations in 1997, followed by Côte d'Ivoire and Benin in 1998. Africa is building an Internet infrastructure. AfriNIC, headquartered in Mauritius, manages IP address allocation for the continent. As do the other Internet regions, there is an operational forum, the Internet Community of Operational Networking Specialists. There are a wide range of programs both to provide high-performance transmission plant, and the western and southern coasts have undersea optical cable. High-speed cables join North Africa and the Horn of Africa to intercontinental cable systems. Undersea cable development is slower for East Africa; the original joint effort between New Partnership for Africa's Development (NEPAD) and the East Africa Submarine System (Eassy) has broken off and may become two efforts. Nepad, Eassy partnership ends in divorce,(South African) Financial Times FMTech, 2007 Asia and Oceania The Asia Pacific Network Information Centre (APNIC), headquartered in Australia, manages IP address allocation for the continent. APNIC sponsors an operational forum, the Asia-Pacific Regional Internet Conference on Operational Technologies (APRICOT). In 1991, the People's Republic of China saw its first TCP/IP college network, Tsinghua University's TUNET. The PRC went on to make its first global Internet connection in 1995, between the Beijing Electro-Spectrometer Collaboration and Stanford University's Linear Accelerator Center. However, China went on to implement its own digital divide by implementing a country-wide content filter. Latin America As with the other regions, the Latin American and Caribbean Internet Addresses Registry (LACNIC) manages the IP address space and other resources for its area. LACNIC, headquartered in Uruguay, operates DNS root, reverse DNS, and other key services. Opening the network to commerce The interest in commercial use of the Internet became a hotly debated topic. Although commercial use was forbidden, the exact definition of commercial use could be unclear and subjective. UUCPNet and the X.25 IPSS had no such restrictions, which would eventually see the official barring of UUCPNet use of ARPANET and NSFNet connections. Some UUCP links still remained connecting to these networks however, as administrators cast a blind eye to their operation. During the late 1980s, the first Internet service provider (ISP) companies were formed. Companies like PSINet, UUNET, Netcom, and Portal Software were formed to provide service to the regional research networks and provide alternate network access, UUCP-based email and Usenet News to the public. The first comercial dialup ISP in the United States was The World (internet service provider), opened in 1989. The first dial-up on the West Coast, Best Internet, now Verio, opened in 1996. This caused controversy amongst university users, who were outraged at the idea of noneducational use of their networks. Eventually, it was the commercial Internet service providers who brought prices low enough that junior colleges and other schools could afford to participate in the new arenas of education and research. By 1990, ARPANET had been overtaken and replaced by newer networking technologies and the project came to a close. In 1994, the NSFNet, now renamed ANSNET (Advanced Networks and Services) and allowing non-profit corporations access, lost its standing as the backbone of the Internet. Both government institutions and competing commercial providers created their own backbones and interconnections. Regional network access points (NAPs) became the primary interconnections between the many networks. The final commercial restrictions ended in May 1995 when the National Science Foundation ended its sponsorship of the Internet backbone. IETF and a standard for standards The Internet has developed a significant subculture dedicated to the idea that the Internet is not owned or controlled by any one person, company, group, or organization. Nevertheless, some standardization and control is necessary for the system to function. The liberal Request for Comments (RFC) publication procedure engendered confusion about the Internet standardization process, and led to more formalization of official accepted standards. The IETF started in January 1985 as a quarterly meeting of U.S. government funded researchers. Representatives from non-government vendors were invited starting with the fourth IETF meeting in October of that year. Acceptance of an RFC by the RFC Editor for publication does not automatically make the RFC into a standard. It may be recognized as such by the IETF only after experimentation, use, and acceptance have proved it to be worthy of that designation. Official standards are numbered with a prefix "STD" and a number, similar to the RFC naming style. However, even after becoming a standard, most are still commonly referred to by their RFC number. In 1992, the Internet Society, a professional membership society, was formed and the IETF was transferred to operation under it as an independent international standards body. NIC, InterNIC, IANA and ICANN The first central authority to coordinate the operation of the network was the Network Information Centre (NIC) at Stanford Research Institute (SRI) in Menlo Park, California. In 1972, management of these issues was given to the newly created Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA). In addition to his role as the RFC Editor, Jon Postel worked as the manager of IANA until his death in 1998. As the early ARPANET grew, hosts were referred to by names, and a HOSTS.TXT file would be distributed from SRI International to each host on the network. As the network grew, this became cumbersome. A technical solution came in the form of the Domain Name System, created by Paul Mockapetris. The Defense Data Network—Network Information Center (DDN-NIC) at SRI handled all registration services, including the top-level domains (TLDs) of .mil, .gov, .edu, .org, .net, .com and .us, root nameserver administration and Internet number assignments under a United States Department of Defense contract. In 1991, the Defense Information Systems Agency (DISA) awarded the administration and maintenance of DDN-NIC (managed by SRI up until this point) to Government Systems, Inc., who subcontracted it to the small private-sector Network Solutions, Inc. Since at this point in history most of the growth on the Internet was coming from non-military sources, it was decided that the Department of Defense would no longer fund registration services outside of the .mil TLD. In 1993 the U.S. National Science Foundation, after a competitive bidding process in 1992, created the InterNIC to manage the allocations of addresses and management of the address databases, and awarded the contract to three organizations. Registration Services would be provided by Network Solutions; Directory and Database Services would be provided by AT&T; and Information Services would be provided by General Atomics. In 1998 both IANA and InterNIC were reorganized under the control of ICANN, a California non-profit corporation contracted by the US Department of Commerce to manage a number of Internet-related tasks. The role of operating the DNS system was privatized and opened up to competition, while the central management of name allocations would be awarded on a contract tender basis. Use and culture E-mail and Usenet E-mail is often called the killer application of the Internet. However, it actually predates the Internet and was a crucial tool in creating it. E-mail started in 1965 as a way for multiple users of a time-sharing mainframe computer to communicate. Although the history is unclear, among the first systems to have such a facility were SDC's Q32 and MIT's CTSS. The ARPANET computer network made a large contribution to the evolution of e-mail. There is one report indicating experimental inter-system e-mail transfers on it shortly after ARPANET's creation. In 1971 Ray Tomlinson created what was to become the standard Internet e-mail address format, using the @ sign to separate user names from host names. A number of protocols were developed to deliver e-mail among groups of time-sharing computers over alternative transmission systems, such as UUCP and IBM's VNET e-mail system. E-mail could be passed this way between a number of networks, including ARPANET, BITNET and NSFNet, as well as to hosts connected directly to other sites via UUCP. See the history of SMTP protocol. In addition, UUCP allowed the publication of text files that could be read by many others. The News software developed by Steve Daniel and Tom Truscott in 1979 was used to distribute news and bulletin board-like messages. This quickly grew into discussion groups, known as newsgroups, on a wide range of topics. On ARPANET and NSFNet similar discussion groups would form via mailing lists, discussing both technical issues and more culturally focused topics (such as science fiction, discussed on the sflovers mailing list). From gopher to the WWW As the Internet grew through the 1980s and early 1990s, many people realized the increasing need to be able to find and organize files and information. Projects such as Gopher, WAIS, and the FTP Archive list attempted to create ways to organize distributed data. Unfortunately, these projects fell short in being able to accommodate all the existing data types and in being able to grow without bottlenecks. One of the most promising user interface paradigms during this period was hypertext. The technology had been inspired by Vannevar Bush's "Memex" and developed through Ted Nelson's research on Project Xanadu and Douglas Engelbart's research on NLS. Many small self-contained hypertext systems had been created before, such as Apple Computer's HyperCard. Gopher became the first commonly-used hypertext interface to the Internet. While Gopher menu items were examples of hypertext, they were not commonly perceived in that way. This NeXT Computer was used by Berners-Lee at CERN and became the world's first Web server. In 1989, whilst working at CERN, Tim Berners-Lee invented a network-based implementation of the hypertext concept. By releasing his invention to public use, he ensured the technology would become widespread. For his work in developing the World Wide Web, Berners-Lee received the Millennium technology prize in 2004. One early popular web browser, modeled after HyperCard, was ViolaWWW. A potential turning point for the World Wide Web began with the introduction of the Mosaic web browser in 1993, a graphical browser developed by a team at the National Center for Supercomputing Applications at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign (NCSA-UIUC), led by Marc Andreessen. Funding for Mosaic came from the High-Performance Computing and Communications Initiative, a funding program initiated by then-Senator Al Gore's High Performance Computing and Communication Act of 1991 also known as the Gore Bill . Indeed, Mosaic's graphical interface soon became more popular than Gopher, which at the time was primarily text-based, and the WWW became the preferred interface for accessing the Internet. (Gore's reference to his role in "creating the Internet", however, was ridiculed in his presidential election campaign. See the full article Al Gore and information technology). Mosaic was eventually superseded in 1994 by Andreessen's Netscape Navigator, which replaced Mosaic as the world's most popular browser. While it held this title for some time, eventually competition from Internet Explorer and a variety of other browsers almost completely displaced it. Another important event held on January 11, 1994, was The Superhighway Summit at UCLA's Royce Hall. This was the "first public conference bringing together all of the major industry, government and academic leaders in the field [and] also began the national dialogue about the Information Superhighway and its implications." 24 Hours in Cyberspace, the "the largest one-day online event" (February 8, 1996) up to that date, took place on the then-active website, cyber24.com. Mirror of Official site map Mirror of Official Site It was headed by photographer Rick Smolan. A photographic exhibition was unveiled at the Smithsonian Institution's National Museum of American History on January 23, 1997, featuring 70 photos from the project. Search engines Even before the World Wide Web, there were search engines that attempted to organize the Internet. The first of these was the Archie search engine from McGill University in 1990, followed in 1991 by WAIS and Gopher. All three of those systems predated the invention of the World Wide Web but all continued to index the Web and the rest of the Internet for several years after the Web appeared. There are still Gopher servers as of 2006, although there are a great many more web servers. As the Web grew, search engines and Web directories were created to track pages on the Web and allow people to find things. The first full-text Web search engine was WebCrawler in 1994. Before WebCrawler, only Web page titles were searched. Another early search engine, Lycos, was created in 1993 as a university project, and was the first to achieve commercial success. During the late 1990s, both Web directories and Web search engines were popular—Yahoo! (founded 1995) and Altavista (founded 1995) were the respective industry leaders. By August 2001, the directory model had begun to give way to search engines, tracking the rise of Google (founded 1998), which had developed new approaches to relevancy ranking. Directory features, while still commonly available, became after-thoughts to search engines. Database size, which had been a significant marketing feature through the early 2000s, was similarly displaced by emphasis on relevancy ranking, the methods by which search engines attempt to sort the best results first. Relevancy ranking first became a major issue circa 1996, when it became apparent that it was impractical to review full lists of results. Consequently, algorithms for relevancy ranking have continuously improved. Google's PageRank method for ordering the results has received the most press, but all major search engines continually refine their ranking methodologies with a view toward improving the ordering of results. As of 2006, search engine rankings are more important than ever, so much so that an industry has developed ("search engine optimizers", or "SEO") to help web-developers improve their search ranking, and an entire body of case law has developed around matters that affect search engine rankings, such as use of trademarks in metatags. The sale of search rankings by some search engines has also created controversy among librarians and consumer advocates. Dot-com bubble Suddenly the low price of reaching millions worldwide, and the possibility of selling to or hearing from those people at the same moment when they were reached, promised to overturn established business dogma in advertising, mail-order sales, customer relationship management, and many more areas. The web was a new killer app—it could bring together unrelated buyers and sellers in seamless and low-cost ways. Visionaries around the world developed new business models, and ran to their nearest venture capitalist. While some of the new entrepreneurs had experience in business in economics, the majority were simply people with ideas, and didn't manage the capital influx prudently. Additionally, many dot-com business plans were predicated on the assumption that by using the Internet, they would bypass the distribution channels of existing businesses and therefore not have to compete with them; when the established businesses with strong existing brands developed their own Internet presence, these hopes were shattered, and the newcomers were left attempting to break into markets dominated by larger, more established businesses. Many did not have the ability to do so. The dot-com bubble burst on March 10, 2000, when the technology heavy NASDAQ Composite index peaked at 5048.62 (intra-day peak 5132.52), more than double its value just a year before. By 2001, the bubble's deflation was running full speed. A majority of the dot-coms had ceased trading, after having burnt through their venture capital and IPO capital, often without ever making a profit. Online Population Forecast A study conducted JupiterResearch anticipates that a 38 percent increase in the number of people with online access will mean that, by 2011, 22 percent of the Earth's population will surf the Internet regularly. The report says 1.1 billion people currently enjoy regular access to the Web. For the study, JupiterResearch defined online users as people who regularly access the Internet by dedicated Internet access devices. Those devices do not include cell phones. Mobile phones and the Internet The first mobile phone to have Internet connectivity was the Nokia 9000 Communicator, launched in Finland in 1996. The concept of a mobile phone based Internet did not take off until prices came down from that model and the network providers started to develop systems and services to enable the Internet on phones. NTT DoCoMo in Japan launched the first mobile Internet service, i-Mode in 1999 and this is considered the birth of the mobile phone based Internet. In 2001 the mobile phone based email system by Blackberry and its iconic phones were launched in America. To make better use of the small screen and tiny keypad and one-handed operation typical of mobile phones, a simpler programming environment was created for the mobile phone Internet, called WAP for Wireless Application protocol. Most mobile phone Internet services operate on WAP. The growth of the mobile phone based internet was initially a primarily Asian phenomenon with Japan, South Korea and Taiwan all soon finding the majority of their Internet users accessing by phone rather than by PC. Developing World countries followed next, with India, South Africa, Kenya, Philippines and Pakistan all reporting that the majority of their domestic Internet users accessed on a mobile phone rather than on a PC. The European and North American use of the Internet was influenced by a large installed base of personal computers, and the growth of mobile phone Internet use was more gradual, but had reached national penetration levels of 20%-30% in most Western countries. In 2008 the cross-over happened, when more Internet access devices were mobile phones than personal computers. In many parts of the developing world, the ratio is as much as 10 mobile phone users to one PC user on the Internet. Historiography Some concerns have been raised over the historiography of the Internet's development. Specifically that it is hard to find documentation of much of the Internet's development, for several reasons, including a lack of centralized documentation for much of the early developments that led to the Internet. Footnotes References Abbate, Janet. Inventing the Internet. Cambridge: MIT Press, 1999. Campbell-Kelly, Martin; Aspray, William. Computer: A History of the Information Machine. New York: BasicBooks, 1996. Graham, Ian S. The HTML Sourcebook: The Complete Guide to HTML. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1995. Krol, Ed. Hitchhiker's Guide to the Internet, 1987. Krol, Ed. Whole Internet User's Guide and Catalog. O'Reilly & Associates, 1992. Scientific American Special Issue on Communications, Computers, and Networks, September, 1991. Further reading Bemer, Bob, "A History of Source Concepts for the Internet/Web" Clark, David D., "The Design Philosophy of the DARPA Internet Protocols", Computer Communications Review 18:4, August 1988, pp. 106–114 See also Minitel - Another early Internet-like system Timeline of popular internet services External links Ruthfield, Scott, The Internet's History and Development From Wartime Tool to the Fish-Cam, Crossroads 2.1, September 1995. "Overhearing the Internet" —by Robert Wright, The New Republic, 1993 Cybertelecom :: Internet History Focusing on government, legal, and policy history of the Internet History of the Internet is an animated documentary explaining the inventions from time-sharing to filesharing, from Arpanet to Internet. 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5,473 | Ethical_egoism | Ethical egoism (also called simply egoism Sanders, Steven M. Is egoism morally defensible? Philosophia. Springer Netherlands. Volume 18, Numbers 2–3 / July, 1988 ) is the normative ethical position that moral agents ought to do what is in their own self-interest. It differs from psychological egoism, which claims that people do only act in their self-interest. Ethical egoism also differs from rational egoism, which holds merely that it is rational to act in one's self-interest. These doctrines may, though, be combined with ethical egoism. Ethical egoism contrasts with ethical altruism, which holds that moral agents have an obligation to help and serve others. Ethical egoism does not, however, require moral agents to disregard the well-being of others; nor does it require that a moral agent refrain from considering the well-being of others in moral deliberation, for what is in an agent's self-interest may be incidentally detrimental, beneficial, or neutral in its effect on others. Individualism allows for the possibility of any of these, as long as what is chosen is efficacious in satisfying the self-interest of the agent. Nor does ethical egoism necessarily entail that, in pursuing self-interest, one ought always to do what one wants to do, for, in the long term, the fulfilment of short-term desires may prove detrimental to the self. Fleeting pleasance, then, takes a back seat to protracted eudaemonia. In the words of James Rachels, "Ethical egoism [...] endorses selfishness, but it doesn't endorse foolishness." Rachels 2008, p. 534. Ethical egoism is sometimes the philosophical basis for support of libertarianism or individualist anarchism, although can also be based on altruistic motivations. These are political positions based partly on a belief that individuals should not coercively prevent others from exercising freedom of action. Types of ethical egoism Three different formulations of ethical egoism have been identified: individual, personal and universal. An individual ethical egoist would hold that all people should do whatever benefits them; Waller (2005), p. 81. a personal ethical egoist would hold that he or she should act in his or her own self-interest, but would make no claims about what anyone else ought to do; a universal ethical egoist would argue that everyone should act in ways that are in their own interest. Waller (2005), p. 83. . A philosophy holding that one should be honest, just, benevolent etc., because those virtues serve one's self-interest is egoistic; one holding that one should practice those virtues for reasons other than self-interest is not egoistic at all. Proponents Max Stirner was the first philosopher to call himself an egoist, it is questionable if he wanted to install a new idea of morality (ethical egoism) or argue against morality (amoralism). Others, such as Thomas Hobbes and David Gauthier, have argued that the conflicts which arise when people each pursue their own ends can be resolved for the best of each individual only if they all voluntarily forgo some of their aims — that is, one's self-interest is often best pursued by allowing others to pursue their self-interest as well so that liberty is equal among individuals. Sacrificing one's short-term self-interest in order to maximize one's long-term self-interest is one form of "rational self-interest" which is the idea behind most philosophers' advocacy of ethical egoism. Noted egoist Ayn Rand contended that there was a harmony of interest among humans, so that a moral agent could not rationally harm another person. As Nietzsche (in Beyond Good and Evil) and Alasdair MacIntyre (in After Virtue) are famous for pointing out, the ancient Greeks did not associate morality with altruism in the way that post-Christian Western civilization has done. Aristotle's view is that we have duties to ourselves as well as to other people (e.g. friends) and to the polis as a whole. The same is true for Christian Wolff and Immanuel Kant, who claim that there are duties to ourselves just as Aristotle did. The term ethical egoism has been applied retroactively to philosophers such as Bernard de Mandeville and to many other materialists of his generation, although none of them declared themselves to be egoists. Note that materialism does not necessarily imply egoism, as indicated by Karl Marx, and the many other materialists who espoused forms of collectivism. Ethical egoism lends itself to individualist anarchism and is another way of describing the sense that the common good should be enjoyed by all. It fits perfectly into the anarchist idea of 'do what you want and harm no other, and then no harm shall come to you', unless harming other is seen as beneficial by the victimary. Most notable anarchists in history have advocated altruistic views, opposited to egoism. Arguments for James Rachels, in an essay that takes as its title the theory's name, outlines the three arguments most commonly touted in its favour: He notes, however, that "the theory is asserted more often than it is argued for. Many of its supporters apparently think its truth is self-evident, so that arguments are not needed." (Rachels 2008, p. 534.) "The first argument," writes Rachels, "has several variations, each suggesting the same general point: That is, that regarding and pursuing the interests of others is a self-defeating policy. Rachels quotes Alexander Pope in support of this: "Thus God and nature formed the general frame/And bade self-love and social be the same." "Each of us is intimately familiar with our own individual wants and needs. Moreover, each of us is uniquely placed to pursue those wants and needs effectively. At the same time, we know the desires and needs of others only imperfectly, and we are not well situated to pursue them. Therefore, it is reasonable to believe that if we set out to be 'our brother's keeper,' we would often bungle the job and end up doing more mischief than good." Rachels 2008, p. 534. To pursue actively the interests of others is to be officious. We should mind our own business and allow others to mind theirs. To give charity to someone is to degrade him, implying as it does that he is reliant on such munificence and quite unable to look out for himself. "That," reckons Rachels, "is why the recipients of 'charity' are so often resentful rather than appreciative." Rachels 2008, p. 534, where it is pointed out that, in the strictest egoistic terms, this is an inconsequential argument. Ethical egoism does not bother itself with how others receive charity, irrespective of how degraded it makes them feel. The same reasoning applies to the previous two bullets, which use self-interest as a means to the end of beneficence, rather than for its own purposes, as the theory would dictate. Altruism denies individual value and is therefore destructive both to society and its individual components, viewing life merely as a thing to be sacrificed. "Moreover, those who would promote this idea are beneath contempt—they are parasites who, rather than working to build and sustain their own lives, leech off those who do." Rachels 2008, p. 535, where this argument is attributed to Ayn Rand, "a writer little heeded by professional philosophers but who nevertheless was enormously popular on college campuses in the 1960s and 1970s". She is quoted as writing that, "[i]f a man accepts the ethics of altruism, his first concern is not how to live his life but how to sacrifice it." All of our commonly-accepted moral duties, from doing no harm unto others to speaking always the truth to keeping promises, are rooted in the one fundamental principle of self-interest. Criticisms According to amoralism, there is nothing wrong with egoism, but there is just nothing ethical about it. You can just adopt rational egoism and completely drop morality as a superfluous attribute of your egoism. Some contend that ethical egoism is implausible, "It seems to me this is just obviously wrong". Michael Huemer on the Objectivist in a hurry "[I]f it is in your best interest to obtain ten million dollars, and a practically risk-free opportunity to embezzle that much money arises, then on egoistic principles, where every ethical action is governed by what is best for the individual, it would seem that the ethical thing to do would be to embezzle. And this seems obviously wrong." Stephen Parrish's review of Viable Values by Tara Smith and that those who seriously advocate it usually do so at the expense of redefining "self-interest" to include the interests of others. "But other [of Ayn Rand's intellectual heirs], such as David Kelley and Tibor Machan, see that there is at least something wrong with "egoism" as Rand construed it". wirkman Virkkala At the Altar of the Ego An ethical egoist might counter this by asserting that furthering the ends of others is sometimes the best means of furthering the ends of oneself, or that, simply by allowing liberty to others, one's self-interest is resultantly furthered. Ethical egoism has also been alleged as the basis for immorality. Thomas Jefferson writes in a 1814 letter to Thomas Law: Self-interest, or rather self-love, or egoism, has been more plausibly substituted as the basis of morality. But I consider our relations with others as constituting the boundaries of morality. With ourselves, we stand on the ground of identity, not of relation, which last, requiring two subjects, excludes self-love confined to a single one. To ourselves, in strict language, we can owe no duties, obligation requiring also two parties. Self-love, therefore, is no part of morality. Indeed, it is exactly its counterpart. Jefferson, Thomas. June 13, 1814. The Moral Sense. Teaching American History (accessed 3 Aug 2007) Ethical egoism is opposed not only by altruist philosophers; it is also at odds with the majority of religion. Most religions hold that ethical egoism is the product of a lack of genuine spirituality and shows an individual's submersion in greed. Religious egoism is a derivative of egoism, whereby religion is used to validate one's self-interest. Egotism and Faith In The Moral Point of View, Kurt Baier objects that ethical egoism provides no moral basis for the resolution of conflicts of interest, which, in his opinion, form the only vindication for a moral code. Were this an ideal world, one in which interests and purposes never jarred, its inhabitants would have no need of a specified set of ethics. This, however, is not an ideal world. Baier believes that ethical egoism fails to provide the moral guidance and arbitration that it necessitates. Far from resolving conflicts of interest, in fact, ethical egoism all too often spawns them. To this, as Rachels has shown, the ethical egoist may object that he cannot admit a construct of morality whose aim is merely to forestall conflicts of interest. "On his view," he writes, "the moralist is not like a courtroom judge, who resolves disputes. Instead, he is like the Commissioner of Boxing, who urges each fighter to do his best." Rachels 2008, p. 538. Baiers is also part of a team of philosophers who hold, in an altogether more serious strain of the above, that ethical egoism is paradoxical, implying that to do what is in one's best interests can be both wrong and right in ethical terms. Although a successful pursuit of self-interest may be viewed as a moral victory, it could also be dubbed immoral if it prevents another person from executing what is in his best interests. Again, however, the ethical egoist could retort by assuming the guise of the Commissioner of Boxing. His philosophy precludes empathy for the interests of others, so forestalling them is perfectly acceptable. "Regardless of whether we think this is a correct view," adds Rachels, "it is, at the very least, a consistent view, and so this attempt to convict the egoist of self-contradiction fails." Rachels 2008, p. 539. Finally, it has been averred that ethical egoism is no better than bigotry in that, like racism, it divides people into two types — themselves and others — and discriminates against one type on the basis of some arbitrary disparity. This, to Rachels's mind, is probably the best objection to ethical egoism, for it provides the soundest reason why the interests of others ought to concern the interests of the self. "[W]hat," he asks, "is the difference between myself and others that justifies placing myself in this special category? Am I more intelligent? Do I enjoy my life more? Are my accomplishments greater? Do I have needs or abilities that are so different from the needs and abilities of others? What is it that makes me so special? Failing an answer, it turns out that Ethical Egoism is an arbitrary doctrine, in the same way that racism is arbitrary. [...] We should care about the interests of other people for the very same reason we care about our own interests; for their needs and desires are comparable to our own." Rachels 2008, pp. 539–540. Footnotes References Baier, Kurt. 1990. "Egoisim" in A Companion to Ethics, Peter Singer (ed.), Blackwell: Oxford. ISBN 978-0-631-18785-1 Hobbes, Thomas. 1968. Leviathan, C. B. Macpherson (ed.), Harmondsworth: Penguin. ISBN 978-0140431957 Rachels, James. "Ethical Egoism." In Reason & Responsibility: Readings in Some Basic Problems of Philosophy, edited by Joel Feinberg and Russ Shafer-Landau, 532–540. California: Thomson Wadsworth, 2008. ISBN 978-0-495-50069-8. Rand, Ayn. 1964. The Virtue of Selfishness. Signet. ISBN 978-0451163936 Rosenstand, Nina. 2000. 'Chapter 3: Myself or Others?'. In The Moral of the Story. (3rd Edition). Mountain View, Calif: Mayfield Publishing: 127–167. ISBN 978-0072963359 Waller, Bruce, N. 2005. "Egoism." In Consider Ethics: Theory, Readings, and Contemporary Issues. New York: Pearson Longman: 79–83. 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5,474 | Gioachino_Rossini | Gioachino Rossini, 1820.Gioachino Antonio Rossini Rossini's first name is often spelled "Gioacchino". Rossini himself spelled it with either one "c" or two early in life, but eventually settled on "Gioachino". Baker's, Grove, and most Rossini scholars use "Gioachino." (February 29, 1792 – November 13, 1868) was a popular Italian composer who created 39 operas as well as sacred music and chamber music. His best known works include Il barbiere di Siviglia (The Barber of Seville), La Cenerentola and Guillaume Tell (William Tell). A tendency for inspired, songlike melodies is evident throughout his scores, which led to the nickname "The Italian Mozart." Until his retirement in 1829, Rossini had been the most popular opera composer in history. Biography Gioachino Rossini, (Ransom Humanities Research Center, The University of Texas at Austin). Gioachino Antonio Rossini was born into a family of musicians in Pesaro, a town on the Adriatic coast of Italy. His father, Giuseppe, was a horn player and inspector of slaughterhouses, his mother, Anna, was a singer and a baker's daughter. Rossini's parents began his musical training early, and by the age of six he was playing the triangle in his father's band. Rossini's father was sympathetic to the French Revolution and welcomed Napoleon's troops when they arrived in Northern Italy. This became a problem when the Austrians restored the old regime in 1796. Rossini's father was sent to prison, and his mother took him to Bologna, earning her living as a leading singer at various theatres of the Romagna region, where she was ultimately joined by her husband. During this time, Rossini was frequently left in the care of his aging grandmother, who was unable to effectively control the boy. He remained at Bologna in the care of a pork butcher, while his father played the horn in the orchestras of the theatres at which his wife sang. The boy had three years' instruction in the harpsichord from Giuseppe Prinetti of Novara, who played the scale with two fingers only. Combined with his musical profession was his business of selling liquor, and his propensity to fall asleep while standing; these qualities making him a fit subject for ridicule by his pupil. Education Gioachino Rossini, c1815 by Vincenzo Camuccini. He was taken from Prinetti and apprenticed to a blacksmith. In Angelo Tesei he found a congenial master, and learned to sight-read, to play accompaniments on the piano, and to sing well enough to take solo parts in the church when he was ten years of age. Important from this period are six sonatas a quattro or string sonatas, composed in three days, unusually scored for two violins, cello and double bass. The original scores were found in the Library of Congress in Washington DC after World War II, dated from 1804 when the composer was twelve. Often transcribed for string orchestra, these sonatas reveal the young composer's affinity for Haydn and Mozart, already showing signs of operatic tendencies, punctuated by frequent rhythm changes and dominated by clear, songlike melodies. In 1805 he appeared at the theatre of the Commune in Ferdinando Paer's Camilla at age thirteen—his only public appearance as a singer. He was also a capable horn player in the footsteps of his father. Around this time, he composed individual numbers to a libretto by Vincenza Mombelli called Demetrio e Polibio, which was handed to the boy in pieces. Though it was Rossini's first opera, written when he was thirteen or fourteen, the work was not staged until the composer was twenty years old, premiering as his sixth official opera. In 1806, at the age of fourteen, Rossini became a cello student under Cavedagni at the Conservatorio of Bologna. In 1807 he was admitted to the counterpoint class of Padre Stanislao Mattei (1750-1825). He learned to play the cello with ease, but the pedantic severity of Mattei's views on counterpoint only served to drive the young composer's views toward a freer school of composition. His insight into orchestral resources is generally ascribed not to the strict compositional rules he learned from Mattei, but to knowledge gained independently while scoring the quartets and symphonies of Haydn and Mozart. At Bologna he was known as "il Tedeschino" ("the Little German") on account of his devotion to Mozart. Early career Through the friendly interposition of the Marquis Cavalli, his first opera, La cambiale di matrimonio, was produced at Venice when he was a youth of eighteen. But two years before this he had already received the prize at the Conservatorio of Bologna for his cantata Il pianto d'Armonia sulla morte d’Orfeo. Between 1810 and 1813, at Bologna, Rome, Venice, and Milan, Rossini produced operas of varying success, most notably Il Signor Bruschino (1813), with its brilliant and unique overture. However, all memory of these works was eclipsed by the enormous success of his opera Tancredi. The libretto was an arrangement by Gaetano Rossi of Voltaire's tragedy Tancrède. Traces of Ferdinando Paer and Giovanni Paisiello were undeniably present in fragments of the music. But any critical feeling on the part of the public was drowned by appreciation of such melodies as "Di tanti palpiti... Mi rivedrai, ti rivedrò", which became so popular that the Italians would sing it in crowds at the law courts until called upon by the judge to desist. Rossini continued to write operas for Venice and Milan during the next few years, but their reception was tame and in some cases unsatisfactory after the success of Tancredi. In 1815 he retired to his home at Bologna, where Domenico Barbaia, the impresario of the Naples theatre, concluded an agreement with him by which he was to take the musical direction of the Teatro San Carlo and the Teatro Del Fondo at Naples, composing for each of them one opera a year. His payment was to be 200 ducats per month; he was also to receive a share from the gambling tables set in the theatre's "ridotto", amounting to about 1000 ducats per annum. This was an extraordinarily lucrative arrangement for any professional musician at that time. He visited the Naples conservatory, and although less than four years only senior to Mercadante said to the Director, Niccolò Zingarelli, "My compliments Maestro - your young pupil Mercadante begins where we finish". Michael Rose, "Mercadante: Flute Concertos", booklet accompanying the 2004 RCA CD recording with James Galway and I Solisti Veneti under Claudio Scimone. Some older composers in Naples, notably Zingarelli and Paisiello, were inclined to intrigue against the success of the youthful composer; but all hostility was made futile by the enthusiasm which greeted the court performance of his Elisabetta, regina d'Inghilterra, in which Isabella Colbran, who subsequently became the composer's wife, took a leading part. The libretto of this opera by Giovanni Schmidt was in many of its incidents an anticipation of those presented to the world a few years later in Sir Walter Scott's Kenilworth. The opera was the first in which Rossini wrote the ornaments of the airs instead of leaving them to the fancy of the singers, and also the first in which the recitativo secco was replaced by a recitative accompanied by a string quartet. The Barber of Seville (Il barbiere di Siviglia) Isabella Colbran. Rossini's most famous opera was produced on February 20, 1816 at the Teatro Argentina in Rome. The libretto, a version of Pierre Beaumarchais' stage play Le Barbier de Séville, was newly written by Cesare Sterbini and not the same as that already used by Giovanni Paisiello in his own Barbiere, an opera which had enjoyed European popularity for more than a quarter of a century. Much is made of how quickly Rossini's opera was written, scholarship generally agreeing upon two or three weeks. Later in life, Rossini claimed to have written the opera in only twelve days. It was a colossal failure when it premiered as Almaviva; Paisiello's admirers were extremely indignant, sabotaging the production by whistling and shouting during the entire first act. However, not long after the second performance, the opera became so successful that the fame of Paisiello's opera was transferred to Rossini's, to which the title The Barber of Seville passed as an inalienable heritage. Marriage and mid-career Caricature by H. Mailly on the cover of Le Hanneton, July 4, 1867. Between 1815 and 1823 Rossini produced 20 operas. Of these Otello formed the climax to his reform of serious opera, and offers a suggestive contrast with the treatment of the same subject at a similar point of artistic development by the composer Giuseppe Verdi. In Rossini's time the tragic close was so distasteful to the public of Rome that it was necessary to invent a happy conclusion to Otello. Conditions of stage production in 1817 are illustrated by Rossini's acceptance of the subject of Cinderella for a libretto only on the condition that the supernatural element should be omitted. The opera La Cenerentola was as successful as Barbiere. The absence of a similar precaution in construction of his Mosè in Egitto led to disaster in the scene depicting the passage of the Israelites through the Red Sea, when the defects in stage contrivance always raised a laugh, so that the composer was at length compelled to introduce the chorus "Dal tuo stellato soglio" to divert attention from the dividing waves. In 1822, four years after the production of this work, Rossini married the coloratura soprano Isabella Colbran. In the same year, he directed his Cenerentola in Vienna, where Zelmira was also performed. After this he returned to Bologna; but an invitation from Prince Metternich to come to Verona and "assist in the general re-establishment of harmony" was too tempting to be refused, and he arrived at the Congress in time for its opening on October 20, 1822. Here he made friends with Chateaubriand and Dorothea Lieven. In 1823, at the suggestion of the manager of the King's Theatre, London, he came to England, being much fêted on his way through Paris. In England he was given a generous welcome, which included an introduction to King George IV and the receipt of £7000 after a residence of five months. In 1824 he became musical director of the Théâtre-Italien in Paris at a salary of £800 per annum, and when the agreement came to an end he was rewarded with the offices of Chief Composer to the King and Inspector-General of Singing in France, to which was attached the same income. At the age of 32, Rossini was able to go into semi-retirement with essentially financial independence. End of career Gioachino Rossini, photograph by Étienne Carjat, 1865. The production of his Guillaume Tell in 1829 brought his career as a writer of opera to a close. The libretto was by Étienne Jouy and Hippolyte Bis, but their version was revised by Armand Marrast See Les aventures militaires, littéraires et autres d'Etienne de Jouy by Michel Faul pp.139-141(Editions Seguier, France, March 2009, ISBN 978-2-8404-9556-7) . The music is remarkable for its freedom from the conventions discovered and utilized by Rossini in his earlier works, and marks a transitional stage in the history of opera, the overture serving as a model for romantic overtures throughout the 19th century. Though an excellent opera, it is rarely heard uncut today, as the original score runs more than four hours in performance. The overture is one of the most famous and frequently recorded works in the classical repertoire. In 1829 he returned to Bologna. His mother had died in 1827, and he was anxious to be with his father. Arrangements for his subsequent return to Paris on a new agreement were upset by the abdication of Charles X and the July Revolution of 1830. Rossini, who had been considering the subject of Faust for a new opera, returned, however, to Paris in November of that year. Six movements of his Stabat Mater were written in 1832 and the rest in 1839, the year of his father's death. The success of the work bears comparison with his achievements in opera; but his comparative silence during the period from 1832 to his death in 1868 makes his biography appear almost like the narrative of two lives—the life of swift triumph, and the long life of seclusion, of which biographers give us pictures in stories of the composer's cynical wit, his speculations in fish culture, his mask of humility and indifference. Later years Gioachino Rossini, photograph by Félix Nadar, 1858. His first wife died in 1845, and on August 16, 1846 he married Olympe Pélissier, who had sat for Vernet for his picture of Judith and Holofernes. Political disturbances compelled Rossini to leave Bologna in 1848. After living for a time in Florence he settled in Paris in 1855, where his house was a centre of artistic society. Rossini had been a well-known gourmand and an excellent amateur chef his entire life, but he indulged these two passions fully once he retired from composing, and today there are a number of dishes with the appendage "alla Rossini" to their names that were either created by him or specifically for him. Probably the most famous of these is Tournedos Rossini, still served by many restaurants today. In the meantime, after years of various physical and mental illnesses, he had slowly returned to music, composing obscure little trifles intended for private performance. These Péchés de vieillesse ("Sins of Old Age") are grouped into 14 volumes, mostly for solo piano, occasionally for voice and various chamber ensembles. Often whimsical, these pieces display Rossini’s natural ease of composition and gift for melody, showing obvious influences of Chopin and Beethoven, with many flashes of the composer’s long buried desire for serious, academic composition. He died at his country house at Passy on Friday November 13, 1868 and was buried in Père Lachaise Cemetery, Paris, France. In 1887 his remains were moved to the Basilica di Santa Croce di Firenze, in Florence, where they now rest. Rossini's tomb at Père Lachaise Cemetery in Paris. Honors and tributes He was a foreign associate of the Institute, grand officer of the Legion of Honour, and the recipient of innumerable orders. Immediately after Rossini's death, Giuseppe Verdi proposed to collaborate with 12 other Italian composers on a "Requiem for Rossini", to be performed on the first anniversary of his death, conducted by Angelo Mariani. The music was written, but the performance was abandoned shortly before its scheduled premiere. Verdi re-used the Libera me, Domine he had written for the Rossini Requiem in his 1872 Requiem for Manzoni. Notes Portrait of Gioachino Rossini by Francesco Hayez (1870)Pinacoteca di Brera, Milan In his compositions Rossini plagiarized freely from himself, a common practice among deadline-pressed opera composers of the time. Few of his operas are without such admixtures, frankly introduced in the form of arias or overtures. For example, in Il Barbiere there is an aria for the Count (often omitted) 'Cessa di piu resistere', which Rossini used (with minor changes) in the cantata Le Nozze di Teti e di Peleo and in La Cenerentola (the cabaletta for Angelina's Rondo is almost unchanged). Four of his best known overtures (La cambiale di matrimonio, Tancredi, La Cenerentola and The Barber of Seville) share operas apart from which they became famous. A characteristic mannerism in his orchestral scoring, a long, steady build of sound over an ostinato figure, creating "tempests in teapots by beginning in a whisper and rising to a flashing, glittering storm" Faddis, H., 2003, Program Notes for the Overture to La scala di seta, Cape Anne Symphony (accessed 2 May 2007); See also Rossini Overtures, Liner Notes, Chandos (Chan 9753) earned him the nickname of "Signor Crescendo". Works See List of operas by Rossini and List of compositions by Gioachino Rossini. Rossini's grave in Basilica of Santa Croce, Florence. References Notes External links Fondazione G. Rossini List and text of the songs on the website of the German Rossini Society Rossini Opera Festival Rossini in Wildbad - Belcanto Opera Festival Rossini cylinder recordings, from the Cylinder Preservation and Digitization Project at the University of California, Santa Barbara Library. 1867 Caricature of Rossini by André Gill The Center for Italian Opera Studies: Rossini critical edition - Riccardo Caramella performs Quatre Mendiants, Quatre hors d'oeuvres Gioacchino Rossini biography | Gioachino_Rossini |@lemmatized gioachino:11 rossini:55 antonio:2 first:8 name:2 often:4 spelled:1 gioacchino:2 spell:1 either:2 one:3 c:1 two:7 early:4 life:6 eventually:1 settle:2 baker:2 grove:1 scholar:1 use:4 february:2 november:3 popular:3 italian:5 composer:16 create:3 opera:31 well:3 sacred:1 music:6 chamber:2 best:2 know:4 work:8 include:2 il:6 barbiere:5 di:12 siviglia:2 barber:4 seville:4 la:7 cenerentola:5 guillaume:2 tell:3 william:1 tendency:2 inspired:1 songlike:2 melody:4 evident:1 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5,475 | Moravia | Moravia in relation to the current regions of the Czech Republic. Historical flag of Moravia Moravia (; ; ; ) is a historical region in central Europe in the east of the Czech Republic, one of the former Czech lands. It takes its name from the Morava River which rises in the northwest of the region. Geography Moravia-Silesia within Czechoslovakia between 1928–1938. Moravia occupies most of the eastern third of the Czech Republic including the South Moravian Region and the Zlín Region, as well as parts of the Moravian-Silesian, Olomouc, Pardubice, Vysočina and South Bohemian regions. In the north, Moravia borders Poland and Czech Silesia; in the east, Slovakia; in the south, Lower Austria; and in the west, Bohemia. Its northern boundary is formed by the Sudetes mountains which become the Carpathians in the east. The meandering Dyje flows through the border country with Austria and there is a protected area on both sides of the border in the area around Hardegg. At the heart of the country lie the sedimentary basins of the Morava and the Dyje at a height of 180 to 250 m. In the west, the Bohemian-Moravian Heights rise to over 800 m although the highest mountain is in the north-west, the Praděd in the Sudetes at 1490 m. Further south lie the Jeseníky highlands (400 to 600 m) which fall to 310 m at the upper reaches of the River Oder (the Moravian Gate) near Hranice and then rise again as the Beskids to the 1322 m high Lysá hora. These three mountain ranges plus the "gate" between the latter two form part of the European Watershed. Moravia's eastern boundary is formed by the White Carpathians and Javorníky. Between 1782–1850, Moravia (also thus known as Moravia-Silesia) has also included a small portion of the former province of Silesia – the so-called Austrian Silesia (when Frederick the Great annexed most of ancient Silesia (the land of upper and middle Oder river) to Prussia, Silesia's southernmost part remained with the Habsburgs). Economy In the south around Hodonín and Břeclav the land is part of the Viennese Basin and petroleum and lignite are drilled for in its deeper sediments. In the area around Ostrava there was intensive coal mining until around 1995. Iron, chemicals, leather and building materials are the main industrial goods. The main economic centres are Brno, Olomouc, Zlín and Ostrava. As well as other agriculture, Moravia is noted for its viticulture; it contains 94% of the Czech Republic's vineyards and is at the centre of the country's wine industry. History Map of Great Moravia at its possible greatest territorial extent during the reign of Svatopluk I (871-894), superimposed on the modern borders of European states. Note that some of the borders of Great Moravia are under debate. Coat of Arms of Moravia Ancient Moravia Around 60 BC the Celtic Boii people withdrew from the region and were succeeded in turn by the Germanic Quadi and in the sixth century the Slavic tribes. At the end of the eighth century the Moravian Principality came into being in present-day south-eastern Moravia, Záhorie in south-western Slovakia and parts of Lower Austria. In 833 A.D. this became the state of Great Moravia with the conquest of the Principality of Nitra (present-day Slovakia; from 10th century into 1918 part of the Kingdom of Hungary). Their first king was Mojmír I (ruled 830-846). Louis the German invaded Moravia and replaced Mojmír I with his nephew Rastiz who became St. Rastislav. Reuter, Timothy. (1991). "Germany in the Early Middle Ages", London:Longman, page 82 St. Rastislav (846-870) tried to emancipate his land from the Carolingian influence, so he sent his envoys to the Rome for the missionaries and when refused he turned to the Constantinople to the Byzantine emperor Michal. The result was the mission of St. Konstantin and Methodius who translated liturgical books into the Slavonic language which was lately elevated by the pope on the level with the Latin and Greek. Methodius became the first Moravian archbishop. But after his death the German influence again prevailed and the disciples of Methodius were forced to escape. So the German destroyed the unique situation which anticipated the II. Vatican Council by several centuries. Great Moravia reached its greatest territorial extent in the 890s under Svatopluk I. At this time, the empire encompassed the territory of the present-day Czech Republic and Slovakia, the western part of present Hungary (Pannonia), as well as Lusatia in present-day Germany and Silesia and the upper Vistula basin in southern Poland. After Svatopluk's death in 895, the Bohemian princes defected to become vassals of the East Frankish ruler Arnulf of Carinthia, and the Moravian state ceased to exist after being overrun by invading Magyars in 906/7. Joining to Bohemia Following the defeat of the Magyars by Emperor Otto I at the Battle of Lechfeld in 955, Otto's ally Boleslaus I, the Přemyslid ruler of Bohemia, received Moravia. Boleslaus I of Poland annexed Moravia in 999, and ruled it until 1019, when the Přemyslid prince Bretislaus recaptured it. Upon his father's death in 1035, Bretislaus also became the ruler of Bohemia. In 1054, Bretislaus decreed that the Bohemian and Moravians lands would be inherited together by primogeniture, although he also provided that his younger sons should govern parts of Moravia as vassals to his oldest son. Throughout the Přemyslid era, junior princes often ruled all or part of Moravia from Olomouc, Brno, or Znojmo, with varying degrees of autonomy from the ruler of Bohemia. Moravia reached its height of autonomy in 1182, when Emperor Frederick I elevated Moravia to the status of a margraviate (or mark), immediately subject to the emperor, independent of Bohemia. This status was short-lived: in 1197, Vladislaus III of Bohemia resolved the succession dispute between him and his brother Ottokar by abdicating from the Bohemian throne and accepting the margraviate of Moravia as a vassal of Bohemia. Since then, Moravia has shared its history with Bohemia. The Přemyslid dynasty became extinct in 1306, and in 1310 John of Luxembourg became king of Bohemia. Moravia and Bohemia remained within the Luxembourg dynasty of Holy Roman kings and emperors (except during the Hussite wars), until inherited by Albert II of Habsburg in 1437. After his death followed the interregnum till 1453; land (as the rest of lands of the Bohemian Crown) was administered by the landfriedens (landfrýdy). The rule of young Ladislaus the Posthumous subsisted only less than five years and subsequently (1458) the Hussite George of Poděbrady was elected as the king. He again reunited all Czech lands (then Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia, Upper & Lower Lusatia) into one-man ruled state. In 1466, Pope Paul II excommunicated George and forbade all Catholics (i.e. circa 15 % of population) from continuing to serve him. The Hungarian crusade followed and in 1469 Matthias Corvinus conquered Moravia and proclaimed himself (with assistance of rebelling Czech nobility) as the king of Bohemia. The subsequent 21-year period of a divided kingdom was decisive for the rising awareness of a specific Moravian identity, distinct from that of Bohemia. Although Moravia was reunited with Bohemia in 1490 when Vladislaus Jagiellon, king of Bohemia, also became king of Hungary, some attachment to Moravian freedom and resistance to government by Prague continued until the end of independence in 1620. In 1526, Vladislaus' son Louis died in battle and the Habsburg Ferdinand I was elected as his successor. Under the Habsburgs The epoch 1526–1620 was marked by increasing animosity between Catholic Habsburg kings (emperors) and rather Protestant Moravian (and other Crowns') estates. Moravia, like Bohemia, remained as a Habsburg possession until the end of World War I. Until 1641 Moravia's capital was the centrally-located Olomouc, but after its capture by the Swedes it moved to the larger city of Brno which resisted the invaders successfully. The Margraviate of Moravia had its own parliament – zemský sněm (Landtag in German), whose deputies were elected (from 1905 onward) in ethnically separate German and Czech constituencies. Twentieth century Following the break-up of the Austro-Hungarian Empire in 1918, Moravia became part of Czechoslovakia (and was part of the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia during the German occupation of Czechoslovakia in World War II). In 1945 the ethnic German minority of Moravia were expelled. (See Expulsion of Germans from Czechoslovakia after World War II). With the break up of Czechoslovakia, Moravia became a part of the Czech Republic in 1993. Cities Brno (county seat) Olomouc (county seat) Zlín (county seat) Přerov Vsetín Prostějov Třebíč Jihlava (county seat) Kroměříž Znojmo Ostrava (county seat) Frýdek-Místek Šumperk Uherský Brod People Male and female Moravian Slovak costumes worn during the Jízda králů Festival held annually in the village of Vlčnov in southeastern Moravia. The Moravians are a Slavic ethnic group who speak various dialects of Czech. Some Moravians regard themselves as an ethnically distinct group; others consider themselves to be ethnically Czech. In the census of 1991, 1,362,000 (13.2%) of the Czech population described themselves as being of Moravian nationality. In the census of 2001, this number had decreased to 380,000 (3.7% of the population). Moravia historically had a minority of ethnic Germans, although they were largely expelled after World War II. Notable people from Moravia include: Anton Pilgram (1450-1516), architect, sculptor and woodcarver Jan Ámos Komenský (Comenius) (1592-1670), educator and theologian, last bishop of Unity of the Brethren Georgius Prochaska (1749-1820), ophthalmologist and physiologist František Palacký (1798-1876), historian and politician, "The Father of the Nation" Hirsch Bär Fassel (1802-1883), pioneer of Reform Judaism Heinrich Wilhelm Ernst (1814-1865), violinist Gregor Mendel (1822-1884), biologist, father of genetics Ernst Mach (1838-1916), physicist and philosopher Tomáš Masaryk (1850-1937), philosopher and politician, first president of Czechoslovakia Leoš Janáček (1854-1928), composer Sigmund Freud (1856-1939), father of psychoanalysis Edmund Husserl (1859-1938), philosopher Alfons Mucha (1860-1939), painter Karl Renner (1870-1950), politician, co-founder of Friends of Nature movement Tomáš Baťa (1876-1932), entrepreneur, founder of Bata Shoes company Joseph Schumpeter (1883-1950), economist and political scientist George Placzek (1905-1955), physicist, participant in Manhattan Project Kurt Gödel (1906-1978), theoretical mathematician Milan Kundera (1929-), writer Jan Eskymo Welzl (1868-1948), traveller and gold-digger, later story-teller Franz Krommer (1759-1831), composer Other Members of the Moravian Church are also known for producing the world's thinnest biscuit, Moravian Spice Cookies The original settlers in Herrnhut escaped religious persecution in the German-speaking Kuhländchen of Moravia beginning in 1722. There is a little competitiveness between Moravians and Bohemians, but very mild and more in the way of being a source of humour than animosity. The most noticeable difference between Moravia and Bohemia is the spoken language. While in Bohemia most of the people speak the Central Bohemian dialect, there are plenty of different dialects in Moravia. Sources Róna-Tas, András (1999) Hungarians & Europe in the Early Middle Ages: An Introduction to Early Hungarian History translated by Nicholas Bodoczky, Central European University Press, Budapest, ISBN 963-9116-48-3 ; Kirschbaum, Stanislav J. (1996) A History of Slovakia: The Struggle for Survival St. Martin's Press, New York, ISBN 0-312-16125-5 ; Much of the content of this article comes from the equivalent German-language Wikipedia article as of August 29 2005. Constantine Porphyrogenitus De Administrando Imperio edited by Gy. Moravcsik, translated by R.J.H. Jenkins, Dumbarton Oaks Edition, Washington D.C. (1993) p. 181 See also Great Moravia German South Moravia Moravian Wallachia Moravian Slovakia Moravian Church/ Unitas Fratrum Moravian traditional music References , External links Moravia on official website of Czechia Welcome to the 2nd largest city of the CR Welcome to Olomouc, city of good cheer... be-x-old:Маравія | Moravia |@lemmatized moravia:46 relation:1 current:1 region:7 czech:14 republic:6 historical:2 flag:1 central:3 europe:2 east:4 one:2 former:2 land:8 take:1 name:1 morava:2 river:3 rise:4 northwest:1 geography:1 silesia:9 within:2 czechoslovakia:6 occupy:1 eastern:3 third:1 include:3 south:8 moravian:18 zlín:3 well:3 part:12 silesian:1 olomouc:6 pardubice:1 vysočina:1 bohemian:8 north:2 border:5 poland:3 slovakia:6 low:3 austria:3 west:3 bohemia:20 northern:1 boundary:2 form:3 sudetes:2 mountain:3 become:11 carpathians:2 meander:1 dyje:2 flow:1 country:3 protected:1 area:3 side:1 around:5 hardegg:1 heart:1 lie:2 sedimentary:1 basin:3 height:3 although:4 high:2 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5,476 | Charles_C._Krulak | General Charles Chandler Krulak (born March 4, 1942) served as the 31st Commandant of the Marine Corps from July 1, 1995 to June 30, 1999. He is the son of Lt. Gen. Victor H. "Brute" Krulak, USMC, who served in World War II, Korea, and Vietnam. Early years; education Charles Chandler Krulak was born in 1942 in Quantico, Virginia NNDB Name Mapper . After graduating from Phillips Exeter Academy in Exeter, New Hampshire, Krulak attended the U.S. Naval Academy, graduated from the Academy in 1964 with a bachelor's degree. Krulak also holds a master's degree in labor relations from George Washington University (1973). He is a graduate of the Amphibious Warfare School (1968); the Army Command and General Staff College (1976); and the National War College (1982). Marine Corps career After his commissioning and graduation from The Basic School at MCB Quantico, Krulak held a variety of command and staff positions. His command positions included: Commanding Officer of a platoon and two rifle companies during two tours of duty in Vietnam; Commanding Officer, Special Training Branch and Recruit Series, MCRD San Diego, California. (1966-1968), Commanding Officer, Counter-Guerilla Warfare School, NTA, Okinawa (1970), Company Officer, U.S. Naval Academy (1970-1973), Commanding Officer, Marine Barracks, Naval Air Station North Island, California (1973-1976), and Commanding Officer, 3rd Battalion, 3rd Marines (1983-1985). Krulak's staff assignments included: Operations Officer, 2nd Battalion, 9th Marines (1977-1978); Chief of the Combat Arms Monitor Section, Headquarters Marine Corps, Washington, D.C. (1978-1979); Executive Assistant to the Director of Personnel Management, Headquarters Marine Corps (1979-1981); Plans Office, Fleet Marine Forces Pacific, Camp H.M. Smith, Hawaii (1982-1983); Executive Officer, 3rd Marine Regiment, 1st Marine Expeditionary Brigade; Assistant Chief of Staff, Maritime Pre-positioning Ships, 1st MEB; Assistant Chief of Staff for Operations, 1st MEB; and the Military Assistant to the Assistant Secretary of Defense for Command, Control, Communications and Intelligence, Office of the Secretary of Defense. He was assigned duty as the Deputy Director of the White House Military Office in September 1987. While serving in this capacity, he was selected for promotion to brigadier general in November 1988. He was advanced to that grade on June 5, 1989, and assigned duties as the Commanding General, 10th MEB/Assistant Division Commander, 2nd Marine Division, FMF Atlantic, Marine Corps Base Camp Lejeune, North Carolina, on July 10, 1989. On June 1, 1990, he assumed duties as the Commanding General, 2nd Force Service Support Group Group/Commanding General, 6th MEB, FMF Atlantic and commanded the 2d FSSG during the Gulf War. He served in this capacity until July 12, 1991, and was assigned duty as Assistant Deputy Chief of Staff for Manpower and Reserve Affairs (Personnel Management/Personnel Procurement), Headquarters Marine Corps on August 5, 1991. He was advanced to major general on March 20, 1992. General Krulak was assigned as Commanding General, Marine Corps Combat Development Command, Quantico, on August 24, 1992, and was promoted to lieutenant general on September 1, 1992. On July 22, 1994, he was assigned as Commander of Marine Forces Pacific/Commanding General, FMF Pacific, and in March 1995 he was nominated to serve as the Commandant of the Marine Corps. On June, 29, he was promoted to General and assumed duties as the 31st Commandant on June 30, 1995. He was relieved on June 30, 1999, by General James L. Jones. Post-Marine Corps career General Krulak joined MBNA America in September 1999 as chief administrative officer, responsible for Personnel, Benefits, Compensation, Education, and other administrative services. Krulak has served as the Senior Vice Chairman and Chief Executive Officer of MBNA Europe (2001-2005) and was based at the Chester campus in the UK. He was the executive vice chairman and chief administration officer of MBNA Corporation (2004-2005). He retired from MBNA in 2005. Following the takeover of English Football Club Aston Villa by MBNA Chairman Randy Lerner in August 2006 and as of 19 September 2006, General Krulak joined the Board of Aston Villa as non-executive director, where he quickly earned the approval of the fans by taking the time to post on various Aston Villa messageboards. Krulak is generally referred to as "The General" by fans on these boards. Krulak also serves on the Boards of ConocoPhillips, Freeport-McMoran (Formerly known as Phelps Dodge Corporation) and Union Pacific Corporation. Decorations and medals General Krulak's decorations and medals include: Defense Distinguished Service MedalNavy Distinguished Service MedalSilver StarBronze Star with Valor device and two gold starsPurple Heart with gold starMeritorious Service MedalNavy Commendation MedalCombat Action RibbonPresidential Unit Citation with bronze starNational Defense Service Medal with one bronze starVietnam Service Medal with silver and bronze starSouthwest Asia Service Medal with three bronze starsSea Service Deployment Ribbon with two bronze starsRepublic of Vietnam Cross of Gallantry with Palm, bronze citation star and silver citation starRepublic of Vietnam Gallantry Cross Unit CitationRepublic of Vietnam Civil Actions Unit CitationRepublic of Vietnam Campaign MedalKuwait Liberation Medal (Saudi Arabia)Presidential Service BadgeOffice of the Secretary of Defense Identification BadgeOffice of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Identification Badge Legacy General Krulak famously referred to the Strategic Corporal and the Three Block War as two of the key lessons identified from the deployments in Somalia, Haiti and Bosnia. These concepts are still considered vital in understanding the increasing complexity of modern battlefields. General Krulak explained some of his warfighting philosophy in an interview with Tom Clancy in Clancy's nonfiction book Marine. Clancy referred to General Krulak as "Warrior Prince of the Corps". General Krulak also rewrote the Marine Corps' basic combat study text, MCDP-1: Warfighting, incorporating his theories on operations in the modern battlefield. Family General Krulak is married to the former Zandi Meyers from Annapolis. They have two sons, David and Todd. He is the son of Lt. General Victor Krulak, Sr., USMC and the younger brother of Captain Victor Krulak, Jr., Chaplain Corps, USN. See also General Victor H. Krulak, USMC, father of General Charles Krulak Commandant of the Marine Corps Notes References External links Editorial on the use of torture. Interview on April 2007 Discusses about leadership | Charles_C._Krulak |@lemmatized general:25 charles:3 chandler:2 krulak:23 bear:2 march:3 serve:7 commandant:4 marine:20 corp:13 july:4 june:6 son:3 lt:2 gen:1 victor:4 h:3 brute:1 usmc:3 world:1 war:4 ii:1 korea:1 vietnam:6 early:1 year:1 education:2 quantico:3 virginia:1 nndb:1 name:1 mapper:1 graduate:3 phillips:1 exeter:2 academy:4 new:1 hampshire:1 attend:1 u:2 naval:3 bachelor:1 degree:2 also:4 hold:2 master:1 labor:1 relation:1 george:1 washington:2 university:1 amphibious:1 warfare:2 school:3 army:1 command:14 staff:7 college:2 national:1 career:2 commissioning:1 graduation:1 basic:2 mcb:1 variety:1 position:3 include:3 officer:11 platoon:1 two:6 rifle:1 company:2 tour:1 duty:6 special:1 training:1 branch:1 recruit:1 series:1 mcrd:1 san:1 diego:1 california:2 counter:1 guerilla:1 nta:1 okinawa:1 barrack:1 air:1 station:1 north:2 island:1 battalion:2 assignment:1 operation:3 chief:8 combat:3 arm:1 monitor:1 section:1 headquarters:3 c:1 executive:5 assistant:7 director:3 personnel:4 management:2 plan:1 office:3 fleet:1 force:3 pacific:4 camp:2 smith:1 hawaii:1 regiment:1 expeditionary:1 brigade:1 maritime:1 pre:1 ship:1 meb:4 military:2 secretary:3 defense:5 control:1 communication:1 intelligence:1 assign:4 deputy:2 white:1 house:1 september:4 capacity:2 select:1 promotion:1 brigadier:1 november:1 advance:2 grade:1 assigned:1 commanding:2 division:2 commander:2 fmf:3 atlantic:2 base:2 lejeune:1 carolina:1 assume:1 service:10 support:1 group:2 fssg:1 gulf:1 manpower:1 reserve:1 affair:1 procurement:1 august:3 major:1 development:1 promote:2 lieutenant:1 nominate:1 assumed:1 relieve:1 james:1 l:1 jones:1 post:2 join:2 mbna:5 america:1 administrative:2 responsible:1 benefit:1 compensation:1 senior:1 vice:2 chairman:3 europe:1 chester:1 campus:1 uk:1 administration:1 corporation:3 retire:1 follow:1 takeover:1 english:1 football:1 club:1 aston:3 villa:3 randy:1 lerner:1 board:3 non:1 quickly:1 earn:1 approval:1 fan:2 take:1 time:1 various:1 messageboards:1 generally:1 refer:3 conocophillips:1 freeport:1 mcmoran:1 formerly:1 know:1 phelps:1 dodge:1 union:1 decoration:2 medal:6 distinguish:2 medalnavy:2 medalsilver:1 starbronze:1 star:2 valor:1 device:1 gold:2 starspurple:1 heart:1 starmeritorious:1 commendation:1 medalcombat:1 action:2 ribbonpresidential:1 unit:3 citation:3 bronze:6 starnational:1 one:1 starvietnam:1 silver:2 starsouthwest:1 asia:1 three:2 starssea:1 deployment:2 ribbon:1 starsrepublic:1 cross:2 gallantry:2 palm:1 starrepublic:1 citationrepublic:2 civil:1 campaign:1 medalkuwait:1 liberation:1 saudi:1 arabia:1 presidential:1 badgeoffice:2 identification:2 joint:1 badge:1 legacy:1 famously:1 strategic:1 corporal:1 block:1 key:1 lesson:1 identify:1 somalia:1 haiti:1 bosnia:1 concept:1 still:1 consider:1 vital:1 understand:1 increase:1 complexity:1 modern:2 battlefield:2 explain:1 warfighting:2 philosophy:1 interview:2 tom:1 clancy:3 nonfiction:1 book:1 warrior:1 prince:1 rewrite:1 study:1 text:1 mcdp:1 incorporate:1 theory:1 family:1 marry:1 former:1 zandi:1 meyers:1 annapolis:1 david:1 todd:1 sr:1 young:1 brother:1 captain:1 jr:1 chaplain:1 usn:1 see:1 father:1 note:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 editorial:1 use:1 torture:1 april:1 discuss:1 leadership:1 |@bigram commandant_marine:3 marine_corp:11 lt_gen:1 quantico_virginia:1 phillips_exeter:1 bachelor_degree:1 amphibious_warfare:1 san_diego:1 guerilla_warfare:1 marine_expeditionary:1 chief_staff:4 brigadier_general:1 camp_lejeune:1 north_carolina:1 aston_villa:3 saudi_arabia:1 tom_clancy:1 external_link:1 |
5,477 | Glagolitic_alphabet | The Glagolitic alphabet (), also known as Glagolitsa, is the oldest known Slavic alphabet. The name was not coined until many centuries after its creation, and comes from the Old Slavic glagolъ "utterance" (also the origin of the Slavic name for the letter G). Since glagolati also means to speak, the glagolitsa poetically referred to "the marks that speak". The name Glagolitic is rendered in Belarusian as глаголіца ('hlaholitsa'), Bulgarian and Macedonian глаголица ('glagolica'), Croatian and Serbian glagoljica / глагољица, Czech hlaholice, Polish głagolica, Russian глаголица ('glagólitsa'), Slovenian glagolica, Slovak hlaholika, Ukrainian глаголиця ('hlaholytsia'). Origins of the Glagolitic characters Although popularly attributed to Saints Cyril and Methodius and the introduction of Christianity, Alan Timberlake, A Reference Grammar of Russian, Cambridge University Press, 2004, p 14: "In order to write in Slavic they devised a new alphabet which is now called Glagolitic." Florin Curta & Paul Stephenson, Southeastern Europe in the Middle Ages, 500-1250, Cambridge University Press, 2006, p 214: "At the emperor’s request, Constantine and his brother started the translation of religious texts into Old Church Slavonic, a literary language most likely based on the Macedonian dialect allegedly used in the hinterland of their home-town, Thessalonica. Constantine devised a new alphabet, later called Glagolitic, to render the sounds of the new language and to adapt it to the new conditions iii Moravia. The two brothers seem to have initially translated only texts for religious instruction, such as the excerpts from the Gospels that were used in liturgy." Simon Franklin, Writing, Society and Culture in Early Rus, C. 950-1300, Cambridge University Press, 2002, p 93: "East Christian Slays used two alphabets, Glagolitic and Cyrillic. Just to confuse matters, the script devised by St Cyril was probably Glagolitic, while Cyrillic—which came to predominate, emerged somewhat later." Henri-Jean Martin, The History and Power of Writing, University of Chicago Press, 1995, p 40 Jean W. Sedlar, East Central Europe in the Middle Ages, 1000-1500, University of Washington Press, 1994, p 114: "Indeed, when a Slavic ruler named Rastislav in the year 863 invited the Byzantine emperor to send him a Christian bishop, the emperor was more than willing. He commissioned two eminent Greeks of Salonika. Constantine (better known by his monastic name of Cyril) and his brother Methodius, to develop a written language for the use of the Slavic peoples. These two apostles (who were later canonized as saints) were not the first to translate religious writings into Slavic, since some preliminary work had been done earlier by Bavarian missionaries. However, they were the first to invent a Slavic alphabet and undertake translations into Slavic on a major scale." the origin of the Glagolitic alphabet is obscure. The medieval text Pannonian Life of Constantine records that the Slavs were already literate at the time of Cyril's mission: "during a mission to the Crimea in 860 he [St Cyril] was shown a Gospel and Psalter written in rousskymi pismeny ["Rus letters"] [...] Constantine [St Cyril] is reported not to have seen these before, but to have learnt to read them surprisingly quickly." Bernard Comrie and Greville G. Corbett, The Slavonic Languages, Taylor & Francis, 2002, p. 21. Comrie & Corbett note that Cyril was familiar with Biblical scripts such as Greek, Hebrew, Armenian, and Syriac, so the Gosplel and Psalter he was shown were presumably not written in one of these scripts. Cubberley (1996) suggests that this pre-existing script may have developed from cursive Greek in the Balkan region of Macedonia centuries earlier, only to be formalized and expanded with new letters for non-Greek sounds by Saint Cyril. Paul Cubberley (1996) "The Slavic Alphabets". In Daniels and Bright, eds. The World's Writing Systems. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-507993-0. However, the nature of the "Rus letters" is debated, and a number of Slavicists retain the view that "Since glagolitic is the work of one man, or one man and his immediate associates, it is pointless to try to trace the gradual development of various letters from other symbols in other alphabets." Horce G. Lunt, Old Church Slavonic Grammar, Walter de Gruyter, 2001, p 15 The number of letters in the original Glagolitic alphabet is not known, but may have been close to its presumed Greek model. The 41 letters we know today include letters for non-Greek sounds which may have been added by Saint Cyril, as well as ligatures added in the 12th century under the influence of Cyrillic, as Glagolitic lost its dominance. In later centuries the number of letters drops dramatically, to less than 30 in modern Croatian and Czech recensions of the Church Slavic language. Twenty-four of the 41 original Glagolitic letters (see table below) probably derive from graphemes of the medieval cursive Greek small alphabet, but have been given an ornamental design. The source of the other consonantal letters is unknown. If they were added by Cyril, it is likely that they were taken from an alphabet used for Christian scripture. It is frequently proposed that the letters sha Ⱎ, tsi Ⱌ, and cherv Ⱍ were taken from the the letters shin ש and tsadi צ of the Hebrew alphabet, and that Ⰶ zhivete derives from Coptic janja Ϫ. However, Cubberley (1996) suggests that if a single prototype were presumed, that the most likely source would be Armenian. Other proposals include the Samaritan alphabet, which Cyril got to know during his journey to the Khazars in Cherson. Glagolitic letters were also used as numbers, similarly to Cyrillic numerals. Unlike Cyrillic numerals, which inherited their numeric value from the corresponding Greek letter (see Greek numerals), Glagolitic letters were assigned values based on their native alphabetic order. History The Baška tablet. The two Slavic missionaries canonized as Saints Cyril and Methodius were sent to Great Moravia in 862 by the Byzantine emperor at the request of Knyaz (Duke) Rastislav, who wanted to weaken the dependence of his country on East Frankish priests. The glagolitic alphabet, however it originated, was used between 863 and 885 for government and religious documents and books, and at the Great Moravian Academy (Veľkomoravské učilište) founded by the missionaries, where their followers were educated. In 886, an East Frankish bishop of Nitra named Wiching banned the script and jailed 200 followers of Methodius, mostly students of the original academy. They were then dispersed or, according to some sources, sold as slaves by the Franks. Many of them (including Naum, Clement, Angelarious, Sava and Gorazd), however, reached Bulgaria and were commissioned by Boris I of Bulgaria to teach and instruct the future clergy of the state into the Slavic languages. After the adoption of Christianity in Bulgaria in 865, religious ceremonies and Divine Liturgy were conducted in Greek by clergy sent from the Byzantine Empire, using the Byzantine rite. Fearing growing Byzantine influence and weakening of the state, Boris viewed the introduction of the Slavic alphabet and language in church use as a way to preserve the independence of Slavic Bulgaria from Greek Constantinople. As a result of Boris's measures, two academies in Ohrid and Preslav were founded. A page from the 10th-11th century Codex Zographensis found in the Zograf Monastery in 1843. From there, the students traveled to various other places and spread the use of their alphabet. Some went to Croatia (into Dalmatia), where the squared variant arose and where the Glagolitic remained in use for a long time. In 1248, Pope Innocent IV gave the Croats of southern Dalmatia the unique privilege of using their own language and this script in the Roman Rite liturgy. Formally given to bishop Philip of Senj, the permission to use the Glagolitic liturgy (the Roman Rite conducted in Slavic language instead of Latin, not the Byzantine rite), actually extended to all Croatian lands, mostly along the Adriatic coast. The Holy See had several Glagolitic missals published in Rome. Authorisation for use of this language was extended to some other Slavic regions between 1886 and 1935. "The right to use the Glagolitic language at Mass with the Roman Rite has prevailed for many centuries in all the south-western Balkan countries, and has been sanctioned by long practice and by many popes" (Dalmatia in Catholic Encyclopedia); "In 1886 it arrived to the Principality of Montenegro, followed by the Kingdom of Serbia in 1914, and the Republic of Czechoslovakia in 1920, but only for feast days of the main patron saints. The 1935 concordat with the Kingdom of Yugoslavia anticipated the introduction of the Slavic liturgy for all Croatian regions and throughout the entire state" (The Croatian Glagolitic Heritage by Marko Japundzić). In missals, the Glagolitic script was eventually replaced with the Latin alphabet, but the use of the Slavic language in the Mass continued, until replaced by the modern vernacular languages. Some of the students of the Ohrid academy went to Bohemia where the alphabet was used in the 10th and 11th century, along with other scripts. Glagolitic was also used in Kievan Rus. In Croatia, from the 12th century onwards, Glagolitic inscriptions appeared mostly in littoral areas: Istra, Primorje, Kvarner and Kvarner islands, notably Krk, Cres and Lošinj; in Dalmatia, on the islands of Zadar, but there were also findings in inner Lika and Krbava, reaching to Kupa river, and even as far as Međimurje and Slovenia. The Hrvoje's Missal (Croatian Hrvojev misal) was written in Split, and it is considered as one of the most beautiful Croatian Glagolitic books. Until 1992, it was believed that Glagolitsa in Croatia was present only in those areas, and then, in 1992, the discovery of Glagolitic inscriptions in churches along the Orljava river in Slavonia, totally changed the picture (churches in Brodski Drenovac, Lovčić and some others), showing that use of Glagolitic alphabet was spread from Slavonia also. Glagoljaška baština u Slavonskom Kobašu, Slavonskobrodska televizija, News from February 25, 2007. At the end of the 9th century, one of these students of Methodius who was settled in Preslav (Bulgaria) created the Cyrillic alphabet, which almost entirely replaced the Glagolitic during the Middle Ages. The Cyrillic alphabet is derived from the Greek alphabet, with (at least 10) letters peculiar to Slavic languages being derived from the Glagolitic. Nowadays, Glagolitic is only used for Church Slavic (Croatian and Czech recensions). Versions of authorship and name In a book printed in 1591, Angelo Rocca attributed the Glagolitic letters to Saint Jerome (Sanctus Hieronymus). The tradition that the alphabet was designed by Saint Cyril and Saint Methodius has not been universally accepted. A less common belief, contradicting allochtonic Slovene origin, was that the Glagolitic was created or used in the 4th century by St. Jerome, hence the alphabet is sometimes named Hieronymian. It is also acrophonically called azbuki from the names of its first two letters, on the same model as 'alpha' + 'beta'. (Actually, the word means simply "alphabet", see its a bit later form azbuka for the Cyrillic alphabet). The Slavs of Great Moravia (present-day Slovakia and Moravia), Hungary, Slovenia and Slavonia were called Slověne at that time, which gives rise to the name Slovenish for the alphabet. Some other, more rare, names for this alphabet are Bukvitsa (from common Slavic word 'bukva' meaning 'letter', and a suffix '-itsa') and Illyrian. Hieronymian version In the Middle Ages, Glagolitsa was also known as "St. Jerome's script" due to popular mediaeval legend (created by Croatian scribes in 13th century) ascribing its invention to St Jerome (342-429). Till end of the 18th century, a strange but widespread opinion dominated that the glagolitic writing system, which was in use in Dalmatia and Istria along with neighboring islands, including the translation of the Holy Scripture, owe their existing to the famous church father St. Jerome. Knowing him as the author of the Latin Vulgate, considering him - as Dalmatian-born - a Slav, and especially a Croatian, the home-bred slavic intellectuals in Dalmatia very early began to ascribe to him the invention of glagolitsa, possibly on purpose, with the intention of more successfully defending both Slavic writing and the Slavic holy service against prosecutions and prohibitions from Rome's hierarchy, thus using the honourable opinion of the famous Latin holy father to protect their church rituals which were inherited from the Greeks Cyril and Methodius. We don't know who was the first to put in motion this unscientifically based tradition about St. Jerome's authorship of the glagolitic script and translation of the Holy Scripture, but in 1248 this version came to the knowledge of Pope Innocent IV. <…> The belief in St. Jerome as an inventor of the glagolitic lasted many centuries, not only at his homeland, i.e. in Dalmatia and Croatia, not only in Rome, due to Slavs living there… but also in the West. In the 14th century, Croatian monks brought the legend to the Czechs, and even the Emperor Charles IV believed them До конца XVIII века господствовало странное, но широко распространенное мнение, что глаголическое письмо, бывшее в употреблении в Далмации и Истрии с прилегающими островами и в приморской Хорватии, вместе с переводом священного писания, обязано своим существованием знаменитому отцу церкви св. Иерониму. Зная о нем как авторе латинской «Вульгаты», считая его же как уроженца Далмации славянином, в частности хорватом, домашняя славянская интеллигенция Далмации стала очень рано присваивать ему изобретение глаголицы, быть может, нарочно, с тем умыслом, чтобы успешнее отстаивать и письмо, и богослужение славянское от преследований и запретов со стороны римской иерархии, прикрывая авторитетным именем знаменитого латинского отца церкви свой от греков Кирилла и Мефодия унаследованный обряд. Кем впервые пущено в ход это ни на чем не основанное ученое предание об авторстве св. Иеронима по части глаголического письма и перевода св. писания, мы не знаем, но в 1248 году оно дошло уже до сведения папы Иннокентия IV. <…> Много столетий продолжалась эта вера в Иеронима как изобретателя глаголического письма, не только дома, т. е. в Далмации и Хорватии, не только в Риме, через проживавших там славян… но также и на западе. В Чехию предание занесено в XIV столетии хорватскими монахами-глаголитами, которым поверил даже император Карл IV. (Jagić 1911, pp. 51-52) The epoque of traditional attribution of the script to Jerome ended probably in 1812. P. Solarić's "Букварь славенскiй трiазбучный" (Three-alphabet Slavic Primer), Venice, 1812 mentions the version as a fact of scinnce (see Jagić 1911, p. 52; Vajs 1932, p. 23). In modern times, only certain marginal authors share this point of view, usually "re-discovering" one of already known mediaeval sources. For example, K. Šegvić in Nastavni vjesnik, XXXIX, sv. 9-10, 1931, refers to a work of Rabanus Maurus. (see Vajs 1932, p. 23). Pre-Glagolitic Slavic writing systems A hypothetical pre-Glagolitic writing system is typically referred to as cherty i rezy (strokes and incisions) Chernorizets Hrabar An Account of Letters; Preslav 895; Oldest manuscript 1348 - but no material evidence of the existence of any pre-Glagolitic Slavic writing system has been found, except for a few brief and vague references in old chronicles and "lives of the saints". All artefacts presented as evidence of pre-glagolitic Slavic inscriptions have later been identified as texts in known scripts and in known non-Slavic languages, or as fakes. L. Niederle, "Slovanské starožitnosti" (Slavic antiquities), III 2, 735; citation can be found in Vajs 1932, p. 4. The well-known Chernorizets Hrabar's strokes and incisions are usually considered to be a reference to a kind of property mark or alternatively fortune-telling signs. Some 'Russian letters' found in one version of St. Cyril's life are explainable as misspelled 'Syrian letters' (in Slavic, the roots are very similar: rus- vs. sur- or syr-), etc. Characteristics The alphabet has two variants: an early rounded form, used for Old Church Slavonic, and a late squared form, used for Croatian. See an incomplete image of both variants. More details. The values of many of the letters are thought to have been displaced under Cyrillic influence, or to have become confused through the early spread to different dialects, so that the original values are not always clear. For instance, the letter yu Ⱓ is thought to have perhaps originally had the sound /u/, but was displaced by the adoption of an ow ligature Ⱆ under the influence of later Cyrillic. Other letters were late creations after a Cyrillic model. The following table lists each letter in its modern order, showing an image of the letter (round variant), the corresponding modern Cyrillic letter, the approximate sound transcribed with the IPA, the name, and suggestions for its origin. Several letters have no modern counterpart. Letter Cyrillic Sound OCS name CS name Meaning Suggested origin Ⰰ Azu А Az' Az I Greek alpha α, the sign of the cross. Ⰱ Bouky Б Buky Buky Unknown Ⰲ Vede В Vede Vedi look/see Greek beta β Ⰳ Glagolu Г Glagolji Glagoli verb Greek gamma γ Ⰴ Dobro Д Dobro Dobro kindness/good Greek delta δ Ⰵ Jestu Є, Е, Э Jest' Jest is/exists Greek epsilon ε or sampi ϡ Ⰶ Zhivete Ж Zhivete Zhivete life/live Coptic janja ϫ Ⰷ Dzelo Ѕ Dzelo Dzelo green Greek zeta ζ, final sigma ς Ⰸ Zemlja З Zemlja Zemlja Earth Greek theta θ Ⰹ, Ⰺ И, Й Izhe Izhe Greek iota with dieresis ϊ Ⰻ I І, Ї I I Unknown, Christian symbols circle and triangle Ⰼ Gjerv Ћ, Ђ [Djerv'] Unknown Ⰽ Kako К Kako Kako how Unknown, Greek kappa κ Ⰾ Ljudie Л Ljudije Ljudi people Greek lambda λ Ⰿ Myslite М Mislete Mislete thought/think Greek mu μ Ⱀ Nashi Н Nash' Nash ours Unknown Ⱁ Onu О On' On he Unknown Ⱂ Pokoi П Pokoji Pokoj calmness Greek pi π Ⱃ Rici Р Rtsi Rtsi Greek rho ρ Ⱄ Slovo С Slovo Slovo word/letter Unknown, Christian symbols circle and triangle Ⱅ Tvrido Т Tvrdo Tverdo solid/hard Greek tau τ Ⱆ Uku У Uk' Uk Ligature of on and izhitsa, after the Cyrillic model Ⱇ Fritu Ф Frt' Fert Greek phi φ Ⱈ Heru Х Kher' Kher Unknown, glagoli Ⱉ Otu Oht' Oht, Omega Greek omega ω Ⱋ Shta Щ Shta Shta what Unknown, later interpreted as a ligature of sha over cherv or tverdo Ⱌ Ci Ц Tsi Tsi Hebrew tsade, final form (ץ) Ⱍ Chrivi Ч Chrv' Cherv worm Hebrew tsade, non-final form (צ) Ⱎ Sha Ш Sha Sha Hebrew shin (ש) Ⱏ Jeru Ъ Yer' Yer Modification of on Ⰺ Jery Ы Yery Yery Ligature, see the note under the table Ⱐ Jeri Ь Yerj' Yerj Modification of on Ⱑ Jati Yat' Yat Epigraphic Greek alpha Α, ligature of Greek E+I Ⱖ Hypothetical component of yons below; /jo/ was not possible at the time Ⱓ Jou Ю Yu Yu Greek upsilon υ Ⱔ Ensu (small jousu) , Я [Ens'] Ya, Small yus Greek epsilon ε Ⱗ Jensu (small jousu) [Yens'] [Small iotated yus] Ligature of yest plus ens for nasality, after the Cyrillic model Ⱘ Onsu (big jousu) [Ons'] [Big yus] Ligature of on plus ens for nasality Ⱙ Jonsu (big jousu) [Yons'] [Big iotated yus] Unknown ligature, after the Cyrillic model Ⱚ Thita [Thita] Fita Greek theta θ Ⱛ Yzhica Izhitsa Izhitsa Ligature of izhe and yer Note that yery is simply a digraph of yer and i. In older texts, uk and three out of four yuses also can be written as digraphs, in two separate parts. The order of izhe and i varies from source to source, as does the order of the various forms of Yus. Correspondence between Glagolitic izhe and i with Cyrillic И and I is unknown – textbooks and dictionaries often mention one of two possible versions and keep silence about the existence of the opposite one. Unicode The Glagolitic alphabet was added to Unicode in version 4.1. The codepoint range is U+2C00 U+2C5E. See Mapping of Unicode Characters for context. References Literature Branko Franolić, Mateo Zagar: A Historical Outline of Literary Croatian & The Glagolitic Heritage of Croatian Culture, Erasmus & CSYPN, London & Zagreb 2008 ISBN 978-953-6132-80-5 Bauer, Antun: Armeno-kavkasko podrijetlo starohrvatske umjetnosti, glagoljice i glagoljaštva. Tko su i odakle Hrvati, p. 65-69, Znanstveno društvo za proučavanje etnogeneze, Zagreb 1992. Franolić, Branko: Croatian Glagolitic Printed Texts Recorded in the British Library General Catalogue. Zagreb - London - New York, Croatian Information Center, 1994. 49 p. Fučić, Branko: Glagoljski natpisi. (In: Djela Jugoslavenske Akademije Znanosti i Umjetnosti, knjiga 57.) Zagreb, 1982. 420 p. Fullerton, Sharon Golke: Paleographic Methods Used in Dating Cyrillic and Glagolitic Slavic Manuscripts. (In: Slavic Papers No. 1.) Ohio, 1975. 93 p. Гошев, Иван: Рилски глаголически листове. София, 1956. 130 p. Jachnow, Helmut: Eine neue Hypothese zur Provenienz der glagolitischen Schrift - Überlegungen zum 1100. Todesjahr des Methodios von Saloniki. In: R. Rathmayr (Hrsg.): Slavistische Linguistik 1985, München 1986, 69-93. Jagić, Vatroslav: Glagolitica. Würdigung neuentdeckter Fragmente, Wien, 1890. Ягичъ, И. В.: Глаголическое письмо. In: Энциклопедiя славянской филологiи, вып. 3, Спб., 1911. Japundžić, Marko: Postanak glagoljskog pisma. Tromjesečnik Hrvatska, srpanj 1994, p. 62-73. Japundžić, Marko: Tragom hrvatskog glagolizma. Zagreb 1995, 173 p. Japundžić, Marko: Hrvatska glagoljica. Hrvatska uzdanica, Zagreb 1998, 100 p. Japundžić, Marko: Gdje, kada i kako je nastala glagoljica i ćirilica. Staroiransko podrijetlo Hrvata p. 429-444, Naklada Z. Tomičić, Zagreb 1999. Kiparsky, Valentin: Tschernochvostoffs Theorie über den Ursprung des glagolitischen Alphabets In: M. Hellmann u.a. (Hrsg.): Cyrillo-Methodiana. Zur Frühgeschichte des Christentums bei den Slaven, Köln 1964, 393-400. Miklas, Heinz (Hrsg.): Glagolitica: zum Ursprung der slavischen Schriftkultur, Wien, 2000. Steller, Lea-Katharina: A glagolita írás In: B.Virághalmy, Lea: Paleográfiai kalandozások. Szentendre, 1995. ISBN 9634509223 Vais, Joseph: Abecedarivm Palaeoslovenicvm in usum glagolitarum. Veglae [Krk], 1917. XXXVI, 74 p. Vajs, Josef: Rukovet hlaholske paleografie. Uvedení do knizního písma hlaholskeho. V Praze, 1932. 178 p, LIV. tab. Žubrinić, Darko: Biti pismen - biti svoj. Crtice iz povijesti glagoljice. Hrvatsko književno društvo Sv. Jeronima, Zagreb 1994, 297 p. See also Glagolitic Mass Glagolitic Alphabet Day External links Croatian Glagolitic Script Croatian Glagolitic Script The Glagolitic alphabet at omniglot.com The Budapest Glagolitic Fragments - links to a Unicode Glagolitic font, Dilyana Glagolitic Fonts Usage of numbers be-x-old:Глаголіца | Glagolitic_alphabet |@lemmatized glagolitic:51 alphabet:35 also:12 know:12 glagolitsa:5 old:9 known:1 slavic:34 name:13 coin:1 many:6 century:14 creation:2 come:3 glagolъ:1 utterance:1 origin:6 letter:32 g:3 since:3 glagolati:1 mean:3 speak:2 poetically:1 refer:2 mark:2 render:2 belarusian:1 глаголіца:2 hlaholitsa:1 bulgarian:1 macedonian:2 глаголица:2 glagolica:2 croatian:18 serbian:1 glagoljica:3 глагољица:1 czech:4 hlaholice:1 polish:1 głagolica:1 russian:3 glagólitsa:1 slovenian:1 slovak:1 hlaholika:1 ukrainian:1 глаголиця:1 hlaholytsia:1 character:2 although:1 popularly:1 attribute:2 saint:10 cyril:15 methodius:7 introduction:3 christianity:2 alan:1 timberlake:1 reference:4 grammar:2 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5,478 | Ligase | In biochemistry, a ligase (from the Latin verb ligāre — "to bind" or "to glue together") is an enzyme that can catalyse the joining of two large molecules by forming a new chemical bond, usually with accompanying hydrolysis of a small chemical group pendant to one of the larger molecules. Generally ligase catalyses the following reaction: Ab + C → A–C + b or sometimes Ab + cD → A–D + b + c where the lower case letters signify the small, pendant groups. Nomenclature The common names of ligase enzymes often include the word "ligase", such as DNA ligase, an enzyme commonly used in molecular biology laboratories to join together DNA fragments. Other common names for ligases include synthetase, because they are used to synthesize new molecules, or carboxylase when they are used to add carbon dioxide to a molecule. Note that "synthetase" should not be confused with synthases, as synthases do not use energy from nucleoside triphosphates (such as ATP, GTP, CTP, TTP and UTP) and belong to the lyase group, while ligases do use nucleoside triphosphates. Classification Ligases are classified as EC 6 in the EC number classification of enzymes. Ligases can be further classified into six subclasses: EC 6.1 includes ligases used to form carbon-oxygen bonds EC 6.2 includes ligases used to form carbon-sulfur bonds EC 6.3 includes ligases used to form carbon-nitrogen bonds (including argininosuccinate synthetase) EC 6.4 includes ligases used to form carbon-carbon bonds EC 6.5 includes ligases used to form phosphoric ester bonds EC 6.6 includes ligases used to form nitrogen-metal bonds This is used for Recombinant DNA Tencholgy See also DNA ligase References EC 6 Introduction from the Department of Chemistry at Queen Mary, University of London | Ligase |@lemmatized biochemistry:1 ligase:6 latin:1 verb:1 ligāre:1 bind:1 glue:1 together:2 enzyme:4 catalyse:2 joining:1 two:1 large:2 molecule:4 form:7 new:2 chemical:2 bond:7 usually:1 accompany:1 hydrolysis:1 small:2 group:3 pendant:2 one:1 generally:1 following:1 reaction:1 ab:2 c:3 b:2 sometimes:1 cd:1 low:1 case:1 letter:1 signify:1 nomenclature:1 common:2 name:2 often:1 include:9 word:1 dna:4 commonly:1 use:12 molecular:1 biology:1 laboratory:1 join:1 fragment:1 ligases:10 synthetase:3 synthesize:1 carboxylase:1 add:1 carbon:6 dioxide:1 note:1 confuse:1 synthases:2 energy:1 nucleoside:2 triphosphates:2 atp:1 gtp:1 ctp:1 ttp:1 utp:1 belong:1 lyase:1 classification:2 classify:2 ec:9 number:1 six:1 subclass:1 oxygen:1 sulfur:1 nitrogen:2 argininosuccinate:1 phosphoric:1 ester:1 metal:1 recombinant:1 tencholgy:1 see:1 also:1 reference:1 introduction:1 department:1 chemistry:1 queen:1 mary:1 university:1 london:1 |@bigram dna_ligase:2 molecular_biology:1 carbon_dioxide:1 nucleoside_triphosphates:2 recombinant_dna:1 |
5,479 | Little_Penguin | The Little Penguin (Eudyptula minor) is the smallest species of penguin. The penguin, which is about 43 cm (16 in) tall, is found on the coastlines of southern Australia and New Zealand, with possible records from Chile. Apart from Little Penguins, they have several common names. In Australia, they are also referred to as Fairy Penguins because of their tiny size. In New Zealand, they are also called Little Blue Penguins, or just Blue Penguins, owing to their indigo-blue plumage, and they are called Kororā in Māori. Taxonomy The Little Penguin was first described by German naturalist, Johann Reinhold Forster in 1781. There are several subspecies but a precise classification of these is still a matter of dispute. The White-flippered Penguin is sometimes considered a subspecies, sometimes a distinct species, and sometimes a morph. As the Australian and western South Island Little Penguins seem to be a distinct species Banks, Jonathan C.; Mitchell, Anthony D.; Waas, Joseph R. & Paterson, Adrian M. (2002): An unexpected pattern of molecular divergence within the blue penguin (Eudyptula minor) complex. Notornis 49(1): 29–38. PDF fulltext to which the specific name minor would apply, the White-flippered birds indeed belong to a distinct species, although not exactly as originally assumed. Mitochondrial and nuclear DNA evidence suggests the split between Eudyptula and Spheniscus occurred around 25 million years ago, with the ancestors of the White-flippered and Little Penguins diverging about 2.7 million years ago. Description The Little Penguin typically grows to tall and weighs about one kilogram (2.2 pounds). The male is a little larger than the female, although their plumage is similar. The head and upperparts are indigo in colour, with slate-grey ear coverts fading to white underneath, from the chin to the belly. The flippers are indigo above and white underneath. The dark grey-black bill is 3-4 cm long, the irises pale silvery- or bluish-grey or hazel, and the feet whitish above with black soles and webbing. An immature individual will have a shorter bill and paler upperparts. Williams (The Penguins) p. 230 Like most seabirds, they have a long lifespan. The average for the species is 6.5 years, but flipper ringing experiments have recorded individuals that have lived for over 20 years. Dann, P. et al. (2005): Longevity in Little Penguins. Marine Ornithology 33: 71–72. PDf fulltext Distribution and habitat The Little Penguin breeds along the entire coastline of New Zealand, the Chatham Islands, Tasmania, and southern Australia. Little penguins have also been reported from Chile (where they are known as Pingüino pequeño or Pingüino azul) (Isla Chañaral 1996, Playa de Santo Domingo, San Antonio, 16 March 1997) but it is unclear whether these birds were vagrants. Nevertheless it has been suggested that there might be a yet undiscovered breeding population in the Chilean portion of Patagonia. Recently, the first record of a living Little Penguin has been reported from Namibia (Ichaboe Island, April 2005). Behaviour Diet These birds feed by hunting fish, squid and other small sea animals, for which they travel and dive quite extensively. They are generally inshore feeders. Numata, M; Davis, L & Renner, M (2000) "Prolonged foraging trips and egg desertion in little penguins (Eudyptula minor)". New Zealand Journal of Zoology 27: 291-298 The use of dataloggers has provided information of the diving behaviour of Little Penguins. 50% of their dives are go no deeper than 2 m and the mean diving time is 21 seconds. Bethge, P; Nicol, S; Culik, BM & RP Wilson (1997) "Diving behaviour and energetics in breeding little penguins (Eudyptula minor)". Journal of Zoology 242: 483-502 Reproduction Little Penguins begin breeding at the age of three or four. They are monogamous and remain faithful to their partner over successive years Bull, L (2000) "Fidelity and breeding success of the blue penguin Eudyptula minor on Matiu-Somes Island, Wellington, New Zealand". New Zealand Journal of Zoology 27: 299-304 , though they will find another mate if their current one dies. They also exhibit site fidelity to their nesting colonies and nesting sites over successive years. Little Penguins live year-round in large colonies, with each individual breeding pair forming a burrow in which to raise their chicks (of which two are born at a time). Little Penguins typically return to their colonies to feed their chicks at dusk; the birds will tend to come ashore in small groups to provide some defense against predators which might pick off individuals one by one. In Australia, the strongest colonies are on cat-free and fox-free islands. Relationship with humans At Phillip Island, southeast of Melbourne, a viewing area has been set up at the Phillip Island Nature Park to allow tourists to view the nightly "penguin parade". Lights and concrete stands have been erected to allow visitors to see but not photograph the birds interacting in their colony, who are not bothered by their spectators. The "parade",which stands as a very popular attraction, brings half a million visitors a year. Visit Victoria, Phillip Island Visitors to Kangaroo Island, South Australia, have the nightly opportunity to commune with penguins at the Kangaroo Island Marine Centre in Kingscote and at the Penneshaw Penguin Centre. Penneshaw Penguin Centre The Oamaru Blue Penguin Colony Oamaru Blue Penguin Colony is the New Zealand equivalent to Phillip Island's penguin parade. Linus Torvalds, the original creator of Linux (a popular operating system kernel), was once bitten by a Little Penguin while on holiday in Australia. Reportedly, this encounter encouraged Torvalds to select Tux as the official Linux mascot. Penny the Little Penguin was the mascot for the 2007 FINA World Swimming Championships held in Melbourne, Victoria. FINA - Melbourne, 2007 Protecting our Little Penguins (Victorian Government website) Sea World Little Penguins at Sea World, Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia (photo 2005) There is a colony of Little Penguins at Sea World, on the Gold Coast, in Queensland, Australia. In early March, 2007, 25 of the 37 penguins died from an unknown toxin following a change of gravel in their enclosure. Mystery illness kills at least 24 penguins at Sea World Authorities find unknown toxin in Sea World Penguins Sea World probes mysterious deaths It is still not known what caused the deaths of the Little Penguins, and it was decided not to return the 12 surviving penguins to the same enclosure in which the penguins became ill. Penguin deaths remain a mystery A new enclosure for the Little Penguin colony was opened at Sea World in 2008. Predators Little Penguins in the wild are sometimes preyed upon by New Zealand fur seals. A study done by researchers from the South Australian Research and Development Institute found that roughly 40 percent of seal droppings in South Australia's Granite Island area contained Little Penguin remains. Little Penguins on Middle Island in Warrnambool, Victoria were subject to heavy predation by foxes, which could reach the island at low tide by a tidal sand bridge. The deployment of Maremma sheepdogs to protect the penguin colony has deterred the foxes and enabled the penguin population to rebound. Little Penguin climbing to its nest on the St Kilda breakwater References Cited text External links More Information on Little penguins @ New Zealand Penguins Little penguins from the International Penguin Conservation Web Site Philip Island Nature Park Web Site www.pinguins.info Information about all species of penguins Tourist Information. Plan Your Trip to Phillip Island's Penguin Parade Gould's The Birds of Australia plate Fairy Penguin on Google Video | Little_Penguin |@lemmatized little:31 penguin:56 eudyptula:6 minor:6 small:3 specie:6 cm:2 tall:2 find:4 coastline:2 southern:2 australia:10 new:10 zealand:9 possible:1 record:3 chile:2 apart:1 several:2 common:1 name:2 also:4 refer:1 fairy:2 tiny:1 size:1 call:2 blue:7 owe:1 indigo:3 plumage:2 kororā:1 māori:1 taxonomy:1 first:2 describe:1 german:1 naturalist:1 johann:1 reinhold:1 forster:1 subspecies:2 precise:1 classification:1 still:2 matter:1 dispute:1 white:5 flippered:3 sometimes:4 consider:1 distinct:3 morph:1 australian:2 western:1 south:4 island:16 seem:1 bank:1 jonathan:1 c:1 mitchell:1 anthony:1 waas:1 joseph:1 r:1 paterson:1 adrian:1 unexpected:1 pattern:1 molecular:1 divergence:1 within:1 complex:1 notornis:1 pdf:2 fulltext:2 specific:1 would:1 apply:1 bird:6 indeed:1 belong:1 although:2 exactly:1 originally:1 assume:1 mitochondrial:1 nuclear:1 dna:1 evidence:1 suggest:2 split:1 spheniscus:1 occur:1 around:1 million:3 year:8 ago:2 ancestor:1 diverge:1 description:1 typically:2 grow:1 weigh:1 one:4 kilogram:1 pound:1 male:1 large:2 female:1 similar:1 head:1 upperparts:2 colour:1 slate:1 grey:3 ear:1 covert:1 fade:1 underneath:2 chin:1 belly:1 flipper:2 dark:1 black:2 bill:2 long:2 iris:1 pale:1 silvery:1 bluish:1 hazel:1 foot:1 whitish:1 sol:1 web:3 immature:1 individual:4 short:1 paler:1 williams:1 p:3 like:1 seabird:1 lifespan:1 average:1 ring:1 experiment:1 live:2 dann:1 et:1 al:1 longevity:1 marine:2 ornithology:1 distribution:1 habitat:1 breed:5 along:1 entire:1 chatham:1 tasmania:1 report:2 know:2 pingüino:2 pequeño:1 azul:1 isla:1 chañaral:1 playa:1 de:1 santo:1 domingo:1 san:1 antonio:1 march:2 unclear:1 whether:1 vagrant:1 nevertheless:1 might:2 yet:1 undiscovered:1 population:2 chilean:1 portion:1 patagonia:1 recently:1 living:1 namibia:1 ichaboe:1 april:1 behaviour:3 diet:1 fee:2 hunt:1 fish:1 squid:1 sea:8 animal:1 travel:1 dive:4 quite:1 extensively:1 generally:1 inshore:1 feeder:1 numata:1 davis:1 l:2 renner:1 prolong:1 forage:1 trip:2 egg:1 desertion:1 journal:3 zoology:3 use:1 dataloggers:1 provide:2 information:4 go:1 deep:1 mean:1 diving:1 time:2 second:1 bethge:1 nicol:1 culik:1 bm:1 rp:1 wilson:1 energetics:1 reproduction:1 begin:1 age:1 three:1 four:1 monogamous:1 remain:3 faithful:1 partner:1 successive:2 bull:1 fidelity:2 success:1 matiu:1 somes:1 wellington:1 though:1 another:1 mate:1 current:1 dy:1 exhibit:1 site:4 nesting:1 colony:10 nest:2 round:1 breeding:1 pair:1 form:1 burrow:1 raise:1 chick:2 two:1 bear:1 return:2 dusk:1 tend:1 come:1 ashore:1 group:1 defense:1 predator:2 pick:1 strong:1 cat:1 free:2 fox:3 relationship:1 human:1 phillip:5 southeast:1 melbourne:3 view:2 area:2 set:1 nature:2 park:2 allow:2 tourist:2 nightly:2 parade:4 light:1 concrete:1 stand:2 erect:1 visitor:3 see:1 photograph:1 interact:1 bother:1 spectator:1 popular:2 attraction:1 bring:1 half:1 visit:1 victoria:3 kangaroo:2 opportunity:1 commune:1 centre:3 kingscote:1 penneshaw:2 oamaru:2 equivalent:1 linus:1 torvalds:2 original:1 creator:1 linux:2 operating:1 system:1 kernel:1 bite:1 holiday:1 reportedly:1 encounter:1 encourage:1 select:1 tux:1 official:1 mascot:2 penny:1 fina:2 world:8 swim:1 championship:1 hold:1 protect:2 victorian:1 government:1 website:1 gold:2 coast:2 queensland:2 photo:1 early:1 die:1 unknown:2 toxin:2 follow:1 change:1 gravel:1 enclosure:3 mystery:2 illness:1 kill:1 least:1 authority:1 penguins:2 probe:1 mysterious:1 death:3 cause:1 decide:1 survive:1 become:1 ill:1 open:1 wild:1 prey:1 upon:1 fur:1 seal:2 study:1 researcher:1 research:1 development:1 institute:1 roughly:1 percent:1 droppings:1 granite:1 contain:1 middle:1 warrnambool:1 subject:1 heavy:1 predation:1 could:1 reach:1 low:1 tide:1 tidal:1 sand:1 bridge:1 deployment:1 maremma:1 sheepdog:1 deter:1 enable:1 rebound:1 climb:1 st:1 kilda:1 breakwater:1 reference:1 cite:1 text:1 external:1 link:1 international:1 conservation:1 philip:1 www:1 pinguins:1 info:1 plan:1 gould:1 plate:1 google:1 video:1 |@bigram penguin_eudyptula:5 eudyptula_minor:5 cm_tall:1 pdf_fulltext:2 kilogram_pound:1 et_al:1 santo_domingo:1 san_antonio:1 unclear_whether:1 fish_squid:1 linus_torvalds:1 fur_seal:1 st_kilda:1 external_link:1 |
5,480 | Cushitic_languages | The Cushitic languages are a branch of the Afro-Asiatic language family spoken in the Horn of Africa, Tanzania, Kenya, Sudan and Egypt. They are named after the Biblical figure Cush by analogy with Shem being the eponym origin of Semitic. The most populous Cushitic language is Oromo with about 35 million speakers, followed by Somali with about 15 million speakers, and Sidamo in Ethiopia with about 2 million speakers. Other languages with more that one million speakers are Hadia (1.6 million), Kambata (1.4 million), and Afar (1.5 million). Dark green: Cushitic languages Composition There are eight clearly valid groups of languages which are or have been included in the Cushitic family, and there is a wide range of opinions as to how they are interrelated. The only group to have escaped controversy is the Agaw languages, or Central Cushitic, which is a distinct branch of Cushitic in all classifications. The Beja language, or North Cushitic, is sometimes placed outside Cushitic proper, though there is no evidence that the rest of Cushitic forms a valid group. The positions of the small Dullay languages and Yaaku are uncertain. These have traditionally been assigned to an East Cushitic branch along with Highland (Sidamic) and Lowland East Cushitic. However, Richard Hayward believes East Cushitic may not be a valid node and breaks it into three well-supported families: Highlands, a diverse Lowlands family (with Afar, Somalic, and Oromic branches), and Dullay (he apparently leaves Yaaku unclassified), which he believes should be considered separately when attempting to work out the internal relationships of Cushitic. Hetzron (1980:70ff) and Ehret (1995) have suggested that the Rift languages (South Cushitic) are a part of Lowland East Cushitic. Cushitic was traditionally seen as also including the Omotic languages, then called West Cushitic. However, this view has largely been abandoned, primarily due to the work of Harold C. Fleming (1974) and M. Lionel Bender (1975). These scholars consider Omotic to be an independent branch of Afro-Asiatic. While some scholars including Zaborski (1986) and Lamberti (1991) have kept the issue alive and suggested that Omotic can still be classified as part of Cushitic, the latest research by Rolf Theil (2006), in keeping with the noted Chadicist Paul Newman, excludes Omotic from Afro-Asiatic altogether. He proposes that it be treated instead as an independent language family on the basis that no closer genetic relations have been demonstrated between Omotic and Afro-Asiatic than between Omotic and any other language family. Is Omotic Afro-Asiatic? by Rolf Theil Notes References Ethnologue entry for Cushitic languages Bender, Marvin Lionel. 1975. Omotic: a new Afroasiatic language family. Southern Illinois University Museum series, number 3. Bender, M. Lionel. 1986. A possible Cushomotic isomorph. Afrikanistische Arbeitspapiere 6:149-155. Fleming, Harold C. 1974. Omotic as an Afroasiatic family. In: Proceedings of the 5th annual conference on African linguistics (ed. by William Leben), p 81-94. African Studies Center & Department of Linguistics, UCLA. Roland Kießling & Maarten Mous. 2003. The Lexical Reconstruction of West-Rift Southern Cushitic. Cushitic Language Studies Volume 21 Lamberti, Marcello. 1991. Cushitic and its classification. Anthropos 86(4/6):552-561. Zaborski, Andrzej. 1986. Can Omotic be reclassified as West Cushitic? In Gideon Goldenberg, ed., Ethiopian Studies: Proceedings of the 6th International Conference, pp. 525-530. Rotterdam: Balkema. External links http://www.summerschools.leidenuniv.nl/content_docs/cushitic_bibliography_ss.doc http://www.msu.edu/~hudson/HECrefs.htm | Cushitic_languages |@lemmatized cushitic:23 language:15 branch:5 afro:5 asiatic:5 family:8 speak:1 horn:1 africa:1 tanzania:1 kenya:1 sudan:1 egypt:1 name:1 biblical:1 figure:1 cush:1 analogy:1 shem:1 eponym:1 origin:1 semitic:1 populous:1 oromo:1 million:7 speaker:4 follow:1 somali:1 sidamo:1 ethiopia:1 one:1 hadia:1 kambata:1 afar:2 dark:1 green:1 composition:1 eight:1 clearly:1 valid:3 group:3 include:3 wide:1 range:1 opinion:1 interrelate:1 escape:1 controversy:1 agaw:1 languages:1 central:1 distinct:1 classification:2 beja:1 north:1 sometimes:1 place:1 outside:1 proper:1 though:1 evidence:1 rest:1 form:1 position:1 small:1 dullay:2 yaaku:2 uncertain:1 traditionally:2 assign:1 east:4 along:1 highland:2 sidamic:1 lowland:3 however:2 richard:1 hayward:1 believe:2 may:1 node:1 break:1 three:1 well:1 support:1 diverse:1 somalic:1 oromic:1 apparently:1 leave:1 unclassified:1 consider:2 separately:1 attempt:1 work:2 internal:1 relationship:1 hetzron:1 ehret:1 suggest:2 rift:2 south:1 part:2 see:1 also:1 omotic:10 call:1 west:3 view:1 largely:1 abandon:1 primarily:1 due:1 harold:2 c:2 fleming:2 lionel:3 bender:3 scholar:2 independent:2 zaborski:2 lamberti:2 keep:2 issue:1 alive:1 still:1 classify:1 late:1 research:1 rolf:2 theil:2 noted:1 chadicist:1 paul:1 newman:1 exclude:1 altogether:1 propose:1 treat:1 instead:1 basis:1 close:1 genetic:1 relation:1 demonstrate:1 note:1 reference:1 ethnologue:1 entry:1 marvin:1 new:1 afroasiatic:2 southern:2 illinois:1 university:1 museum:1 series:1 number:1 possible:1 cushomotic:1 isomorph:1 afrikanistische:1 arbeitspapiere:1 proceeding:2 annual:1 conference:2 african:2 linguistics:2 ed:2 william:1 leben:1 p:1 study:3 center:1 department:1 ucla:1 roland:1 kießling:1 maarten:1 mous:1 lexical:1 reconstruction:1 volume:1 marcello:1 anthropos:1 andrzej:1 reclassify:1 gideon:1 goldenberg:1 ethiopian:1 international:1 pp:1 rotterdam:1 balkema:1 external:1 link:1 http:2 www:2 summerschools:1 leidenuniv:1 nl:1 doc:1 msu:1 edu:1 hudson:1 hecrefs:1 htm:1 |@bigram afro_asiatic:5 lionel_bender:1 rolf_theil:2 omotic_afro:3 external_link:1 http_www:2 |
5,481 | Republic_of_Ireland | Ireland (pronounced , locally – , pronounced ) is an independent state in north-western Europe. The modern sovereign state occupies about five-sixths of the island of Ireland, which was partitioned on 3 May 1921. Statutory Rules & Orders published by authority, 1921 (No. 533); Additional source for 3 May 1921 date: Alvin Jackson, Home Rule - An Irish History, Oxford University Press, 2004, p198. It is a parliamentary democracy and a republic. It is bordered by Northern Ireland to the north east, the Irish Sea to the east, St George's Channel to the south-east, the Celtic Sea to the south and by the Atlantic Ocean to the west and north. The name of the state is Ireland, while the description the Republic of Ireland is sometimes used when there is a need to differentiate the state from the island. Article 4 of the Constitution of Ireland and Section 2 of the Republic of Ireland Act 1948. On 29 December 1937 Ireland became the successor-state to the Irish Free State, itself established on 6 December 1922. Article 4 of the Constitution of Ireland In 1949, Ireland became a republic and left the British Commonwealth. Section 2 of the Republic of Ireland Act 1948. It had already ceased to participate in that organisation. Ireland was one of the poorest countries in Western Europe and had high emigration but in contrast to many other states in the period remained financially solvent as a result of low government expenditure. The protectionist economy was opened in the late 1950s and Ireland joined the European Community (now the European Union) in 1973. An economic crisis led Ireland to start large-scale economic reforms in the late 1980s. Ireland reduced taxation and regulation dramatically compared to other EU countries. "EU: Causes of Growth differentials in Europe", WAWFA think tank Ireland is ranked as the 32nd economic power in the world, and despite the reduced economic growth in 2008, Ireland today has the sixth highest gross domestic product per capita and the eighth highest per capita considering purchasing power parity, List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita and has the fifth highest Human Development Index rank in the world. The country also boasts the highest quality of life in the world, ranking first in the Economist Intelligence Unit’s Quality-of-life index. Ireland was ranked sixth on the Global Peace Index. Ireland also has high rankings for its education system, political freedom and civil rights, press freedom and economic freedom; it was also ranked fourth from the bottom on the Failed States Index, being the most "Sustainable" non-Nordic state in the world. Ireland is a member of the EU, the OECD, and the UN. Name Article 4 of the Irish constitution, which was adopted in 1937 provides that "the name of the state is Éire, or, in the English language, Ireland". The wording of Article 4 has been criticised. Most recently, in its report, the Constitution Review Groupin 1996 stated that Article 4 was unnecessarily complicated and should be amended to read "The name of the state is Ireland" with an equivalent change in the Irish text. For all official purposes, including international treaties and in other legal documents, where the language of the documents is English, the Irish government uses the name Ireland. The same is true in respect of the name Éire for documents written in Irish. Institutions of the European Union follow the same practice. Since Irish became an official language on 1 January 2007, at meetings name plates for the state read as Éire - Ireland, just as the two official names are used on Irish passports. Ireland joined the EU (then EEC) in 1973 under a treaty drawn up in several languages including Irish and English. Since then, its two names have been official in the EU. Irish became an official working language of the European Union on 1 January 2007 and consequently both names are now used on nameplates. This did not change the name of Ireland in EU law. For further consideration of the practice applied by the European Union, see Clause 7.1.1 of the Inter Institutional Style Guide. The Republic of Ireland Act 1948 provided a description of the state as "the Republic of Ireland" () The Act was intended primarily to declare that Ireland was a republic rather than a form of constitutional monarchy. In 1989 the Irish Supreme Court rejected an extradition warrant that used the name "Republic of Ireland". Justice Walsh ruled: "if the courts of other countries seeking the assistance of this country are unwilling to give this State its constitutionally correct and internationally recognised name, then in my view, the warrants should be returned to such countries until they have been rectified." Casey, James, Constitutional Law in Ireland, ISBN 9781899738632, p. 31, in reference to the Ellis v O'Dea extradition case. The current sovereign state has been known by a range of other names, all of which are still sometimes used unofficially. The whole island was unilaterally proclaimed an independent republic by rebels in 1916 called the Irish Republic (). Following the 1918 general election, that proclamation was ratified by the Irish Deputies of its First Dáil Parliament. Between 1921 and 1922, when the British government legislated to establish Ireland as an autonomous region of the United Kingdom, it was named Southern Ireland. Following the Anglo-Irish Treaty, from 1922 until 1937, as a dominion in the British Commonwealth, it was styled as the Irish Free State (). That name was abolished with the adoption of the current Irish constitution. Other colloquial names such as the Free State, Twenty-Six Counties and The South (a name frequently used by people in Northern Ireland) are also often used. History Ireland is the successor-state to the Dominion called the Irish Free State. That Dominion came into being when all of the island of Ireland seceded from the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland on 6 December 1922. However, the following day the Parliament of Northern Ireland exercised its right under the Anglo-Irish Treaty to opt back into the United Kingdom. Northern Ireland Parliamentary Report, 7 December 1922 This action followed four attempts to introduce devolved autonomous government over the whole island of Ireland (in 1886, 1893, 1914 and 1920) and the Partition of Ireland. The Irish Free State was abolished when Ireland was formally established on 29 December 1937, the day the Constitution of Ireland came into force. Irish independence from Britain in 1922 was preceded by the War of Independence and the Easter Rising of 1916, when Irish volunteers and the Irish Citizen Army took over sites in Dublin and Galway under terms expressed in the Proclamation of the Irish Republic. The seven signatories of this proclamation, Patrick Pearse, Thomas MacDonagh, Thomas Clarke, Sean MacDiarmada, Joseph Plunkett, Eamonn Ceannt and James Connolly, were executed, along with nine others, and thousands were interned precipitating the Irish War of Independence. Early background From the Act of Union on 1 January 1801 until 6 December 1922, Ireland had been part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. During the Great Famine from 1845 to 1849 the island's population of over 8 million fell by 30 percent. Under British rule, one million Irish died of starvation and another 1.5 million emigrated, which set the pattern of emigration for the century to come and would result in a constant decline up to the 1960s. From 1874, but particularly from 1880 under Charles Stewart Parnell, the Irish Parliamentary Party moved to prominence through widespread agrarian agitation that won improved tenant land reforms and with its attempts to win two Home Rule Bills, which would have granted Ireland limited national autonomy within the United Kingdom. These nevertheless led to the “grass-roots” control of national affairs under the Local Government (Ireland) Act 1898 previously in the hands of landlord dominated grand juries. Home Rule statute Home Rule seemed certain when the Parliament Act 1911 abolished the veto of the House of Lords, and John Redmond secured the Third Home Rule Act 1914. The Unionist movement, however, had been growing since 1886 among Irish Protestants after the introduction of the first home rule bill, fearing that they would face discrimination and lose economic and social privileges if Irish Catholics were to achieve real political power. Though Irish unionism existed throughout the whole of Ireland, in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century unionism was particularly strong in parts of Ulster, where industrialisation was more common in contrast to the more agrarian rest of the island. (Any tariff barriers would, it was feared, most heavily hit that region.) In addition, the Protestant population was more strongly located in Ulster, with unionist majorities existing in about four counties. Mounting resistance Under the leadership of the Dublin-born Sir Edward Carson of the Irish Unionist Party and the northerner Sir James Craig of the Ulster Unionist Party, unionists became strongly militant in order to oppose the Coercion of Ulster. After the Home Rule Bill passed parliament in May 1914, to avoid rebellion with Ulster, the British Prime Minister H. H. Asquith introduced an Amending Bill reluctantly conceded to by the Irish Party leadership, providing for the temporary exclusion of Ulster from the workings of the bill for a trial period of six years, with an as yet undecided new set of measures to be introduced for the area to be temporarily excluded. Though it received the Royal Assent and was placed on the statute books in 1914, the implementation of the Third Home Rule Act was suspended until after the Great War. (The war at that stage was expected to be ended by 1915, not the four years it did ultimately last.) For the prior reasons of ensuring the implementation of the Act at the end of the war, Redmond and his Irish National Volunteers supported the Allied cause, and 175,000 joined Irish regiments of the 10th (Irish), 16th (Irish), while Unionists joined the 36th (Ulster) divisions of the New British Army. Department of the Taoiseach - Irish Soldiers in the First World War Signature page of the Anglo-Irish Treaty. In January 1919, after the December 1918 general election, 73 of Ireland's 106 MPs elected were Sinn Féin members who refused to take their seats in the British House of Commons. Instead, they set up an Irish parliament called Dáil Éireann. This Dáil in January 1919 issued a Declaration of Independence and proclaimed an Irish Republic. The Declaration was mainly a restatement of the 1916 Proclamation with the additional provision that Ireland was no longer a part of the United Kingdom. The new Irish Republic was recognised internationally only by the Russian Republic. The Republic's Aireacht (ministry) sent a delegation under Ceann Comhairle Seán T. O'Kelly to the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, but it was not admitted. Establishment of Irish Free State After the bitterly fought War of Independence and truce called in July 1921, representatives of the British government and the Irish treaty delegates, led by Arthur Griffith, Robert Barton and Michael Collins, negotiated the Anglo-Irish Treaty in London from 11 October – 6 December 1921. The Irish delegates set up headquarters at Hans Place in Knightsbridge and it was here in private discussions that the decision was taken at 11.15am on 5 December to recommend the Treaty to Dáil Éireann. The Second Dáil Éireann narrowly ratified the Treaty for the Irish side. In accordance with the Treaty, on 6 December 1922 the entire island of Ireland became a self-governing British dominion called the Irish Free State (). However, Northern Ireland exercised its right under the Treaty to opt out of the new dominion and rejoined the United Kingdom on 8 December 1922. It did so by making an Address to the King requesting "that the powers of the Parliament and Government of the Irish Free State shall no longer extend to Northern Ireland.” The Treaty was not entirely satisfactory to either side. The Irish Free State was a constitutional monarchy over which the British monarch reigned. The Irish Free State had a Governor-General, a bicameral parliament, a cabinet called the "Executive Council" and a prime minister called the President of the Executive Council. Irish Civil War Éamon de Valera. The Irish Civil War was the direct consequence of the creation of the Irish Free State. Anti-Treaty forces, led by Éamon de Valera, objected to the fact that acceptance of the Treaty abolished the Irish Republic of 1919 to which they had sworn loyalty, arguing in the face of public support for the settlement that the "people have no right to do wrong". They objected most to the fact that the state would remain part of the British Commonwealth and that Teachtaí Dála (members of the legislature) would have to swear an oath of fidelity to King George V and his successors. Pro-Treaty forces, led by Michael Collins, argued that the Treaty gave "not the ultimate freedom that all nations aspire to and develop, but the freedom to achieve it". At the start of the war, the Irish Republican Army (IRA) split into two opposing camps: a pro-treaty IRA and an anti-treaty IRA. The pro-Treaty IRA disbanded and joined the new Irish Army. However, through the lack of an effective command structure in the anti-Treaty IRA, and their defensive tactics throughout the war, Collins and his pro-treaty forces were able to build up an army with many tens of thousands of WWI veterans from the 1922 disbanded Irish regiments of the British Army, capable of overwhelming the anti-Treatyists. British supplies of artillery, aircraft, machine-guns and ammunition boosted pro-treaty forces, and the threat of a return of Crown forces to the Free State removed any doubts about the necessity of enforcing the treaty. The lack of public support for the anti-treaty forces (often called the Irregulars) and the determination of the government to overcome the Irregulars contributed significantly to their defeat. In the Northern Ireland question, Irish governments started to seek a peaceful reunification of Ireland and have usually cooperated with the British government in the violent conflict involving many paramilitaries and the British Army in Northern Ireland known as "The Troubles". A peace settlement for Northern Ireland, the Belfast Agreement, was approved in 1998 in referendums north and south of the border. As part of the peace settlement, Ireland dropped its territorial claim to Northern Ireland. The peace settlement is currently being implemented. 1937 Constitution On 29 December 1937, a new constitution, the Constitution of Ireland (Bunreacht na hÉireann), came into force. It replaced the Constitution of the Irish Free State and created a new state called "Ireland", or, in the Irish language, "Éire". The former Irish Free State government had taken steps to formally abolish the Office of Governor-General some months before the new Constitution came into force. and the Governor-General's office was finally abolished under the Executive Powers (Consequential Provisions) Act, 1937 with effect from December 1936 Although the Constitution of Ireland established the office of President of Ireland, between 1937 and 1949 Ireland was not technically a republic. This was because the principal key role possessed by a head of state, that of symbolically representing Ireland internationally remained vested under statutory law, in the British King as an organ of the Irish government. The King's title in the Irish Free State was exactly the same as it was elsewhere in the British Empire, being: From 1922–1927 - By the Grace of God, of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and of the British Dominions beyond the Seas King, Defender of the Faith, Emperor of India; and 1927–1937 - By the Grace of God, of Great Britain, Ireland and the British Dominions beyond the Seas King, Defender of the Faith, Emperor of India. Ireland remained neutral during World War II, a period it described as The Emergency. The position of King ceased with the passage of the Republic of Ireland Act 1948, which came into force on 18 April 1949 when the office of President of Ireland replaced that of the King. The Act declared that the state could be described as a republic. Later, the Crown of Ireland Act was formally repealed in Ireland by the Statute Law Revision (Pre-Union Irish Statutes) Act, 1962. Ireland was technically a member of the British Commonwealth after independence until the declaration of a republic on 18 April 1949. Under the Commonwealth rules at the time, a declaration of a republic automatically terminated membership of the Commonwealth (this rule was changed 10 days after Ireland declared itself a republic, with the London Declaration of 28 April 1949). Ireland therefore immediately ceased to be a member and did not subsequently reapply for membership when the Commonwealth later changed its rules to allow republics to join the Commonwealth. Ireland joined the United Nations in 1955. Economic opening Irish population during the twentieth century From the 1920s Ireland had high trade barriers such as high tariffs, particularly during the Economic War with Britain in the 1930s, and a policy of import substitution. A high number of residents emigrated. In the 1950s, 400,000 (a seventh of the population) emigrated. It became increasingly clear that economic nationalism was unsustainable. While other European countries enjoyed fast growth, Ireland suffered economic stagnation, emigration, and other ills. The policy changes were drawn together in Economic Development, an official paper published in 1958 that advocated free trade, foreign investment, productive (rather than mainly social) investment, and growth rather than fiscal restraint as the prime objective of economic management. Ireland joined the European Community (now the European Union) in 1973. During the 1970s, the population increased for the first time since independence, by 15 percent for the decade. National income increased at an annual rate of about 4 percent. Employment increased by around 1 percent per year, but the state sector amounted to a large part of that. Public sector employment was a third of the total workforce by 1980. Budget deficits and public debt increased, leading to the crisis in the 1980s. Recent history By the 1980s, underlying economic problems became pronounced. High unemployment, emigration, growing public debt returned. Middle income workers were taxed 60% of their marginal income. Unemployment was 20%. Annual emigration to overseas reached over 1% of population. Public deficits reached 15% of GDP. Fianna Fáil was elected in 1987 and surprised everyone by announcing a swing toward small government. Public spending was reduced quickly and taxes cut. Ireland promoted competition in all areas. For instance, Ryanair utilized Ireland's deregulated aviation market and helped European regulators to see benefits of competition in transport markets. The more competitive economy attracted foreign investment quickly. Intel invested in 1989 and was followed by a number of technology companies such as Microsoft and Google, who found Ireland a good investment location. A consensus exists between all government parties about the sustained economic growth. "How Ireland became the Celtic Tiger", Sean Dorgan, the Chief Executive of IDA. 23 June, 2006 In less than a decade, the GDP per capita in the OECD prosperity ranking rose from 21st in 1993 to 4th in 2002. The Myth of the Scandinavian Model | The Brussels Journal Between 1985 and 2002, private sector jobs increased 59%. Politics President of Ireland, Mary McAleese Ireland is a republic, with a parliamentary system of government. The President of Ireland, who serves as head of state, is elected for a seven-year term and can be re-elected only once. The president is largely a figurehead but can still carry out certain constitutional powers and functions, aided by the Council of State, an advisory body. The (prime minister), is appointed by the president on the nomination of parliament. Most have been the leader of the political party which wins the most seats in the national elections. It has become normal for coalitions to form a government, and there has not been a single-party government since 1989. The bicameral parliament, the , consists of the President of Ireland, a Senate, , being the upper House, and a House of Representatives, , being the lower House. Article 15.2 of the Constitution of Ireland. The is composed of sixty members; eleven nominated by the , six elected by two universities, and 43 elected by public representatives from panels of candidates established on a vocational basis. The has 166 members, , elected to represent multi-seat constituencies under the system of proportional representation by means of the Single Transferable Vote. Under the constitution, parliamentary elections must be held at least every seven years, though a lower limit may be set by statute law. The current statutory maximum term is five years. Leinster House, the seat of (the Irish parliament). The Government is constitutionally limited to fifteen members. No more than two members of the Government can be selected from the , and the , (deputy prime minister) and Minister for Finance must be members of the . The current government consists of a coalition of three parties; under Brian Cowen, the Green Party under leader John Gormley and the Progressive Democrats under Senator Ciarán Cannon. The last general election to the Dáil took place on 24 May 2007, after it was called by the Taoiseach on 29 April. The main opposition in the current consists of Fine Gael under Enda Kenny, the Labour Party under Eamon Gilmore and Sinn Féin. A number of independent deputies also sit in Dáil Éireann though less in number than before the 2007 election. Ireland joined the European Union in 1973 but has chosen to remain outside the Schengen Area. Citizens of the UK can freely enter Ireland without a passport thanks to the Common Travel Area, but some form of identification is required at airports and seaports. Ireland has voted against a number of European treaties. On 12 June 2008, Ireland voted in a referendum which rejected the Lisbon treaty. This has caused much controversy within the EU and may affect the future of the Union. Counties The state of Ireland consists of twenty-six traditional counties which are still used in cultural and sporting contexts, and for postal purposes. These are, however, no longer always coterminous with administrative divisions. Several traditional counties have been restructured into new administrative divisions. County Dublin was divided into three separate administrative counties in the 1990s and County Tipperary was divided into two in the 1890s. This gives a present-day total of twenty-nine administrative counties and five cities. The five cities — Dublin, Cork, Limerick, Galway, and Waterford — are administered separately from the remainder of their respective counties. Five boroughs — Clonmel, Drogheda, Kilkenny, Sligo and Wexford — have a level of autonomy within the county. While Kilkenny is a borough, it is has retained the legal right to be referred to as a city. See section 10(7) of the Local Government Act 2001 Dáil constituencies are required by statute to follow county boundaries, as far as possible. Hence counties with greater populations have multiple constituencies (e.g. Limerick East/West) and some constituencies consist of more than one county (e.g. Sligo-North Leitrim), but by and large, the actual county boundaries are not crossed. The counties are grouped together into regions for statistical purposes. County numbers in the Republic of Ireland (shown in green). Republic of Ireland Dublin— Dublin City— Dún Laoghaire-Rathdown— Fingal— South Dublin Wicklow Wexford— Wexford Town (Borough) Carlow Kildare Meath Louth— Drogheda Town (Borough) Monaghan Cavan Longford Westmeath Offaly Laois Kilkenny— Kilkenny City (Borough) <li>Waterford— Waterford City <li>Cork— Cork City <li>Kerry <li>Limerick— Limerick City <li>Tipperary— North Tipperary— South Tipperary — Clonmel Town (Borough) <li>Clare <li>Galway— Galway City <li>Mayo <li>Roscommon <li>Sligo— Sligo Town (Borough) <li>Leitrim <li>Donegal Geography, climate, and environment Topography of Ireland Cliffs of Moher, Co. Clare The island of Ireland extends over 84,421 Square kilometres (32,556 square miles), of which 83% (approx. five-sixths) belong to the Irish state (70,280 km²; 27,103 sq mi), while the remainder constitute Northern Ireland. It is bounded to the north and west by the Atlantic Ocean, to the northeast by the North Channel. To the east is found the Irish Sea which reconnects to the ocean via the southwest with St George's Channel and the Celtic Sea. The west coast of Ireland mostly consists of cliffs, hills and low mountains (the highest point being Carrauntoohil at 1,038 m or 3,406 ft). The coastline has been remarked to look like a teddy bear facing west. The interior of the country is relatively flat land, traversed by rivers such as the River Shannon and several large lakes or loughs. The centre of the country is part of the River Shannon watershed, containing large areas of bogland, used for peat extraction and production. Ireland also has off-shore deposits of oil and gas. http://maps.google.com/maps?f=q&hl=en&geocode=&q=oil+and+gas+fields+in+ireland&ie=UTF8&ll=53.592505,-9.030762&spn=6.274516,19.775391&z=6 The local temperate climate is modified by the North Atlantic Current and is relatively mild. Summer temperatures exceed 30 °C (86 °F) usually once every decade, though commonly reach 29 °C (84 °F) most summers, and freezes occur only occasionally in winter, with temperatures below -6 °C (21 °F) being uncommon. Precipitation is very common, with some parts of the country getting up to 275 days with rain annually. Chief city conurbations are the capital Dublin (1,045,769) on the east coast, Cork (190,384) in the south, Limerick (90,757) in the mid-west, Galway (72,729) on the west coast, and Waterford (49,213) on the south east coast (see Cities in Ireland). Impact of agriculture Lough Lene, County Westmeath. The long history of agricultural production coupled with modern intensive agricultural methods (such as pesticide and fertiliser use) has placed pressure on biodiversity in Ireland. Agriculture is the main factor determining current land use patterns in Ireland, leaving limited land to preserve natural habitats (also forestry and urban development to a lesser extent), in particular for larger wild mammals with greater territorial requirements. With no top predator in Ireland, populations of animals that cannot be controlled by smaller predators (such as the fox) are controlled by annual culling, i.e. semi-wild populations of deer. A land of green fields for crop cultivation and cattle rearing limits the space available for the establishment of native wild species. Hedgerows, however, traditionally used for maintaining and demarcating land boundaries, act as a refuge for native wild flora. Their ecosystems stretch across the countryside and act as a network of connections to preserve remnants of the ecosystem that once covered the island. Pollution from agricultural activities is one of the principal sources of environmental damage. Runoff of contaminants into streams, rivers and lakes impacts the natural fresh-water ecosystems. Subsidies under the Common Agricultural Policy which supported these agricultural practices and contributed to land-use distortions are undergoing reforms. The CAP still subsidises some potentially destructive agricultural practices, however, the recent reforms have gradually decoupled subsidies from production levels and introduced environmental and other requirements. Forest covers about 10% of the country, with most designated for commercial production. Forested areas typically consist of monoculture plantations of non-native species which may result in habitats that are not suitable for supporting a broad range of native species of invertebrates. Remnants of native forest can be found scattered around the country, in particular in the Killarney National Park. Natural areas require fencing to prevent over-grazing by deer and sheep that roam over uncultivated areas. This is one of the main factors preventing the natural regeneration of forests across many regions of the country. Seanad Debate involving Former Minister for Environment Heritage and Local Government Education The education systems are largely under the direction of the government via the Minister for Education and Science. Recognised primary and secondary schools must adhere to the curriculum established by authorities that have power to set them. The Programme for International Student Assessment, coordinated by the OECD, currently ranks Ireland's education as the 20th best among participating countries in science, being statistically significantly higher than the OECD average. http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/42/8/39700724.pdf Primary, Secondary and Tertiary (University/College) level education are all free in Ireland for all citizens. Economy Trawlers sit in Killybegs harbour, in County Donegal, one of Ireland's biggest fishing ports. Over fishing has depleted Ireland's cod stocks in particular. The economy of Ireland has transformed in recent years from an agricultural focus to a modern knowledge economy, focusing on services and high-tech industries and dependent on trade, industry and investment. Economic growth in Ireland averaged a (relatively high) 10% from 1995–2000, and 7% from 2001–2004. Industry, which accounts for 46% of GDP, about 80% of exports, and 29% of the labour force, now takes the place of agriculture as the country's leading sector. Exports play a fundamental role in Ireland's growth and over the last 40 years a string of significant base metal discoveries have been made, including the giant ore deposit at Tara Mine. Zinc-lead ores are also currently exploited from two other underground operations in Lisheen and Galmoy. Ireland now ranks as the seventh largest producer of zinc concentrates in the world, and the twelfth largest producer of lead concentrates. The combined output from these mines, three of Europe’s most modern and developed mines, make Ireland the largest zinc producer in Europe and the second largest producer of lead. http://irishresources.wordpress.com/2008/07/15/irish-mines-now-operating-tara-galmoy-and-lisheen/ Subsidiaries of US multinationals have located in Ireland due to low taxation. Ireland is the world's most profitable country for US corporations, according to analysis by US tax journal Tax Notes http://www.finfacts.ie/irelandeconomy/usmultinationalprofitsireland.htm The country is one of the largest exporters of software-related goods and services in the world. http://www.spiegel.de/international/spiegel/0,1518,348682,00.html In fact, a lot of foreign software, and sometimes music, is filtered through the country to avail of Ireland's non-taxing of royalties from copyrighted goods. Bord Gáis was established under the Gas Act, and charged with the responsibility for the supply, transmission and distribution of natural gas which was first brought ashore in 1976 from the Kinsale Head Gas Field. New sources of supply are expected to come on stream after 2009/10, including the Corrib gas field and potentially the Shannon Liquefied Natrual Gas (LNG) terminal. http://www.bordgais.ie/ Added to gas supplies, energy exports have the potential to transform Ireland's economy. http://www.independent.ie/national-news/ireland-on-the-verge-of-an-oil-and-gas-bonanza-679889.html As well as exports the economy also benefits from the accompanying rise in consumer spending, construction, and business investment. A key part of economic policy, since 1987, has been Social Partnership which is a neo-corporatist set of voluntary 'pay pacts' between the Government, employers and trades unions. These usually set agreed pay rises for three-year periods. The 1995 to 2000 period of high economic growth led many to call the country the Celtic Tiger. Charles Smith, article: 'Ireland', in Wankel, C. (ed.) Encyclopedia of Business in Today's World, California, USA, 2009. The economy felt the impact of the global economic slowdown in 2001, particularly in the high-tech export sector — the growth rate in that area was cut by nearly half. GDP growth continued to be relatively robust, with a rate of about 6% in 2001 and 2002. Growth for 2004 was over 4%, and for 2005 was 4.7%. With high growth came high levels of inflation, particularly in the capital city. Prices in Dublin, where nearly 30% of Ireland's population lives, are considerably higher than elsewhere in the country, - CSO especially in the property market (but property prices are falling rapidly following the recent downturn in the World economy and its knock-on effects on Ireland). At the end of July 2008, the annual rate of inflation was running at 4.4% (as measured by the CPI) or 3.6% (as measured by the HICP) – Central Statistics Office (Ireland). Retrieved on 2008-08-08. and inflation actually dropped slightly from the previous month. Measuring Ireland's level of income per capita is a complicated issue. Ireland possesses the second highest GDP (PPP) per capita in the world (US$43,600 as of 2006), behind Luxembourg, and the fifth highest Human Development Index, which is calculated partially on the basis of GDP per capita. Another measure, Gross National Income per head, takes account of this and therefore many economists feel it is a superior measure of income in the country. In 2005, the World Bank measured Ireland's GNI per head at $41,140 - the seventh highest in the world, sixth highest in Western Europe, and the third highest of any member state. Also, a study by The Economist found Ireland to have the best quality of life in the world. - The Economist This study employed GDP per capita as a measure of income rather than GNI per capita. In 2002 Ireland introduced the single European currency, the euro. With 15 other EU member states it forms the Eurozone. The positive reports and economic statistics mask several underlying imbalances. The construction sector, which is inherently cyclical in nature, now accounts for a significant component of Ireland's GDP. A recent downturn in residential property market sentiment has highlighted the over-exposure of the Irish economy to construction, which now presents a threat to economic growth. Several successive years of economic growth have led to an increase in inequality NCC: 2.1 Income in Irish society (see Economy of Ireland - Recent developments) and a decrease in poverty. Income Distribution and Poverty in the OECD Area, Chapter 10 in "Combating Poverty in Europe" Ireland's Gini coefficient measure of income inequality is 30.4, slightly below the OECD average of 30.7. Figures show that 6.8% of Ireland's population suffer "consistent poverty". CSO, 2004. However, after a construction boom in the last decade, economic growth is now slowing. There has been a significant fall in house prices and the cost of living is beginning to stabilise, after rising every year during the economic boom. It is now said the Irish economy is rebalancing itself. During the boom, Ireland had developed a reputation as one of the most expensive countries in Europe. The Irish Economy contracted by -1.7% in 2008, down from 4.7% growth in 2007, in 2009 it is predicted by both the Irish government and the ESRI that the economy could contract by over 9% which would be one of the highest economic contractions of any western economy since World War 2. The huge reduction in construction has caused Ireland's massive economic downturn, the construction crash and the Global recession has hit Ireland very hard. The ESRI has recently predicted that Ireland Economy will not recover until 2011 were growth could return to 5% per year until 2015. Ireland now has the second-highest level of household debt in the world, at 190% of household income. Ireland is currently (2008) ranked as the world's third most economically free economy in an index created by the Wall Street Journal and Heritage Foundation, the Index of Economic Freedom. The Financial Crisis of 2008 is currently affecting the Irish economy severely, compounding domestic economic problems related the collapse of the Irish property bubble. Ireland was the first country in the EU to officially enter a recession as declared by the Central Statistics Office. http://www.cso.ie Ireland was stripped of it`s AAA credit ranking and downgraded to AA+ by Standard & Poor's ratings agency, due to Ireland`s bleak financial outlook and heavy government debt burden. The Times, Ireland's economy loses coveted AAA rating Currency Before the introduction of the euro cash in January 2002 the currency in use in the country was the Irish pound or "punt". Ireland along with eleven other EU states launched the euro currency system in January 1999. Euro banknotes are issued in €5, €10, €20, €50, €100, €200 and €500 denominations and share the common design used across Europe, however like other countries in the Eurozone, Ireland has its own unique design on one face of euro coins. Design for Irish coin denominations The government of Ireland decided on a single national design for all Irish coin denominations, which show the Celtic harp, a traditional symbol of Ireland, decorated with the year of issue and the word "Éire". Military Ireland's military are organised as the Irish Defence Forces (). The Irish Army is relatively small when compared with other armies in the region, but is well equipped, with 8,500 full-time military personnel (13,000 in the reserve army). Irish Defence Forces, Army (accessed 15 June 2006) This is principally due to Ireland's policy of neutrality, See Gilland, Karin. "Ireland: Neutrality and the International Use of Force", p. 143, in Philip P. Everts and Pierangelo Isernia, Public Opinion and the International Use of Force, Routledge, 2001. ISBN 0415218047. and its "triple-lock" rules governing participation in conflicts whereby approval must be given by the UN, the Government and the Dáil before any Irish troops are deployed into a conflict zone. Deployments of Irish soldiers cover UN peace-keeping duties, protection of Ireland's territorial waters (in the case of the Irish Naval Service) and Aid to Civil Power operations in the state. See Irish neutrality. There is also an Irish Air Corps, Irish Naval Service and Reserve Defence Forces (Irish Army Reserve and Naval Service Reserve) under the Defence Forces. The Irish Army Rangers is a special forces branch which operates under the aegis of the army. Over 40,000 Irish servicemen have served in UN peacekeeping missions around the world. Ireland's air facilities were used by the U.S. military for the delivery of military personnel involved in the 2003 invasion of Iraq through Shannon Airport; previously the airport had been used for the invasion of Afghanistan in 2001, as well as the First Gulf War. - Tony Gregory speaking in Dáil Éireann This is part of a longer history of use of Shannon for controversial military transport, under Irish military policy which, while ostensibly neutral, was biased towards NATO during the Cold War. During the Cuban Missile Crisis, Seán Lemass authorised the search of Cuban and Czech aircraft passing through Shannon and passed the information to the CIA. Irish Times, 28 December 2007 p. 1. During the Second World War, although officially neutral, Ireland supplied similar, though more extensive, support for the Allied Forces (see Irish neutrality during World War II ). Since 1999, Ireland has been a member of NATO's Partnership for Peace program. Demographics International rankings Indicator Rank Measure Economy GDP (PPP) per capita 2nd $44,087 GNP 7th $41,140 Unemployment rate 28th 4.30% CO2 emissions 30th 10.3 t† Electricity consumption 61st 22.79 GWh Economic Freedom 3rd 1.58 Politics Human Development Index 5th 0.959 Political freedom 1<sup>st* 1 Press freedom 4th* 2.00 Corruption (A higher score means less (perceived) corruption.) ↓17th 7.5 Global Peace Index 4th 1.396 Democracy Index 11th 9.01 Failed States Index ↓ 4th 19.5 Society Literacy rate 18th* 99.0% Quality-of-life index 1st 8.333 (out of 10) Broadband penetration <small>—</sup></small> 25.9% Mobile phone penetration <small>—</sup></small> 121.5% Alcohol consumption 2nd 13.7 L3.0 imp gal3.6 US gal† Beer consumption 2nd 131.1 L28.8 imp gal34.6 US gal† International Property Rights Index 14th 7.4 Health Life expectancy 78.4 Birth rate 15.2‡ Fertility rate 133rd 1.96†† Infant mortality 172th 4.9‡‡ Death rate 6.5‡ Suicide rate 48th ♂ 16.3†‡♀ 3.2†‡ HIV/AIDS rate 123rd 0.10% Notes ↓ indicates rank is in reverse order (e.g. 1st is lowest) * joint with one or more other countries† per capita‡ per 1000 people†† per woman‡‡ per 1000 live births†‡per 100,000 people♂ indicates males, ♀ indicates females Genetic research suggests that the first settlers of Ireland, and parts of North-Western Europe, came through migrations from Iberia following the end of the most recent ice age. Myths of British ancestry - Prospect Magazine After the Mesolithic, the Neolithic and Bronze Age migrants introduced Celtic culture and languages to Ireland. These later migrants from the Neolithic to Bronze Age still represent a majority of the genetic heritage of Irish people. ("Origins of the British", Stephen Oppenheimer, 2006) The Longue Durée of Genetic Ancestry: Multiple Genetic Marker Systems and Celtic Origins on the Atlantic Facade of Europe - PUBMED Culture spread throughout the island, and the Gaelic tradition became the dominant form in Ireland. Today, Irish people are mainly of Gaelic ancestry, and although some of the population is also of Norse, Anglo-Norman, English, Scottish, French and Welsh ancestry, these groups have been assimilated and do not form distinct minority groups. Gaelic culture and language forms an important part of national identity. In the UK, Irish Travellers are a recognised ethnic minority group, politically (but not ethnically) linked with mainland European Roma and Gypsy groups, although in Ireland, they are not, instead they are classified as a "social group". Irish Travellers Movement: Traveller Legal Resource Pack 2 - Traveller Culture Ireland, as of 2007, contains the fastest growing population in Europe. The growth rate in 2006 was 2.5%, the third year in a row it has been above 2%. This rapid growth can be said to be due to falling death rates, rising birth rates and high immigration rates. BreakingNews.ie - Ireland's population still fastest-growing in EU Languages The official languages are Irish and English. Teaching of the Irish and English languages is compulsory in the primary and secondary level schools that receive money and recognition from the state. Some students may be exempt from the requirement to receive instruction in either language. English is the predominant language spoken throughout the country. People living in predominantly Irish-speaking communities, Gaeltacht regions, are limited to the low tens of thousands in isolated pockets largely on the western seaboard. Road signs are usually bilingual, except in Gaeltacht regions, where they are in Irish only. Irish Statute Book The legal status of place names has recently been the subject of controversy, with an order made in 2005 under the Official Languages Act changing the official name of certain locations from English back to Irish (e.g. Dingle had its name changed to An Daingean despite local opposition and a local plebiscite requesting that the name be changed to a bilingual version: Dingle Daingean Uí Chúis. Most public notices are only in English, as are most of the print media. Most Government publications and forms are available in both English and Irish, and citizens have the right to deal with the state in Irish if they so wish. National media in Irish exist on TV (TG4), radio (e.g. Raidió na Gaeltachta), and in print (e.g. Lá Nua and Foinse). According to the 2006 census, 1,656,790 people (or 39%) in the Republic regard themselves as competent in Irish; though no figures are available for English-speakers, it is thought to be almost 100%. The Polish language is one of the most widely spoken languages in Ireland after English and Irish: there are over 63,000 Poles resident in Ireland according to the 2006 census. Other languages spoken in Ireland include Shelta, spoken by the Irish Traveller population and a dialect of Scots is spoken by some descendents of Scottish settlers in Ulster. Most students at second level choose one or two foreign languages to learn. Languages available for the Junior Certificate and the Leaving Certificate include French, German, Italian and Spanish; Leaving Certificate students can also study Arabic, Japanese and Russian. Some schools also offer Ancient Greek, Hebrew Studies and Latin at second level. Recent population growth Ireland's population has increased significantly in recent years. Much of this population growth can be attributed to the arrival of immigrants and the return of Irish people (often with their foreign-born children) who emigrated in large numbers in earlier years during periods of high unemployment. In addition the birth rate in Ireland is currently over double the death rate, which is highly unusual among Western European countries. Irish Independent - Boom in births as new arrivals double on death rates Approximately 10% of Ireland's population is now made up of foreign citizens. Foreign-national groups with populations in Ireland of 10,000 or more in 2006. Non-European Union nationals are shown exploded. The CSO has published preliminary findings based on the 2006 Census of Population. These indicate: The total population of Ireland on Census Day, 23 April 2006, was 4,234,925, an increase of 317,722, or 8.1% since 2002 Allowing for the incidence of births (245,000) and deaths (114,000), the derived net immigration of people to Ireland between 2002 and 2006 was 186,000. The total number of foreign citizens resident in Ireland is 419,733, or around 10% (plus 1,318 people with 'no nationality', and 44,279 people whose nationality is not stated). The single largest group of immigrants comes from the United Kingdom (112,548) followed by Poland (63,267), Lithuania (24,628), Nigeria (16,300), Latvia (13,319), the United States (12,475), China (11,161), and Germany (10,289). 94.8% of the population was recorded as having a 'White' ethnic or cultural background. 1.1% of the population had a 'Black or Black Irish' background, 1.3% had an 'Asian or Asian Irish' background and 1.7% of the population's ethnic or cultural background was 'not stated'. The average annual rate of increase, 2%, is the highest on record – compared to 1.3% between 1996 and 2002 and 1.5% between 1971 and 1979. The 2006 population was last exceeded in the 1861 Census when the population then was 4.4 million The lowest population of Ireland was recorded in the 1961 Census – 2.8 million. All provinces of Ireland recorded population growth. The population of Leinster grew by 8.9%; Munster by 6.5%; and the long-term population decline of the Connacht-Ulster Donegal, Cavan, Monaghan only. Remaining Ulster counties are in Northern Ireland Region has stopped. The ratio of males to females has declined in each of the four provinces between 1979 and 2006. Leinster is the only province where the number of females exceeds the number of males. Males predominate in rural counties such as Cavan, Leitrim, and Roscommon while there are more females in cities and urban areas. A more detailed breakdown of these figures is available online. Detailed statistics into the population of Ireland since 1841 are available at Irish Population Analysis. Religion A pie chart showing the proportion of followers of each religion (and none) in Ireland in 2006. Ireland's constitution states that the state may not endow any particular religion, and also guarantees freedom of religion. Approximately 86.8% of the population are from a Roman Catholic, background and the country has one of the highest rates of regular and weekly church attendance in the Western World. Weekly Mass Attendance of Catholics in Nations with Large Catholic Populations, 1980-2000 - World Values Survey (WVS) However, there has been a major decline in this attendance among Roman Catholics in the course of the past 30 years. Between 1996 and 2001, regular Mass attendance, declined further from 60% to 48% Irish Mass attendance below 50% - Catholic World News 1 June 2006 (it had been above 90% before 1973), and all but two of its sacerdotal seminaries have closed (St Patrick's College, Maynooth and St Malachy's College, Belfast). A number of theological colleges continue to educate both ordained and lay people. The second largest Christian denomination, the Church of Ireland (Anglican), was declining in number for most of the twentieth century, but has more recently experienced an increase in membership, according to the 2002 census, as have other small Christian denominations, as well as Hinduism. Other large Protestant denominations are the Presbyterian Church in Ireland, followed by the Methodist Church in Ireland. Between 2002 and 2006 there was a 69% increase in the number of Muslims living in Ireland, which makes Islam the fastest growing and the third largest religion in the country. The very small Jewish community in Ireland also recorded a marginal increase (see History of the Jews in Ireland) in the same period. The patron saints of Ireland (the island) are Saint Patrick, Saint Bridget and Saint Columba. According to the 2006 census, the number of people who described themselves as having "no religion" was 186,318 (4.4%), although this fails to differentiate between non-religious people and pagans/spiritual people who simply reject formal dogma. An additional 1,515 people described themselves as agnostic and 929 as atheist instead of ticking the "no religion" box. This brings the total nonreligious within the state to 4.5% of the population. A further 70,322 (1.7%) did not state a religion. Final Principal Demographic Results 2006 Religion and politics St. Patrick's Cathedral in Dublin, the National Cathedral of the Church of Ireland (part of the Anglican Communion). The original 1937 Constitution of Ireland gave the Catholic Church a "special position" as the church of the majority, but also recognised other Christian denominations and Judaism. As with other predominantly Catholic European states (e.g., Italy), the Irish state underwent a period of legal secularisation in the late twentieth century. In 1972, the article of the Constitution naming specific religious groups, including the Catholic Church, was deleted by the fifth amendment of the constitution in a referendum. Article 44 remains in the Constitution. It begins: The State acknowledges that the homage of public worship is due to Almighty God. It shall hold His Name in reverence, and shall respect and honour religion. The article also establishes freedom of religion (for belief, practice, and organisation without undue interference from the state), prohibits endowment of any particular religion, prohibits the state from religious discrimination, and requires the state to treat religious and non-religious schools in a non-prejudicial manner. Religion and education Despite a large number of schools in Ireland being run by religious organisations, a general trend of secularism is occurring within the Irish population, particularly in the younger generations. Among many examples:John Daniszewski, 17 April, 2005, Catholicism Losing Ground in Ireland, LA TimesIrish poll shows parents no longer want to force religion on to children from secularism.org.ukPhil Lawler, 17 September 2007, Ireland threatened by secularism, Pope tells new envoy, Catholic World News Many efforts have been made by secular groups, to eliminate the rigorous study in the second and sixth classes, to prepare for the sacraments of Holy Communion and confirmation in Catholic schools - parents can ask for their children to be excluded from religious study if they wish. However, religious studies as a subject was introduced into the state administered Junior Certificate in 2001, although it is not compulsory and deals with aspects of different religions, not focusing on one particular religion. Schools run by religious organisations, but receive public money and recognition, are not allowed to discriminate against pupils based upon religion (or lack of). A sanctioned system of preference does exist, where students of a particular religion may be accepted before those who do not share the ethos of the school, in a case where a school's quota has already been reached. Social issues Reflected in the policies of successive governments, Ireland is now predominantly progressive in relation to social issues. Though a conservative basis still remains in relation to some issues, there has been a "liberalisation" in some areas in recent decades. The most notably affected areas include changes relating to the legal status of divorce, contraception, gay rights and abortion in Ireland. For example, while Catholic and Protestant attitudes in 1937 disapproved of divorce - and it was prohibited by the original Constitution - this was repealed in 1995 under the Fifteenth Amendment to the Constitution. With abortion, the 1983 Eight Amendment to the Constitution recognised "the right to life of the unborn", subject to qualifications concerning the "equal right to life" of the mother. The case of Attorney General v. X subsequently prompted passage of the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Amendments, guaranteeing the right to travel abroad to have an abortion performed, and the right of citizens to learn about "services" that are illegal in Ireland but legal outside the country. Ireland also historically favoured conservative legislation regarding sexuality. For example, contraception was illegal in Ireland until 1979. Similarly, the legislation which outlawed homosexual acts was not repealed until 1993 - although even before this it was generally only enforced when dealing with under-age sex. Though Senator David Norris took his successful case to the European Court of Human Rights in 1988, the Irish Government did not legislate to rectify the issue until 1993. Ireland has since taken steps to change its policies relating to these issues; for instance, discrimination based on sexual orientation is illegal, and same-sex civil partnerships legislation was published in June 2008 (though not yet enshrined in law). A poll carried out in 2008 showed that 84% of Irish people supported civil marriage or civil partnerships for gay and lesbian couples, with 58% supporting full marriage rights in registry offices. A later Irish Times poll put support for same-sex marriage at 63%, up a further 5%. The Irish Times - News poll On many issues, Ireland has become very progressive. For instance, in 2002, Ireland became the first country to have an environmental levy for all plastic shopping bags; while in 2004 the country became the first in the world to ban smoking in all workplaces. The country also plans to be the first in Europe to ban incandescent lightbulbs. RTÉ News - Traditional light bulbs to be scrapped The death penalty is constitutionally banned in Ireland, and the country was one of the main nations involved in the 2008 Convention on Cluster Munitions, which was formally endorsed in Dublin. Culture Literature James Joyce published his most famous work Ulysses, an interpretation of the Odyssey set in Dublin, in 1922. Edith Somerville continued writing after the death of her partner Martin Ross in 1915. Dublin's Annie M. P. Smithson was one of several authors catering for fans of romantic fiction in the 1920s and 1930s. After the war popular novels were published by, among others, Brian O'Nolan, who published as Flann O'Brien, Elizabeth Bowen, Kate O'Brien. In the last few decades of the 20th century Edna O'Brien, John McGahern, Maeve Binchy, Joseph O'Connor, Roddy Doyle, Colm Tóibín and John Banville came to the fore as novelists. Patricia Lynch (1898–1972) was a prolific children's author, while recently Eoin Colfer has been particularly successful in this genre. In the genre of the short story, a form favoured by Irish writers, Seán Ó Faoláin, Frank O'Connor and William Trevor are prominent. Poets include W.B. Yeats, Patrick Kavanagh, Seamus Heaney (Nobel Literature laureate), Thomas McCarthy and Dermot Bolger. Prominent writers in the Irish language are Pádraic Ó Conaire, Máirtín Ó Cadhain, Séamus Ó Grianna and Nuala Ní Dhomhnaill. Theatre Following in the tradition of Shaw, Wilde and Samuel Beckett, playwrights such as Seán O'Casey, Brian Friel, Sebastian Barry, Conor McPherson and Billy Roche have gained popular success. Visual arts Prominent artists include Jack Butler Yeats, Louis le Brocquy, Anne Madden, Robert Ballagh, James Coleman, Dorothy Cross and John Gerrard. Music U2, an internationally renowned Irish band Ireland is known for its traditional music and song, in origin going back hundreds of years but still played throughout the country. Among the best-known modern performers are groups such as The Chieftains, Clannad and Altan, singers such as Christy Moore, ensembles such as Anúna and Celtic Woman and cross-over artists such as singers Enya and Sinéad O'Connor. Built upon this tradition is the dance company Riverdance. Ireland has produced internationally influential artists in other musical genres such as rock, pop, jazz and blues including The Pogues, U2, Westlife, Chris de Burgh, Thin Lizzy, The Corrs, The Cranberries, Blues guitarist Rory Gallagher and Academy Award winner Glen Hansard of The Frames. There are a number of classical music ensembles around the country Contemporary Music Ireland , such as the RTÉ Performing Groups, and opera lovers are catered for with the annual Wexford Opera Festival. Cinema The flourishing Irish film industry, state-supported by Bord Scannán na hÉireann, helped launch the careers of directors Neil Jordan and Jim Sheridan, and supported Irish films such as John Crowley's Intermission, Neil Jordan's Breakfast on Pluto, and others. A policy of tax breaks and other incentives has also attracted international film to Ireland, including Mel Gibson's Braveheart and Steven Spielberg's Saving Private Ryan. Irish actors who have made it to Hollywood include Richard Harris, Peter O'Toole, Pierce Brosnan, Gabriel Byrne, Brendan Gleeson, Daniel Day Lewis (by citizenship), Colm Meaney, Colin Farrell, Brenda Fricker, Jonathan Rhys-Meyers, Stuart Townsend and Cillian Murphy. Modern architecture The Spire of Dublin symbolises the embracing of new architectural styles in Ireland In the 20th century, Irish architecture followed the international trend towards modern, sleek and often radical building styles, particularly after independence in the first half of the century. New building materials and old were utilised in new ways to maximise style, space, light and energy efficiency. 1928 saw the construction of Ireland's first all concrete Art Deco church in Turner's Cross, Cork. The building was designed by Chicago architect Barry Byrne and met with a cool reception among those more accustomed to traditional designs. In 1953, one of Ireland's most radical buildings, Bus Éireann's main Dublin terminal building, better known as Busáras, was completed. It was built despite huge public opposition and excessive costs of over £1 million. Michael Scott, its architect is now considered one of the most important architects of the 20th century in Ireland. A significant change in Ireland's architecture has taken place over the last few years, with a major shift towards the European continental ethos of architecture and urbanity. There are currently four buildings in planning that would eclipse the country's current tallest building record - currently held by Cork County Hall in Cork. These projects include the Elysian Building in Cork and the U2 Building, Players Mill and The Tall Building in Dublin. One of the most symbolic structures of modern Irish architecture is the Spire of Dublin. Completed in January 2003, the structure was nominated in 2004 for the prestigious Stirling Prize. Sport Ireland's national sports are Gaelic football and hurling. Hurling, arguably the world's fastest field team sport in terms of game play is, along with Gaelic Football, administered by the Gaelic Athletic Association; as is Handball. Notable former Gaelic Athletic Association players include the now retired pair of DJ Carey and Peter Canavan. The former Taoiseach Jack Lynch was a noted hurler and All-Ireland winner before entering politics. Well-known current players include Henry Shefflin, Sean Cavanagh and Colm Cooper. In football, former players include Roy Keane, Johnny Giles, Liam Brady, Denis Irwin, Packie Bonner, Niall Quinn and Paul McGrath, while players whose careers are ongoing include Steve Finnan, Shay Given, Damien Duff, John O'Shea, Aiden McGeady and Robbie Keane. Ireland's national soccer league is the FAI League of Ireland. In rugby, Ireland has produced world class players such as Brian O'Driscoll, Ronan O'Gara, Paul O'Connell and Keith Wood and most recent achievements include winning the RBS Six Nations and Grand Slam 2009. In athletics, Sonia O'Sullivan, Eamonn Coghlan, Catherina McKiernan, Ronnie Delaney, John Treacy, David Gillick and Derval O'Rourke have won medals at international events. In cricket, Ireland played in the 2007 World Cricket League and qualified for the 2007 Cricket World Cup, reaching the last eight. Ken Doherty is a former World Champion (1997) snooker player. John L. Sullivan, born 1858 in the United States to Irish immigrant parents, was the first modern world heavyweight champion. Barry McGuigan and Steve Collins were also world champion boxers, while Bernard Dunne was a European super bantamweight champion and is current WBA Super Bantamweight champion. Michael Carruth is also an Olympic gold medallist having won at welterweight at the Barcelona Olympic Games in 1992. Current prospects in the middleweight division are the undefeated John Duddy, and Andy Lee who has one defeat. Both fighters are aiming for world championship fights. At the 2008 Olympic Games in Beijing in China, the Irish team won 3 medals, with Kenneth Egan winning silver and Darren Sutherland and Paddy Barnes earning bronzes. Boxing has proven a successful sport for Ireland in the Olympics and also at professional level. In motorsport, during the 1990s Jordan Grand Prix became the only independent team to win multiple Formula One races. Rallying also has a measure of popularity as a spectator sport, and in 2007 the Rally of Ireland (which was held in both the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland) became a qualifying round of the FIA World Rally Championship and attracted an estimated attendance of some 200,000 spectators. Jerry Williams, Fans unite as top drivers battle it out, Daily Mail, 14 November 2007 In cycling, Ireland produced Stephen Roche, the first and only Irishman to win the Tour de France in 1987, and the prolific Seán Kelly. In golf, the current Open and USPGA champion is Irishman Pádraig Harrington. In 2002, Dermott Lennon became the first Irish rider to win a Show Jumping World Championship gold medal. By attendance figures Gaelic football and hurling are by far the most popular sports in Ireland, 34% of total attendances at sports events being to football and 23% to hurling. while golf and soccer (including 5-a-side) are the most played at 17% of the population each. Transport Luas The country has three main international airports (Dublin, Shannon, and Cork) that serve a wide variety of European and intercontinental routes with scheduled and chartered flights. The national airline is Aer Lingus, although low cost airline Ryanair is the largest airline. The route between London and Dublin is the busiest international air route in Europe, with 4.5 million people flying between the two cities in 2006. Seán McCárthaigh, Dublin–London busiest air traffic route within EU, Irish Examiner, 31 March 2003 Railway services are provided by Iarnród Éireann. Dublin is the centre of the network, with two main stations (Heuston and Connolly) linking to the main towns and cities. The Enterprise service, run jointly with Northern Ireland Railways, connects Dublin with Belfast. Dublin has a steadily improving public transport network of varying quality including the DART, Luas, Bus service and an expanding rail network although the termination of most services at 18:00 remains an area for improvement. The motorways and national routes (national primary roads and national secondary roads) are managed by the National Roads Authority. The rest of the roads (regional roads and local roads) are managed by the local authorities in each of their areas. Regular ferry services operate between Ireland and Great Britain, the Isle of Man and France. See also List of Ireland-related topics Outline of the Republic of Ireland References Some of the material in these articles comes from the CIA World Factbook 2000 and the 2003 U.S. Department of State website. OECD Information Technology Outlook 2004 Further reading (the 1937 constitution) () The Irish Free State Constitution Act, 1922 J. Anthony Foley and Stephen Lalor (ed), Gill & Macmillan Annotated Constitution of Ireland (Gill & Macmillan, 1995) (ISBN 0-7171-2276-X) FSL Lyons, Ireland Since the Famine Alan J. Ward, The Irish Constitutional Tradition: Responsible Government and Modern Ireland 1782–1992 (Irish Academic Press, 1994) (ISBN 0-7165-2528-3) External links Government Irish State – Official governmental portal – Official presidential site Taoiseach – Official prime ministerial site Tithe an Oireachtais – Houses of Parliament, official parliamentary site Chief of State and Cabinet Members General information Ireland information from the United States Department of State Portals to the World from the United States Library of Congress Ireland at UCB Libraries GovPubs be-x-old:Рэспубліка Ірляндыя | Republic_of_Ireland |@lemmatized ireland:226 pronounce:2 locally:1 independent:6 state:70 north:10 western:8 europe:14 modern:10 sovereign:2 occupies:1 five:6 sixth:6 island:12 partition:2 may:10 statutory:3 rule:15 order:4 publish:7 authority:4 additional:3 source:3 date:1 alvin:1 jackson:1 home:8 irish:138 history:6 oxford:1 university:3 press:4 parliamentary:6 democracy:2 republic:30 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5,482 | Isaac_Stern | Isaac Stern (July 21, 1920 – September 22, 2001) was a Jewish violin virtuoso born in the Ukraine. He was renowned for his recordings and for discovering new musical talent. Biography Stern was born in Kremenetz, Ukraine. He was fourteen months old when his family moved to San Francisco. He received his first music lessons from his mother before enrolling at the San Francisco Conservatory of Music in 1928 where he studied until 1931 before going on to study privately with Louis Persinger. He returned to the San Francisco Conservatory to study with Naoum Blinder for five years. He said he owed the most to Blinder. At his public début on February 18, 1936, aged 15, he played the Violin Concerto No. 3 in B minor of Camille Saint-Saëns with the San Francisco Symphony under the direction of Pierre Monteux. Reflecting on his background Stern once memorably quipped that cultural exchanges between the US and Soviet Russia were simple affairs: "They send us their Jews from Odessa, and we send them our Jews from Odessa." New York Times Within musical circles, Stern became renowned both for his recordings and for championing certain younger players. Among his discoveries were cellists Yo-Yo Ma and Jian Wang, and violinists Itzhak Perlman and Pinchas Zukerman. He also played a major role in saving New York City's Carnegie Hall from demolition in 1960, which later had its main auditorium named in his honor. Among his many recordings, Stern recorded concertos by Brahms, Bach, Beethoven, Mendelssohn, Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky, and Vivaldi and modern works by Barber, Bartók, Stravinsky, Bernstein and Dutilleux. The Dutilleux concerto, entitled L'Arbre des Songes ['The Tree of Dreams'] was a 1985 commission by Stern himself. He also dubbed actors' violin-playing in several films, one of which was Fiddler on the Roof. Stern served as musical advisor for the 1946 film, Humoresque, about a rising violin star and his patron, played respectively by John Garfield and Joan Crawford. Stern's favorite violin was the Ysaÿe Guarneri del Gesù, one of the violins produced by the Cremonese luthier Giuseppe Guarneri del Gesù. He also owned several J. B. Vuillaume violins and two contemporary instruments by Samuel Zygmuntowicz. In his autobiography written with Chaim Potok, My First 79 Years, he cites Nathan Milstein and Arthur Grumiaux as major influences on his style of playing. He won Grammys for his work with Eugene Istomin and Leonard Rose in their famous chamber music trio. In 1979, eight years after Richard Nixon made the first official visit by a US President to the country, the People's Republic of China offered Stern and pianist David Golub an unprecedented invitation to tour the country. While there, he collaborated with the China Central Symphony Society (now China National Symphony) under the direction of Chinese Conductor Li Delun. Their visit was filmed and resulted in the Oscar-winning documentary, From Mao to Mozart. In 1987, Stern received the Grammy Award for Lifetime Achievement. His November 1948 marriage to ballerina Nora Kaye ended in divorce in 1949. On August 17 1951, Stern married Vera Lindenblit. They had three children together. Their marriage ended in divorce in 1994 after 43 years of marriage. On January 23, 1997, Stern married his third wife, Linda Reynolds, who survived him. Isaac Stern died on September 22, 2001 of congestive heart failure at 81. Awards Sonning Award (1982; Denmark) Wolf Prize Kennedy Center Honors (1984) Grammy Award for Best Instrumental Soloist (with orchestra) (1962, 1963, 1965, 1982) Grammy Awards for Best Chamber Music Performance (1971, 1992) Notes References External links Isaac Stern biography at Sony Classical | Isaac_Stern |@lemmatized isaac:3 stern:14 july:1 september:2 jewish:1 violin:7 virtuoso:1 bear:2 ukraine:2 renowned:2 recording:3 discover:1 new:3 musical:3 talent:1 biography:2 kremenetz:1 fourteen:1 month:1 old:1 family:1 move:1 san:4 francisco:4 receive:2 first:3 music:4 lesson:1 mother:1 enrol:1 conservatory:2 study:3 go:1 privately:1 louis:1 persinger:1 return:1 naoum:1 blinder:2 five:1 year:4 say:1 owe:1 public:1 début:1 february:1 age:1 play:3 concerto:3 b:2 minor:1 camille:1 saint:1 saëns:1 symphony:3 direction:2 pierre:1 monteux:1 reflect:1 background:1 memorably:1 quip:1 cultural:1 exchange:1 u:3 soviet:1 russia:1 simple:1 affair:1 send:2 jew:2 odessa:2 york:2 time:1 within:1 circle:1 become:1 champion:1 certain:1 young:1 player:1 among:2 discovery:1 cellist:1 yo:2 jian:1 wang:1 violinist:1 itzhak:1 perlman:1 pinchas:1 zukerman:1 also:3 major:2 role:1 save:1 city:1 carnegie:1 hall:1 demolition:1 later:1 main:1 auditorium:1 name:1 honor:2 many:1 record:1 brahms:1 bach:1 beethoven:1 mendelssohn:1 pyotr:1 ilyich:1 tchaikovsky:1 vivaldi:1 modern:1 work:2 barber:1 bartók:1 stravinsky:1 bernstein:1 dutilleux:2 entitle:1 l:1 arbre:1 de:1 songes:1 tree:1 dream:1 commission:1 dub:1 actor:1 playing:2 several:2 film:3 one:2 fiddler:1 roof:1 serve:1 advisor:1 humoresque:1 rise:2 star:1 patron:1 respectively:1 john:1 garfield:1 joan:1 crawford:1 favorite:1 ysaÿe:1 guarneri:2 del:2 gesù:2 produce:1 cremonese:1 luthier:1 giuseppe:1 j:1 vuillaume:1 two:1 contemporary:1 instrument:1 samuel:1 zygmuntowicz:1 autobiography:1 write:1 chaim:1 potok:1 cite:1 nathan:1 milstein:1 arthur:1 grumiaux:1 influence:1 style:1 win:1 grammys:1 eugene:1 istomin:1 leonard:1 famous:1 chamber:2 trio:1 eight:1 richard:1 nixon:1 make:1 official:1 visit:2 president:1 country:2 people:1 republic:1 china:3 offer:1 pianist:1 david:1 golub:1 unprecedented:1 invitation:1 tour:1 collaborate:1 central:1 society:1 national:1 chinese:1 conductor:1 li:1 delun:1 result:1 oscar:1 winning:1 documentary:1 mao:1 mozart:1 grammy:3 award:5 lifetime:1 achievement:1 november:1 marriage:3 ballerina:1 nora:1 kaye:1 end:2 divorce:2 august:1 marry:2 vera:1 lindenblit:1 three:1 child:1 together:1 january:1 third:1 wife:1 linda:1 reynolds:1 survive:1 die:1 congestive:1 heart:1 failure:1 sonning:1 denmark:1 wolf:1 prize:1 kennedy:1 center:1 best:2 instrumental:1 soloist:1 orchestra:1 performance:1 note:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 sony:1 classical:1 |@bigram san_francisco:4 violin_concerto:1 saint_saëns:1 yo_yo:1 pyotr_ilyich:1 ilyich_tchaikovsky:1 fiddler_roof:1 joan_crawford:1 richard_nixon:1 oscar_winning:1 grammy_award:3 lifetime_achievement:1 congestive_heart:1 soloist_orchestra:1 external_link:1 |
5,483 | Bill_Bryson | William McGuire "Bill" Bryson, OBE, (born 8 December 1951) is a best-selling American author of humorous books on travel, as well as books on the English language and on scientific subjects. He was a resident of North Yorkshire, England for most of his professional life before moving back to the US in 1995. He has lived in Norfolk, England since 2003. Life Bill Bryson was born in Des Moines, Iowa, the son of William and Mary Bryson. He has an older brother, Michael, and a sister, Mary Elizabeth. Bryson was educated at Drake University but dropped out in 1972, deciding to backpack around Europe for four months. He returned to Europe the following year with his high-school friend, the pseudonymous Stephen Katz. Some of his experiences from this trip are relived as flashbacks in Neither Here Nor There: Travels in Europe, which documents a similar journey Bryson made twenty years later. Bryson first visited the United Kingdom in 1973 during a tour of Europe, and decided to stay after landing a job working in a psychiatric hospital - the now defunct Holloway Sanatorium in Virginia Water, Surrey. He met a nurse there named Cynthia, whom he married, and they moved to the USA in 1975 so Bryson could complete his college degree, after which, in 1977, they settled in England, where they remained until 1995. Living in North Yorkshire and mainly working as a journalist, Bryson eventually became chief sub editor of the business section of The Times, and then deputy national news editor of the business section of The Independent. He left journalism in 1987, three years after the birth of his third child. Still living in Kirkby Malham, North Yorkshire, Bryson started writing independently and in 1990 their fourth and final child, Sam, was born. In 1995, Bryson returned to the United States to live in Hanover, New Hampshire for some years, the stories of which feature in his book I'm A Stranger Here Myself, alternatively titled Notes from a Big Country in the United Kingdom, Canada and Australia. In 2003, however, the Brysons and their four children returned to England, and now live near Wymondham, Norfolk. Also in 2003, in conjunction with World Book Day, voters in the United Kingdom chose Bryson's book Notes from a Small Island as that which best sums up British identity and the state of the nation. In the same year, he was appointed a Commissioner for English Heritage. In 2004, Bryson won the prestigious Aventis Prize for best general science book with A Short History of Nearly Everything. This 500-page popular literature piece explores not only the histories and current statuses of the sciences, but also reveals their humble and often humorous beginnings. Although one "top scientist" is alleged to have jokingly described the book as "annoyingly free of mistakes", Bryson himself makes no such claim, and a list of nine reported errors in the book is available online, identifying the chapter in which each appears but with no page or line references. In 2005, the book won the EU Descartes Prize for science communication. Bryson in the regalia of Chancellor of Durham University, with the Cathedral in the background Bryson has also written two popular works on the history of the English language — Mother Tongue and Made in America — and, more recently, an update of his guide to usage, Bryson's Dictionary of Troublesome Words (published in its first edition as The Penguin Dictionary of Troublesome Words in 1983). These books were popularly acclaimed and well-reviewed, though they received criticism from academics in the field, who claimed they contained factual errors, urban myths, and folk etymologies. Though Bryson has no formal linguistics qualifications, he is generally a well-regarded writer on the subject of languages. In 2005, Bryson was appointed Chancellor of Durham University, succeeding the late Sir Peter Ustinov, and has been particularly active with student activities, even appearing in a Durham student film: the sequel to The Assassinator and promoting litter picks in the city . He had praised Durham as "a perfect little city" in Notes from a Small Island. He has also been awarded honorary degrees by numerous universities, including Bournemouth University. In 2006, Frank Cownie, the mayor of Des Moines, awarded Bryson the key to the city and announced that 21 October 2006 would be known as, Bill Bryson - "The Thunderbolt Kid" day. http://www.randomhouse.com/features/billbryson/news/CityofDesMoinesProclamation.pdf In November 2006, Bryson interviewed the then Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Tony Blair on the state of science and education. On 13 December 2006, Bryson was awarded an honorary OBE for his contribution to literature. The following year, he was awarded the James Joyce Award of the Literary and Historical Society of University College Dublin. In January 2007, Bryson was the Schwartz Visiting Fellow of the Pomfret School in Connecticut. http://www.norwichbulletin.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20070121/NEWS01/70121003 In May 2007, he became the President of the Campaign to Protect Rural England. CPRE - Bill Bryson set to be CPRE's new President His first area focus in this role was the establishment of an anti-littering campaign across England. He discussed the future of the countryside with Richard Mabey, Sue Clifford, Nicholas Crane and Richard Girling at CPRE's Volunteer Conference in November 2007. Bibliography Travel The Palace Under the Alps and Over 200 Other Unusual, Unspoiled, and Infrequently Visited Spots in 16 European Countries (1985) The Lost Continent: Travels in Small-Town America (1989) Neither Here Nor There: Travels in Europe (1991) Notes from a Small Island (1995) (travels in the United Kingdom, his farewell to the country he was temporarily leaving; adapted for television by Carlton Television in 1998) A Walk in the Woods: Rediscovering America on the Appalachian Trail (1998) (co-stars Stephen Katz) Notes from a Big Country (UK) (1998?) / I'm a Stranger Here Myself (US) (1999) (columns about moving back to the USA) Down Under (UK) / In a Sunburned Country (US) (2000) (travels in Australia) Bill Bryson's African Diary (2002) (travels in Africa for CARE International, to whom all royalties and profits were donated) Walk About (2002) (Combined in one volume are Down Under and A Walk in the Woods) Language The Penguin Dictionary of Troublesome Words (1984) The Mother Tongue: English and How it Got That Way (1990) Made in America: An Informal History of the English Language in the United States (1994) Bryson's Dictionary of Troublesome Words (2002) Journeys in English (2004) (BBC 4 Radio production, based on The Mother Tongue) Bryson's Dictionary for Writers and Editors (2008) Science A Short History of Nearly Everything (2003) A Really Short History of Nearly Everything (2008) (Children's version of 2003 book) On the Shoulders of Giants (editor - 2009) Memoir The Life and Times of the Thunderbolt Kid (2006) Biography Shakespeare: The World as Stage (2007) References External links Official UK Bill Bryson website Bryson at Random House Official Bill Bryson Forum Bill Bryson - A short history of nearly everything presentation at the Royal Society A brief excerpt from The Life and Times of the Thunderbolt Kid The Life & Times of the Thunderbolt Kid Reviews at Metacritic BBC Wear - Bill Bryson loves Durham Interview with Bill Bryson about organ donation BBC Radio Five Live interview with Bill Bryson about the British countryside CPRE interview on the proposed South Downs National Park Interview with Bill Bryson about his career in travel writing. | Bill_Bryson |@lemmatized william:2 mcguire:1 bill:12 bryson:35 obe:2 bear:3 december:2 best:3 sell:1 american:1 author:1 humorous:2 book:11 travel:9 well:3 english:6 language:5 scientific:1 subject:2 resident:1 north:3 yorkshire:3 england:6 professional:1 life:5 move:3 back:2 u:3 live:6 norfolk:2 since:1 de:2 moines:2 iowa:1 son:1 mary:2 old:1 brother:1 michael:1 sister:1 elizabeth:1 educate:1 drake:1 university:6 drop:1 decide:2 backpack:1 around:1 europe:5 four:2 month:1 return:3 following:2 year:6 high:1 school:2 friend:1 pseudonymous:1 stephen:2 katz:2 experience:1 trip:1 relive:1 flashback:1 neither:2 document:1 similar:1 journey:2 make:4 twenty:1 later:1 first:3 visit:2 united:7 kingdom:5 tour:1 stay:1 land:1 job:1 work:3 psychiatric:1 hospital:1 defunct:1 holloway:1 sanatorium:1 virginia:1 water:1 surrey:1 meet:1 nurse:1 name:1 cynthia:1 marry:1 usa:2 could:1 complete:1 college:2 degree:2 settle:1 remain:1 mainly:1 journalist:1 eventually:1 become:2 chief:1 sub:1 editor:4 business:2 section:2 time:4 deputy:1 national:2 news:2 independent:1 leave:2 journalism:1 three:1 birth:1 third:1 child:4 still:1 kirkby:1 malham:1 start:1 write:2 independently:1 fourth:1 final:1 sam:1 state:4 hanover:1 new:2 hampshire:1 story:1 feature:2 stranger:2 alternatively:1 title:1 note:5 big:2 country:5 canada:1 australia:2 however:1 brysons:1 near:1 wymondham:1 also:4 conjunction:1 world:2 day:2 voter:1 choose:1 small:4 island:3 sum:1 british:2 identity:1 nation:1 appoint:2 commissioner:1 heritage:1 win:2 prestigious:1 aventis:1 prize:2 general:1 science:5 short:4 history:7 nearly:4 everything:4 page:2 popular:2 literature:2 piece:1 explore:1 current:1 status:1 reveal:1 humble:1 often:1 beginning:1 although:1 one:2 top:1 scientist:1 allege:1 jokingly:1 describe:1 annoyingly:1 free:1 mistake:1 claim:2 list:1 nine:1 reported:1 error:2 available:1 online:1 identify:1 chapter:1 appear:2 line:1 reference:2 eu:1 descartes:1 communication:1 regalia:1 chancellor:2 durham:5 cathedral:1 background:1 two:1 mother:3 tongue:3 america:4 recently:1 update:1 guide:1 usage:1 dictionary:5 troublesome:4 word:4 publish:1 edition:1 penguin:2 popularly:1 acclaim:1 review:2 though:2 receive:1 criticism:1 academic:1 field:1 contain:1 factual:1 urban:1 myth:1 folk:1 etymology:1 formal:1 linguistics:1 qualification:1 generally:1 regard:1 writer:2 succeed:1 late:1 sir:1 peter:1 ustinov:1 particularly:1 active:1 student:2 activity:1 even:1 film:1 sequel:1 assassinator:1 promote:1 litter:2 pick:1 city:3 praise:1 perfect:1 little:1 award:5 honorary:2 numerous:1 include:1 bournemouth:1 frank:1 cownie:1 mayor:1 key:1 announce:1 october:1 would:1 know:1 thunderbolt:4 kid:4 http:2 www:2 randomhouse:1 com:2 billbryson:1 cityofdesmoinesproclamation:1 pdf:1 november:2 interview:5 prime:1 minister:1 tony:1 blair:1 education:1 contribution:1 james:1 joyce:1 literary:1 historical:1 society:2 dublin:1 january:1 schwartz:1 fellow:1 pomfret:1 connecticut:1 norwichbulletin:1 apps:1 pbcs:1 dll:1 article:1 aid:1 may:1 president:2 campaign:2 protect:1 rural:1 cpre:4 set:1 area:1 focus:1 role:1 establishment:1 anti:1 across:1 discuss:1 future:1 countryside:2 richard:2 mabey:1 sue:1 clifford:1 nicholas:1 crane:1 girling:1 volunteer:1 conference:1 bibliography:1 palace:1 alp:1 unusual:1 unspoiled:1 infrequently:1 visited:1 spot:1 european:1 lose:1 continent:1 town:1 farewell:1 temporarily:1 adapt:1 television:2 carlton:1 walk:3 wood:2 rediscovering:1 appalachian:1 trail:1 co:1 star:1 uk:3 columns:1 sunburned:1 african:1 diary:1 africa:1 care:1 international:1 royalty:1 profit:1 donate:1 combine:1 volume:1 get:1 way:1 informal:1 bbc:3 radio:2 production:1 base:1 really:1 version:1 shoulder:1 giant:1 memoir:1 biography:1 shakespeare:1 stage:1 external:1 link:1 official:2 website:1 random:1 house:1 forum:1 presentation:1 royal:1 brief:1 excerpt:1 metacritic:1 wear:1 love:1 organ:1 donation:1 five:1 propose:1 south:1 downs:1 park:1 career:1 writing:1 |@bigram bill_bryson:12 de_moines:2 moines_iowa:1 psychiatric_hospital:1 folk_etymology:1 peter_ustinov:1 http_www:2 prime_minister:1 tony_blair:1 james_joyce:1 com_apps:1 apps_pbcs:1 pbcs_dll:1 appalachian_trail:1 external_link:1 review_metacritic:1 |
5,484 | Chicano | "Chicano teenager in El Paso's second ward. A classic barrio which is slowly giving way to urban renewal." South El Paso, Texas, July 1972. Photograph by Danny Lyon. Chicano teenagers in west Los Angeles, 1974 Chicano/Xicano (feminine Chicana/Xicana) is a word that derives from Nahuatl originally used to describe outcasts of the Mexica empire. The term began to be widely used during the Chicano Movement amongst mainly Mexican Americans, but it now, according to Gabriela Alcazar, expands to include all people who believe in, and are in the struggle for the self-determination of all Latino people. The terms Chicano and Chicana (also spelled Xicana) were originally used by, and in reference to U.S. citizens of Mexican descent. Etymology The origin of the word is not clear. Mexican researcher Villar Raso attempted to trace the origin to 1930s and 1940s California, although most Chicanos believe the terms far predates that assessment. Nevertheless, according to Raso, the term supposedly stems from "the inability of native Nahuatl speakers from Morelos state to refer to themselves as Mexicanos, and instead spoke of themselves as Mesheecanos, in accordance with the pronunciation rules of their language." It is also thought that the word may have roots in the term "Mejicano," an archaic Spanish and American spelling of "Mexicano," which through the last century linguistically evolved into "Jicano" or "Chicano". The pronunciation was supposedly misunderstood by some Mexican Americans, who exaggerated the sound. In both cases, the term and its pronunciation are similar to the Nahuatl word Mexica. Chicano poet and writer Tino Villanueva traces the first documented use of the term to 1911 as referenced in a then-unpublished essay by University of Texas anthropologist Jose Limón. Felix Rodriguez Gonzalez, ed. Spanish Loanwords in the English Language. A. Tendency towards Hegemony Reversal. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 1996. Villanueva is referring to Limón's essay "The Folk Performance of Chicano and the Cultural Limits of Political Ideology," available via ERIC. Limon refers to use of the word in a 1911 report entitled "Hot tamales" in the Spanish language newspaper La Cronica in 1911. Linguists Edward R. Simmen and Richard F. Bauerle report the use of the term in an essay by Mexican American writer, Mario Suarez, published in the Arizona Quarterly in 1947. Edward R. Simmen and Richard F. Bauerle. "Chicano: Origin and Meaning." American Speech 44.3 (Autumn 1969): 225-230. Mexican Americans were not identified as a racial/ethnic category prior to the 1980 US Census when the term Hispanic was first used. An alternate etymology that predates Raso holds that the conversion of the pronunciation of the "x" in Mexicano was converted to or as a term of endearment. Some believe that the word chicamo somehow became chicano, which, unlike chicamo, reflects the grammatical conventions of Spanish-language ethno- and demonyms, such as americano, castellano, or peruano. However, this is highly unlikely and Chicanos generally do not agree that "chicamo" was ever a word used within the culture as its assertion is thus far entirely unsubstantiated. Therefore, most Chicanos do not agree that Chicano was ever derived from the word "chicamo". There is ample literary evidence to further substantiate that Chicano is a self-declaration as a large body of Chicano literature exists with publication dates far predating the 1950s. There is also a substantial body of Chicano literature that predates both Raso and the Federal Census Bureau. As stated in the Handbook of Texas: "According to one explanation, the pre-Columbian tribes in Mexico called themselves Meshicas, and the Spaniards, employing the letter x (which at that time represented a sh and ch sound), spelled it Mexicas. The Indians later referred to themselves as Meshicanos and even as Shicanos, thus giving birth to the term Chicano." Thus far, the origins of the word remain inconclusive as the term is not used outside Mexican-American communities, further indicating that the term is primarily self-identifying. Meanings The term's meanings are highly debatable, but most Chicanos view the term as a positive self-identifying social construction. Outside of Mexican American communities the term might take on subjective view but usually consists of one or more of the following elements: Ethnic identity From a popular perspective, the term Chicano became widely visible outside of Chicano communities during the American civil rights movement, although it was commonly used as a historical point of reference within those communities for some time, during the mid 1960s by Mexican American activists, Moore, J. W., & Cuéllar, A. B. (1970). Mexican Americans. Ethnic groups in American life series. Englewood, Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall. p. 149. ISBN 0135794900 who, in attempt to reassert their civil rights, rid the word of its polarizing negative connotation, and reasserted a unique ethnic identity and political consciousness, reconfiguring its meaning by proudly identifying themselves as Chicanos. Political identity According to the Handbook of Texas: Inspired by the courage of the farmworkers, by the California strikes led by César Chávez, and by the Anglo-American youth revolt of the period, many Mexican-American university students came to participate in a crusade for social betterment that was known as the Chicano movement. They used Chicano to denote their rediscovered heritage, their youthful assertiveness, and their militant agenda. Though these students and their supporters used Chicano to refer to the entire Mexican-American population, they understood it to have a more direct application to the politically active parts of the Tejano community. At certain points in the 1970s, Chicano was the preferred, politically correct term to use in reference to Mexican-Americans, particularly in the scholarly literature. However, as the term became politicized, its use fell out of favor as a means of referring to the entire population. Since then, Chicano has tended to refer to politicized Mexican-Americans. Sabine Ulibarri, an author from Tierra Amarilla, New Mexico, once attempted to note that Chicano was a politically "loaded" term, although Ulibarri has recanted that assessment. Chicano is considered to be a positive term of honor by many. Ambiguous identity In the 1991 Culture Clash play "A Bowl of Beings", in response to Che Guevara's demand for a definition of "Chicano", an "armchair activist" cries out, "I still don't know!!" Bruce Novoa: "A Chicano lives in the space between the hyphen in Mexican-American", . . Houston: , 1990. For Chicanos, the term usually implies being "neither from here, nor from there" in reference to the U.S. and Mexico respectively. As a mixture of cultures from both countries, being Chicano represents the struggle of being accepted into the Anglo-dominated society of the United States while maintaining the cultural sense developed as a Latino-cultured U.S. born Mexican child. Indigenous identity Ruben Salazar: "A Chicano is a Mexican-American with a non-Anglo image of himself." Leo Limón: "...because that's what a Chicano is, an indigenous Mexican American". Another theory is the origin of such terminology is from the Maya temple, Chichen Itza in the Yucatan Peninsula, a ruin of an ancient MesoAmerican civlization about 1,500 years ago. Chicano may be a Hispanized word for Chichen or the Mayan descendants, not limited to Aztec descendants or Nahuatl people. Political device Reies Tijerina: "The Anglo press degradized the word 'Chicano'. They use it to divide us. We use it to unify ourselves with our people and with Latin America." However, it should be noted that Reies Tijerina was a vocal claimant to the rights of Hispanics and Mexican Americans, and he remains a major figure of the early Chicano Movement. Term of derision Long a disparaging term in Mexico, the term Chicano gradually transformed from a class-based term of derision to one of ethnic pride and general usage within Mexican-American communities beginning with the rise of the Chicano movement in the 1960s. In their "Latinas in the United States: A Historical Encyclopedia," Vicki Ruíz and Virginia Sánchez report that demographic differences in the adoption of the term existed; because of the prior vulgar connotations, it was more likely to be used by males than females, and as well, less likely to be used among those in a higher socioeconomic status. Usage was also generational, with the more assimilated third-generation members (again, more likely male) likely to adopt the usage. This group was also younger, of more radical persuasion, and less connected to a Mexican cultural heritage. Vicki L. Ruiz & Virginia Sanchez Korrol, editors. Latinas in the United States: A Historical Encyclopedia. Indiana University Press, 2006. Maria Herrera-Sobek. Chicano folklore; a handbook. Greenwood Press 2006. In his essay "Chicanismo" in The Oxford Encyclopedia of Mesoamerican Cultures (2002), Jose Cuellar dates the transition from derisive to positive to the late 1950s, with a usage by young Mexican-American high school students. José B. Cuéllar. CHICANISMO/XICANISM@. In: Davíd Carrasco, Editor-in-Chief. The Oxford Encyclopedia of Mesoamerican Cultures: The Civilizations of Mexico and Central America, Oxford University Press, 2002 Outside of Mexican American communities, the term might assume a negative meaning if it is used in a manner that embodies the prejudices and bigotries long directed at Mexican and Mexican-American people in the United States. For example, in one case, a prominent Chicana feminist writer and poet has indicated the following subjective meaning through her creative work. Ana Castillo: "[a] marginalized, brown woman who is treated as a foreigner and is expected to do menial labor and ask nothing of the society in which she lives." Ana Castillo has referred to herself as a Chicana, and her literary work reflects that she primarily considers the term to be a positive one of self-determination and political solidarity. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ana_Castillo The Mexican archeologist and anthropologist Manuel Gamio reported in 1930 that the term chicamo (with an "m") was used as a derogatory term used by Hispanic Texans for recently arrived Mexican immigrants displaced during the Mexican revolution in the beginning of the early 20th century. At this time, the term Chicano began to reference those who resisted total assimilation, while the term Pochos referred (often pejoratively) to those who strongly advocated assimilation. See: Adalberto M. Guerrero, Macario Saldate, IV, and Salomon R. Baldenegro. "Chicano: the term and its meanings." A Paper Written for Hispanic Heritage Month. Arizona Association of Chicanos for Higher Education 1999 conference Newsletter. Supposedly, in some non-indigenous social circles in Mexico which by American standards would be considered classist or racist, the term is associated with a Mexican-American person of low importance class and poor morals. The term Chicano is not widely known or used in Mexico since indigenous groups which originated the term are a very small minority of the country's largely mestizo population. Rejection While many Mexican Americans embrace the term Chicano, others prefer to identify themselves as: American (sometimes the term first like "American-Mexican") American of Mexican descent Hispanic Hispanic American Hispano/a Latino/a Latin American Mexican(o/a) Mexican American Spanish Spanish American "Brown" people, race, pride, etc. Californio, Nuevomexicano (New Mexican Spanish) or Tejano/a. Norteño as in the Mexicans referred the Southwest U.S. as el Norte as opposed to Sureño, although anyone from the U.S. is NorteAmericano, since Mexico and Latin America (Central and South) long identified themselves as Americanos. Mexican Americans don't actually call themselves Norteños. The only people who identify themselves as Norteños are Chicanos from Northern California, compared to Sureño or Chicanos from Southern California and from areas of Arizona or New Mexico adjacent to the Mexican border (or Mexicans in general). The term can mean a Northern Mexican or "Mexicano del Norte" versus Southern Mexican or "Mexicano del sur". Social aspects Chicanos, regardless of their generational status, tend to connect their culture to the indigenous peoples of North America and to a nation of Aztlán. According to the Aztec legend, Aztlán is a region; Chicano nationalists have equated it with the Southwestern United States. Some historians may place Aztlán in Nayarit or the Caribbean while other historians entirely disagree, and make a distinction between legend and the contemporary socio-political ideology. Political aspects Many currents came together to produce the revived Chicano political movement of the 1960s and 1970s. Early struggles were against school segregation, but the Mexican American cause, or La Causa as it was called, soon came under the banner of the United Farm Workers and César Chávez. However,Corky Gonzales and Reies Tijerina (not a native New Mexican) stirred up old tensions about New Mexican land claims with roots going back to before the Mexican-American War. Simultaneous movements like the Young Lords, to empower youth, question patriarchy, democratize the Church, end police brutality, and end the Vietnam War all intersected with other ethnic nationalist, peace, countercultural, and feminist movements. Since Chicanismo covers a wide array of political, religious and ethnic beliefs, and not everybody agrees with what exactly a Chicano is, most new Latino immigrants see it as a lost cause, as a lost culture, because Chicanos don't identify with Mexico or wherever their parents migrated from as new immigrants do. So in essence new immigrants are not Chicanos and their kids will not be Chicanos because Chicanoism is now only being prolonged by academics; it's an appreciation of a historical movement. For some, Chicano ideals involve a rejection of borders. The 1848 Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo transformed the Rio Grande region from a rich cultural center to a rigid border poorly enforced by the United States government. At the end of the Mexican-American War, 80,000 Spanish-Mexican-Indian people were forced into sudden U.S. habitation. As a result, Chicano identification is aligned with the idea of Aztlán, which extends to the Aztec period of Mexico, celebrating a time preceding land division. Paired with the dissipation of militant political efforts of the Chicano movement in the 1960s was the emergence of the Chicano generation. Like their political predecessors, the Chicano generation rejects the "immigrant/foreigner" categorization status. Hurtado Chicano identity has expanded from its political origins to incorporate a broader community vision of social integration and nonpartisan political participation. The shared Spanish language, Catholic faith, close contact with their political homeland (Mexico) to the south, a history of labor segregation, ethnic exclusion and racial discrimination encourage a united Chicano or Mexican folkloric tradition in the United States. Ethnic cohesiveness is a resistance strategy to assimilation and the accompanying cultural dissolution. Cultural aspects The term Chicano is also used to describe the literary, artistic, and musical movements that emerged with the Chicano Movement. Literature Chicano literature tends to focus on themes of identity, discrimination, and culture, with an emphasis on validating Mexican American and Chicano culture in the United States. Rodolfo "Corky" Gonzales's "Yo Soy Joaquin" is one of the first examples of Chicano poetry, while José Antonio Villarreal's Pocho is widely recognized as the first major Chicano/a novel. Other important writers in the genre include Rudolfo Anaya, Sandra Cisneros, Gary Soto and Oscar Zeta Acosta. Arts QuetzalCoatlicue dance troupe member evokes the spirit of the four winds to bless the first train of the Hiawatha Line Rail to arrive at Midtown Station. The Hiawatha Project. Minneapolis, Minn.; United States. 2004. In the visual arts, works by Chicanos address similar themes as works in literature. The preferred media for Chicano art are murals and graphic arts. San Diego's Chicano Park, home to the largest collection of murals in the world, was created as an outgrowth of the city's political movement by Chicanos. Rasquache art is a unique style subset of the Chicano Arts movement. Chicano performance art blends humor and pathos for tragi-comic effect as shown by Los Angeles' comedy troupe Culture Clash and Mexican-born performance artist Guillermo Gomez-Pena. One of the most powerful and far-reaching cultural aspects of Chicano culture is the indigenous current that strongly roots Chicano culture to the American continent. It also unifies Chicanismo within the larger Pan Indian Movement. Since its arrival in 1974, what is known as Danza Azteca in the U.S., (and known by several names in its homeland of the central States of Mexico: danza Conchera, De la Conquista, Chichimeca, etc.) has had a deep impact in Chicano muralism, graphic design, tattoo art (flash), poetry, music, and literature. Lowrider cars also figure prominently as functional art in the Chicano community. Music Lalo Guerrero is regarded as the "founder of Chicano music". Beginning in the 1930s, he wrote songs in the big band and swing genres that were popular at the time. He expanded his repertoire to include songs written in traditional genres of the Mexican music, and during the farmworkers' rights campaign, wrote music in support of César Chávez and the United Farm Workers. Rock Chicano Rock musician Carlos Santana. In the 1960s and 1970s, a wave of Chicano rock surfaced through innovative musicians Johnny Rodriguez, Ritchie Valens, Carlos Santana, Linda Ronstadt. Joan Baez, who was also of Mexican-American descent, included Hispanic themes in some of her protest folk songs. Chicano rock is rock music performed by Chicano groups or music with themes derived from Chicano culture. There are two undercurrents in Chicano rock. One is a devotion to the original rhythm and blues roots of Rock and roll including Ritchie Valens, Sunny and the Sunglows, and ? and the Mysterians. Groups inspired by this include Sir Douglas Quintet, Thee Midniters, Los Lobos, War, Tierra, and El Chicano, and, of course, the Chicano Blues Man himself, the late Randy Garribay. The second theme is the openness to Latin American sounds and influences. Trini Lopez, Santana, Malo, Azteca, Toro, Ozomatli and other Chicano Latin Rock groups follow this approach. Chicano rock crossed paths of other Latin rock genres (Rock en espanol) by Cubans, Puerto Ricans, and South America (La Nueva Cancion). Rock band The Mars Volta combines elements of progressive rock with traditional Mexican folk music and Latin rhythms along with Cedric Bixler-Zavala's Spanglish lyrics. Chicano punk is a branch of Chicano rock. Examples of the genre include music by the bands Los Illegals, The Brat, The Plugz, Manic Hispanic and the Cruzados; these bands emerged from the Los Angeles punk scene. Some music historians argue that Chicanos of Los Angeles in the late 1970s might have independently co-founded punk rock along with the already-acknowledged founders from British-European sources when introduced to the US in major cities. The rock band ? Mark and the Mysterians, which was comprised primarily of Mexican American musicians, was the first band to be described as punk rock. The term was reportedly coined in 1971 by rock critic Dave Marsh in a review of their show for Creem magazine. Jazz Although Latin Jazz is most popularly associated with artists from the Caribbean (particularly Cuba) and Brazil, young Mexican Americans have played a role in its development over the years, going back to the 1930s and early 1940s, the era of the zoot suit, when young Mexican American musicians in Los Angeles began to experiment with banda, a Jazz-like Mexican music that has grown recently in popularity among Mexican Americans such as Jenni Rivera. Rap Chicano rap is a unique style of hip hop music which started with Kid Frost, who began using Spanish in the early 1990s. While Mellow Man Ace was the first mainstream rapper to use Spanglish, Frost's song "La Raza" paved the way for its use in American hip hop. Chicano rap tends to discuss themes of importance to young urban Chicanos. Some of today's Chicano artists include Lil Rob, SPM, Baby Bash, Chingo Bling, and Aztlan Underground. Pop & R&B Paula DeAnda, Frankie J, old member of the Kumbia Kings and associated with Baby Bash. Other Other famous Chicano/Mexican American singers include Selena, who sang a variety of Mexican, Tejano, and American popular music, but was killed at age 23 in 1995; Zack de la Rocha, lead vocalist of Rage Against the Machine and social activist; and Los Lonely Boys, a Texas style country rock band who have not ignored their Mexican American roots in their music. In recent years, a growing Tex-Mex polka band trend from Mexican immigrants (i.e. Conjunto or Norteño) has influenced much of new Chicano folk music, especially in large market Spanish language radio stations and on television music video programs in the U.S. The band Quetzal is known for its political songs, while the Kumbia Kings had combined Mexican regional: cumbia, merengue and tropical, with American rap, hip-hop and rock rhythms, and Daddy Yankee although Puerto Rican, has connected well to Mexican-American/Chicano music styles. Radio La Chusma is a Chicano Reggae band from El Paso mixing Aztec, African, and rock roots with a pro-immigration/ earth-spirit message. See also Caló (Chicano) Casta Chicanismo Chicano movement Chicano nationalism Chicano Rap Chicano studies Cholo Ethnicity (United States Census) List of Mexican Americans Los Siete de la Raza Mestizo Mexican Americans Murals, i.e. Chicano Park, San Diego Pachuco Race (U.S. Census) Tejano White Hispanic (US) Notes References John R. Chavez (1984). "The Lost Land: A Chicano Image of the American Southwest", New Mexico University Publications. F. Arturo Rosales, "Chicano! The History of the Mexican American Civil Rights Movement" (Houston: Arte Publico Press, 1996). ISBN 1-55885-201-8 Further reading Natalia Molina, Fit to Be Citizens?: Public Health and Race in Los Angeles, 1879-1940, University of California Press, 2006. External links Home of the March 25 Coalition, Latinos For Peace, Latinos Against the War and The Art of Aztlan Chicano Party Nuevo Plan de Aztlan for the 21st Century Chicano Forum Corky Gonzalez and the Young Lords California Ethnic and Multicultural Archives - In the Chicano/Latino Collections California Ethnic and Multicultural Archives - Digital Chicano Art ImaginArte - Interpreting and Re-imaging Chican@Art Calisphere > California Cultures > Hispanic Americans The Original Chicano Webzine - News, Discussions and Commentaries Miscellaneous | Chicano |@lemmatized chicano:109 teenager:2 el:5 paso:3 second:2 ward:1 classic:1 barrio:1 slowly:1 give:2 way:2 urban:2 renewal:1 south:4 texas:5 july:1 photograph:1 danny:1 lyon:1 west:1 los:10 angeles:6 xicano:1 feminine:1 chicana:4 xicana:2 word:12 derive:3 nahuatl:4 originally:2 use:26 describe:3 outcast:1 mexica:2 empire:1 term:42 begin:6 widely:4 movement:17 amongst:1 mainly:1 mexican:67 american:58 accord:5 gabriela:1 alcazar:1 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5,485 | Autobiography | An autobiography (from the Greek, αὐτός-autos self + βίος-bios life + γράφειν-graphein to write) is a biography written by its subject (or sometimes, in modern usage, composed conjointly with a collaborative writer , styled "as told to" or "with"). Origin of the term The word autobiography was first used by the poet Robert Southey in 1809 in the English periodical Quarterly Review, but the form goes back to antiquity. Biographers generally rely on a wide variety of documents and viewpoints; an autobiography however may be based entirely on the writer's memory. Closely associated with autobiography (and sometimes difficult to precisely distinguish from it) is the form of memoir. See List of autobiographies and :Category:Autobiographies for examples. Also see main article Memoir. Nature of autobiography The classical period: Apologia, oration, confession In antiquity such works were typically entitled apologia, implying as much self-justification as self-documentation. John Henry Newman's autobiography (first published in 1864) is entitled Apologia Pro Vita Sua in reference to this tradition. The pagan rhetor Libanius (c. 314–394) framed his life memoir (Oration I begun in 374) as one of his orations, not of a public kind, but of a literary kind that could be read aloud in privacy. Augustine (354–430) applied the title Confessions to his autobiographical work, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau used the same title in the 18th century, initiating the chain of confessional and sometimes racy and highly self-critical, autobiographies of the Romantic era and beyond. In the spirit of Augustine's Confessions is the 11th-century Historia Calamitatum of Peter Abelard, outstanding as an autobiographical document of its period. Early autobiographies Zāhir ud-Dīn Mohammad Bābur,who founded the Mughal dynasty of South Asia kept a journal Bāburnāma (Chagatai/; literally: "Book of Babur" or "Letters of Babur") which was written between 1493 and 1529. One of the first great autobiographies of the Renaissance is that of the sculptor and goldsmith Benvenuto Cellini (1500–1571), written between 1556 and 1558, and entitled by him simply Vita (Italian: Life). He declares at the start: 'No matter what sort he is, everyone who has to his credit what are or really seem great achievements, if he cares for truth and goodness, ought to write the story of his own life in his own hand; but no one should venture on such a splendid undertaking before he is over forty'. Benvenuto Cellini, tr. George Bull, The Autobiography, London 1966 p. 15 These criteria for autobiography generally persisted until recent times, and most serious autobiographies of the next three hundred years conformed to them. Another autobiography of the period is De vita propria, by the Italian physician and astrologer Gerolamo Cardano (1574). The earliest known autobiography in English is the early 15th-century Booke of Margery Kempe, describing among other things her pilgrimage to the Holy Land and visit to Rome. The book remained in manuscript and was not published until 1936. Notable English autobiographies of the seventeenth century include those of Lord Herbert of Cherbury (1643, published 1764) and John Bunyan (Grace Abounding to the Chief of Sinners, (1666)). Memoir A memoir is slightly different in character from an autobiography. While an autobiography typically focuses on the "life and times" of the writer, a memoir has a narrower, more intimate focus on his or her own memories, feelings and emotions. Memoirs have often been written by politicians or military leaders as a way to record and publish an account of their public exploits. The English Civil War (1642–1651) provoked a number of examples of this genre, including works by Sir Edmund Ludlow and Sir John Reresby. French examples from the same period include the memoirs of Cardinal de Retz (1614–1679) and the Duc de Saint-Simon (1675–1755). 18th and 19th centuries Notable 18th-century autobiographies in English include those of Edward Gibbon and Benjamin Franklin. Following the trend of Romanticism, which greatly emphasised the role and the nature of the individual, and in the footsteps of Jean-Jacques Rousseau's Confessions, a more intimate form of autobiography, exploring the subject's emotions, came into fashion. An English example is William Hazlitt's Liber Amoris (1823), a painful examination of the writer's love-life. With the rise of education, cheap newspapers and cheap printing, modern concepts of fame and celebrity began to develop, and the beneficiaries of this were not slow to cash in on this by producing autobiographies. It became the expectation — rather than the exception — that those in the public eye should write about themselves — not only writers such as Charles Dickens (who also incorporated autobiographical elements in his novels) and Anthony Trollope, but politicians (e.g. Henry Brooks Adams), philosophers (e.g. John Stuart Mill), churchmen such as Cardinal Newman, and entertainers such as P. T. Barnum. Increasingly, in accordance with romantic taste, these accounts also began to deal, amongst other topics, with aspects of childhood and upbringing — far removed from the principles of 'Cellinian' autobiography. Versions of the autobiography form Diary Diaries were originally written for personal reference, but the successful publication of the diaries of the English 17th-century civil servant and bon viveur Samuel Pepys in 1825 (transcribed from his manuscript in shorthand) drew attention to the possibilities of the diary as a form of autobiography in its own right. From the 20th century onwards, diary publication became a popular vehicle for politicians seeking vindication. Notable British examples have included the diaries of Richard Crossman and Tony Benn. Autobiographies as critiques of totalitarianism Victims and opponents of totalitarian regimes have been able to present striking critiques of these regimes through autobiographical accounts of their oppression. Among the more renowned of such works are the writings of Primo Levi, one of many personal accounts of the Shoah. Similarly, there are many works detailing atrocities and malevolence of Communist regimes (e.g., Nadezhda Mandelstam's Hope against Hope. From the Bed-Stuy, New York area; Sensationalist and celebrity 'autobiographies' From the 17th century onwards, "scandalous memoirs" by supposed libertines, serving a public taste for titillation, have been frequently published. Typically pseudonymous, they were (and are) largely works of fiction written by ghostwriters. So-called "autobiographies" of modern professional athletes and media celebrities—and to a lesser extent about politicians, generally written by a ghostwriter, are routinely published. Some celebrities, such as Naomi Campbell, admit to not having read their "autobiographies." Autobiographies of the non-famous Until recent years, few people without some genuine claim to fame wrote or published autobiographies for the general public. With the critical and commercial success in the United States of such memoirs as Angela's Ashes and The Color of Water, however, more and more people have been encouraged to try their hand at this genre. Fake autobiographies This trend has also encouraged fake autobiographies, particularly those associated with 'misery lit,' where the writer has allegedly suffered from being a part of a dysfunctional family, or from social problems, or political repression. Fictional autobiography The term "fictional autobiography" has been coined to define novels about a fictional character written as though the character were writing their own biography, of which Daniel Defoe's Moll Flanders, is an early example. Charles Dickens' David Copperfield is another such classic, and J. D. Salinger's Catcher in the Rye is a well-known modern example of fictional autobiography. Charlotte Bronte's Jane Eyre is yet another example of fictional autobiography, as noted on the front page of the original version. The term may also apply to works of fiction purporting to be autobiographies of real characters, e.g., Stephen Marlowe's The Death and Life of Miguel de Cervantes. References Notes Books about autobiography See also :Category:Autobiographies Alphabiography Autobiographical comics Autobiographical novel Autobiographical songs Biography Diary Fake memoirs Family history Historical document List of autobiographies Memoir | Autobiography |@lemmatized autobiography:41 greek:1 αὐτός:1 auto:1 self:4 βίος:1 bios:1 life:7 γράφειν:1 graphein:1 write:13 biography:3 subject:2 sometimes:3 modern:4 usage:1 compose:1 conjointly:1 collaborative:1 writer:6 style:1 told:1 origin:1 term:3 word:1 first:3 use:2 poet:1 robert:1 southey:1 english:7 periodical:1 quarterly:1 review:1 form:5 go:1 back:1 antiquity:2 biographer:1 generally:3 rely:1 wide:1 variety:1 document:3 viewpoint:1 however:2 may:2 base:1 entirely:1 memory:2 closely:1 associate:2 difficult:1 precisely:1 distinguish:1 memoir:12 see:3 list:2 category:2 example:8 also:6 main:1 article:1 nature:2 classical:1 period:4 apologia:3 oration:3 confession:4 work:7 typically:3 entitle:3 imply:1 much:1 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dickens:2 incorporate:1 element:1 novel:3 anthony:1 trollope:1 e:4 g:4 brook:1 adams:1 philosopher:1 stuart:1 mill:1 churchman:1 entertainer:1 barnum:1 increasingly:1 accordance:1 taste:2 deal:1 amongst:1 topic:1 aspect:1 childhood:1 upbringing:1 far:1 remove:1 principle:1 cellinian:1 version:2 diary:7 originally:1 personal:2 successful:1 publication:2 servant:1 bon:1 viveur:1 samuel:1 pepys:1 transcribe:1 shorthand:1 draw:1 attention:1 possibility:1 right:1 onwards:2 popular:1 vehicle:1 seek:1 vindication:1 british:1 richard:1 crossman:1 tony:1 benn:1 critique:2 totalitarianism:1 victim:1 opponent:1 totalitarian:1 regime:3 able:1 present:1 strike:1 oppression:1 renowned:1 writing:1 primo:1 levi:1 many:2 shoah:1 similarly:1 detail:1 atrocity:1 malevolence:1 communist:1 nadezhda:1 mandelstam:1 hope:2 bed:1 stuy:1 new:1 york:1 area:1 sensationalist:1 scandalous:1 supposed:1 libertine:1 serve:1 titillation:1 frequently:1 pseudonymous:1 largely:1 fiction:2 ghostwriter:2 call:1 professional:1 athlete:1 medium:1 less:1 extent:1 routinely:1 naomi:1 campbell:1 admit:1 non:1 famous:1 people:2 without:1 genuine:1 claim:1 general:1 commercial:1 success:1 united:1 state:1 angela:1 ash:1 color:1 water:1 encourage:2 try:1 fake:3 particularly:1 misery:1 lit:1 allegedly:1 suffer:1 part:1 dysfunctional:1 family:2 social:1 problem:1 political:1 repression:1 fictional:5 coin:1 define:1 though:1 daniel:1 defoe:1 moll:1 flanders:1 david:1 copperfield:1 classic:1 j:1 salinger:1 catcher:1 rye:1 well:1 charlotte:1 bronte:1 jane:1 eyre:1 yet:1 note:2 front:1 page:1 original:1 purporting:1 real:1 stephen:1 marlowe:1 death:1 miguel:1 cervantes:1 alphabiography:1 comic:1 song:1 history:1 historical:1 |@bigram robert_southey:1 read_aloud:1 jean_jacques:2 jacques_rousseau:2 peter_abelard:1 ud_dīn:1 gerolamo_cardano:1 edmund_ludlow:1 edward_gibbon:1 benjamin_franklin:1 william_hazlitt:1 charles_dickens:2 stuart_mill:1 samuel_pepys:1 tony_benn:1 totalitarian_regime:1 primo_levi:1 daniel_defoe:1 moll_flanders:1 david_copperfield:1 j_salinger:1 charlotte_bronte:1 jane_eyre:1 |
5,486 | Jupiter_Ace | The Jupiter Ace was a British home computer of the early 1980s, produced by a company, set up for the purpose, named Jupiter Cantab. The Ace differed Page1 from other microcomputers of the time in that it used FORTH instead of the traditional BASIC. FORTH systems combine high performance and code compactness Page2 with the programming benefits of high-level programming languages Page4 . The designers had the courage to deliver November 1982 (Volume 1 Number 4) FORTH's many advantages to the public, education and industry Page3 . Introduction Jupiter Cantab was formed by Richard Altwasser and Steven Vickers. Both had been on the design team for the Sinclair ZX Spectrum. Altwasser did some work on the development of the ZX-81 and in the design of the hardware of the Spectrum. Vickers adapted and expanded the 4K ZX-80 ROM to the 8K ZX-81 ROM and wrote most of the ROM for the Spectrum. The Jupiter Ace was named after the early British computer, the ACE. The name was chosen to emphasize the "firsts" of using the FORTH language and resulting performance. FORTH is a threaded code programming language that also acted as operating system. The system was adapted to the disk-less tape-using home computer hardware. On average, and for similar programs, ACE's FORTH was 5 times faster and needing half the RAM (RAM was an expensive luxury at the time) of an equivalent program written in interpreted BASIC. ACE's FORTH made it a very fast microcomputer and simultaneously one that promoted both well structured code and modular programming. Forth programs usage tends to be more RAM efficient as the bigger programs are, the more they reuse previously-defined code James, John S.: "Byte Magazine, 1980, Aug. - What is Forth?", page 102, "Characteristics of FORTH Code" section . System characteristics A small Jupiter ACE system The Jupiter ACE is often compared with ZX81 due to its similar size, low cost, and similar form factor, although internally it is an independent design. The ZX81 used 75% of its Z80 CPU time to drive the video. In ACE the Z80 CPU was fully used for running programs. The ACE used dedicated video memory of 2 KB, leaving the 1 KB main memory free for user programming. The Jupiter-Ace was new to the market and the designers couldn't afford to use an ULA - which were common in other computers (such as the ZX 81) to reduce component count - because these weren't economical in small quantities. Instead they reduced the number of chips required by using clever design. Like the Spectrum, the Ace used black rubber keys. Audio capabilities were CPU controlled with programmable frequency and duration. Sound output was through a small built-in speaker. A television was needed as a display - which was in black and white only. Programs and data storage was by means of a common cassette tape, which was typical of home computers of the time. Specifications Processor : Zilog Z80 clocked at 3.25 MHz. Memory : 1 KB, expandable up to 49 KB. Video : Independent sub-system using dedicated 2 banks of 1 KB making a total of 2 KB of extra VRAM. Sound : Internal Speaker. Keyboard : was the same type used in the Spectrum, but avoiding single-keyword entry (due to the extensible nature of the residing Forth language). Expansion : 2 connectors: One (standard, CPU related) similar to the one in the ZX-81. The other (extra) connecting to the Video sub-system. References to the ACE RAM usually include the 2 KB video memory, like the Sinclair computers did, leading to some confusion. Hardware Video : One 1K bank allowed redefinition of most of its 128 characters ASCII based characters in 8×8 pixel bitmap format. The other 1K bank stored the full screen display of 24 rows x 32 columns of characters in black and white. So while the Ace had only one text video mode, redefinition of the character shapes could provide graphics in a low resolution of 64x48, and a higher resolution mode of 256x192 graphics, limited by the 128 available (definable) 8x8 chars. Both graphics and text could be displayed at the same time. The font of the character set was identical to that of the Spectrum, but the display was white on black instead of color. Although a color graphics board was designed article in ETI Magazine, April 1984 none was ever commercialized. Sound An internal speaker was directly controlled by the CPU in single task mode, with control of sound frequency and its duration in milliseconds. External Storage : Storage was through a cassette tape interface at 1500 baud. Add-Ons : Originally developed to receive ZX-81 add-ons, with a compatible expansion slot, it was actually delivered in a different configuration. A simple rewiring adapter could be used, but not very effective due to power losses. Dedicated add-ons were needed and built by external companies, after the initial 16KB by Jupiter Cantab. RAM Pack 16KB by Jupiter Cantab. Pace 16KB and 32KB by Stonechip Electronics. Pack 48KB by Boldfield (new Jupiter ACE owner after Jupiter Cantab). Keyboard Memotech Keyboard, by Memotech. Sound SoundBoard (1983) by Essex Micro Electronics, Storage Jet-Disc Disc Drive System (1983) by MPE (control up to four 3", 5", or 8" drives). Drive Disk Controler (1985) by MPE (compatible with most makes of 5¼" floppy disc units and some types of 3" drive). Printer Adapters ADS Centronics Interface Machine (1983), by Advanced Digital Systems, RS232 & Centronics PrinterCard (1984) by Essex Micro Electronics. Firmware The ACE had an 8 KB ROM containing the Forth kernel and operating system, and the predefined dictionary of Forth words in about 5KB. The remaining 3KB of ROM were used for tape control, floating point numbers library and character definitions table . Some of the ROM was written in Z80 machine code, but some was also coded in Forth, both maximizing the number of functions available in ROM and also maximizing the RAM space for extensions. The next 8 KB were split in 2 blocks of 4KB each. The video subsystem access allowing two different priorities by the user to the 2KB VRAM, Regular or Overriding video. The 1 KB of user RAM was only partially decoded, so it echoed to fill the next 4 kB block. So a 16KB space was used for ROM, VIDEO, and USER, leaving free a 16KB space for RAM extension plus 32KB space free for all possible usages. ACE's Forth ACE's Forth Vocabulary The major visible difference from previous introductory computers, was Forth as its default programming language. Forth was considered well adapted to microcomputers with small memory and relatively low-performance processors. Forth allowed control structures to be nested to any level, limited only by available memory. Forth allowed implementation of machine code routines, if needed for a particular task. Forth also allowed recursive programing, if desired. On the downside, the usage of a data stack and the associated Reverse Polish notation were as unfamiliar as was Structured programming. ACE's Forth, maybe more correctly named as Jupiter Forth, was based mostly on Forth-79, with some relevant differences. Vickers, S: "Jupiter ACE Manual", page 176, 1982. Runtime error checking could be turned off to get a speed improvement of 25% to 50%. A few extra words were named similar to known BASIC sound, video and tape commands, as behavior was the same. The implementation lacked less frequently used Forth words, but these were easily implemented if needed. The ACE's dialect of FORTH introduced several innovations. It simplified usual Forth definer and compiler words creation, with the CREATE .. DOES> Winfield, Alan: "The Complete Forth", Chapter 9 "Extending FORTH", Sigma Technical Press, 1983. , creation pair with: DEFINER .... DOES> : Create new Defining words, usually used to define and build data data structures, Vickers, S: "Jupiter ACE Manual", page 120, 1982. ( Examples: Arrays, Records, ... ). COMPILER .. RUNS> : Create new Compiling words, less frequently used to extend the language with new control structures. Vickers, S: "Jupiter ACE Manual", page 136, 1982. ( Examples: Case, Infinite-Loop, ... ). As an operating system, it was adapted to Tape usage, saving/loading user vocabularies instead of the usual numbered programing blocks used in diskette systems. The ACE's Forth could decompile its programs, unlike usual Forth systems. This decompiling ability had several advantages as a solution to the absence of the more flexible disk system used by Forth. It did not store the text of a Forth program, instead it compiled the code after editing and stored it in ready-to-run format. While this saved RAM it also saved time in reading and writing programs from cassette tape. This tape-friendly and RAM-saving solution was unique to the Jupiter ACE Forth. Commercial Though Forth delivered several advantages over the interpreted BASIC used on all other home computers, the weak box and small initial memory kept the sales low in spite of technical interest. Reviews in magazines attracted interest in the ACE and its characteristics. Models Jupiter ACE 4000 1982 - Original Jupiter ACE in a yogurt-pot type of case - Reported 8000 units built. 1983 - Jupiter ACE 4000 on stronger injection moulded case - Reported 800 units built. Sales Sales of the machine were never very large; as of the early 2000s, surviving machines are quite uncommon, fetching high prices as collector's items. One main reason for low sales seems to have been the need to buy an extra 16KB RAM-extension which almost doubled the ACE's price. It happened that the designed 4 KB of base RAM was not built in favor of the less expensive 1 KB delivered. Industry and Education did not respond apparently because of the weak case, later replaced in the new ACE4000 model. As for the public, the absence of color kept the ACE squarely in a niche market of programming enthusiasts. It must be understood that with ACE's Forth, 1 KB was equivalent to 2 KB (on average) in Sinclair computers, used here as reference. It was a real limit nonetheless. Notice that an initial 4 KB (in design) would be the equivalent of about 8 KB in Sinclair BASIC. With the designed 4 KB, though the final price would be slightly more expensive, the ACE would have been much more useful and attractive starting right from the base model. Education Its full discrete logic construction makes this home computer an excellent choice to clone for digital electronics, programming learning and small languages study. An added advantage for educators is that Forth is a high level language but still very close to the hardware. Its design blueprints are available for study and construction, as is its ROM file and code. References External links 1982 News: An interview with Richard Altwasser and Steven Vickers. The Editorial on P.C.Today, commenting The ACE launch. A review from Electronics & Computing, November, 1982. Resources: The Jupiter Ace Resource Site collects all ACE related items. EightyOne multi-computer emulator, also a useful tool for ACE tape conversions to file format. Learn: ACE Forth Manual, by Vickers, revived in PDF format. ACE-ROM-PROJECT latest e-book with hardware considerations (Zip file). Build: Build your own Jupiter Ace. ACE Schematics. ACE ROMs | Jupiter_Ace |@lemmatized jupiter:21 ace:42 british:2 home:5 computer:11 early:3 produce:1 company:2 set:2 purpose:1 name:5 cantab:5 differ:1 microcomputer:3 time:7 use:21 forth:38 instead:5 traditional:1 basic:5 system:14 combine:1 high:5 performance:3 code:9 compactness:1 program:13 benefit:1 level:3 programming:5 languages:1 designer:2 courage:1 deliver:4 november:2 volume:1 number:4 many:1 advantage:4 public:2 education:3 industry:2 introduction:1 form:2 richard:2 altwasser:3 steven:2 vickers:7 design:9 team:1 sinclair:4 zx:7 spectrum:6 work:1 development:1 hardware:5 adapt:4 expand:1 rom:11 write:4 choose:1 emphasize:1 firsts:1 language:7 result:1 threaded:1 also:6 act:1 operating:3 disk:3 le:1 tape:9 average:2 similar:5 faster:1 need:6 half:1 ram:12 expensive:3 luxury:1 equivalent:3 interpreted:2 make:4 fast:1 simultaneously:1 one:6 promote:1 well:2 structure:5 modular:1 usage:4 tends:1 efficient:1 big:1 reuse:1 previously:1 define:3 james:1 john:1 byte:1 magazine:3 aug:1 page:4 characteristic:2 section:1 characteristics:1 small:6 often:1 compare:1 due:3 size:1 low:5 cost:1 factor:1 although:2 internally:1 independent:2 cpu:5 drive:5 video:11 fully:1 run:3 dedicate:3 memory:7 kb:18 leave:2 main:2 free:3 user:5 new:6 market:2 afford:1 ula:1 common:2 reduce:2 component:1 count:1 economical:1 quantity:1 chip:1 require:1 clever:1 like:2 black:4 rubber:1 key:1 audio:1 capability:1 control:7 programmable:1 frequency:2 duration:2 sound:6 output:1 built:1 speaker:3 television:1 display:4 white:3 data:4 storage:4 mean:1 cassette:3 typical:1 specification:1 processor:2 zilog:1 clock:1 mhz:1 expandable:1 sub:2 bank:3 total:1 extra:4 vram:2 internal:2 keyboard:3 type:3 avoid:1 single:2 keyword:1 entry:1 extensible:1 nature:1 reside:1 expansion:2 connector:1 standard:1 relate:2 connect:1 reference:3 usually:2 include:1 lead:1 confusion:1 allow:5 redefinition:2 character:6 ascii:1 base:4 pixel:1 bitmap:1 format:4 store:3 full:2 screen:1 row:1 x:1 column:1 text:3 mode:3 shape:1 could:5 provide:1 graphic:4 resolution:2 limit:3 available:4 definable:1 char:1 font:1 identical:1 color:3 board:1 article:1 eti:1 april:1 none:1 ever:1 commercialize:1 directly:1 task:2 millisecond:1 external:3 interface:2 baud:1 add:3 ons:3 originally:1 develop:1 receive:1 compatible:2 slot:1 actually:1 different:2 configuration:1 simple:1 rewiring:1 adapter:2 effective:1 power:1 loss:1 build:7 initial:3 pack:2 pace:1 stonechip:1 electronics:5 boldfield:1 owner:1 memotech:2 soundboard:1 essex:2 micro:2 jet:1 disc:3 mpe:2 four:1 controler:1 floppy:1 unit:3 printer:1 ad:1 centronics:2 machine:5 advanced:1 digital:2 printercard:1 firmware:1 contain:1 kernel:1 predefined:1 dictionary:1 word:6 remain:1 float:1 point:1 library:1 definition:1 table:1 cod:1 maximize:2 function:1 space:4 extension:3 next:2 split:1 block:3 subsystem:1 access:1 two:1 priority:1 regular:1 override:1 partially:1 decode:1 echo:1 fill:1 plus:1 possible:1 vocabulary:2 major:1 visible:1 difference:2 previous:1 introductory:1 default:1 consider:1 relatively:1 nest:1 implementation:2 routine:1 particular:1 recursive:1 programing:2 desire:1 downside:1 stack:1 associated:1 reverse:1 polish:1 notation:1 unfamiliar:1 maybe:1 correctly:1 mostly:1 relevant:1 manual:4 runtime:1 error:1 checking:1 turn:1 get:1 speed:1 improvement:1 know:1 command:1 behavior:1 lack:1 less:3 frequently:2 easily:1 implement:1 dialect:1 introduce:1 several:3 innovation:1 simplify:1 usual:3 definer:2 compiler:2 creation:2 create:3 winfield:1 alan:1 complete:1 chapter:1 extend:2 sigma:1 technical:2 press:1 pair:1 example:2 array:1 record:1 compile:2 case:4 infinite:1 loop:1 save:3 load:1 numbered:1 diskette:1 decompile:1 unlike:1 decompiling:1 ability:1 solution:2 absence:2 flexible:1 edit:1 ready:1 saved:1 reading:1 friendly:1 unique:1 commercial:1 though:2 weak:2 box:1 keep:2 sale:4 spite:1 interest:2 review:2 attract:1 model:3 original:1 yogurt:1 pot:1 report:2 strong:1 injection:1 mould:1 never:1 large:1 survive:1 quite:1 uncommon:1 fetching:1 price:3 collector:1 item:2 reason:1 seem:1 buy:1 almost:1 double:1 happen:1 favor:1 respond:1 apparently:1 later:1 replace:1 squarely:1 niche:1 enthusiast:1 must:1 understood:1 real:1 nonetheless:1 notice:1 would:3 final:1 slightly:1 much:1 useful:2 attractive:1 start:1 right:1 discrete:1 logic:1 construction:2 excellent:1 choice:1 clone:1 learning:1 study:2 added:1 educator:1 still:1 close:1 blueprint:1 file:3 link:1 news:1 interview:1 editorial:1 p:1 c:1 today:1 comment:1 launch:1 computing:1 resource:2 site:1 collect:1 eightyone:1 multi:1 emulator:1 tool:1 conversion:1 learn:1 revive:1 pdf:1 project:1 late:1 e:1 book:1 consideration:1 zip:1 schematic:1 |@bigram jupiter_ace:15 jupiter_cantab:5 sinclair_zx:1 zx_spectrum:1 cassette_tape:3 add_ons:3 expansion_slot:1 external_link:1 |
5,487 | Ossian | Ossian Receiving the Ghosts of Fallen French Heroes, Anne-Louis Girodet, 1805 Ossian is the narrator, and supposed author, of a cycle of poems which the Scottish poet James Macpherson claimed to have translated from ancient sources in the Scots Gaelic. He is based on Oisín, son of Finn or Fionn mac Cumhaill, a character from Irish mythology. The furor over the authenticity of the poems continued into the 20th century. The poems Ossian's Dream, Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres, 1813 In 1760 Macpherson published the English-language text Fragments of Ancient Poetry collected in the Highlands of Scotland, and later that year obtained further manuscripts. Literary Encyclopedia October 6 2004 Literary Encyclopedia: Fragments of Ancient Poetry, Collected in the Highlands of Scotland Obtained December 27, 2006. In 1761 he claimed to have found an epic on the subject of the hero Fingal, written by Ossian. The name Fingal or Fionnghall means "white stranger". Behind the Name: View Name: Fingal He published translations of it during the next few years, culminating in a collected edition; The Works of Ossian, in 1765. The most famous of these poems was Fingal written in 1762. The poems achieved international success (even Napoleon became a great fan) and were proclaimed as a Celtic equivalent of the Classical writers such as Homer. Many writers were influenced by the works, including the young Walter Scott and the German writer J.W. von Goethe, whose own German translation of a portion of Macpherson's work figures prominently in a climactic scene of The Sorrows of Young Werther. Beresford Ellis, Peter: "A Dictionary of Irish Mythology", page 159. Constable, London, 1987. ISBN 0-09-467540-6 Goethe's associate Johann Gottfried Herder wrote an essay titled Extract from a correspondence about Ossian and the Songs of Ancient Peoples in the early days of the Sturm und Drang movement. The poem was as much admired in Hungary as in France and Germany; Hungarian János Arany wrote "Homer and Ossian" in response, and several other Hungarian writers - Baróti Szabó, Csokonai, Sándor Kisfaludy, Kazinczy, Kölcsey, Ferenc Toldy, and Ágost Greguss, were also influenced by it. Elek Oszkár. "Ossian-kultusz Magyarországon," Egyetemes Philologiai Közlöny, LVII (1933), 66-76. The poems also exerted an influence on the burgeoning of Romantic music, and Franz Schubert in particular composed Lieder setting many of Ossian's poems. Authenticity debate Ossian, by François Pascal Simon Gérard There were immediate disputes about Macpherson's claims, for literary and political reasons. Macpherson promoted a Scottish origin for the material, and was hotly opposed by Irish historians who felt that their heritage was being appropriated. However, both Scotland and Ireland shared a common Gaelic culture during the period in which the poems are set and some Fenian literature common in both countries was composed in Scotland. A great detractor of the Ossian poems was Samuel Johnson, who had no knowledge of the Scottish Gaelic language or of the Gaelic tradition. Johnson believed that they were not only not authentic, but were, moreover, not even good poetry. Upon being asked, "But Doctor Johnson, do you really believe that any man today could write such poetry?" he famously replied, "Yes. Many men. Many women. And many children." Faced with the controversy, the Committee of the Highland Society enquired after the authenticity of Macpherson's supposed original. It was thanks to these circumstances that the so-called Glenmasan manuscript (Adv. 72.2.3) came to light, a compilation which contains the tale Oided mac n-Uisnig. This text is a version of the Irish Longes mac n-Uislenn and offers a tale which bears some comparison to Macpherson's "Darthula", although it is radically different in many respects. Donald Smith cited it in his report for the Committee. Donald MacKinnon, "The Glenmasan manuscript." The Celtic Review 1 (1904-5). 3-17: 6. The controversy raged on into the early years of the 19th century, with disputes as to whether the poems were based on Irish sources, on sources in English, on Gaelic fragments woven into his own composition as Johnson concluded Lord Auchinleck's Fingal , or largely on Scots Gaelic oral traditions and manuscripts as Macpherson claimed. Scottish author Hugh Blair's 1763 A Critical Dissertation on the Poems of Ossian upheld the work's authenticity against Johnson's scathing criticism and from 1765 was included in every edition of Ossian to lend the work credibility. In 1952 Derick Thomson concluded that Macpherson had collected Scottish Gaelic ballads, employing scribes to record those that were preserved orally and collating manuscripts, but had adapted them by altering the original characters and ideas, and had introduced a great deal of his own. Derick Thomson, The Gaelic Sources of Macpherson's "Ossian" (1952). Editions 1996: The Poems of Ossian and Related Works, ed. Howard Gaskill, with an Introduction by Fiona Stafford (Edinburgh: Edinburgh Univ. Press). Notes References George F. Black, Macpherson's Ossian and the Ossianic Controversy, New York, (1926). Patrick MacGregor, M.A., The Genuine Remains of Ossian, Literally Translated, Highland Society of London, (1841) See also Ossian's Hall of Mirrors Petrosomatoglyph External links The Poetical Works of Ossian Full text at Ex-Classics Selected Bibliography: James Macpherson and Ossian Excellent online bibliography; compiled by designated experts in the field; covering the most important scholarly monographs and articles on Ossian and Macpherson up to March 2004. Literary Encyclopedia: Ossian Significant Scots - James MacPherson Popular Tales of the West Highlands by J. F. Campbell Volume IV (1890) A Vision of Britain Through Time James Boswell, The Journal of a Tour to the Hebrides with Samuel Johnson, discussion in entries for 22 and 23 September 1773. Calum Colvin: "Ossian: Fragments of Ancient Poetry" Reproduction of the cycle of paintings "Ossian: Fragments of Ancient Poetry" (2002) by one of Scotland's most renowned contemporary artist, Calum Colvin. (under category "exhibitions") | Ossian |@lemmatized ossian:24 receive:1 ghost:1 fall:1 french:1 hero:2 anne:1 louis:1 girodet:1 narrator:1 suppose:2 author:2 cycle:2 poem:12 scottish:5 poet:1 james:4 macpherson:14 claim:4 translate:2 ancient:6 source:4 scot:3 gaelic:8 base:2 oisín:1 son:1 finn:1 fionn:1 mac:3 cumhaill:1 character:2 irish:5 mythology:2 furor:1 authenticity:4 continue:1 century:2 poems:1 dream:1 jean:1 auguste:1 dominique:1 ingres:1 publish:2 english:2 language:2 text:3 fragment:5 poetry:6 collect:3 highland:5 scotland:5 later:1 year:3 obtain:2 far:1 manuscript:5 literary:4 encyclopedia:3 october:1 december:1 find:1 epic:1 subject:1 fingal:5 write:5 name:3 fionnghall:1 mean:1 white:1 stranger:1 behind:1 view:1 translation:2 next:1 culminate:1 collected:1 edition:3 work:7 famous:1 achieve:1 international:1 success:1 even:2 napoleon:1 become:1 great:3 fan:1 proclaim:1 celtic:2 equivalent:1 classical:1 writer:4 homer:2 many:6 influence:3 include:2 young:2 walter:1 scott:1 german:2 j:2 w:1 von:1 goethe:2 whose:1 portion:1 figure:1 prominently:1 climactic:1 scene:1 sorrow:1 werther:1 beresford:1 elli:1 peter:1 dictionary:1 page:1 constable:1 london:2 isbn:1 associate:1 johann:1 gottfried:1 herder:1 essay:1 title:1 extract:1 correspondence:1 song:1 people:1 early:2 day:1 sturm:1 und:1 drang:1 movement:1 much:1 admire:1 hungary:1 france:1 germany:1 hungarian:2 jános:1 arany:1 response:1 several:1 baróti:1 szabó:1 csokonai:1 sándor:1 kisfaludy:1 kazinczy:1 kölcsey:1 ferenc:1 toldy:1 ágost:1 greguss:1 also:3 elek:1 oszkár:1 kultusz:1 magyarországon:1 egyetemes:1 philologiai:1 közlöny:1 lvii:1 exert:1 burgeoning:1 romantic:1 music:1 franz:1 schubert:1 particular:1 composed:1 lied:1 set:2 debate:1 françois:1 pascal:1 simon:1 gérard:1 immediate:1 dispute:2 political:1 reason:1 promote:1 origin:1 material:1 hotly:1 oppose:1 historian:1 felt:1 heritage:1 appropriate:1 however:1 ireland:1 share:1 common:2 culture:1 period:1 fenian:1 literature:1 country:1 compose:1 detractor:1 samuel:2 johnson:6 knowledge:1 tradition:2 believe:2 authentic:1 moreover:1 good:1 upon:1 ask:1 doctor:1 really:1 man:1 today:1 could:1 famously:1 reply:1 yes:1 men:1 woman:1 child:1 face:1 controversy:3 committee:2 society:2 enquire:1 original:2 thanks:1 circumstance:1 call:1 glenmasan:2 adv:1 come:1 light:1 compilation:1 contain:1 tale:3 oided:1 n:2 uisnig:1 version:1 longes:1 uislenn:1 offer:1 bear:1 comparison:1 darthula:1 although:1 radically:1 different:1 respect:1 donald:2 smith:1 cite:1 report:1 mackinnon:1 review:1 rag:1 whether:1 weave:1 composition:1 conclude:2 lord:1 auchinleck:1 largely:1 oral:1 hugh:1 blair:1 critical:1 dissertation:1 upheld:1 scathing:1 criticism:1 every:1 lend:1 credibility:1 derick:2 thomson:2 ballad:1 employ:1 scribe:1 record:1 preserve:1 orally:1 collate:1 adapt:1 alter:1 idea:1 introduce:1 deal:1 related:1 ed:1 howard:1 gaskill:1 introduction:1 fiona:1 stafford:1 edinburgh:2 univ:1 press:1 note:1 reference:1 george:1 f:2 black:1 ossianic:1 new:1 york:1 patrick:1 macgregor:1 genuine:1 remains:1 literally:1 see:1 hall:1 mirror:1 petrosomatoglyph:1 external:1 link:1 poetical:1 full:1 ex:1 classic:1 select:1 bibliography:2 excellent:1 online:1 compile:1 designated:1 expert:1 field:1 cover:1 important:1 scholarly:1 monograph:1 article:1 march:1 significant:1 popular:1 west:1 campbell:1 volume:1 iv:1 vision:1 britain:1 time:1 boswell:1 journal:1 tour:1 hebrides:1 discussion:1 entry:1 september:1 calum:2 colvin:2 reproduction:1 painting:1 one:1 renowned:1 contemporary:1 artist:1 category:1 exhibition:1 |@bigram scot_gaelic:2 fionn_mac:1 mac_cumhaill:1 auguste_dominique:1 dominique_ingres:1 von_goethe:1 climactic_scene:1 johann_gottfried:1 gottfried_herder:1 franz_schubert:1 scottish_gaelic:2 scathing_criticism:1 edinburgh_edinburgh:1 univ_press:1 external_link:1 james_boswell:1 |
5,488 | Disaster | A disaster is the tragedy of a natural or human-made hazard (a hazard is a situation which poses a level of threat to life, health, property, or environment) that negatively affects society or environment. In contemporary academia, disasters are seen as the consequence of inappropriately managed risk. These risks are the product of hazards and vulnerability. Hazards that strike in areas with low vulnerability are not considered a disaster, as is the case in uninhabited regions. Quarantelli E.L. (1998). Where We Have Been and Where We Might Go. In: Quarantelli E.L. (ed). What Is A Disaster? London: Routledge. pp146-159 Developing countries suffer the greatest costs when a disaster hits – more than 95 percent of all deaths caused by disasters occur in developing countries, and losses due to natural disasters are 20 times greater (as a percentage of GDP) in developing countries than in industrialized countries. A disaster can be defined as any tragic event that may involve at least one victim of circumstance, such as an accident, fire, or explosion. Etymology The word derives from Middle French désastre and that from Old Italian disastro, which in turn comes from the Greek pejorative prefix δυσ-, (dus-) "bad" + αστήρ (aster), "star". The root of the word disaster ("bad star" in Greek) comes from an astrological theme in which the ancients used to refer to the destruction or deconstruction of a star as a disaster. Classification For more than a century researchers have been studying disasters and for more than forty years disaster research has been institutionalized through the Disaster Research Center. The studies reflect a common opinion when they argue that all disasters can be seen as being human-made, their reasoning being that human actions before the strike of the hazard can prevent it developing into a disaster. All disasters are hence the result of human failure to introduce appropriate disaster management measures. B. Wisner, P. Blaikie, T. Cannon, and I. Davis (2004). At Risk - Natural hazards, people's vulnerability and disasters. Wiltshire: Routledge, ISBN 0-415-25216-4 Hazards are routinely divided into natural or human-made, although complex disasters, where there is no single root cause, are more common in developing countries. A specific disaster may spawn a secondary disaster that increases the impact. A classic example is an earthquake that causes a tsunami, resulting in coastal flooding. Natural disasters A natural disaster is the consequence when a natural hazard (e.g., volcanic eruption or earthquake) affects humans. Human vulnerability, caused by the lack of appropriate emergency management, leads to financial, environmental, or human impact. The resulting loss depends on the capacity of the population to support or resist the disaster: their resilience. This understanding is concentrated in the formulation: "disasters occur when hazards meet vulnerability". A natural hazard will hence never result in a natural disaster in areas without vulnerability, e.g., strong earthquakes in uninhabited areas. The term natural has consequently been disputed because the events simply are not hazards or disasters without human involvement. Human-made disasters Disasters caused by human action, negligence, error, or involving the failure of a system are called human-made disasters. Human-made disasters are in turn categorized as technological or sociological. Technological disasters are the results of failure of technology, such as engineering failures, transport disasters, or environmental disasters. Sociological disasters have a strong human motive, such as criminal acts, stampedes, riots and war. Disaster management With the tropical climate and unstable landforms, coupled with high population density, poverty, illiteracy and lack of adequate infrastructure, India is one of the most vulnerable developing countries to suffer very often from various natural disasters, namely drought, flood, cyclone, earth quake, landslide, forest fire, hail storm, locust, volcanic eruption, etc. Which strike causing a devastating impact on human life, economy and environment. Though it is almost impossible to fully recoup the damage caused by the disasters, it is possible to (i) minimize the potential risks by developing early warning strategies (ii) prepare and implement developmental plans to provide resilience to such disasters (iii) mobilize resources including communication and telemedicinal services, and (iv) to help in rehabilitation and post-disaster reconstruction. Space technology plays a crucial role in efficient mitigation of disasters. While communication satellites help in disaster warning, relief mobilization and tele-medicinal support, earth observation satellites provide required database for pre-disaster preparedness programmes, disaster response, monitoring activities and post-disaster damage assessment, and reconstruction, and rehabilitation. The article describes the role of space technology in evolving a suitable strategy for disaster preparedness and operational framework for their monitoring, assessment and mitigation, identifies gap areas and recommends appropriate strategies for disaster mitigation vis-à-vis likely developments in space and ground segments. Various disasters like earthquake, landslides, volcanic eruptions, fires, flood and cyclones are natural hazards that kill thousands of people and destroy billions of dollars of habitat and property each year. The rapid growth of the world's population and its increased concentration often in hazardous environment has escalated both the frequency and severity of natural disasters. With the tropical climate and unstable land forms, coupled with deforestation, unplanned growth proliferation non-engineered constructions which make the disaster-prone areas mere vulnerable, tardy communication, poor or no budgetary allocation for disaster prevention, developing countries suffer more or less chronically by natural disasters. Asia tops the list of casualties due to natural disaster. Among various natural hazards, earthquakes, landslides, floods and cyclones are the major disasters adversely affecting very large areas and population in the Indian sub-continent. These natural disasters are of (i) geophysical origin such as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, land slides and (ii) climatic origin such as drought, flood, cyclone, locust, forest fire. Though it may not be feasible to control nature and to stop the development of natural phenomena but the efforts could be made to avoid disasters and alleviate their effects on human lives, infrastructure and property. Rising frequency, amplitude and number of natural disasters and attendant problem coupled with loss of human lives prompted the General Assembly of the United Nations to proclaim 1990s as the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction (IDNDR) through a resolution 44/236 of December 22, 1989 to focus on all issues related to natural disaster reduction. In spite of IDNDR, there had been a string of major disaster throughout the decade. Nevertheless, by establishing the rich disaster management related traditions and by spreading public awareness the IDNDR provided required stimulus for disaster reduction. It is almost impossible to prevent the occurrence of natural disasters and their damages. However, it is possible to reduce the impact of disasters by adopting suitable disaster mitigation strategies. The disaster mitigation works mainly address the following: minimise the potential risks by developing disaster early warning strategies prepare and implement developmental plans to provide resilience to such disasters, mobilise resources including communication and tele-medicinal services to help in rehabilitation and post-disaster reduction. Disaster management on the other hand involves pre-disaster planning, preparedness, monitoring including relief management capability prediction and early warning damage assessment and relief management. Disaster reduction is a systematic work which involves with different regions, different professions and different scientific fields, and has become an important measure for human, society and nature sustainable development. Management Risks of hypothetical future disasters Antibiotic resistance Deforestation Desertification Drought Global warming Famine Gulf Stream shutdown Hypercane Ice Age Meteorite impact Mass extinction Megathrust earthquake Megatsunami Nuclear warfare Overconsumption Overfishing Overpopulation Pandemic Peak oil Sea level rise Supervolcano Technological singularity Terrorism Water crisis See also Business continuity Civil protection Crisis Emergency List of disasters Maritime disasters Sociology of disaster Disaster convergence Survivalism Risks to civilization, humans and planet Earth Human extinction Notes References Barton A.H. (1969). Communities in Disaster. A Sociological Analysis of Collective Stress Situations. SI: Ward Lock Catastrophe and Culture: The Anthropology of Disaster. Susanna M. Hoffman and Anthony Oliver-Smith, Eds.. Santa Fe NM: School of American Research Press, 2002 G. Bankoff, G. Frerks, D. Hilhorst (eds.) (2003). Mapping Vulnerability: Disasters, Development and People. ISBN 1-85383-964-7. D. Alexander (2002). Principles of Emergency planning and Management. Harpended: Terra publishing. ISBN 1-903544-10-6. External links The Disaster Roundtable Information on past and future Disaster Roundtable workshops EM-DAT The EM-DAT International Disaster Database HAVARIA Emergency and Disaster Information Service An up-to-the-minute world wide map showing current disasters. Articles On Food Shortage - Food Shortage Information. Global Disaster Alert and Coordination System A United Nations and European Commission sponsored website for disaster information. Top 100 aviation disasters on AirDisaster.com Guinness Book of World Records The world's worst massacres Whole Earth Review War Disaster and Genocide Armageddon Online - Daily News and articles about ongoing natural and human made disasters Geohotspots Disaster Video Disaster News and Video Disaster Alert Notification and Reporting United States Citizen Corps Guide DisasterHelp.gov United States Egov reference Ready.gov United States Ready Egov reference The Disaster Center Internet source for disaster information D | Disaster |@lemmatized disaster:95 tragedy:1 natural:23 human:21 make:9 hazard:13 situation:2 pose:1 level:2 threat:1 life:4 health:1 property:3 environment:4 negatively:1 affect:3 society:2 contemporary:1 academia:1 see:3 consequence:2 inappropriately:1 manage:1 risk:7 product:1 vulnerability:7 strike:3 area:6 low:1 consider:1 case:1 uninhabited:2 region:2 quarantelli:2 e:4 l:2 might:1 go:1 ed:1 london:1 routledge:2 develop:9 country:7 suffer:3 great:2 cost:1 hit:1 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5,489 | New_Hampshire | New Hampshire () is a state in the New England region of the northeastern United States of America. The state was named after the southern English county of Hampshire. It borders Massachusetts to the south, Vermont to the west, Maine to the east, and the Canadian province of Quebec to the north. New Hampshire ranks 44th in land area, 46th in total area of the 50 states, and 41st in population. It became the first post-colonial sovereign nation in the Americas when it broke off from Great Britain in January 1776, and was one of the original thirteen states that founded the United States of America six months later. It was the ninth state to ratify the United States Constitution, bringing that document into effect. New Hampshire was the first U.S. state to have its own state constitution, and is the only state with neither a general sales tax nor a personal income tax at either the state or local level. NH has a room and meals sales tax and a business profits income tax. Alaska does not have a statewide sales or income tax, but many Alaska towns have a sales tax. Concord is the state capital, while Manchester is the largest city in the state. It is known internationally for the New Hampshire primary, the first primary in the quadrennial U.S. presidential election cycle. Its license plates carry the state motto: "Live Free or Die." The state nickname is "The Granite State", in reference to its geology and its tradition of self-sufficiency. Several other official nicknames exist but are rarely used. NH Department of Resources and Economic Development - State Facts Among prominent individuals from New Hampshire are founding father Nicholas Gilman, Senator Daniel Webster, editor Horace Greeley, founder of the Christian Science religion Mary Baker Eddy, poet Robert Frost, and author Dan Brown. New Hampshire has produced one president, Franklin Pierce. New Hampshire's recreational attractions include skiing and other winter sports, hiking and mountaineering, observing the fall foliage, summer cottages along many lakes, motor sports at the New Hampshire Motor Speedway, and Motorcycle Week, a popular motorcycle rally held in Laconia in June. Geography See List of counties in New Hampshire, mountains, lakes, and rivers New Hampshire is part of the New England region. It is bounded by Quebec, Canada to the north and northwest; Maine and the Atlantic Ocean to the east; Massachusetts to the south; and Vermont to the west. New Hampshire's major regions are the Great North Woods, the White Mountains, the Lakes Region, the Seacoast, the Merrimack Valley, the Monadnock Region, and the Dartmouth-Lake Sunapee area. New Hampshire has the shortest ocean coastline of any U.S. coastal state, with a length of . New Hampshire, showing roads, rivers and major citiesNew Hampshire was home to the rock formation called the Old Man of the Mountain, a face-like profile in Franconia Notch, until the formation fell apart in May 2003. The White Mountains range in New Hampshire spans the north-central portion of the state, with Mount Washington the tallest in the northeastern U.S., and other mountains like Mount Madison and Mount Adams surrounding it. With hurricane-force winds every third day on average, over 100 recorded deaths among visitors, and conspicuous krumholtz (dwarf, matted trees much like a carpet of bonsai trees), the upper reaches of Mount Washington claim the title of "worst weather on earth." A non-profit weather observatory is on the peak. In the flatter southwest corner of New Hampshire, the landmark Mount Monadnock has given its name to a class of earth-forms—a monadnock—signifying, in geomorphology, any isolated resistant peak rising from a less resistant eroded plain. Major rivers include the Merrimack River, which bisects the lower half of the state north-south and ends up in Newburyport, Massachusetts. Its tributaries include the Contoocook River, Pemigewasset River, and Winnipesaukee River. The Connecticut River, which starts at New Hampshire's Connecticut Lakes and flows south to Connecticut, defines the western border with Vermont. The state border is not in the center of that river, as usually the case, but at the low-water mark on the Vermont side; so New Hampshire owns the entire river where it runs adjacent to Vermont. The "northwesternmost headwaters" of the Connecticut also define the Canadian border with New Hampshire. The Piscataqua River and its several tributaries form the state's only significant ocean port where they flow into the Atlantic at Portsmouth. The Salmon Falls River and the Piscataqua define the southern portion of the border with Maine. The state has an ongoing boundary dispute with Maine in the area of Portsmouth Harbor, with New Hampshire claiming dominion over several islands (now known as Seavey Island) that include the Portsmouth Naval Shipyard as well as to the Maine towns of Kittery and Berwick. The largest lake is Lake Winnipesaukee, which covers in the east-central part of New Hampshire. Lake Winnipesaukee. Hampton Beach is a popular local summer destination. About offshore are the Isles of Shoals, nine small islands (four of which are in New Hampshire) known as the site of a 19th century art colony founded by poet Celia Thaxter, as well as the alleged location of one of the buried treasures of the pirate Blackbeard. It is the second most forested state in the country, after Maine, in percentage of land covered by woods. This change was caused by the abandonment of farms during the 20th century as many farmers took wage jobs in urban areas or moved to more productive areas. The return of woodlands from open fields forms the subject of many poems by Robert Frost. The northern third of the state is locally referred to as the "north country" or "north of the notches," in reference to White Mountain passes that channel traffic. It contains less than 5% of the state's population, suffers relatively high poverty, and is losing population as the logging and paper industries decline. However, the tourist industry, in particular visitors who go to northern New Hampshire to ski, has helped offset economic losses from mill closures. Climate New Hampshire experiences a humid continental climate (Koppen climate classification Dfa in southern areas and Dfb in the north), with warm, humid summers, cold, wet winters, and uniform precipitation all year. The climate of the southeastern portion is moderated by the Atlantic Ocean and averages relatively milder and wetter weather, while the northern and interior portions experience cooler temperatures and lower humidity. Winters are cold and snowy throughout the state, and especially severe in the northern and mountainous areas. Average annual snowfall ranges from to over across the state. Average daytime highs are in the mid 70s°F to low 80s°F (around 24-28 °C) throughout the state in July, with overnight lows in the mid 50s°F to low 60s°F (13-15 °C). January temperatures range from an average high of on the coast to overnight lows below in the far north and at high elevations. Average annual precipitation statewide is roughly with some variation occurring in the White Mountains due to differences in elevation and annual snowfall. Extreme snow is often associated with a nor'easter, such as the Blizzard of '78 and the Blizzard of 1993, when several feet accumulated across portions of the state over 24 to 48 hours. Lighter snowfall of several inches occur frequently throughout winter, often associated with an Alberta Clipper. New Hampshire, on occasion, is affected by hurricanes and tropical storms although by the time they reach the state they are often extratropical, with most storms striking the southern New England coastline and moving inland or passing by offshore in the Gulf of Maine. Most of New Hampshire averages fewer than 20 days of thunderstorms per year and an average of 2 tornadoes occur annually statewide. The National Arbor Day Foundation plant hardiness zone map depicts zones 3, 4, 5, and 6 occurring throughout the state and indicates the transition from a relatively cooler to warmer climate as one travels southward across New Hampshire. Metropolitan areas Metropolitan areas in the New England region are defined by the U.S. Census Bureau as New England City and Town Areas (NECTAs). The following is a list of NECTAs in New Hampshire:Downtown Manchester Berlin Claremont Concord Franklin Keene LaconiaLebanon - Hartford, VT Manchester Nashua Metropolitan Division (part of Boston metropolitan area) Portsmouth Rochester - DoverFrom The New Hampshire Economic and Labor Market Information Bureau History Various Algonquian (Pennacook) tribes inhabited the area prior to European settlement. English and French explorers visited New Hampshire in 1600–1605, and English fishermen settled at Odiorne's Point in present-day Rye in 1623. The first permanent settlement was at Hilton's Point (present-day Dover). By 1631, the Upper Plantation comprised modern-day Dover, Durham and Stratham; in 1679, it became the "Royal Province." The New Hampshire State House in Concord was designed by Albe Cady. It is the oldest U.S. state capitol where legislators still meet in their original chambers. It was one of the thirteen colonies that revolted against British rule in the American Revolution. By the time of the American Revolution, New Hampshire was a divided province. The economic and social life of the Seacoast revolved around sawmills, shipyards, merchant's warehouses, and established village and town centers. Wealthy merchants built substantial homes, furnished them with the finest luxuries, and invested their capital in trade and land speculation. At the other end of the social scale, there developed a permanent class of day laborers, mariners, indentured servants, and even slaves. It was the first state to declare its independence, but the only battle fought there was the raid on Fort William and Mary, December 14, 1774 in Portsmouth Harbor, which netted the rebellion sizable quantities of gunpowder, small arms, and cannon (General Sullivan, leader of the raid, described it as, "remainder of the powder, the small arms, bayonets, and cartouch-boxes, together with the cannon and ordnance stores") over the course of two nights. This raid was preceded by a warning to local patriots the previous day, by Paul Revere on December 13, 1774 that the fort was to be reinforced by troops sailing from Boston. According to unverified accounts, the gunpowder was later used at the Battle of Bunker Hill, transported there by Major Demerit, who was one of several New Hampshire patriots who stored the powder in their homes until it was transported elsewhere for use in revolutionary activities. New Hampshire was a Jacksonian stronghold; the state sent Franklin Pierce to the White House in the election of 1852. Industrialization took the form of numerous textile mills, which in turn attracted large flows of immigrants from Quebec (the "French Canadians") and Ireland. The northern parts of the state produced lumber and the mountains provided tourist attractions. After 1960, the textile industry collapsed, but the economy rebounded as a center of high technology and a service provider. Since 1952, New Hampshire gained national and international attention for its presidential primary held early in every presidential election year. It immediately became the most important testing grounds for candidates for the Republican and Democratic nominations. The media gave New Hampshire (and Iowa) about half of all the attention paid to all states in the primary process, magnifying the state's decision powers (and spurring repeated efforts by out-of-state politicians to change the rules.) Demographics As of 2005, New Hampshire has an estimated population of 1,309,940, which is an increase of 10,771, or 0.8%, from the prior year and an increase of 74,154, or 6.0%, since the year 2000. This includes a natural increase since the last census of 23,872 people (that is 75,060 births minus 51,188 deaths) and an increase due to net migration of 51,968 people into the state. Immigration from outside the United States resulted in a net increase of 11,107 people, and migration within the country produced a net increase of 40,861 people. The center of population of New Hampshire is located in Merrimack County, in the town of Pembroke. The center of population has moved south since 1950, a reflection of the fact that the fastest growth in the state has been along its southern border, which is within commuting range of Boston and other Massachusetts cities. New Hampshire Population Density Map As of 2004, the population includes 64,000 residents born outside the United States (4.9%). In 2006, New Hampshire had the lowest birth rate in the nation. Ancestry groups The largest ancestry groups in New Hampshire are: American Community Survey 26.6% French (French or French Canadian) 21.1% Irish 20.1% English 10.4% Italian 10.3% German 7.8% Scottish or Scots-Irish The large Irish American and French-Canadian populations are descended largely from mill workers, and many still live in the former mill towns, like Manchester. New Hampshire has the highest percentage of residents of French/French-Canadian ancestry of any U.S. state. According to the 2000 U.S. Census, 3.41% of the population aged 5 and older speak French at home, while 1.60% speak Spanish. MLA Language Map Data Center Religion Percentage of New Hampshire residents by religion (from USA Today): Christian – 72% Catholic – 35% Protestant – 32% Baptist – 6% Congregationalist/United Church of Christ – 6% Episcopalian/Anglican – 4% Methodist – 3% Lutheran – 1% Pentecostal/Charismatic – 1% Presbyterian – 1% Protestant, no supplied denomination – 10% Unspecified Christian – 5% Jewish – 1% Other – 2% No religion – 17% Less than 0.5% each – Mormon/Latter Day Saints, Churches of Christ, non-denominational, Jehovah's Witnesses, Assemblies of God, Muslim/Islamic, Buddhist, Evangelical, Church of God, and Seventh-Day Adventist A survey suggests that people in New Hampshire and Vermont which were polled jointly are less likely than other Americans to attend weekly services and only 54% say that they are "absolutely certain there is a God" compared to 71% in the rest of the nation. 86% in Alabama and South Carolina New Hampshire and Vermont are also at the lowest levels among states in religious commitment. About 23% percent of the respondents attend religious service at least once a week (39% nationally). Thirty-six percent said religion is very important to them (56% nationally). retrieved July 29, 2008 According to the ARDA the largest single Protestant denominations are the United Church of Christ with 34,299; and the United Methodist Church with 18,927 members. The Catholic Church had 431,259 members. http://www.thearda.com/mapsReports/reports/state/33_2000.asp Economy The Bureau of Economic Analysis estimates that New Hampshire's total state product in 2003 was $49 billion. Personal income in 2005 was $37,835, 6th in the nation and 10 percent greater than the national average ($34,495). Its agricultural outputs are dairy products, nursery stock, cattle, apples and eggs. Its industrial outputs are machinery, electric equipment, rubber and plastic products and tourism. New Hampshire experienced a significant shift in its economic base during the last century. Historically, the base was composed of the traditional New England manufactures of textiles, shoe-making, and small machining shops drawing upon low-wage labor from nearby small farms and from parts of Quebec. Today, these sectors contribute only 2% for textiles, 2% for leather goods, and 9% for machining of the state's total manufacturing dollar value (Source: U.S. Economic Census for 1997, Manufacturing, New Hampshire). They experienced a sharp decline due to obsolete plants and the lure of cheaper wages in the South. According to the Energy Information Administration, New Hampshire’s energy consumption and per capita energy consumption are among the lowest in the country. The Seabrook Station Nuclear Power Plant, located near Portsmouth, is the largest nuclear reactor in New England and provides about 30 percent of New Hampshire’s electricity. Two natural gas-fired plants and some fossil-fuel powered plant, including the coal-fired Merrimack Station plant in Bow, provide most of the rest. New Hampshire’s residential electricity use is low compared with the national average, in part because demand for air-conditioning is low during the generally mild summer months and because few households use electricity as their primary energy source for home heating. Over half of New Hampshire households use fuel oil for winter heating. New Hampshire has potential for renewable energies like wind power, hydroelectricity, and wood fuel. The state has no general sales tax, no personal state income tax (the state does tax, at a 5 percent rate, income from dividends and interest) and the legislature has exercised fiscal restraint. Efforts to diversify the state's general economy have been ongoing. Additionally, New Hampshire's lack of a broad-based tax system (aside from the controversial state-wide property tax) has resulted in the state's local communities having some of the nation's highest property taxes. Overall, New Hampshire remains ranked 49th among states in combined average state and local tax burden. The Tax Foundation - New Hampshire's State and Local Tax Burden, 1970–2006 Law and government State line on NH Rt. 111 in Hollis Governing documents The New Hampshire State Constitution of 1783 is the supreme law of the state, followed by the New Hampshire Revised Statutes Annotated and the New Hampshire Code of Administrative Rules. This is roughly analogous to the Federal United States Constitution, United States Code and Code of Federal Regulations respectively. The attributes of New Hampshire law, as they pertain to victimless crimes, kindergarten, and civil unions, are described in the article on Government of New Hampshire. Branches of government New Hampshire has a bifurcated executive branch, consisting of the governor and a five-member executive council which votes on state contracts worth more than $5,000 and "advises and consents" to the governor's nominations to major state positions such as department heads and all judgeships and pardon requests. New Hampshire does not have a lieutenant governor; the Senate president serves as "acting governor" whenever the governor is unable to perform the duties. The legislature is called the General Court. It consists of the House of Representatives and the Senate. There are 400 representatives, making it one of the largest elected bodies in the English-speaking world, "House Fast Fact", New Hampshire House of Representatives and 24 senators. Most are effectively volunteers, nearly half of which are retirees. (For details, see the article on Government of New Hampshire.) The state's sole appellate court is the New Hampshire Supreme Court. The Superior Court is the court of general jurisdiction and the only court which provides for jury trials in civil or criminal cases. The other state courts are the Probate Court, District Court, and the Family Division. Municipal powers New Hampshire is a "Dillon Rule" state, meaning that the state retains all powers not specifically granted to municipalities. Even so, the legislature strongly favors local control, particularly with regard to land use regulations. Except for slightly more than a dozen communities incorporated as cities, local government in New Hampshire centers on town meetings. Some municipalities make final budgetary decisions by secret ballot at the same election where they vote for municipal officials. Alcohol New Hampshire is an alcoholic beverage control state, and through the State Liquor Commission it takes in $100 million from the sale and distribution of liquor. State of New Hampshire Department of Administrative Services - Monthly Revenue Focus (FY 2005) The state also leads the country in per capita sales of all forms of alcohol. National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism - Surveillance report #73: Apparent per Capita Alcohol Consumption: National, State, and Regional Trends, 1977–2003 Finances The state's budget in FY2008 was $5.11 billion, including $1.48 billion in federal funds. The issue of taxation is controversial in New Hampshire, which has a property tax (subject to municipal control) but no broad sales tax or income tax. The state does have narrower taxes on meals, lodging, vehicles, business and investment income, and tolls on state roads. Officials The Governor of New Hampshire is John Lynch (Democrat). New Hampshire's two U.S. senators are Judd Gregg (Republican) and Jeanne Shaheen (Democrat). New Hampshire's two U.S. representatives are Carol Shea-Porter (Democrat) and Paul Hodes (Democrat). Politics Political parties The Republican Party and the Democratic Party are the only official parties. A majority of voters are registered independent, and can chose either ballot in the primary, and then regain their independent status after voting. Independents Become Largest Voting Bloc in New Hampshire retrieved 29 December 2008 The Libertarian Party had official party status from 1990 to 1994. New Hampshire primary New Hampshire is internationally famous for the New Hampshire primary, the first primary in the quadrennial American presidential election cycle. State law requires that the Secretary of State schedule this election at least one week before any "similar event." However, the Iowa caucus has preceded the New Hampshire primary. This primary, as the nation's first contest that uses the same procedure as the general election, draws more attention than those in other states, and has often been decisive in shaping the national contest. Critics from other states have tried repeatedly but failed to reduce the state's primary clout. In Dixville Notch in Coos County and Hart's Location in Carroll, the polls open at midnight on Election Day. State law permits a town where all registered citizens have voted to close early and announce its results. These are traditionally the first towns in both New Hampshire and the U.S. to vote in presidential primaries and elections. Nominations for all other partisan offices are decided in a separate primary election. In Presidential election cycles, this is the second primary election held in New Hampshire. Election results In the past, New Hampshire has often voted Republican. Some sources trace the founding of the Republican Party to the town of Exeter in 1853. Prior to 1992, New Hampshire had only strayed from the Republican Party for three presidential candidates—Woodrow Wilson, Franklin D. Roosevelt and Lyndon B. Johnson. Beginning in 1992, New Hampshire became a swing state in both national and local elections. The state supported Democrats Bill Clinton in 1992 and 1996, John Kerry in 2004, and Barack Obama in 2008. It was the only U.S. state to support George W. Bush in the 2000 election and go Democratic in the 2004 election. The Democrats dominated elections in New Hampshire as they did nationally in 2006 and 2008. In 2006, Democrats won both Congressional seats (electing Carol Shea-Porter in the 1st district and Paul Hodes in the 2nd district), re-elected Governor John Lynch, and gained a majority on the Executive Council and in both houses of the legislature for the first time since 1911. Democrats had not held both the legislature and the governorship since 1874. Neither U.S. Senate seat was up for a vote in 2006. In 2008, Democrats retained their majorities, governorship, and Congressional seats; and former governor Jeanne Shaheen defeated incumbent Republican John E. Sununu for the U.S. Senate in a rematch of the 2002 contest. The 2008 elections resulted in women holding a majority, 13 of the 24 seats, in the New Hampshire Senate, a first for any legislative body in the United States. Senate President Sylvia Larsen, quoted in "Women make up majority in state Senate," the Manchester Union-Leader, November 6, 2008. Free State Project The Free State Project is a proposal to have 20,000 individuals move to New Hampshire, with the intent of reducing the size and scope of government at the local, state, and federal levels. The Free State Project holds the annual New Hampshire Liberty Forum Liberty Forum and the annual Porcupine Freedom Festival, also known as PorcFest. PorcFest Transportation New Hampshire has a well-maintained, well-signed network of Interstate highways, U.S. highways, and state highways. Major routes Interstate 89 runs northwest from near Concord to Lebanon on the Vermont border. Interstate 93 is the main Interstate highway in New Hampshire and runs north from Salem (on the Massachusetts border) to Littleton (on the Vermont border). I-93 connects the more densely populated southern part of the state to the Lakes Region and the White Mountains further to the north. Interstate 95 runs north-south briefly along New Hampshire's seacoast to serve the city of Portsmouth, before entering Maine. U.S. Route 1 U.S. Route 2 U.S. Route 3 parallels Interstate 93 except south of Manchester, where it heads toward Nashua. U.S. Route 4 State highway markers still depict the Old Man of the Mountain despite that rock formation's demise in 2003. Several route numbers align with the same route numbers in neighboring states. State highway numbering does not indicate the highway's direction. New Hampshire Route 16 is a major north-south highway in the eastern part of the state that generally parallels the border with Maine, eventually entering Maine as Maine Route 16. The southernmost portion of NH 16 is a four lane freeway, co-signed with U.S. Route 4. New Hampshire Route 101 is a major east-west highway in the southern part of the state that connects Keene with Manchester and the Seacoast region. East of Manchester, NH 101 is a four-lane, limited access freeway that runs to Hampton Beach and I-95. Education High schools The first high schools in the state were the Boys' High School and the Girls' High School of Portsmouth, established either in 1827 or 1830 depending on the source. New Hampshire has more than 150 public high schools, many of which serve more than one town. The largest is Pinkerton Academy in Derry, which is owned by a private non-profit organization and serves as the public high school of a number of neighboring towns. There are at least 30 private high schools in the state. N.H. public schools with a Web presence In 2008 the state tied with Massachusetts as having the highest scores on the SAT and ACT standardized tests given to high school students. The IQ-Trapper Colleges and universities Antioch University New England Chester College of New England Colby-Sawyer College Daniel Webster College Dartmouth College Franklin Pierce University Franklin Pierce Law Center Hesser College Lebanon College Magdalen College McIntosh College New England College Community College System of New Hampshire: White Mountains Community College River Valley Community College Lakes Region Community College New Hampshire Technical Institute Nashua Community College Great Bay Community College Manchester Community College New Hampshire Institute of Art Rivier College Saint Anselm College Southern New Hampshire University The Thomas More College of Liberal Arts University System of New Hampshire: University of New Hampshire Granite State College Keene State College Plymouth State University University of New Hampshire at Manchester Media Daily newspapers Berlin Daily Sun Concord Monitor Conway Daily Sun The Dartmouth of Dartmouth College/Hanover Eagle Times of Claremont Eagle Tribune (Lawrence, Massachusetts, area, including southern NH) Foster's Daily Democrat of Dover Keene Sentinel Laconia Citizen Laconia Daily Sun New Hampshire Union Leader of Manchester The Portsmouth Herald Telegraph of Nashua Valley News of Lebanon Other publications Area News Group The Exeter News-Letter The Hampton Union Hippo Press (covering Manchester, Nashua and Concord) Manchester Express Milford Cabinet, part of The Cabinet Press, which prints free weeklies in Hollis/Brookline, Bedford and Merrimack)The New Hampshire (University of New Hampshire student newspaper)New Hampshire Business ReviewNew Hampshire Free PressThe New Hampshire Gazette (Portsmouth alternative biweekly) Radio stationsSee List of radio stations in New Hampshire. Television stations ABC affiliate: WMUR, Channel 9, Manchester PBS affiliates in Durham, Keene and Littleton (New Hampshire Public Television) MyNetworkTV affiliate: WZMY, Channel 50, Derry Sports Professional sports teams Minor league baseball teams American Defenders of New Hampshire New Hampshire Fisher Cats Minor league hockey team Manchester MonarchsArena football team Manchester Wolves Premier Basketball League Manchester Millrats Minor league soccer team New Hampshire Phantoms Notable amateur teams Roller Derby League ManchVegasRollerGirls New Hampshire Roller Derby "Twin State" competition Annually since 2002, high school statewide all stars compete against Vermont in ten sports during "Twin State" playoffs. Culture In the spring, New Hampshire's many sap houses hold sugaring-off open houses. In summer, New Hampshire is home to many county fairs, the largest being the Hopkinton State Fair, in Contoocook. New Hampshire's lake region is home to many summer camps, especially around Lake Winnipesaukee, and is a popular tourist destination. The Peterborough Players have performed every summer in Peterborough, New Hampshire since 1933. In the fall New Hampshire is host to the New Hampshire Highland Games. New Hampshire has also registered an official tartan with the proper authorities in Scotland, used to make kilts worn by the Lincoln Police Department while its officers serve during the games. The fall foliage peaks in mid October. In the winter, New Hampshire's ski areas and snowmobile trails attract visitors from a wide area. After the lakes freeze over they become dotted with ice fishing ice houses, known locally as bobhouses. In fiction Literature Peterborough is the inspiration for the town of Grover's Corners, in Thornton Wilder's play Our Town.The novel Peyton Place was inspired by Gilmanton, New Hampshire. John Knowles based the Devon School in A Separate Peace on the Phillips Exeter Academy in Exeter. The prep school in John Irving's The World According to Garp was also based on the Academy. Irving's stepfather was a faculty member at the school, and Irving is an alumnus; New Hampshire references are common in his works. Many of the novels written by Jodi Picoult take place in New Hampshire. Much of the action in Julian May's science fiction saga the Galactic Milieu Series takes place in the state, with New Hampshire being the capital of the "Human Polity", in effect the center of government of the human race. Comics Bob Montana, the original artist for Archie Comics, attended Manchester Central High School for a year, and may have based Riverdale High School in part on Central. Al Capp, creator of the comic strip Li'l Abner, used to joke that Dogpatch, the setting for the strip, was based on Seabrook, where he would vacation with his wife. Susan Morse, "Last of the Yankees", Portsmouth Herald, July 4, 2004. Film and television Dartmouth College is said to be the inspiration for the film Animal House, as one of the scriptwriters, Chris Miller, studied there. The character of Josiah Bartlet, President of the United States on the television series The West Wing, was depicted as a two-term New Hampshire governor. Notable residents or natives Josiah Bartlett Dan Brown Ken Burns Chris Carpenter Salmon P. Chase E. E. Cummings Mary Baker Eddy Carlton Fisk Daniel Chester French Robert FrostHorace Greeley Nicholas Gilman Donald Hall John Irving Dean Kamen Maxine Kumin Dudley Leavitt Christa McAuliffe Dick and Mac McDonald Seth MeyersGrace Metalious Bode Miller P.J. O'Rourke Maxfield Parrish Jodi Picoult Franklin Pierce John Sargent Pillsbury Charles Revson Augustus Saint-Gaudens J.D. SalingerAdam Sandler Alan B. Shepard Jr. Sarah Silverman David H. Souter John Stark Jenny Thompson Steven Tyler Daniel Webster Benning Wentworth John Wentworth Granite State firstsSee Index of New Hampshire-related articles'' On January 5, 1776 at Exeter, the Provincial Congress of New Hampshire ratified the first independent constitution in the Americas, free of British rule. On June 12, 1800, Fernald's Island in the Piscataqua River became the first government-sanctioned US Navy shipyard. Started in 1822, Dublin's Juvenile Library was the first free public library. In 1828, the first women's strike in the nation took place at Dover's Cocheco Mills. Founded in 1833, the Peterborough Town Library was the first public library, supported with public funds, in the world. The Peterborough Town Library In 1845, the machine shop of Nashuan John H. Gage was considered the first shop devoted to the manufacture of machinists' tools. On August 29, 1866, Sylvester Marsh demonstrated the first mountain-climbing "cog" railway. Finished on June 27, 1874, the first trans-Atlantic telecommunications cable between Europe and America stretched from Balinskelligs Bay, Ireland, to Rye Beach, New Hampshire. On February 6, 1901, a group of nine conservationists founded the Society for the Protection of New Hampshire Forests, the first forest conservation advocacy group in the US. In 1908, Monsignor Pierre Hevey organized the nation's first credit union, in Manchester, to help mill workers save and borrow money. In 1933 the League of New Hampshire Craftsmen held the first crafts fair in the nation. League of New Hampshire Craftsmen's Fair Accessed November 9, 2007 In 1934, the current record for the highest recorded surface wind gust (231 mph) was set on Mount Washington. The Story of the World Record Wind In 1937 the Belknap Recreation Area installed the first chairlift for skiing in the East. In 1938 Earl Tupper, of Berlin, invented Tupperware and founded Tupper Plastics Company. In July 1944, the Bretton Woods Agreement, the first fully-negotiated system intended to govern monetary relations among independent nation-states, was signed at the Mount Washington Hotel. On May 5, 1961, Alan Shepard of Derry rode a Mercury spacecraft and became the first American in space. In 1963, New Hampshire's legislature approved the nation's first modern state lottery, which began play in 1964. In 1966, Ralph Baer of Sanders Associates, Inc., Nashua, recruited engineers to develop the first home video game. Christa McAuliffe of Concord became the first private citizen selected to venture into space. She perished with her six space shuttle Challenger crewmates on January 28, 1986. On May 17, 1996 New Hampshire became the first state in the country to install a green LED traffic light. NH was selected because they were the first to start installing the red and yellow ones statewide. Sending a bright signal, Concord Monitor pg B-6, May 18, 1996 On May 31, 2007 New Hampshire became "...the first state to embrace same-sex unions without a court order or the threat of one." Wang, Beverley. (April 26, 2007) State Senate approves civil unions for same-sex couples Concord Monitor. Accessed April 26, 2007. NH Firsts & Bests Accessed November 9, 2007 See also Index of New Hampshire-related articles References Further reading Land Use in Cornish, N.H., a 2006 documentary presentation by James M. Patterson of the Valley News, depicts various aspects of the societal and cultural environment of Northern New Hampshire External links State Government Official State Website The New Hampshire Almanac U.S. Government Energy Facts for New Hampshire New Hampshire State Facts USGS real-time, geographic, and other scientific resources of New Hampshire Other Directory of movie filming locations in the state New Hampshire Historical Society be-x-old:Нью-Гэмпшыр | New_Hampshire |@lemmatized new:150 hampshire:143 state:121 england:10 region:10 northeastern:2 united:11 america:5 name:2 southern:9 english:5 county:5 border:10 massachusetts:7 south:10 vermont:10 west:4 maine:11 east:6 canadian:6 province:3 quebec:4 north:13 rank:1 land:5 area:18 total:3 population:10 become:11 first:32 post:1 colonial:1 sovereign:1 nation:11 break:1 great:4 britain:1 january:4 one:12 original:3 thirteen:2 found:6 six:3 month:2 later:2 ninth:1 ratify:2 constitution:5 bring:1 document:2 effect:2 u:24 neither:2 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5,490 | E-commerce | Electronic Commerce, commonly known as (electronic marketing) e-commerce or eCommerce, consists of the buying and selling of products or services over electronic systems such as the Internet and other computer networks. The amount of trade conducted electronically has grown extraordinarily with widespread Internet usage. The use of commerce is conducted in this way, spurring and drawing on innovations in electronic funds transfer, supply chain management, Internet marketing, online transaction processing, electronic data interchange (EDI), inventory management systems, and automated data collection systems. Modern electronic commerce typically uses the World Wide Web at least at some point in the transaction's lifecycle, although it can encompass a wider range of technologies such as e-mail as well. A large percentage of electronic commerce is conducted entirely electronically for virtual items such as access to premium content on a website, but most electronic commerce involves the transportation of physical items in some way. Online retailers are sometimes known as e-tailers and online retail is sometimes known as e-tail'''. Almost all big retailers have electronic commerce presence on the World Wide Web. Electronic commerce that is conducted between businesses is referred to as business-to-business or B2B. B2B can be open to all interested parties (e.g. commodity exchange) or limited to specific, pre-qualified participants (private electronic market). Electronic commerce that is conducted between businesses and consumers, on the other hand, is referred to as business-to-consumer or B2C. This is the type of electronic commerce conducted by companies such as Amazon.com. Electronic commerce is generally considered to be the sales aspect of e-business. It also consists of the exchange of data to facilitate the financing and payment aspects of the business transactions. History Early development The meaning of electronic commerce has changed over the last 30 years. Originally, electronic commerce meant the facilitation of commercial transactions electronically, using technology such as Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) and Electronic Funds Transfer (EFT). These were both introduced in the late 1970s, allowing businesses to send commercial documents like purchase orders or invoices electronically. The growth and acceptance of credit cards, automated teller machines (ATM) and telephone banking in the 1980s were also forms of electronic commerce. Another form of e-commerce was the airline reservation system typified by Sabre in the USA and Travicom in the UK. Online shopping was invented in the UK in 1979 by Michael Aldrich and during the 1980s it was used extensively particularly by auto manufacturers such as Ford, Peugeot-Talbot, General Motors and Nissan. From the 1990s onwards, electronic commerce would additionally include enterprise resource planning systems (ERP), data mining and data warehousing. The earliest example of many-to-many electronic commerce in physical goods was the Boston Computer Exchange, a marketplace for used computers launched in 1982. The first online information marketplace, including online consulting, was likely the American Information Exchange, another pre-Internet online system introduced in 1991. Until 1991, commercial enterprise on the Internet was strictly prohibited. Kevin Kelly: We Are the Web Wired magazine, Issue 13.08, August 2005 Although the Internet became popular worldwide around 1994, it took about five years to introduce security protocols and DSL allowing continual connection to the Internet. And by the end of 2000, a lot of European and American business companies offered their services through the World Wide Web. Since then people began to associate a word "ecommerce" with the ability of purchasing various goods through the Internet using secure protocols and electronic payment services. Timeline 1990: Tim Berners-Lee writes the first web browser, WorldWideWeb, using a NeXT computer. 1992: J.H. Snider and Terra Ziporyn publish Future Shop: How New Technologies Will Change the Way We Shop and What We Buy. St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0312063598. 1994: Netscape releases the Navigator browser in October under the code name Mozilla. Pizza Hut offers pizza ordering on its Web page. The first online bank opens. Attempts to offer flower delivery and magazine subscriptions online. Adult materials also becomes commercially available, as do cars and bikes. Netscape 1.0 is introduced in late 1994 SSL encryption that made transactions secure. 1995: Jeff Bezos launches Amazon.com and the first commercial-free 24 hour, internet-only radio stations, Radio HK and NetRadio start broadcasting. Dell and Cisco begin to aggressively use Internet for commercial transactions. eBay is founded by computer programmer Pierre Omidyar as AuctionWeb. 1998: Electronic postal stamps can be purchased and downloaded for printing from the Web. 1999: Business.com sold for US $7.5 million to eCompanies, which was purchased in 1997 for US $149,000. The peer-to-peer filesharing software Napster launches. 2000: The dot-com bust. 2002: eBay acquires PayPal for $1.5 billion . Niche retail companies CSN Stores and NetShops are founded with the concept of selling products through several targeted domains, rather than a central portal. 2003: Amazon.com posts first yearly profit. 2007: Business.com acquired by R.H. Donnelley for $345 million . 2008: US eCommerce and Online Retail sales projected to reach $204 billion, an increase of 17 percent over 2007 . Business applications Some common applications related to electronic commerce are the following: Email Enterprise content management Instant messaging Newsgroups Online shopping and order tracking Online banking Online office suites Domestic and international payment systems Shopping cart software Teleconferencing Electronic tickets Government regulations In the United States, some electronic commerce activities are regulated by the Federal Trade Commission (FTC). These activities include the use of commercial e-mails, online advertising and consumer privacy. The CAN-SPAM Act of 2003 establishes national standards for direct marketing over e-mail. The Federal Trade Commission Act regulates all forms of advertising, including online advertising, and states that advertising must be truthful and non-deceptive. Using its authority under Section 5 of the FTC Act, which prohibits unfair or deceptive practices, the FTC has brought a number of cases to enforce the promises in corporate privacy statements, including promises about the security of consumers’ personal information. As result, any corporate privacy policy related to e-commerce activity may be subject to enforcement by the FTC. The Ryan Haight Online Pharmacy Consumer Protection Act of 2008, which came into law in 2008, amends the Controlled Substances Act to address online pharmacies. Forms Contemporary electronic commerce involves everything from ordering "digital" content for immediate online consumption, to ordering conventional goods and services, to "meta" services to facilitate other types of electronic commerce. On the consumer level, electronic commerce is mostly conducted on the World Wide Web. An individual can go online to purchase anything from books or groceries, to expensive items like real estate. Another example would be online banking, i.e. online bill payments, buying stocks, transferring funds from one account to another, and initiating wire payment to another country. All of these activities can be done with a few strokes of the keyboard. On the institutional level, big corporations and financial institutions use the internet to exchange financial data to facilitate domestic and international business. Data integrity and security are very hot and pressing issues for electronic commerce today. See also Dot-com company E-government E-business Internet business Mobile commerce Paid content Social commerce Notes References Kessler, M. (2003). More shoppers proceed to checkout online. Retrieved January 13, 2004 External links U.S. Federal Trade Commission E-Commerce Fact Sheets US Small Business Guide to E-Commerce Laws and Regulations | E-commerce |@lemmatized electronic:30 commerce:28 commonly:1 know:3 marketing:3 e:15 ecommerce:3 consist:2 buying:1 selling:2 product:2 service:5 system:7 internet:12 computer:5 network:1 amount:1 trade:4 conduct:7 electronically:4 grow:1 extraordinarily:1 widespread:1 usage:1 use:10 way:3 spur:1 draw:1 innovation:1 fund:3 transfer:3 supply:1 chain:1 management:3 online:22 transaction:6 processing:1 data:8 interchange:2 edi:2 inventory:1 automate:2 collection:1 modern:1 typically:1 world:4 wide:4 web:8 least:1 point:1 lifecycle:1 although:2 encompass:1 wider:1 range:1 technology:3 mail:3 well:1 large:1 percentage:1 entirely:1 virtual:1 item:3 access:1 premium:1 content:4 website:1 involve:2 transportation:1 physical:2 retailer:2 sometimes:2 tailers:1 retail:3 tail:1 almost:1 big:2 presence:1 business:16 refer:2 open:2 interested:1 party:1 g:1 commodity:1 exchange:5 limit:1 specific:1 pre:2 qualified:1 participant:1 private:1 market:1 consumer:6 hand:1 type:2 company:4 amazon:3 com:7 generally:1 consider:1 sale:2 aspect:2 also:4 facilitate:3 financing:1 payment:5 history:1 early:2 development:1 meaning:1 change:2 last:1 year:2 originally:1 mean:1 facilitation:1 commercial:6 eft:1 introduce:4 late:2 allow:2 send:1 document:1 like:2 purchase:5 order:5 invoice:1 growth:1 acceptance:1 credit:1 card:1 teller:1 machine:1 atm:1 telephone:1 banking:3 form:4 another:5 airline:1 reservation:1 typify:1 sabre:1 usa:1 travicom:1 uk:2 shopping:2 invent:1 michael:1 aldrich:1 extensively:1 particularly:1 auto:1 manufacturer:1 ford:1 peugeot:1 talbot:1 general:1 motor:1 nissan:1 onwards:1 would:2 additionally:1 include:5 enterprise:3 resource:1 plan:1 erp:1 mining:1 warehousing:1 example:2 many:2 good:3 boston:1 marketplace:2 used:1 launch:3 first:5 information:3 consulting:1 likely:1 american:2 strictly:1 prohibit:2 kevin:1 kelly:1 wire:2 magazine:2 issue:2 august:1 become:2 popular:1 worldwide:1 around:1 take:1 five:1 security:3 protocol:2 dsl:1 continual:1 connection:1 end:1 lot:1 european:1 offer:3 since:1 people:1 begin:2 associate:1 word:1 ability:1 various:1 secure:2 timeline:1 tim:1 berners:1 lee:1 write:1 browser:2 worldwideweb:1 next:1 j:1 h:2 snider:1 terra:1 ziporyn:1 publish:1 future:1 shop:3 new:1 buy:2 st:1 martin:1 press:2 isbn:1 netscape:2 release:1 navigator:1 october:1 code:1 name:1 mozilla:1 pizza:2 hut:1 page:1 bank:1 attempt:1 flower:1 delivery:1 subscription:1 adult:1 material:1 commercially:1 available:1 car:1 bike:1 ssl:1 encryption:1 make:1 jeff:1 bezos:1 free:1 hour:1 radio:2 station:1 hk:1 netradio:1 start:1 broadcasting:1 dell:1 cisco:1 aggressively:1 ebay:2 found:2 programmer:1 pierre:1 omidyar:1 auctionweb:1 postal:1 stamp:1 download:1 print:1 sell:1 u:5 million:2 ecompanies:1 peer:2 filesharing:1 software:2 napster:1 dot:2 bust:1 acquire:2 paypal:1 billion:2 niche:1 csn:1 store:1 netshops:1 concept:1 several:1 targeted:1 domain:1 rather:1 central:1 portal:1 post:1 yearly:1 profit:1 r:1 donnelley:1 project:1 reach:1 increase:1 percent:1 application:2 common:1 relate:2 following:1 email:1 instant:1 messaging:1 newsgroups:1 track:1 office:1 suite:1 domestic:2 international:2 cart:1 teleconferencing:1 ticket:1 government:2 regulation:2 united:1 state:2 activity:4 regulate:2 federal:3 commission:3 ftc:4 advertising:4 privacy:3 spam:1 act:5 establishes:1 national:1 standard:1 direct:1 must:1 truthful:1 non:1 deceptive:2 authority:1 section:1 unfair:1 practice:1 bring:1 number:1 case:1 enforce:1 promise:2 corporate:2 statement:1 personal:1 result:1 policy:1 may:1 subject:1 enforcement:1 ryan:1 haight:1 pharmacy:2 protection:1 come:1 law:2 amend:1 controlled:1 substance:1 address:1 contemporary:1 everything:1 digital:1 immediate:1 consumption:1 conventional:1 meta:1 level:2 mostly:1 individual:1 go:1 anything:1 book:1 grocery:1 expensive:1 real:1 estate:1 bill:1 stock:1 one:1 account:1 initiate:1 country:1 stroke:1 keyboard:1 institutional:1 corporation:1 financial:2 institution:1 integrity:1 hot:1 today:1 see:1 mobile:1 pay:1 social:1 note:1 reference:1 kessler:1 shopper:1 proceed:1 checkout:1 retrieve:1 january:1 external:1 link:1 fact:1 sheet:1 small:1 guide:1 |@bigram buying_selling:1 automate_teller:1 data_warehousing:1 tim_berners:1 berners_lee:1 web_browser:1 pizza_hut:1 peer_peer:1 instant_messaging:1 commission_ftc:1 controlled_substance:1 real_estate:1 external_link:1 |
5,491 | Transport_in_Haiti | Railroads In the past, Haiti used railroads, but today they are not not used. Roads A "tap tap" bus, used for public transportation in Haiti Highways: All of the major transportation systems in Haiti are located near or run through the capital. Haiti has two main highways that run from one end of the country to the other. The northern highway, Route Nationale #1 (National Highway One), originates in Port-au-Prince, winding through the coastal towns of Montrouis and Gonaïves, before reaching its terminus at the northern port Cap-Haïtien. The southern highway, Route Nationale #2, links Port-au-Prince with Les Cayes via Léogâne and Petit Goâve. Maintenance for these roads lapsed after the 1991 coup, prompting the World Bank to loan USD 50 million designated for road repairs. The project was canceled in January 1999, however, after auditors revealed corruption. Haiti also has a third major highway, the Route Nationale #3, which connects Port-au-Prince to Cap-Haitien via the towns of Mirebalais and Hinche. This route links the capital and Le Cap to the central plateau; however, due to its poor condition, it sees limited use. Total highways: 4,161 km Paved highways: 1,011 km Unpaved highways: 3,149 km (1996 est.) Public transportation: The most common form of public transportation in Haiti is the use of brightly painted pickup trucks as taxis called "tap-taps" They are named this because when a passenger needs to be let off they use their coin money to tap the side of the vehicle and the driver usually stops. Most tap-taps are fairly priced at around 10-15 gourdes per ride within a city. The catch to the price is that the driver will often fill a truck to maximum capacity, which is nearly 20-30 people. Water transport History: One of the oldest maritime histories in Americas. Panama Railroad Company The Panama Railroad Company (Panama line), which often is mis-related to be a railroad company in Port-au-Prince, Haiti, was actually an owner of (owned by?) a railroad in Panama and a ship line with three ocean liners that traveled between New York (USA) - Port-au-Prince (Haiti) - Cristobal (Panama). Company had facilities in Port-au-Prince and their ocean liners stopped there. It has not had any known railroad operations in Haiti. Three ocean liners were: - S/S Panama (1939), maiden voyage 26 April 1939 - S/S Ancon (1939), maiden voyage 22 June 1939 - S/S Cristobal (1939), maiden voyage 17 August 1939 Waterways: NEGL; less than 100 km navigable Merchant Marine: none (1999 est.) Ports and Harbors: Cap-Haitien, Gonaïves, Jacmel, Jérémie, Les Cayes, Miragoane, Port-au-Prince, Port-de-Paix, Saint-Marc, Fort Liberte The port at Port-au-Prince has more registered shipping than any of the over dozen ports in the country. The port's facilities include cranes, large berths, and warehouses, but these facilities are in universally poor shape. The port is underused, possibly due to the substantially high port fees compared to ports in the Dominican Republic. The port of Saint-Marc is currently the preferred port of entry for consumer goods coming into Haiti. Reasons for this may include its location away from volatile and congested Port-au-Prince, as well as its central location relative to a large group of Haitian cities including Cap-Haitien, Carrefour, Delmas, Desarmes, Fond-Parisien, Fort-Liberté, Gonaives, Hinche, l’Artibonite, Limbe, Pétionville, Port-de-Paix, and Verrettes. These cities, together with their surrounding areas, contain about six million of Haïti’s eight million people. Links: Panama Railroad Liners Brochure Ocean Liner Museum - The Great Panama Three The Panama Line History Aviation See also: List of airports in Haiti, Port-au-Prince International Airport Airports: 14 (2007 est.) Airports - with paved runways: total: 4 2,438 to 3,047 m: 1 914 to 1,523 m: 3 (1999 est.) Airports - with unpaved runways: total: 10 914 to 1,523 m: 1 under 914 m: 9 (2007 est.) Toussaint Louverture International Airport (formerly known as Port-au-Prince International Airport), which opened in 1965 (as François Duvalier International Airport), is located 10 km North/North East of Port-au-Prince. It is Haiti's only jetway, and as such, handles the vast majority of the country's international flights. Air Haïti, Tropical Airways and a handful of major airlines from Europe, the Caribbean, and the Americas serve the airport. | Transport_in_Haiti |@lemmatized railroad:8 past:1 haiti:12 use:6 today:1 roads:1 tap:7 bus:1 public:3 transportation:4 highway:9 major:3 system:1 locate:2 near:1 run:2 capital:2 two:1 main:1 one:3 end:1 country:3 northern:2 route:4 nationale:3 national:1 originate:1 port:24 au:12 prince:12 wind:1 coastal:1 town:2 montrouis:1 gonaïves:2 reach:1 terminus:1 cap:5 haïtien:1 southern:1 link:3 le:2 cayes:2 via:2 léogâne:1 petit:1 goâve:1 maintenance:1 road:2 lapse:1 coup:1 prompt:1 world:1 bank:1 loan:1 usd:1 million:3 designate:1 repair:1 project:1 cancel:1 january:1 however:2 auditor:1 reveal:1 corruption:1 also:2 third:1 connect:1 haitien:3 mirebalais:1 hinche:2 central:2 plateau:1 due:2 poor:2 condition:1 see:2 limited:1 total:3 km:5 pave:1 unpaved:2 est:5 common:1 form:1 brightly:1 paint:1 pickup:1 truck:2 taxi:1 call:1 name:1 passenger:1 need:1 let:1 coin:1 money:1 side:1 vehicle:1 driver:2 usually:1 stop:2 fairly:1 price:2 around:1 gourde:1 per:1 ride:1 within:1 city:3 catch:1 often:2 fill:1 maximum:1 capacity:1 nearly:1 people:2 water:1 transport:1 history:3 old:1 maritime:1 america:2 panama:9 company:4 line:3 mis:1 relate:1 actually:1 owner:1 ship:1 three:3 ocean:4 liner:5 travel:1 new:1 york:1 usa:1 cristobal:2 facility:3 know:2 operation:1 maiden:3 voyage:3 april:1 ancon:1 june:1 august:1 waterway:1 negl:1 less:1 navigable:1 merchant:1 marine:1 none:1 harbor:1 jacmel:1 jérémie:1 les:1 miragoane:1 de:2 paix:2 saint:2 marc:2 fort:2 liberte:1 registered:1 shipping:1 dozen:1 include:3 crane:1 large:2 berth:1 warehouse:1 universally:1 shape:1 underused:1 possibly:1 substantially:1 high:1 fee:1 compare:1 dominican:1 republic:1 currently:1 preferred:1 entry:1 consumer:1 good:1 come:1 reason:1 may:1 location:2 away:1 volatile:1 congest:1 well:1 relative:1 group:1 haitian:1 carrefour:1 delmas:1 desarmes:1 fond:1 parisien:1 liberté:1 gonaives:1 l:1 artibonite:1 limbe:1 pétionville:1 verrettes:1 together:1 surround:1 area:1 contain:1 six:1 haïti:2 eight:1 brochure:1 museum:1 great:1 aviation:1 list:1 airport:9 international:5 paved:1 runway:2 toussaint:1 louverture:1 formerly:1 open:1 françois:1 duvalier:1 north:2 east:1 jetway:1 handle:1 vast:1 majority:1 flight:1 air:1 tropical:1 airway:1 handful:1 airline:1 europe:1 caribbean:1 serve:1 |@bigram tap_tap:3 cap_haïtien:1 cap_haitien:3 km_unpaved:1 pickup_truck:1 ocean_liner:4 maiden_voyage:3 merchant_marine:1 dominican_republic:1 l_artibonite:1 airport_paved:1 paved_runway:1 airport_unpaved:1 unpaved_runway:1 toussaint_louverture:1 françois_duvalier:1 vast_majority:1 |
5,492 | Extended_Industry_Standard_Architecture | A Compaq Netflex EISA Card's Edge Connection The Extended Industry Standard Architecture (in practice almost always shortened to EISA and frequently pronounced "eee-suh") is a bus standard for IBM compatible computers. It was announced in late 1988 by PC clone vendors (the "Gang of Nine") as a counter to IBM's use of its proprietary MicroChannel Architecture (MCA) in its PS/2 series. EISA extends the AT bus, which the Gang of Nine retroactively renamed to the ISA bus to avoid infringing IBM's trademark on its PC/AT computer, to 32 bits and allows more than one CPU to share the bus. The bus mastering support is also enhanced to provide access to 4 GB of memory. Unlike MCA, EISA can accept older XT and ISA boards — the lines and slots for EISA are a superset of ISA. EISA was much favoured by manufacturers due to the proprietary nature of MCA, and even IBM produced some machines supporting it. It was somewhat expensive to implement (though not as much as MCA), so it never became particularly popular in desktop PCs. However, it was reasonably successful in the server market, as it was better suited to bandwidth-intensive tasks (such as disk access and networking). Most EISA cards produced were either SCSI or network cards. EISA was also available on some non-IBM compatible machines such as the AlphaServer, HP 9000-D, SGI Indigo2 and MIPS Magnum. By the time there was a strong market need for a bus of these speeds and capabilities, the VESA Local Bus and later PCI filled this niche and EISA vanished into obscurity. History The original IBM PC included five 8-bit slots, running at the system clock speed of 4.77 MHz. The PC/AT, introduced in 1984, had three 8-bit slots and five 16-bit slots, all running at the system clock speed of 8 MHz in the last version of the computer. The 16-bit slots were a superset of the 8-bit configuration, so most 8-bit cards were able to plug into a 16-bit slot (some cards used a "skirt" design that interfered with the extended portion of the slot) and continue to run in 8-bit mode. One of the key reasons for the success of the IBM PC (and the PC clones that followed it) was the active ecosystem of third-party expansion cards available for the machines. IBM was restricted from patenting the bus, and widely published the bus specifications. As the PC-clone industry continued to build momentum in the mid- to late-1980s, several problems with the bus began to be apparent. First, because the "AT slot" (as it was known at the time) was not managed by any central standards group, there was nothing to prevent a manufacturer from "pushing" the standard. One of the most common issues was that as PC clones became more common, PC manufacturers began ratcheting up the processor speed to maintain a competitive advantage. Unfortunately, because the ISA bus was originally locked to the processor clock, this meant that some 286 machines had ISA buses that ran at 10, 12, or even 16 MHz. In fact, the first system to clock the ISA bus at 8 MHz was the turbo 8088 clones that clocked the processors at 8 MHz. This caused many issues with incompatibility, where a true IBM-compatible third-party card (designed for an 8 MHz or 4.77 MHz bus) might not work in a higher speed system (or even worse, would work unreliably). Most PC makers eventually decoupled the slot clock from the system clock, but there was still no standards body to "police" the industry. The AT bus architecture was so well entrenched that no single clone manufacturer had the leverage to create an standardized alternative, and there was no compelling reason for them to cooperate on a new standard. Because of this, when the first 386-based system (the Compaq Deskpro 386) hit the market in 1986, it still sported 16-bit slots. Other 386 PCs followed suit, and the AT (later ISA) bus remained a part of most systems even into the late 1990s. Some of the 386 systems had proprietary 32-bit extensions to the ISA bus. Meanwhile, IBM began to worry that it was losing control of the industry it had created. In 1987, IBM released the PS/2 line of computers, which included the MCA bus. MCA included numerous enhancements over the 16-bit AT bus, including bus mastering, burst mode, software configurable resources, and 32-bit capabilities. However, in an effort to reassert its dominant role, IBM patented the bus, and placed stringent licensing and royalty policies on its use. A few manufacturers did produce licensed MCA machines (most notably NCR), but overall the industry balked at IBM's restrictions. In response, a group of PC manufacturers (the "Gang of Nine"), led by Compaq, created a new bus, which was named the Extended Industry Standard Architecture, or "EISA" (the Industry Standard Architecture, or "ISA", name replaced the "AT" name commonly used for the 16-bit bus). This provided virtually all of the technical advantages of MCA, while remaining compatible with existing 8-bit and 16-bit cards, and (most enticing to system and card makers) minimal licensing cost. The first EISA computers to hit the market were the Compaq Deskpro 486 and the SystemPro. The SystemPro, being one of the first PC-style systems designed as a network server, was built from the ground up to take full advantage of the EISA bus. It included such features as multiprocessing, hardware RAID, and bus-mastering network cards. Ironically, one of the benefits to come out of the EISA standard was a final codification of the standard to which ISA slots and cards should be held (in particular, clock speed was fixed at an industry standard of 8.33MHz). Thus, even systems which didn't use the EISA bus gained the advantage of having the ISA standardized, which contributed to its longevity. Technical data bus width 32 bit compatible with 8 bit ISA, 16 bit ISA, 32 bit EISApins 98 + 100 inlay Vcc +5 V, -5 V, +12 V, -12 V clock 8.33 MHz theoretical data rate (32 bit) about 33 Mbyte/s [ 8.33 MHz * 4 bytes ] usable data rate (32 bit) about 20 Mbyte/s Although the EISA bus had a slight performance disadvantage over MCA (bus speed of 8.33 MHz, compared to 10 MHz), EISA contained almost all of the technological benefits that MCA boasted, including bus mastering, burst mode, software configurable resources, and 32-bit data/address buses. These brought EISA nearly to par with MCA from a performance standpoint, and EISA easily defeated MCA in industry support. EISA replaced the tedious jumper configuration common with ISA cards with software-based configuration. Every EISA system shipped with an EISA configuration utility; this was usually a slightly customized version of the standard utilities written by the EISA chipset makers. The user would boot into this utility, either from floppy disk or on a dedicated hard drive partition. The utility software would detect all EISA cards in the system, and could configure any hardware resources (interrupts, memory ports, etc) on any EISA card (each EISA card would include a disk with information that described the available options on the card), or on the EISA system motherboard. The user could also enter information about ISA cards in the system, allowing the utility to automatically reconfigure EISA cards to avoid resource conflicts. Similarly, Windows 95, with its Plug-and-Play capability, was not able to change the configuration of EISA cards, but it could detect the cards, read their configuration, and reconfigure Plug and Play hardware to avoid resource conflicts. Windows 95 would also automatically attempt to install appropriate drivers for detected EISA cards. Industry Acceptance EISA's success was far from guaranteed. Many manufacturers, including those in the "Gang of Nine", researched the possibility of using MCA. For example, Compaq actually produced prototype DeskPro systems using the bus. However, these were never put into production, and when it was clear that MCA had lost, Compaq allowed its MCA license to expire (the license actually cost relatively little; the primary costs associated with MCA, and at which the industry revolted, were royalties to be paid per system shipped). On the other hand, when it became clear to IBM that Micro Channel was dying, IBM actually licensed EISA for use in a few server systems. As a final jab at their competitor, Compaq (leader of the EISA consortium) didn't cash the first check sent by IBM for the EISA license. Instead, the check was framed and put on display in the company museum at Compaq's main campus in Houston, Texas. See also Industry Standard Architecture (ISA) Micro Channel architecture (MCA) NuBus VESA Local Bus (VESA) Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI) Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP) PCI Express (PCIe) List of device bandwidths PCI-X PC/104 CompactPCI PC card Low Pin Count (LPC) Universal Serial Bus External links Removing EISA configuration EISA bus technical summary Intel EISA Controllers | Extended_Industry_Standard_Architecture |@lemmatized compaq:8 netflex:1 eisa:36 card:22 edge:1 connection:1 extended:3 industry:12 standard:13 architecture:7 practice:1 almost:2 always:1 shorten:1 frequently:1 pronounce:1 eee:1 suh:1 bus:35 ibm:16 compatible:5 computer:5 announce:1 late:3 pc:16 clone:6 vendor:1 gang:4 nine:4 counter:1 use:8 proprietary:3 microchannel:1 mca:17 p:2 series:1 extend:1 retroactively:1 rename:1 isa:16 avoid:3 infringe:1 trademark:1 bit:23 allow:3 one:5 cpu:1 share:1 master:1 support:3 also:5 enhance:1 provide:2 access:2 gb:1 memory:2 unlike:1 accept:1 old:1 xt:1 board:1 line:2 slot:10 superset:2 much:2 favour:1 manufacturer:7 due:1 nature:1 even:5 produce:4 machine:5 somewhat:1 expensive:1 implement:1 though:1 never:2 become:3 particularly:1 popular:1 desktop:1 however:3 reasonably:1 successful:1 server:3 market:4 well:2 suit:2 bandwidth:2 intensive:1 task:1 disk:3 network:4 either:2 scsi:1 available:3 non:1 alphaserver:1 hp:1 sgi:1 mips:1 magnum:1 time:2 strong:1 need:1 speed:7 capability:3 vesa:3 local:2 later:2 pci:4 fill:1 niche:1 vanish:1 obscurity:1 history:1 original:1 include:8 five:2 slots:1 run:3 system:18 clock:9 mhz:11 introduce:1 three:1 running:1 last:1 version:2 configuration:7 able:2 plug:3 skirt:1 design:3 interfere:1 portion:1 continue:2 mode:3 key:1 reason:2 success:2 follow:2 active:1 ecosystem:1 third:2 party:2 expansion:1 restrict:1 patent:2 widely:1 publish:1 specification:1 build:2 momentum:1 mid:1 several:1 problem:1 begin:3 apparent:1 first:6 know:1 manage:1 central:1 group:2 nothing:1 prevent:1 push:1 common:3 issue:2 ratchet:1 processor:3 maintain:1 competitive:1 advantage:4 unfortunately:1 originally:1 lock:1 meant:1 fact:1 turbo:1 cause:1 many:2 incompatibility:1 true:1 might:1 work:2 high:1 bad:1 would:5 unreliably:1 maker:3 eventually:1 decouple:1 still:2 body:1 police:1 entrench:1 single:1 leverage:1 create:3 standardized:1 alternative:1 compelling:1 cooperate:1 new:2 base:2 deskpro:3 hit:2 sport:1 remain:2 part:1 extension:1 meanwhile:1 worry:1 lose:2 control:1 release:1 numerous:1 enhancement:1 mastering:3 burst:2 software:4 configurable:2 resource:5 effort:1 reassert:1 dominant:1 role:1 place:1 stringent:1 licensing:1 royalty:2 policy:1 licensed:1 notably:1 ncr:1 overall:1 balk:1 restriction:1 response:1 lead:1 name:3 replace:2 commonly:1 virtually:1 technical:3 exist:1 entice:1 minimal:1 license:5 cost:3 systempro:2 style:1 ground:1 take:1 full:1 feature:1 multiprocessing:1 hardware:3 raid:1 ironically:1 benefit:2 come:1 final:2 codification:1 hold:1 particular:1 fix:1 thus:1 gain:1 standardize:1 contribute:1 longevity:1 data:4 width:1 eisapins:1 inlay:1 vcc:1 v:4 theoretical:1 rate:2 mbyte:2 byte:1 usable:1 although:1 slight:1 performance:2 disadvantage:1 compare:1 contain:1 technological:1 boast:1 address:1 bring:1 nearly:1 par:1 standpoint:1 easily:1 defeat:1 tedious:1 jumper:1 every:1 ship:2 utility:5 usually:1 slightly:1 customized:1 write:1 chipset:1 user:2 boot:1 floppy:1 dedicated:1 hard:1 drive:1 partition:1 detect:2 could:3 configure:1 interrupt:1 port:2 etc:1 information:2 describe:1 option:1 motherboard:1 enter:1 automatically:2 reconfigure:2 conflict:2 similarly:1 windows:1 play:2 change:1 read:1 window:1 attempt:1 install:1 appropriate:1 driver:1 detected:1 acceptance:1 far:1 guarantee:1 research:1 possibility:1 example:1 actually:3 prototype:1 put:2 production:1 clear:2 expire:1 relatively:1 little:1 primary:1 associate:1 revolt:1 pay:1 per:1 hand:1 micro:2 channel:2 die:1 jab:1 competitor:1 leader:1 consortium:1 cash:1 check:2 send:1 instead:1 frame:1 display:1 company:1 museum:1 main:1 campus:1 houston:1 texas:1 see:1 nubus:1 peripheral:1 component:1 interconnect:1 accelerate:1 graphic:1 agp:1 express:1 pcie:1 list:1 device:1 x:1 compactpci:1 low:1 pin:1 count:1 lpc:1 universal:1 serial:1 external:1 link:1 remove:1 summary:1 intel:1 controller:1 |@bigram eisa_card:8 isa_bus:6 vesa_local:2 ibm_pc:2 mhz_mhz:1 compaq_deskpro:2 eisa_bus:4 isa_slot:1 floppy_disk:1 pci_express:1 external_link:1 |
5,493 | Etruscan_language | The Etruscan language was spoken and written by the Etruscan civilization in the ancient region of Etruria (modern Tuscany plus western Umbria and northern Latium) and in parts of Lombardy, Veneto, and Emilia-Romagna (where the Etruscans were displaced by Gauls), in Italy. However, Latin superseded Etruscan completely, leaving only a few documents and a few loanwords in Latin e.g., persona from Etruscan ersu, and some place-names, such as Roma. History of Etruscan literacy Drawing of the inscriptions on the Piacenza liver, see haruspex. Etruscan literacy was widespread over the Mediterranean shores, as can be seen by about 13,000 inscriptions (dedications, epitaphs etc), most fairly short, but some of some length. Bonfante (1990), page 12 They date from about 700 BC. Bonfante (1990) page 10. The Etruscans had a rich literature, as noted by Latin authors. Unfortunately only one book (now unreadable) has survived, although there is always some possibility that more will turn up. By AD 100, Etruscan had been replaced by Latin. Only a few educated Romans with antiquarian interests, such as Varro, could read Etruscan. The last person known to have been able to read it was the Roman emperor Claudius (10 BC – AD 54), who — in the context of his work in twenty books about the Etruscans, Tyrrenikà (now lost) — compiled a dictionary (also lost) by interviewing the last few elderly rustics who still spoke the language. Urgulanilla, his first wife, was Etruscan. For Urgulanilla, see Suetonius, Life of Claudius, Section 26.1; for the 20 books, same work, Section 42.2. Livy and Cicero were both aware that highly specialized Etruscan religious rites were codified in several sets of books written in Etruscan under the generic Latin title Etrusca Disciplina. The Libri Haruspicini dealt with divination from the entrails of the sacrificed animal, the Libri Fulgurales expounded the art of divination by observing lightning. A third set, the Libri Rituales, would have provided us with the key to Etruscan civilization: its wider scope embraced Etruscan standards of social and political life as well as ritual practices. According to the 4th century Latin writer Servius, a fourth set of Etruscan books existed, dealing with animal gods, but it is probably unlikely that any contemporary scholar could have read Etruscan at such a late date. Christian authorities collected such works of paganism and destroyed them during the 5th century; the single surviving Etruscan book, Liber Linteus, being written on linen, survived only by being used as mummy wrappings. Etruscan had some influence over Latin. A few dozen words were borrowed by the Romans and some of them can be found in modern languages. Geographic distribution Approximate distribution of languages in Iron Age Italy during the sixth century BC. Inscriptions have been found in north-west and west-central Italy, in the region that even now bears the name of the Etruscans, Tuscany (from Latin tusc "Etruscans"), as well as in today's Latium north of Rome, in today's Umbria west of the Tiber, around Capua in Campania and in the Po valley to the north of Etruria. Presumably this range is a maximum Italian homeland where the language was at one time spoken. Outside of Italy A summary of the locations of the inscriptions published in the EDP project, given below under External links, is stated in its Guide. inscriptions have been found in Africa, Corsica, Elba, Gallia Narbonensis, Greece, the Balkans and the Black Sea. By far the greatest concentration is in Italy. An inscription found on Lemnos in 1886, is in an alphabet practically identical to that of Etruscan. Classification The Etruscan language has been difficult to analyze, which is attributable to its being an isolate. The phonology is known through the alternation of Greek and Etruscan letters in some inscriptions (for example, the Iguvine Tables), and many individual words are known through loans into or from Greek and Latin, as well as explanations of Etruscan words by ancient authors. A few concepts of word formation have been formulated (see below). Knowledge of the language is incomplete. In the 1st century BC the Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus stated that the Etruscan language was unlike any other. 1.30.2. Bonfante, a leading scholar in the field, says "... it resembles no other language in Europe or elsewhere ...." Tyrsenian family The majority consensus is that Etruscan is related only to other members of what is called the Tyrsenian language family which in itself is an isolate family, that is, unrelated to other language groups by any known relationship. Since Rix (1998) it is widely accepted that Tyrsenian is composed of Rhaetic and Lemnian together with Etruscan. Some modern scholars For example, Steinbauer (1999). assert that the Tyrsenian languages are distantly related to the Indo-European family. More specifically Frederik Woudhuizen suggests a relation to the Anatolian branch of the family. Woudhuizen revived a conjecture to the effect that the Tyrsenians came from Anatolia, including Lydia, whence they were driven out by the Cimmerians in the early Iron Age, 750-675 BC, leaving some colonists on Lemnos. He makes a number of comparisons of Etruscan to Luwian and asserts that Etruscan is modified Luwian. He accounts for the non-Luwian features as a Mysian influence: "deviations from Luwian ... may plausibly be ascribed to the dialect of the indigenous population of Mysia." Page 83. According to Woudhuizen, the Etruscans were colonizing the Latins. The Etruscans brought the alphabet from Anatolia. More recently Robert S.P. Beekes presented a similar case, but argued that the people later known as the Lydians and Etruscans had originally lived in north west Anatolia, with a coastline to the Sea of Marmara, whence they were driven by the Phrygians c. 1,200 BC, leaving a remnant known in antiquity as the Tyrsenoi. A segment of this people moved south-west to Lydia, becoming known as the Lydians, while others sailed away to take refuge in Italy, where they became known as Etruscans. The Etruscan language was therefore a variant of Lydian. R.S.P. Beekes, The Origin of the Etruscans, Biblioteca Orientalis vol. 59 (2002), pp. 206–242. Both of these accounts draw on the story by Herodotus (i, 94) of the Lydian origin of the Etruscans. Dionysius of Halicarnassus (book 1) rejected this account of the people he called the Tyrrhenians, partly on the authority of Xanthus, a Lydian historian, who had no knowledge of the story, and partly on what he judged to be the different languages, laws and religions of the two peoples. Other Historically, a relation of Etruscan to the Semitic languages has also been discussed. This suggestion has been obsolete since the later 19th century. Various other speculative proposals have been made in the 19th and 20th centuries, all of them failing to gain significant acceptance. The interest in Etruscan antiquities and the mysterious Etruscan language found its modern origin in a book by a Dominican friar, Annio da Viterbo (d. 1502), also known as Il Pastura, the cabalist and orientalist, now remembered mainly for literary forgeries. He guided Pinturicchio's allegorical frescoes for Pope Alexander VI's Vatican apartments. In 1498 Annio published his antiquarian miscellany titled Antiquitatum variarum (in 17 volumes) where he put together a fantastic theory in which both the Hebrew and Etruscan languages were said to originate from a single source, the "Aramaic" spoken by Noah and his descendants, founders of Etruscan Viterbo. Annio also started to excavate Etruscan tombs, unearthing sarcophagi and inscriptions, and made a bold attempt at deciphering the Etruscan language. The theory of the Semitic origins still found its supporters in 19th century scholarship. In 1858, the last attempt was made by Johann Gustav Stickel, Jena University: "Das Etruskische (...) als Semitische Sprache erwiesen". A reviewer concluded that Stickel brought forward every possible argument which would speak for that hypothesis, but he proved the opposite of what he had attempted to do (Johannes Gildemeister in ZDMG 13, 1859, 289-304). In 1861 Robert Ellis proposed that Etruscan was related to Armenian. Robert Ellis, The Armenian origin of the Etruscans, London: Parker, Son, & Bourn, 1861. Some scholars also see in Urartian art, architecture, language and general culture traces of kinship to the Etruscans of the Italian peninsula. Relation with Albanian in particular has been advanced by a number of people, notably Zacharie Mayani, as well as earlier writers such as Ascoli, 1877, E. Schneider, 1889, Thomopoulos, 1912, Buonamici, 1919. Zacharie Mayani, The Etruscans Begin to Speak, 1961, Trans. Patrick Evans, London: Souvenir Press, 1962. Writing system Alphabet The Latin alphabet that is used in English owes its existence to the Etruscan writing system, which was adapted for Latin in the form of the Old Italic alphabet. The Etruscan alphabet The alphabet can also be found with alternative forms of the letters at Omniglot. employs a Euboean variant Bonfante (1990) chapter 2. of the Greek alphabet using the letter digamma and was in all probability transmitted through Pithecusae and Cumae, two Euboean settlements in southern Italy. This system is ultimately derived from West Semitic scripts. The Etruscans recognized a full 26-letter alphabet, which they depicted as itself for decoration on some objects such as an occasional ink-jar; for example, the "rooster ink-stand." Rooster ink-stand at Etruscan Art Virtual Museum. This has been termed the model alphabet. Bonfantes (2002) page 55. They did not use four letters of it, mainly because Etruscan had no voiced stops, b, d and g, and also no o. They innovated one letter for f. Text Writing was from right to left except in archaic inscriptions, which might use boustrophedon. An example found at Cerveteri used left to right. In the earliest inscriptions, the words are continuous. From the 6th century BC, they are separated by a dot or a colon, which might also separate syllables. Writing was phonetic; the letters represented the sounds and not conventional spellings. On the other hand, many inscriptions are highly abbreviated and often casually formed, so the identification of many individual letters is sometimes difficult. Spelling might vary from city to city, probably reflecting differences of pronunciation. The Bonfantes (2002) page 56. Impossible consonants Speech featured a heavy stress on the first syllable of a word, causing syncopation by weakening of the remaining vowels, which then were not represented in writing: Alcsntre for Alexandros, Rasna for Rasena. This speech habit is one explanation of the Etruscan "impossible consonant clusters." The resonants however may have been syllabic, accounting for some of the clusters (see below under Consonants). In other cases the scribe sometimes inserted a vowel: Greek Herakles became Hercle by syncopation and then was expanded to Herecele. Pallottino Page 261 regarded this variation in vowels as "instability in the quality of vowels" and accounted for the second phase (e.g. Herecele) as "vowel harmony, i.e., of the assimilation of vowels in neighboring syllables ...." Phases The writing system had two historical phases: the archaic, 7th to 5th century BC, which used the early Greek alphabet, and the later, 4th to 1st century BC, which modified some of the letters. In the later period syncopation increased. The alphabet went on in modified form after the language disappeared. In addition to being the source of the Roman alphabet, it has been suggested that it passed northward into Venetic and from there through Raetia into the Germanic lands, where it became the Futhark, a system of runes. The Bonfantes (2002), page 117 following. The media Bilinguals The Pyrgi Tablets are a bilingual text in Etruscan and Phoenician engraved on three gold leaves, one for the Phoenician and two for the Etruscan. The Etruscan is in 16 lines, 37 words. The date is roughly 500 BC. The Bonfantes (2002) page 58. The tablets were found in 1964 by Massimo Pallattino during an excavation 20 miles from the city of Rome, at the ancient Etruscan port of Pyrgi. Longer texts According to Rix and his collaborators only two unified (though fragmentary) texts are available in Etruscan: The Liber Linteus used for mummy wrappings (at Zagreb, Croatia). Roughly 1200 words of readable text, mainly repetitious prayers yielding about 50 lexical items. The Tabula Capuana (the inscribed tile from Capua). About 300 readable words in 62 lines, dating to the 5th century BC. Some additional longer texts are: The lead foils of Punta della Vipera, Brief description and picture at The principle discoveries with Etruscan inscriptions, article published by the Borough of Santa Marinella and the Archaeological Department of Southern Etruria of the Italian government. about 40 legible words having to do with ritual formulae. Dated to about 500 BC. The Cippus Perusinus, a stone slab (cippus) found at Perugia. Contains 46 lines, 130 words. The Tabula Cortonensis, a bronze tablet from Cortona recording a legal contract. About 200 words. The Piacenza Liver, a bronze model of a sheep's liver representing the sky, with the engraved names of the gods ruling different sections. Inscriptions on monuments Tumulus on a street at Banditaccia, the main necropolis of Caere. The main material repository of Etruscan civilization is or was its tombs. Public and private buildings were dismantled and the stone reused centuries ago. The tombs remain as they were except for the ravages of time and the activities of plunderers. More tombs continue to be found regularly. The tombs are the main source of portables in collections throughout the world, provenance unknown. The Etruscans lived well and valued art. Their objets d'art are of incalculable value, causing a brisk black market and equally brisk law enforcement effort. It is against the law to remove objects from Etruscan tombs unless authorized by the Italian government. The total number of tombs is unknown due to the magnitude of the task of cataloguing them. They are of many different types. Especially fruitful are the hypogeal or "underground" chamber or system of chambers cut into tuff and covered by a tumulus. The interior of the tomb represents a habitation of the living stocked with furniture and favorite objects. The walls may display painted murals, the predecessor of wallpaper. Tombs are identified as Etruscan dating form the Villanovan period to about 100 BC, when presumably the cemeteries were abandoned in favor of Roman ones. Some Internet articles on the tombs in general are: Etruscan Tombs at mysteriousetruscans.com. Scientific Tomb-Robbing, article in Time, Monday, Feb. 25, 1957, displayed at www.time.com. Hot from the Tomb: The Antiquities Racket, article in Time, Monday, Mar. 26, 1973, displayed at www.time.com. Some of the major cemeteries are as follows: Caere or Cerveteri, a UNESCO site. Refer to Etruscan Necropolises of Cerveteri and Tarquinia, a World Heritage site. Three complete necropolises with streets and squares. Many hypogea are concealed beneath tumuli retained by walls; others are cut into cliffs. The Banditaccia necropolis contains more than 1000 tumuli. Access is through a door. Some popular Internet sites giving photographs and details of the necropoleis are: Cisra (Roman Caere / Modern Cerveteri) at mysteriousetruscans.com. Chapter XXXIII CERVETRI.a — AGYLLA or CAERE., George Dennis at Bill Thayer's Website. Aerial photo and map at mapsack.com. Tarquinia, Tarquinii or Corneto, a UNESCO site. Approximately 6000 graves dating from the Villanovan (9th & 8th centuries BC) distributed in necropolises, the main one being the Monterozzi hypogea of the 6th - 4th centuries BC. About 200 painted tombs display murals of various scenes with call-outs and descriptions in Etruscan. Elaborately carved sarcophagi of marble, alabaster and nenfro include identificatory and achievemental inscriptions. The Tomb of Orcus at the Scatolini necropolis depicts scenes of the Spurinna family with call-outs. A history of the tombs at Tarquinia and links to descriptions of the most famous ones is given at on mysteriousetruscans.com. Inner walls and doors of tombs and sarcophagi. Engraved steles (tombstones) ossuaries Inscriptions on portable objects Votives Votive gifts Specula A speculum is a circular or oval hand-mirror used predominantly by Etruscan women. Speculum is Latin; the Etruscan word is malena or malstria. Specula were cast in bronze as one piece or with a tang into which a wooden, bone or ivory handle fitted. The reflecting surface was created by polishing the flat side. A higher percentage of tin in the mirror improved its ability to reflect. The other side was convex and featured intaglio or cameo scenes from mythology. The piece was generally ornate. For pictures and a description refer to the Etruscan Mirrors article at mysteriousetruscans.com. About 2300 specula are known from collections all over the world. As they were popular plunderables, the provenance of only a minority is known. An estimated time window is 530-100 BC. For the dates, more pictures and descriptions, see the Hand Mirror with the Judgment of Paris article published online by the Allen Memorial Art Museum of Oberlin College. Most probably came from tombs. Many bear inscriptions naming the persons depicted in the scenes, for which reason they are often called picture bilinguals. In 1979, Massimo Pallottino, then president of the Istituto di Studi Etruschi ed Italici initiated the Committee of the Corpus Speculorum Etruscanorum (CSE), which resolved to publish all the specula and set editorial standards for doing so. Since then the committee has grown, acquiring local committees and representatives from most institutions owning Etruscan mirror collections. Each collection is published in its own fascicle by diverse Etruscan scholars. Representative examples can be found in the U.S. Epigraphy Project site of Brown University: , Cistae A cista is a bronze container of circular, ovoid or more rarely rectangular shape used by women for the storage of sundries. They are ornate, often with feet and lids to which figurines may be attached. The internal and external surfaces bear carefully crafted scenes usually from mythology, usually intaglio, rarely part intaglio, part cameo. Cistae date from the Roman Republic of the 4th and 3rd centuries BC in Etruscan contexts. They may bear various short inscriptions concerning the manufacturer or owner or subject matter. The writing may be Latin, Etruscan or both. Excavations at Praeneste, an Etruscan city turned Roman, turned up about 118 cistae, one of which has been termed "the Praeneste cista" or "the Ficoroni cista" by art analysts, with special reference to the one manufactured by Novios Plutius and given by Dindia Macolnia to her daughter, as the archaic Latin inscription says. All of them are more accurately termed "the Praenestine cistae." Paggi, Maddalena. "The Praenestine Cistae" (October 2004), New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, in Timeline of Art History. Rings and ringstones Among the most plunderable portables from the Etruscan tombs of Etruria are the finely engraved gemstones set in patterned gold to form circular or ovoid pieces intended to go on finger rings. Of the magnitude of one centimeter, they are dated to the Etruscan floruit from the 2nd half of the 6th to the 1st centuries BC. The two main theories of manufacture are native Etruscan Classic Encyclopedia. and Greek. Beazley Archive. The materials are mainly dark red cornelian with agate and sard coming in from the 3rd to the 1st centuries BC along with purely gold finger rings of a hollow engraved bezel. The engravings, mainly cameo, but sometimes intaglio, depict scarabs at first and then scenes from Greek mythology, often with heroic personages called out in Etruscan. The gold setting of the bezel bears a border design, such as cabling. Coins Etruscan-minted coins date ca. 500-200 BC. Use of the Euboïc-Syracusan standard, based on the silver litra of 13.5 grams maximum, indicates the custom, like the alphabet, came from Greece. Roman coinage supplanted Etruscan, but the basic Roman coin, the sesterce, is believed to have been based on the 2.5 denomination Etruscan coin. Ancient Coins of Etruria. Etruscan coins have turned up in caches or individually in tombs and in excavations seemingly at random, concentrated, of course, in Etruria. Etruscan coins were in gold, silver and bronze, the gold and silver usually having been struck on one side only. The coin bore a denomination, a minting authority name, and a cameo motif. Gold denominations were in units of silver; silver, in units of bronze. Full or abbreviated names are mainly pupluna (Populonia), Vatl or Veltuna (Vetulonia), Velathri (Volaterrae), Velzu or Velznani (Volsinii) and Cha for Chamars (Camars). Insignia are mainly heads of mythological characters or depictions of mythological beasts arranged in a symbolic motif: Apollo, Zeus, Janus, Athena, Hermes, griffin, gorgon, sphinx, hippocamp, bull, snake, eagle, etc. Recent discoveries A book of gold sheets bound with gold rings went on display in May 2003 at the National History Museum in Sofia, Bulgaria. It consists of six bound sheets of 24-carat (100%) gold, with low-reliefs of a horseman, a mermaid, a harp and soldiers, with text. It was claimed to have been discovered about 1940 in a tomb uncovered during digging for a canal along the Strouma river in south-western Bulgaria, kept secretly and anonymously donated by its 87-year-old owner, living in the Republic of Macedonia. BBC News report. Sounds In the tables below, conventional letters used for transliterating Etruscan are accompanied by likely pronunciation in IPA symbols within the square brackets, followed by examples of the early Etruscan alphabet which would have corresponded to these sounds: Vowels The Etruscan vowel system consisted of four distinct vowels. Vowels "o" and "u" appear to have not been phonetically distinguished based on the nature of the writing system where only one symbol is used to cover both in loans from Greek (e.g. Greek kōthōn > Etruscan qutun "pitcher"). Front Central Back Close i[]I u[]U Mid e[] Open a[]A Consonants Table of consonants Bilabial Dental Palatal Velar GlottalNasalm[]Mn[]NPlosivep[]P []t, d[]T D [] c, k, q[]C K Q [] Affricate z[]Z Fricative f[]F s[]S[] h[]HApproximantl[]Li[]Iv[]V Rhoticr[]R Voiced stops missing The Etruscan consonant system primarily distinguished between aspirated and non-aspirated stops. There were no voiced stops and loanwords with them were typically devoiced, e.g. Greek thriambos was borrowed by Etruscan, becoming triumpus and triumphus in Latin. J.H. Adams pages 163-164. Syllabic theory Based on standard spellings by Etruscan scribes of words without vowels or with unlikely consonant clusters (e.g. cl 'of this (gen.)' and lautn 'freeman'), it is likely that were sometimes syllabic sonorants. Thus cl and lautn . Rix postulates several syllabic consonants, namely and palatal as well as a labiovelar spirant and some scholars such as Mauro Cristofani also view the aspirates as palatal rather than aspirated but these views are not shared by most Etruscologists. Rix supports his theories by means of variant spellings such as amφare/amφiare, larθal/larθial, aranθ/aranθiia. Word formation Etruscan was inflected, varying the endings of nouns, pronouns and verbs. It also had adjectives, adverbs and conjunctions, which were uninflected. Nouns Etruscan substantives had five cases, a singular and a plural. Not all five cases are attested for every word. Nouns merge the nominative and accusative; pronouns do not generally. Gender appears in personal names (masculine and feminine) and in pronouns (animate, or either masculine and feminine, and inanimate or neuter); otherwise, it is not marked. Bonfante (1990), page 20. Unlike the Indo-European languages, Etruscan noun endings were more agglutinative, with sometimes two or three endings added instead of alternative endings; for example, where Latin would have distinct nominative plural and dative plural endings, Etruscan would suffix the case ending to a plural marker: Latin nominative singular fili-us, "son", plural fili-i, dative plural fili-is, but Etruscan clan, clen-ar and clen-ar-aśi. Bonfante (1990) page 19. Pallottino calls this phenomenon "morphological redetermination", which he defines as "the typical tendency ... to redetermine the syntactical function of the form by the superposition of suffices." Page 263. His example is Uni-al-i, "in the sanctuary of Juno", where -al is a genitive ending and -i a locative. Steinbauer uses the term "inflecting language" (rather than inflected), which he explains as a language in which "... there can be more than one marker ... to design a case, and ... the same marker can occur for more than one case." Etruscan Grammar: Summary at Steinbauer's website. Nominative/Accusative Case: No distinction is made between nominative and accusative of nouns. Common nouns use the unmarked root. Names of males may end in -e: Hercle (Hercules), Achle (Achilles), Tite (Titus); of females, in -i, -a or -u: Uni (Juno), Menrva (Minerva), Zipu. Names of gods may end in -s: Fufluns, Tins; or they may be the unmarked stem ending in a vowel or consonant: Aplu (Apollo), Paa (Bacchus), Turan. Genitive case: Pallottino defines two declensions based on whether the genitive ends in -s/-ś or -l. Page 264. In the -s group are most noun stems ending in a vowel or a consonant: fler/fler-ś, ramtha/ramtha-ś. In the second are names of females ending in i and names of males that end s, th or n: ati/ati-al, Laris/Laris-al, Arn/Arn-al. After l or r -us instead of -s appears: Vel/Vel-us. Otherwise a vowel might be placed before the ending: Arn-al instead of Arn-l. There is a patronymic ending: -sa or -isa, "son of", but the ordinary genitive might serve that purpose. In the genitive case morphological redetermination becomes elaborate. Given two male names, Vel and Avle, Vel Avleś means "Vel son of Avle." This expression in the genitive become Vel-uś Avles-la. Pallottino's example of a three-suffix form is Arnth-al-iśa-la. Dative case: The dative ending is -si:Tita/Tita-si. Locative case: The locative ending is -i: Tarna/Tarna-l-i. Pallottino page 114, Bonfante (1990) page 41. Pronouns Personal pronouns refer to persons; demonstrative point out: English this, that. The summary in this section is taken from the tables of the Bonfantes (2002) pages 91-94, which go into considerably more detail, citing examples. Personal The first person personal pronoun has a nominative mi ("I") and an accusative mini ("me"). The second person has a dative singular une ("to thee"), an accusative singular un ("thee") and an accusative plural unu ("you"). The third person has a personal form an ("he" or "she") and an inanimate in ("it"). Demonstrative The demonstratives are ca and ta used without distinction. The nominative/accusative singular forms are: ica, eca, ca, ita, ta; the plural: cei, tei. There is a genitive singular: cla, tla, cal and plural clal. The accusative singular: can, cen, cn, ecn, etan, tn; plural cnl. Locative singular: calti, ceii, cl(i), ecli; plural caiti, ceii. Adjectives Though uninflected, adjectives fall into a number of types formed from nouns with a suffix: quality, -u, -iu or -c: ais/ais-iu, "god/divine"; zamai/zami-c, "gold/golden." possession or reference, -na, -ne, -ni: paa/paa-na, "Bacchus, Bacchic"; laut/laut-ni, "family/familiar" (in the sense of servant) collective, -cva, -chva, -cve, -ve, -ia: sren/sren-cva: "figure/figured"; etera/etera-ia, "slave/servile" Adverbs Adverbs are unmarked: etnam, "again"; ui, "now"; uni, "at first." Most Indo-European adverbs are formed from the oblique cases, which become unproductive and descend to fixed forms. Cases such as the ablative are therefore called "adverbial." If there is any such system in Etruscan it is not obvious from the relatively few surviving adverbs. Verbs Verbs had an indicative mood and an imperative mood. Tenses were present and past. The past tense had an Active voice and a Passive voice. Present active Etruscan uses a verbal root with a zero suffix or -a without distinction to number or person: ar, ar-a, "he, she, we, you, they make." Past or preterite active The -ce or -ke suffix to the root produces a third person singular active, which has been called variously a "past", a "preterite" or an "aorist." In contrast to Indo-European, this form is not marked for aspect, nor are the roots, apparently, distinguished for their aspect; they are simply actions that went on in the past. Examples: tur/tur-ce, "gives/gave"; sval/sval-ce, "lives/lived." Past passive The third person past passive is formed with -che: mena/mena-ce/mena-che, "offers/offered/was offered." Vocabulary See the list of Etruscan words and list of words of Etruscan origin at Wiktionary, the free dictionary and Wikipedia's sibling project The Etruscan vocabulary is now a few hundred words known with some certainty. The exact count depends on whether the different forms and the expressions are included. The Wiktionary list referenced above is in alphabetic order. Below is a table of some of the words grouped by topic. The words in this table come from the Glossaries of Bonfante (1990) and Pallottino. The latter also gives a grouping by topic on pages 275 following, the last chapter of the book. Some words with corresponding Latin or other Indo-European forms are likely loanwords to or from Etruscan. For example, neftś "nephew", is probably from Latin (Latin nepōs, nepōtis; German Neffe, Old Norse nefi). A few dozen from Etruscan survive in Latin; for example, elementum (letter), litterae (writing), cera (wax) (κηρός in Ancient Greek), arena (sand). At least one word has an apparent Semitic origin: talitha "girl" (Aramaic; could have been transmitted by Phoenicians). The Etruscan numerals are known although debate lingers about which numeral means "four" and which "six" (hu or śa). Numerals are listed in their own article. Of them, and of the basic words in general, Bonfante (1990) says: Page 22. "What these numerals show, beyond any shadow of a doubt, is the non-Indo-European nature of the Etruscan language. Basic words like numbers and names of relationships are often similar in the Indo-European languages, for they derive from the same root." Etruscan EnglishFamily apa father apana paternal papa, papacs grandfather ati, ativu mother teta, ati nacna grandmother pui, puia wife/or child tusurir married couple clan son papals grandson sec, sech daughter ruva brother neftś, nefś, nefiś nephew pruma, prumaś, prumats, prumts great-nephew or great-grandson nene wetnurse snena maid, companion hus youth husiur children pava boy talia girl lautun, lautn gens lautni freedman lautnia, lautnita freedwoman etera, eteri foreigner, slave, client, ἑταῖροϛ (in Greek)GovernmentRasna Etruscansmel Rasnal Etruria pes land tul stone tular, tularu boundaries tular rasnal public boundaries tular spural city boundaries var contract tudthi, tuiu, tui, tuti statetuin, tuina public mech people mel, melum nation, league, district spur, śpur civitas, populus spureni, spurana civic runa sovereignty lucair to rule lauum king, prince lauumna regal, palace tenve, tenine,tenu, tenas hold office zil, zilac, zilc,zila, zilath praetor camthiunknown magistratesor magistracies cease parni macstreve maru, marunu, marniu,marunu, maruva pur, purne tamera Etruscan EnglishTime tin- day esan morning, day uslane at noon tiur, tivr, tiu month, moon avil year ril at the age of Velcitna March Capr- April Ampile May Acale June Hermi August Celi September Chosfer October Masan, Masn unknown monthNature ana northwind, eagle arac sparrow-hawk, falcon,ιέραξ (in Greek) arim monkey capu falcon falatu sky hiuls screech-owl leu lion neri water, νερό (in modern Greek) pulumva stars thamna horse thevru bull tisś lake tiu moon usil sun vers- redfireVessels aska , flask (wineskin in Greek) aska eleivana olive oil flask cape, capi container, probably Latin capio, "keep", perhaps capis, a bowl. capra urn cletram Umbrian kletra, a basin or basket culina κύλιξ, a large wine-cup cupe κύπη or Latin cūpa, English cup letum λήκυθоς, a small bottle letumuza a small lechtum patna πατάνη, a bowl pru, pruum πρόχоυς, an ewer qutun, qutum κώθων, a vessel of Laconia. qutumuza small qutum afna chalice ina, tina , a gobletCommon verbs am- to be cer- to make Tur- to give zi- to write Notes Bibliography Available for preview on Google Books. Preview available on Google Books. Preview available at Google Books. Translated from the Italian by J. Cremona. 2 vols. Woudhuizen, Frederik Christiaan. April 2006. The Ethnicity of the Sea Peoples. Doctoral dissertation; Rotterdam: Erasmus Universiteit Rotterdam, Faculteit der Wijsbegeerte. See also Corpus Inscriptionum Etruscarum Etruscan alphabet Etruscan civilization Etruscan documents Liber Linteus — An Etruscan linen book that ended as mummy wraps in Egypt. Tabula Cortonensis — An Etruscan inscription. Cippus perusinus — An Etruscan inscription. Pyrgi Tablets — Bilingual Etruscan-Phoenician golden leaves. Etruscan mythology Etruscan numerals Lemnian language List of English words of Etruscan origin List of Spanish words of Etruscan origin Raetic language Tyrsenian languages External links General Etruscan News Online, the Newsletter of the American Section of the Institute for Etruscan and Italic Studies. Etruscan News back issues, Center for Ancient Studies at New York University. Etruscology at Its Best, the website of Dr. Dieter H. Steinbauer, in English. Covers origins, vocabulary, grammar and place names. Viteliu: The Languages of Ancient Italy at web.archive.org. The Etruscan Language, the linguistlist.org site. Links to many other Etruscan language sites. Inscriptions ETP: Etruscan Texts Project A searchable database of Etruscan texts. Etruscan Inscriptions in the Royal Ontario Museum, article by Rex Wallace displayed at the umass.edu site. Etruscan; The Pyrgi Bilingual, paper by Michael Weiss, Cornell University. Lexical items An Etruscan Vocabulary at web.archive.org. A short, one-page glossary with numerals as well. Etruscan Vocabulary, a vocabulary organized by topic at etruskisch.de, in English. Etruscan-English Dictionary at iolairweb.co.uk. An extensive lexicon compiled from other lexicon sites. Links to the major Etruscan glossaries on the Internet are included. Fonts Etruscan and Early Italic Fonts, download site by James F. 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5,494 | Lilith | Lilith (1892), by John Collier. Lilith (Hebrew ) is a mythological female Mesopotamian storm demon associated with wind and was thought to be a bearer of disease, illness, and death. The figure of Lilith first appeared in a class of wind and storm demons or spirits as Lilitu, in Sumer, circa 4000 BCE. Many scholars place the origin of the phonetic name "Lilith" at somewhere around 700 BCE despite post-dating even to the time of Moses. Hurwitz (1980) Lilith appears as a night demon in Jewish lore and as a screech owl in the King James version of the Bible. Mesopotamian mythology Etymology Hebrew , Akkadian Līlītu are female nisba adjectives from the Proto-Semitic root LYL "night," literally translating to nocturnal "female night being/demon", although cuneiform inscriptions where Līlīt and Līlītu refers to disease-bearing wind spirits exist. Sayce (1887) Fossey (1902) Another possibility is association not with "night" but with "wind," thus identifying the Akkadian Lil-itu as a loan from the Sumerian lil, "air", Sayce (1887), Fosse (1902) — specifically from NIN.LIL "lady air," goddess of the South wind (and wife of Enlil) —and itud, "moon." The Akkadian masculine līlû shows no nisba suffix and has been compared to Sumerian (kiskil-) lilla. Lilitu demons The earliest reference to a demon similar to Lilith and companion of Lillake/Lilith is on the Sumerian king list, where Gilgamesh's father is named as Lillu. Patai (1942) Little is known of Lillu ("Wind[wer]man"; or Lilu, Lila) and he was said to disturb women in their sleep and had functions of an incubus, while Lilitu appeared to men in their erotic dreams. T.H. Jacobsen, "Mesopotamia", in H. Frankfort et al., Before Philosophy: The Intellectual Adventure of Ancient Man. Such qualities are further suggested by the Semitic associations made with the names Lila and Lilitu, namely those of lalu, or wandering about, and lulu, meaning lasciviousness. Hurwitz p.50 The Assyrian Lilitu were said to prey upon children and women, and were described as associated with lions, storms, desert, and disease. Early portrayals of such demons are known as having Zu bird talons for feet and wings. They were highly sexually predatory towards men, but were unable to copulate normally. They were thought to dwell in waste, desolate, and desert places. Like the Sumerian Dimme, a male wind demon named Pazuzu was thought to be effective against them. Goddesses and Demons: Some Thoughts by Johanna Stuckey Black, Jeremy and Anthony Green. Gods, Demons, and Symbols of Ancient Mesopotamia. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press 2003. p. 118 Other storm and night demons from a similar class are recorded around this period: Lilu, an incubus; Ardat lili ("Lilith's handmaid"), who would come to men in their sleep and beget children from them; and Irdu lili, the incubus counterpart to Ardat lili. Patai p.222 These demons were originally storm and wind demons; however later etymology made them into night demons. Lilith's epithet was "the beautiful maiden," She was described as having no milk in her breasts and was unable to bear any children. Raphael Patai p. 222, The Hebrew Goddess 1978, 3rd enlarged edition from Discus Books New York. Erich Ebeling and Bruno Meissner, Reallexicon der Assyriologie, Walter de Gruyter 1990 Babylonian texts depict Lilith as the prostitute of the goddess Ishtar. Similarly, older Sumerian accounts assert that Lilitu is called the handmaiden of Inanna or "hand of Inanna." The Sumerian texts state that "Inanna has sent the beautiful, unmarried, and seductive prostitute Lilitu out into the fields and streets in order to lead men astray." That is why Lilitu is called the "hand of Inanna." S.H. Langdon p.74 Hurwitz p.58 The Lilitu, the Akkadian Ardat-Lili and the Assyrian La-bar-tu like Lilith, were figures of disease and uncleanliness. Ardat is derived from "ardatu," a title of prostitutes and young unmarried women, meaning "maiden." One magical text tells of how Ardat Lili had come to "seize" a sick man. Other texts mention Lamashtu as the hand of Inanna/Ishtar in place of Lilitu and Ardat lili. Lilith is further associated with the Anzu bird, Kramer translates the Anzu as "owl," but most often it is translated as "eagle," "vulture," or "bird of prey." lions, owls, and serpents, which are animals associated with the Lilitu. It is from this mythology that the later Kabbalah depictions of Lilith as a serpent in the Garden of Eden and her associations with serpents are probably drawn. In The Epic of Gilgamesh, Gilgamesh was said to have driven Lilith, an Anzu bird, and a "snake which fears no spell" from a tree that was in a sacred grove dedicated to the Goddess Ishtar/Inanna/Asherah. "Inanna and the Huluppu Tree": One Way of Demoting a Great Goddess by Johanna Stuckey Chicago Assyrian Dictionary 1956. Chicago: University of Chicago. Other legends describe the malevolent Anzu birds as "lion-headed" and pictures them as eagle monsters, Dalley, Stephanie. Myths from Mesopotamia: Creation, The Flood, Gilgamesh and others. Oxford University Press, Oxford. 1991 likewise to this a later amulet from Arslan Tash site features a sphinx like creature with wings devouring a child and has an incantation against Lilith or similar demons, Hurwitz 64 incorporating Lilith's correlating animals of lions and owls. Lamashtu (Sumer Dimme) was a very similar Mesopotamian demon to Lilitu and Lilith seems to have inherited many of Lamashtu's myths. Hurwitz p.34-35 She was considered a demi-goddess and daughter of Anu, the sky god. AncientNearEast.net. Lamaštu (Lamashtu) Many incantations against her mention her status as a daughter of heaven and exercising her free will over infants. This makes her different from the rest of the demons in Mesopotamia. Unlike her demonic peers, Lamashtu was not instructed by the gods to do her malevolence; she did it on her own accord. She was said to seduce men, harm pregnant women, mothers, and neonates, kill foliage, drink blood, and was a cause of disease, sickness, and death. Some incantations describe her as "seven witches." Britannica, s.v. "Lamashtu" The space between her legs is as a scorpion, corresponding to the astrological sign of Scorpio. (Scorpio rules the genitals & sex organs.) Her head is that of a lion, she has Anzu bird feet like Lilitu, her breasts are suckled by a pig and a dog, and she rides the back of a donkey. Margi B. Lilith Two other Mesopotamian demons have a close relation to Lilitu, Gallu & Alû. Hurwitz p.39 Alu was originally an asexual demon, who took on female attributes, but later became a male demon. Alu liked to roam the streets like a stray dog at night and creep into people’s bedrooms as they slept to terrify them. He was described as being half-human and half-devil. He appears in Jewish lore as Ailo, here, he is used as one of Lilith’s secret names. In other texts, Ailo is a daughter of Lilith that has had intercourse with a man. The other demon, Gallu is of the Utukku group. Gallu’s name, like Utukku, was also used as a general term for multiple demons. Hurwitz p.40 Later, Gallu appears as Gello, Gylo, or Gyllou in Greco-Byzantine mythology as a child stealing and child killing demon. This figure was, likewise, adapted by the Jews as Gilu and was also considered a secret name of Lilith’s. Hurwitz p.41 Lilith in the Bible The Book of Isaiah 34:14, describing the desolation of Edom, is the only occurrence of Lilith in the Hebrew Bible: Hebrew (ISO 259): morpho-syntactic analysis: "yelpers meet-[perfect] howlers; hairy-ones cry-[imperfect] to fellow. liyliyth reposes-[perfect], acquires-[perfect] resting-place." KJV: "The wild beasts of the desert shall also meet with the wild beasts of the island, and the satyr shall cry to his fellow; the screech owl also shall rest there, and find for herself a place of rest." This passage refers to God's day of vengeance, when the land will be transformed into desolate wilderness. Thus, Lilith was known in what, according to biblical chronology, would be the ancient Israel of the 8th century BCE. The fact that she found a place of rest in the desert seems to allude to the Sumerian Gilgamesh incident: after Lilith fled into the desert, she apparently found repose there. Patai p223 Schrader (Jahrbuch für Protestantische Theologie, 1. 128) and Levy (ZDMG 9. 470, 484) suggest that Lilith was a goddess of the night, known also by the Jewish exiles in Babylon. Evidence for Lilith being a goddess rather than a demon is lacking. Deutero-Isaiah dates to the 6th century BCE, and the presence of Jews in Babylon would coincide with the attested references to the in Babylonian demonology. The Septuagint translates , apparently for lack of a better word, since also the "satyrs" earlier in the verse are translated with . The "wild beasts of the island and the desert" are omitted altogether, and the "crying to his fellow" is also done by the ‘‘. In Horace (De Arte Poetica liber, 340), Hieronymus of Cardia translated Lilith as Lamia, a witch who steals children, similar to the Breton Korrigan, in Greek mythology described as a Libyan queen who mated with Zeus. After Zeus abandoned Lamia, Hera stole Lamia's children, and Lamia took revenge by stealing other women's children. The screech owl translation of the KJV is without precedent, and apparently together with the "owl" (, probably a water bird) in 34:11, and the "great owl" (, properly a snake,) of 34:15 an attempt to render the eerie atmosphere of the passage by choosing suitable animals for difficult to translate Hebrew words. It should be noted that this particular species of owl is associated with the vampiric Strix of Roman legend. This possibly evolved from the early 5th century Vulgate Bible of the Catholic Church, which translated the same word as Lamia instead. Later translations include: night-owl (Young, 1898) night monster (ASV, 1901; NASB, 1995) vampires (Moffatt Translation, 1922) night hag (RSV, 1947) Lilith (Jerusalem Bible, 1966) lilith (New American Bible, 1970) Lilith (The Message (Bible), Peterson, 1993) night creature (NIV, 1978; NKJV, 1982; NLT, 1996) nightjar (New World Translation, 1984). night bird (English Standard Version, 2001) Jewish tradition A Hebrew tradition exists in which an amulet is inscribed with the names of three angels (Senoy, Sansenoy, and Semangelof) and placed around the neck of newborn boys in order to protect them from the lilin until their circumcision. Dead Sea scrolls The appearance of Lilith in the Dead Sea Scrolls is somewhat more contentious, with one indisputable reference in the Song for a Sage (4Q510-511), and a promising additional allusion found by A. Baumgarten in The Seductress (4Q184). The first and irrefutable Lilith reference in the Song occurs in 4Q510, fragment 1: And I, the Instructor, proclaim His glorious splendour so as to frighten and to te[rrify] all the spirits of the destroying angels, spirits of the bastards, demons, Lilith, howlers, and [desert dwellers…] and those which fall upon men without warning to lead them astray from a spirit of understanding and to make their heart and their […] desolate during the present dominion of wickedness and predetermined time of humiliations for the sons of lig[ht], by the guilt of the ages of [those] smitten by iniquity – not for eternal destruction, [bu]t for an era of humiliation for transgression. Akin to Isaiah 34:14, this liturgical text both cautions against the presence of supernatural malevolence and assumes familiarity with Lilith; distinct from the biblical text, however, this passage does not function under any socio-political agenda, but instead serves in the same capacity as An Exorcism (4Q560) and Songs to Disperse Demons (11Q11) insomuch that it comprises incantations – comparable to the Arslan Tash relief examined above – used to "help protect the faithful against the power of these spirits." The text is thus, to a community "deeply involved in the realm of demonology," an exorcism hymn. Another text discovered at Qumran, conventionally associated with the Book of Proverbs, credibly also appropriates the Lilith tradition in its description of a precarious, winsome woman – The Seductress (4Q184). The ancient poem – dated to the first century BCE but plausibly much older – describes a dangerous woman and consequently warns against encounters with her. Customarily, the woman depicted in this text is equated to the "strange woman" of Proverbs 2 and 5, and for good reason; the parallels are instantly recognizable: Her house sinks down to death, And her course leads to the shades. All who go to her cannot return And find again the paths of life. — Proverbs 2:18-19 Her gates are gates of death, and from the entrance of the house She sets out towards Sheol. None of those who enter there will ever return, And all who possess her will descend to the Pit. — 4Q184 However, what this association does not take into account are additional descriptions of the "Seductress" from Qumran that cannot be found attributed to the "strange woman" of Proverbs; namely, her horns and her wings: "a multitude of sins is in her wings." The word "seductress" here does not refer literally to "prostitute" or at the very least, the representation of one, but one who tempts men into sin. The sort of individual with whom that text's community would have been familiar. The "Seductress" of the Qumran text, conversely, could not possibly have represented an existent social threat given the constraints of this particular ascetic community. Instead, the Qumran text utilizes the imagery of Proverbs to explicate a much broader, supernatural threat – the threat of the demoness Lilith. Talmud Although references to Lilith in the Talmud are sparse, these passages provide the most comprehensive insight into the demoness yet seen in Judaic literature, which some speculate to echo Lilith's purported Mesopotamian origins and prefigure her future as the perceived exegetical enigma of the Genesis account. Recalling the Lilith we have seen, Talmudic allusions to Lilith illustrate her essential wings and long hair, dating back to her earliest extant mention in Gilgamesh: "Rab Judah citing Samuel ruled: If an abortion had the likeness of Lilith its mother is unclean by reason of the birth, for it is a child but it has wings." (Niddah 24b) "[Expounding upon the curses of womanhood] In a Baraitha it was taught: She grows long hair like Lilith, sits when making water like a beast, and serves as a bolster for her husband.” ('Erubin 100b) Unique to the Talmud with regard to Lilith is her insalubrious carnality, alluded to in The Seductress but expanded upon here sans unspecific metaphors as the demoness assuming the form of a woman in order to sexually take men by force while they sleep: "R. Hanina said: One may not sleep in a house alone [in a lonely house], and whoever sleeps in a house alone is seized by Lilith.” (Shabbath 151b) Yet the most innovative perception of Lilith offered by the Talmud appears earlier in 'Erubin, and is more than likely inadvertently responsible for the fate of the Lilith myth for centuries to come: "R. Jeremiah b. Eleazar further stated: In all those years [130 years after his expulsion from the Garden of Eden] during which Adam was under the ban he begot ghosts and male demons and female demons [or night demons], for it is said in Scripture, And Adam lived a hundred and thirty years and begot a son in own likeness, after his own image, from which it follows that until that time he did not beget after his own image… When he saw that through him death was ordained as punishment he spent a hundred and thirty years in fasting, severed connection with his wife for a hundred and thirty years, and wore clothes of fig on his body for a hundred and thirty years. – That statement [of R. Jeremiah] was made in reference to the semen which he emitted accidentally.” (‘Erubin 18b) Comparing 'Erubin 18b and Shabbath 151b with the later passage from the Zohar: “She wanders about at night, vexing the sons of men and causing them to defile themselves (19b),” it appears clear that this Talmudic passage indicates such an adverse union between Adam and Lilith. Shedim cults A cult in Mesopotamia is said to be related to Lilith by early Jewish leaders. According to the hypotheses proposed by William F. Albright, Theodor H. Gaster, and others, the name Lilith already existed in 7th century B.C. and Lilith retained her Shedim characteristics throughout the entire Jewish tradition. Hurwitz p. 53-54 Shedim is plural for "spirit" or "demon". Figures that represent shedim are the shedu of Babylonian mythology. These figures were depicted as anthropomorphic, winged bulls, associated with wind. They were thought to guard palaces, cities, houses, and temples. In magical texts of that era, they could be either malevolent or benevolent. Leick 1998: 30-31 The cult originated from Babylon, then spread to Canaan and eventually to Israel. Hurwitx p. 54-55 Human sacrifice was part of the practice and a sacrificial altar existed to the Shedim next to the Yahweh cult, although this practice was widely denounced by prophets who retained belief in Yahweh. Hurwitz p. 54 Shedim in Jewish thought and literature were portrayed as quite malevolent. Some writings contend that they are storm-demons. Their creation is presented in three contradicting Jewish tales. The first is that during Creation, God created the shedim, but did not create their bodies and forgot them on the Shabbat when he rested. The second is that they are descendants of demons in the form of serpents, and the last states that they are simply descendants of Adam & Lilith. Another story asserts that after the tower of Babel, some people were scattered and became Shedim, Ruchin, and Lilin. Folk traditionThe Alphabet of Ben Sira is considered to be the oldest form of the story of Lilith as Adam's first wife. Whether this particular tradition is older is not known. Scholars tend to date Ben Sira between the 8th and 10th centuries CE. Its real author is anonymous, but it is falsely attributed to the sage Ben Sira. The amulets used against Lilith that were thought to derive from this tradition are in fact, dated as being much older. Humm, Alan. Lilith in the Alphabet of Ben Sira The concept of Eve having a predecessor is not exclusive to Ben Sira, and is not a new concept, as it can be found in Genesis Rabbah. However, the idea that Lilith was the predecessor is exclusive to Sira. According to Gershom Scholem, the author of the Zohar, R. Moses de Leon, was aware of the folk tradition of Lilith. He was also aware of another story, possibly older, that may be conflicting. Major Trends in Jewish Mysticism, p. 174 The idea that Adam had a wife prior to Eve may have developed from an interpretation of the Book of Genesis and its dual creation accounts; while Genesis 2:22 describes God's creation of Eve from Adam's rib, an earlier passage, 1:27, already indicates that a woman had been made: "So God created man in his own image, in the image of God created he him; male and female created he them." The Ben Sira text places Lilith's creation after God's words in Genesis 2:18 that "it is not good for man to be alone"; in this text God forms Lilith out of the clay from which he made Adam but she and Adam bicker. Lilith claims that since she and Adam were created in the same way they were equal and she refuses to submit to him: After God created Adam, who was alone, He said, 'It is not good for man to be alone.' He then created a woman for Adam, from the earth, as He had created Adam himself, and called her Lilith. Adam and Lilith immediately began to fight. She said, 'I will not lie below,' and he said, 'I will not lie beneath you, but only on top. For you are fit only to be in the bottom position, while I am to be the superior one.' Lilith responded, 'We are equal to each other inasmuch as we were both created from the earth.' But they would not listen to one another. When Lilith saw this, she pronounced the Ineffable Name and flew away into the air. Adam stood in prayer before his Creator: 'Sovereign of the universe!' he said, 'the woman you gave me has run away.' At once, the Holy One, blessed be He, sent these three angels Senoy, Sansenoy, and Semangelof, to bring her back. Said the Holy One to Adam, 'If she agrees to come back, what is made is good. If not, she must permit one hundred of her children to die every day.' The angels left God and pursued Lilith, whom they overtook in the midst of the sea, in the mighty waters wherein the Egyptians were destined to drown. They told her God's word, but she did not wish to return. The angels said, 'We shall drown you in the sea.’ 'Leave me!' she said. 'I was created only to cause sickness to infants. If the infant is male, I have dominion over him for eight days after his birth, and if female, for twenty days.’ When the angels heard Lilith's words, they insisted she go back. But she swore to them by the name of the living and eternal God: 'Whenever I see you or your names or your forms in an amulet, I will have no power over that infant.' She also agreed to have one hundred of her children die every day. Accordingly, every day one hundred demons perish, and for the same reason, we write the angels' names on the amulets of young children. When Lilith sees their names, she remembers her oath, and the child recovers. The background and purpose of The Alphabet of Ben-Sira is unclear. It is a collection of stories about heroes of the Bible and Talmud, it may have been a collection of folk-tales, a refutation of Christian, Karaite, or other separatist movements; its content seems so offensive to contemporary Jews that it was even suggested that it could be an anti-Jewish satire, Segal, Eliezer. Looking for Lilith although, in any case, the text was accepted by the Jewish mystics of medieval Germany.The Alphabet of Ben-Sira is the earliest surviving source of the story, and the conception that Lilith was Adam's first wife became only widely known with the 17th century ‘‘Lexicon Talmudicum of Johannes Buxtorf. In the folk tradition that arose in the early Middle Ages Lilith, a dominant female demon, became identified with Asmodeus, King of Demons, as his queen. Schwartz p.7 Asmodeus was already well known by this time because of the legends about him in the Talmud. Thus, the merging of Lilith and Asmodeus was inevitable. Schwartz p 8 The fecund myth of Lilith grew to include legends about another world and by some accounts this other world existed side by side with this one, Yenne Velt is Yiddish for this described "Other World". In this case Asmodeus and Lilith were believed to procreate demonic offspring endlessly and spread chaos at every turn. Schwartz p.8 Many disasters were blamed on both of them, causing wine to turn into vinegar, men to be impotent, women unable to give birth, and it was Lilith who was blamed for the loss of infant life. The presence of Lilith and her cohorts were considered very real at this time. Two primary characteristics are seen in these legends about Lilith: Lilith as the incarnation of lust, causing men to be led astray, and Lilith as a child-killing witch, who strangles helpless neonates. Although these two aspects of the Lilith legend seemed to have evolved separately, there is hardly a tale where she encompasses both roles. But the aspect of the witch-like role that Lilith plays broadens her archetype of the destructive side of witchcraft. Such stories are commonly found among Jewish folklore. Ibid Kabbalah Kabbalistic mysticism attempted to establish a more exact relationship between Lilith and the Deity. With her major characteristics having been well-developed by the end of the Talmudic period, after six centuries had elapsed between the Aramaic incantation texts that mention Lilith and the early Spanish Kabbalistic writings in the 13th century, she reappears, and her life history becomes known in greater mythological detail. Patai p.229-230 Her creation is described in many alternative versions. One mentions her creation as being before Adam's, on the fifth day, because the "living creatures" with whose swarms God filled the waters included none other than Lilith. A similar version, related to the earlier Talmudic passages, recounts how Lilith was fashioned with the same substance as Adam was, shortly before. A third alternative version states that God originally created Adam and Lilith in a manner that the female creature was contained in the male. Lilith's soul was lodged in the depths of the Great Abyss. When God called her, she joined Adam. After Adam's body was created a thousand souls from the Left (evil) side attempted to attach themselves to him. However, God drove them off. Adam was left lying as a body without a soul. Then a cloud descended and God commanded the earth to produce a living soul. This God breathed into Adam, who began to spring to life and his female was attached to his side. God separated the female from Adam's side. The female side was Lilith, whereupon she flew to the Cities of the Sea and attacks humankind. Yet another version claims that Lilith was not created by God, but emerged as a divine entity that was born spontaneously, either out of the Great Supernal Abyss or out of the power of an aspect of God (the Gevurah of Din). This aspect of God, one of his ten attributes (Sefirot), at its lowest manifestation has an affinity with the realm of evil and it is out of this that Lilith merged with Samael. Patai p.230 An alternative story links Lilith with the creation of luminaries. The "first light," which is the light of Mercy (one of the Sefirot), appeared on the first day of creation when God said "Let there be light." This light became hidden and the Holiness became surrounded by a husk of evil. ”A husk (q'lippa) was created around the brain" and this husk spread and brought out another husk, which was Lilith. Patai p231 Adam and Lilith Adam holding on to a child while Lilith appears on a tree. The first medieval source to depict Adam and Lilith in full was the Midrash Abkir (ca. 10th century), which was followed by the Zohar and Kabbalistic writings. Adam is said to be a perfect saint until he recognizes either his sin or Cain's homicide that is the cause of bringing death into the world. He then separates from holy Eve, sleeps alone, and fasts for 130 years. During this time Lilith, also known as Pizna or Naamah, desired his beauty and came to him against his will. She bore him many demons and spirits called "the plagues of humankind". Patai p232 The added explanation was that it was through Adam's own sin that Lilith overcame him against his will. "Lilith" from Michelangelo's "The Temptation of Adam and Eve". A common iconographic depiction of the serpent of Eden in late Medieval and Renaissance art. Older sources do not state clearly that after Lilith's Red Sea sojourn, she returned to Adam and begat children from him. In the Zohar, however, Lilith is said to have succeeded in begetting offspring from Adam during their short-lived sexual experience. Lilith leaves Adam in Eden, as she is not a suitable helpmate for him. She returns, later, to force herself upon him. However, before doing so she attaches herself to Cain and bears him numerous spirits and demons. Another widely taught version of this is that the Hebrew cosmogony originally told a story of Yahweh creating Adam to marry a local Goddess-associated figure named Lilith. Lilith was a follower of the Great Mother Goddess, Inanna—later known as both Ishtar and Asherah. She then is depicted in the Talmud and Kabbalah as first wife to Yahweh's first creation of man, Adam. In time, as stated in the Old testament, the Hebrew followers continued to worship "false idols", like Asherah, as being as powerful as Yahweh. Jeremiah speaks of his (and Yahweh's) displeasure at this behavior to the Hebrew people about the worship of the Goddess in the Old Testament. Lilith is banished from Adam and Yahweh's presence when she is discovered to be a "demon" and Eve becomes Adam's wife. Lilith then took the form of the serpent in her jealous rage at being displaced as Adam's wife. Lilith as serpent then proceeds to trick Eve into eating the fruit from the tree of knowledge and in this way is responsible for the downfall of all of humankind. It is worthwhile to note here that in religions pre-dating Judaism, the serpent was known to be associated with wisdom and re-birth (with the shedding of its skin). Samael and Lilith The mystical writing of two brothers Jacob and Isaac Hacohen, which predates the Zohar by a few decades, states that Samael and Lilith are in the shape of an androgynous being, double-faced, born out of the emanation of the Throne of Glory and corresponding in the spiritual realm to Adam and Eve, who were likewise born as a hermaphrodite. The two twin androgynous couples resembled each other and both "were like the image of Above"; that is, that they are reproduced in a visible form of an androgynous deity. Patai p.231 Another version that was also current among Kabbalistic circles in the Middle Ages establishes Lilith as the first of Samael's four wives: Lilith, Naamah, Igrath, and Mahalath. Each of them are mothers of demons and have their own hosts and unclean spirits in no number. Patai p244 The marriage of Samael and Lilith was arranged by "Blind Dragon", who is the counterpart of "the dragon that is in the sea". Blind Dragon acts as an intermediary between Lilith and Samael: Blind Dragon rides Lilith the Sinful -- may she be extirpated quickly in our days, Amen! -- And this Blind Dragon brings about the union between Samael and Lilith. And just as the Dragon that is in the sea (Isa. 27:1) has no eyes, likewise Blind Dragon that is above, in the likeness of a spiritual form, is without eyes, that is to say, without colors.... (Patai81:458) Samael is called the Slant Serpent, and Lilith is called the Tortuous Serpent. Humm, Alan. Lilith, Samael, & Blind Dragon The marriage of Samael and Lilith is known as the "Angel Satan" or the "Other God," but it was not allowed to last. To prevent Lilith and Samael's demonic children from filling the world, God castrated Samael. In many 17th century Kabbalistic books, this mythologem is based on the identification of "Leviathan the Slant Serpent and Leviathan the Torturous Serpent" and a reinterpretation of an old Talmudic myth where God castrated the male Leviathan and slew the female Leviathan in order to prevent them from mating and thereby destroying the earth. Pataip246 After Samael became castrated and Lilith was unable to fornicate with him, she left him to couple with men who experience nocturnal emissions. A 15th or 16th century Kabbalah text states that God has "cooled" the female Leviathan, meaning that he has made Lilith infertile and she is a mere fornication. The Two Liliths A passage in the 13th century document called the Treatise on the Left Emanation says that there are two Liliths, the lesser being married to the great demon Asmodeus. In answer to your question concerning Lilith, I shall explain to you the essence of the matter. Concerning this point there is a received tradition from the ancient Sages who made use of the Secret Knowledge of the Lesser Palaces, which is the manipulation of demons and a ladder by which one ascends to the prophetic levels. In this tradition, it is made clear that Samael and Lilith were born as one, similar to the form of Adam and Eve who were also born as one, reflecting what is above. This is the account of Lilith which was received by the Sages in the Secret Knowledge of the Palaces. The Matron Lilith is the mate of Samael. Both of them were born at the same hour in the image of Adam and Eve, intertwined in each other. Asmodeus the great king of the demons has as a mate the Lesser (younger) Lilith, daughter of the king whose name is Qafsefoni. The name of his mate is Mehetabel daughter of Matred, and their daughter is Lilith. R. Isaac b. Jacob Ha-Kohen. Lilith in Jewish Mysticism: Treatise on the Left Emanation Another passage charges Lilith as being a tempting serpent of Eve's: And the Serpent, the Woman of Harlotry, incited and seduced Eve through the husks of Light which in itself is holiness. And the Serpent seduced Holy Eve, and enough said for him who understands. And all this ruination came about because Adam the first man coupled with Eve while she was in her menstrual impurity – this is the filth and the impure seed of the Serpent who mounted Eve before Adam mounted her. Behold, here it is before you: because of the sins of Adam the first man all the things mentioned came into being. For Evil Lilith, when she saw the greatness of his corruption, became strong in her husks, and came to Adam against his will, and became hot from him and bore him many demons and spirits and Lilin. (Patai81:455f) This may relate to various late medieval iconography of a female serpent figure, believed to be Lilith, tempting Adam and Eve. Humm, Alan. Lilith picture: with Adam & Eve The prophet Elijah is said to have confronted Lilith in one text. In this encounter, she had come to feast on the flesh of the mother, with a host of demons, and take the newborn from her. She eventually reveals her secret names to Elijah in the conclusion. These names are said to cause Lilith to lose her power: lilith, abitu, abizu, hakash, avers hikpodu, ayalu, matrota… Lilith Amulet-J.R. Ritman Library In others, probably informed by The Alphabet of Ben-Sira, she is Adam's first wife. (Yalqut Reubeni, Zohar 1:34b, 3:19 Humm, Alan. Kabbalah: Lilith's origins ) Lilith as Qliphah Adam, Lilith, and Eve,c. 1210 AD, Base of trumeau, left portal, West Façade, Notre Dame, Paris. Lilith is listed as one of the Qliphoth, corresponding to the Sephirah Malkuth in the Kabbalistic Tree of Life. The demon Lilith, the evil woman, is described as a beautiful woman, who transforms into a blue, butterfly-like demon, and it is associated with the power of seduction. The Qliphah is the unbalanced power of a Sephirah. Malkuth is the lowest Sephirah, the realm of the earth, into which all the divine energy flows, and in which the divine plan is worked out. However, its unbalanced form is as Lilith, the seductress. The material world, and all of its pleasures, is the ultimate seductress, and can lead to materialism unbalanced by the spirituality of the higher spheres. This ultimately leads to a descent into animal consciousness. The balance must therefore be found between Malkuth and Kether, to find order and harmony. Greco-Roman mythology Another similar monster was the Greek Lamia, who likewise governed a class of child stealing lamia-demons. Lamia bore the title "child killer" and was feared for her malevolence, like Lilith. The Lilith Myth She has different conflicting origins and is described as having a human upper body from the waist up and a serpentine body from the waist down. Hurwitz p. 43 (Some depictions of Lamia picture her as having wings and feet of a bird, rather than being half serpent, similar to the earlier reliefs of Greek Sirens and the Lilitu.) One source states simply that she is a daughter of the goddess Hecate. Another that Lamia was subsequently cursed by the goddess Hera to have stillborn children because of her association with Zeus, alternately, Hera slew all of Lamia's children (Except Scylla.) in anger that Lamia slept with her husband, Zeus. The grief caused Lamia to turn into a monster that took revenge on mothers by stealing their children and devouring them. Hurwitz p.43 Lamia had a vicious sexual appetite that matched her cannibalistic appetite for children. She was notorious for being a vampiric spirit and loved sucking men’s blood. Hurwitz p.78 Her gift was the "mark of a Sibyl," a gift of second sight. Zeus was said to have given her the gift of sight. However, she was "cursed" to never be able to shut her eyes so that she would forever obsess over her dead children. Taking pity on Lamia, Zeus gave her the ability to remove and replace her eyes from their sockets. The Empusae were a class of supernatural demons that Lamia was said to have birthed. Hecate would often send them against travelers. They consumed or scared to death any of the people where they inhabited. They bear many similarities to lilim. It has been suggested that later medieval lore, succubae, or lilim is derived from this myth. Arabic mythology Karina of Arabic lore is considered Lilith’s equivalent. Hurwitz p.136 She is mentioned as a child-stealing and child-killing witch. In this context, Karina plays the role of a "shadow" of a woman and a corresponding male demon, Karin, is the "shadow" of a man. Should a woman marry, her Karina marries the man’s Karin. When the woman becomes pregnant is when Karina will cause her chaos. Hurwitz p.137 She will try to drive the woman out and take her place, cause a miscarriage by striking the woman and if the woman succeeds in having children then her Karina will have the same number of children she does. The Karina will continuously try to create discord between the woman and her husband. Here, Karina plays the role of disrupter of marital relations, akin to one of Lilith's roles in Jewish tradition. hurwitz p.138 Lilith in the Classical German period Lilith's earliest appearance in the literature of the Romantic period (1789-1832) was in Goethe's 1808 work Faust Part I, nearly 600 years after appearing in the Kabbalistic Zohar: Faust: Who's that there? Mephistopheles: Take a good look. Lilith. Faust: Lilith? Who is that? Mephistopheles: Adam's wife, his first. Beware of her. Her beauty's one boast is her dangerous hair. When Lilith winds it tight around young men She doesn't soon let go of them again. (1992 Greenberg translation, lines 4206–4211) After Mephistopheles offers this warning to Faust, he then, quite ironically, encourages Faust to dance with "the Pretty Witch". Lilith and Faust engage in a short dialogue, where Lilith recounts the days spent in Eden. Faust: [dancing with the young witch] A lovely dream I dreamt one day I saw a green-leaved apple tree, Two apples swayed upon a stem, So tempting! I climbed up for them. The Pretty Witch: Ever since the days of Eden Apples have been man's desire. How overjoyed I am to think, sir, Apples grow, too, in my garden. (1992 Greenberg translation, lines 4216 – 4223) Lilith in the Victorian period Lady Lilith by Dante Gabriel Rossetti. The Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, which developed around 1848, were greatly influenced by Goethe's work on the theme of Lilith. In 1863, Dante Gabriel Rossetti of the Brotherhood began painting what would be his first rendition of "Lady Lilith", a painting he expected to be his "best picture hitherto" Symbols appearing in the painting allude to the "femme fatale" reputation of the Romantic Lilith: poppies (death and cold) and white roses (sterile passion). Accompanying his Lady Lilith painting from 1863, Rossetti wrote a sonnet entitled Lilith, which was first published in Swinburne's pamphlet-review (1868), Notes on the Royal Academy Exhibition: Of Adam's first wife, Lilith, it is told (The witch he loved before the gift of Eve,) That, ere the snake's, her sweet tongue could deceive, And her enchanted hair was the first gold. And still she sits, young while the earth is old, And, subtly of herself contemplative, Draws men to watch the bright web she can weave, Till heart and body and life are in its hold. The rose and poppy are her flower; for where Is he not found, O Lilith, whom shed scent And soft-shed kisses and soft sleep shall snare? Lo! As that youth's eyes burned at thine, so went Thy spell through him, and left his straight neck bent And round his heart one strangling golden hair. (Collected Works, 216) The poem and the picture appeared together alongside Rossetti's painting Sibylla Palmifera and the sonnet Soul's Beauty. In 1881, the Lilith sonnet was renamed "Body's Beauty" in order to contrast it and Soul's Beauty. The two were placed sequentially in The House of Life collection (sonnets number 77 and 78). Rossetti wrote in 1870: This is in accordance with Jewish folk tradition, which associates Lilith both with long hair (a symbol of dangerous feminine seductive power in both Jewish and Islamic cultures), and with possessing women by entering them through mirrors. "Lilith's Cave," Lilith's Cave: Jewish tales of the supernatural, edited by Howard Schwartz (San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1988) The Victorian poet Robert Browning re-envisioned Lilith in his poem "Adam, Lilith, and Eve". First published in 1883, the poem uses the traditional myths surrounding the triad of Adam, Eve, and Lilith. Browning depicts Lilith and Eve as being friendly and complicitous with each other, as they sit together on either side of Adam. Under the threat of death, Eve admits that she never loved Adam, while Lilith confesses that she always loved him: Browning focused on Lilith's emotional attributes, rather than that of her ancient demon predecessors. Seidel, Kathryn Lee. The Lilith Figure in Toni Morrison's Sula and Alice Walker's The Color Purple In modern occultism The depiction of Lilith in Romanticism continues to be popular among Wiccans, feminists and in modern occultism. The Feminism and Women's Studies site: Changing Literary Representations of Lilith and the Evolution of a Mythical Heroine Ceremonial magic Few magical orders dedicated to the undercurrent of Lilith, featuring initiations specifically related to the arcana of the "first mother" exist. Two organizations that use initiations and magic associated with Lilith are the Ordo Antichristianus Illuminati and the Order of Phosphorus (see excerpt below). Lilith appears as a succubus in Aleister Crowley's De Arte Magica. Lilith was also one of the middle names of Crowley’s first child, Ma Ahathoor Hecate Sappho Jezebel Lilith Crowley (b. 1904, d.1906), and Lilith is sometimes identified with Babalon in Thelemic writings. A Chaos Magical rite, based on an earlier German rite, >Lilith-Ritus offers a ceremonial Invocation of Lilith: The Invocation of Lilith A 2006 "creative occultist" work by ceremonial magickian Donald Tyson, titled Liber Lilith, details the "secret" cosmology for the 'Mother of Harlots' and spawn of all nightbreed monsters, Lilith. The book was allegedly saved from the ashes of Dr John Dee's library at Mortlake in the 1580s. Barbelith Underground Tyson, Donald.LIBER LILITH:A Gnostic Grimoire Modern Luciferianism In modern Luciferianism, Lilith is considered a consort of Lucifer and is identified with the figure of Babalon. She is said to come from the mud and dust, and is known as the Queen of the Succubi. When she and Lucifer mate, they form an androgynous being called "Baphomet" or the "Goat of Mendes," also known in Luciferianism as the "God of Witches." Stills, Robert. Church of Lucifer Writings by Michael W. Ford, including The Foundations of the Luciferian Path, contend that Lilith forms a part of the "Luciferian Trinity" consisting of herself, Samael and Cain. Likewise, Lilith is said to have been Cain's actual mother, as opposed to Eve. Lilith here is seen as a goddess of witches, the dark feminine principle, and is also known as the goddess Hecate. Ford, Michael. Black Witchcraft: The Foundations of the Luciferian Path Wicca Many early writers that contributed to modern day Wicca expressed special reverence for Lilith. Charles Leland associated Aradia with Lilith: Aradia, says Leland, is Herodias, who was regarded in stregheria folklore as being associated with Diana as chief of the witches. Leland further notes that Herodias is a name that comes from West Asia, where it denoted an early form of Lilith. Grimassi, Raven.Stregheria: La Vecchia Religione Leland, Charles.Aradia, Gospel of the Witches-aAppendix Gerald Gardner asserted that there was continuous historical worship of Lilith to present day, and that her name is sometimes given to the goddess being personified in the coven, by the priestess. This idea was further attested by Doreen Valiente, who cited her as a presiding goddess of the Craft: “the personification of erotic dreams, the suppressed desire for delights”. Lilith-The First Eve/Published at Imbolc 2002 In some contemporary concepts, Lilith is viewed as the embodiment of the Goddess, a designation that is thought to be shared with what these faiths believe to be her counterparts: Inanna, Ishtar, Asherah, Anath and Isis. Grenn, Deborah J.History of Lilith Institute According to one view, Lilith was originally a Sumerian, Babylonian, or Hebrew mother goddess of childbirth, children, women, and sexuality http://www.thaliatook.com/AMGG/lilith.html Hurwitz,Siegmund Excerpts from Lilith-The first Eve goddess.com.au-Lilith who later became demonized due to the rise of patriarchy. Koltuv Other modern views hold that Lilith is a dark moon goddess on par with the Hindu Kali. R. Buckland Astrological Lilith See also Lilith (hypothetical moon). In modern Western astrology, "Dark Moon" Lilith, is not an actual phase of the moon, but is the empty focus of the ellipse described by the moon's orbit (the other focus occupied by the Earth). Dark Moon Lilith is often employed in astrological chart readings. "The Dark Moon describes our relationship to the absolute, to sacrifice as such, and shows how we let go.” Joëlle de Gravelaine in "Lilith und das Loslassen", Astrologie Heute, Nr. 23. The moon's hypothetical apogee point (the point at which it is furthest in its orbit from the Earth), is known as "Black Moon" Lilith. It is said to signify instinctive and emotional intelligence in astrological charts. Margi B. The Angelic Influence The asteroid 1181 Lilith is also sometimes used in astrology. Martha Lang-Wescott Western Mystery Tradition The western mystery tradition associates Lilith with the Klipoth of kabbalah. Samael Aun Weor in The Pistis Sophia Unveiled writes that homosexuals are the "henchmen of Lilith." Likewise, women who undergo willful abortion, and those who support this practice are "seen in the sphere of Lilith." Dion Fortune writes, "The Virgin Mary is reflected in Lilith," and that Lilith is the source of "lustful dreams." Indeed, if one meditates on negative (or inverted) Binah, one readily finds Lilith; to worship Lilith is to use the power of the Holy Spirit for negative purposes. See Kabbalah 1: Klipoth See also Daemon (mythology) Naamah (demon) Norea Lamashtu Pazuzu Lamia (mythology) Abyzou 1181 Lilith (main-belt asteroid) Lilith (hypothetical moon) Notes References Siegmund Hurwitz, Lilith, die erste Eva: eine Studie uber dunkle Aspekte des Wieblichen. Zurich: Daimon Verlag, 1980, 1993. English tr. Lilith, the First Eve: Historical and Psychological Aspects of the Dark Feminine, translated by Gela Jacobson. Einsiedeln, Switzerland: Daimon Verlag, 1992 ISBN 3-85630-545-9. Archibald Sayce, Hibbert Lectures on Babylonian Religion (1887) C. Fossey, La Magie Assyrienne, Paris 1902 Raphael Patai, Adam ve-Adama, tr. as Man and Earth; Jerusalem: The Hebrew Press Association, 1941-1942. Talmudic References: b. Erubin 18b; b. Erubin 100b; b. Nidda 24b; b. Shab. 151b; b. Baba Bathra 73a-b Kabbalist References: Zohar 3:76b-77a; Zohar Sitrei Torah 1:147b-148b; Zohar 2:267b; Bacharach,'Emeq haMelekh, 19c; Zohar 3:19a; Bacharach,'Emeq haMelekh, 102d-103a; Zohar 1:54b-55a Dead Sea Scroll References: 4QSongs of the Sage/4QShir; 4Q510 frag.11.4-6a//frag.10.1f; 11QPsAp An overview of the Lilith Mythos including analysis of the Burney Relief Kramer's Translation of the Gilgamesh Prologue. Kramer, Samuel Noah. "Gilgamesh and the Huluppu-Tree: A reconstructed Sumerian Text." Assyriological Studies of the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago 10. Chicago: 1938. Hurwitz, Siegmund. Lilith. Switzerland: Daminon Press, 1992. Jerusalem Bible. New York: Doubleday, 1966 Lilith's Cave: Jewish tales of the supernatural, by Howard Schwartz (San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1988) Patai, Raphael. The Hebrew Goddess, 3rd enlarged edition New York: Discus Books, 1978. The Witch Book, by Raymond Buckland, Visible Ink Press (November 1, 2001) External links Jewish Encyclopedia: Lilith Collection of Lilith information and links by Alan Humm International standard Bible Encyclopedia: Night-Monster Gnostic Lilith | Lilith |@lemmatized lilith:227 john:2 collier:1 hebrew:13 mythological:2 female:15 mesopotamian:5 storm:6 demon:51 associate:14 wind:10 think:7 bearer:1 disease:5 illness:1 death:9 figure:9 first:26 appear:13 class:4 spirit:13 lilitu:15 sumer:2 circa:1 bce:5 many:10 scholar:2 place:10 origin:4 phonetic:1 name:22 somewhere:1 around:6 despite:1 post:1 date:7 even:2 time:7 moses:2 hurwitz:19 night:16 jewish:19 lore:4 screech:3 owl:10 king:5 jam:1 version:8 bible:10 mythology:9 etymology:2 akkadian:4 līlītu:2 nisba:2 adjective:1 proto:1 semitic:2 root:1 lyl:1 literally:2 translate:8 nocturnal:2 although:5 cuneiform:1 inscription:1 līlīt:1 refers:1 bearing:1 exist:5 sayce:3 fossey:2 another:13 possibility:1 association:6 thus:4 identify:4 lil:3 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5,495 | Franklin_J._Schaffner | Franklin James Schaffner (May 30, 1920 - July 2, 1989) was an Academy Award-winning American film director. Early life The son of missionaries, Schaffner was born in Tokyo, Japan and raised in that country. He returned to the United States and graduated from Franklin and Marshall College in Lancaster, Pennsylvania, where he was active in drama. He studied law at Columbia University in New York City but his education was interrupted by service with the United States Navy in World War II during which he served with American amphibious forces in Europe and North Africa. In the latter stages of the war he was sent to the Pacific Far East to serve with the United States Office for Strategic Services. Career Returning home after the war, he found work in the television industry with March of Time and then joined the CBS network. He won directing Emmys for his work on the original 1954 CBS teleplay, 12 Angry Men. Schaffner earned two more Emmy awards for his work on the 1955 TV adaptation of the Broadway play, The Caine Mutiny Court Martial, shown on the anthology series Ford Star Jubilee. He won his fourth Emmy Award for his work on the series, The Defenders. In 1960, he directed Allen Drury's stage play Advise and Consent. His first Hollywood motion picture was praised and he directed the influential hit Planet of the Apes. His next film, Patton was a major success for which he won the Academy Award for Directing and the Directors Guild of America for Outstanding Directorial Achievement in Motion Pictures. Jerry Goldsmith composed the scores for a number of his later films, including Planet of the Apes, Papillon and The Boys from Brazil. Schaffner was elected President of the Directors Guild of America in 1987. Personal life Schaffner married Helen Jane Gilchrist in 1948. The couple had two children, Jennie and Kate. Schaffner died on July 2, 1989 at the age of 69. He was released 10 days before his death from a hospital where he was being treated for lung cancer. Obituaries stated he died of cancer. Critical perception Screenwriter William Goldman identified Schaffner in 1981 as being one of the three best directors (then living) at handling 'scope' (epicness) in films. The other two were David Lean and Richard Attenborough. John Bradey, "The craft of the screenwriter", 1981. Page 168 Filmography Woman of Summer [aka The Stripper] (1963) The Best Man (1964) The War Lord (1965) The Double Man (1967) Planet of the Apes (1968) Patton (1970) Nicholas and Alexandra (1971) Papillon (1973) Islands in the Stream (1976) The Boys from Brazil (1978) Sphinx (1980) Yes, Giorgio (1982) Lionheart (1987) Welcome Home (1989). References External links | Franklin_J._Schaffner |@lemmatized franklin:2 james:1 schaffner:7 may:1 july:2 academy:2 award:4 win:4 american:2 film:4 director:4 early:1 life:2 son:1 missionary:1 bear:1 tokyo:1 japan:1 raise:1 country:1 return:2 united:3 state:4 graduate:1 marshall:1 college:1 lancaster:1 pennsylvania:1 active:1 drama:1 study:1 law:1 columbia:1 university:1 new:1 york:1 city:1 education:1 interrupt:1 service:2 navy:1 world:1 war:4 ii:1 serve:2 amphibious:1 force:1 europe:1 north:1 africa:1 latter:1 stage:2 send:1 pacific:1 far:1 east:1 office:1 strategic:1 career:1 home:2 find:1 work:4 television:1 industry:1 march:1 time:1 join:1 cbs:2 network:1 direct:4 emmy:3 original:1 teleplay:1 angry:1 men:1 earn:1 two:3 tv:1 adaptation:1 broadway:1 play:2 caine:1 mutiny:1 court:1 martial:1 show:1 anthology:1 series:2 ford:1 star:1 jubilee:1 fourth:1 defender:1 allen:1 drury:1 advise:1 consent:1 first:1 hollywood:1 motion:2 picture:2 praise:1 influential:1 hit:1 planet:3 ape:3 next:1 patton:2 major:1 success:1 guild:2 america:2 outstanding:1 directorial:1 achievement:1 jerry:1 goldsmith:1 compose:1 score:1 number:1 late:1 include:1 papillon:2 boy:2 brazil:2 elect:1 president:1 personal:1 marry:1 helen:1 jane:1 gilchrist:1 couple:1 child:1 jennie:1 kate:1 die:2 age:1 release:1 day:1 death:1 hospital:1 treat:1 lung:1 cancer:2 obituary:1 critical:1 perception:1 screenwriter:2 william:1 goldman:1 identify:1 one:1 three:1 best:2 live:1 handle:1 scope:1 epicness:1 david:1 lean:1 richard:1 attenborough:1 john:1 bradey:1 craft:1 page:1 filmography:1 woman:1 summer:1 aka:1 stripper:1 man:2 lord:1 double:1 nicholas:1 alexandra:1 islands:1 stream:1 sphinx:1 yes:1 giorgio:1 lionheart:1 welcome:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram lancaster_pennsylvania:1 emmy_award:2 caine_mutiny:1 motion_picture:2 lung_cancer:1 richard_attenborough:1 nicholas_alexandra:1 external_link:1 |
5,496 | Jadwiga_of_Poland | Not to be confused with Jadwiga of Greater Poland Jadwiga of Anjou (1373/4 – July 17, 1399) was a king of Poland from 1384 to her death. Her official title was 'king' rather than 'queen', reflecting that she was a sovereign in her own right and not merely a royal consort. She was a member of the Capetian House of Anjou and the daughter of King Louis I of Hungary and Elisabeth of Bosnia. She is known in Polish as Jadwiga, in English and German as Hedwig, in Lithuanian as Jadvyga, in Hungarian as Hedvig, and in Latin as Hedvigis. She is venerated by the Roman Catholic Church as Saint Hedwig. Jadwiga is the patron saint of queens, and of United Europe. Royal titles Queens regnant being relatively uncommon in Europe at the time, she was officially crowned a king rather than a queen. Hedvigis Rex Polonie: M. Barański, S. Ciara, M. Kunicki-Goldfinger, Poczet królów i książąt polskich, Warszawa 1997, also Teresa Dunin-Wąsowicz, Dwie Jadwigi Setting aside this quirk of history, her royal titles would have been: in Latin: Hedvigis dei gracia Regina Polonie, necnon terrarum Cracovie, Sandomirie, Syradie, Lancicie, Cuyavie, Pomeranieque domina et heres. in English translation: Jadwiga by the grace of God Queen of Poland, lady and inheritor of the land of Kraków (Cracow), Sandomierz, Sieradz, Łęczyca, Kuyavia, Pomerania (Pomerelia). Biography Childhood Jadwiga was the youngest daughter of Louis I of Hungary and of Elizabeth of Bosnia. Jadwiga could claim descent from the House of Piast, the ancient native Polish dynasty on both her mother's and her father's side. Her paternal grandmother Elisabeth of Cuyavia was the daughter of King Władysław I the Elbow-high, who had reunited Poland in 1320. Jadwiga was brought up at the royal court in Buda and Visegrád, Hungary. In 1378, she was betrothed (sponsalia de futuro) to Habsburg scion William of Austria, and spent about a year at the imperial court in Vienna, Austria. Jadwiga's father Louis had, in 1364 in Kraków, during festivities known as the Days of Kraków, also made an arrangement with his former father-in-law Holy Roman Emperor Charles IV to inter-marry their future children: Charles' son and future Holy Roman Emperor Sigismund of Luxemburg was engaged and married, as a child, to Louis' daughter and future Queen Mary. One of Louis' original plans had been to leave the kingdom of Poland to Mary, whose marriage with Sigismund was more relevant to this end as Sigismund was an heir in his own right to Poland and was intended to inherit Brandenburg, which was nearer to Poland than to Hungary. Jadwiga's destiny as Austrian consort was a better fit for Hungary, as it was an immediate neighbor of Austria. Jadwiga was well-educated and a polyglot, speaking Latin, Bosnian, Hungarian, Serbian, Polish, German, interested in the arts, music, science, and court life. She was also known for her piety and her admiration for Saints Mary, Martha, and Bridget of Sweden, as well as her patron saint, Hedwig of Andechs. Reign Until 1370, Poland had been ruled by the native Piast Dynasty. Its last king, Casimir III, had left no legitimate son and considered his male grandchildren either unsuited or too young to reign. He therefore decided that his surviving sister Elizabeth of Poland and her son, Louis I of Hungary, should succeed him. Louis was proclaimed king, while Elizabeth held much of the practical power until her death in 1380. When Louis died in 1382, the Hungarian throne was inherited by his eldest surviving daughter Mary, under the regency of their Bosnian mother. In Poland, however, the lords of Lesser Poland (Poland's virtual rulers) did not want to continue the personal union with Hungary, nor to accept as regent Mary's fiancé Sigismund, whom they expelled from the country. They therefore chose as their new monarch Mary's younger sister, Jadwiga. After two years' negotiations with Jadwiga's mother, Elizabeth of Bosnia, who was regent of Hungary, and a civil war in Greater Poland (1383), Jadwiga finally came to Kraków and at the age of ten, on November 16, 1384, was crowned King of Poland — Hedvig Rex Poloniæ, not Hedvig Regina Poloniæ, as the Polish law had no provision for a female ruler (queen regnant). The masculine gender of her title was also meant to emphasize that she was monarch in her own right, not a queen consort. As child monarch of Poland, Jadwiga had at least one relative in Poland (all her immediate family having remained in Hungary): her mother's childless uncle, Władysław the White (d. 1388), Prince of Gniewkowo. Soon after Jadwiga's coronation, new suitors for Jadwiga's hand appeared: Duke Siemowit IV of Masovia and Grand Duke Jogaila of Lithuania, the latter supported by the lords of Lesser Poland. In 1385 (when Jadwiga was eleven years old) William of Austria came to Kraków to consummate the marriage and present the lords with a fait accompli. His plan, however, failed and William was expelled from Poland while Jadwiga declared her sponsalia invalid. William later married Jadwiga's cousin and rival, Joan II of Naples. That same year (1385), Jogaila and the lords of Lesser Poland signed the Union of Krewo whereby Jogaila pledged to adopt Western Christianity and unite Lithuania with Poland in exchange for Jadwiga's hand and the Polish crown. Twelve-year-old Jadwiga and 26-year-old Jogaila — who had earlier been baptized Władysław — wed in March 1385 at Kraków. This was followed by Jogaila's coronation as King of Poland, although Jadwiga retained her royal rights. In 1386, Jadwiga's mother Elizabeth and her sister Queen Maria of Hungary were kidnapped, probably on the order of Maria's husband and consort Sigismund. In January 1387, Elizabeth was strangled, while Maria was released in July of the same year, by the effort of future Frankopan family and Jadwiga's adopted maternal uncle King Tvrtko of Bosnia. Maria, heavily pregnant, died in 1395 under suspicious circumstances. Coat of Arms of Anjou-Sicily, Poland, Hungary, Dalmatia Rationale embroidered by Jadwiga of Poland As a monarch, young Jadwiga probably had little actual power. Nevertheless, she was actively engaged in her kingdom's political, diplomatic and cultural life and acted as the guarantor of Władysław's promises to reclaim Poland's lost territories. In 1387, Jadwiga led two successful military expeditions to reclaim the province of Halych in Red Ruthenia, which had been retained by Hungary in a dynastic dispute at her accession. As she was an heiress to Louis I of Hungary herself, the expeditions were for the most part peaceful and resulted in Petru I of Moldavia paying homage to the Polish monarchs in September 1387. In 1390 she began a correspondence with the Teutonic Knights, followed by personal meetings in which she opened diplomatic negotiations herself. Most political responsibilities, however, were probably in Władysław's hands, with Jadwiga attending to cultural and charitable activities. She sponsored writers and artists and donated much of her personal wealth, including her royal insignia, to charity, for purposes including the founding of hospitals. She financed a scholarship for twenty Lithuanians to study at Charles University in Prague to help strengthen Christianity in their country, to which purpose she also founded a bishopric in Vilnius. Among her most notable cultural legacies was the restoration of the Kraków Academy, which in 1817 was renamed Jagiellonian University in honour of the couple. Death and inheritance On June 22, 1399 Jadwiga gave birth to a daughter, Elizabeth Bonifacia. Within a month, both the girl and her mother had died from birth complications. They were buried together in Wawel Cathedral. Jadwiga's death undermined Jogaila's position as King of Poland, but he managed to retain the throne until his death 35 years later. It is not easy to state who was Jadwiga's heir in line of Poland, or Poland's rightful heir, since Poland had not used primogeniture, but kings had ascended by some sort of election. There were descendants of superseded daughters of Casimir III of Poland (d. 1370), such as his youngest daughter Anna, Countess of Celje (d. 1425 without surviving issue), and her daughter Anna of Celje (1380–1416) whom Władysław II Jagiełło married next,who had a daughter Jadwiga of Lithuania born in 1408. Jadwiga died in 1431, reputedly poisoned by Sophia, Władysław's last wife, after a faction of Polish nobles supported Jadwiga against Sophia's sons. Emperor Sigismund himself was an heir of Casimir III, as eldest son of his mother Elisabeth of Pomerania, who was since 1377 the only surviving child of Elisabeth of Poland, herself daughter of Casimir III from his first marriage with Gediminaitis Aldona of Lithuania. The family possession of the principality of Kuyavia belonged to Sigismund, who was the heir with the strongest hereditary claims. However, the leaders of the country wanted to avoid Sigismund and any personal union with Hungary. Other descendants of Władysław the Short (through the Silesian dukes of Świdnica) included the then Emperor Wenceslas, king of Bohemia, who died without issue in 1419, as well as the Silesian dukes of Opole and Sagan. Male-line Piasts were represented most closely by the Dukes of Masovia, one of whom had aspired to marry Jadwiga in 1385. Also various princes of Silesia were of Piast descent, but they had been largely pushed aside since the exile of Vladislas II, Duke of Kraków. Jadwiga's husband Władysław Jagiello kept the throne, mostly because no claimant with clearly better stature appeared. He was never ousted, not even after the death of his second wife, and eventually succeeded to found a dynasty in Poland by the sons of his last wife, who were not related to earlier Polish rulers. Legends and veneration From the time of her death, Jadwiga was in Poland widely venerated like a saint, even though she was only beatified in the 1980s, and canonized in 1997, by the Polish Pope John Paul II. Numerous legends about miracles were recounted to justify a desired sainthood. The two best-known are those of "Jadwiga's cross" and "Jadwiga's foot." Jadwiga often prayed before a large black crucifix hanging in the north aisle of Wawel Cathedral. During one of these prayers, the Christ on the cross is said to have spoken to her. The crucifix, "Saint Jadwiga's cross", is still there, with her relics beneath it. Jadwiga liked to smuggle food from the castle to give to the poor, and carried it in her apron. King Jagiello was informed of these excursions at night, and was told that maybe Jadwiga was giving information to rebels. King Jagiello, was, of course, very angry. He decided to find the meaning of these wanderings after dark. One night, while Jadwiga “was leaving by a secret door”, Jagiello “sprang out of the bushes and demanded to see” what was in her apron. “A miracle occurred and the food she was carrying (which would have earned her a death sentence), turned into a garland of roses. To this day, Jadwiga is always depicted wearing an apron of roses.” According to another legend, Jadwiga took a piece of jewelry from her foot and gave it to a poor stonemason who had begged for her help. When the King left, he noticed her footprint in the plaster floor of his workplace, even though the plaster had already hardened before her visit. The supposed footprint, known as "Jadwiga's foot", can still be seen in one of Kraków's churches. Another story was when Jadwiga was “taking part” in a Corpus Christi Day procession. During this time, a coppersmith’s son drowned by falling into a river. Jadwiga threw her mantle over the boy’s body, and he regained life. Catholic World Culture Chapter XXIII, pp. 146-151 On June 8, 1979 Pope John Paul II prayed at her sarcophagus; and the Congregation for Divine Worship and the Discipline of the Sacraments officially affirmed her beatification on August 8, 1986. The Pope canonized Jadwiga in Kraków on June 8, 1997. Exhumations and sarcophagus |Jadwiga's sarcophagus, Wawel Cathedral, Kraków. Jadwiga's body has been exhumed at least three times. The first time was in the 17th century, in connection with the construction of a bishop's sarcophagus next to Jadwiga's grave. The next exhumation took place in 1887. Jadwiga's complete skeleton was found, together with a mantle and hat. Jan Matejko made a sketch of Jadwiga's skull, which later helped him paint her portrait (see above). On July 12, 1949, her grave was again opened. This time she was reburied in a sarcophagus paid for by Karol Lanckoroński, which had been sculpted in white marble in 1902 by Antoni Madeyski. The queen is depicted with a dog, a symbol of fidelity, at her feet. The sarcophagus is oriented with Jadwiga's feet pointing west, unlike all the other sarcophagi in the cathedral. On display next to the sarcophagus are the modest wooden orb and scepter with which the queen had been buried - she had sold her jewels to finance the renovation of the Kraków Academy, known today as Jagiellonian University. Ancestors http://www.geni.com/share?t=6000000002603016361 Gallery Notes References - Poland. Further reading See also History of Poland (966-1385) History of Poland (1385-1569) Armorial of the House Anjou-Sicily House of Anjou-Sicily | Jadwiga_of_Poland |@lemmatized confuse:1 jadwiga:57 great:2 poland:35 anjou:5 july:3 king:16 death:8 official:1 title:4 rather:2 queen:11 reflect:1 sovereign:1 right:4 merely:1 royal:6 consort:4 member:1 capetian:1 house:4 daughter:11 louis:9 hungary:14 elisabeth:4 bosnia:4 know:6 polish:9 english:2 german:2 hedwig:3 lithuanian:2 jadvyga:1 hungarian:3 hedvig:3 latin:3 hedvigis:3 venerate:2 roman:3 catholic:2 church:2 saint:6 patron:2 united:1 europe:2 regnant:2 relatively:1 uncommon:1 time:6 officially:2 crown:3 rex:2 polonie:2 barański:1 ciara:1 kunicki:1 goldfinger:1 poczet:1 królów:1 książąt:1 polskich:1 warszawa:1 also:7 teresa:1 dunin:1 wąsowicz:1 dwie:1 jadwigi:1 set:1 aside:2 quirk:1 history:3 would:2 dei:1 gracia:1 regina:2 necnon:1 terrarum:1 cracovie:1 sandomirie:1 syradie:1 lancicie:1 cuyavie:1 pomeranieque:1 domina:1 et:1 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5,497 | Norwegian_language | Norwegian (norsk) is a North Germanic language spoken primarily in Norway, where it is an official language. Together with Swedish and Danish, Norwegian forms a continuum of more or less mutually intelligible local and regional variants (see Danish language#Classification). These continental Scandinavian languages together with the insular languages Faroese and Icelandic, as well as some extinct languages, constitute the North Germanic languages (also called Scandinavian languages). Faroese and Icelandic are hardly mutually intelligible with Norwegian in their spoken form, because continental Scandinavian has diverged from them. As established by law and governmental policy, there are two official forms of written Norwegian Bokmål (literally "book language") and Nynorsk (literally "new Norwegian"). The Norwegian Language Council recommends the terms "Norwegian Bokmål" and "Norwegian Nynorsk" in English. There is no officially sanctioned standard of spoken Norwegian, and most Norwegians speak their own dialect in all circumstances. The sociolect of the urban upper and middle class in East Norway, upon which Bokmål is primarily based, can be regarded as a de facto spoken standard for Bokmål. This so-called standard østnorsk ("Standard Eastern Norwegian") is the form generally taught to foreign students. From the 16th to the 19th centuries, Danish was the standard written language of Norway. As a result, the development of modern written Norwegian has been subject to strong controversy related to nationalism, rural versus urban discourse, and Norway's literary history. Historically, Bokmål is a Norwegianized variety of Danish, while Nynorsk is a language form based on Norwegian dialects and puristic opposition to Danish. The now abandoned official policy to merge Bokmål and Nynorsk into one common language called Samnorsk through a series of spelling reforms has created a wide spectrum of varieties of both Bokmål and Nynorsk. The unofficial form known as Riksmål is considered more conservative than Bokmål, and the unofficial Høgnorsk more conservative than Nynorsk. Norwegians are educated in both Bokmål and Nynorsk. A 2005 poll indicates that 86.3% use primarily Bokmål as their daily written language, 5.5% use both Bokmål and Nynorsk, and 7.5% use primarily Nynorsk. Thus 13% are frequently writing Nynorsk, though the majority speak dialects that resemble Nynorsk more closely than Bokmål. Broadly speaking, Nynorsk writing is widespread in Western Norway, though not in major urban areas; it is little used elsewhere. The Norwegian broadcasting corporation (NRK) broadcasts in both Bokmål and Nynorsk, and all governmental agencies are required to support both written languages. Bokmål is used in 92% of all written publications, Nynorsk in 8% (2000). Norwegian is one of the working languages of the Nordic Council. Under the Nordic Language Convention, citizens of the Nordic countries speaking Norwegian have the opportunity to use their native language when interacting with official bodies in other Nordic countries without being liable to any interpretation or translation costs. Konvention mellan Sverige, Danmark, Finland, Island och Norge om nordiska medborgares rätt att använda sitt eget språk i annat nordiskt land, Nordic Council website. Retrieved on May 4, 2008. 20th anniversary of the Nordic Language Convention, Nordic news, February 22, 2007. Retrieved on April 25, 2007. History From Old Norse to distinct Scandinavian languages This is the approximate extent of Old Norse and related languages in the early 10th century. The red area is the distribution of the dialect Old West Norse; the orange area is the spread of the dialect Old East Norse. The pink area is Old Gutnish and the green area is the extent of the other Germanic languages with which Old Norse still retained some mutual intelligibility The languages now spoken in Scandinavia developed from the Old Norse language, which did not differ greatly between what are now Danish, Norwegian, and Swedish areas. In fact, Viking traders spread the language across Europe and into Russia, making Old Norse one of the most widespread languages for a time. According to tradition, King Harald Fairhair united Norway in 872. Around this time, a runic alphabet was used. According to writings found on stone tablets from this period of history, the language showed remarkably little deviation between different regions. Runes had been in limited use since at least the 3rd century. Around 1030, Christianity came to Norway, bringing with it the Latin alphabet. Norwegian manuscripts in the new alphabet began to appear about a century later. The Norwegian language began to deviate from its neighbors around this time as well. Viking explorers had begun to settle Iceland in the 9th century, carrying with them the Old Norse language. Over time, Old Norse developed into "Western" and "Eastern" variants. Western Norse covered Norway (including its overseas settlements in Iceland, Greenland, the Faroe Islands and the Shetland Islands), while Eastern Norse developed in Denmark and south-central Sweden. The language of Iceland and Norway was practically the same up until the 1300s, when they started to deviate from each other. The language phase traditionally dated to 1350–1525, is known as Middle Norwegian and is seen by many as a transitional period from Old Norse to Modern Norwegian. The reason for this is that although most languages are in a state of constant change, Norwegian phonology, morphology and syntax changed considerably during this time. pp. 49-95 Torp, Arne, Lars S. Vikør (1993) The use of grammatical case, and a great portion of the conjugation of verbs was lost and replaced by a more fixed syntax, use of prepositions and a greater use of auxiliary based verb forms. During the late Old Norse period and this period there was also a considerable adoption of Middle Low German vocabulary. Similar development in grammar and phonology happened in Swedish and Danish, keeping the dialect continuum in continental Scandinavia intact, but with greater dialectal variation. This process did not, however, occur in the same way in Faroese and Icelandic. These languages remain conservative to this day, when it comes to grammar and vocabulary, so mutual intelligibility with continental Scandinavia was lost. Danish and Swedish rule In 1397, the Kalmar Union unified Norway, Sweden and Denmark, and from 1536 Norway was subordinated under the Kingdom of Denmark–Norway. Danish became the commonly written language among Norway's literate class. Spoken Danish was gradually adopted by the urban elite, first at formal occasions, and gradually a more relaxed variety was adopted in everyday speech. The everyday speech went through a koinéization process, involving grammatical simplification and Norwegianized pronunciation. When the union ended in 1814 the Dano-Norwegian koiné had become the mother tongue of a substantial part of the Norwegian elite, but the more Danish-sounding solemn variety was still used on formal occasions. Norway was forced to enter a new personal union with Sweden, shortly after the end of the former one with Denmark. However, Norwegians began to push for true independence by embracing democracy and attempting to enforce the constitutional declaration of being a sovereign state. Part of this nationalist movement was directed towards the development of an independent Norwegian language. Three major paths were available: do nothing (Norwegian written language, i.e. Danish, was already different from Swedish), Norwegianize the Danish language, or build a new national language based on Modern Norwegian dialects. All three approaches were attempted. Danish to Norwegian From the 1840s, some writers experimented with a Norwegianized Danish by incorporating words that were descriptive of Norwegian scenery and folk life, and adopting a more Norwegian syntax. Knud Knudsen proposed to change spelling and inflection in accordance with the Dano-Norwegian koiné, known as "cultivated everyday speech." A small adjustment in this direction was implemented in the first official reform of Danish language in Norway in 1862 and more extensively after his death in two official reforms in 1907 and 1917. Meanwhile, a nationalistic movement strove for the development of a new written Norwegian. Ivar Aasen, a self-taught linguist, began his work to create a new Norwegian language at the age of 22. He traveled around the country, comparing the dialects in different regions, and examined the development of Icelandic, which had largely escaped the influences Norwegian had come under. He called his work, which was published in several books from 1848 to 1873, Landsmål, meaning national language. The name "Landsmål" is sometimes interpreted as "rural language" or "country language," but this was clearly not Aasen's intended meaning. The name of the Danish language in Norway was a topic of hot dispute through the 19th century. Its proponents claimed that it was a language common to Norway and Denmark, and no more Danish than Norwegian. The proponents of Landsmål thought that the Danish character of the language should not be concealed. In 1899, Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson proposed the neutral name Riksmål, meaning national language like Landsmål, and this was officially adopted along with the 1907 spelling reform. The name "Riksmål" is sometimes interpreted as "state language," but this meaning is secondary at best, compare to Danish rigsmål from where the name was borrowed. After the personal union with Sweden was dissolved in 1905, both languages were developed further and reached what is now considered their classic forms after a reform in 1917. Riksmål was in 1929 officially renamed Bokmål (literally "Book language"), and Landsmål to Nynorsk (literally "New Norwegian"). A proposition to substitute Dano-Norwegian for Bokmål lost in parliament by a single vote. The name Nynorsk, the linguistic term for Modern Norwegian, was chosen for contrast to Danish and emphasis on the historical connection to Old Norwegian. Today this meaning is often lost, and it is commonly mistaken as a "new" Norwegian in contrast to the "real" Norwegian Bokmål. Bokmål and Nynorsk were made closer by a reform in 1938. This was a result of a state policy to merge Nynorsk and Bokmål into one language, called "Samnorsk" (Common Norwegian). A 1946 poll showed that this policy was supported by 79% of Norwegians at the time. However, opponents of the official policy still managed to create a massive protest movement against Samnorsk in the 1950s, fighting in particular the use of "radical" forms in Bokmål text books in schools. In the reform in 1959, the 1938 reform was partially reversed in Bokmål, but Nynorsk was changed further towards Bokmål. Since then Bokmål has reverted even further toward traditional Riksmål, while Nynorsk still adheres to the 1959 standard. Therefore a small minority of Nynorsk enthusiasts uses a more conservative standard called Høgnorsk. The Samnorsk policy had little influence after 1960, and was officially abandoned in 2002. Phonology The sound system of Norwegian is similar to Swedish. There is considerable variation among the dialects, but the variant generally taught to foreign students is Standard Østnorsk. Consonants +Consonant phonemes of Eastern Norwegian Labial Dental/Alveolar Post-alveolar Palatal Velar GlottalNasal Plosive Fricative Approximant Flap Vowels Vowel phonemes of Standard Østnorsk Orthography IPA Description a Open back unrounded ai au e (short) , open mid front unrounded e (long) , close-mid front unrounded e (weak) schwa (mid central unrounded) ei , i (short) close front unrounded i (long) close front unrounded o close back rounded oi u , close central rounded (close front extra rounded) y (short) close front rounded (close front less rounded) y (long) close front rounded (close front less rounded) æ , near open front unrounded ø close-mid front rounded øy å open-mid back rounded Accent Norwegian is a pitch accent language with two distinct pitch patterns. They are used to differentiate two-syllable words with otherwise identical pronunciation. For example in many East Norwegian dialects, the word "" (farmers) is pronounced using tone 1, while "" (beans or prayers) uses tone 2, just like in Danish. Though the difference in spelling occasionally allow the words to be distinguished in written language, in most cases the minimal pairs are written alike, since written Norwegian has no explicit accent marks. In most eastern low-tone dialects, accent 1 uses a low flat pitch in the first syllable, while accent 2 uses a high, sharply falling pitch in the first syllable and a low pitch in the beginning of the second syllable. In both accents, these pitch movements are followed by a rise of intonational nature (phrase accent), the size (and presence) of which signals emphasis/focus and which corresponds in function to the normal accent in languages that lack lexical tone, such as English. That rise culminates in the final syllable of an accentual phrase, while the utterance-final fall that is so common in most languages is either very small or absent. There are significant variations in pitch accent between dialects. Thus, in most of western and northern Norway (the so-called high-pitch dialects) accent 1 is falling, while accent 2 is rising in the first syllable and falling in the second syllable or somewhere around the syllable boundary. The pitch accents (as well as the peculiar phrase accent in the low-tone dialects) give the Norwegian language a "singing" quality which makes it fairly easy to distinguish from other languages. Interestingly, accent 1 generally occurs in words that were monosyllabic in Old Norse, and accent 2 in words that were polysyllabic. Written language Alphabet The Norwegian alphabet has 29 letters. A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Æ Ø Å a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z æ ø å The letters c, q, w, x and z are only used in loanwords. Some also spell their otherwise Norwegian family names using these letters. Some letters may be modified by diacritics: é, è, ê, ó, ò, and ô. In Nynorsk, ì and ù and ỳ are occasionally seen as well. The diacritics are not compulsory, but may in a few cases distinguish between different meanings of the word, e.g.: for (for/to), fór (went), fòr (furrow) and fôr (fodder). Loanwords may be spelled with other diacritics, most notably ü, á and à. Bokmål and Nynorsk Like some other European countries, Norway has an official "advisory board" Språkrådet (Norwegian Language Council) that determines, after approval from the Ministry of Culture, official spelling, grammar, and vocabulary for the Norwegian language. The board's work has been subject to considerable controversy through the years. Both Nynorsk and Bokmål have a great variety of optional forms. The Bokmål that uses the forms that are close to Riksmål is called moderate or conservative, depending on one's viewpoint, while the Bokmål that uses the forms that are close to Nynorsk is called radical. Nynorsk has forms that are close to the original Landsmål and forms that are close to Bokmål. Riksmål Map of the official language forms of Norwegian municipalities as of 2007Areas where Norwegian is spoken by a considerable amount of the population Opponents of the spelling reforms aimed at bringing Bokmål closer to Nynorsk have retained the name Riksmål and employ spelling and grammar that predate the Samnorsk movement. Riksmål and conservative versions of Bokmål have been the de facto standard written language of Norway for most of the 20th century, being used by large newspapers, encyclopedias, and a significant proportion of the population of the capital Oslo, surrounding areas, and other urban areas, as well as much of the literary tradition. Since the reforms of 1981 and 2003 (effective in 2005), the official Bokmål can be adapted to be almost identical with modern Riksmål. The differences between written Riksmål and Bokmål are comparable to American and British English differences. Riksmål is regulated by the Norwegian Academy, which determines acceptable spelling, grammar, and vocabulary. Høgnorsk There is also an unofficial form of Nynorsk, called Høgnorsk, discarding the post-1917 reforms, and thus close to Ivar Aasen's original Landsmål. It is supported by Ivar Aasen-sambandet, but has found no widespread use. Current usage About 86.2% of the pupils in the primary and lower secondary schools in Norway receive education in Bokmål, while about 13.8% receive education in Nynorsk. From the eighth grade onwards pupils are required to learn both. Out of the 431 municipalities in Norway, 161 have declared that they wish to communicate with the central authorities in Bokmål, 116 (representing 12% of the population) in Nynorsk, while 156 are neutral. Of 4,549 state publications in 2000 8% were in Nynorsk, and 92% in Bokmål. The large national newspapers (Aftenposten, Dagbladet and VG) are published in Bokmål or Riksmål. Some major regional newspapers (including Bergens Tidende and Stavanger Aftenblad), many political journals, and many local newspapers use both Bokmål and Nynorsk. Dialects There is general agreement that a wide range of differences makes it difficult to estimate the number of different Norwegian dialects. Variations in grammar, syntax, vocabulary, and pronunciation cut across geographical boundaries and can create a distinct dialect at the level of farm clusters. Dialects are in some cases so dissimilar as to be unintelligible to unfamiliar listeners. Many linguists note a trend toward regionalization of dialects that diminishes the differences at such local levels; there is, however, a renewed interest in preserving distinct dialects. Examples Below are a few sentences giving an indication of the differences between Bokmål and Nynorsk, compared to the conservative (nearer to Danish) form Riksmål, Danish, as well as Old Norse, Swedish, Faroese, Icelandic (the living language closest to Old Norse) and other modern Germanic languages: Language Phrase I come from Norway What is his name? This is a horse The rainbow has many colours Bokmål Jeg kommer fra Norge Hva heter han? Dette er en hest Regnbuen har mange farger Riksmål Regnbuen har mange farver Danish Hvad hedder han? Nynorsk Eg kjem frå Noreg Kva heiter han? Dette er ein hest Regnbogen har mange fargar Høgnorsk Regnbogen hev mange fargarRegnbogen er manglìta Old Norse Ek kem frá Noregi Hvat heitir hann? Þetta er hross/hestr Regnboginn er marglitr Icelandic Ég er frá Noregi Hvað heitir hann? Þetta er hross/hestur Regnboginn er marglitur Swedish Jag kommer från Norge Vad heter han? Detta är en häst Regnbågen har många färger Faroese Eg komi frá Noreg/Norra Hvussu eitur hann? Hetta er eitt ross/ein hestur Ælabogin hevur nógvar litir German Ich komme aus Norwegen Wie heißt er? Dies ist ein Hengst/Roß/Pferd Der Regenbogen hat viele Farben Dutch Ik kom uit Noorwegen Hoe heet hij? Dit is een paard De regenboog heeft veel kleuren Afrikaans Ek kom van Noorweë Hoe heet hy? Dit is 'n perd Die reënboog het baie kleure Morphology Nouns Norwegian nouns are inflected or declined in definiteness (indefinite/definite) and number (singular/plural). In some dialects, definite nouns are furthermore declined in case (nominative/dative). As in most Indo-European languages (English being one of a few exceptions), nouns are classified by gender, which has consequences for the declension of agreeing adjectives and determiners. Norwegian dialects have three genders: masculine, feminine and neuter, except the Bergen dialect which has only two genders: common and neuter. Bokmål and Standard Østnorsk traditionally have two genders like Danish (and the Bergen dialect), but so-called radical varieties have three genders. + Noun formsbåt (boat) in Bokmål Singular Plural Indefinite Definite Indefinite Definite en båt båten båter båtene The declension of regular nouns depends on gender. Some dialects and variants of Nynorsk furthermore have different declension of weak and strong feminines and neuters. + Bokmål m. en gutt(a boy) gutten(the boy) gutter(boys) guttene(the boys) f. ei/en dør(a door) døra/døren(the door) dører(doors) dørene(the doors) n. et hus(a house) huset(the house) hus(houses) husene/husa(the houses) As of June 5 , 2005, all feminine nouns can be written as masculine nouns. + Nynorsk m. ein gut(a boy) guten(the boy) gutar(boys) gutane(the boys) f. ei sol(a sun) sola/soli(the sun) soler(suns) solene(the suns) ei kyrkje/kyrkja(a church) kyrkja(the church) kyrkjer/kyrkjor(churches) kyrkjene/kyrkjone(the churches) n. eit hus(a house) huset(the house) hus(houses) husa/husi(the houses) eit hjarta/hjarte(a heart) hjarta/hjartet(the heart) hjarto/hjarte(hearts) hjarto/hjarta(the hearts) Adjectives Norwegian adjectives have two inflectional paradigms. The weak inflection is applicable when the argument is definite, the strong inflection is used when the argument is indefinite. In both paradigms the adjective is declined in comparison (positive/comparative/superlative). Strong, positive adjectives are furthermore declined in gender and number in agreement with their argument. In some southwestern dialects, the weak positive is also declined in gender and number, with one form for feminine and plural, and one form for masculine and neuter. + Weak adjective formsgrønn (green) in Bokmål Positive Comparative Superlative grønne grønnere grønneste + Strong adjective forms(grønn (green) in Bokmål) Positive Comparative Superlative Masculine Feminine Neuter Plural grønn grønn grønt grønne grønnere grønnest Verbs Norwegian finite verbs are inflected or conjugated in mood: indicative/imperative/subjunctive. The subjunctive mood is constrained to a handful of verbs. The indicative verbs are conjugated in tense, present / past. In Bokmål and Standard Østnorsk, the present tense also has a passive form. In a few dialects, indicative verbs are also conjugated in number. Conjugation in person is lost in Norwegian. There are four non-finite verb forms: infinitive, passive infinitive, and the two participles perfective/past participle and imperfective/present participle. The participles are verbal adjectives. The imperfective participle has no further declension, but the perfective participle is declined in gender (not in Bokmål and Standard Østnorsk) and number like strong, positive adjectives. The definite form of the participle is identical to the plural form. As with other Germanic languages, Norwegian verbs can be either weak or strong. + Verb forms in Nynorskleva (to live) Finite Non-finite Indicative Subjunctive Imperative Verbal nouns Verbal adjectives (Participles) Present Past Infinitive Imperfective Perfective Active Passive Masculine Feminine Neuter Plural/Def lever levde leve lev leva levast levande levd levd levt levde + Verb forms in Bokmålleve (to live) Finite Non-finite Indicative Subjunctive Imperative Verbal nouns Verbal adjectives (Participles) Present Past Infinitive Imperfective Perfective Active Passive Active Passive Singular Plural/Def lever leves levde/ levet leve lev leve leves levende levd levde/ levet Pronouns Norwegian personal pronouns are declined in case, nominative / accusative. Some of the dialects that have preserved the dative in nouns, also have a dative case instead of the accusative case in personal pronouns, while others have accusative in pronouns and dative in nouns, effectively giving these dialects three distinct cases. In the most comprehensive Norwegian grammar, Norsk referansegrammatikk, the categorization of personal pronouns by person, gender, and number is not regarded as inflection. As with nouns, adjectives must agree with the gender and number of pronoun arguments. Other pronouns have no inflection. The so called possessive, demonstrative and relative pronouns are no longer regarded to be pronouns. Pronouns are a closed class. + Pronouns in Bokmål Nominative Accusative English equivalent jeg meg I, me du deg you (singular) han ham/han he, him hun/ho henne she, her den den it (masculine/feminine) det det it (neuter) vi oss we, us dere dere you (plural) de dem they, them + Pronouns in Nynorsk Nominative Accusative English equivalent eg meg I, me du deg you (singular) han han/honom he, him or it (masculine) ho ho/henne she, her or it (feminine) det det it (neuter) me/vi oss we, us de dykk you (plural) dei dei they, them Bokmål, like English, has two sets of 3rd person pronouns. Han and hun refer to male and female individuals respectively, den and det refer to impersonal or inanimate nouns, of masculine/feminine or neutral gender respectively. In contrast, Nynorsk and most dialects use the same set of pronouns (han (m.), ho (f.) and det (n.)) for both personal and impersonal references. Det also has expletive and cataphoric uses like in the English examples it rains and it was known by everyone (that) he had travelled the world. Determiners The closed class of Norwegian determiners are declined in gender and number in agreement with their argument. Not all determiners are inflected. + Determiner formsegen (own) in Bokmål Masculine Feminine Neuter Plural e(i)gen e(i)gen/eiga eget/eige e(i)gne + Determiner formseigen (own) in Nynorsk Masculine Feminine Neuter Plural eigen eiga eige eigne Particle classes Norwegian has five closed classes without inflection, i.e. lexical categories with grammatical function and a finite number of members that may not be distinguished by morphological criteria. These are interjections, conjunctions, subjunctions, prepositions, and adverbs. The inclusion of adverbs here requires that traditional adverbs that are inflected in comparison be classified as adjectives, as is sometimes done. Compound words In Norwegian compound words, the head, i.e. the part determining the compound's class, is the last part. Only the first part has primary stress. For instance, the compound tenketank (think tank) has primary stress on the first syllable and is a noun (some sort of tank). Compound words are written together in Norwegian, which can cause words to become very long, for example sannsynlighetsmaksimeringsestimator (maximum likelihood estimator) and menneskerettighetsorganisasjoner (human rights organisations). Another example is the title høyesterettsjustitiarius (originally a combination of supreme court and the actual title, justiciar). Note also the translation En midtsommernattsdrøm (A Midsummer Night's Dream). If they are not written together, each part will naturally be read with primary stress, and the meaning of the compound is lost. This is sometimes forgotten, occasionally with humorous results. Instead of writing, for example, lammekoteletter (lamb chops), people make the mistake of writing lamme koteletter (lame, or paralyzed, chops). The original message can even be reversed, as when røykfritt (no smoking, lit. "smoke free") becomes røyk fritt (smoke freely). Other examples include: Terrasse dør ("Terrace dies") instead of Terrassedør ("Terrace door") Tunfisk biter ("Tuna bites", verb) instead of Tunfiskbiter ("Tuna bits", noun) Smult ringer ("Lard is calling", verb) instead of Smultringer ("Doughnuts") Tyveri sikret ("Theft guaranteed") instead of Tyverisikret ("Theft proof") Stekt kylling lever ("Fried chicken lives", verb) instead of Stekt kyllinglever ("Fried chicken liver", noun) Smør brød ("Butter bread") instead of Smørbrød ("Sandwich") Klipp fisk ("Cut fish", verb) instead of Klippfisk ("Clipfish") These misunderstandings occur because most nouns can be interpreted as verbs or other types of words. Similar misunderstandings can be achieved in English too. The following are examples of phrases that both in Norwegian and English mean one thing as a compound word, and something different when regarded as separate words: stavekontroll (spellchecker) or stave kontroll (spell c-h-e-c-k-e-r) kokebok (cookbook) or koke bok (cooking a book) ekte håndlagde vafler (real handmade waffles) or Ekte hånd lagde vafler. (a real hand made waffles.) Vocabulary By far the largest part of the modern vocabulary of Norwegian dates back to Old Norse. The largest source of loanwords is Middle Low German, which had a huge influence on Norwegian vocabulary from the late Middle Ages onwards partially even influencing grammatical structures, such as genitive constructions. At present, the main source of new loanwords is English e.g. rapper, e-mail, catering, juice, bag (originally a loan word to English from Old Norse). Norwegian is however considered to be less influenced by English than for instance Swedish or particularly Danish. Some loanwords have their spelling changed to reflect Norwegian pronunciation rules, but in general Norwegianised spellings of these words tend to take a long time to sink in: e.g. sjåfør (from French chauffeur) and revansj (from French revanche) are now the common Norwegian spellings, but juice is more often used than the Norwegianised form jus, catering more often than keitering, service more often than sørvis, etc. See also Differences between the Norwegian and Danish languages Det Norske Akademi for Sprog og Litteratur Noregs Mållag Norsk Ordbok Riksmålsforbundet Russenorsk List of Indo-European languages Numbers in various languages References Bibliography Rolf Theil Endresen, Hanne Gram Simonsen, Andreas Sveen, Innføring i lingvistikk (2002), ISBN 82-00-45273-5 Torp, Arne, Lars S. Vikør (1993), Hovuddrag i norsk språkhistorie (3.utgåve), Gyldendal Norsk Forlag AS 2003 External links Norwegian-English Dictionary (2) Norwegian pronunciation guide (with sound clips) Learn Norwegian! - List of online resources of Norwegian language Translation services EasyTrans.org Easily translate words between English, Norwegian and Spanish. 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5,498 | Allene | Propadiene, the simplest allene, is also known as allene. An allene is a hydrocarbon in which one atom of carbon is connected by double bonds with two other atoms of carbon. Allene also is the common name for the parent compound of this series, propadiene. Such pair of bonds make allenes much more reactive than other alkenes. For example, their reactivity with gaseous chlorine is more like the reactivity of alkynes. Allenes can be chiral. Geometry 3D view of allene. The central carbon of allene forms two sigma bonds and two pi bonds. The central carbon is sp-hybridized, and the two terminal carbons are sp2-hybridized. The bond angle formed by the three carbons is 180°, indicating linear geometry for the carbons of allene. Symmetry For allenes with four identical substituents, the compound will have a twofold axis of rotation through the center carbon. The axis is inclined at 45° to the CH2 planes on either side of the molecule. The molecule can thus be thought of as a two-bladed propeller. Another twofold axis of rotation passes through the C=C=C bonds, and there is a mirror plane passing through both CH2 planes. Thus this class of molecules will have a D2d point group. An allene with only two substituents, A and B will be chiral because there will no longer be any mirror planes. Where A has a greater priority than B according to the Cahn-Ingold-Prelog priority rule, the configuration can be determined by considering the top, then the bottom. For the bottom, only the group of higher priority need be considered. Because of the symmetry, an unsubstituted allene has no dipole moment. Synthesis Laboratory methods for the formation of allenes are: from geminal dihalocyclopropanes and organolithium compounds in the Skattebøl rearrangement. from reaction of certain terminal alkynes with formaldehyde copper(II) bromide and added base Organic Syntheses, Coll. Vol. 7, p.276 (1990); Vol. 63, p.203 (1985). Link from dehydrohalogenation of certain dihalides. Organic Syntheses, Coll. Vol. 5, p.22 (1973); Vol. 42, p.12 (1962) Link See also Compounds with three or more adjacent carbon-carbon double bonds are called cumulenes. The allene motif is frequently encountered in carbomers. Using a suitable catalyst (e.g. Wilkinson's catalyst), it is possible to reduce just one of the double bonds of an allene. Bhagwat; Devaprabhakara, Tetrahedron Lett. p. 1391 (1972)Link Propadiene is one of the two main components of MAPP gas. External links IUPACs Gold Book definition of allenes Stereochemistry study guide Synthesis of allenes References | Allene |@lemmatized propadiene:3 simple:1 allene:11 also:3 know:1 hydrocarbon:1 one:3 atom:2 carbon:10 connect:1 double:3 bond:8 two:7 common:1 name:1 parent:1 compound:4 series:1 pair:1 make:1 allenes:6 much:1 reactive:1 alkene:1 example:1 reactivity:2 gaseous:1 chlorine:1 like:1 alkyne:2 chiral:2 geometry:2 view:1 central:2 form:2 sigma:1 pi:1 sp:1 hybridize:2 terminal:2 angle:1 three:2 indicate:1 linear:1 symmetry:2 four:1 identical:1 substituents:2 twofold:2 axis:3 rotation:2 center:1 incline:1 plane:4 either:1 side:1 molecule:3 thus:2 think:1 bladed:1 propeller:1 another:1 pass:2 c:3 mirror:2 class:1 point:1 group:2 b:2 longer:1 great:1 priority:3 accord:1 cahn:1 ingold:1 prelog:1 rule:1 configuration:1 determine:1 consider:2 top:1 bottom:2 high:1 need:1 unsubstituted:1 dipole:1 moment:1 synthesis:4 laboratory:1 method:1 formation:1 geminal:1 dihalocyclopropanes:1 organolithium:1 skattebøl:1 rearrangement:1 reaction:1 certain:2 formaldehyde:1 copper:1 ii:1 bromide:1 add:1 base:1 organic:2 coll:2 vol:4 p:5 link:4 dehydrohalogenation:1 dihalides:1 see:1 adjacent:1 call:1 cumulenes:1 motif:1 frequently:1 encounter:1 carbomers:1 use:1 suitable:1 catalyst:2 e:1 g:1 wilkinson:1 possible:1 reduce:1 bhagwat:1 devaprabhakara:1 tetrahedron:1 lett:1 main:1 component:1 mapp:1 gas:1 external:1 iupacs:1 gold:1 book:1 definition:1 stereochemistry:1 study:1 guide:1 reference:1 |@bigram axis_rotation:2 bladed_propeller:1 dipole_moment:1 terminal_alkyne:1 synthesis_coll:2 coll_vol:2 external_link:1 |
5,499 | Latin_literature | Latin literature, the body of written works in the Latin language, remains an enduring legacy of the culture of ancient Rome. The Romans produced many works of poetry, comedy, tragedy, satire, history, and rhetoric, drawing heavily on the traditions of other cultures and particularly on the more matured literary tradition of Greece. Long after the Western Roman Empire had fallen, the Latin language continued to play a central role in western European civilization. Latin literature is conventionally divided into distinct periods. Few works remain of Early and Old Latin; among these few surviving works, however, are the plays of Plautus and Terence, which have remained very popular in all eras down to the present, while many other Latin works, including many by the most prominent authors of the Classical period, have disappeared, sometimes being re-discovered after centuries, sometimes not. Such lost works sometimes survive as fragments in other works which have survived, but others are known from references in such works as Pliny the Elder's Naturalis Historia or the De Architectura of Vitruvius. Classical Latin Marcus Tullius Cicero The period of Classical Latin, when Latin literature is widely considered to have reached its peak, is divided into the Golden Age, which covers approximately the period from the start of the 1st century BCE up to the mid-1st century CE, and the Silver Age, which extends into the 2nd century CE. Literature written after the mid-2nd century has often been disparaged and ignored; in the Renaissance, for example, when many Classical authors were re-discovered and their style consciously imitated. Above all, Cicero was imitated, and his style praised as the perfect pinnacle of Latin. Medieval Latin was often dismissed as "Dog-Latin"; but in fact, many great works of Latin literature were produced throughout Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, although they are no longer as widely known as those written in the Classical period. Three works survived to inspire architects and engineers in the Renaissance, the Naturalis Historia of Pliny the Elder, the books by Frontinus on the aqueducts of Rome and the De Architectura of Vitruvius. The Medieval World For most of the Medieval era, Latin was the dominant written language in use in western Europe. After the Roman Empire split into its Western and Eastern halves, Greek, which had been widely used all over the Empire, faded from use in the West, all the more so as the political and religious distance steadily grew between the Catholic West and the Orthodox, Greek East. The vernacular languages in the West, the languages of modern-day western Europe, developed for centuries as spoken languages only: most people did not write, and it seems that it very seldom occurred to those who wrote to write in any language other than Latin, even when they spoke French or Italian or English or another vernacular in their daily life. Very gradually, in the late Middle Ages and the early Renaissance, it became more and more common to write in the Western vernaculars. Naturalis Historia, 1669 edition, title page. It was probably only after the invention of printing, which made books and pamphlets cheap enough that a mass public could afford them, and which made possible modern phenomena such as the newspaper, that a large number of people in the West could read and write who were not fluent in Latin. Still, many people continued to write in Latin, although they were mostly from the upper classes and/or professional academics. As late as the 17th century, there was still a large audience for Latin poetry and drama; it was not unusual, for example, that Milton wrote many poems in Latin, or that Francis Bacon or Baruch Spinoza wrote mostly in Latin. The use of Latin as a lingua franca continued in smaller European lands until the 20th century. Although the number of works of non-fiction and drama, history and philosophy written in Latin has continued to dwindle, the Latin language is still not dead. Well into the twentieth century, some knowledge of Latin was required for admission into many universities, and theses and dissertations written for graduate degrees were often required to be written in Latin. Treatises in chemistry and biology and other natural sciences were often written in Latin as late as the early 20th century. Up to the present day, the editors of Latin and Greek texts in such series as the Oxford Classical Texts, the Bibliotheca scriptorum Graecorum et Romanorum Teubneriana and some others still write the introductions to their editions in polished and vital Latin. Among these Latin scholars of the 20th and 21st centuries are R A B Mynors, R J Tarrant, L D Reynolds and John Brisco. Early Latin literature Poetry (comedy) Plautus Terence Prose Cato - agricultural writer Golden Age of Latin literature Virgil's bust, on his tomb in Naples Poetry Catullus - lyric poet and elegist Horace - lyric poet and satirist Lucretius - philosopher Ovid - elegist, didactic poet and mythological poet Propertius - elegist Tibullus - elegist Virgil - epic, didactic and pastoral poet Prose Bust of Julius Caesar in the Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna Cicero - orator, philosopher and correspondent Marcus Terentius Varro - agricultural writer and linguist Publilius Syrus - writer of maxims Vitruvius - architect History Livy Sallust Julius Caesar Biography Cornelius Nepos Augustus - autobiographer Silver Age of Latin literature Poetry Gaius Valerius Flaccus - epic poet Lucan - epic poet Marcus Manilius - astronomical poet Silius Italicus - epic poet Statius - lyric and epic poet Juvenal - satirist Martial - epigrammatist Persius - satirist Phaedrus - fabulist Prose Pliny the Elder: an imaginative 19th Century portrait. No contemporary depiction of Pliny has survived. Aulus Cornelius Celsus - physician Aulus Gellius - essayist Apuleius - novellist and philosopher Columella - agricultural writer Petronius - novellist Pliny the Elder - scientist Pliny the Younger - correspondent Quintilian - rhetorician Sextus Julius Frontinus - engineer Valerius Maximus - author of a collection of anecdotes Seneca the Elder - orator Marcus Cornelius Fronto - correspondent History Florus Marcus Velleius Paterculus Tacitus Biography Suetonius Quintus Curtius Rufus Multiple Genres Ancient bust of Seneca, part of a double herm (Antikensammlung Berlin) Seneca the Younger - philosopher, correspondent, scientist, tragedian and satirist Latin Literature in the Late Antique period Christians Augustine of Hippo - theologian, autobiographer and correspondent Ausonius - elegist Jerome - theologian and correspondent Marcus Minucius Felix - theologian Prudentius - Christian poet Sidonius Apollinaris - panegyricist and correspondent Tertullian - theologian Non-Christians Monument to Ausonius in Milan Ammianus Marcellinus - historian Augustan History - history Claudian - panegyricist Herodian - historian Pervigilium Veneris - lyric poetry Medieval Latin literature Theology and Philosophy Statue of Roger Bacon in the Oxford University Museum Pierre Abélard Aetheria Albertus Magnus Thomas Aquinas : Pange Lingua : Summa Theologica Roger Bacon Duns Scotus Gildas Gregory of Tours Siger of Brabant Tommaso da Celano : Dies Iræ Venantius Fortunatus Walter of Châtillon William of Occam Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius - Consolation of Philosophy Drama and poetry The Archpoet Carmina Burana Goliards Peter of Blois Hildegard of Bingen Hrotsvitha History Depiction of Bede from the Nuremberg Chronicle, 1493. Albert of Aix Bede Einhard Fulcher of Chartres Matthew Paris Orderic Vitalis Otto of Freising William of Malmesbury William of Tyre Pseudo-History Geoffrey of Monmouth Encyclopedia Isidore of Seville : Etymologiæ Multiple Genres Alcuin Renaissance Latin Erasmus by Holbein Dante Alighieri Giovanni Boccaccio Erasmus Jean Buridan Thomas More : Utopia Petrarch William of Ockham Neo-Latin Francis Bacon Jacob Bidermann Thomas Hobbes John Milton Baruch Spinoza Maciej Kazimierz Sarbiewski Elizabeth Jane Weston Recent Latin Arrius Nurus Geneviève Immè Alanus Divutius Anna Elissa Radke Ianus Novak Tuomo Pekkanen See also Ancient literature Early Medieval literature Hiberno-Latin Medieval literature British Latin Literature Roman cursive Loeb Classical Library I Tatti Renaissance Library The Latin Library External links Corpus Scriptorum Latinorum: texts, plus a comprehensive directory to texts on other sites Latin Authors on the Web: a directory The Latin Library Bibilotheca Augustana 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