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5,200 | Hunan_cuisine | Hunan cured ham with pickled cowpeas Hunan cuisine, sometimes called Xiang cuisine (), consists of the cuisines of the Xiang River region, Dongting Lake and western Hunan Province, in China. Hunan cuisine is consisted of three styles: Xiang River style which is represented by dishes of Changsha, Dongting Lake style which is represented by dishes of Hengyang, and western Hunan style which is represented by dishes of Xiangtan. Hunan cuisine is one of the eight regional cuisines of China and is well known for its hot spicy flavor, fresh aroma and deep color. Common cooking techniques include stewing, frying, pot-roasting, braising, and smoking. Due to the high agricultural output of the region, ingredients for Hunan dishes are many and varied. Known for its liberal use of chilli peppers, shallots and garlic, Xiang cuisine is known for being dry hot (干辣) or purely hot, as opposed to the better known Sichuan cuisine, to which it is often compared. Known for its distinctive málà (hot and numbing) seasoning and other complex flavour combinations, Sichuan cuisine frequently employ Sichuan peppercorns along with chilies which are often dried, and utilizes more dried or preserved ingredients and condiments. Hunan Cuisine, on the other hand, is often spicier by pure chili content, contains a larger variety of fresh ingredients, tends to be oilier, and is said to be purer and simpler in taste . Another characteristic distinguishing Hunan cuisine from Sichuan cuisine is that, in general, Hunan cuisine uses smoked and cured goods in its dishes much more frequently. Another feature of Hunan cuisine is that the menu changes with the seasons. In a hot and humid summer, a meal will usually start with cold dishes or a platter holding a selection of cold meats with chilies for opening the pores and keeping cool in the summer. In winter, a popular choice is the hot pot, thought to heat the blood in the cold months. A special hot pot called (鸳鸯火锅 yuān yāng hǔo gūo) lover's hot pot is famous for splitting the pot into a spicy side and a milder side. History The history of the cooking skills employed in the Hunan cuisine dates back many centuries. During the course of its history, Hunan cuisine assimilated a variety of local forms, eventually evolving into its own style. Now it contains more than 4000 dishes, among which over 300 dishes are very famous , such as fried chicken with Sichuan spicy sauce (麻辣鸡丁) and smoked pork with dried long green beans（干豆角蒸腊肉). Representative dishes Dongan chicken Mao's braised pork Beer duck Changsha vermicelli Steamed fish heads in chili sauce Orange beef Hot and peppery chicken Spare ribs steamed in bamboo Changsha-style stinky tofu Mashed shrimp in lotus pod Xiangdu roast duck Sizzling rice soup Lotus Seeds in rock sugar syrup Pumpkin cake Spicy frog leg Oxtail porridge See also Chinese cuisine Szechuan cuisine Cooking | Hunan_cuisine |@lemmatized hunan:13 cure:2 ham:1 pickled:1 cowpea:1 cuisine:18 sometimes:1 call:2 xiang:4 consist:2 river:2 region:2 dongting:2 lake:2 western:2 province:1 china:2 three:1 style:6 represent:3 dish:9 changsha:3 hengyang:1 xiangtan:1 one:1 eight:1 regional:1 well:1 know:5 hot:9 spicy:4 flavor:1 fresh:2 aroma:1 deep:1 color:1 common:1 cook:1 technique:1 include:1 stew:1 fry:1 pot:5 roasting:1 braising:1 smoking:1 due:1 high:1 agricultural:1 output:1 ingredient:3 many:2 varied:1 liberal:1 use:2 chilli:1 pepper:1 shallot:1 garlic:1 dry:3 干辣:1 purely:1 oppose:1 good:2 sichuan:5 often:3 compare:1 distinctive:1 málà:1 numb:1 seasoning:1 complex:1 flavour:1 combination:1 frequently:2 employ:2 peppercorn:1 along:1 chilies:2 utilize:1 dried:1 preserved:1 condiment:1 hand:1 spicier:1 pure:1 chili:2 content:1 contain:2 large:1 variety:2 tend:1 oily:1 say:1 purer:1 simpler:1 taste:1 another:2 characteristic:1 distinguishing:1 general:1 smoke:2 much:1 feature:1 menu:1 change:1 season:1 humid:1 summer:2 meal:1 usually:1 start:1 cold:3 platter:1 hold:1 selection:1 meat:1 open:1 pore:1 keep:1 cool:1 winter:1 popular:1 choice:1 think:1 heat:1 blood:1 month:1 special:1 鸳鸯火锅:1 yuān:1 yāng:1 hǔo:1 gūo:1 lover:1 famous:2 split:1 side:2 mild:1 history:3 cooking:2 skill:1 date:1 back:1 century:1 course:1 assimilate:1 local:1 form:1 eventually:1 evolve:1 among:1 fried:1 chicken:3 sauce:2 麻辣鸡丁:1 pork:2 long:1 green:1 bean:1 干豆角蒸腊肉:1 representative:1 dongan:1 mao:1 braise:1 beer:1 duck:2 vermicelli:1 steam:2 fish:1 head:1 orange:1 beef:1 peppery:1 spare:1 rib:1 bamboo:1 stinky:1 tofu:1 mash:1 shrimp:1 lotus:2 pod:1 xiangdu:1 roast:1 sizzle:1 rice:1 soup:1 seed:1 rock:1 sugar:1 syrup:1 pumpkin:1 cake:1 frog:1 leg:1 oxtail:1 porridge:1 see:1 also:1 chinese:1 szechuan:1 |@bigram cure_ham:1 hunan_cuisine:9 chilli_pepper:1 hot_humid:1 fried_chicken:1 chili_sauce:1 spare_rib:1 sugar_syrup:1 |
5,201 | Earth | Earth (pronounced ) is the third planet from the Sun, and the largest of the terrestrial planets in the Solar System in terms of diameter, mass and density. It is also referred to as the World and Terra. Note that by International Astronomical Union convention, the term "Terra" is used for naming extensive land masses, rather than for the planet Earth. Cf. Home to millions of species, including humans, Earth is the only place in the universe where life is known to exist. The planet formed 4.54 billion years ago, and life appeared on its surface within a billion years. Since then, Earth's biosphere has significantly altered the atmosphere and other abiotic conditions on the planet, enabling the proliferation of aerobic organisms as well as the formation of the ozone layer which, together with Earth's magnetic field, blocks harmful radiation, permitting life on land. The physical properties of the Earth, as well as its geological history and orbit, allowed life to persist during this period. The world is expected to continue supporting life for another 1.5 billion years, after which the rising luminosity of the Sun will eliminate the biosphere. Earth's outer surface is divided into several rigid segments, or tectonic plates, that gradually migrate across the surface over periods of many millions of years. About 71% of the surface is covered with salt-water oceans, the remainder consisting of continents and islands; liquid water, necessary for all known life, is not known to exist on any other planet's surface. Other planets in the Solar System are either too hot or too cold to support liquid water. However, it is confirmed to have existed on the surface of Mars in the past, and may still appear today. See: As of 2007, water vapor has been detected in the atmosphere of only one extrasolar planet, and it is a gas giant. See: Earth's interior remains active, with a thick layer of relatively solid mantle, a liquid outer core that generates a magnetic field, and a solid iron inner core. Earth interacts with other objects in outer space, including the Sun and the Moon. At present, Earth orbits the Sun once for every roughly 366.26 times it rotates about its axis. This length of time is a sidereal year, which is equal to 365.26 solar days. The number of solar days is one less than the number of sidereal days because the orbital motion of the Earth about the Sun results in one additional revolution of the planet about its axis. The Earth's axis of rotation is tilted 23.4° away from the perpendicular to its orbital plane, Yoder, Charles F. (1995:8). producing seasonal variations on the planet's surface with a period of one tropical year (365.24 solar days). Earth's only known natural satellite, the Moon, which began orbiting it about 4.53 billion years ago, provides ocean tides, stabilizes the axial tilt and gradually slows the planet's rotation. Between approximately 4.1 and 3.8 billion years ago, asteroid impacts during the Late Heavy Bombardment caused significant changes to the surface environment. Both the mineral resources of the planet, as well as the products of the biosphere, contribute resources that are used to support a global human population. The inhabitants are grouped into about 200 independent sovereign states, which interact through diplomacy, travel, trade and military action. Human cultures have developed many views of the planet, including personification as a deity, a belief in a flat Earth or in Earth being the center of the universe, and a modern perspective of the world as an integrated environment that requires stewardship. Chronology Scientists have been able to reconstruct detailed information about the planet's past. The earliest dated solar system material is dated to 4.5672 ± 0.0006 billion years ago, and by 4.54 billion years ago (within an uncertainty of 1%) the Earth and the other planets in the Solar System formed out of the solar nebula—a disk-shaped mass of dust and gas left over from the formation of the Sun. This assembly of the Earth through accretion was largely completed within 10–20 million years. Initially molten, the outer layer of the planet Earth cooled to form a solid crust when water began accumulating in the atmosphere. The Moon formed soon afterward, most likely as the result of a Mars-sized object (sometimes called Theia) with about 10% of the Earth's mass impacting the Earth in a glancing blow. Some of this object's mass would have merged with the Earth and a portion would have been ejected into space, but enough material would have been sent into orbit to form the Moon. Outgassing and volcanic activity produced the primordial atmosphere. Condensing water vapor, augmented by ice and liquid water delivered by asteroids and the larger proto-planets, comets, and trans-Neptunian objects produced the oceans. Two major models have been proposed for the rate of continental growth: steady growth to the present-day and rapid growth early in Earth history. Current research shows that the second option is most likely, with rapid initial growth of continental crust followed by a long-term steady continental area. On time scales lasting hundreds of millions of years, the surface continually reshaped itself as continents formed and broke up. The continents migrated across the surface, occasionally combining to form a supercontinent. Roughly 750 million years ago (Ma), one of the earliest known supercontinents, Rodinia, began to break apart. The continents later recombined to form Pannotia, 600–540 Ma, then finally Pangaea, which broke apart 180 Ma. Evolution of life At present, Earth provides the only example of an environment that can sustain the evolution of life. Highly energetic chemistry is believed to have produced a self-replicating molecule around 4 billion years ago, and half a billion years later the last common ancestor of all life existed. The development of photosynthesis allowed the Sun's energy to be harvested directly by life forms; the resultant oxygen accumulated in the atmosphere and formed in a layer of ozone (a form of molecular oxygen [O3]) in the upper atmosphere. The incorporation of smaller cells within larger ones resulted in the development of complex cells called eukaryotes. True multicellular organisms formed as cells within colonies became increasingly specialized. Aided by the absorption of harmful ultraviolet radiation by the ozone layer, life colonized the surface of Earth. Since the 1960s, it has been hypothesized that severe glacial action between 750 and 580 Ma, during the Neoproterozoic, covered much of the planet in a sheet of ice. This hypothesis has been termed "Snowball Earth", and is of particular interest because it preceded the Cambrian explosion, when multicellular life forms began to proliferate. Following the Cambrian explosion, about 535 Ma, there have been five mass extinctions. The last extinction event was 65 Ma, when a meteorite collision probably triggered the extinction of the (non-avian) dinosaurs and other large reptiles, but spared small animals such as mammals, which then resembled shrews. Over the past 65 million years, mammalian life has diversified, and several million years ago, an African ape-like animal gained the ability to stand upright. This enabled tool use and encouraged communication that provided the nutrition and stimulation needed for a larger brain. The development of agriculture, and then civilization, allowed humans to influence the Earth in a short time span as no other life form had, affecting both the nature and quantity of other life forms. The present pattern of ice ages began about 40 Ma and then intensified during the Pleistocene about 3 Ma. The polar regions have since undergone repeated cycles of glaciation and thaw, repeating every 40–100,000 years. The last ice age ended 10,000 years ago. Future The future of the planet is closely tied to that of the Sun. As a result of the steady accumulation of helium at the Sun's core, the star's total luminosity will slowly increase. The luminosity of the Sun will grow by 10 percent over the next 1.1 Gyr (1.1 billion years) and by 40% over the next 3.5 Gyr. Climate models indicate that the rise in radiation reaching the Earth is likely to have dire consequences, including the possible loss of the planet's oceans. The Earth's increasing surface temperature will accelerate the inorganic CO2 cycle, reducing its concentration to the lethal levels for plants (10 ppm for C4 photosynthesis) in 900 million years. The lack of vegetation will result in the loss of oxygen in the atmosphere, so animal life will become extinct within several million more years. Ward and Brownlee (2002) But even if the Sun were eternal and stable, the continued internal cooling of the Earth would have resulted in a loss of much of its atmosphere and oceans due to reduced volcanism. After another billion years all surface water will have disappeared and the mean global temperature will reach 70 °C. The Earth is expected to be effectively habitable for about another 500 million years. The Sun, as part of its evolution, will become a red giant in about 5 Gyr. Models predict that the Sun will expand out to about 250 times its present radius, roughly . See also Earth's fate is less clear. As a red giant, the Sun will lose roughly 30% of its mass, so, without tidal effects, the Earth will move to an orbit from the Sun when the star reaches it maximum radius. Therefore, the planet is expected to escape envelopment by the expanded Sun's sparse outer atmosphere, though most, if not all, remaining life will be destroyed because of the Sun's increased luminosity. However, a more recent simulation indicates that Earth's orbit will decay due to tidal effects and drag, causing it to enter the red giant Sun's atmosphere and be destroyed. Composition and structure Earth is a terrestrial planet, meaning that it is a rocky body, rather than a gas giant like Jupiter. It is the largest of the four solar terrestrial planets, both in terms of size and mass. Of these four planets, Earth also has the highest density, the highest surface gravity, the strongest magnetic field, and fastest rotation. It also is the only terrestrial planet with active plate tectonics. Shape The shape of the Earth is very close to that of an oblate spheroid, a sphere squished along the orientation from pole to pole such that there is a bulge around the equator. This bulge results from the rotation of the Earth, and causes the diameter at the equator to be 43 km larger than the pole to pole diameter. The average diameter of the reference spheroid is about 12,742 km, which is approximately 40,000 km/, as the meter was originally defined as 1/10,000,000 of the distance from the equator to the North Pole through Paris, France. Local topography deviates from this idealized spheroid, though on a global scale, these deviations are very small: Earth has a tolerance of about one part in about 584, or 0.17%, from the reference spheroid, which is less than the 0.22% tolerance allowed in billiard balls. The largest local deviations in the rocky surface of the Earth are Mount Everest (8,848 m above local sea level) and the Mariana Trench (10,911 m below local sea level). Because of the equatorial bulge, the feature farthest from the center of the Earth is actually Mount Chimborazo in Ecuador. + F. W. Clarke's Table of Crust OxidesCompoundFormulaCompositionsilicaSiO259.71%aluminaAl2O315.41%limeCaO4.90%magnesiaMgO4.36%sodium oxideNa2O3.55%iron(II) oxideFeO3.52%potassium oxideK2O2.80%iron(III) oxideFe2O32.63%waterH2O1.52%titanium dioxideTiO20.60%phosphorus pentoxideP2O50.22%Total99.22% Chemical composition The mass of the Earth is approximately 5.98 kg. It is composed mostly of iron (32.1%), oxygen (30.1%), silicon (15.1%), magnesium (13.9%), sulfur (2.9%), nickel (1.8%), calcium (1.5%), and aluminium (1.4%); with the remaining 1.2% consisting of trace amounts of other elements. Due to mass segregation, the core region is believed to be primarily composed of iron (88.8%), with smaller amounts of nickel (5.8%), sulfur (4.5%), and less than 1% trace elements. The geochemist F. W. Clarke calculated that a little more than 47% of the Earth's crust consists of oxygen. The more common rock constituents of the Earth's crust are nearly all oxides; chlorine, sulfur and fluorine are the only important exceptions to this and their total amount in any rock is usually much less than 1%. The principal oxides are silica, alumina, iron oxides, lime, magnesia, potash and soda. The silica functions principally as an acid, forming silicates, and all the commonest minerals of igneous rocks are of this nature. From a computation based on 1,672 analyses of all kinds of rocks, Clarke deduced that 99.22% were composed of 11 oxides (see the table at right.) All the other constituents occur only in very small quantities. Internal structure The interior of the Earth, like that of the other terrestrial planets, is divided into layers by their chemical or physical (rheological) properties. The outer layer of the Earth is a chemically distinct silicate solid crust, which is underlain by a highly viscous solid mantle. The crust is separated from the mantle by the Mohorovičić discontinuity, and the thickness of the crust varies: averaging 6 km under the oceans and 30–50 km on the continents. The crust and the cold, rigid, top of the upper mantle are collectively known as the lithosphere, and it is of the lithosphere that the tectonic plates are comprised. Beneath the lithosphere is the asthenosphere, a relatively low-viscosity layer on which the lithosphere rides. Important changes in crystal structure within the mantle occur at 410 and 660 kilometers below the surface, spanning a transition zone that separates the upper and lower mantle. Beneath the mantle, an extremely low viscosity liquid outer core lies above a solid inner core. The inner core may rotate at a slightly higher angular velocity than the remainder of the planet, advancing by 0.1–0.5° per year. + Geologic layers of the Earth Earth cutaway from core to exosphere. Not to scale.Depth kmComponent LayerDensityg/cm30–60Lithosphere Locally varies between 5 and 200 km. —0–35... Crust Locally varies between 5 and 70 km. 2.2–2.935–60... Upper mantle 3.4–4.435–2890Mantle 3.4–5.6100–700... Asthenosphere —2890–5100Outer core 9.9–12.25100–6378Inner core 12.8–13.1 Heat Earth's internal heat comes from a combination of residual heat from planetary accretion (about 20%) and heat produced through radioactive decay (80%). The major heat-producing isotopes in the Earth are potassium-40, uranium-238, uranium-235, and thorium-232. At the center of the planet, the temperature may be up to 7,000 K and the pressure could reach 360 GPa. Because much of the heat is provided by radioactive decay, scientists believe that early in Earth history, before isotopes with short half-lives had been depleted, Earth's heat production would have been much higher. This extra heat production, twice present-day at approximately 3 billion years ago, would have increased temperature gradients within the Earth, increasing the rates of mantle convection and plate tectonics, and allowing the production of igneous rocks such as komatiites that are not formed today. + Present-day major heat-producing isotopes Isotope Heat release [W/kg isotope] Half-life [years] Mean mantle concentration [kg isotope/kg mantle] Heat release [W/kg mantle] 238U 235U 232Th 40K Total heat loss from the earth is . A portion of the core's thermal energy is transported toward the crust by Mantle plumes; a form of convection consisting of upwellings of higher-temperature rock. These plumes can produce hotspots and flood basalts. More of the heat in the Earth is lost through plate tectonics, by mantle upwelling associated with mid-ocean ridges. The final major mode of heat loss is through conduction through the lithosphere, majority of which occurs in the oceans due to the crust there being much thinner than that of the continents. Tectonic plates + Earth's main plates Plate nameArea106 km² African Plate Including the Somali Plate, which is currently in the process of formation out of the African Plate. See: 78.0 Antarctic Plate 60.9 Australian Plate 47.2 Eurasian Plate 67.8 North American Plate 75.9 South American Plate 43.6 Pacific Plate 103.3 The mechanically rigid outer layer of the Earth, the lithosphere, is broken into pieces called tectonic plates. These plates are rigid segments that move in relation to one another at one of three types of plate boundaries: Convergent boundaries, at which two plates come together, Divergent boundaries, at which two plates are pulled apart, and Transform boundaries, in which two plates slide past one another laterally. Earthquakes, volcanic activity, mountain-building, and oceanic trench formation can occur along these plate boundaries. The tectonic plates ride on top of the asthenosphere, the solid but less-viscous part of the upper mantle that can flow and move along with the plates, and their motion is strongly coupled with patterns convection inside the Earth's mantle. As the tectonic plates migrate across the planet, the ocean floor is subducted under the leading edges of the plates at convergent boundaries. At the same time, the upwelling of mantle material at divergent boundaries creates mid-ocean ridges. The combination of these processes continually recycles the oceanic crust back into the mantle. Because of this recycling, most of the ocean floor is less than 100 million years in age. The oldest oceanic crust is located in the Western Pacific, and has an estimated age of about 200 million years. By comparison, the oldest dated continental crust is 4030 million years old. Other notable plates include the Indian Plate, the Arabian Plate, the Caribbean Plate, the Nazca Plate off the west coast of South America and the Scotia Plate in the southern Atlantic Ocean. The Australian Plate actually fused with Indian Plate between 50 and 55 million years ago. The fastest-moving plates are the oceanic plates, with the Cocos Plate advancing at a rate of 75 mm/yr and the Pacific Plate moving 52–69 mm/yr. At the other extreme, the slowest-moving plate is the Eurasian Plate, progressing at a typical rate of about 21 mm/yr. Surface The Earth's terrain varies greatly from place to place. About 70.8% of the surface is covered by water, with much of the continental shelf below sea level. The submerged surface has mountainous features, including a globe-spanning mid-ocean ridge system, as well as undersea volcanoes, oceanic trenches, submarine canyons, oceanic plateaus and abyssal plains. The remaining 29.2% not covered by water consists of mountains, deserts, plains, plateaus, and other geomorphologies. The planetary surface undergoes reshaping over geological time periods due to the effects of tectonics and erosion. The surface features built up or deformed through plate tectonics are subject to steady weathering from precipitation, thermal cycles, and chemical effects. Glaciation, coastal erosion, the build-up of coral reefs, and large meteorite impacts also act to reshape the landscape. The continental crust consists of lower density material such as the igneous rocks granite and andesite. Less common is basalt, a denser volcanic rock that is the primary constituent of the ocean floors. Sedimentary rock is formed from the accumulation of sediment that becomes compacted together. Nearly 75% of the continental surfaces are covered by sedimentary rocks, although they form only about 5% of the crust. The third form of rock material found on Earth is metamorphic rock, which is created from the transformation of pre-existing rock types through high pressures, high temperatures, or both. The most abundant silicate minerals on the Earth's surface include quartz, the feldspars, amphibole, mica, pyroxene and olivine. Common carbonate minerals include calcite (found in limestone), aragonite and dolomite. The pedosphere is the outermost layer of the Earth that is composed of soil and subject to soil formation processes. It exists at the interface of the lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere. Currently the total arable land is 13.31% of the land surface, with only 4.71% supporting permanent crops. Close to 40% of the Earth's land surface is presently used for cropland and pasture, or an estimated 1.3 km² of cropland and 3.4 km² of pastureland. The elevation of the land surface of the Earth varies from the low point of −418 m at the Dead Sea, to a 2005-estimated maximum altitude of 8,848 m at the top of Mount Everest. The mean height of land above sea level is 840 m. Hydrosphere The abundance of water on Earth's surface is a unique feature that distinguishes the "Blue Planet" from others in the Solar System. The Earth's hydrosphere consists chiefly of the oceans, but technically includes all water surfaces in the world, including inland seas, lakes, rivers, and underground waters down to a depth of 2,000 m. The deepest underwater location is Challenger Deep of the Mariana Trench in the Pacific Ocean with a depth of −10,911.4 m. This is the measurement taken by the vessel Kaikō in March 1995 and is believed to be the most accurate measurement to date. See the Challenger Deep article for more details. The average depth of the oceans is 3,800 m, more than four times the average height of the continents. The mass of the oceans is approximately 1.35 metric tons, or about 1/4400 of the total mass of the Earth, and occupies a volume of 1.386 km3. If all of the land on Earth were spread evenly, water would rise to an altitude of more than 2.7 km. The total volume of the Earth's oceans is: 1.4 km3. The total surface area of the Earth is 5.1 km². So, to first approximation, the average depth would be the ratio of the two, or 2.7 km. About 97.5% of the water is saline, while the remaining 2.5% is fresh water. The majority of the fresh water, about 68.7%, is currently in the form of ice. About 3.5% of the total mass of the oceans consists of salt. Most of this salt was released from volcanic activity or extracted from cool, igneous rocks. The oceans are also a reservoir of dissolved atmospheric gases, which are essential for the survival of many aquatic life forms. Sea water has an important influence on the world's climate, with the oceans acting as a large heat reservoir. Shifts in the oceanic temperature distribution can cause significant weather shifts, such as the El Niño-Southern Oscillation. Atmosphere The atmospheric pressure on the surface of the Earth averages 101.325 kPa, with a scale height of about 8.5 km. It is 78% nitrogen and 21% oxygen, with trace amounts of water vapor, carbon dioxide and other gaseous molecules. The height of the troposphere varies with latitude, ranging between 8 km at the poles to 17 km at the equator, with some variation due to weather and seasonal factors. Earth's biosphere has significantly altered its atmosphere. Oxygenic photosynthesis evolved 2.7 billion years ago, forming the primarily nitrogen-oxygen atmosphere that exists today. This change enabled the proliferation of aerobic organisms as well as the formation of the ozone layer which, together with Earth's magnetic field, blocks ultraviolet solar radiation, permitting life on land. Other atmospheric functions important to life on Earth include transporting water vapor, providing useful gases, causing small meteors to burn up before they strike the surface, and moderating temperature. This last phenomenon is known as the greenhouse effect: trace molecules within the atmosphere serve to capture thermal energy emitted from the ground, thereby raising the average temperature. Carbon dioxide, water vapor, methane and ozone are the primary greenhouse gases in the Earth's atmosphere. Without this heat-retention effect, the average surface temperature would be −18 °C and life would likely not exist. Weather and climate The Earth's atmosphere has no definite boundary, slowly becoming thinner and fading into outer space. Three-quarters of the atmosphere's mass is contained within the first 11 km of the planet's surface. This lowest layer is called the troposphere. Energy from the Sun heats this layer, and the surface below, causing expansion of the air. This lower density air then rises, and is replaced by cooler, higher density air. The result is atmospheric circulation that drives the weather and climate through redistribution of heat energy. The primary atmospheric circulation bands consist of the trade winds in the equatorial region below 30° latitude and the westerlies in the mid-latitudes between 30° and 60°. Ocean currents are also important factors in determining climate, particularly the thermohaline circulation that distributes heat energy from the equatorial oceans to the polar regions. Water vapor generated through surface evaporation is transported by circulatory patterns in the atmosphere. When atmospheric conditions permit an uplift of warm, humid air, this water condenses and settles to the surface as precipitation. Most of the water is then transported back to lower elevations by river systems, usually returning to the oceans or being deposited into lakes. This water cycle is a vital mechanism for supporting life on land, and is a primary factor in the erosion of surface features over geological periods. Precipitation patterns vary widely, ranging from several meters of water per year to less than a millimeter. Atmospheric circulation, topological features and temperature differences determine the average precipitation that falls in each region. The Earth can be sub-divided into specific latitudinal belts of approximately homogeneous climate. Ranging from the equator to the polar regions, these are the tropical (or equatorial), subtropical, temperate and polar climates. Climate can also be classified based on the temperature and precipitation, with the climate regions characterized by fairly uniform air masses. The commonly used Köppen climate classification system (as modified by Wladimir Köppen's student Rudolph Geiger) has five broad groups (humid tropics, arid, humid middle latitudes, continental and cold polar), which are further divided into more specific subtypes. Upper atmosphere [[File:Full moon partially obscured by atmosphere.jpg|thumb|right|300px|This view from orbit shows the full Moon partially obscured by the Earth's atmosphere. NASA image.]] Above the troposphere, the atmosphere is usually divided into the stratosphere, mesosphere, and thermosphere. Each of these layers has a different lapse rate, defining the rate of change in temperature with height. Beyond these, the exosphere thins out into the magnetosphere. This is where the Earth's magnetic fields interact with the solar wind. An important part of the atmosphere for life on Earth is the ozone layer, a component of the stratosphere that partially shields the surface from ultraviolet light. The Kármán line, defined as 100 km above the Earth's surface, is a working definition for the boundary between atmosphere and space. Due to thermal energy, some of the molecules at the outer edge of the Earth's atmosphere have their velocity increased to the point where they can escape from the planet's gravity. This results in a slow but steady leakage of the atmosphere into space. Because unfixed hydrogen has a low molecular weight, it can achieve escape velocity more readily and it leaks into outer space at a greater rate than other gasses. The leakage of hydrogen into space is a contributing factor in pushing the Earth from an initially reducing state to its current oxidizing one. Photosynthesis provided a source of free oxygen, but the loss of reducing agents such as hydrogen is believed to have been a necessary precondition for the widespread accumulation of oxygen in the atmosphere. Hence the ability of hydrogen to escape from the Earth's atmosphere may have influenced the nature of life that developed on the planet. In the current, oxygen-rich atmosphere most hydrogen is converted into water before it has an opportunity to escape. Instead, most of the hydrogen loss comes from the destruction of methane in the upper atmosphere. Magnetic field The Earth's magnetic field is shaped roughly as a magnetic dipole, with the poles currently located proximate to the planet's geographic poles. According to dynamo theory, the field is generated within the molten outer core region where heat creates convection motions of conducting materials, generating electric currents. These in turn produce the Earth's magnetic field. The convection movements in the core are chaotic in nature, and periodically change alignment. This results in field reversals at irregular intervals averaging a few times every million years. The most recent reversal occurred approximately 700,000 years ago. The field forms the magnetosphere, which deflects particles in the solar wind. The sunward edge of the bow shock is located at about 13 times the radius of the Earth. The collision between the magnetic field and the solar wind forms the Van Allen radiation belts, a pair of concentric, torus-shaped regions of energetic charged particles. When the plasma enters the Earth's atmosphere at the magnetic poles, it forms the aurora. Orbit and rotation Rotation Earth's rotation period relative to the Sun—its mean solar day—is 86,400 seconds of mean solar time. Each of these seconds is slightly longer than an second because Earth's solar day is now slightly longer than it was during the 19th century due to tidal acceleration. Earth's rotation period relative to the fixed stars, called its stellar day by the International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service (IERS), is of mean solar time (UT1), or Aoki, the ultimate source of these figures, uses the term "seconds of UT1" instead of "seconds of mean solar time".— Earth's rotation period relative to the precessing or moving mean vernal equinox, misnamed its sidereal day, is of mean solar time (UT1) . Thus the sidereal day is shorter than the stellar day by about 8.4 ms. The length of the mean solar day in SI seconds is available from the IERS for the periods 1623–2005 —Graph at end. and 1962–2005. Apart from meteors within the atmosphere and low-orbiting satellites, the main apparent motion of celestial bodies in the Earth's sky is to the west at a rate of 15°/h = 15'/min. This is equivalent to an apparent diameter of the Sun or Moon every two minutes; the apparent sizes of the Sun and the Moon are approximately the same. —See the apparent diameters on the Sun and Moon pages. Orbit Earth orbits the Sun at an average distance of about 150 million kilometers every 365.2564 mean solar days, or one sidereal year. From Earth, this gives an apparent movement of the Sun eastward with respect to the stars at a rate of about 1°/day, or a Sun or Moon diameter every 12 hours. Because of this motion, on average it takes 24 hours—a solar day—for Earth to complete a full rotation about its axis so that the Sun returns to the meridian. The orbital speed of the Earth averages about 30 km/s (108,000 km/h), which is fast enough to cover the planet's diameter (about 12,600 km) in seven minutes, and the distance to the Moon (384,000 km) in four hours. The Moon revolves with the Earth around a common barycenter every 27.32 days relative to the background stars. When combined with the Earth–Moon system's common revolution around the Sun, the period of the synodic month, from new moon to new moon, is 29.53 days. Viewed from the celestial north pole, the motion of Earth, the Moon and their axial rotations are all counter-clockwise. Viewed from a vantage point above the north poles of both the Sun and the Earth, the Earth appears to revolve in a counterclockwise direction about the Sun. The orbital and axial planes are not precisely aligned: Earth's axis is tilted some 23.5 degrees from the perpendicular to the Earth–Sun plane, and the Earth–Moon plane is tilted about 5 degrees against the Earth-Sun plane. Without this tilt, there would be an eclipse every two weeks, alternating between lunar eclipses and solar eclipses. The Hill sphere, or gravitational sphere of influence, of the Earth is about 1.5 Gm (or 1,500,000 kilometers) in radius. For the Earth, the Hill radius is , where m is the mass of the Earth, a is an Astronomical Unit, and M is the mass of the Sun. So the radius in A.U. is about: . This is maximum distance at which the Earth's gravitational influence is stronger than the more distant Sun and planets. Objects must orbit the Earth within this radius, or they can become unbound by the gravitational perturbation of the Sun. Earth, along with the Solar System, is situated in the Milky Way galaxy, orbiting about 28,000 light years from the center of the galaxy. It is currently about 20 light years above the galaxy's equatorial plane in the Orion spiral arm. Axial tilt and seasons Because of the axial tilt of the Earth, the amount of sunlight reaching any given point on the surface varies over the course of the year. This results in seasonal change in climate, with summer in the northern hemisphere occurring when the North Pole is pointing toward the Sun, and winter taking place when the pole is pointed away. During the summer, the day lasts longer and the Sun climbs higher in the sky. In winter, the climate becomes generally cooler and the days shorter. Above the Arctic Circle, an extreme case is reached where there is no daylight at all for part of the year—a polar night. In the southern hemisphere the situation is exactly reversed, with the South Pole oriented opposite the direction of the North Pole. By astronomical convention, the four seasons are determined by the solstices—the point in the orbit of maximum axial tilt toward or away from the Sun—and the equinoxes, when the direction of the tilt and the direction to the Sun are perpendicular. Winter solstice occurs on about December 21, summer solstice is near June 21, spring equinox is around March 20 and autumnal equinox is about September 23. The angle of the Earth's tilt is relatively stable over long periods of time. However, the tilt does undergo nutation; a slight, irregular motion with a main period of 18.6 years. The orientation (rather than the angle) of the Earth's axis also changes over time, precessing around in a complete circle over each 25,800 year cycle; this precession is the reason for the difference between a sidereal year and a tropical year. Both of these motions are caused by the varying attraction of the Sun and Moon on the Earth's equatorial bulge. From the perspective of the Earth, the poles also migrate a few meters across the surface. This polar motion has multiple, cyclical components, which collectively are termed quasiperiodic motion. In addition to an annual component to this motion, there is a 14-month cycle called the Chandler wobble. The rotational velocity of the Earth also varies in a phenomenon known as length of day variation. In modern times, Earth's perihelion occurs around January 3, and the aphelion around July 4. However, these dates change over time due to precession and other orbital factors, which follow cyclical patterns known as Milankovitch cycles. The changing Earth-Sun distance results in an increase of about 6.9% Aphelion is 103.4% of the distance to perihelion. Due to the inverse square law, the radiation at perihelion is about 106.9% the energy at aphelion. in solar energy reaching the Earth at perihelion relative to aphelion. Since the southern hemisphere is tilted toward the Sun at about the same time that the Earth reaches the closest approach to the Sun, the southern hemisphere receives slightly more energy from the Sun than does the northern over the course of a year. However, this effect is much less significant than the total energy change due to the axial tilt, and most of the excess energy is absorbed by the higher proportion of water in the southern hemisphere. Moon + Characteristics Diameter 3,474.8 km2,159.2 mi Mass 7.349 kg8.1 (short) tons Semi-major axis 384,400 km238,700 mi Orbital period 27 d 7 h 43.7 m The Moon is a relatively large, terrestrial, planet-like satellite, with a diameter about one-quarter of the Earth's. It is the largest moon in the Solar System relative to the size of its planet. (Charon is larger relative to the dwarf planet Pluto.) The natural satellites orbiting other planets are called "moons" after Earth's Moon. The gravitational attraction between the Earth and Moon causes tides on Earth. The same effect on the Moon has led to its tidal locking: its rotation period is the same as the time it takes to orbit the Earth. As a result, it always presents the same face to the planet. As the Moon orbits Earth, different parts of its face are illuminated by the Sun, leading to the lunar phases; the dark part of the face is separated from the light part by the solar terminator. Because of their tidal interaction, the Moon recedes from Earth at the rate of approximately 38 mm a year. Over millions of years, these tiny modifications—and the lengthening of Earth's day by about 23 µs a year—add up to significant changes. During the Devonian period, for example, (approximately 410 million years ago) there were 400 days in a year, with each day lasting 21.8 hours. The Moon may have dramatically affected the development of life by moderating the planet's climate. Paleontological evidence and computer simulations show that Earth's axial tilt is stabilized by tidal interactions with the Moon. Some theorists believe that without this stabilization against the torques applied by the Sun and planets to the Earth's equatorial bulge, the rotational axis might be chaotically unstable, exhibiting chaotic changes over millions of years, as appears to be the case for Mars. If Earth's axis of rotation were to approach the plane of the ecliptic, extremely severe weather could result from the resulting extreme seasonal differences. One pole would be pointed directly toward the Sun during summer and directly away during winter. Planetary scientists who have studied the effect claim that this might kill all large animal and higher plant life. However, this is a controversial subject, and further studies of Mars—which has a similar rotation period and axial tilt as Earth, but not its large Moon or liquid core—may settle the matter. Viewed from Earth, the Moon is just far enough away to have very nearly the same apparent-sized disk as the Sun. The angular size (or solid angle) of these two bodies match because, although the Sun's diameter is about 400 times as large as the Moon's, it is also 400 times more distant. This allows total and annular eclipses to occur on Earth. The most widely accepted theory of the Moon's origin, the giant impact theory, states that it formed from the collision of a Mars-size protoplanet called Theia with the early Earth. This hypothesis explains (among other things) the Moon's relative lack of iron and volatile elements, and the fact that its composition is nearly identical to that of the Earth's crust. Earth has at least two co-orbital asteroids, 3753 Cruithne and 2002 AA29. Habitability A planet that can sustain life is termed habitable, even if life did not originate there. The Earth provides the (currently understood) requisite conditions of liquid water, an environment where complex organic molecules can assemble, and sufficient energy to sustain metabolism. The distance of the Earth from the Sun, as well as its orbital eccentricity, rate of rotation, axial tilt, geological history, sustaining atmosphere and protective magnetic field all contribute to the conditions necessary to originate and sustain life on this planet. Biosphere The planet's life forms are sometimes said to form a "biosphere". This biosphere is generally believed to have begun evolving about 3.5 billion years ago. Earth is the only place in the universe where life is known to exist. Some scientists believe that Earth-like biospheres might be rare. The biosphere is divided into a number of biomes, inhabited by broadly similar plants and animals. On land primarily latitude and height above the sea level separates biomes. Terrestrial biomes lying within the Arctic, Antarctic Circle or in high altitudes are relatively barren of plant and animal life, while the greatest latitudinal diversity of species is found at the Equator. Natural resources and land use The Earth provides resources that are exploitable by humans for useful purposes. Some of these are non-renewable resources, such as mineral fuels, that are difficult to replenish on a short time scale. Large deposits of fossil fuels are obtained from the Earth's crust, consisting of coal, petroleum, natural gas and methane clathrate. These deposits are used by humans both for energy production and as feedstock for chemical production. Mineral ore bodies have also been formed in Earth's crust through a process of Ore genesis, resulting from actions of erosion and plate tectonics. These bodies form concentrated sources for many metals and other useful elements. The Earth's biosphere produces many useful biological products for humans, including (but far from limited to) food, wood, pharmaceuticals, oxygen, and the recycling of many organic wastes. The land-based ecosystem depends upon topsoil and fresh water, and the oceanic ecosystem depends upon dissolved nutrients washed down from the land. Humans also live on the land by using building materials to construct shelters. In 1993, human use of land is approximately: Land usePercentage Arable land: 13.13% Permanent crops: 4.71% Permanent pastures: 26% Forests and woodland: 32% Urban areas: 1.5% Other: 30% The estimated amount of irrigated land in 1993 was 2,481,250 km². Natural and environmental hazards Large areas are subject to extreme weather such as tropical cyclones, hurricanes, or typhoons that dominate life in those areas. Many places are subject to earthquakes, landslides, tsunamis, volcanic eruptions, tornadoes, sinkholes, blizzards, floods, droughts, and other calamities and disasters. Many localized areas are subject to human-made pollution of the air and water, acid rain and toxic substances, loss of vegetation (overgrazing, deforestation, desertification), loss of wildlife, species extinction, soil degradation, soil depletion, erosion, and introduction of invasive species. A scientific consensus exists linking human activities to global warming due to industrial carbon dioxide emissions. This is predicted to produce changes such as the melting of glaciers and ice sheets, more extreme temperature ranges, significant changes in weather conditions and a global rise in average sea levels. Human geography Cartography, the study and practice of map making, and vicariously geography, have historically been the disciplines devoted to depicting the Earth. Surveying, the determination of locations and distances, and to a lesser extent navigation, the determination of position and direction, have developed alongside cartography and geography, providing and suitably quantifying the requisite information. Earth has approximately 6,740,000,000 human inhabitants as of November 2008. Projections indicate that the world's human population will reach seven billion in 2013 and 9.2 billion in 2050. Most of the growth is expected to take place in developing nations. Human population density varies widely around the world, but a majority live in Asia. By 2020, 60% of the world's population is expected to be living in urban, rather than rural, areas. It is estimated that only one eighth of the surface of the Earth is suitable for humans to live on—three-quarters is covered by oceans, and half of the land area is either desert (14%), high mountains (27%), or other less suitable terrain. The northernmost permanent settlement in the world is Alert, on Ellesmere Island in Nunavut, Canada. (82°28′N) The southernmost is the Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station, in Antarctica, almost exactly at the South Pole. (90°S) Independent sovereign nations claim the planet's entire land surface, with the exception of some parts of Antarctica. As of 2007 there are 201 sovereign states, including the 192 United Nations member states. In addition, there are 59 dependent territories, and a number of autonomous areas, territories under dispute and other entities. Historically, Earth has never had a sovereign government with authority over the entire globe, although a number of nation-states have striven for world domination and failed. The United Nations is a worldwide intergovernmental organization that was created with the goal of intervening in the disputes between nations, thereby avoiding armed conflict. It is not, however, a world government. While the U.N. provides a mechanism for international law and, when the consensus of the membership permits, armed intervention, it serves primarily as a forum for international diplomacy. The first human to orbit the Earth was Yuri Gagarin on April 12, 1961. In total, about 400 people visited outer space and reached Earth orbit as of 2004, and, of these, twelve have walked on the Moon. Normally the only humans in space are those on the International Space Station. The station's crew of three people is usually replaced every six months. Humans traveled the farthest from the planet in 1970, when Apollo 13 crew was 400,171 km away from Earth. Cultural viewpoint The name "Earth" was derived from the Anglo-Saxon word erda, which means ground or soil. It became eorthe in Old English, then erthe'' in Middle English. The standard astronomical symbol of the Earth consists of a cross circumscribed by a circle. Earth has often been personified as a deity, in particular a goddess. In many cultures the mother goddess, also called the Mother Earth, is also portrayed as a fertility deity. Creation myths in many religions recall a story involving the creation of the Earth by a supernatural deity or deities. A variety of religious groups, often associated with fundamentalist branches of Protestantism or Islam, assert that their interpretations of these creation myths in sacred texts are literal truth and should be considered alongside or replace conventional scientific accounts of the formation of the Earth and the origin and development of life. Such assertions are opposed by the scientific community Science, Evolution, and Creationism National Academy Press, Washington, DC 2005 and other religious groups. A prominent example is the creation-evolution controversy. In the past there were varying levels of belief in a flat Earth, ; but see also Cosmas Indicopleustes but this was displaced by the concept of a spherical Earth due to observation and circumnavigation. The human perspective regarding the Earth has changed following the advent of spaceflight, and the biosphere is now widely viewed from a globally integrated perspective. This is reflected in a growing environmental movement that is concerned about humankind's effects on the planet. For example: See also List of Earth-related topics Topic outline of Earth science List of Earth science topics Topic outline of geography List of geography topics Topic outline of geology List of geology topics Eratosthenes#Eratosthenes' measurement of the Earth's circumference Notes References Bibliography External links USGS Geomagnetism Program NASA Earth Observatory Earth Profile by NASA's Solar System Exploration Climate changes cause Earth's shape to change - NASA The Gateway to Astronaut Photography of Earth be-x-old:Зямля | Earth |@lemmatized earth:171 pronounce:1 third:2 planet:49 sun:50 large:18 terrestrial:7 solar:29 system:13 term:7 diameter:11 mass:18 density:6 also:18 refer:1 world:11 terra:2 note:2 international:5 astronomical:4 union:1 convention:2 use:10 name:2 extensive:1 land:21 rather:4 cf:1 home:1 million:19 specie:4 include:14 human:20 place:7 universe:3 life:36 know:8 exist:10 form:32 billion:16 year:52 ago:15 appear:4 surface:43 within:14 since:4 biosphere:12 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5,202 | Administrative_law | Administrative law in the United States often relates to, or arises from, so-called "independent agencies"- such as the Federal Trade Commission ("FTC"). Here is FTC's headquarters in Washington D.C. Administrative law is the body of law that governs the activities of administrative agencies of government. Government agency action can include rulemaking, adjudication, or the enforcement of a specific regulatory agenda. Administrative law is considered a branch of public law. As a body of law, administrative law deals with the decision-making of administrative units of government (e.g., tribunals, boards or commissions) that are part of a national regulatory scheme in such areas as police law, international trade, manufacturing, the environment, taxation, broadcasting, immigration and transport. Administrative law expanded greatly during the twentieth century, as legislative bodies worldwide created more government agencies to regulate the increasingly complex social, economic and political spheres of human interaction. Taxation decisions are the decisions based on administrative law that are most often contested in courts. Civil law countries often have specialized courts, administrative courts, that review these decisions. Administrative law in common law countries Generally speaking, most countries that follow the principles of common law have developed procedures for judicial review that limit the reviewability of decisions made by administrative law bodies. Often these procedures are coupled with legislation or other common law doctrines that establish standards for proper rulemaking. Administrative law may also apply to review of decisions of so-called semi-public bodies, such as non-profit corporations, disciplinary boards, and other decision-making bodies that affect the legal rights of members of a particular group or entity. While administrative decision-making bodies are often controlled by larger governmental units, their decisions could be reviewed by a court of general jurisdiction under some principle of judicial review based upon due process (United States) or fundamental justice (Canada). Judicial review of administrative decisions, it must be noted, is different from an appeal. When sitting in review of a decision, the Court will only look at the method in which the decision was arrived at, whereas in appeal the correctness of the decision itself will be under question. This difference is vital in appreciating administrative law in common law countries. The scope of judicial review may be limited to certain questions of fairness, or whether the administrative action is ultra vires. In terms of ultra vires actions in the broad sense, a reviewing court may set aside an administrative decision if it is unreasonable (under Canadian law, following the rejection of the "Patently Unreasonable" standard by the Supreme Court in Dunsmuir v. New Brunswick), Wednesbury unreasonable (under British law), or arbitrary and capricious (under U.S. Administrative Procedure Act and New York State law). Administrative law, as laid down by the Supreme Court of India, has also recognized two more grounds of judicial review which were recognized but not applied by English Courts viz. legitimate expectation and proportionality. The powers to review administrative decisions are usually established by statute, but were originally developed from the royal prerogative writs of English law, such as the writ of mandamus and the writ of certiorari. In certain Common Law jurisdictions, such as India or Pakistan, the power to pass such writs is a Constitutionally guaranteed power. This power is seen as fundamental to the power of judicial review and an aspect of the independent judiciary. United States In the United States, many government agencies are organized under the executive branch of government, although a few are part of the judicial or legislative branches. In the federal government, the executive branch, led by the president, controls the federal executive departments, which are led by secretaries who are members of the United States Cabinet. The many important independent agencies of the United States government created by statutes enacted by the Congress that are exist outside of the federal executive departments but are still part of the executive branch. Congress has also created some special judicial bodies known as Article I tribunals to handle some areas of administrative law. The actions of executive agencies and independent agencies are the main focus of American administrative law. In response to the rapid creation of new independent agencies in the early twentieth century (see discussion below), Congress enacted the Administrative Procedure Act (APA) in 1946. Many of the independent agencies operate as miniature versions of the tripartite federal government, with the authority to "legislate" (through rulemaking; see Federal Register and Code of Federal Regulations), "adjudicate" (through administrative hearings), and to "execute" administrative goals (through agency enforcement personnel). Because the United States Constitution sets no limits on this tripartite authority of administrative agencies, Congress enacted the APA to establish fair administrative law procedures to comply with the constitutional requirements of due process. The American Bar Association's official journal concerning administrative law is Administrative Law Review. Historical development Stephen Breyer, a U.S. Supreme Court Justice since 1994, divides the history of administrative law in the United States into six discrete periods, according to his book, Administrative Law & Regulatory Policy (3d Ed., 1992): English antecedents & the American experience to 1875 1875 - 1930: the rise of regulation & the traditional model of administrative law The New Deal 1945 - 1965: the Administrative Procedure Act & the maturation of the traditional model of administrative law 1965 - 1985: critique and transformation of the administrative process 1985 - ?: retreat or consolidation Administrative law in civil law countries Unlike most Common-law jurisdictions, the majority of civil law jurisdictions have specialized courts or sections to deal with administrative cases which, as a rule, will apply procedural rules specifically designed for such cases and different from that applied in private-law proceedings, such as contract or tort claims. France In France, most claims against the national or local governments are handled by administrative courts, which use the Conseil d'État (State Council) as a court of last resort. The main administrative courts are the "Tribunaux Administratifs" and appeal courts are the "Cours Administratives d'Appel". Germany In Germany, the highest administrative court for most matters is the federal administrative court Bundesverwaltungsgericht. There are federal courts with special jurisdiction in the fields of social security law (Bundessozialgericht) and tax law (Bundesfinanzhof). The Netherlands In The Netherlands, administrative law provisions are usually contained in separate laws. There is however a single General Administrative Law Act ("Algemene wet bestuursrecht" or Awb) that applies both to the making of administrative decisions and the judicial review of these decisions in courts. On the basis of the Awb, citizens can oppose a decision ('besluit') made by a public body ('bestuursorgaan') within the administration and apply for judicial review in courts if unsuccessful. Unlike France or Germany, there are no special administrative courts of first instance in the Netherlands, but regular courts have an administrative "chamber" which specializes in administrative appeals. The courts of appeal in administrative cases however are specialized depending on the case, but most administrative appeals end up in the judicial section of the Council of State (Raad van State). In addition to the system described above there is another part of administrative law which is called "administratief beroep" (administrative appeal). This procedure is available only if the law on which the primary decision is based specifically provides for it and involves an appeal to a higher ranking administrative body. If administrative appeal is available, no appeal to the judicial system may be made. Sweden In Sweden, there is a system of general administrative courts which only handles administrative law cases, and which is completely separate from the system of general courts. The Swedish courts, accessed on February 20, 2009 This system has three tiers, with 23 county administrative courts (länsrätt) as the first tier, four administrative courts of appeal (kammarrätt) as the second tier, and the Supreme Administrative Court of Sweden (Regeringsrätten) as the third tier. Migration cases are handled in a two-tier system, effectively within the system general administrative courts. Three of the county administrative courts serve as migration courts (migrationsdomstol) with the Administrative Court of Appeal in Stockholm serving as the Migration Court of Appeal (Migrationsöverdomstolen). Brazil In Brazil, unlike most Civil-law jurisdictions, there is no specialized court or section to deal with administrative cases. In 1998, a constitutional reform, lead by the government of the President Fernando Henrique Cardoso, introduced regulatory agencies as a part of the executive branch. Since 1988, Brazilian administrative law has been strongly influenced by the judicial interpretations of the constitutional principles of public administration (art. 37 of Federal Constitution): legality, impersonality, publicity of administrative acts, morality and efficiency. Chile The President of the Republic exercises the administrative function, in collaboration with several Ministries or other authorities with ministerial rank. Each Ministry has one or more sub secretaries which perform through public services the actual satisfaction of public needs. All Ministries and public services have a body of workers or administrative personnel (funcionarios públicos), but with different contractual statutes. Public entities act through administrative procedures, that is, processes with formal stages where opportunities to deliver evidence and exercise appeals are granted to the citizens. The recent basic law of administrative procedures deals with most of the general matters pertaining the administrative procedures of all public entities. There is no specialized court to deal with actions against the Administrative entities, but the civil courts have jurisdiction over all matter that are not in the scope of other court, such as public liability and the overturn of single administrative acts. People's Republic of China Administrative law in the People's Republic of China was virtually non-existent before the economic reform era initiated by Deng Xiaoping. Since the 1980s, the People's Republic of China has constructed a new legal framework for administrative law, establishing control mechanisms for overseeing the bureaucracy and disciplinary committees for the Communist Party of China. However, many have argued that the usefulness of these laws are vastly inferior in terms of controlling government actions, largely because of institutional and systemic obstacles like a weak judiciary, poorly trained judges and lawyers, and corruption. In 1990, the Administrative Supervision Regulations (行政检查条例) and the Administrative Reconsideration Regulations (行政复议条例) were passed. Both regulations have since been amended and upgraded into laws. The 1993 State Civil Servant Provisional Regulations (国家公务员暂行条例) changed the way government officials were selected and promoted, requiring that they pass exams and yearly appraisals, and introduced a rotation system. In 1994, the State Compensation Law (国家赔偿法) was passed, followed by the Administrative Penalties Law (行政处罚法) in 1996. References See also Constitutional law Further reading Davis, Kenneth Culp (1975). Administrative Law and Government. 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5,203 | Economy_of_Botswana | Since independence, Botswana has had the highest average economic growth rate in the world, averaging about 9% per year from 1966 to 1999. Growth in private sector employment has averaged about 10% per annum over the first 30 years of independence. The relatively high quality of the country's statistics means that these figures are likely to be quite accurate. The government has consistently maintained budget surpluses and has extensive foreign exchange reserves. 1980s 2 pula note Botswana's impressive economic record has been built on a foundation of diamond mining, prudent fiscal policies, international financial and technical assistance, and a cautious foreign policy. It is rated the least corrupt country in Africa, according to an international corruption watchdog, Transparency International. By one estimate, it has the fourth highest gross national income at purchasing power parity in Africa, giving it a standard of living around that of Mexico and Turkey GNI PPP table . Trade unions represent a minority of workers in the Botswana economy. In general they are loosely organized "in-house" unions, although the Botswana Federation of Trade Unions (BFTU) is consolidating its role as the sole national trade union centre in the country. Overview Agriculture still provides a livelihood for more than 80% of the population but supplies only about 50% of food needs and accounts for only 3% of GDP. Subsistence farming and cattle raising predominate. The sector is plagued by erratic rainfall and poor soils. Tourism is also important to the economy. Substantial mineral deposits were found in the 1970s and the mining sector grew from 25% of GDP in 1980 to 38% in 1998. Unemployment officially is 21% but unofficial estimates place it closer to 40%. The Orapa 2000 project doubled the capacity of the country's main diamond mine from early 2000. This will be the main force behind continued economic expansion. Some of Botswana's budget deficits can be traced to relatively high military expenditures (about 4% of GDP in 2004, according to the CIA World Factbook). Some critics contend this is unnecessary, given the low likelihood of international conflict, but these troops are also used for multilateral operations and assistance efforts. Trade Botswana is part of the Southern African Customs Union (SACU) with South Africa, Lesotho, Swaziland, and Namibia. The World Bank reports that in 2001 (the most recent year for which World Bank data are available), the SACU had a weighted average common external tariff rate of 3.6 percent. According to the U.S. Department of Commerce, "There are very few tariff or non-tariff barriers to trade with Botswana, apart from restrictions on licensing for some business operations, which are reserved for [Botswana] companies." Based on the revised trade factor methodology, Botswana's trade policy score is unchanged. Botswana and WTO The main export of Botswana is diamonds. Jwaneng, in Botswana, is the world's largest and richest diamond mine thus the demand of diamonds from Botswana is fairly high. The mine was discovered when termites looking for water brought grains of diamond to the surface. If the great demand of diamonds were to go into rapid decline, then the economy of Botswana would suffer greatly as they are highly dependent on this export. The diamond mine in Jwaneng provides many jobs for the unemployed in Botswana as people are needed to physically extract the diamonds, and to build the roads needed for their transport, for example. A source of foreign exchange is also introduced to the economy and it offers a potential basis for industrial development, and thus stimulates improvements within Botswana's infrastructure. Mining Two large mining companies, Debswana (formed by the government and South Africa's De Beers in equal partnership) and Bamangwato Concessions, Ltd. (BCL, also with substantial government equity participation) operate in the country. The Jwaneng diamond mine is the richest in the world today.Since the early 1980s, the country has been the world's largest producer of gem diamonds. Four large diamond mines have opened since independence. De Beers prospectors discovered diamonds in northern Botswana in the early 1970s. The first mine began production at Orapa in 1972, followed by the smaller mine at Letlhakane. What has become the single-richest diamond mine in the world opened in Jwaneng in 1982. In 2002, a fourth diamond mine, Damtshaa, began operations. Botswana produced a total over 30 million carats (6,000 kg) of diamonds (about 25% of worldwide production) from the three Debswana mines in 1999, and is the highest producer of diamonds by value in the world. The Orapa 2000 Expansion of the existing Orapa mine was opened in 2000. A fifth diamond mine and the first not operated by Debswana is scheduled to begin operations in 2008 in Lerala. Most (70%) of Botswana's electricity is imported from South Africa's Eskom. 80% of domestic production is concentrated in one plant, Morupule Power Station near Palapye. Debswana operates the nearby Morupule Colliery to supply coal to it. BCL, which operates a copper-nickel mine at Selebi-Phikwe, has had a troubled financial history but remains an important employer. The soda ash operation at Sua Pan, opened in 1991 and supported by substantial government investment, has begun making a profit following significant restructuring. Tourism A giraffe in the Central Kalahari Game ReserveTourism is an increasingly important industry in Botswana, accounting for almost 12% of GDP. One of the world's unique ecosystems, the Okavango Delta, is located in Botswana. The country offers excellent game viewing and birding both in the Delta and in the Chobe Game Reserve—home to one of the largest herds of free-ranging elephants in the world. Botswana's Central Kalahari Game Reserve also offers good game viewing and some of the most remote and unspoiled wilderness in southern Africa. Tourism plays a large role in the Botswana economy. A number of national parks and game reserves, with their abundant wildlife and wetlands, are major tourist attractions. The wildlife, including lions, brown hyenas, cheetahs, leopards, wild dogs and antelope, were described in great detail in the best-selling book "Cry of the Kalahari" by Mark and Delia Owens. The main safari destinations for tourism are Moremi Game Reserve in the Okavango Delta, and Chobe National Park. Botswana is also participating in community based natural resource management projects by trying to involve villagers in tourism. One example is the village of Khwai and its Khwai Development Trust. Botswana was the setting for the 1980 movie The Gods Must Be Crazy, although the movie was mostly filmed in South Africa. The seventh season of the Amazing Race visited Botswana. Tourism has been stimulated by the series of detective novels by Alexander McCall Smith and the American dramatisation that followed them. Agriculture More than half of Batswana (preferred address of the Botswana people) live in rural areas and are dependent on subsistence crop and livestock farming, together with money sent home by relatives in urban areas. Agriculture meets only a small portion of food needs and contributes just 2.8% to GDP—primarily through beef exports—but it remains a social and cultural touchstone. Cattle raising dominated Botswana's social and economic life before independence. The Botswana Meat Commission has a monopoly on beef production. The national herd was about 2.5 million in the mid-1990s, though the government-ordered slaughter of the entire herd in Botswana's north-west Kgamiland District in 1995 has reduced the number by at least 200,000. The slaughter was ordered to prevent the spread of "cattle lung disease" to other parts of the country. Private sector development and foreign investment Botswana seeks to diversify its economy away from minerals, the earnings from which have levelled off. In 1998-99, non-mineral sectors of the economy grew at 8.9%, partially offsetting a slight 4.4% decline in the minerals sector. Foreign investment and management have been welcomed in Botswana. External investment in Botswana has grown fitfully. In the early 1990s, two American companies, Owens Corning and H.J. Heinz, made major investments in production facilities in Botswana. In 1997, the St. Paul Group purchased Botswana Insurance, one of the country's leading short-term insurance providers. An American Business Council (ABC), with over 30 member companies, was inaugurated in 1995. Hyundai operated a car assembly plant in Botswana from 1994 to 2000. The Government of Botswana - Economic Snapshot Tourist resort at Kasane Botswana seeks to further diversify its economy away from minerals, which account for a quarter of GDP, down from nearly half of GDP in the early 1990s. Foreign investment and management are welcomed in Botswana, and as a result, financial and services sectors have increased at an exponential rate in the 2000s to replace mining as the leading industry. Botswana abolished foreign exchange controls in 1999, has a low corporate tax rate (15%), no prohibitions on foreign ownership of companies, and a moderate inflation rate (7.6% November 2004). The Government of Botswana is currently considering additional policies to enhance competitiveness, including a new Foreign Direct Investment Strategy, Competition Policy, Privatisation Master Plan, and National Export Development Strategy. Botswana is known to have vast coal deposits making it possibly one of the most coal rich countries in the world. Large coal mines, massive coal fired power plants, as well as a coals to liquid plant (through the Fischer-Tropsch process) to produce synthetic automotive fuel have been planned. With its proven record of good economic governance, Botswana was ranked as Africa's least corrupt country by Transparency International in 2004, ahead of many European and Asian countries. The World Economic Forum rates Botswana as one of the two most economically competitive nations in Africa. In 2004 Botswana was once again assigned "A" grade credit ratings by Moody's and Standard & Poor's. This ranks Botswana as by far the best credit risk in Africa and puts it on par with or above many countries in central Europe, East Asia, and Latin America. U.S. investment in Botswana remains at relatively low levels, but continues to grow. Major U.S. corporations, such as H.J. Heinz and AON Corporation, are present through direct investments, while others, such as Kentucky Fried Chicken and Remax, are present via franchise. The sovereign credit ratings by Moody's and Standard & Poor's clearly indicate that, despite continued challenges such as small market size, landlocked location, and cumbersome bureaucratic processes, Botswana remains one of the best investment opportunities in the developing world. Botswana has a 90-member American Business Council that accepts membership from American-affiliated companies. Due to its history and geography, Botswana has long had deep ties to the economy of South Africa. The Southern Africa Customs Union (SACU), comprising Botswana, Lesotho, Swaziland, and South Africa, dates from 1910, and is the world’s oldest customs union. Namibia joined in 1990. Under this arrangement, South Africa has collected levies from customs, sales, and excise duties for all five members, sharing out proceeds based on each countries portion of imports. The exact formula for sharing revenues and the decision-making authority over duties—held exclusively by the Government of South Africa—became increasingly controversial, and the members renegotiated the arrangement in 2001. The new structure has now been formally ratified and a SACU Secretariat has been established in Windhoek, Namibia. Following South Africa's accession to the World Trade Organization (WTO), Botswana also joined; many of the SACU duties are thus declining, making products from outside the area more competitive in Botswana. Currently the SACU countries and the U.S. are negotiating a free trade agreement. Botswana is currently also negotiating a free trade agreement with Mercosur and an Economic Partnership Agreement with the European Union as part of SADC. Aerial view over Okavango Delta Botswana's currency, the pula, is fully convertible and is valued against a basket of currencies heavily weighted toward the South African Rand. Profits and direct investment can be repatriated without restriction from Botswana. The Botswana Government eliminated all exchange controls in 1999. The Central Bank devalued the Pula by 7.5% in February 2004 in a bid to maintain export competitiveness against the real appreciation of the Pula. There was a further 12% devaluation in May 2005 and the policy of a "Crawling peg" was adopted. Most (70%) of Botswana's electricity is imported from South Africa's Eskom. 80% of domestic production is concentrated in one plant, Morupule Power Station near Palapye. In early 2008, the entire southern African region was hit hard by massive shortages in power, since the region works to share its power resources through the Southern African Power Pool, with most of the capacity coming from South Africa. Botswana has in turn put in place plans through governmental expansion of the Morupule power station, as well as encouraging private investment in the form of a 4,000 megawatt power station by the Canadian Greenfield company CIC Energy to become a net exporter of power to the regional pool. Gaborone is host to the headquarters of the fourteen-nation Southern African Development Community (SADC), a successor to the Southern African Development Coordination Conference (SADCC, established in 1980), which focused its efforts on freeing regional economic development from dependence on apartheid South Africa. SADC embraced the newly democratic South Africa as a member in 1994 and has a broad mandate to encourage growth, development, and economic integration in Southern Africa. SADC's Trade Protocol, which was launched on 1 September 2000, calls for the elimination of all tariff and non-tariff barriers to trade by 2008 among the 11 signatory countries. If successful, it will give Botswana companies free access to the far larger regional market. SADC's failure to distance itself from the Mugabe government in Zimbabwe has diminished the number of opportunities for cooperation between the U.S. and SADC. Botswana has successfully carried an Action Programme on the Elimination of Child Labour, which was adopted in the period 2006-2007. Free the Children delisted Botswana as a nation harbouring child-labour facilities in 2008. Financial Sector Botswana has a growing financial sector, and the country's national stock market, the Botswana Stock Exchange, based in Gaborone, is given the responsibility to operate and regulate the equities and fixed interest securities market. Formally established in 1989, the BSE continues to be pivotal to Botswana’s financial system, and in particular the capital market, as an avenue on which government, quasi- government and the private sector can raise debt and equity capital. Although the BSE has just under 40 companies listed, it plays host to the most pre-eminent companies doing business in Botswana. These companies represent a spectrum of industries and commerce, from Banking and financial services to Wholesaling and Retailing, Tourism and Information Technology. To date, the BSE is one of Africa’s best performing stock exchanges, averaging 24% aggregate return in the past decade. This has allowed the BSE to be the third largest stock exchange in terms of market capitalization, in Southern Africa. Given Botswana's lack of exchange controls, stable currency and exceptionally performing stock market, the financial sector has attracted a host of global investors seeking better returns. Botswana's currency—the pula -- is fully convertible and is valued against a basket of currencies heavily weighted toward the South African rand. Profits and direct investment can be repatriated without restriction from Botswana. The Botswana Government has eliminated all exchange controls. Despite a 12% devaluation in May 2005, the pula remains one of the strongest currencies in Africa. Gaborone is host to the headquarters of the 14-nation Southern African Development Community (SADC). A successor to the Southern African Development Coordination Conference (SADCC), which focused its efforts on freeing regional economic development from dependence on apartheid in South Africa, SADC embraced the newly democratic South Africa as a member in 1994 and has a broad mandate to encourage growth, development, and economic integration in Southern Africa. SADC's Trade Protocol, which was launched on September 1, 2000, calls for the elimination of all tariff and non-tariff barriers to trade by 2012 among the 11 signatory countries. If successful, it will give Botswana companies free access to the far larger regional market. The Regional Center for Southern Africa (RCSA), which implements the U.S. Agency for International Development's (USAID) Initiative for Southern Africa (ISA), is headquartered in Gaborone as well. See also Botswana Economy of Africa Economy of South Africa List of Botswana companies List of South African companies South Africa References External links MBendi Botswana overview Debswana mine | Economy_of_Botswana |@lemmatized since:4 independence:4 botswana:74 high:6 average:5 economic:12 growth:4 rate:6 world:16 per:2 year:3 private:4 sector:11 employment:1 annum:1 first:3 relatively:3 quality:1 country:18 statistic:1 mean:1 figure:1 likely:1 quite:1 accurate:1 government:13 consistently:1 maintain:2 budget:2 surplus:1 extensive:1 foreign:9 exchange:9 reserve:6 pula:6 note:1 impressive:1 record:2 build:2 foundation:1 diamond:18 mining:5 prudent:1 fiscal:1 policy:6 international:6 financial:8 technical:1 assistance:2 cautious:1 rat:1 least:3 corrupt:2 africa:32 accord:3 corruption:1 watchdog:1 transparency:2 one:12 estimate:2 fourth:2 gross:1 national:7 income:1 purchase:2 power:10 parity:1 give:6 standard:3 living:1 around:1 mexico:1 turkey:1 gni:1 ppp:1 table:1 trade:14 union:8 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5,204 | Mississippi_John_Hurt | Mississippi John Hurt (July 3, 1893 National Park Service Encyclopedia Britannica or March 8, 1892 There is confusion about his date of birth, but the grave marker mentions this date. — November 2, 1966) was an influential blues singer and guitarist. He sang in a loud whisper, to a melodious finger-picked guitar accompaniment. Biography Born John Smith Hurt in Teoc, Lawrence Cohen 1996, inteview with John Hurt, liner notes, Avalon Blues: The Complete 1928 Okeh Recordings, Columbia/Legacy Carroll County, Mississippi and raised in Avalon, Mississippi, Hurt learned to play guitar at age 9. He spent much of his youth playing old time music for friends and dances, earning a living as a farm hand into the 1920s. In 1923 he partnered with the fiddle player Willie Narmour as a substitute for his regular partner Shell Smith. When Narmour got a chance to record for Okeh Records as a prize for winning first place in a 1928 fiddle contest, Narmour recommended John Hurt to Okeh Records producer Tommy Rockwell. After auditioning "Monday Morning Blues" at his home, he took part in two recording sessions, in Memphis and New York City (see Discography below). The "Mississippi" tag was added by Okeh as a sales gimmick. After the commercial failure of the resulting records, and Okeh Records going out of business during the Great Depression, Hurt returned to Avalon and obscurity, working as a sharecropper and playing local parties and dances. In 1963, however, a folk musicologist, Tom Hoskins, inspired by the recordings, was able to locate Hurt near Avalon, Mississippi. Tom Hoskins was able to find Mississippi John Hurt after listening to the lyrics of "Avalon Blues" and realizing it was written about a place called Avalon. Unable to find Avalon on a recent map, Hoskins searched older and older maps and eventually found it on an atlas from 1878 between Greenwood and Grenada Seeing that Hurt's guitar playing skills were still intact, Hoskins encouraged him to move to Washington, D.C., and begin performing on a wider stage. His performance at the 1964 Newport Folk Festival saw his star rise amongst the new folk revival audience. Before his death he played extensively in colleges, concert halls, coffee houses and also on the Tonight Show with Johnny Carson, as well as recording three further albums for Vanguard Records. The numbers his devotees particularly liked were the ragtime songs "Salty Dog" and "Candy Man", and the blues ballads "Spike Driver Blues" (a variant of "John Henry") and "Frankie". Hurt's influence spanned several music genres including blues, country, bluegrass, folk and contemporary rock and roll. A soft-spoken man, his nature was reflected in the work, which remained a mellow mix of country, blues and old time music to the end. Hurt died in November 1966 from a heart attack in Grenada, Mississippi. Thedeadrcokstarsclub.com - accessed May 2009 Tributes There is now a memorial in Avalon, Mississippi for Mississippi John Hurt. It is parallel to RR2, which is the rural road on which he grew up. American singer-songwriter Tom Paxton, who met Hurt and played on the same bill as him at the Gaslight in Greenwich Village around 1963, wrote and recorded a song about him in 1977 entitled "Did You Hear John Hurt?" Paxton still frequently plays this song at his live performances. Discography The Complete 1928 OKEH Recordings "Frankie" (3:21) February 24, 1928, Memphis "Nobody's Dirty Business" (2:52) February 24, 1928, Memphis "Ain't No Tellin'" (2:54) December 21, 1928, New York City "Louis Collins" (2:57) December 21, 1928, New York City "Avalon Blues" (3:01) December 21, 1928, New York City "Big Leg Blues" (2:50) December 21, 1928, New York City "Stack O' Lee" (2:55) December 28, 1928, New York City "Candy Man Blues" (2:44) December 28, 1928, New York City "Got The Blues (Can't Be Satisfied)" (2:49) December 28, 1928, New York City "Blessed Be The Name" (2:46) December 28, 1928, New York City "Praying On The Old Camp Ground" (2:35) December 28 1928, New York City "Blue Harvest Blues" (2:51) December 28, 1928 New York City "Spike Driver Blues" (3:13) December 28, 1928 New York City Last Sessions – 1966 (Vanguard) "Poor Boy, Long Ways From Home" "Boys, You're Welcome" "Joe Turner Blues" "First Shot Missed Him" "Farther Along" "Funky Butt" "Spider, Spider" "Waiting For You" "Shortnin' Bread" "Trouble, I've Had It All My Days" "Let The Mermaids Flirt With Me" "Good Morning, Carrie" "Nobody Cares For Me" "All Night Long" "Hey, Honey, Right Away" "You've Got To Die" "Goodnight Irene" Worried Blues (Piedmont PLP 13161, Piedmont Records) Side 1 "Lazy Blues" "Farther along" "Sliding delta" "Nobody Cares for Me" "Cow Hooking Blues" Side 2 "Talkin’ Casey Jones" "Weeping and Wailing" "Worried Blues" "Oh Mary Don’t You Weep" "I Been Cryin’ Since You Been Gone" Mississippi John Hurt Today (VSD-79220, Vanguard Records) Side 1 "Payday" "I'm Satisfied" "Candy Man" "Make Me a Pallet on the Floor" "Talkin’ Casey Jones" "Corrina, Corrina" Side 2 "Coffee Blues" "Louis Collins" "Hot Time in the Old Town Tonight" "If You Don't Want Me, Baby" "Spike Driver Blues" Spike Driver's Blues is about the Afro-American folk hero John Henry. "Beulah Land" Mississippi John Hurt Last Sessions (VSD-79327, Vanguard Records) Side 1 "Poor Boy Long Ways from Home" "Boys, You're Welcome" "Joe Turner Blues" "First Shot Missed Him" "Farther Along" "Spider, Spider" "Waiting for You" "Shortnin' Bread" Side 2 "Trouble, I've Had it All My Days" "Let the Mermaids Flirt with Me" "Good Mornin', Carrie" "Nobody Cares for Me" "All Night Long" "Hey, Honey, Right Away" "You've Got to Die" "Goodnight, Irene" The Best of Mississippi John Hurt (VSD-19/20, Vanguard Records) Recorded live at Oberlin College, April 15, 1966 Side 1 "Here I am, Oh Lord, Send Me" "I Shall Not Be Moved" "Nearer My God to Thee" "Baby What's Wrong with You" "It Ain't Nobody's Business" Side 2 "Salty Dog Blues" "Coffee Blues" "Avalon, My Home Ttown" "Make Me a Pallet on the Floor" "Since I've Laid This Burden Down" Side 1 "Sliding Delta" "Monday Morning Blues" "Richland Women Blues" "Candy Man" "Stagolee" Side 2 "My Creole Belle" "See See Rider" "Spanish Fandango" "Talking Casey" "Chicken" "You Are My Sunshine" The Candy Man (QS 5042, Quicksilver Records) Side 1 "Richland Women Blues" "Trouble, I've Had it All My Days" "Chicken" "Coffee Blues" "Monday Morning Blues" Side 2 "Frankie and Albert" "Talking Casey" "Here I am, Oh Lord, Send Me" "Hard Time in the Old Ttown Tonight" "Spike Driver Blues" Volume One of a Legacy (CLPS 1068, Piedmont Records) Side 1 "Trouble, I've Had it All My Days" "Pera Lee" "See See Rider" "Louis Collins" "Coffee Blues" "Nobody's Dirty Business" "Do Lord Remember Me" "Monday Morning Blues" Side 2 "Let The Mermaids Flirt with Me" "Payday" "Stack-o-lee Blues" "Casey Jones" "Frankie and Albert" Folk Songs and Blues (PLP 13757, Piedmont Records) Side 1 "Avalon Blues" "Richland Woman Blues" "Spike Driver Blues" "Salty Dog" "Cow Hooking Blues" "Spanish Fandang" Side 2 "Casey Jones" "Louis Collins" "Candy Man Blues" "My Creole Belle" "Liza Jane – God's Unchanging Hand" "Joe Turner Blues" References External links Mississippi John Hurt Museum Includes a link to a discussion forum regarding Mississippi John Hurt with substantive participation by grand nephew, Fred Bolden. Illustrated Mississippi John Hurt discography Available recordings at The Internet Archive Allmusic Mississippi John Hurt's Stackolee Recording, sheet music and guitar tab. | Mississippi_John_Hurt |@lemmatized mississippi:16 john:16 hurt:21 july:1 national:1 park:1 service:1 encyclopedia:1 britannica:1 march:1 confusion:1 date:2 birth:1 grave:1 marker:1 mention:1 november:2 influential:1 blue:42 singer:2 guitarist:1 sing:1 loud:1 whisper:1 melodious:1 finger:1 pick:1 guitar:4 accompaniment:1 biography:1 born:1 smith:2 teoc:1 lawrence:1 cohen:1 inteview:1 liner:1 note:1 avalon:11 complete:2 okeh:6 recording:6 columbia:1 legacy:2 carroll:1 county:1 raise:1 learn:1 play:7 age:1 spend:1 much:1 youth:1 old:7 time:4 music:4 friend:1 dance:2 earn:1 living:1 farm:1 hand:2 partner:2 fiddle:2 player:1 willie:1 narmour:3 substitute:1 regular:1 shell:1 get:4 chance:1 record:16 prize:1 win:1 first:3 place:2 contest:1 recommend:1 producer:1 tommy:1 rockwell:1 audition:1 monday:4 morning:5 home:4 take:1 part:1 two:1 session:3 memphis:3 new:13 york:12 city:12 see:6 discography:3 tag:1 add:1 sale:1 gimmick:1 commercial:1 failure:1 resulting:1 go:2 business:4 great:1 depression:1 return:1 obscurity:1 work:2 sharecropper:1 local:1 party:1 however:1 folk:6 musicologist:1 tom:3 hoskins:4 inspire:1 able:2 locate:1 near:1 find:3 listen:1 lyric:1 realize:1 write:2 call:1 unable:1 recent:1 map:2 search:1 eventually:1 atlas:1 greenwood:1 grenada:2 skill:1 still:2 intact:1 encourage:1 move:2 washington:1 c:1 begin:1 perform:1 wider:1 stage:1 performance:2 newport:1 festival:1 saw:1 star:1 rise:1 amongst:1 revival:1 audience:1 death:1 extensively:1 college:2 concert:1 hall:1 coffee:5 house:1 also:1 tonight:3 show:1 johnny:1 carson:1 well:1 three:1 album:1 vanguard:5 number:1 devotee:1 particularly:1 like:1 ragtime:1 song:4 salty:3 dog:3 candy:6 man:7 ballad:1 spike:6 driver:6 variant:1 henry:2 frankie:4 influence:1 span:1 several:1 genre:1 include:2 country:2 bluegrass:1 contemporary:1 rock:1 roll:1 soft:1 spoken:1 nature:1 reflect:1 remain:1 mellow:1 mix:1 end:1 die:3 heart:1 attack:1 thedeadrcokstarsclub:1 com:1 access:1 may:1 tribute:1 memorial:1 parallel:1 rural:1 road:1 grow:1 american:2 songwriter:1 paxton:2 meet:1 bill:1 gaslight:1 greenwich:1 village:1 around:1 entitle:1 hear:1 frequently:1 live:2 february:2 nobody:6 dirty:2 tellin:1 december:11 louis:4 collins:4 big:1 leg:1 stack:2 lee:3 satisfy:2 bless:1 name:1 pray:1 camp:1 ground:1 harvest:1 last:2 poor:2 boy:2 long:4 way:2 boys:2 welcome:2 joe:3 turner:3 shoot:2 miss:2 far:3 along:3 funky:1 butt:1 spider:4 wait:2 shortnin:2 bread:2 trouble:4 day:4 let:3 mermaid:3 flirt:3 good:2 carrie:2 care:3 night:2 hey:2 honey:2 right:2 away:2 goodnight:2 irene:2 worry:2 piedmont:4 plp:2 side:16 lazy:1 slide:2 delta:2 cow:2 hook:2 talkin:2 casey:6 jones:4 weeping:1 wail:1 oh:3 mary:1 weep:1 cryin:1 since:2 today:1 vsd:3 payday:2 make:2 pallet:2 floor:2 corrina:2 hot:1 town:1 want:1 baby:2 afro:1 hero:1 beulah:1 land:1 mornin:1 best:1 oberlin:1 april:1 lord:3 send:2 shall:1 nearer:1 god:2 thee:1 wrong:1 ttown:2 lay:1 burden:1 richland:3 woman:3 stagolee:1 creole:2 belle:2 rider:2 spanish:2 fandango:1 talk:2 chicken:2 sunshine:1 qs:1 quicksilver:1 albert:2 hard:1 volume:1 one:1 clps:1 pera:1 remember:1 fandang:1 liza:1 jane:1 unchanging:1 reference:1 external:1 link:2 museum:1 discussion:1 forum:1 regard:1 substantive:1 participation:1 grand:1 nephew:1 fred:1 bolden:1 illustrate:1 available:1 internet:1 archive:1 allmusic:1 stackolee:1 sheet:1 tab:1 |@bigram encyclopedia_britannica:1 grave_marker:1 liner_note:1 johnny_carson:1 salty_dog:3 singer_songwriter:1 tom_paxton:1 greenwich_village:1 goodnight_irene:2 external_link:1 |
5,205 | JUnit | JUnit is a unit testing framework for the Java programming language. Created by Kent Beck and Erich Gamma, JUnit is one of the xUnit family of frameworks that originated with Kent Beck's SUnit. JUnit has spawned its own ecosystem of JUnit extensions. Experience gained with JUnit has been important in the development of test-driven development, and as a result, some knowledge of JUnit is often presumed in discussions of test-driven development. JUnit has been ported to other languages, including PHP (PHPUnit), C# (NUnit), Python (PyUnit), Fortran (fUnit), Delphi (DUnit), Free Pascal (FPCUnit), Perl (Test::Class and Test::Unit), C++ (CPPUnit), and JavaScript (JSUnit) (see full list). This family of unit testing frameworks is referred to collectively as xUnit. TestNG has many of the same goals as JUnit. JUnit is linked as a JAR at compile-time; the framework resides under packages junit.framework for JUnit 3.8 and earlier and under org.junit for JUnit 4 and later. Examples JUnit 3.8 A simple example for a test-case in JUnit 3.8 and earlier could be as follows: import junit.framework.*; public class MultiplicationTest extends TestCase { /** Test whether 3 * 2 = 6, according to the JVM. */ public void testMultiplication() { assertEquals("Multiplication", 6, 3 * 2); } } (Compare with the similar example for Mauve.) The method testMultiplication will be discovered automatically by reflection. JUnit 4.0 Translating this above example into JUnit 4.0 results in: import org.junit.*; public class MultiplicationTest { /** Test whether 3 * 2 = 6, according to the JVM. */ @Test public void testMultiplication() { Assert.assertEquals("Multiplication", 6, 3 * 2); } } The method testMultiplication will be discovered automatically by its Test Annotation (a feature of Java 5). It offers a fundamental test using only the JUnit framework and the core of the JVM and language. There are, however, several issues to consider here. JUnit is not a programming language; this trivial example does not demonstrate the power of JUnit. It is conventional to see test case classes named as the class being tested, appended with "Test". Also, something more meaningful is usually printed in the assertion message, as in the following: Assert.assertEquals("Test whether 2 * 2 = 4", 4, Multiplier.multiply(2, 2)); See also TestNG, an alternative to JUnit JTiger, another alternative to JUnit Mock object External links JUnit home page Unit tests with JUnit JUnit antipatterns (developerWorks) and JUnit antipatterns (Exubero) An early look at JUnit 4 Get Acquainted with the New Advanced Features of JUnit 4 JUnitFactory - Free web-based generation of JUnit characterization tests JUnitDoclet - Test Suite Generator for JUnit-Tests merobase - the first code search engine worldwide that supports JUnit test cases for test-driven component retrieval | JUnit |@lemmatized junit:33 unit:4 test:22 framework:7 java:2 programming:2 language:4 create:1 kent:2 beck:2 erich:1 gamma:1 one:1 xunit:2 family:2 originate:1 sunit:1 spawn:1 ecosystem:1 extension:1 experience:1 gain:1 important:1 development:3 driven:2 result:2 knowledge:1 often:1 presume:1 discussion:1 port:1 include:1 php:1 phpunit:1 c:2 nunit:1 python:1 pyunit:1 fortran:1 funit:1 delphi:1 dunit:1 free:2 pascal:1 fpcunit:1 perl:1 class:5 cppunit:1 javascript:1 jsunit:1 see:3 full:1 list:1 refer:1 collectively:1 testng:2 many:1 goal:1 link:2 jar:1 compile:1 time:1 resides:1 package:1 early:3 org:2 later:1 example:5 simple:1 case:3 could:1 follow:1 import:2 public:4 multiplicationtest:2 extend:1 testcase:1 whether:3 accord:2 jvm:3 void:2 testmultiplication:4 assertequals:3 multiplication:2 compare:1 similar:1 mauve:1 method:2 discover:2 automatically:2 reflection:1 translate:1 assert:2 annotation:1 feature:2 offer:1 fundamental:1 use:1 core:1 however:1 several:1 issue:1 consider:1 trivial:1 demonstrate:1 power:1 conventional:1 name:1 append:1 also:2 something:1 meaningful:1 usually:1 print:1 assertion:1 message:1 following:1 multiplier:1 multiply:1 alternative:2 jtiger:1 another:1 mock:1 object:1 external:1 home:1 page:1 antipatterns:2 developerworks:1 exubero:1 look:1 get:1 acquaint:1 new:1 advanced:1 junitfactory:1 web:1 base:1 generation:1 characterization:1 junitdoclet:1 suite:1 generator:1 merobase:1 first:1 code:1 search:1 engine:1 worldwide:1 support:1 drive:1 component:1 retrieval:1 |@bigram kent_beck:2 external_link:1 |
5,206 | Foreign_relations_of_China | The foreign relations of the People's Republic of China draw upon traditions extending back to imperial China in the Qing Dynasty and the Opium Wars, despite Chinese society having undergone many radical upheavals over the past two and a half centuries. The goal of Chinese foreign policy is to maintain a strong, independent, powerful, and united China that is one of several great powers in the world. The Chinese foreign policy establishment maintains that in achieving this goal, they are not pursuing any hegemonic or like ambitions. Recent Chinese foreign policy makers may be seen to adhere to the realist rather than the liberal school of international relations theory. Thus, in sharp contrast to the former Soviet Union and the United States, China has not been devoted to advancing any higher international ideological interests such as world communism or world democracy since the Cold War; that is, ideology appears to be secondary to advancing its national interest. In much of the 20th century, Chinese foreign policy was based on a sense of victimhood (a period of Western and Japanese invasion) and a determination to fight back against its perceived past humiliations. People's Republic of China maintains the completeness of sovereignty, so the Beijing government does not allow any diplomatic partner state with which it maintains diplomatic relations to make official diplomatic relationship with Taiwan (Republic of China) or the Government of Tibet in Exile. Institutions of foreign policy Like most other nations, China's foreign policy is carried out by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. However, the Foreign Affairs Ministry is subordinate to the Foreign Affairs Leading Small Group of the Communist Party of China, which decides on policy-making. Unlike most other nations, much of Chinese foreign policy is formulated in think tanks sponsored and supervised by, but formally outside of the government. One distinctive aspect of Sino-American relations is that much of the foreign policy discussion takes place between interlocutors who form the think tanks. Because these discussions are unofficial, they are generally more free and less restricted than discussions between government officials. China is also distinctive for having a separate body of Chinese strategic thought and theory of international relations which is distinct from Western theory. History of foreign policy Since its establishment, the People's Republic of China has worked vigorously to win international support for its position that it is the sole legitimate government of all China, including Hong Kong (Foreign relations of Hong Kong), Macau (Foreign relations of Macau), and Taiwan (Foreign relations of the Republic of China). Until the early 1970s, the Republic of China government in Taipei was recognized diplomatically by most world powers and the UN. After the Beijing government assumed the China seat in the United Nations in 1971 (and the ROC government was expelled) and became increasingly more significant as a global player, most nations switched diplomatic relations from the Republic of China to the People's Republic of China. Japan established diplomatic relations with China in 1972, following the Joint Communique of the Government of Japan and the Government of the People's Republic of China, and the United States did so in 1972. The number of countries that have established diplomatic relations with Beijing has risen to 167, while 25 maintain diplomatic relations with the Republic of China (or Taiwan). (See also: Political status of Taiwan) Both the PRC and ROC make it a prerequisite for diplomatic relations that a country does not recognize and conduct any official relations with the other party. After its founding, China's foreign policy initially focused on its solidarity with the Soviet Union, the Eastern Bloc nations, and other communist countries, sealed with, among other agreements, the China-Soviet Treaty of Friendship, Alliance, and Mutual Assistance signed in 1950 to oppose China's chief antagonists, the West and in particular the United States. The 1950–53 Korean War waged by China and its North Korea ally against the United States, South Korea, and United Nations (UN) forces has long been a reason for bitter feelings. After the conclusion of the Korean conflict, China sought to balance its identification as a member of the Soviet bloc by establishing friendly relations with Pakistan and other Third World countries, particularly in Southeast Asia. By the late 1950s, relations between China and the Soviet Union had become so divisive that in 1960 the Soviets unilaterally withdrew their advisers from China. The two then began to vie for allegiances among the developing world nations, for China saw itself as a natural champion through its role in the Non-Aligned Movement and its numerous bilateral and bi-party ties. In the 1960s, Beijing competed with Moscow for political influence among communist parties and in the developing world generally. In 1962, China had a brief war with India over a border dispute. By 1969 relations with Moscow were so tense that fighting erupted along their common border. Following the 1968 Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia and clashes in 1969 on the Sino-Soviet border, Chinese competition with the Soviet Union increasingly reflected concern over China's own strategic position. China then lessened its anti-Western rhetoric and began developing formal diplomatic relations with West European nations. Around the same time, in 1971, that Beijing succeeded in gaining China's seat in the UN (thus ousting the Republic of China on Taiwan), relations with the United States began to thaw. In 1972 President Richard M. Nixon visited China. Formal diplomatic relations were established in 1978, and the two nations have experienced more than a quarter century of varying degrees of amiable or wary relations over such contentious issues as Taiwan, trade balances, intellectual property rights, nuclear proliferation, and human rights. In late 1978, the Chinese also became concerned over Vietnam's efforts to establish open control over Laos and Cambodia. In response to the Soviet-backed Vietnamese invasion of Cambodia, China fought a war with Vietnam (February-March 1979). Chinese anxiety about Soviet strategic advances was heightened following the Soviet Union's December 1979 invasion of Afghanistan. Sharp differences between China and the Soviet Union persisted over Soviet support for Vietnam's continued occupation of Cambodia, the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, and Soviet troops along the Sino-Soviet border and in Mongolia--the so-called "three obstacles" to improved Sino-Soviet relations. In the 1970s and 1980s China sought to create a secure regional and global environment for itself and to foster good relations with countries that could aid its economic development. To this end, China looked to the West for assistance with its modernization drive and for help in countering Soviet expansionism, which it characterized as the greatest threat to its national security and to world peace. China maintained its consistent opposition to "superpower hegemonism," focusing almost exclusively on the expansionist actions of the Soviet Union and Soviet proxies such as Vietnam and Cuba, but it also placed growing emphasis on a foreign policy independent of both the U.S. and the Soviet Union. While improving ties with the West, China continued to closely follow the political and economic positions of the Third World Non-Aligned Movement, although China was not a formal member. In the immediate aftermath of Tiananmen crackdown in June 1989, many countries reduced their diplomatic contacts with China as well as their economic assistance programs. In response, China worked vigorously to expand its relations with foreign countries, and by late 1990, had reestablished normal relations with almost all nations. Following the collapse of the Soviet Union in late 1991, China also opened diplomatic relations with the republics of the former Soviet Union. Recent foreign policy Countries of the world indicating decade diplomatic relations commenced with the People's Republic of China: 1949/1950s (dark red), 1960s (red), 1970s (orange), 1980s (beige) and 1990s/2000s (yellow). Countries not recognized by or not recognizing the PRC are in grey. In recent years, China's leaders have been regular travelers to all parts of the globe, and it has sought a higher profile in the UN through its permanent seat on the United Nations Security Council and other multilateral organizations. Closer to home China has made efforts to reduce tensions in Asia; its relations with its Asian neighbors have become stable during the last decades of the twentieth century. It has contributed to stability on the Korean Peninsula, cultivated a more cooperative relationship with members of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) (Brunei, Myanmar, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, Vietnam), and participated in the ASEAN Regional Forum. In 1997, the ASEAN member nations and the People's Republic of China, South Korea and Japan agreed to hold yearly talks to further strengthen regional cooperation, the ASEAN Plus Three meetings. In 2005 the "ASEAN Plus Three" countries together with India, Australia and New Zealand held the inaugural East Asia Summit (EAS). Relations have improved with Vietnam since a border war was fought with the one-time close ally in 1979. A territorial dispute with its Southeast Asian neighbors over islands in the South China Sea remains unresolved, as does another dispute in the East China Sea with Japan. China has improved ties with Russia. President Putin and President Jiang, in large part to serve as a counterbalance to the United States, signed a Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation in July 2001.The two also joined with the Central Asian nations of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan to found the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) in June 2001. The SCO is designed to promote regional stability and cooperate to combat terrorism in the region. Relations with India have also improved considerably. After years of competition, general distrust between the two (mostly over China's close relationship with Pakistan and India's with the former Soviet Union) and a border war, relations in the twenty-first century between the world's two most populous states have never been more harmonious, as they have started to collaborate in several economic and strategic areas. Both countries have doubled their economic trade in the past few years and China is expected to become India's largest trading partner by 2008. The two countries are planning to host joint naval exercises. In 2003, China and India held negotiations for the first time since the Sino-Indian War of 1962 on a major border dispute: however, the dispute over Aksai Chin and Arunachal Pradesh is not settled, and plagues Sino-India relations. While New Delhi has raised objections to Chinese military-aid to arch-rival Pakistan and neighboring Bangladesh, Beijing similarly objects to India's growing military collaboration with Japan, Australia and the United States. Japan courts India to counter China: Analysts- Politics/Nation-News-The Economic Times The Hindu News Update Service China has border and maritime disputes, including with Vietnam in the Gulf of Tonkin and with Japan. Beijing has resolved many of these disputes. Notably on July 21 2008 it finally resolved the last remaining border dispute it had with Russia with Russia ceding a small amount of territory to China. Business Standard Article - Russia ceded approximately 174 km² figure Economist article including map of new Russia-China Border There is now no border dispute between Russia and China along their 4300 km border. China also reached a 2000 agreement with Vietnam to resolve some differences over their maritime border, though disagreements remain over some islands in the South China Sea. During the late 1990s and early 21st century, Chinese foreign policy appeared to be focused on improving relations with Russia and Europe to counterbalance the United States. This strategy was based on the premise that the United States was a hyperpower whose influence could be checked through alliances with other powers, such as Russia or the European Union. This assessment of United States power was reconsidered after the United States intervention in Kosovo, and as the 20th century drew to a close, the discussion among thinktanks in China involved how to reorient Chinese foreign policy in a unipolar world. This discussion also occurred in the context of China's new security concept, which argued that the post-Cold War era required nations to move away from thinking in terms of alliances and power blocs and toward thinking in terms of economic and diplomatic cooperation. China had long been a close ally of North Korea but also found a valuable trading partner in South Korea and eventually took a role in the early 2000s as a proponent of "six-party talks" (North Korea, South Korea, Russia, Japan, the United States, and China) to resolve tensions on the Korean Peninsula. China was instrumental at brokering talks with North Korea over its nuclear program, and in 2003, there was a concerted effort by China to improve relations with the ASEAN nations and form a common East Asian market. These foreign policy efforts have been part of a general foreign policy initiative known as China's peaceful rise. On November 15, 2005, Hu Jintao visited Seoul and spoke of the importance of both countries' contributions for regional peace and cooperation in economic development. However, China's opposition to the bid of two of its important neighbors - India and Japan to become permanent members of the United Nations Security Council has proved to be an irritant in their respective relationships. Japan, with its large economic and cultural influences in Asia, is seen by China as its most formidable opponent and partner in regional diplomacy. The two sides established diplomatic relations in 1972, and Japanese investment in China was important in the early years of China's economic reforms and ever since. Having fought two wars against Japan (1894–95 and 1936–45), China's long-standing concern about the level of Japan's military strength surfaces periodically, and criticism of Japan's refusal to present a full version of the atrocities of World War II in its textbooks is a perennial issue. At a national meeting on diplomatic work in August 2004, China's President Hu Jintao reiterated that China will continue its "independent foreign policy of peaceful development," stressing the need for a peaceful and stable international environment, especially among China's neighbors, that will foster "mutually beneficial cooperation" and "common development." This policy line has varied little in intent since the People's Republic was established in 1949, but the rhetoric has varied in its stridency to reflect periods of domestic political upheaval. In 2005, there has been talk of the European Union lifting its arms embargo, however the United States has objected to this. EU arms embargo Foreign ministry spokesman Qin Gang made a statement about the eight-point diplomatic philosophy of the People's Republic of China: Beijing likens Cheney criticism to nosy neighbor China will not seek hegemony. China is still a developing country and has no resources to seek hegemony. Even if China becomes a developed country, it will not seek hegemony. China will not play power politics and will not interfere with other countries' internal affairs. China will not impose its own ideology on other countries. China maintains all countries, big or small, should be treated equally and respect each other. All affairs should be consulted and resolved by all countries on the basis of equal participation. No country should bully others on the basis of strength. China will make judgment on each case in international affairs, each matter on the merit of the matter itself and it will not have double standards. China will not have two policies: one for itself and one for others. China believes that it cannot do unto others what they do not wish others do unto them. China advocates that all countries handle their relations on the basis of the United Nations Charter and norms governing international relations. China advocates stepping up international cooperation and do not play politics unilaterally. China should not undermine the dignity and the authority of the U.N. China should not impose and set its own wishes above the U.N. Charter, international law and norms. China advocates peaceful negotiation and consultation so as to resolve its international disputes. China does not resort to force, or threat of force, in resolving international disputes. China maintains a reasonable national military buildup to defend its own sovereignty and territorial integrity. It is not made to expand, nor does it seek invasion or aggression. China is firmly opposed to terrorism and the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction. China is a responsible member of the international community, and as for international treaties, China abides by all them in a faithful way. China never plays by a double standard, selecting and discarding treaties it does not need. China respects the diversity of civilization and the whole world. China advocates different cultures make exchanges, learn from each other, and compliment one another with their own strengths. China is opposed to clashes and confrontations between civilizations, and China does not link any particular ethnic group or religion with terrorism. Diplomatic relations Relations by region and country Africa With China's growing influence around the world, Beijing has now set its efforts on Africa. China's focus in Africa is not a recent occurrence. In the 1960s and 1970s, Beijing's interest centered on building ideological solidarity with other underdeveloped nations to advance Chinese-style communism and on repelling Western "colonialism/imperialism." Following the Cold War, Chinese interests evolved into more pragmatic pursuits such as trade, investment, and energy. The Heritage Foundation China's Influence in Africa: Implications for the United States Sino-African trade quadrupled between 2000 and 2006. China is Africa's third largest commercial partner after the US and France, and second largest exporter to Africa after France. It is notably ahead of former colonial power Britain in both categories. International Committee of the Fourth International Western concern at China's growing involvement in Africa Some western nations' hesitance to become closely involved with countries they believe to be poor in the human rights field, such as Sudan, have allowed China an opportunity for economic cooperation. Political Warfare in Sub-Saharan Africa: U.S. Capabilities and Chinese Operations in Ethiopia, Kenya, Nigeria, and South Africa, Strategic Studies Institute, U.S. Army War College, March 2007 Central Asia As the Chinese economy booms, a major priority is securing natural resources to keep pace with demand, and investment into China's central Asian neigbhours are doing leaps and bounds to meet this demand. Chinese oil companies have invested into Kazakh oil fields, China and Kazakhstan have constructed an oil pipeline from Kazakhstan to China and are planning to construct a natural gas pipeline. In Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan, China has invested in hydroelectric projects. In addition to bolstering trade ties, Beijing has contributed aid and funding to the region's countries. The Shanghai Cooperation Organization, of which China is a founding member, is also becoming increasingly important in Central Asian security and politics. Many observers believe that beyond fostering good-neighborly relations, China is also concerned with securing its borders as it emerges as a world power. YaleGlobal Online Central Asia: China's Mounting Influence Middle East China's Critical Sea Lines of Communication. In 2004, over 80 percent of Chinese crude oil imports transited the Straits of Malacca, with less than 2 percent transiting the Straits of Lombok. China's fast economic growth also means that it is consuming ever more energy. China is now the second largest consumer of petroleum products in the world after the United States. China has recently been carrying out a foreign policy in trying to secure and diversify sources of its energy (oil and natural gas) supplies from around the world. The Middle Eastern region, which contains the world's largest proven oil reserve, has been the focus of that policy. Roughly half of China's imported oil comes from the Middle East. At the same time, these energy-producing Middle Eastern nations are keen to diversify their customer base away from over dependence on the Western market (Europe and North America) as a demand source and so they have begun to look at other rapidly growing markets such as China. In addition to the deepening bilateral relationship in the trade and energy sectors, China has an expanding body of other strategic interests in the greater Middle East region. This is manifested in its security relationships with Saudi Arabia, Pakistan, and Iran, which entail WMD and ballistic missile cooperation. Saudi Arabia, Iran, and Pakistan are pivotal states in the region. They are increasingly likely to view China in coming years as an alternative source of security and as a counterbalance to American power. The Washington Institute for Near East Policy China and Oil: The Middle East Dimension MERIA China's WMD Foot In The Greater Middle East's Door Asia Times China stakes its Middle East claim Israel On January 9, 1950, the Israeli government extended recognition to the People's Republic of China, but diplomatic relations were not established until January 1992. Israel has provided China with technological assistance in the areas of advanced agriculture and irrigation. Bilateral R&D projects, supported by the China-Israel Agricultural Research Fund, are focused on the development of new varieties of fruit and vegetables, agricultural biotechnology and applying modern technologies for processing fresh produce. Israel has built three major demonstration farms in China and several training centers which are supported by both Chinese and Israeli ministries of agriculture. Israel and China cultivate agricultural ties. 2003-09-21. Israel has also provided China with military assistance, expertise and technology. According to a report from the US-China Security Review Commission, "Israel ranks second only to Russia as a weapons system provider to China and as a conduit for sophisticated military technology, followed by France and Germany." Israel was ready to sell China the Phalcon, an Israeli airborne early-warning radar system (AWACS), until the United States forced it to cancel the deal. Since the establishment of diplomatic relations, cultural exchange has been a major component of the bilateral relations, as both sides recognize the importance of creating a strong foundation based on their ancient and rich histories. In 2007, China launched a countrywide "Festival of Culture" in Israel to mark 15 years of relations. However, China's close relationship with the Palestinians also has had a tremendous affect on its relationship with Israel. South Asia China's current trade volume with all South Asian nations reaches close to US$20 billion a year. Out of all the states within the region, China has developed a strong relationship with Pakistan. This relationship extends beyond economic, defense, social and political spheres. Relations stem from diplomatic overtures made between Deng Xiaoping and Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto during the 1970s. More recently, China has signed several free trade agreements with Pakistan as well as several bilateral trade agreements such as the Early Harvest Agreement and the establishment of a duty free export zone in Pakistan's Northern Area's. Pakistan and China continue to remain the strongest of allies and trade and contacts have steadily increased over the years. China continues to invest heavily into Pakistan, and is providing assistance in the development of that country's 2nd major port at Gwadar PAKISTAN – CHINA Chinese-funded port in Baluchistan to give Beijing direct access to the Middle East - Asia News as well as improving infrastructure and the development of a pipeline from the said port towards China's western regions. Asia Times Online :: South Asia news : China-Pakistan rail link on horizon China's bilateral trade with India accounts for US$13.6 billion a year, a number set to grow to US$25 billion in 2010. People's Daily Boost all-weather partnership between China, Pakistan , but its relations have been troubled because of territorial disputes and past aggression through an Indian forward policy. Beijing runs trade surpluses with many partners, specifically Pakistan, however, also with Bangladesh, Nepal and Sri Lanka. Fast on the heels of the U.S. offer of nuclear power plants to India, China has offered Pakistan nuclear power plants of its own to meet its energy needs. Beijing also assists South Asian nations with low-cost financial capital, to help their development sector, especially with the current economically struggling countries of Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, and Nepal UCLA Asia Institute China's March on South Asia Southeast Asia China's geopolitical ambitions focus on Southeast Asia, where Beijing is intent upon establishing a preeminent sphere of influence. China has pursued this ambition with a diplomatic campaign designed to bind the region to China - politically, economically, and militarily. USCC China's Strategic Reach Into Southeast Asia Historically, China's relations with the region has been uneasy, due to the country's involvement with the Vietnam War, the Malayan Communist Party during Malayan Emergency and Communist Insurgency War in Malaysia, as well as the Communist Party of Indonesia and 30 September Movement in Indonesia. As a result, previously friendly relations with Indonesia under the Sukarno government broke-off in 1967, and was not restored until 1990, while diplomatic relations with Malaysia was not established until 1974. China's conflict with the government of Vietnam over the support of the Khmer Rouge in Cambodia resulted in the Sino-Vietnamese War and other border conflicts. China's relationship with Singapore is good, and the latter is one of only three countries that can enjoy visa-free entry to the country. Oceania The People's Republic of China maintains diplomatic relations with eight countries in Oceania: Australia, Fiji, the Federated States of Micronesia, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, Samoa, Tonga and Vanuatu. The Republic of China (Taiwan), by contrast, has diplomatic relations with the other six. The Pacific is an area of intense and continuous diplomatic competition between the PRC and the ROC, with several countries (Nauru, Kiribati, Vanuatu) having switched diplomatic support from one to the other at least once. Both the PRC and the ROC provide development aid to their respective allies. China's also wants to establish a preeminent sphere of influence in the Pacific Islands. Australia The 1971 visit to China by the future Australian prime minister Gough Whitlam (who at the time was leader of the opposition in Australia) marked the first signs of formal relations with Australia. Whitlam at the time promised to establish a diplomatic relationship with China, a promise which was fulfilled the following year when on December 21 1972 Australia first officially opened diplomatic relations http://www.whitlam.org/collection/1972/1972_Joint_Communique.html . Australia has a significant minority Chinese population, which has been steadily growing in number since the first gold rush. The 2006 census figures show the percentage of people in Australia with primarily Chinese descent is in excess of 3% http://www.censusdata.abs.gov.au/ABSNavigation/prenav/ViewData?breadcrumb=POLTD&method=Place%20of%20Usual%20Residence&subaction=-1&issue=2006&producttype=Census%20Tables&documentproductno=0&textversion=false&documenttype=Details&collection=Census&javascript=true&topic=Ancestry&action=404&productlabel=Ancestry%20(full%20classification%20list)%20by%20Sex&order=1&period=2006&tabname=Details&areacode=0&navmapdisplayed=true& . The election of prime minister Kevin Rudd (who was previously the shadow foreign minister) has piqued public speculation into Chinese relations with Australia, as he is the first leader of any Western nation to speak fluent Mandarin. He majored in Chinese language and Chinese history at the Australian National University and acquired a Chinese alias, Lù Kèwén (traditional Chinese: 陸克文 or in simplified Chinese: 陆克文) ; ; ; . New Zealand New Zealand contact with China started very early in its history with the first records of ethnic Chinese in New Zealand were immigrants from Guangdong Province, who arrived during the 1860s gold rush era, with missionary, trade, extensive immigration and other links continuing during mainland China's Republican era (1912-1949). The establishment of the People's Republic brought these links to a halt. New Zealand formally recognised the PRC in 1972. New Zealand and China celebrated 35 years of diplomatic relations in 2007. The bilateral relationship has grown to become one of New Zealand's most important. A free trade agreement (FTA) between China and New Zealand was signed on 7 April 2008 by Premier of the People's Republic of China Wen Jiabao and Prime Minister of New Zealand Helen Clark in Beijing. It is the first free trade agreement that China has signed with any developed country. Western hemisphere Recent years have seen Beijing's growing economic and political influence in South America and the Caribbean. During a visit to Brazil, Argentina, Chile, and Cuba in November 2004, Chinese President Hu Jintao announced US$100 billion worth of investment over the next decade. The Heritage Foundation China's Influence in the Western Hemisphere CNS news.com China Moving to Replace US Influence in Latin America Columbia Daily Tribune Caribbean sees China acquire more influence For instance, Cuba is turning to Chinese companies rather than Western ones to modernize its crippled transportation system at a cost of more than US$1 billion, continuing a trend of favoring the fellow communist country that has made Beijing Cuba's second-largest trading partner after Venezuela in 2005. United Transportation Union Cuba turns to China for transport needs In addition, China is expanding its military-to-military contacts in the region. China is training increasing numbers of Latin American military personnel, mainly due to a three-year old U.S. law surrounding the International Criminal Court that has led to a sharp decline in U.S.-run training programs for the region. GlobalSecurity.org China Increasing Military Ties in Latin America as Law Restricts US Military In 2008 the governments of Venezuela and the People's Republic of China launched their first joint space satellite, named Venesat-1. Venezuela's leader Hugo Chavez said the satellite would be a tool of integration for Latin America and the Caribbean regions by saying "This satellite is not for us but for the people of Latin America and the Caribbean. It is a further step towards independence," he said, adding that the project would break the mold of "technological illiteracy." Venezuela launches first satellite with Chinese technology - Caribbean NetNews (Saturday, November 1, 2008) Caribbean Caribbean regional relations with People's Republic of China are mostly based on trade, credits, and investments which have increased significantly since the 1990s. For many Caribbean nations the increasing ties with China have been used as a way to decrease long time over-dependence on the United States. Additionally, China's policy in the region was the use of "dollar diplomacy" or the attempts to switch many nations from recognizing Taiwan as an independent nation instead to the recognition of the "One China" policy in exchange for Chinese investment. More recently, during various visits by several Chinese diplomats to the Caribbean region a deal was signed for China to help establish the Confucius Institute at the Mona Campus of the University of the West Indies. This agreement is to form the basis Mandarin Chinese language courses at the regional University. Chinese And Caribbean Relations - By David Jessop, CaribbeanWorldNews.com (Friday March 20th, 2009) Confucius Institute opens at UWI in Jamaica, CaribbeanNetNews.com, (Saturday, February 14, 2009) Europe The end of the long-held animosity between Moscow and Beijing was marked by the visit to China by Soviet President Mikhail Gorbachev in 1989. After the 1991 demise of the Soviet Union, China's relations with Russia and the former states of the Soviet Union became more amicable as the conflicting ideologies of the two vast nations no longer stood in the way. A new round of bilateral agreements was signed during reciprocal head of state visits. As in the early 1950s with the Soviet Union, Russia has again become an important source of military matériel for China, as well as for raw materials and trade. Friendly relations with Russia have been an important advantage for China, offsetting its often uneasy relations with the United States. Relations with Europe, both Eastern and Western, generally have been friendly in the early twenty-first century, and, indeed, close political and trade relations with the European Union nations have been a major thrust of China's foreign policy in the 2000s. In November 2005, President Hu Jintao visited the United Kingdom, Germany, and Spain and announced China's eagerness to enter into greater political and economic cooperation with its European partners. Transnational issues The People's Republic of China has 14 neighbouring nations by land, and 7 neighbours by sea (8 if counting Taiwan). Only Russia has as many neighbouring nations (14 by land, 12 by sea). Many disputes have arisen and resolved and many yet are undetermined. International territorial disputes Territorial disputes with other countries include: China, CIA World Factbook Both the People's Republic of China and the Republic of China (Taiwan) officially claim to be the legitimate government of "China", including Taiwan and nearby islands currently controlled by the Republic of China. The Republic of China (Taiwan) does not actively pursue its claims on the mainland. 10 features in the Yalu river are in dispute with North Korea. Boundary with India in dispute; see Aksai Chin, Arunachal Pradesh and the borders along the states of Himachal Pradesh and Uttaranchal with Tibet Autonomous Region. Portions of the boundary with Bhutan (China and Bhutan have not yet established diplomatic relations, nevertheless negotiations are ongoing as of 2008). Claims Japan-administered Senkaku Islands (Diaoyutai), as does the Republic of China. Paracel Islands administered and occupied by the People's Republic, but claimed by the Republic of China (Taiwan) and Vietnam. Involved in a dispute with the Philippines over Scarborough Shoal. Involved in a complex dispute over the Spratly Islands with the Republic of China (Taiwan), Malaysia, the Philippines, Vietnam, and possibly Brunei. Exclusive Economic Zone disputes with North Korea in the Yellow Sea; South Korea in the Yellow and East China Seas; Japan in the East China Sea (:ja:東シナ海ガス田問題, :zh:东海油气田问题); Vietnam, the Philippines, Malaysia, Brunei and Indonesia in the South China Sea. Refugee asylum Refugees and internally displaced people (IDP) include: refugees (country of origin): 300,897 (from Vietnam), estimated 30,000-50,000 (from North Korea) IDPs: 90,000 (2006) People trafficking China is a source, transit, and destination country for women, men, and children trafficked for purposes of sexual exploitation and forced labor; the majority of trafficking in China is internal, but there is also international trafficking of Chinese citizens; women are lured through false promises of legitimate employment into commercial sexual exploitation in Taiwan, Thailand, Malaysia, and Japan; Chinese men and women are smuggled to countries throughout the world at enormous personal expense and then forced into commercial sexual exploitation or exploitative labor to repay debts to traffickers; women and children are trafficked into China from Mongolia, Burma, North Korea, Russia, and Vietnam for forced labor, marriage, and sexual slavery; most North Koreans enter northeastern China voluntarily, but others reportedly are trafficked into China from North Korea; domestic trafficking remains the most significant problem in China, with an estimated minimum of 10,000-20,000 victims trafficked each year; the actual number of victims could be much greater; some experts believe that the serious and prolonged imbalance in the male-female birth ratio may now be contributing to Chinese and foreign girls and women being trafficked as potential brides. US State Department Tier rating: Tier 2 Watch List - "China failed to show evidence of increasing efforts to address transnational trafficking; while the government provides reasonable protection to internal victims of trafficking, protection for Chinese and foreign victims of transnational trafficking remain inadequate." Illicit drugs China is a major transshipment point for heroin produced in the Golden Triangle region of Southeast Asia. There is a growing domestic drug abuse problem and it is a source country for chemical precursors, despite new regulations on its large chemical industry. International organizations Membership in International Organizations: China holds a permanent seat, which affords it veto power, on the Security Council of the United Nations (UN). Prior to 1971, the Republic of China on Taiwan held China's UN seat, but, as of that date, the People's Republic of China successfully lobbied for Taiwan's removal from the UN and took control of the seat. China is an active member of numerous UN system organizations, including the UN General Assembly and Security Council; Food and Agriculture Organization of the UN; UN Conference on Trade and Development; UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization; UN Office of the High Commissioner for Refugees; UN Industrial Development Organization; UN Institute for Training and Research; UN Monitoring, Verification, and Inspection Commission; and UN Truce Supervision Organization. China also holds memberships in the African Development Bank, Asian Development Bank, Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation, Association of Southeast Asian Nations (dialogue partner), Association of Southeast Asian Nations Regional Forum, Bank for International Settlements, Caribbean Development Bank, Group of 77, International Atomic Energy Agency, International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, International Chamber of Commerce, International Civil Aviation Organization, International Criminal Police Organization, International Development Association, International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, International Finance Corporation, International Fund for Agricultural Development, International Hydrographic Organization, International Labour Organization, International Maritime Organization, International Monetary Fund, International Olympic Committee, International Organization for Migration (observer), International Organization for Standardization, International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement, International Telecommunication Union, Latin American Integration Association (observer), Non-Aligned Movement (observer), Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons, Permanent Court of Arbitration, Shanghai Cooperation Organization, Universal Postal Union, World Customs Organization, World Health Organization, World Intellectual Property Organization, World Meteorological Organization, World Tourism Organization, World Trade Organization, and Zangger Committee. Major international treaties The People's Republic of China has signed numerous international conventions and treaties. Treaties signed on behalf of China before 1949 are applicable only to the Republic of China on Taiwan. Conventions signed by Beijing include: Assistance in Case of a Nuclear Accident or Radiological Emergency Convention; Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention; Chemical Weapons Convention; Conventional Weapons Convention; Early Notification of a Nuclear Accident Convention; Inhumane Weapons Convention; Nuclear Dumping Convention (London Convention); Nuclear Safety Convention; Physical Protection of Nuclear Material Convention; Rights of the Child and on the Sale of Children, Child Prostitution, and Child Pornography Convention (signed Optional Protocol); and Status of Refugees Convention (and the 1967 Protocol). Treaties include the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (signed but not ratified); Protocol for the Prohibition of the Use in War of Asphyxiating, Poisonous, or Other Gases, and of Bacteriological Methods of Warfare (Geneva Protocol); Treaty on the African Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zone (Treaty of Pelindaba, signed protocols 1 and 2); Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons; Treaty on Outer Space; Treaty for the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons in Latin America and the Caribbean (Treaty of Tlatelolco, signed Protocol 2); Treaty on Seabed Arms Control; and Treaty on the South Pacific Nuclear-Free Zone (Treaty of Rarotonga, signed and ratified protocols 2 and 3). China also is a party to the following international environmental conventions: Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands, and Whaling. See also References Further reading Chen, J. China and the West (Hutchinson, 1979). Chris Zambelis and Brandon Gentry, "China Through Arab Eyes: American Influence in the Middle East," Parameters, Vol. XXXVIII, No. 1, Spring 2008, pp. 60-72. External links The Ministry of Foreign Affairs for the People's Republic of China - Official website India-China Relations Assertive Pragmatism: China's Economic Rise and Its Impact on Chinese Foreign Policy - analysis by Minxin Pei, IFRI Proliferation Papers n°15, 2006 Nixon's Visit to China and How it Transformed Sino-American Relations China, Taiwan, and the Battle for Latin America, 21p. | Foreign_relations_of_China |@lemmatized foreign:33 relation:65 people:26 republic:37 china:223 draw:2 upon:2 tradition:1 extend:3 back:3 imperial:1 qing:1 dynasty:1 opium:1 war:17 despite:2 chinese:42 society:2 undergone:1 many:10 radical:1 upheaval:2 past:4 two:12 half:2 century:8 goal:2 policy:28 maintain:8 strong:4 independent:4 powerful:1 united:27 one:11 several:7 great:6 power:12 world:27 establishment:5 achieve:1 pursue:3 hegemonic:1 like:2 ambition:3 recent:5 maker:1 may:2 see:7 adhere:1 realist:1 rather:2 liberal:1 school:1 international:42 theory:3 thus:2 sharp:3 contrast:2 former:5 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5,207 | Alexandrists | The Alexandrists were a school of Renaissance philosophers who, in the great controversy on the subject of personal immortality, adopted the explanation of the De Anima given by Alexander of Aphrodisias. According to the orthodox Thomism of the Roman Catholic Church, Aristotle rightly regarded reason as a facility of the individual soul. Against this, the Averroists, led by Agostino Nifo, introduced the modifying theory that universal reason in a sense individualizes itself in each soul and then absorbs the active reason into itself again. These two theories respectively evolved the doctrine of individual and universal immortality, or the absorption of the individual into the eternal One. The Alexandrists, led by Pietro Pomponazzi, boldly assailed these beliefs and denied that either was rightly attributed to Aristotle. They held that Aristotle considered the soul as a material and therefore a mortal entity which operates during life only under the authority of universal reason. Hence the Alexandrists denied the possibility of any form of immortality, holding that, since the soul is organically connected with the body, the dissolution of the latter involves the extinction of the former. References | Alexandrists |@lemmatized alexandrists:3 school:1 renaissance:1 philosopher:1 great:1 controversy:1 subject:1 personal:1 immortality:3 adopt:1 explanation:1 de:1 anima:1 give:1 alexander:1 aphrodisia:1 accord:1 orthodox:1 thomism:1 roman:1 catholic:1 church:1 aristotle:3 rightly:2 regarded:1 reason:4 facility:1 individual:3 soul:4 averroists:1 lead:2 agostino:1 nifo:1 introduce:1 modifying:1 theory:2 universal:3 sense:1 individualize:1 absorb:1 active:1 two:1 respectively:1 evolve:1 doctrine:1 absorption:1 eternal:1 one:1 pietro:1 pomponazzi:1 boldly:1 assail:1 belief:1 deny:2 either:1 attribute:1 hold:2 consider:1 material:1 therefore:1 mortal:1 entity:1 operate:1 life:1 authority:1 hence:1 possibility:1 form:1 since:1 organically:1 connect:1 body:1 dissolution:1 latter:1 involve:1 extinction:1 former:1 reference:1 |@bigram alexander_aphrodisia:1 |
5,208 | Intel_80486SX | Intel i486 SX 25MHz Pin side of an Intel i486 SX The Intel's i486SX was a modified Intel 486DX microprocessor with its floating-point unit (FPU) disconnected. All early 486SX chips were actually i486DX chips with a defective FPU. If testing showed that the central processing unit was working but the FPU was defective, the FPU's power and bus connections were destroyed with a laser and the chip was sold cheaper as an SX; if the FPU worked it was sold as a DX. Computer Manufacturers that used these processors include Packard Bell, Compaq and IBM. Back in the early 1990s it wasn't advantageous for most users to have a FPU. On one hand, many typical applications like word processing and email do not use floating point operations. On the other hand, those involved in heavy computer gaming or mathematical work generally benefit from a FPU. Some systems allowed the user to upgrade the i486SX to a CPU with a FPU. The FPU upgrade device was shipped as the i487, which was a full blown i486DX chip with an extra pin. The i487 was installed in an upgrade socket and the extra pin was either a power or ground pin that indicated that the i487 was installed. That signal was used to disable the i486SX when the i487 was installed. Although i486SX devices were not used at all when the i487 was installed, they were hard to remove because the i486SX was installed in non-ZIF sockets or in a plastic package that was surface mounted on the motherboard. References External links Intel 80486SX images and descriptions at cpu-collection.de | Intel_80486SX |@lemmatized intel:5 sx:3 pin:4 side:1 modified:1 microprocessor:1 float:2 point:2 unit:2 fpu:9 disconnect:1 early:2 chip:4 actually:1 defective:2 test:1 show:1 central:1 processing:2 work:3 power:2 bus:1 connection:1 destroy:1 laser:1 sell:2 cheaper:1 dx:1 computer:2 manufacturer:1 use:4 processor:1 include:1 packard:1 bell:1 compaq:1 ibm:1 back:1 advantageous:1 user:2 one:1 hand:2 many:1 typical:1 application:1 like:1 word:1 email:1 operation:1 involve:1 heavy:1 game:1 mathematical:1 generally:1 benefit:1 system:1 allow:1 upgrade:3 cpu:2 device:2 ship:1 full:1 blown:1 extra:2 instal:5 socket:2 either:1 ground:1 indicate:1 signal:1 disable:1 although:1 hard:1 remove:1 non:1 zif:1 plastic:1 package:1 surface:1 mount:1 motherboard:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 image:1 description:1 collection:1 de:1 |@bigram intel_microprocessor:1 full_blown:1 external_link:1 |
5,209 | Open_content | Open content, a neologism coined by analogy with "open source", describes any kind of creative work, or content, published in a format that explicitly allows copying and modifying of its information by anyone, not exclusively by a closed organization, firm or individual. The largest open content project is Wikipedia. Technical definition The Open Knowledge Foundation has undertaken work on a technical definition for open content. The Open Knowledge Definition (OKD) gives a set of conditions for openness in knowledge - much as the Open Source Definition does for open-source software. Content can be either in the public domain or under a license which allows re-distribution and re-use, such as Creative Commons Attribution and Attribution-Sharealike licenses or the GFDL. It is worth noting that the OKD covers open data as well as open content. History It is possible that the first documented case of open content was the Royal Society, which aspired to share information across the globe as a public enterprise. The term "open content" was first used in the modern context by David Wiley, then a graduate student at Brigham Young University, who founded the Open Content Project and put together the first content-specific (non-software) license in 1998, with input from Eric Raymond, Tim O'Reilly, and others. Free content As with the terms "open source" and "free software", some open content materials can also be described as "free content", although technically they describe different things. For example, the Open Directory Project is open content but is not free content. The main difference between licenses is the definition of freedom: some licenses attempt to maximize the freedom of all potential recipients in the future while others maximize the freedom of the initial recipient. Common content The related term "common content" is occasionally used to refer to Creative Commons–licensed works. This takes after the Common Content project, which is an attempt to collect as many such works as possible. Open access "Open access" refers to a special category of material, consisting of freely available published peer-reviewed journal articles. Open-content search engines With the increased interest in open content, many universities have started offering online video/audio courses to the general public, such as Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Princeton University. This has resulted in a great increase in providers of open content. The difficulty of keeping track of all such content had led to the birth of open-content search engines. Licenses Creative Commons licenses (11 versions) Design Science License Free Creations License (see freecreations.org) GNU Free Documentation License Open Content License Open Directory Project License — used by the Open Directory Project Open Gaming License — license of the Open Gaming Foundation, as drafted by Wizards of the Coast Open Publication License — license of the Open Content Project See also Digital freedom Free content Open source Open Data Open catalogue References External links IOSN Open Content e-Primer — from their FOSS e-Primers Section "Community Created Content; Law, Business and Policy," by Hietanen, Oksanen and Välimäki "A Guide To Open Content Licences," by Lawrence Liang Creative Commons — the open content idea and creative works ibiblio — the open content idea as a library, from a project by UNC–Chapel Hill Learning the lesson: open content licensing — history of open content from Linux Weekly News Open Access Bibliography: Liberating Scholarly Literature with E-Prints and Open Access Journals Open Knowledge Definition: Defining the Open in Open Data, Open Content and Open Information — set of principles from the Open Knowledge Foundation Major open content repositories and directories OpenCourseWare Consortium — portal linking to free and openly licensed course materials from hundreds of universities worldwide MIT OpenCourseWare — free and openly licensed course materials from more than 1,800 MIT courses Connexions — global open-content repository started by Rice University OER Commons — network of open teaching and learning materials, with ratings and reviews Google Directory – Open Content OpenLearn — free and open educational resources from The Open University Comprehensive Knowledge Archive Network (CKAN) — directory/registry of open data/content packages and projects UNESCO Open Training Platform — network for international development issues Open ICEcat catalog — worldwide open catalog for product information | Open_content |@lemmatized open:57 content:38 neologism:1 coin:1 analogy:1 source:5 describe:3 kind:1 creative:6 work:5 publish:2 format:1 explicitly:1 allow:2 copying:1 modifying:1 information:4 anyone:1 exclusively:1 closed:1 organization:1 firm:1 individual:1 large:1 project:9 wikipedia:1 technical:2 definition:6 knowledge:6 foundation:3 undertake:1 okd:2 give:1 set:2 condition:1 openness:1 much:1 software:3 either:1 public:3 domain:1 license:20 distribution:1 use:4 common:8 attribution:2 sharealike:1 gfdl:1 worth:1 note:1 cover:1 data:4 well:1 history:2 possible:2 first:3 documented:1 case:1 royal:1 society:1 aspire:1 share:1 across:1 globe:1 enterprise:1 term:3 modern:1 context:1 david:1 wiley:1 graduate:1 student:1 brigham:1 young:1 university:6 found:1 put:1 together:1 specific:1 non:1 input:1 eric:1 raymond:1 tim:1 reilly:1 others:2 free:10 material:5 also:2 although:1 technically:1 different:1 thing:1 example:1 directory:6 main:1 difference:1 freedom:4 attempt:2 maximize:2 potential:1 recipient:2 future:1 initial:1 related:1 occasionally:1 refer:1 take:1 collect:1 many:2 access:4 refers:1 special:1 category:1 consist:1 freely:1 available:1 peer:1 review:2 journal:2 article:1 search:2 engine:2 increase:2 interest:1 start:2 offer:1 online:1 video:1 audio:1 course:4 general:1 massachusetts:1 institute:1 technology:1 princeton:1 result:1 great:1 provider:1 difficulty:1 keep:1 track:1 lead:1 birth:1 version:1 design:1 science:1 creation:1 see:2 freecreations:1 org:1 gnu:1 documentation:1 game:1 gaming:1 draft:1 wizard:1 coast:1 publication:1 digital:1 catalogue:1 reference:1 external:1 link:2 iosn:1 e:3 primer:2 fo:1 section:1 community:1 create:1 law:1 business:1 policy:1 hietanen:1 oksanen:1 välimäki:1 guide:1 licence:1 lawrence:1 liang:1 idea:2 ibiblio:1 library:1 unc:1 chapel:1 hill:1 learn:1 lesson:1 linux:1 weekly:1 news:1 bibliography:1 liberating:1 scholarly:1 literature:1 print:1 define:1 principle:1 major:1 repository:2 opencourseware:2 consortium:1 portal:1 openly:2 hundred:1 worldwide:2 mit:2 connexion:1 global:1 rice:1 oer:1 network:3 teaching:1 learning:1 rating:1 google:1 openlearn:1 educational:1 resource:1 comprehensive:1 archive:1 ckan:1 registry:1 package:1 unesco:1 training:1 platform:1 international:1 development:1 issue:1 icecat:1 catalog:2 product:1 |@bigram brigham_young:1 eric_raymond:1 peer_review:1 external_link:1 mit_opencourseware:1 |
5,210 | Military_of_Mauritius | Mauritius does not have a standing army. All military, police, and security functions are carried out by 10,000 active-duty personnel under the command of the Commissioner of Police. The 8,000-member National Police is responsible for domestic law enforcement. The 1,500-member Special Mobile Force (SMF) and the 500-member National Coast Guard are the only two paramilitary units in Mauritius. Both units are composed of police officers on lengthy rotations to those services. The SMF is organized as a ground infantry unit, with six rifle companies, two mobilisable paramilitary companies, and one engineer company, according to the IISS Military Balance 2007. It engages extensively in civic works projects. The Coast Guard has four patrol craft for search-and-rescue missions and surveillance of territorial waters. A 100-member police helicopter squadron assists in search-and-rescue operations. There also is a special supporting unit of 270 members trained in riot control. The MCGS Vigilant, the flagship of the Coast Guard of Mauritius, berthed in the harbour of Port Louis. Military advisers from the United Kingdom and India work with the SMF, the Coast Guard, and the Police Helicopter Unit, and Mauritian police officers are trained in the United Kingdom, India, and France. The United States provides training to Mauritian Coast Guard officers in such fields as seamanship and maritime law enforcement. Military branches: National Police Force (includes the paramilitary Special Mobile Force or SMF, and National Coast Guard) Military manpower - availability: males age 15-49: 340,050 (2002 est.) Military manpower - fit for military service: males age 15-49: 171,239 (2002 est.) Military expenditures - dollar figure: $9.1 million (FY01) Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 0.2% (FY01) Navy 1 Vigilant patrol ship - 1,650 tons full load - commissioned 1996 1 SDB MK 3 patrol boat - 210 tons full load - commissioned 1984 2 Zhuk patrol craft - 39 tons full load 1 P-2000 patrol craft - 40 tons full load 22 other boats - 2-6 tons full load References and links IISS Military Balance 2007 | Military_of_Mauritius |@lemmatized mauritius:3 standing:1 army:1 military:10 police:8 security:1 function:1 carry:1 active:1 duty:1 personnel:1 command:1 commissioner:1 member:5 national:4 responsible:1 domestic:1 law:2 enforcement:2 special:3 mobile:2 force:3 smf:4 coast:6 guard:6 two:2 paramilitary:3 unit:5 compose:1 officer:3 lengthy:1 rotation:1 service:2 organize:1 ground:1 infantry:1 six:1 rifle:1 company:3 mobilisable:1 one:1 engineer:1 accord:1 iiss:2 balance:2 engage:1 extensively:1 civic:1 work:2 project:1 four:1 patrol:5 craft:3 search:2 rescue:2 mission:1 surveillance:1 territorial:1 water:1 helicopter:2 squadron:1 assist:1 operation:1 also:1 support:1 train:2 riot:1 control:1 mcg:1 vigilant:2 flagship:1 berth:1 harbour:1 port:1 louis:1 adviser:1 united:3 kingdom:2 india:2 mauritian:2 france:1 state:1 provide:1 training:1 field:1 seamanship:1 maritime:1 branch:1 include:1 manpower:2 availability:1 male:2 age:2 est:2 fit:1 expenditure:1 dollar:1 figure:1 million:1 expenditures:1 percent:1 gdp:1 navy:1 ship:1 ton:5 full:5 load:5 commissioned:2 sdb:1 mk:1 boat:2 zhuk:1 p:1 reference:1 link:1 |@bigram iiss_military:2 patrol_craft:3 manpower_availability:1 manpower_fit:1 military_expenditures:1 expenditures_percent:1 load_commissioned:2 patrol_boat:1 |
5,211 | Cultural_movement | A cultural movement is a change in the way a number of different disciplines approach their work. This embodies all art forms, the sciences, and philosophies. Historically, different nations or regions of the world have gone through their own independent sequence of movements in culture, but as world communications have accelerated this geographical distinction has become less distinct. When cultural movements go through revolutions from one to the next, genres tend to get attacked and mixed up, and often new genres are generated and old ones fade. These changes are often reactions against the prior cultural form, which typically has grown stale and repetitive. An obsession emerges among the mainstream with the new movement, and the old one falls into neglect - sometimes it dies out entirely, but often it chugs along favored in a few disciplines and occasionally making reappearances (sometimes prefixed with "neo-"). There is continual argument over the precise definition of each of these periods, and one historian might group them differently, or choose different names or descriptions. As well, even though in many cases the popular change from one to the next can be swift and sudden, the beginning and end of movements are somewhat subjective, as the movements did not spring fresh into existence out of the blue and did not come to an abrupt end and lose total support, as would be suggested by a date range. Thus use of the term "period" is somewhat deceptive. "Period" also suggests a linearity of development, whereas it has not been uncommon for two or more distinctive cultural approaches to be active at the same time. Historians will be able to find distinctive traces of a cultural movement before its accepted beginning, and there will always be new creations in old forms. So it can be more useful to think in terms of broad "movements" that have rough beginnings and endings. Yet for historical perspective, some rough date ranges will be provided for each to indicate the "height" or accepted timespan of the movement. Cultural movements Graeco-Roman The Greek culture marked a departure from the other Mediterranean cultures that preceded and surrounded it. The Romans adopted Greek and other styles, and spread the result throughout Europe and the Middle East. Together, Greek and Roman thought in philosophy, religion, science, history, and all forms of thought can be viewed as a central underpinning of Western culture, and is therefore termed the "Classical period" by some. Others might divide it into the Hellenistic period and the Roman period, or might choose other finer divisions. See: Classical architecture — Classical sculpture — Greek architecture — Hellenistic architecture — Ionic — Doric — Corinthian — Stoicism — Cynicism — Epicurean — Roman architecture — Early Christian — Neoplatonism Romanesque (11th century & 12th centuries) A style (esp. architectural) similar in form and materials to Roman styles. Romanesque seems to be the first pan-European style since Roman Imperial Architecture and examples are found in every part of the continent. See: Romanesque architecture — Ottonian Art Gothic (mid 12th cy until mid 15th cy) See: Gothic architecture — Gregorian chant — Neoplatonism Nominalism Rejects Platonic realism as a requirement for thinking and speaking in general terms. Humanism (1500s) Renaissance The use of light, shadow, and perspective to more accurately represent life. Because of how fundamentally these ideas were felt to alter so much of life, some have referred to it as the "Golden Age". In reality it was less an "Age" and more of a movement in popular philosophy, science, and thought that spread over Europe (and probably other parts of the world), over time, and affected different aspects of culture at different points in time. Very roughly, the following periods can be taken as indicative of place/time foci of the Renaissance: Italian Renaissance 1450–1550. Spanish Renaissance 1550-1587. English Renaissance 1588–1629. Mannerism Anti-classicist movement that sought to emphasize the feeling of the artist himself. See: Mannerism/Art Baroque Emphasizes power and authority, characterized by intricate detail and without the "disturbing angst" of Mannerism. Essentially is exaggerated Classicism to promote and glorify the Church and State. Occupied with notions of infinity. See: Baroque art — Baroque music Rococo Neoclassical (17th–19th centuries) Severe, unemotional movement recalling Roman and Greek ("classical") style, reacting against the overbred Rococo style and the emotional Baroque style. It stimulated revival of classical thinking, and had especially profound effects on science and politics. Also had a direct influence on Academic Art in the 1800s. Beginning in the early 1600s with Cartesian thought (see René Descartes), this movement provided philosophical frameworks for the natural sciences, sought to determine the principles of knowledge by rejecting all things previously believed to be known about the world. In Renaissance Classicism attempts are made to recreate the classic artforms — tragedy, comedy, and farce. See also: Weimar Classicism Age of Enlightenment (1688-1789): Reason (rationalism) seen as the ideal. Romanticism (1770–1830) Began in Germany and spread to England and France as a reaction against Neoclassicism and against the Age of Enlightenment.. The notion of "folk genius", or an inborn and intuitive ability to do magnificent things, is a core principle of the Romantic movement. Nostalgia for the primitive past in preference to the scientifically minded present. Romantic heroes, exemplified by Napoleon, are popular. Fascination with the past leads to a resurrection of interest in the Gothic period. It did not really replace the Neoclassical movement so much as provide a counterbalance; many artists sought to join both styles in their works. See: Symbolism Realism (1830–1905) Ushered in by the Industrial Revolution and growing Nationalism in the world. Began in France. Attempts to portray the speech and mannerisms of everyday people in everyday life. Tends to focus on middle class social and domestic problems. Plays by Ibsen are an example. Naturalism evolved from Realism, following it briefly in art and more enduringly in theatre, film, and literature. Impressionism, based on 'scientific' knowledge and discoveries concerns observing nature and reality objectively. See: Post-impressionism — Neo-impressionism — Pointillism — Pre-Raphaelite Art Nouveau (1880–1905) Decorative, symbolic art See: Transcendentalism Modernism (1880–1965) Also known as the Avant-garde movement. Originating in the 19th century with Symbolism, the Modernist movement composed itself of a wide range of 'isms' that ran in contrast to Realism and that sought out the underlying fundamentals of art and philosophy. The Jazz age and Hollywood emerge and have their hey-days. See: Fauvism — Cubism — Futurism — Suprematism — Dada — Constructivism — Surrealism — Expressionism — Existentialism — Op Art — Art Deco — Bauhaus — Neo-Plasticism — Precisionism — Abstract expressionism — New Realism — Color field painting — Fluxus — Hard-edge painting — Pop Art — Photorealism — Minimalism — Postminimalism — Lyrical Abstraction — Situationism Postmodernism (since c.1965) A reaction to Modernism, in a way, Postmodernism largely discards the notion that artists should seek pure fundamentals, often questioning whether such fundamentals even exist - or suggestion that if they do exist, they may be irrelevant. It is exemplified by movements such as deconstructivism, conceptual art, etc. See: Postmodern philosophy — Postmodern music — Postmodern art Post-postmodernism (since c.1990) See also Art styles, periods and movements List of art movements Critical theory Cultural imperialism History of philosophy Postliterate society Periodization Social movement Hungryalism External links Alphabetical list of some movements, styles, discoveries and facts on the World History Timeline chart | Cultural_movement |@lemmatized cultural:7 movement:23 change:3 way:2 number:1 different:5 discipline:2 approach:2 work:2 embody:1 art:16 form:5 science:5 philosophy:6 historically:1 nation:1 region:1 world:6 go:2 independent:1 sequence:1 culture:5 communication:1 accelerate:1 geographical:1 distinction:1 become:1 less:2 distinct:1 revolution:2 one:5 next:2 genre:2 tend:2 get:1 attacked:1 mixed:1 often:4 new:4 generate:1 old:3 fade:1 reaction:3 prior:1 typically:1 grow:2 stale:1 repetitive:1 obsession:1 emerge:2 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5,212 | Jerry_Pournelle | Jerry Eugene Pournelle (born August 7, 1933) is an American science fiction writer, essayist and journalist who contributed for many years to the computer magazine Byte and has since 1998 been maintaining his own website/blog. From the beginning, Pournelle's work has engaged strong military themes. Several books are centered on a fictional mercenary infantry force known as Falkenberg's Legion. There are strong parallels between these stories and the Childe Cycle mercenary stories by Gordon R. Dickson, as well as Heinlein's Starship Troopers, although Pournelle's work takes far fewer technological leaps than either of these. Pournelle was one of the few close friends of H. Beam Piper and was granted by Piper the rights to produce stories set in Piper's Terro-Human Future History. This right has been recognized by the copyright owner of the Piper estate. Pournelle did work for some years on a sequel to Space Viking but seems to have abandoned this twenty years or so ago. He has served as President of the Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America. Biography Pournelle was born in Shreveport, the seat of Caddo Parish in northwestern Louisiana, and educated in Capleville, Tennessee. The View from Chaos Manor, June 20, 2003 He served in the U.S. Army during the Korean War. Afterwards, he obtained advanced degrees: M.S. degrees in both experimental statistics and systems engineering, and Ph.D. degrees in both psychology and political science, all from the University of Washington. He acquired political experience by serving as Executive Assistant to the Mayor and Director of Research for the City of Los Angeles, campaign manager for Congressman Barry Goldwater, Jr. (Rep.), and campaign manager for the third (successful) campaign for Mayor Samuel William Yorty (Dem.). Pournelle was an intellectual protege of Russell Kirk (Kenneth C. Cole, Pournelle's mentor at the University of Washington, was co-founder with Kirk of Modern Age) and Stefan T. Possony with whom Pournelle wrote numerous publications including The Strategy of Technology, onetime textbook at the United States Military Academy (West Point) and the United States Air Force Academy (Colorado Springs). His work in the aerospace industry includes editing Project 75, a 1964 study of 1975 defense requirements. He worked in operations research at Boeing, The Aerospace Corporation, and North American Rockwell Space Division, and was founding President of the Pepperdine Research Institute. As of early 2008, Dr. Pournelle has been battling a brain tumor, which appears to be responding favorably to radiation treatment. View 502 January 21 - 27, 2008 As of 28 August, 2008 he is cancer-free according to a report on his blog. Bibliography Pournelle began fiction writing non-SF work under a pseudonym in 1965. His early SF was published as "Wade Curtis", in Analog and other magazines. Some SF novels under his own name (sometimes rendered as "J.E. Pournelle") include: A Spaceship for the King (1973) part of the CoDominium series King David's Spaceship (1980) an expanded version of A Spaceship for the King - peripherally linked to the Motie subseries The Endless Frontier (1979) Janissaries series composed of: (unfinished series) Janissaries (1979) Tran (1996) (with Roland J. Green) (omnibus of the second and third novels in the Janissaries series) Clan and Crown: Janissaries II (1982) (with Roland Green) Storms of Victory: Janissaries III (1987) (with Roland Green) Mamelukes: Janissaries IV (work in progress) The Falkenberg's Legion subseries of the CoDominium series The Prince (2002) omnibus edition of the Falkenberg's Legion series Prince of Mercenaries (1989) Falkenberg's Legion (1990) omnibus edition of West of Honor and The Mercenary West of Honor (1976) The Mercenary (1977) Go Tell the Spartans (1991) Prince of Sparta (1993) Fires of Freedom (2009) Birth of Fire and King David's Spaceship in one volume. In the mid-1970s, Pournelle began a fruitful collaboration with Larry Niven: The Mote in God's Eye (1974) (part of the CoDominium series, and the Motie subseries) Inferno (1976) Escape from Hell (sequel to Inferno, 2009) Lucifer's Hammer (1977) Oath of Fealty (1982) Footfall (1985) The Legacy of Heorot (1987), with Steven Barnes The Gripping Hand (1991), the sequel to The Mote in God's Eye (part of the CoDominium series, and the Motie subseries) Fallen Angels (1991) with 2003 Heinlein Award winner Michael Flynn The Dragons of Heorot AKA Beowulf's Children (1995), with Steven Barnes; the sequel to The Legacy of Heorot The Burning City (2000) Burning Tower (2005). Burning Mountain (in the planning stages). In 1985, Footfall, in which Robert A. Heinlein was a thinly veiled minor character, reached the number one spot on The New York Times bestseller list. Another bestseller, Lucifer's Hammer (1977), reached number two. Fallen Angels won the Prometheus Award in 1992 for Best Novel and Japan's Seiun Award for Foreign Novel in 1998. Journalism Pournelle wrote the "Chaos Manor" column in the print version of Byte, beginning in January 1982. In the column, Pournelle described his experiences with computer hardware and software, some purchased and some sent by vendors for his review. After the print version of Byte ended publication in the United States, Pournelle continued publishing the column for the online version and international print editions of Byte. In July 2006, Pournelle and Byte declined to renew their contract and Pournelle moved the column to his own web site, Chaos Manor Reviews. In the 1980s, Pournelle was an editor and columnist for Survive, a survivalist magazine. Notes from a Survival Sage Since 1998, Pournelle has maintained a website with a daily online journal, "View from Chaos Manor", in effect a blog dating from before the use of that term. This is a continuation of his 1980s blog-like online journal on GEnie. He says he resists using blog because he considers the word ugly and because he maintains that his "View" is primarily a vehicle for writing rather than a collection of links. Humor is an important part of his journalistic output. He wrote of an incident when he and his wife drove to Baja California to witness a total solar eclipse. Driving a rugged trail to a mountain top, the better to see the umbra approaching at hundreds of miles per hour, they found another vehicle there. Parking next to it, Mrs. Roberta Pournelle rolled down a window and asked "Pardon me, do you have any Grey Poupon." Humorist Dave Barry gives accolades to Pournelle's guru column in Byte magazine in Dave Barry in Cyberspace. Politics In a 1997 article Norman Spinrad wrote that Pournelle had written the SDI portion of Ronald Reagan's State of the Union Address, as part of a plan to use SDI to get more money for space exploration, using the larger defense budget. Pournelle wrote in response that while the Citizens' Advisory Council on National Space Policy "wrote parts of Reagan's 1983 SDI speech, and provided much of the background for the policy, we certainly did not write the speech ... We were not trying to boost space, we were trying to win the Cold War". The Council's first report [1980] became the transition team policy paper on space for the incoming Reagan administration. The third report was certainly quoted in the Reagan "Star Wars" speech. Pournelle opposed both Gulf Wars, maintaining that the money would be better spent developing energy technologies for the United States. He is quoted as saying "with what we spent in Iraq we could build nuclear power plants and space solar power satellites and tell the Arabs to drink their oil." His web site is critical of the Iraq War, but demands support of troops committed there. "Once you send the troops in, you have no choice but to give them what they need until you bring them home." Pournelle is also known for his Pournelle chart, a 2-dimensional coordinate system used to distinguish political ideologies. It is similar to the Nolan chart, except that the X-axis gauges opinion toward state and centralized government (farthest right being state worship, farthest left being the idea of a state as the "ultimate evil"), and the Y-axis measures the belief that all problems in society have rational solutions. (top being complete confidence in planning, bottom being its total lack). Pournelle has popularized a law, which he calls Pournelle's Iron Law of Bureaucracy: In any bureaucracy, the people devoted to the benefit of the bureaucracy itself always get in control and those dedicated to the goals the bureaucracy is supposed to accomplish have less and less influence, and sometimes are eliminated entirely. Also stated as: ...in any bureaucratic organization there will be two kinds of people: those who work to further the actual goals of the organization, and those who work for the organization itself. Examples in education would be teachers who work and sacrifice to teach children, vs. union representative who work to protect any teacher including the most incompetent. The Iron Law states that in all cases, the second type of person will always gain control of the organization, and will always write the rules under which the organization functions. His "blog", "The View from Chaos Manor", often references apparent examples of the law. Pournelle's first use of the term "Pournelle's law" appears to be for the expression "one user, one CPU." He has also used "Pournelle's law" to apply to the importance of checking cables connections when diagnosing computer problems. Contrarian scientific views Pournelle has expressed support for several viewpoints that differ from the general scientific consensus. These include skepticism on a significant human contribution to global warming and on evolution, and he has advocated research to directly investigate Peter Duesberg's controversial views on the cause of AIDS. He emphasizes that in some cases, particularly when the effects of wrong decisions could be disastrous, contrarian research by competent researchers is valuable as insurance. Although claiming not to be a proponent of Intelligent design, he argues (in opposition to many critics) that it can generate falsifiable hypotheses that contribute to the understanding of evolution. He regards proposals to teach Intelligent Design in public schools as less damaging to education than the expert-dominated, centralized educational systems he sees as a prerequisite for banning such proposals. Politics in fiction Pournelle is a member of noted writer Steve Sailer's "Human Biodiversity Institute." Recurrent themes This is a list of some of Pournelle's pet themes that recur in the stories. Welfare States become self perpetuating. In fact, the officials of a Welfare State, perceiving that their jobs require a supply of "clients" needing State aid, eventually become adept at making sure that there are always people in need. To do this, they either adopt policies that promote poverty and dependence, or stretch existing classifications to bring more "clients" into the Welfare system. Building a technological society requires a strong defense and the rule of law. Even if large scale war is not a threat, many small scale conflicts (Terrorism) can disrupt a society, especially if encouraged and supplied from outside. Even a country such as Sweden, which combines a high level of technological achievement and liberal social policies, maintains a strong military that uses Swedish-manufactured technology. "Those who forget history are condemned to repeat it." Pournelle uses history as a source of warnings about the consequences of certain policies, and of examples of effective military organization and tactics. These concepts are part of the basic underlying structure of the Pournelle Universe, at least as much as the physics which enable Faster-Than-Light travel or the engineering which goes into the weapons used by military protagonists. In the books and stories, protagonists (individuals, groups, whole cultures) who abide by such rules are likely to succeed and those who ignore or flout them are usually doomed to failure, sometimes very messy and painful failure. Examples in fiction In The Mercenary, later integrated into Falkenberg's Legion, the newly-independent planet Hadley is threatened with economic collapse, famine, and resulting mass death. This can only be avoided by having a large part of its city population relocated to the countryside and assigned to work in agriculture. This solution is unpopular, and the leading Freedom Party won't hear of it. The party uses bloody, violent means to force the planet's President to resign and get themselves into power. The story's protagonist, mercenary commander John Christian Falkenberg, finds what he considers a brutal but unavoidable solution: in order to force the city people to move to the countryside, the Freedom Party must be completely crushed, in however bloody a way - as the other alternative is a total economic collapse in which at least a third of the population would perish. Accordingly, he gets his soldiers into the stadium where the Freedom Party holds its rally, catching its members by complete surprise. His men break the disorganized resistance and proceed to systematically kill the armed militants and party leaders. Mission completed, Falkenberg hands over power to a well-meaning liberal who hitherto could only wring his hands in despair, and departs the planet. Falkenberg freely offers to use himself and his men as scapegoats, since "nobody is going to forget what happened today". Pournelle clearly set up the situation leading to such a climax to illustrate his opinion that in some situations a brutal solution is unavoidable, and that those willing to implement such a solution unflinchingly should be considered heroes. The climax and perhaps some of the politics are borrowed from Fletcher Pratt's The Battles That Changed History, specifically "Fighting in the Streets and the Future of Order." Justinian the Great suppressed a revolt in Constantinople by seeming to capitulate, and then sending in Belisarius with reliable mercenaries to butcher the celebrating faction in the Hippodrome together with their leaders. This incident is formally known as the Nika riots. In Footfall, elephant-like alien invaders seize a foothold in Kansas. Unable to dislodge them with conventional weapons, the US government finally resorts to annihilating Kansas with nuclear weapons-- killing aliens and humans alike. Later, when the aliens continue their offensive, the President authorizes the construction of a spaceship powered by nuclear explosions; the dangerous technology is presented as the only viable technology available to humans for powering a space warship. Safety, environmental and civil rights protections are suspended in the construction area. An investigative journalist discovers the Orion ship. Wrestling with whether to reveal the scoop of the century to the world (and therefore alerting the alien invaders as well), he confides the secret to an environmental activist. Although he does this as protection against being arrested by the government and had not definitively decided to publish, the activist kills him to protect the secret. After the human ship fights the alien mothership to the brink of destruction, the aliens finally attempt to negotiate a surrender. The President expresses his willingness to accept a peaceful settlement. Unwilling to spare the enemy mothership for a mere promise from the alien leader, the National Security Advisor seizes control of the government and refuses the alien's terms. The aliens immediately turn their ship over to human control and offer their unconditional surrender. The book ends with this, leaving the question of whether the surrender is accepted or the aliens exterminated unresolved. In Lucifer's Hammer, the world is thrown into total chaos by the disastrous strike of a comet. In the wreckage of central California, a coalition of US Army deserters, Black Power activists, militant environmentalists, and evangelical religious fanatics take up cannibalism and pursue an anti-technological crusade against the remaining enclaves of civilization. When a farming community is attacked by this group, the settlers are forced to counter the invading army's superior numbers, fanaticism and weapons with home-brewed chemical weapons (mustard gas). The farmers successfully use this weapon of mass destruction to annihilate their enemies, enslaving the survivors. High Justice is a collection of seven stories, all of which have as protagonists the agents and executives of multinational corporations (upgraded to multi-planetary corporations in the later stories) who work to defend their corporation's business interests in ways both fair or foul in various science-fictional settings. Bibliography Non-fiction Stability and national security (Air Force Directorate of Doctrines, Concepts and Objectives) (1968) The Strategy of Technology with Stephan T. Possony, Ph.D. and Francis X. Kane, Ph.D. (1970) available at A Step Farther Out: The Velikovsky Affair. Galaxy Science Fiction, February 1975, pp. 74–84. A Step Farther Out (1981) The users guide to small computers (1984) Mutually Assured Survival (1984) Adventures in Microland (1985) Guide to Disc Operating System and Easy Computing (1989) Pournelle's PC Communications Bible: The Ultimate Guide to Productivity With a Modem with Michael Banks (1992) Jerry Pournelle's Guide to DOS and Easy Computing: DOS over Easy (1992) Jerry Pournelle's Windows With an Attitude (1995) PC Hardware: The Definitive Guide (2003) with Bob Thompson 1001 Computer Words You Need to Know (2004) Fiction Birth of Fire (1976) Beowulf's Children (1995) (with Steven Barnes & Larry Niven) also known as The Dragons of Heorot (1995) (UK edition) The Burning City (with Larry Niven) Burning Tower (sequel to The Burning City, with Larry Niven) The Children's Hour (with S. M. Stirling) novelisation of the movie Escape from the Planet of the Apes (1973) Exiles to Glory (1977) Footfall (with Larry Niven) Go Tell The Spartans (with S. M. Stirling) The Gripping Hand (1993) (with Larry Niven) also known as The Moat Around Murcheson's Eye (UK edition) High Justice (1972–1975) The Houses of the Kzinti (with S. M. Stirling and Dean Ing) Inferno (with Larry Niven) Janissaries Janissaries II: Clan and Crown (with Roland J. Green) Janissaries III: Storms of Victory (with Roland J. Green) Janissaries IV: Mamelukes (Unpublished; working title) The Legacy of Heorot (1987) (with Larry Niven & Steven Barnes) Lucifer's Hammer (with Larry Niven) Men of War (1993) The Mercenary (1977) The Mote in God's Eye (with Larry Niven) Oath of Fealty (with Larry Niven) Prince of Mercenaries Prince of Sparta (with S. M. Stirling) Red Heroin (as Wade Curtis) (1965) Red Dragon (as Wade Curtis) (1970) A Spaceship for the King (1973) expanded as King David's Spaceship (1981) Starswarm There Will be War (with John F. Carr), Vols I-XI Tran (with Roland J. Green, single-volume combination of the second and third Janissaries novels) West of Honor (1976) Fallen Angels (with Larry Niven & Michael Flynn) (1991) (Prometheus Award) ISBN 0-7434-3582-6. Electronic edition free at the Baen Free Library Series Heorot CoDominium Janissaries series Other Media This Week in Tech - Dr. Pournelle has appeared a number of times as one of the panelists on the podcast This Week in Tech. Awards Bronze Medal, American Security Council, 1964 John W. Campbell Award for Best New Writer of 1973 Prometheus Award for Fallen Angels 1992 Heinlein Society Award (with frequent co-author Larry Niven) 2005 Heinlein Society 2005 Heinlein Award References External links Chaos Manor Musings, a blog by Jerry Pournelle Jerry Pournelle Facebook group Jerry Pournelle Byte column parody Jerry Pournelle at 1999 NASFiC website where he was GoH How Jerry Pournelle got kicked off the ARPANET Jerry Pournelle Interview at AMCtv.com | Jerry_Pournelle |@lemmatized jerry:9 eugene:1 pournelle:48 bear:2 august:2 american:3 science:5 fiction:8 writer:4 essayist:1 journalist:2 contribute:2 many:3 year:3 computer:5 magazine:4 byte:7 since:3 maintain:5 website:3 blog:7 beginning:1 work:14 engage:1 strong:4 military:5 theme:3 several:2 book:3 center:1 fictional:2 mercenary:10 infantry:1 force:6 know:6 falkenberg:8 legion:5 parallel:1 story:8 childe:1 cycle:1 gordon:1 r:1 dickson:1 well:4 heinlein:6 starship:1 trooper:1 although:3 take:2 far:3 technological:4 leap:1 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5,213 | Li_Bai | Li Bai or Li Po () (701 – 762) was a Chinese poet. He was part of the group of Chinese scholars called the "Eight Immortals of the Wine Cup" in a poem by fellow poet Du Fu. Li Bai is often regarded, along with Du Fu, as one of the two greatest poets in China's literary history. Approximately 1,100 of his poems remain today. The first translations in a Western language were published in 1862 by Marquis d'Hervey de Saint-Denys in his Poésies de l'Époque des Thang. D'Hervey de Saint-Denys (1862). Poésies de l'Époque des Thang (Amyot, Paris). See Minford, John and Lau, Joseph S. M. (2000)). Classic Chinese Literature (Columbia University Press) ISBN 978-0231096768. The English-speaking world was introduced to Li Bai's works by a Herbert Allen Giles publication History of Chinese Literature (1901) and through the liberal, but poetically influential, translations of Japanese versions of his poems made by Ezra Pound. Pound, Ezra (1915). Cathay (Elkin Mathews, London). ASIN B00085NWJI. Li Bai is best known for the extravagant imagination and striking Taoist imagery in his poetry, as well as for his great love for liquor. Like Du Fu, he spent much of his life travelling, although in his case it was because his wealth allowed him to, rather than because his poverty forced him. He is said to have drowned in the Yangtze River, having fallen from his boat while drunkenly trying to embrace the reflection of the moon. Biography Li Bai's birthplace is uncertain, but one candidate is Suiye () in Central Asia (near modern-day Tokmok, Kyrgyzstan). Zhongguo fu li hui, Chung-kuo fu li hui. China Reconstructs. China Welfare Institute, 1989. Page 58. However his family had originally dwelled in what is now southeastern Gansu Two accounts given by contemporaries Li Yangbing (Preface to the Thatched Cottage Collection) and Fan Chuanzheng (Tang's Zuo Sheyi Hanlin Xueshi Li Gong's Xin Mubei Bingxu) stated that his family was originally from what is now southeastern Gansu, as in the Xin Tangshu 215. , and later moved to Jiangyou, near modern Chengdu in Sichuan province, when he was five years old. At the age of ten, his formal education started. Among various schools of classical Chinese philosophies, Taoism was the deepest influence, as demonstrated by his compositions. In 720, he was interviewed by Governor Su Ting, who considered him a genius. Though he expressed the wish to become an official, he could not be bothered to sit for the Chinese civil service examination. Perhaps he considered taking the examination below his dignity. Instead, beginning at age twenty-five, he travelled around China, enjoying liquor and leading a carefree life: very much contrary to the prevailing ideas of a proper Confucian gentleman. His personality fascinated the aristocrats and common people alike, and he was introduced to the Emperor Xuanzong around 742. {| cellpadding=3px cellspacing=0px bgcolor=#f7f8ff style="float:right; border:1px solid; margin:5px" !style="background:#ccf; border-bottom:1px solid" colspan=2|Names |- |align=right|Chinese:|| |- |align=right|Pinyin:|| Lǐ Bái |- |align=right|Wade-Giles:||Li Po or Li Pai |- |align=right|Cantonese:||Léih Baahk |- |align=right|Japanese Rōmaji:||Rihaku |- |align=right|Korean:||이백 or 이태백 |- |align=right|Zì :||Tàibái |- |align=right|Hào :||Qīnglián Jūshì |- |align=right valign=top|aka:||Shīxiān, The Mage of Poems |- |align=right|Vietnamese:||Lý Bạch |} In 725, when he was twenty-five years old, Li Bai sailed down the Yangtze River all the way to Weiyang (Yangzhou) and Jinling (Nanjing). During the first year of his trip, he met celebrities and gave away much of his wealth to needy friends. He then turned back to central southern China, met Xu Yushi, the retired prime minister, married his daughter, and settled down in Anlu, Hubei. In 730, Li Bai stayed in the Zhongnan Mountain near the capital Chang'an (Xi'an), and tried but failed to secure a position. He sailed down the Yellow River, stopped by Luoyang, and visited Taiyuan before going home. In 740, he moved to Shangdong. In 742, he traveled to Zhejiang and befriended a Taoist priest. The same year, he traveled with his friend to the capital. Poet He Zhizhang called Li Bai "the god dismissed from the Heaven" after their initial meeting, and thus the epithet of "the Poem-God". Consequently, he was interviewed by the emperor (Li Longji, but commonly known by his posthumous title Xuanzong), who personally prepared soup for him, and gave him a post at the Hanlin Academy, which served to provide scholarly expertise and poetry for the Emperor. When the emperor ordered Li Bai to the palace, he was drunk, but he improvised on the spot and produced fascinating love poems alluding to the romance between the emperor and Yang Guifei, the favorite concubine. Once, Li Bai was drunk and asked Gao Lishi, the most powerful eunuch in the palace, to take off his boots in front of the emperor. Gao was offended and managed to persuade Yang Guifei to stop the emperor from naming Li Bai for a prominent position. Li Bai gave up hope thereafter and resigned from the academy. Thereafter he wandered throughout China for the rest of his life. He met Du Fu in the autumn of 744, and again the following year. These were the only occasions on which they met, but the friendship remained particularly important for the starstruck Du Fu (a dozen of his poems to or about Li Bai survive, compared to only one by Li Bai to Du Fu). At the time of the An Lushan Rebellion he became involved in a subsidiary revolt against the Emperor, although the extent to which this was voluntary is unclear. The failure of the rebellion resulted in his exile to Yelang. He was pardoned before the exile journey was complete. Finally, Daizong named Li Bai the Registrar of the Left Commandant's office in 762. When the imperial edict arrived in Dangtu, Anhui, Li Bai was already dead. According to legend, he was drowned attempting to embrace the moon's reflection in a river. In reality, Li Bai committed suicide as evidenced by his farewell poem. Poetry Over a thousand poems are attributed to him, but the authenticity of many of these is uncertain. He is best known for his yue fu poems, which are intense and often fantastic. He is often associated with Taoism: there is a strong element of this in his works, both in the sentiments they express and in their spontaneous tone. Nevertheless, his gufeng ("ancient airs") might adopt the perspective of the Confucian moralist. Much like the genius of Mozart, there exist many legends on how effortlessly Li Bai composed his poetry; he was said to be able to compose at an astounding speed, without correction. His favorite form is the jueju (five- or seven-character quatrain), of which he composed some 160 pieces. Li Bai's use of language impresses through his extravagance of imagination and a direct communication of his free-spirited persona with the reader. Li Bai's interactions with nature, friendship, his love of wine and his acute observations of life inform his best poems. Some, like Changgan xing (translated by Ezra Pound as The River Merchant's Wife: A Letter, record the hardships or emotions of common people. He also wrote a number of very oblique, allusive poems on women. In his poems, Li Bai tried to avoid the use of obscure words and historical references. Unlike other ancient Chinese poets such as Du Fu, Li Bai had no need to prove himself to the public; instead, he could afford to concentrate on communicating his genuine feelings to the readers. His ability to create extraordinary out of ordinary was an unusual gift among his contemporaries, and was most likely the reason why he was considered the "Poem-God". The fact that his Chinese nickname was "詩仙" (shīxiān, which translates literally into god of poetry) should itself prove it. The spontaneity of his language combined with the extravagance of his imagination distinguished Li Bai from any other poets in the Chinese history. As one of the many followers of Lao Zi and a practitioner of Taoism in Tang Dynasty (Xuanzong included) and, above all, a free-spirited person, Li Bai paid no respect to Confucius and his ideology. Consequently, he has often been attacked by the Neo-Confucian "moralists," ever since the Song Dynasty. Among the common people in China, however, Li Bai is unquestionably the most beloved figure in Chinese poetry. One of Li Bai's most famous poems is Drinking Alone by Moonlight (, pinyin: Yuè Xià Dú Zhuó), which is a good example of some of the most famous aspects of his poetry -- a very spontaneous poem, full of natural imagery and anthropomorphism. Li Bai actually wrote several poems with the same title; Arthur Waley's version of the most famous reads: Waley, Arthur (1919). "Drinking Alone by Moonlight: Three Poems," More Translations from the Chinese (Alfred A. Knopf, New York), pp. 27-28. Li Bai wrote 3 poems with the same name; Waley published translations of all three. A cup of wine, under the flowering trees; I drink alone, for no friend is near. Raising my cup I beckon the bright moon, For her, with my shadow, will make three people. The moon, alas, is no drinker of wine; Listless, my shadow creeps about at my side. Yet with the moon as friend and the shadow as slave I must make merry before the Spring is spent. To the songs I sing the moon flickers her beams; In the dance I weave my shadow tangles and breaks. While we were sober, three shared the fun; Now we are drunk, each goes their way. May we long share our eternal friendship, And meet at last on the Cloudy River of the sky.Influence Li Bai is influential in the West partly due to Ezra Pound's versions of some of his poems in the collection Cathay, such as The River Merchant's Wife: A Letter. The ideas underlying them had a profound impact in shaping American Imagist and Modernist poetry through the 20th Century. Also, Gustav Mahler integrated four of Li Bai's works in his symphonic song cycle Das Lied von der Erde. These were in a free German translation by Hans Bethge, published in an anthology called (The Chinese Flute), Bethge, Hans (2001). Die Chinesische Flöte (YinYang Media Verlag, Kelkheim, Germany). ISBN 978-3980679954. Re-issue of the 1907 edition (Insel Verlag, Leipzig). Bethge based his version on the pioneering translation into French by Saint-Denys. There is another striking musical setting of Li Po's verse by the American composer Harry Partch, whose Seventeen Lyrics by Li Po for intoning voice and Adapted Viola (an instrument of Partch's own invention) are based on the texts in The Works of Li Po, the Chinese Poet translated by Shigeyoshi Obata. Obata, Shigeyoshi (1923). The Works of Li Po, the Chinese Poet (J. M. Dent & Co, ). ASIN B000KL7LXI. Simon Elegant novelized Li Bai's life in his 1997 work, A Floating Life. Elegant, Simon (1997). A Floating Life (Ecco Press, ). ISBN 978-0880015592 A crater on the planet Mercury has been named after him. In both versions of Epcot's Circle-Vision 360° film in the China pavilion, Li Bai serves as the narrator and guide of the film. See also Modernist poetry in English References Bibliography Cooper, Arthur (1973). Li Po and Tu Fu: Poems Selected and Translated with an Introduction and Notes (Penguin Classics, 1973). ISBN 978-0140442724 . Hinton, David (1998). The Selected Poems of Li Po (Anvil Press Poetry, 1998). ISBN 978-0856462917 . Holyoak, K. (translator) (2007). Facing the Moon: Poems of Li Bai and Du Fu. (Durham, NH: Oyster River Press). ISBN 978-1-882291-04-5. Seth, V. (translator) (1992). Three Chinese Poets: Translations of Poems by Wang Wei, Li Bai, and Du Fu. (London: Faber & Faber). ISBN 0-571-16653-9. Varsano, Paula M. (2003). "Tracking the Banished Immortal: The Poetry of Li Bo and its Critical Reception" (University of Hawaii Press, 2003). ISBN 978-0824825737 Waley, Arthur (1950). The poetry and career of Li Po (MacMillan Co., New York, 1950). ASIN B0006ASTS4. Weinberger, Eliot. The New Directions Anthology of Classical Chinese Poetry''. (New York: New Directions Publishing Corporation, 2004). ISBN 0-8112-1605-5. Introduction, with translations by William Carlos Williams, Ezra Pound, Kenneth Rexroth, Gary Snyder, and David Hinton. External links Online free encyclopedia about Li Bai in Chinese: baike.baidu.com zh.wikipedia.org Online translations (some with original Chinese, pronunciation, and literal translation): www.cscs.umich.edu afpc.asso.fr Li Bai: Poems Extensive collection of Li Bai poems in English Spanish Translations: Li Bai Poetry (Li Po) by Raúl Racedo, Argentina. New English translations of Li Po with traditional characters in Zone Magazine. www.chinese-poems.com 20 Li Bai poems, in Chinese using simplified and traditional characters and pinyin, with literal and literary English translations by Mark Alexander. etext.lib.virginia.edu 34 Li Bai poems, in Chinese with English translation by Witter Bynner, from the Three Hundred Tang Poems anthology. Complete text of Cathay, the Ezra Pound/Ernest Fenollosa translations of poems principally by Li Po (J., Rihaku) together with public domain recordings (MP3) of the same "Li Bai drinking alone (with the moon, his shadow, & 32 translators)" is a comprehensive collection of translations of this poem by an anonymous blogger. Retrieved April 15, 2007. 27 Recordings of "Drinking Alone by Moonlight," from the LibriVox website. Retrieved July 1, 2007. Das Lied von der Erde: The Literary Changes – synopsis of original Chinese poems, Bethge's translations and Mahler's changes Profile Variety of translations of Li Bai's poetry by a range of translators, along with photographs of geographical sites relevant to his life. | Li_Bai |@lemmatized li:61 bai:42 po:12 chinese:23 poet:9 part:1 group:1 scholar:1 call:3 eight:1 immortal:2 wine:4 cup:3 poem:33 fellow:1 du:9 fu:13 often:4 regarded:1 along:2 one:5 two:2 great:2 china:8 literary:3 history:3 approximately:1 remain:2 today:1 first:2 translation:18 western:1 language:3 publish:4 marquis:1 hervey:2 de:6 saint:3 denys:3 poésies:2 l:2 époque:2 thang:2 amyot:1 paris:1 see:2 minford:1 john:1 lau:1 joseph:1 classic:2 literature:2 columbia:1 university:2 press:5 isbn:9 english:6 speaking:1 world:1 introduce:2 work:6 herbert:1 allen:1 giles:2 publication:1 liberal:1 poetically:1 influential:2 japanese:2 version:5 make:3 ezra:6 pound:6 cathay:3 elkin:1 mathews:1 london:2 asin:3 best:3 know:3 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5,214 | Laser | Experiment with a laser (U.S. Air Force). A laser is a device that emits light (electromagnetic radiation) through a process called stimulated emission. The term laser is an acronym for light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation. Laser light is usually spatially coherent, which means that the light either is emitted in a narrow, low-divergence beam, or can be converted into one with the help of optical components such as lenses. Typically, lasers are thought of as emitting light with a narrow wavelength spectrum ("monochromatic" light). This is not true of all lasers, however: some emit light with a broad spectrum, while others emit light at multiple distinct wavelengths simultaneously. The coherence of typical laser emission is distinctive. Most other light sources emit incoherent light, which has a phase that varies randomly with time and position. Terminology From left to right: gamma rays, X-rays, ultraviolet rays, visible spectrum, infrared, microwaves, radio waves. The word laser originated as an acronym for light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation. The word light in this phrase is used in the broader sense, referring to electromagnetic radiation of any frequency, not just that in the visible spectrum. Hence there are infrared lasers, ultraviolet lasers, X-ray lasers, etc. Because the microwave equivalent of the laser, the maser, was developed first, devices that emit microwave and radio frequencies are usually called masers. In early literature, particularly from researchers at Bell Telephone Laboratories, the laser was often called the optical maser. This usage has since become uncommon, and as of 1998 even Bell Labs uses the term laser. The back-formed verb to lase means "to produce laser light" or "to apply laser light to." Dictionary.com - "lase" The word "laser" is sometimes used to describe other non-light technologies. For example, a source of atoms in a coherent state is called an "atom laser." In fiction and popular culture, the variant spelling "lazer" is sometimes seen. Design Principal components:1. Gain medium2. Laser pumping energy3. High reflector4. Output coupler5. Laser beam A laser consists of a gain medium inside a highly reflective optical cavity, as well as a means to supply energy to the gain medium. The gain medium is a material with properties that allow it to amplify light by stimulated emission. In its simplest form, a cavity consists of two mirrors arranged such that light bounces back and forth, each time passing through the gain medium. Typically one of the two mirrors, the output coupler, is partially transparent. The output laser beam is emitted through this mirror. Light of a specific wavelength that passes through the gain medium is amplified (increases in power); the surrounding mirrors ensure that most of the light makes many passes through the gain medium, being amplified repeatedly. Part of the light that is between the mirrors (that is, within the cavity) passes through the partially transparent mirror and escapes as a beam of light. The process of supplying the energy required for the amplification is called pumping. The energy is typically supplied as an electrical current or as light at a different wavelength. Such light may be provided by a flash lamp or perhaps another laser. Most practical lasers contain additional elements that affect properties such as the wavelength of the emitted light and the shape of the beam. Laser physics A helium-neon laser demonstration at the Kastler-Brossel Laboratory at Univ. Paris 6. The glowing ray in the middle is an electric discharge producing light in much the same way as a neon light. It is the gain medium through which the laser passes, not the laser beam itself, which is visible there. The laser beam crosses the air and marks a red point on the screen to the right. Spectrum of a helium neon laser showing the very high spectral purity intrinsic to nearly all lasers. Compare with the relatively broad spectral emittance of a light emitting diode. The gain medium of a laser is a material of controlled purity, size, concentration, and shape, which amplifies the beam by the process of stimulated emission. It can be of any state: gas, liquid, solid or plasma. The gain medium absorbs pump energy, which raises some electrons into higher-energy ("excited") quantum states. Particles can interact with light both by absorbing photons or by emitting photons. Emission can be spontaneous or stimulated. In the latter case, the photon is emitted in the same direction as the light that is passing by. When the number of particles in one excited state exceeds the number of particles in some lower-energy state, population inversion is achieved and the amount of stimulated emission due to light that passes through is larger than the amount of absorption. Hence, the light is amplified. By itself, this makes an optical amplifier. When an optical amplifier is placed inside a resonant optical cavity, one obtains a laser. The light generated by stimulated emission is very similar to the input signal in terms of wavelength, phase, and polarization. This gives laser light its characteristic coherence, and allows it to maintain the uniform polarization and often monochromaticity established by the optical cavity design. The optical cavity, a type of cavity resonator, contains a coherent beam of light between reflective surfaces so that the light passes through the gain medium more than once before it is emitted from the output aperture or lost to diffraction or absorption. As light circulates through the cavity, passing through the gain medium, if the gain (amplification) in the medium is stronger than the resonator losses, the power of the circulating light can rise exponentially. But each stimulated emission event returns a particle from its excited state to the ground state, reducing the capacity of the gain medium for further amplification. When this effect becomes strong, the gain is said to be saturated. The balance of pump power against gain saturation and cavity losses produces an equilibrium value of the laser power inside the cavity; this equilibrium determines the operating point of the laser. If the chosen pump power is too small, the gain is not sufficient to overcome the resonator losses, and the laser will emit only very small light powers. The minimum pump power needed to begin laser action is called the lasing threshold. The gain medium will amplify any photons passing through it, regardless of direction; but only the photons aligned with the cavity manage to pass more than once through the medium and so have significant amplification. The beam in the cavity and the output beam of the laser, if they occur in free space rather than waveguides (as in an optical fiber laser), are, at best, low order Gaussian beams. However this is rarely the case with powerful lasers. If the beam is not a low-order Gaussian shape, the transverse modes of the beam can be described as a superposition of Hermite-Gaussian or Laguerre-Gaussian beams (for stable-cavity lasers). Unstable laser resonators on the other hand, have been shown to produce fractal shaped beams. G.P. Karman, G.S. McDonald, G.H.C. New, J.P. Woerdman, "Laser Optics: Fractal modes in unstable resonators", Nature, Vol. 402, 138, 11 November 1999. The beam may be highly collimated, that is being parallel without diverging. However, a perfectly collimated beam cannot be created, due to diffraction. The beam remains collimated over a distance which varies with the square of the beam diameter, and eventually diverges at an angle which varies inversely with the beam diameter. Thus, a beam generated by a small laboratory laser such as a helium-neon laser spreads to about 1.6 kilometers (1 mile) diameter if shone from the Earth to the Moon. By comparison, the output of a typical semiconductor laser, due to its small diameter, diverges almost as soon as it leaves the aperture, at an angle of anything up to 50°. However, such a divergent beam can be transformed into a collimated beam by means of a lens. In contrast, the light from non-laser light sources cannot be collimated by optics as well. Although the laser phenomenon was discovered with the help of quantum physics, it is not essentially more quantum mechanical than other light sources. The operation of a free electron laser can be explained without reference to quantum mechanics. Modes of operation The output of a laser may be a continuous constant-amplitude output (known as CW or continuous wave); or pulsed, by using the techniques of Q-switching, modelocking, or gain-switching. In pulsed operation, much higher peak powers can be achieved. Some types of lasers, such as dye lasers and vibronic solid-state lasers can produce light over a broad range of wavelengths; this property makes them suitable for generating extremely short pulses of light, on the order of a few femtoseconds (10-15 s). Continuous wave operation In the continuous wave (CW) mode of operation, the output of a laser is relatively constant with respect to time. The population inversion required for lasing is continually maintained by a steady pump source. Pulsed operation In the pulsed mode of operation, the output of a laser varies with respect to time, typically taking the form of alternating 'on' and 'off' periods. In many applications one aims to deposit as much energy as possible at a given place in as short time as possible. In laser ablation for example, a small volume of material at the surface of a work piece might evaporate if it gets the energy required to heat it up far enough in very short time. If, however, the same energy is spread over a longer time, the heat may have time to disperse into the bulk of the piece, and less material evaporates. There are a number of methods to achieve this. Q-switching In a Q-switched laser, the population inversion (usually produced in the same way as CW operation) is allowed to build up by making the cavity conditions (the 'Q') unfavorable for lasing. Then, when the pump energy stored in the laser medium is at the desired level, the 'Q' is adjusted (electro- or acousto-optically) to favourable conditions, releasing the pulse. This results in high peak powers as the average power of the laser (were it running in CW mode) is packed into a shorter time frame. Modelocking A modelocked laser emits extremely short pulses on the order of tens of picoseconds down to less than 10 femtoseconds. These pulses are typically separated by the time that a pulse takes to complete one round trip in the resonator cavity. Due to the Fourier limit (also known as energy-time uncertainty), a pulse of such short temporal length has a spectrum which contains a wide range of wavelengths. Because of this, the laser medium must have a broad enough gain profile to amplify them all. An example of a suitable material is titanium-doped, artificially grown sapphire (Ti:sapphire). The modelocked laser is a most versatile tool for researching processes happening at extremely fast time scales also known as femtosecond physics, femtosecond chemistry and ultrafast science, for maximizing the effect of nonlinearity in optical materials (e.g. in second-harmonic generation, parametric down-conversion, optical parametric oscillators and the like), and in ablation applications. Again, because of the short timescales involved, these lasers can achieve extremely high powers. Pulsed pumping Another method of achieving pulsed laser operation is to pump the laser material with a source that is itself pulsed, either through electronic charging in the case of flashlamps, or another laser which is already pulsed. Pulsed pumping was historically used with dye lasers where the inverted population lifetime of a dye molecule was so short that a high energy, fast pump was needed. The way to overcome this problem was to charge up large capacitors which are then switched to discharge through flashlamps, producing a broad spectrum pump flash. Pulsed pumping is also required for lasers which disrupt the gain medium so much during the laser process that lasing has to cease for a short period. These lasers, such as the excimer laser and the copper vapour laser, can never be operated in CW mode. History Foundations In 1917 Albert Einstein, in his paper Zur Quantentheorie der Strahlung (On the Quantum Theory of Radiation), laid the foundation for the invention of the laser and its predecessor, the maser, in a ground-breaking rederivation of Max Planck's law of radiation based on the concepts of probability coefficients (later to be termed 'Einstein coefficients') for the absorption, spontaneous emission, and stimulated emission of electromagnetic radiation. In 1928, Rudolf W. Ladenburg confirmed the existence of stimulated emission and negative absorption. Steen, W. M. "Laser Materials Processing", 2nd Ed. 1998. In 1939, Valentin A. Fabrikant predicted the use of stimulated emission to amplify "short" waves. Il rischio da laser: cosa è e come affrontarlo; analisi di un problema non così lontano da noi ("The risk from laser: what it is and what it is like facing it; analysis of a problem which is thus mot far away from us."), PROGRAMMA CORSO DI FORMAZIONE OBBLIGATORIO ANNO 2004, Dimitri Batani (Powerpoint presentation >7Mb). Retrieved 1 January 2007. In 1947, Willis E. Lamb and R. C. Retherford found apparent stimulated emission in hydrogen spectra and made the first demonstration of stimulated emission. Steen, W. M. "Laser Materials Processing", 2nd Ed. 1998. In 1950, Alfred Kastler (Nobel Prize for Physics 1966) proposed the method of optical pumping, which was experimentally confirmed by Brossel, Kastler and Winter two years later. The Nobel Prize in Physics 1966 Presentation Speech by Professor Ivar Waller. Retrieved 1 January 2007. The first working laser was demonstrated on 16 May 1960 by Theodore Maiman at Hughes Research Laboratories. Since then, lasers have become a multi-billion dollar industry. By far the largest single application of lasers is in optical storage devices such as compact disc and DVD players, in which a semiconductor laser less than a millimeter wide scans the surface of the disc. The second-largest application is fiber-optic communication. Other common applications of lasers are bar code readers, laser printers and laser pointers. Maser In 1953, Charles H. Townes and graduate students James P. Gordon and Herbert J. Zeiger produced the first microwave amplifier, a device operating on similar principles to the laser, but amplifying microwave rather than infrared or visible radiation. Townes's maser was incapable of continuous output. Nikolay Basov and Aleksandr Prokhorov of the Soviet Union worked independently on the quantum oscillator and solved the problem of continuous output systems by using more than two energy levels and produced the first maser. These systems could release stimulated emission without falling to the ground state, thus maintaining a population inversion. In 1955 Prokhorov and Basov suggested an optical pumping of multilevel system as a method for obtaining the population inversion, which later became one of the main methods of laser pumping. Townes reports that he encountered opposition from a number of eminent colleagues who thought the maser was theoretically impossible—including Niels Bohr, John von Neumann, Isidor Rabi, Polykarp Kusch, and Llewellyn H. Thomas. Townes, Basov, and Prokhorov shared the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1964 "For fundamental work in the field of quantum electronics, which has led to the construction of oscillators and amplifiers based on the maser-laser principle." Laser In 1957, Charles Hard Townes and Arthur Leonard Schawlow, then at Bell Labs, began a serious study of the infrared laser. As ideas were developed, infrared frequencies were abandoned with focus on visible light instead. The concept was originally known as an "optical maser." Bell Labs filed a patent application for their proposed optical maser a year later. Schawlow and Townes sent a manuscript of their theoretical calculations to Physical Review, which published their paper that year (Volume 112, Issue 6). The first page of Gordon Gould's laser notebook in which he coined the acronym LASER and described the essential elements for constructing one. At the same time Gordon Gould, a graduate student at Columbia University, was working on a doctoral thesis on the energy levels of excited thallium. Gould and Townes met and had conversations on the general subject of radiation emission. Afterwards Gould made notes about his ideas for a "laser" in November 1957, including suggesting using an open resonator, which became an important ingredient of future lasers. In 1958, Prokhorov independently proposed using an open resonator, the first published appearance of this idea. Schawlow and Townes also settled on an open resonator design, apparently unaware of both the published work of Prokhorov and the unpublished work of Gould. The term "laser" was first introduced to the public in Gould's 1959 conference paper "The LASER, Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation." Gould intended "-aser" to be a suffix, to be used with an appropriate prefix for the spectrum of light emitted by the device (x-rays: xaser, ultraviolet: uvaser, etc.). None of the other terms became popular, although "raser" was used for a short time to describe radio-frequency emitting devices. Gould's notes included possible applications for a laser, such as spectrometry, interferometry, radar, and nuclear fusion. He continued working on his idea and filed a patent application in April 1959. The U.S. Patent Office denied his application and awarded a patent to Bell Labs in 1960. This sparked a legal battle that ran 28 years, with scientific prestige and much money at stake. Gould won his first minor patent in 1977, but it was not until 1987 that he could claim his first significant patent victory when a Federal judge ordered the government to issue patents to him for the optically pumped laser and the gas discharge laser. The first working laser was made by Theodore H. Maiman in 1960 at Hughes Research Laboratories in Malibu, California, beating several research teams including those of Townes at Columbia University, Arthur Schawlow at Bell Labs, and Gould at a company called TRG (Technical Research Group). Maiman used a solid-state flashlamp-pumped synthetic ruby crystal to produce red laser light at 694 nanometres wavelength. Maiman's laser, however, was only capable of pulsed operation due to its three-level pumping scheme. Later in 1960 the Iranian physicist Ali Javan, working with William R. Bennett and Donald Herriot, made the first gas laser using helium and neon. Javan later received the Albert Einstein Award in 1993. The concept of the semiconductor laser diode was proposed by Basov and Javan. The first laser diode was demonstrated by Robert N. Hall in 1962. Hall's device was made of gallium arsenide and emitted at 850 nm in the near-infrared region of the spectrum. The first semiconductor laser with visible emission was demonstrated later the same year by Nick Holonyak, Jr. As with the first gas lasers, these early semiconductor lasers could be used only in pulsed operation, and indeed only when cooled to liquid nitrogen temperatures (77 K). In 1970, Zhores Alferov in the Soviet Union and Izuo Hayashi and Morton Panish of Bell Telephone Laboratories independently developed laser diodes continuously operating at room temperature, using the heterojunction structure. Recent innovations Graph showing the history of maximum laser pulse intensity throughout the past 40 years. Since the early period of laser history, laser research has produced a variety of improved and specialized laser types, optimized for different performance goals, including: new wavelength bands maximum average output power maximum peak output power minimum output pulse duration maximum power efficiency maximum charging maximum firing minimum cost and this research continues to this day. Lasing without maintaining the medium excited into a population inversion was discovered in 1992 in sodium gas and again in 1995 in rubidium gas by various international teams. This was accomplished by using an external maser to induce "optical transparency" in the medium by introducing and destructively interfering the ground electron transitions between two paths, so that the likelihood for the ground electrons to absorb any energy has been cancelled. Types and operating principles For a more complete list of laser types see this list of laser types. Spectral output of several types of lasers. Gas lasers Gas lasers using many gases have been built and used for many purposes. The helium-neon laser (HeNe) emits at a variety of wavelengths and units operating at 633 nm are very common in education because of its low cost. Carbon dioxide lasers can emit hundreds of kilowatts at 9.6 µm and 10.6 µm, and are often used in industry for cutting and welding. The efficiency of a CO2 laser is over 10%. Argon-ion lasers emit light in the range 351-528.7 nm. Depending on the optics and the laser tube a different number of lines is usable but the most commonly used lines are 458 nm, 488 nm and 514.5 nm. A nitrogen transverse electrical discharge in gas at atmospheric pressure (TEA) laser is an inexpensive gas laser producing UV Light at 337.1 nm. Metal ion lasers are gas lasers that generate deep ultraviolet wavelengths. Helium-silver (HeAg) 224 nm and neon-copper (NeCu) 248 nm are two examples. These lasers have particularly narrow oscillation linewidths of less than 3 GHz (0.5 picometers), making them candidates for use in fluorescence suppressed Raman spectroscopy. Chemical lasers Chemical lasers are powered by a chemical reaction, and can achieve high powers in continuous operation. For example, in the Hydrogen fluoride laser (2700-2900 nm) and the Deuterium fluoride laser (3800 nm) the reaction is the combination of hydrogen or deuterium gas with combustion products of ethylene in nitrogen trifluoride. They were invented by George C. Pimentel. Excimer lasers Excimer lasers are powered by a chemical reaction involving an excited dimer, or excimer, which is a short-lived dimeric or heterodimeric molecule formed from two species (atoms), at least one of which is in an excited electronic state. They typically produce ultraviolet light, and are used in semiconductor photolithography and in LASIK eye surgery. Commonly used excimer molecules include F2 (fluorine, emitting at 157 nm), and noble gas compounds (ArF [193 nm], KrCl [222 nm], KrF [248 nm], XeCl [308 nm], and XeF [351 nm]). Solid-state lasers A 50 W FASOR, based on a Nd:YAG laser, used at the Starfire Optical Range. Solid-state laser materials are commonly made by "doping" a crystalline solid host with ions that provide the required energy states. For example, the first working laser was a ruby laser, made from ruby (chromium-doped corundum). The population inversion is actually maintained in the "dopant", such as chromium or neodymium. Formally, the class of solid-state lasers includes also fiber laser, as the active medium (fiber) is in the solid state. Practically, in the scientific literature, solid-state laser usually means a laser with bulk active medium, while wave-guide lasers are caller fiber lasers. "Semiconductor lasers" are also solid-state lasers, but in the customary laser terminology, "solid-state laser" excludes semiconductor lasers, which have their own name. Neodymium is a common "dopant" in various solid-state laser crystals, including yttrium orthovanadate (Nd:YVO4), yttrium lithium fluoride (Nd:YLF) and yttrium aluminium garnet (Nd:YAG). All these lasers can produce high powers in the infrared spectrum at 1064 nm. They are used for cutting, welding and marking of metals and other materials, and also in spectroscopy and for pumping dye lasers. These lasers are also commonly frequency doubled, tripled or quadrupled to produce 532 nm (green, visible), 355 nm (UV) and 266 nm (UV) light when those wavelengths are needed. Ytterbium, holmium, thulium, and erbium are other common "dopants" in solid-state lasers. Ytterbium is used in crystals such as Yb:YAG, Yb:KGW, Yb:KYW, Yb:SYS, Yb:BOYS, Yb:CaF2, typically operating around 1020-1050 nm. They are potentially very efficient and high powered due to a small quantum defect. Extremely high powers in ultrashort pulses can be achieved with Yb:YAG. Holmium-doped YAG crystals emit at 2097 nm and form an efficient laser operating at infrared wavelengths strongly absorbed by water-bearing tissues. The Ho-YAG is usually operated in a pulsed mode, and passed through optical fiber surgical devices to resurface joints, remove rot from teeth, vaporize cancers, and pulverize kidney and gall stones. Titanium-doped sapphire (Ti:sapphire) produces a highly tunable infrared laser, commonly used for spectroscopy as well as the most common ultrashort pulse laser. Thermal limitations in solid-state lasers arise from unconverted pump power that manifests itself as heat and phonon energy. This heat, when coupled with a high thermo-optic coefficient (dn/dT) can give rise to thermal lensing as well as reduced quantum efficiency. These types of issues can be overcome by another novel diode-pumped solid-state laser, the diode-pumped thin disk laser. The thermal limitations in this laser type are mitigated by using a laser medium geometry in which the thickness is much smaller than the diameter of the pump beam. This allows for a more even thermal gradient in the material. Thin disk lasers have been shown to produce up to kilowatt levels of power. C. Stewen, M. Larionov, and A. Giesen, “Yb:YAG thin disk laser with 1 kW output power,” in OSA Trends in Optics and Photonics, Advanced Solid-State Lasers, H. Injeyan, U. Keller, and C. Marshall, ed. (Optical Society of America, Washington, DC., 2000) pp. 35-41. Fiber-hosted lasers Solid-state lasers where the light is guided due to the total internal reflection in an optical fiber are called fiber lasers. Guiding of light allows extremely long gain regions providing good cooling conditions; fibers have high surface area to volume ratio which allows efficient cooling. In addition, the fiber's waveguiding properties tend to reduce thermal distortion of the beam. Erbium and ytterbium ions are common active species in such lasers. Quite often, the fiber laser is designed as a double-clad fiber. This type of fiber consists of a fiber core, an inner cladding and an outer cladding. The index of the three concentric layers is chosen so that the fiber core acts as a single-mode fiber for the laser emission while the outer cladding acts as a highly multimode core for the pump laser. This lets the pump propagate a large amount of power into and through the active inner core region, while still having a high numerical aperture (NA) to have easy launching conditions. Pump light can be used more efficiently by creating a fiber disk laser, or a stack of such lasers. Fiber lasers have a fundamental limit in that the intensity of the light in the fiber cannot be so high that optical nonlinearities induced by the local electric field strength can become dominant and prevent laser operation and/or lead to the material destruction of the fiber. This effect is called photodarkening. In bulk laser materials, the cooling is not so efficient, and it is difficult to separate the effects of photodarkening from the thermal effects, but the experiments in fibers show that the photodarkening can be attributed to the formation of long-living color centers. Photonic crystal lasers Photonic crystal lasers are lasers based on nano-structures that provide the mode confinement and the density of optical states (DOS) structure required for the feedback to take place. They are typical micrometre-sized and tunable on the bands of the photonic crystals. Semiconductor lasers Semiconductor lasers are also solid-state lasers but have a different mode of laser operation. Commercial laser diodes emit at wavelengths from 375 nm to 1800 nm, and wavelengths of over 3 µm have been demonstrated. Low power laser diodes are used in laser printers and CD/DVD players. More powerful laser diodes are frequently used to optically pump other lasers with high efficiency. The highest power industrial laser diodes, with power up to 10 kW (70dBm), are used in industry for cutting and welding. External-cavity semiconductor lasers have a semiconductor active medium in a larger cavity. These devices can generate high power outputs with good beam quality, wavelength-tunable narrow-linewidth radiation, or ultrashort laser pulses. A 5.6 mm 'closed can' commercial laser diode, probably from a CD or DVD player. Vertical cavity surface-emitting lasers (VCSELs) are semiconductor lasers whose emission direction is perpendicular to the surface of the wafer. VCSEL devices typically have a more circular output beam than conventional laser diodes, and potentially could be much cheaper to manufacture. As of 2005, only 850 nm VCSELs are widely available, with 1300 nm VCSELs beginning to be commercialized, "Picolight ships first 4-Gbit/s 1310-nm VCSEL transceivers", Laser Focus World, December 9, 2005, accessed 27 May 2006 and 1550 nm devices an area of research. VECSELs are external-cavity VCSELs. Quantum cascade lasers are semiconductor lasers that have an active transition between energy sub-bands of an electron in a structure containing several quantum wells. The development of a silicon laser is important in the field of optical computing, since it means that if silicon, the chief ingredient of computer chips, were able to produce lasers, it would allow the light to be manipulated like electrons are in normal integrated circuits. Thus, photons would replace electrons in the circuits, which dramatically increases the speed of the computer. Unfortunately, silicon is a difficult lasing material to deal with, since it has certain properties which block lasing. However, recently teams have produced silicon lasers through methods such as fabricating the lasing material from silicon and other semiconductor materials, such as indium(III) phosphide or gallium(III) arsenide, materials which allow coherent light to be produced from silicon. These are called hybrid silicon laser. Another type is a Raman laser, which takes advantage of Raman scattering to produce a laser from materials such as silicon. Dye lasers Dye lasers use an organic dye as the gain medium. The wide gain spectrum of available dyes allows these lasers to be highly tunable, or to produce very short-duration pulses (on the order of a few femtoseconds) Free electron lasers Free electron lasers, or FELs, generate coherent, high power radiation, that is widely tunable, currently ranging in wavelength from microwaves, through terahertz radiation and infrared, to the visible spectrum, to soft X-rays. They have the widest frequency range of any laser type. While FEL beams share the same optical traits as other lasers, such as coherent radiation, FEL operation is quite different. Unlike gas, liquid, or solid-state lasers, which rely on bound atomic or molecular states, FELs use a relativistic electron beam as the lasing medium, hence the term free electron. Exotic laser media In September 2007, the BBC News reported that there was speculation about the possibility of using positronium annihilation to drive a very powerful gamma ray laser. Dr. David Cassidy of the University of California, Riverside proposed that a single such laser could be used to ignite a nuclear fusion reaction, replacing the hundreds of lasers used in typical inertial confinement fusion experiments. Space-based X-ray lasers pumped by a nuclear explosion have also been proposed as antimissile weapons. Such devices would be one-shot weapons. Uses Lasers range in size from microscopic diode lasers (top) with numerous applications, to football field sized neodymium glass lasers (bottom) used for inertial confinement fusion, nuclear weapons research and other high energy density physics experiments. When lasers were invented in 1960, they were called "a solution looking for a problem". Since then, they have become ubiquitous, finding utility in thousands of highly varied applications in every section of modern society, including consumer electronics, information technology, science, medicine, industry, law enforcement, entertainment, and the military. The first application of lasers visible in the daily lives of the general population was the supermarket barcode scanner, introduced in 1974. The laserdisc player, introduced in 1978, was the first successful consumer product to include a laser, but the compact disc player was the first laser-equipped device to become truly common in consumers' homes, beginning in 1982, followed shortly by laser printers. Some of the other applications include: Medicine: Bloodless surgery, laser healing, surgical treatment, kidney stone treatment, eye treatment, dentistry Industry: Cutting, welding, material heat treatment, marking parts Defense: Marking targets, guiding munitions, missile defence, electro-optical countermeasures (EOCM), alternative to radar Research: Spectroscopy, laser ablation, Laser annealing, laser scattering, laser interferometry, LIDAR, Laser capture microdissection Product development/commercial: laser printers, CDs, barcode scanners, thermometers, laser pointers, holograms, bubblegrams. Laser lighting displays: Laser light shows Laser skin procedures such as acne treatment, cellulite reduction, and hair removal. In 2004, excluding diode lasers, approximately 131,000 lasers were sold worldwide, with a value of US$2.19 billion. Kincade, Kathy and Stephen Anderson (2005) "Laser Marketplace 2005: Consumer applications boost laser sales 10%", Laser Focus World, vol. 41, no. 1. (online) In the same year, approximately 733 million diode lasers, valued at $3.20 billion, were sold. Steele, Robert V. (2005) "Diode-laser market grows at a slower rate", Laser Focus World, vol. 41, no. 2. (online) Examples by power Different uses need lasers with different output powers. Lasers that produce a continuous beam or a series of short pulses can be compared on the basis of their average power. Lasers that produce pulses can also be characterized based on the peak power of each pulse. The peak power of a pulsed laser is many orders of magnitude greater than its average power. The average output power is always less than the power consumed. The continuous or average power required for some uses: less than 1 mW - Consumer laser pointers 5 mW – CD-ROM drive 5–10 mW – DVD player or DVD-ROM drive 100 mW – High-speed CD-RW burner 250 mW – Consumer DVD-R burner 1 W – green laser in current Holographic Versatile Disc prototype development 1–20 W – output of the majority of commercially available solid-state lasers used for micro machining 30–100 W – typical sealed CO2 surgical lasers George M. Peavy, "How to select a surgical veterinary laser", veterinary-laser.com. URL accessed 14 March 2008. 100–3000 W (peak output 1.5 kW) – typical sealed CO2 lasers used in industrial laser cutting 1 kW – Output power expected to be achieved by a prototype 1 cm diode laser bar Tyrell, James, "Diode lasers get fundamental push to higher power", Optics.org. URL accessed 27 May 2006. Examples of pulsed systems with high peak power: 700 TW (700×1012 W) – The National Ignition Facility is working on a system that, when complete, will contain a 192-beam, 1.8-megajoule laser system adjoining a 10-meter-diameter target chamber. Heller, Arnie, "Orchestrating the world's most powerful laser." Science and Technology Review. Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, July/August 2005. URL accessed 27 May 2006. The system is expected to be completed in April 2009. 1.3 PW (1.3×1015 W) – world's most powerful laser as of 1998, located at the Lawrence Livermore Laboratory Hobby uses In recent years, some hobbyists have taken interests in lasers. Lasers used by hobbyists are generally of class IIIa or IIIb, although some have made their own class IV types. PowerLabs CO2 LASER! Sam Barros 21 June 2006. Retrieved 1 January 2007. However, compared to other hobbyists, laser hobbyists are far less common, due to the cost and potential dangers involved. Due to the cost of lasers, some hobbyists use inexpensive means to obtain lasers, such as extracting diodes from DVD burners. Howto: Make a DVD Burner into a High-Powered Laser Hobbyists also have been taking surplus pulsed lasers from retired military applications and modifying them for pulsed holography. Pulsed Ruby and Pulsed YAG lasers have been used. Laser safety Warning symbol for lasers. Even the first laser was recognized as being potentially dangerous. Theodore Maiman characterized the first laser as having a power of one "Gillette" as it could burn through one Gillette razor blade. Today, it is accepted that even low-power lasers with only a few milliwatts of output power can be hazardous to human eyesight, when the beam from such a laser hits the eye directly or after reflection from a shiny surface. At wavelengths which the cornea and the lens can focus well, the coherence and low divergence of laser light means that it can be focused by the eye into an extremely small spot on the retina, resulting in localized burning and permanent damage in seconds or even less time. Lasers are usually labeled with a safety class number, which identifies how dangerous the laser is: Class I/1 is inherently safe, usually because the light is contained in an enclosure, for example in cd players. Class II/2 is safe during normal use; the blink reflex of the eye will prevent damage. Usually up to 1 mW power, for example laser pointers. Class IIIa/3R lasers are usually up to 5 mW and involve a small risk of eye damage within the time of the blink reflex. Staring into such a beam for several seconds is likely to cause (minor) eye damage. Class IIIb/3B can cause immediate severe eye damage upon exposure. Usually lasers up to 500 mW, such as those in cd and dvd burners. Class IV/4 lasers can burn skin, and in some cases, even scattered light can cause eye and/or skin damage. Many industrial and scientific lasers are in this class. The indicated powers are for visible-light, continuous-wave lasers. For pulsed lasers and invisible wavelengths, other power limits apply. People working with class 3B and class 4 lasers can protect their eyes with safety goggles which are designed to absorb light of a particular wavelength. Certain infrared lasers with wavelengths beyond about 1.4 micrometres are often referred to as being "eye-safe". This is because the intrinsic molecular vibrations of water molecules very strongly absorb light in this part of the spectrum, and thus a laser beam at these wavelengths is attenuated so completely as it passes through the eye's cornea that no light remains to be focused by the lens onto the retina. The label "eye-safe" can be misleading, however, as it only applies to relatively low power continuous wave beams and any high power or Q-switched laser at these wavelengths can burn the cornea, causing severe eye damage. Lasers as weapons Laser beams are famously employed as weapon systems in science fiction, but actual laser weapons are only beginning to enter the market. The general idea of laser-beam weaponry is to hit a target with a train of brief pulses of light. The rapid evaporation and expansion of the surface causes shockwaves that damage the target. The power needed to project a high-powered laser beam of this kind is difficult for current mobile power technology. Public prototypes are chemically-powered gas dynamic lasers. Lasers of all but the lowest powers can potentially be used as incapacitating weapons, through their ability to produce temporary or permanent vision loss in varying degrees when aimed at the eyes. The degree, character, and duration of vision impairment caused by eye exposure to laser light varies with the power of the laser, the wavelength(s), the collimation of the beam, the exact orientation of the beam, and the duration of exposure. Lasers of even a fraction of a watt in power can produce immediate, permanent vision loss under certain conditions, making such lasers potential non-lethal but incapacitating weapons. The extreme handicap that laser-induced blindness represents makes the use of lasers even as non-lethal weapons morally controversial. In the field of aviation, the hazards of exposure to ground-based lasers deliberately aimed at pilots have grown to the extent that aviation authorities have special procedures to deal with such hazards. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/technology/7990013.stm On March 18, 2009 Northrop Grumman announced that its engineers in Redondo Beach had successfully built and tested an electric laser capable of producing a 100-kilowatt ray of light, powerful enough to destroy an airplane or a tank. An electric laser is theoretically capable, according to Brian Strickland, manager for the United States Army's Joint High Power Solid State Laser program, of being mounted in an aircraft, ship, or vehicle because it requires much less space for its supporting equipment than a chemical laser. Pae, Peter, "Northrop Advance Brings Era Of The Laser Gun Closer", Los Angeles Times, March 19, 2009., p. B2. Applications In manufacturing, lasers are used for cutting, bending, and welding metal and other materials, and for "marking"—producing visible patterns such as letters by changing the properties of a material or by inscribing its surface. In science, lasers are used for many applications. One of the more common is laser spectroscopy, which typically takes advantage of the laser's well-defined wavelength or the possibility of generating very short pulses of light. Lasers are used by the military for range-finding, target designation, and illumination. Lasers have also begun to be tested for directed-energy weapons. Lasers are used in medicine for surgery, diagnostics, and therapeutic applications. Fictional predictions For lasers in fiction, see also the ray gun. Before stimulated emission was discovered, novelists used to describe machines that we can identify as "lasers". A laser-like device was described in Alexey Tolstoy's sci-fi novel The Hyperboloid of Engineer Garin in 1927. Mikhail Bulgakov exaggerated the biological effect (laser bio stimulation) of intensive red light in his sci-fi novel Fatal Eggs (1925), without any reasonable description of the source of this red light. (In that novel, the red light first appears occasionally from the illuminating system of an advanced microscope; then the protagonist Prof. Persikov arranges the special set-up for generation of the red light.) See also Laser acronyms Laser applications Laser beam profiler Laser capture microdissection Laser construction Laser converting Laser cutting Laser dazzler Laser engraving Laser bonding Laser ablation Laser scalpel Laser scanning Laser accelerometer Laser science Laser cooling Laser welding Bessel beam Laser lighting display Laser pointer Laser turntable Holography Induced gamma emission Injection seeder International Laser Display Association List of light sources Maser Optical amplifier Raygun Reference beam Selective laser sintering Speckle pattern Tophat beam Homogeneous broadening US Air Force's YAL-1 Airborne Laser Notes and references Further reading Books Bertolotti, Mario (1999, trans. 2004). The History of the Laser, Institute of Physics. ISBN 0-750-30911-3 Csele, Mark (2004). Fundamentals of Light Sources and Lasers, Wiley. ISBN 0-471-47660-9 Koechner, Walter (1992). Solid-State Laser Engineering, 3rd ed., Springer-Verlag. ISBN 0-387-53756-2 Siegman, Anthony E. (1986). Lasers, University Science Books. ISBN 0-935702-11-3 Silfvast, William T. (1996). Laser Fundamentals, Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-55617-1 Svelto, Orazio (1998). Principles of Lasers, 4th ed. (trans. David Hanna), Springer. ISBN 0-306-45748-2 Wilson, J. & Hawkes, J.F.B. (1987). Lasers: Principles and Applications, Prentice Hall International Series in Optoelectronics, Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-523697-5 Yariv, Amnon (1989). Quantum Electronics, 3rd ed., Wiley. ISBN 0-471-60997-8 Periodicals Applied Physics B: Lasers and Optics (ISSN 0946-2171) IEEE Journal of Lightwave Technology (ISSN 0733-8724) IEEE Journal of Quantum Electronics (ISSN 0018-9197) IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Quantum Electronics (ISSN 1077-260X) IEEE Photonics Technology Letters Journal of the Optical Society of America B: Optical Physics (ISSN 0740-3224) Laser Focus World (ISSN 0740-2511) Optics Letters (ISSN 0146-9592) Photonics Spectra (ISSN 0731-1230) External links Encyclopedia of laser physics and technology by Dr. Rüdiger Paschotta A Practical Guide to Lasers for Experimenters and Hobbyists by Samuel M. Goldwasser Homebuilt Lasers Page by Professor Mark Csele Powerful laser is 'brightest light in the universe' - The world's most powerful laser as of 2008 might create supernova-like shock waves and possibly even antimatter (New Scientist, 9 April 2008) Homemade laser project by Kip Kedersha "The Laser: basic principles" an online course by Prof. F. Balembois and Dr. S. Forget. 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5,215 | Loa | The Loa (also Lwa or L'wha) are the spirits of the Voodoo religion practiced in Haiti, and other parts of the world. They are also referred to as Mystères and the Invisibles. They are somewhat akin to saints or angels in Western religions in that they are intermediaries between Bondye (Bon Dieu, or good god)—the Creator, who is distant from the world—and humanity. Unlike saints or angels however, they are not simply prayed to, they are served. They are each distinct beings with their own personal likes and dislikes, distinct sacred rhythms, songs, dances, ritual symbols, and special modes of service. Contrary to popular belief, the loa are not deities in and of themselves; they are intermediaries for a distant Bondye. Syncretism The most common depiction of the loa Erzulie Dantor is derived from this variant of the sacred icon of Our Lady of Czestochowa. As a way to keep their European masters from interfering, and to appease the authorities who prevented them from practising their own religions, the African slaves in Haiti syncretised the Loa with the Roman Catholic saints - so Vodoun altars will frequently have images of Catholic figures displayed. For example, Papa Legba is alternately St. Peter or St. Lazarus, Ayizan is Saint Clare, and so on. Syncretism also works the other way in Haitian Vodou and many Catholic saints have become Loa in their own right, most notably St. Philomena, St. Michael the Archangel, St. Jude, and St. John the Baptist. Rituals In a ritual the Loa are summoned by the Houngan (Priest), Mambo (Priestess) or Bokor (Sorcerers) to take part in the service, receive offerings, and grant requests. The Loa arrive in the peristyle (ritual space) by mounting (possessing) a horse (ritualist) - who is said to be "ridden." This can be quite a violent occurrence as the participant can flail about or convulse before falling to the ground, but some Loa will mount their horses very quietly - Ayizan is one such Loa. Certain Loa display very distinctive behaviour by which they can be recognised, specific phrases, and specific actions. As soon as a Loa is recognised, the symbols appropriate to them will be given to them. For example Erzulie Freda will be given a mirror and a comb, fine cloth or jewellery; Legba will be given his cane, straw hat and pipe; Baron Samedi will be given his top hat, sunglasses and a cigar. Once the Loa has arrived, fed, been served, and possibly given help or advice, they leave the peristyle. Contrary to the Western perception of possession, a Loa has no need to remain in the horse (possessed ritualist). Certain Loa can become obstinate, for example the Ghede are notorious for wanting just one more smoke, or one more drink, but it is the job of the Houngan or Mambo to keep the spirits in line while ensuring they are adequately provided for. Nanchons of Lwa There are many families or "nanchons" (nations) of Loa - Rada (also Radha), Petro (also Pethro, Petwo), Nago, Kongo and Ghede (Also Guede, or Gede)to name but a few. Rada Loa The Rada Loa are generally the older, more beneficent spirits, and are associated with the gods of Africa. They include Legba, Loko, Ayizan, Dhamballah Wedo and Ayida-Weddo, Erzulie Freda, La Sirène, and Agwe. Their traditional colour is white (as opposed to the specific colours of individual Loa). Petro Loa The Petro Loa are generally the more fiery, occasionally aggressive and warlike Loa., and are associated with Haiti and the New World. They include Ezili Dantor, Marinette, Ogoun, and Kalfu (Carrefour). Their traditional colour is red. Kongo Loa Originating from the Congo region of Africa, these spirits include the many Simbi loa, it also includes the much dreaded Marinette, a fierce and much feared female loa. Nago Originating from Nigeria (specifically the Yoruba speaking tribes) this nanchon includes many of the Ogun spirits. Ghede Loa The Ghede are the spirits of the dead. They are traditionally led by the Barons (La Croix, Samedi, Cimitière, Kriminel), and Maman Brigitte. The Ghede as a family are loud, rude (although rarely to the point of real insult), sexual, and usually a lot of fun. As those who have lived already, they have nothing to fear, and frequently will display how far past consequence and feeling they are when they come through in a service - eating glass, raw chillis, and anointing their sensitive areas with chilli rum for example. Their traditional colours are black and purple. List of Loa A selection of Loa follows: Adjassou-Linguetor Adjinakou Adya Houn'tò Agassou Agwe Anaisa Pye Anmino Ayida-Weddo Ayizan Azaka-Tonnerre Bacalou BadessyBaron Samedi Baron Kriminel Boli Shah Bossou Ashadeh Boum'ba Maza Brize Bugid Y Aiba Captain Debas Clermeil Congo Damballa Dan PetroDan Wédo Demeplait Deryale Diable Tonnere Diejuste Dinclinsin Erzulie Filomez Ghede Ghede Linto Ghede Loraj Ghede NiboGhede Doubye Gran Maître Grand Bois Guinee Jean Zombi Joseph Danger Joumalonge Kalfu Kapitan Zombi Klemezin Klemay Legba LembaLimba L'inglesou Loco Lovana Mademoiselle Charlotte Mait' Carrefour Maîtresse Délai Maîtresse Hounon'gon Maman Brigitte Marassa Marassa Jumeaux MarinetteMaroule Mombu Manze Marie Mounanchou Nago Shango Ogoun Papa Legba Pie Silibo Simbi Sobo Sousson-PannanSenegal Ti Kita Ti Jean Quinto Ti Malice Ti-Jean Petro Wawe See also Haitian mythology Paket kongo External links Webster list of loa | Loa |@lemmatized loa:28 also:8 lwa:2 l:2 wha:1 spirit:6 voodoo:1 religion:3 practice:1 haiti:3 part:2 world:3 refer:1 mystères:1 invisibles:1 somewhat:1 akin:1 saint:5 angel:2 western:2 intermediary:2 bondye:2 bon:1 dieu:1 good:1 god:2 creator:1 distant:2 humanity:1 unlike:1 however:1 simply:1 pray:1 serve:2 distinct:2 personal:1 like:1 dislike:1 sacred:2 rhythm:1 song:1 dance:1 ritual:4 symbol:2 special:1 mode:1 service:3 contrary:2 popular:1 belief:1 deity:1 syncretism:2 common:1 depiction:1 erzulie:4 dantor:2 derive:1 variant:1 icon:1 lady:1 czestochowa:1 way:2 keep:2 european:1 master:1 interfere:1 appease:1 authority:1 prevent:1 practise:1 african:1 slave:1 syncretise:1 roman:1 catholic:3 vodoun:1 altar:1 frequently:2 image:1 figure:1 display:3 example:4 papa:2 legba:5 alternately:1 st:6 peter:1 lazarus:1 ayizan:4 clare:1 work:1 haitian:2 vodou:1 many:4 become:2 right:1 notably:1 philomena:1 michael:1 archangel:1 jude:1 john:1 baptist:1 summon:1 houngan:2 priest:1 mambo:2 priestess:1 bokor:1 sorcerer:1 take:1 receive:1 offering:1 grant:1 request:1 arrive:2 peristyle:2 space:1 mount:2 possess:1 horse:3 ritualist:2 say:1 ridden:1 quite:1 violent:1 occurrence:1 participant:1 flail:1 convulse:1 fall:1 ground:1 quietly:1 one:3 certain:2 distinctive:1 behaviour:1 recognise:2 specific:3 phrase:1 action:1 soon:1 appropriate:1 give:5 freda:2 mirror:1 comb:1 fine:1 cloth:1 jewellery:1 cane:1 straw:1 hat:2 pipe:1 baron:3 samedi:3 top:1 sunglass:1 cigar:1 feed:1 possibly:1 help:1 advice:1 leave:1 perception:1 possession:1 need:1 remain:1 possessed:1 obstinate:1 ghede:9 notorious:1 want:1 smoke:1 drink:1 job:1 line:1 ensure:1 adequately:1 provide:1 nanchons:2 family:2 nation:1 rada:3 radha:1 petro:4 pethro:1 petwo:1 nago:3 kongo:3 guede:1 gede:1 name:1 generally:2 old:1 beneficent:1 associate:2 africa:2 include:5 loko:1 dhamballah:1 wedo:1 ayida:2 weddo:2 la:2 sirène:1 agwe:2 traditional:3 colour:4 white:1 oppose:1 individual:1 fiery:1 occasionally:1 aggressive:1 warlike:1 new:1 ezili:1 marinette:2 ogoun:2 kalfu:2 carrefour:2 red:1 originate:2 congo:2 region:1 simbi:2 much:2 dread:1 fierce:1 fear:2 female:1 nigeria:1 specifically:1 yoruba:1 speak:1 tribe:1 nanchon:1 ogun:1 dead:1 traditionally:1 lead:1 croix:1 cimitière:1 kriminel:2 maman:2 brigitte:2 loud:1 rude:1 although:1 rarely:1 point:1 real:1 insult:1 sexual:1 usually:1 lot:1 fun:1 live:1 already:1 nothing:1 far:1 past:1 consequence:1 feeling:1 come:1 eat:1 glass:1 raw:1 chilli:2 anoint:1 sensitive:1 area:1 rum:1 black:1 purple:1 list:2 selection:1 follow:1 adjassou:1 linguetor:1 adjinakou:1 adya:1 houn:1 tò:1 agassou:1 anaisa:1 pye:1 anmino:1 azaka:1 tonnerre:1 bacalou:1 badessybaron:1 boli:1 shah:1 bossou:1 ashadeh:1 boum:1 ba:1 maza:1 brize:1 bugid:1 aiba:1 captain:1 debas:1 clermeil:1 damballa:1 dan:1 petrodan:1 wédo:1 demeplait:1 deryale:1 diable:1 tonnere:1 diejuste:1 dinclinsin:1 filomez:1 linto:1 loraj:1 niboghede:1 doubye:1 gran:1 maître:1 grand:1 bois:1 guinee:1 jean:3 zombi:2 joseph:1 danger:1 joumalonge:1 kapitan:1 klemezin:1 klemay:1 lembalimba:1 inglesou:1 loco:1 lovana:1 mademoiselle:1 charlotte:1 mait:1 maîtresse:2 délai:1 hounon:1 gon:1 marassa:2 jumeaux:1 marinettemaroule:1 mombu:1 manze:1 marie:1 mounanchou:1 shango:1 pie:1 silibo:1 sobo:1 sousson:1 pannansenegal:1 ti:4 kita:1 quinto:1 malice:1 wawe:1 see:1 mythology:1 paket:1 external:1 link:1 webster:1 |@bigram michael_archangel:1 la_croix:1 external_link:1 |
5,216 | Foreign_relations_of_Burundi | Burundi's relations with its neighbours have often been affected by security concerns. Hundreds of thousands of Burundian refugees have at various times crossed to neighboring Rwanda, Tanzania, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Hundreds of thousands of Burundians are in neighboring countries as a result of the ongoing civil war. Most of them, more than 340,000 since 1993, are in Tanzania. Some Burundian rebel groups have used neighboring countries as bases for insurgent activities. The 1993 embargo placed on Burundi by regional states hurt diplomatic relations with its neighbors; relations have improved since the 1999 suspension of these sanctions. Burundi is a member of various international and regional organizations, including the United Nations, the African Union, the African Development Bank and the Francophonie. Burundi is also a member of the International Criminal Court with a Bilateral Immunity Agreement of protection for the US-military (as covered under Article 98). The Swedish Minister for Integration and Gender Equality, Nyamko Sabuni, was born in Burundi. See also Burundi-United States relations List of diplomatic missions in Burundi | Foreign_relations_of_Burundi |@lemmatized burundi:7 relation:4 neighbour:1 often:1 affect:1 security:1 concern:1 hundred:2 thousand:2 burundian:3 refugee:1 various:2 time:1 cross:1 neighbor:3 rwanda:1 tanzania:2 democratic:1 republic:1 congo:1 country:2 result:1 ongoing:1 civil:1 war:1 since:2 rebel:1 group:1 use:1 neighboring:1 base:1 insurgent:1 activity:1 embargo:1 place:1 regional:2 state:2 hurt:1 diplomatic:2 improve:1 suspension:1 sanction:1 member:2 international:2 organization:1 include:1 united:2 nation:1 african:2 union:1 development:1 bank:1 francophonie:1 also:2 criminal:1 court:1 bilateral:1 immunity:1 agreement:1 protection:1 u:1 military:1 cover:1 article:1 swedish:1 minister:1 integration:1 gender:1 equality:1 nyamko:1 sabuni:1 bear:1 see:1 list:1 mission:1 |@bigram hundred_thousand:2 republic_congo:1 diplomatic_relation:1 bilateral_immunity:1 diplomatic_mission:1 |
5,217 | Corsican_language | Bilingual road-signs, with French names crossed out. Corsican (Corsu or Lingua Corsa) is a continuum of Romance languages spoken and written on the islands of Corsica (France) and northern Sardinia (Italy), alongside French and Italian, which are the official languages. Corsu is the traditional native language of the Corsican people, and was long the sole language of the island, which was acquired by France in 1768. In 1990, more than two centuries later, nearly all Corsicans were fluent in French, usually as a first language. In addition, an estimated 50% of those also had some degree of proficiency in Corsu, and a small minority, perhaps 10%, used Corsu as a first language. Number of speakers The January 2007 estimated population of the island was 281,000, while the figure for the March 1999 census, when most of the studies - though not the linguistic survey work referenced in this article - were performed, was about 261,000 (see under Corsica). Only a certain percentage of the population at either time spoke Corsu with any fluency. The 2001 population of 341,000 speakers on the island given by Ethnologue exceeds either census and thus may be considered questionable, like its estimate of 402,000 speakers worldwide. The use of Corsican over French has been declining. In 1980 about 70% of the population "had some command of the Corsican language." To find this statement and the supporting data click on List by languages, Corsican, Corsican language use survey and look under INTRODUCTION. In 1990 out of a total population of about 254,000 the percentage had declined to 50%, with only 10% using it as a first language. The language was clearly on the way out when the French government reversed its non-supportive stand and began some strong measures to save it. Whether these measures will succeed remains to be seen. No recent statistics on Corsu are available. UNESCO classifies the Corsican language as a potentially endangered language, as it has "a large number of children speakers" but is "without an official or prestigious status." The classification does not state that the language is currently endangered, only that it is potentially so. In fact it is being vigorously affirmed. Often acting according to the current long-standing sentiment unknown Corsicans cross out French roadway signs and paint in the Corsu names. The Corsican language is a key vehicle for Corsican culture, which is notably rich in proverbs and in polyphonic song. Governmental support The 1991 "Joxe Statute", in setting up the Collectivité Territoriale de Corse, also provided for the Assemblée de Corse, and charged it with developing a plan for the optional teaching of Corsu. The University of Corsica Pascal Paoli at Corte took a central role in the planning. At the primary school level Corsu can be taught up to a fixed number of hours per week (three in the year 2000) and is a voluntary subject at the secondary school level, but is required at the University of Corsica. It is available through adult education. It can be spoken in court or in the conduct of other government business if the officials concerned speak it. The Cultural Council of the Corsican Assembly advocates for its use; for example, on public signs. Sources of Corsican According to the anthropologist Dumenica Verdoni, writing new literature in modern Corsican, known as the Riacquistu, is an integral part of affirming Corsican identity. Persons who had a notable career in France returned to Corsica to write in Corsican, such as the musical producers, Dumenicu Togniotti, director of the Teatru Paisanu, which produced polyphonic musicals, 1973-1982, followed in 1980 by Michel Raffaelli's Teatru di a Testa Mora, and Saveriu Valentini's Teatru Cupabbia in 1984. The list of prose writers includes Alanu di Meglio, Ghiacumu Fusina, Lucia Santucci, Marc Biancarelli and many others. A mythology concerning the Corsican language is to some degree current among foreigners, that it was a spoken language only or was only recently written. Omniglot goes so far as to assert "Corsican first appeared in writing towards the end of the 19th century ...." Whatever Omniglot may have meant, throughout the 19th and 18th century there was a steady stream of writers in Corsican, many of whom wrote also in other languages. Ferdinand Gregorovius, 19th century traveller and enthusiast of Corsican culture, reports that the preferred form of the literary tradition of his time was the vocero, a type of polyphonic ballad originating from funeral obsequies. These laments were similar in form to the chorales of Greek drama except that the leader could improvise. Some performers were noted at this, such as the 18th century Mariola della Piazzole and Clorinda Franseschi. The trail of written popular literature of known date in Corsican currently goes no further back than the 17th century. An undated corpus of proverbs from communes may well precede it (see under External links below). Corsican has also left a trail of legal documents ending in the late 12th century. At that time the monasteries held considerable land on Corsica and many of the churchmen were notaries. Between 1200 and 1425 the monastery of Gorgona, Benedictine for much of that time and in the territory of Pisa, acquired about 40 legal papers of various sorts written on Corsica. As the church was replacing Pisan prelates with Corsican ones there the legal language shows a transition from entirely Latin through partially Latin, partially Corsican to entirely Corsican. The first known surviving document containing some Corsican is a bill of sale from Patrimonio dated to 1220. . These documents were moved to Pisa before the monastery closed its doors and were published there. Research into earlier evidence of Corsican is ongoing. It is entirely possible that archaeology or research in monastic archives will turn up more. Origins of Corsican The Corsican language has been influenced by the languages of the major powers taking an interest in Corsican affairs; earlier by those of the Medieval Italian powers: Tuscany (828-1077), Pisa (1077-1282) and Genoa (1282-1768), more recently by France (1768-present), which, since 1789, has promulgated the official Parisian French. The term gallicised Corsican refers to Corsu up to about the year 1950. The term distanciated Corsican refers to an idealized Corsu from which various agents have succeeded in removing French or other elements. The general classification of Corsican as a Romance language allows two possibilities as to the identity of the speakers of the first distinct Corsican, or Proto-Corsican. They created the language either from Proto-Romance or from a subsequent Romance language. In 40 AD neither a Romance nor an Italic language were spoken by the natives of Corsica. The Roman exile, Seneca the younger, reports that both coast and interior were occupied by natives whose language he did not understand (see under Prehistory of Corsica). Latin at that time was generally spoken only in the Roman colonies. The occupation of the island by Vandals about 469 AD marks the end of authoritative influence by Latin-speaking Romans (see under Medieval Corsica). If the natives of that time were speaking Latin they must have acquired it during the late empire. The documents of the early Christian church concerning Corsica are in Latin, but they are only communications between church officials (see under Ajaccio). The next window of opportunity for the predecessor of a Proto-Corsican was the administration of Corsica by Tuscany, then speaking the Tuscan dialect, an immediate predecessor of Italian. The first Italian documents date from the 10th century but Italian must have developed earlier and Tuscan even earlier. Tuscan would have come from the latest phases of Vulgar Latin; Proto-Corsican from the Tuscan spoken on Corsica. The last historical possibility is that Proto-Corsican came from the Tuscan dialect of Pisa; its period of Corsican administration, however, was relatively short. Genoese is not a likely possibility as Corsican is attested before the presence of Genoa on Corsica, and the linguistic features of Corsican do not match well with those of Genoese. Historical circumstances alone reduce the window of opportunity only to within several hundred years. Classification by subjective analysis One of the main sources of confusion in popular classifications is the difference between a dialect and a language. Typically it is not possible to ascertain what an author means by these terms. For example, one might read that Corsican is a "central southern Italian dialect" along with Tuscan, Campanian, Sicilian and others or that it is "closely related to the Tuscan dialect of Italian," where it is generally understood that modern Italian came from Tuscan. It is impossible to discern from these statements whether Corsican is or is not Italian, is or is not Tuscan and did or did not come from the ancient Tuscan dialect. Turning to the professional comparatists it is possible to definitely state that Corsican is not Tuscan and is not Italian. For example one of the characteristics of Tuscan and Italian is that Latin -u- in -us becomes -o: annus "year" but Italian anno. Corsican has annu, retaining the -u. Or, the -re infinitive ending as in Latin mittere, "send", is retained in Tuscan but lost in Corsican, which has mette/metta, "to put." The Latin relative pronoun, qui, "who, what", is inflected in Latin and Italian but in Corsican is the uninflectable chì. The number and profundity of differences is large and preclude the idea that they came from Tuscan rather than from Latin: "the Corsican language is not the same as Tuscan" and "Corsican has preserved certain Latin forms which have disappeared elsewhere." Classification by statistical analysis After the year 2000 a new approach to language classification made its debut. Given n graphemes (an alphabet of n letters), the frequency of any digraph (two letters) As used in this study the word digraph is not the linguistics one, which means one sound, or phoneme, represented by a two-letter combination, such as English sh, but is any two letters or a letter and a blank. It might be a linguistics digraph or not. ninj in writing samples of a language approaches a fixed value. Using an alphabet of 26 letters plus a space it is possible to set up a matrix of 27×27 frequencies unique to that language and therefore called its Statistical Language Signature (SLS). The SLS is an abstract summary of all the lexical items and morphological features that distinguish the language and therefore determine the overall order of its digraphs. The statistical distance of one SLS from another measures the similarity of the two languages in a manner that does not depend on a subjective analysis of features or value decisions as to which should be considered. There is some variability of the signature depending on the selection of samples and the mathematical methods of conceiving and computing distance. The ability to characterize languages by numbers creates a sample space for them in which the clustering of points reveals groups of similar languages, or if samples are taken from the history of the language, graphs that trace the divergence of languages from each other. These methods are limited only by the comprehensiveness of the sample texts. On the other hand, since this method is based on orthographic conventions rather than actual linguistic features, any conclusions are necessarily of highly dubious value. An initial effort to develop a language classification tree having turned out unsatisfactorily in 2002 because of insufficient data a second effort in 2003 . utilized the text of The Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 52 languages as sample texts to develop two trees by two different statistical methods. Discrepancies between them were attributed to insufficient sample data; for example, by one method Sardinian and Corsican are very close but by the other rather distant, with neither being close to Italian. A recent attempt to bring the tree into sharper focus on the Romance languages diminished the number of languages to 34 and the statistical parameters to the Frobenius Distance and the Kalin (1-norm) Distance. It expanded the data set to include also other documents reflecting spoken language, such as newspapers, and made it diachronic, going back 22 centuries. Sardinian was not included but the results for Corsican are precise. Corsican diverged from Italian, Corsican-Italian from Friulian and that group from a larger that includes Latin on the one hand and almost all the others on the other. In other words, there was a common ancestor on Italian soil and Corsica. The ancestor was not Latin and was to be distinguished from ancestors on other soils, in Iberia and Gaul. The "Italian" from which Corsican diverged in mutual dissimilation was not modern Italian, still far in the future, but its ancestor, Tuscan, and that was not during the Tuscan period on Corsica, when it already existed. The common ancestor was a language about which little is known: spoken or vulgar Latin, often considered to be Proto-Romance. Written Latin was a literary language, hence it does not appear as an ancestor in the tree. The ancestors in Iberia and Gaul came from soldiers' Latin, of mainly foreign troops learning the spoken language. The ancestor of Corsican, Tuscan and Friulian - which was spoken on the soil of the earlier Rhaetia - draws the attention as being on formerly Etruscan soil. Evidently when the Etruscans assimilated they did so with a unique signature. The date of the first projected Corsican signature is about 1400 years ago, 600 AD more or less, well before Tuscan rule, in the early Christian period. This date is consistent with a Latinization of the Corsican people during the late empire and subsequent local development of Vulgar Latin into Proto-Corsican before close communication with Italy was again established. Dialects The language has several dialects including Northern Corsican, spoken in the Bastia and Corte area, and Southern Corsican, spoken around Sartene and Porto-Vecchio. The dialect of Ajaccio has been described as in transition. The dialects spoken at Calvi and Bonifacio are closer to the Genoa dialect, also known as Ligurian. Languages in northern Sardinia On Maddalena archipelago the local dialect (called Isulanu, Maddaleninu, Maddalenino) was brought by fishermen and shepherds from Bonifacio during immigration in the 17th-18th centuries. Though influenced by Gallurese it has maintained the original characteristics of Corsican. There are also numerous words of Genoese and ponzese origin. Languages related to Corsican in Sardinia Gallurese is spoken in the Sardinian region of Gallura, including the archipelago of La Maddalena. Sassarese, is spoken in Sassari and in its neighbourhood, in the north-west of Sardinia. Whether these two languages should be included in the Corsican language as dialects, included in Sardinian as dialects, or considered as independent languages, is debatable. For example, Article 2 Item 4 of Law Number 26, October 15, 1997, of the Autonomous Region of Sardinia grants "al dialetto sassarese e a quello gallurese" equal legal status with the other languages on Sardinia (which Corsica does not do). They are being legally defined as different languages from Sardinian. Alphabet Corsican uses the Latin alphabet with some changes. Although the words written in it are close enough to Italian and Latin for the non-Corsican speaker with a language background to follow, the pronunciation of those letters in English, French or Italian is not a guide to the pronunciation of Corsican, which follows complex rules that must be known by the speaker. Phonology Vowel inventory The grapheme "i" appears in some digraphs and trigraphs in which it does not represent the phonemic vowel. All vowels are pronounced except in a few well-defined instances. "I" is not pronounced before a, o, u after sc, sg, c and g: sciarpa ; or initially in some words: istu . Vowels may be nasalized before n, which is assimilated to m before p or b, and the liquid consonant, gn. The nasal vowels are represented by the vowel plus n, m or gn. The combination is a digraph or trigraph indicating the nasalized vowel. The consonant is pronounced in weakened form. The same combination of letters might not be the digraph or trigraph but might be just the non-nasal vowel followed by the consonant at full weight. The speaker must know the difference. Example of nasal: pane is pronounced and not . The vowel inventory, or collection of phonemic vowels (and the major allophones), transcribed in IPA symbols, is: Description Grapheme(Minuscule) Phoneme Phone orAllophones Usage Example Open front unrounded Near opena /a/[][] Occasional northerncasa carta Open back unrounded a /â/[] Close-mid front unrounded Open-mid Near-open Open e /e/[][][][] Inherited asopen or closeOccasional southernOccasional southern U celu Ci hè terra Close front unrounded Rounded i /i/[][]1st sound, diphthongmi fiume Close-mid back rounded o/o/[]giòvani Consonant inventory Morphology References Bibliography See also Gallurese Languages of France List of ISO 639-1 codes List of ISO 639-2 codes Sassarese language External links | Corsican_language |@lemmatized bilingual:1 road:1 sign:3 french:9 name:2 cross:2 corsican:64 corsu:11 lingua:1 corsa:1 continuum:1 romance:7 language:56 speak:14 write:10 island:5 corsica:17 france:5 northern:3 sardinia:6 italy:2 alongside:1 italian:21 official:5 traditional:1 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morphology:1 bibliography:1 iso:2 code:2 |@bigram steady_stream:1 external_link:2 proto_corsican:5 vulgar_latin:3 closely_relate:1 lexical_item:1 romance_languages:1 sardinia_corsica:1 digraph_trigraphs:1 nasalized_vowel:1 transcribe_ipa:1 front_unrounded:3 |
5,218 | Marino_Marini | Marino Marini may refer to Marino Marini (musician) Marino Marini (sculptor) | Marino_Marini |@lemmatized marino:3 marini:3 may:1 refer:1 musician:1 sculptor:1 |@bigram |
5,219 | Idaho | The State of Idaho () is a state in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States of America. The state's largest city and capital is Boise. Residents are called "Idahoans." Idaho was admitted to the Union on 3 July 1890 as the 43rd state. According to the United States Census Bureau, in 2008 the population for Idaho was estimated to be 1,523,816. The state's postal abbreviation is ID. Idaho's nickname is the Gem State because nearly every known gem has been found here — everything from agates to zircon. Just, Rick. "Star Garnet." Idaho Snapshots. Meridian, Idaho: Radio Idaho, 1990. 9. In addition, Idaho is one of only two places in the world where star garnets can be found (the other is the Himalaya Mountains, in India), and is the only place six pointed star garnets have been found. The state motto is Esto Perpetua (Latin for "Let it be forever"). Geography Idaho borders six states and one Canadian province. The states of Washington and Oregon are to the west, Nevada and Utah are to the south, and Montana and Wyoming are to the east. Idaho also shares a short border () with the Canadian province of British Columbia to the north. The landscape is rugged with some of the largest unspoiled natural areas in the United States. It is a Rocky Mountain state with abundant natural resources and scenic areas. The state has snow-capped mountain ranges, rapids, vast lakes and steep canyons. The waters of Snake River rush through Hells Canyon, the deepest canyon in the United States. Shoshone Falls plunges down rugged cliffs from a height greater than that of Niagara Falls. The major rivers in Idaho are the Snake River, the Clark Fork/Pend Oreille River, the Clearwater River and the Salmon River. Other significant rivers include the Coeur d'Alene/Spokane River, the Boise River and the Payette River. The Port of Lewiston, at the confluence of the Clearwater and the Snake Rivers is the farthest inland seaport on the West Coast. http://www.u-s-history.com/pages/h2812.html Idaho's highest point is Borah Peak, , in the Lost River Range north of Mackay. Idaho's lowest point, , is in Lewiston, where the Clearwater River joins the Snake River and continues into Washington. The Sawtooth Range is often considered Idaho's most famous mountain range. http://www.idahoaclimbingguide.com/id27.htm Southern Idaho, including the Boise metropolitan area, Idaho Falls, Pocatello, and Twin Falls are in the Mountain Time Zone. (A legislative oddity ( § 264) theoretically placed this region in the Central Time Zone, but this error was corrected with a 2007 Amendment.) http://uscode.house.gov/download/pls/15C6.txt Areas north of the Salmon River, including Coeur d'Alene, Moscow, Lewiston, and Sandpoint are in the Pacific Time Zone and revolve commercially and culturally around Spokane, Washington. Climate Idaho has much variation in its climate. Although the state's western border is located about from the Pacific Ocean, the maritime influence is still felt in Idaho, especially in the winter when cloud cover, humidity, and precipitation are at their highest points. This influence has a moderating effect in the winter where temperatures are not as low as would otherwise be expected for a northern state with a mostly elevated altitude. http://www.wrcc.dri.edu/narratives/IDAHO.htm The maritime influence is lowest in the southeastern part of the state where the precipitation patterns are often reversed, with wetter summers and drier winters, and seasonal temperature differences more extreme, showing a more continental climate. Climate in Idaho can be hot, although extended periods over for the maximum temperature are rare. Hot summer days are tempered by the low relative humidity and cooler evenings during summer months since, for most of the state, the highest diurnal difference in temperature is often in the summer. Winters can be cold, although extended periods of bitter cold weather below zero are unusual. Monthly Normal High and Low Temperatures For Various Idaho Cities. City Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Boise 37/24 44/29 54/34 62/39 71/47 80/54 89/60 88/60 77/51 64/41 48/32 37/24 Lewiston 39/28 46/31 54/36 62/41 70/47 78/54 88/59 88/59 77/51 62/41 47/34 39/28 Pocatello 32/16 39/21 48/27 58/33 68/39 78/46 88/51 87/50 76/42 62/33 44/25 34/17 Lakes Alturas Lake Bear Lake (Idaho-Utah) Hayden Lake Henry's Lake Lake Cascade Lake Coeur d'Alene Lake Lowell Lake Walcott Payette Lake (McCall) Pend Oreille Little Redfish Lake Pettit Lake Priest Lake Redfish Lake Sawtooth Lake Stanley Lake Warm Lake History Humans may have been present in the Idaho area as long as 14,500 years ago. Excavations at Wilson Butte Cave near Twin Falls in 1959 revealed evidence of human activity, including arrowheads, that rank among the oldest dated artifacts in North America. Native American tribes predominant in the area included the Nez Perce in the north and the Northern and Western Shoshone in the south. Idaho, as part of the Oregon Country, was claimed by both the United States and Great Britain until the United States gained undisputed jurisdiction in 1846. From 1843 to 1849 present-day Idaho was under the de facto jurisdiction of the Provisional Government of Oregon. Between then and the creation of the Idaho Territory in 1863, parts of the present-day state were included in the Oregon, Washington, and Dakota Territories. The new territory included most of present-day Idaho, Montana, and Wyoming. The first organized communities, within the present borders of Idaho, were established in 1860. After some tribulation as a territory, including the chaotic transfer of the territorial capital from Lewiston to Boise, disenfranchisement of Mormon polygamists "Mormon" Entry for The Encyclopedia of the Supreme Court of the United States, David S.Tanenhaus , and a federal attempt to split the territory between Washington Territory and the state of Nevada, Idaho achieved statehood in 1890. The economy of the state, which had been primarily supported by metal mining, shifted towards agriculture and tourism. In recent years, Idaho has expanded its commercial base as a tourism and agricultural state to include science and technology industries. Science and technology have become the largest single economic center (over 25% of the state's total revenue) within the state and are greater than agriculture, forestry and mining combined. The Idaho State Historical Society preserves and promotes Idaho’s cultural heritage. Origin of name Idaho is the only state that was possibly named as the result of a hoax (the so-called "Idahoax") although this is disputed. The exact origin of the name remains a mystery. In the early 1860s, when the United States Congress was considering organizing a new territory in the Rocky Mountains, eccentric lobbyist George M. Willing suggested the name "Idaho," which he claimed was derived from a Shoshone language term meaning "the sun comes from the mountains" or "gem of the mountains." Willing later claimed that he had made up the name himself . Congress ultimately decided to name the area Colorado Territory when it was created in February 1861. However, the name "Idaho" did not go away. The same year Congress created Colorado Territory, a county called Idaho County was created in eastern Washington Territory. The county was named after a steamship named Idaho, which was launched on the Columbia River in 1860. It is unclear whether the steamship was named before or after Willing's claim was revealed. Regardless, a portion of Washington Territory, including Idaho County, was used to create Idaho Territory in 1863. Despite this lack of evidence for the origin of the name, many textbooks well into the 20th century repeated as fact Willing's account that the name "Idaho" derived from the Shoshone term "ee-da-how". An excerpt from an Idaho History Textbook: "Idaho" is a Shoshoni Indian exclamation. The word consists of three parts. The first is "Ee", which in English conveys the idea of "coming down". The second is "dah" which is the Shoshoni stem or root for both "sun" and "mountain". The third syllable, "how", denotes the exclamation and stands for the same thing in Shoshoni that the exclamation mark (!) does in the English language. The Shoshoni word is "Ee-dah-how", and the Indian thought thus conveyed when translated into English means, "Behold! the sun coming down the mountain". "IDAHO in the Pacific Northwest". Barber -Martin. 1956. Caxton Printers Ltd. Library of Congress 55-5192. Chief Joseph Seltice, of the Coeur d'Alene Tribal Nation, posits another possible origin of the name. In his history of the tribe, Saga of the Coeur d'Alene Indians, he writes: Some sources claim that the name "Idaho" comes from an Indian word, "Ee-dah-how," meaning "Gem of the Mountains." This expression may have come from some other Tribe, and it would have a different meaning for them than it would for the Coeur d'Alenes. As the Coeur d'Alenes understood the word "Idaho," it would be more correctly pronounced "Ah-d'Hoo." It means "greetings by surprise," indicating friendship, but surprise. The first syllable conveys to the mind, "All are welcome, from wherever you come; but keep the friendly peace. We welcome you with out-stretched arms, and this entitles us to permanent friendship." The last syllable is a surprise and exclamation point. The expression means that all are welcome, "though we are surprised to see so many different strangers. The first dawn of day welcomes you as the sun rises." This expression was used by many of the Coeur d'Alenes on the Bitterroot Mountains to greet all who come. So to all who read these words: "Welcome, with open arms! We're just surprised that there are so many of you!" Demographics As of 2005, Idaho has an estimated population of 1,429,096, which is an increase of 33,956, or 2.4%, from the prior year and an increase of 135,140, or 10.4%, since the year 2000. This includes a natural increase since the last census of 58,884 people (that is 111,131 births minus 52,247 deaths) and an increase due to net migration of 75,795 people into the state. Immigration from outside the United States resulted in a net increase of 14,522 people, and migration within the country produced a net increase of 61,273 people. This made Idaho the sixth fastest-growing state after Arizona, Nevada, Florida, Georgia, and Utah. From 2004 to 2005, Idaho grew the third-fastest, surpassed only by Nevada and Arizona. Nampa, the state's second largest city, has experienced particularly strong growth in recent years. According to census estimates Nampa has grown 22.1% to nearly 65,000 residents between 2000 and 2003. As of 2007, the population in Nampa was estimated at 84,000. Growth of 5% or more over the same period has also been observed in Caldwell, Coeur d'Alene, Meridian, Post Falls and Twin Falls. Since 1990, Idaho's population has increased by 386,000 (38%). The Boise Metropolitan Area (officially known as the Boise City-Nampa, ID Metropolitan Statistical Area) is Idaho's largest metropolitan area. Other metropolitan areas in order of size are Coeur d'Alene, Idaho Falls, Pocatello and Lewiston. As of 2006, six official micropolitan statistical areas are based in Idaho. Twin Falls is the largest of these. The center of population of Idaho is located in Custer County, in the town of Stanley. The largest reported ancestries in the state are: German (18.9%), English (18.1%), Irish (10%), American (8.4%), Norwegian (3.6%), Swedish (3.5%). Religion According to the 15th annual Idaho Public Policy study (, 2004) by the Social Science Research Center at BSU, the ambiguous religious affiliations of Idahoans break down roughly as follows. Protestant – 29.3% LDS (Mormon) – 22.8% Catholic – 14.3% Non-Denominational Christian – 13.6% None – 12.7% Other – 7.2% The largest denominations by number of adherents in 2000 were the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints with 311,425; the Roman Catholic Church with 130,847; the Assemblies of God with 18,745; and the United Methodist Church with 17,683. http://www.thearda.com/mapsReports/reports/state/16_2000.asp Economy Gross state product for 2004 was US$43.6 billion. The per capita income for 2004 was US$26,881. Idaho is an important agricultural state, producing nearly one third of the potatoes grown in the United States. Important industries in Idaho are food processing, lumber and wood products, machinery, chemical products, paper products, electronics manufacturing, silver and other mining, and tourism. The world's largest factory for barrel cheese, the raw product for processed cheese is located in Gooding, Idaho. It has a capacity of 120,000 metric tons per year of barrel cheese and belongs to the Glanbia group. "Zuivelzicht" April 25, 2007 The Idaho National Laboratory (INL), a government lab for nuclear energy research, is also an important part of the eastern Idaho economy. Idaho also is home to three facilities of Anheuser-Busch which provide a large part of the malt for breweries located across the nation. Today, the largest industry in Idaho is the science and technology sector. It accounts for over 25% of the State's total revenue and 70%+ of the State's exports (in dollars). Idaho's industrial economy is growing, with high-tech products leading the way. Since the late 1970s, Boise has emerged as a center for semiconductor manufacturing. Boise is the home of Micron Technology Inc., the only U.S. manufacturer of dynamic random access memory (DRAM) chips. Hewlett-Packard has operated a large plant in Boise since the 1970s, which is devoted primarily to LaserJet printers production. Dell, Inc. operates a major customer support call center in Twin Falls. AMI Semiconductor, whose worldwide headquarter locates in Pocatello, is a widely recognized innovator in state-of-the-art integrated mixed-signal semiconductor products, mixed-signal foundry services, and structured digital products. Coldwater Creek, a women's clothing retailer, is headquartered in Sandpoint. Fortune 500 SUN Microsystems has two offices in Boise and a parts depot in Pocatello. SUN brings $4M in annual salaries and over $300M of revenue to the state each year. The state personal income tax ranges from 1.6% to 7.8% in eight income brackets. Idahoans may apply for state tax credits for taxes paid to other states, as well as for donations to Idaho state educational entities and some nonprofit youth and rehabilitation facilities. The state sales tax is 6%. Sales tax applies to the sale, rental or lease of tangible personal property and some services. Food is taxed, but prescription drugs are not. Hotel, motel, and campground accommodations are taxed at a higher rate (7% to 11%). Some jurisdictions impose local option sales tax. Idaho has a state gambling lottery which contributed $333.5 million in payments to all Idaho public schools and Idaho higher education from 1990 - 2006. Transportation Major highways Idaho is among the few states in the nation without a major freeway linking the two largest metropolitan areas of Boise in the south and Coeur d'Alene in the north. US-95 links the two ends of the state, but like many other highways in Idaho, it is badly in need of repair and upgrade. In 2007, the Idaho Transportation Department stated that the state's highway infrastructure faces a $200 million per year shortfall in maintenance and upgrades. Interstate 84 is the main highway linking the Southeast and Southwest portions of the state, along with Interstate 86 and Interstate 15. Air Travel Major airports include the Boise International Airport serving the southwest region of Idaho, and the Spokane International Airport (actually located in Spokane, Washington), which serves northern Idaho. Other airports with scheduled service are the Pullman-Moscow Regional Airport serving the Palouse; the Lewiston-Nez Perce County Airport, serving the Lewis-Clark Valley and north central Idaho; The Magic Valley Regional Airport in Twin Falls; the Idaho Falls Regional Airport; and the Pocatello Regional Airport. Rail Travel Idaho is served by two transcontinental railroads. The Burlington Northern Santa Fe (BNSF) connects North Idaho with Seattle, Portland and Spokane to the west, and Minneapolis and Chicago to the east. The BNSF travels through Kootenai, Bonner and Boundary Counties. The Union Pacific Railroad crosses southern Idaho traveling between Portland, Green River, WY, and Ogden, Utah and serves Boise, Nampa, Twin Falls, and Pocatello. Amtrak's Empire Builder crosses northern Idaho, with its only stop being in Sandpoint. There has been a push recently to return Amtrak service to southern Idaho as well. Ports The Port of Lewiston is the furthest inland Pacific port on the west coast. A series of dams and locks on the Snake River and Columbia River facilitate barge travel from here to Portland, where goods are loaded on ocean-going vessels. <table>North U.S. Highway 2 U.S. Highway 12 North/South U.S. Highway 95 U.S. Highway 93 Interstate 15 West/East U.S. Highway 20 U.S. Highway 26 U.S. Highway 30 Interstate 84 Interstate 86 Interstate 90 </td> Southwest Interstate 184 </tr></table> Law and government State government The constitution of Idaho provides for three branches of government: the executive, legislative and judicial branches. Idaho has a bicameral legislature, elected from 35 legislative districts, each represented by one senator and two representatives. Idaho still operates under its original (1889) state constitution. Since 1946, statewide elected constitutional officers have been elected to four-year terms. They include: Governor, Lieutenant Governor, Secretary of State, Controller (Auditor before 1994), Treasurer, Attorney General, and Superintendent of Public Instruction. Last contested in 1966, Inspector of Mines was an original elected constitutional office. Afterward it was an appointed position and ultimately done away with entirely in 1974. Idaho's government has an alcohol monopoly. Executive Branch The governor of Idaho serves a four-year term, and is elected during what is nationally referred to as midterm elections. As such, the governor is not elected in the same election year as the president of the United States. The current governor is Republican C. L. "Butch" Otter, who was elected in 2006. Legislative Branch Idaho's legislature is part-time. However, the session may be extended if necessary, and often is. Because of this, Idaho's legislators are considered "citizen legislators", meaning that their position as a legislator is not their main occupation. Terms for both the Senate and House of Representatives are two years. Legislative elections occur every even numbered year. The Idaho Legislature has been continuously controlled by the Republican Party since the late 1950s, although Democratic legislators are routinely elected from Boise, Pocatello, Blaine County and the northern Panhandle. See also List of Idaho senators and representatives Judicial Branch The highest court in Idaho is the Idaho Supreme Court. There is also an intermediate appellate court, the Idaho Court of Appeals, which hears cases assigned to it from the Supreme Court. The state's District Courts serdistricts. Counties Idaho is divided into political jurisdictions designated as counties. As of 1919 there were 44 counties in the state, ranging in size from 410 to 8,502 square miles (1,062 to 22,020 square kilometers). IDAHO COUNTIESCounty nameCounty seatYear foundedPopulationPercentArea (sq. m.)PercentAdaBoise1864300,90423.25 %1,0601.21 %AdamsCouncil19113,4760.27 %1,3701.57 %BannockPocatello189375,5655.84 %1,1471.31 %Bear LakeParis18936,4110.50 %1,0491.20 %BenewahSt. Maries19159,1710.71 %7840.90 %BinghamBlackfoot188541,7353.23 %2,1202.42 %BlaineHailey189518,9911.47 %2,6613.04 %BoiseIdaho City18646,6700.52 %1,9072.18 %BonnerSandpoint190736,8352.85 %1,9202.19 %BonnevilleIdaho Falls191182,5226.38 %1,9012.17 %BoundaryBonners Ferry19159,8710.76 %1,2781.46 %ButteArco19172,8990.22 %2,2342.55 %CamasFairfield19179910.08 %1,0791.23 %CanyonCaldwell1891131,44110.16 %6040.69 %CaribouSoda Springs19197,3040.56 %1,7992.06 %CassiaBurley187921,4161.66 %2,5802.95 %ClarkDubois19191,0220.08 %1,7652.02 %ClearwaterOrofino19118,9300.69 %2,4882.84 %CusterChallis18814,3420.34 %4,9375.64 %ElmoreMountain Home188929,1302.25 %3,1013.54 %FranklinPreston191311,3290.88 %6680.76 %FremontSt. Anthony189311,8190.91 %1,8962.17 %GemEmmett191515,1811.17 %5660.65 %Gooding County, IdahoGooding191314,1551.09 %7340.84 %IdahoGrangeville1861/186415,5111.20 %8,5029.71 %JeffersonRigby191319,1551.48 %1,1061.26 %JeromeJerome191918,3421.42 %6020.69 %KootenaiCoeur d'Alene1864108,6858.40 %1,3161.50 %LatahMoscow188634,9352.70 %1,0771.23 %LemhiSalmon18697,8060.60 %4,5705.22 %LewisNezperce19113,7470.29 %4800.55 %LincolnShoshone18954,0440.31 %1,2061.38 %MadisonRexburg191427,4672.12 %4730.54 %MinidokaRupert191320,1741.56 %7630.87 %Nez PerceLewiston1861/186437,4102.89 %8560.98 %OneidaMalad City18644,1250.32 %1,2021.37 %OwyheeMurphy186310,6440.82 %7,6978.79 %PayettePayette191720,5781.59 %4100.47 %PowerAmerican Falls19137,5380.58 %1,4431.65 %ShoshoneWallace186413,7711.06 %2,6363.01 %TetonDriggs19155,9990.46 %4510.52 %Twin FallsTwin Falls190764,2844.97 %1,9282.20 %ValleyCascade19177,6510.59 %3,7344.27 %WashingtonWeiser18799,9770.77 %1,4741.68 %Total Counties: 44 Total 2000 Population: 1,293,953 Total Area: 87,530 square miles Two counties were first designated as such by the Washington Territorial Legislature in 1861; they were subsequently re-designated as Idaho counties in 1864 Politics + Presidential elections results Year Republican Democratic200861.5% 403,012 |align="center" bgcolor="#f0f0ff"|36.1% 236,440200468.38% 409,235 |align="center" bgcolor="#f0f0ff"|30.26% 181,098200067.17% 336,937 |align="center" bgcolor="#f0f0ff"|27.64% 138,637199652.18% 256,595 |align="center" bgcolor="#f0f0ff"|33.65% 165,443199242.03% 202,645 |align="center" bgcolor="#f0f0ff"|28.42% 137,013198862.08% 253,881 |align="center" bgcolor="#f0f0ff"|36.01% 147,272198472.36% 297,523 |align="center" bgcolor="#f0f0ff"|26.39% 108,510198066.46% 290,699 |align="center" bgcolor="#f0f0ff"|25.19% 110,192197659.88% 204,151 |align="center" bgcolor="#f0f0ff"|37.12% 126,549197264.24% 199,384 |align="center" bgcolor="#f0f0ff"|26.04% 80,826196856.79% 165,369 |align="center" bgcolor="#f0f0ff"|30.66% 89,273196449.08% 143,557 |align="center" bgcolor="#f0f0ff"|50.92% 148,920196053.78% 161,597 |align="center" bgcolor="#f0f0ff"|46.22% 138,853 After the Civil War, many Southern Democrats moved to Idaho Territory. As a result, the early territorial legislatures were solidly Democrat-controlled. In contrast, most of the territorial governors were appointed by Republican Presidents and were Republicans themselves. This led to sometimes bitter clashes between the two parties. In the 1880s, Republicans became more prominent in local politics. Since statehood, the Republican Party has usually been the dominant party in Idaho, as there was a polar shift in social and political stance between the two parties, when the Democrats became more liberal and the Republicans more conservative. In the 1890s and early 1900s, the Populist Party enjoyed prominence while the Democratic Party maintained a brief dominance in the 1930s during the Great Depression. Since World War II, most statewide elected officials have been Republicans. Idaho Congressional delegations have also been generally Republican since statehood. Several Idaho Democrats have had electoral success in the House over the years, but the Senate delegation has been a Republican stronghold for decades. Several Idaho Republicans, including current Senator Mike Crapo, have won reelection to the Senate, but only Frank Church has won reelection as a Democrat. Church was the last Idaho Democrat to win a U.S. Senate race, in 1974. Walt Minnick's 2008 win in the First Congressional District was the state's first Democratic Congressional victory in 16 years. In modern times, Idaho has been a reliably Republican state in presidential politics as well. It has not supported a Democrat for president since 1964. Even in that election, Lyndon Johnson defeated Barry Goldwater by less than two percentage points. In 2004, Republican George W. Bush carried Idaho by a margin of 38 percentage points and with 68.4% of the vote, winning in 43 of 44 counties. Only Blaine County, which contains the Sun Valley ski resort, supported John Kerry, who owns a home in the area. In 2008 Barack Obama's 36.1 percent Idaho Secretary of State Election Division, "November 4, 2008 General Election Results" showing was the best for a Democratic presidential candidate in Idaho since 1976. However, Republican margins were narrower in 1992 and 1996. In the 2006 elections, Republicans, led by gubernatorial candidate C. L. "Butch" Otter, won all of the state's constitutional offices and retained both of the state's seats in the United States House of Representatives. However, Democrats picked up several seats in the Idaho Legislature, notably in the Boise area. Republicans lost one of the House seats in 2008 to Minnick, but Republican Jim Risch retained Larry Craig's Senate seat for the GOP by a comfortable margin. 2008 statewide totals Important cities and towns Population > 100,000 (urbanized area) Boise (state capital) - Home of Boise State University Population > 50,000 (urbanized area) Idaho Falls - Location of the main offices of the Idaho National Laboratory Nampa - Home of Northwest Nazarene University Pocatello - Home of Idaho State University Meridian - Suburb of Boise, Fastest growing city in Idaho Population > 30,000 (urbanized area) Caldwell - Home of the College of Idaho Coeur d'Alene - Home of North Idaho College, major tourist hub Lewiston - Home of Lewis-Clark State College, Seaport Twin Falls - Home of College of Southern Idaho, BASE jumping Population > 10,000 (urbanized area) Ammon - Suburb of Idaho Falls Blackfoot - Home of Idaho Potato Museum Burley Eagle - Suburb of Boise Garden City - Suburb of Boise Hayden -Suburb of Coeur d'Alene Kuna - Suburb of Boise Moscow - Home of the University of Idaho Mountain Home - US Airforce Base Post Falls - Suburb of Coeur d'Alene Rexburg - Home of Brigham Young University-IdahoSmaller Towns and Cities American Falls - First town to be entirely relocated Arco - First city to be lit by electricity generated from a nuclear power plant Bonners Ferry - Northernmost major town in Idaho Buhl, Idaho - Trout Capitol of the World. City of Rocks - First rockclimbing station in Idaho Driggs - skiing (Grand Targhee) Eden Emmett Greenleaf Fruitland Filer - Suburb of Twin Falls. Hazelton Homedale - town's name was chosen from a hat Island Park - snowmobiling, world-class fishing Jerome Kimberly - Suburb of Twin Falls Kellogg - skiing ( Silver Mountain Ski Resort) Malad City McCall - Skiing Brundage Ski Resort and Recreation Payette Lake Middleton Montpelier Mullan New Meadows New Plymouth - first planned community in Idaho, third west of the Rocky Mountains Notus Orofino - County seat of Clearwater County Paris, Idaho - County seat of Bear Lake County Payette - County seat of Payette County Plummer Rupert- County Seat of Minidoka County Rigby - Television birthplace Salmon, Idaho Sandpoint - Skiing Schweitzer Mountain Ski Resort and Recrecation Lake Pend Oreille. Soda Springs - US's only captive geyser St. Anthony - sand dunes and several lava tubes St. Maries Stanley, Idaho Sun Valley - Year-round resort with world-class skiing Wallace Wilder Worley Firth National Parks California National Historic Trail City of Rocks National Reserve Craters of the Moon National Monument Hagerman Fossil Beds National Monument Lewis and Clark National Historic Trail Minidoka National Historic Site Nez Perce National Historical Park Oregon National Historic Trail Yellowstone National Park National Recreation Areas Hells Canyon National Recreation Area Sawtooth National Recreation Area National Wildlife Refuges Bear Lake National Wildlife Refuge Camas National Wildlife Refuge Deer Flat National Wildlife Refuge Grays Lake National Wildlife Refuge Kootenai National Wildlife Refuge Minidoka National Wildlife Refuge National Conservation Areas Snake River Birds of Prey National Conservation Area State Parks <table><tr>Bear Lake State Park Box Canyon State Park Bruneau Dunes State Park Castle Rocks State Park City of Rocks State Park Coeur d'Alene Parkway Dworshak State Park Eagle Island State Park Farragut State Park Harriman State Park Hells Canyon Hells Gate State Park Henrys Lake State Park Heyburn State Park Lake Cascade State Park Lake Walcott State Park Lucky Peak State Park Malad Gorge State Park Massacre Rocks State Park Mary Minerva McCroskey State Park Niagara Springs State Park Old Mission State Park Ponderosa State Park Priest Lake State Park Round Lake State Park Three Island Crossing State Park Trail of the Coeur d'Alenes Winchester Lake State Park Yankee Fork State Park </td></tr></table> Education Colleges and universities The Idaho State Board of Education oversees three comprehensive universities. The University of Idaho in Moscow was the first university in the state (founded in 1889). A land-grant institution, the UI is the state's flagship university. Idaho State University in Pocatello opened in 1901 as the Academy of Idaho and was granted university status in 1963. Boise State University is the most recent school to attain university status in Idaho, and is primarily geared toward being a commuter school for part-time undergraduate students. The school opened in 1932 as Boise Junior College and became Boise State University in 1974. Lewis-Clark State College in Lewiston is the only public, non-university 4 year college in Idaho. Idaho has three regional community colleges: North Idaho College in Coeur d'Alene; College of Southern Idaho in Twin Falls; and The College of Western Idaho in Nampa, which is set to open in 2009. Private institutions in Idaho are Brigham Young University-Idaho in Rexburg, which is affiliated with the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints; The College of Idaho in Caldwell, which still maintains a loose affiliation with the Presbyterian Church; Northwest Nazarene University in Nampa; and New Saint Andrews College in Moscow, of reformed Christian theological background. Boise State University Brigham Young University-Idaho College of Idaho College of Southern Idaho Idaho State UniversityLewis-Clark State College New Saint Andrews College North Idaho College Northwest Nazarene University University of Idaho Sports ClubSportLeagueBoise HawksBaseballMinor League BaseballBoise State BroncosNCAADivision 1 College SportsIdaho VandalsNCAADivision 1 College SportsIdaho State BengalsNCAADivision 1 College SportsIdaho Falls ChukarsBaseballMinor League BaseballIdaho StampedeBasketballNBA Development LeagueBoise BurnArena footballaf2Idaho SteelheadsIce hockeyEast Coast Hockey League Boise is the host to the largest 5 K run for women, the St. Luke's Women's Fitness Celebration. Official State Emblems State Bird: Mountain Bluebird State Dance: Square Dance State Fish: Cutthroat Trout State Flower: Syringa (Syringa vulgaris) State Fossil: Hagerman Horse (Equus simplicidens) State Fruit: Huckleberry State Gem: Idaho star garnet State Horse: Appaloosa State Motto: Esto perpetua ("Let it be perpetual") Idaho history homepage State Insect: Monarch butterfly State Raptor: Peregrine falcon State Song: Here We Have Idaho State Tree: Western White Pine State Soil: Threebear (soil) Notable Idahoans See alsoList of Idaho-related topics''' References External links State of Idaho government website Energy Profile for Idaho Idaho Department of Parks and Recreation Idaho Newspapers Idaho State Databases - Annotated list of searchable databases produced by Idaho state agencies and compiled by the Government Documents Roundtable of the American Library Association. Idaho State Facts Log Cabins in America: The Finnish Experience, a National Park Service Teaching with Historic Places (TwHP) lesson plan The History of Idaho U.S. Census Bureau USGS real-time, geographic, and other scientific resources of Idaho Visit Idaho site Related information | Idaho |@lemmatized state:129 idaho:154 pacific:6 northwest:5 region:3 united:13 america:3 large:14 city:14 capital:3 boise:27 resident:2 call:4 idahoan:4 admit:1 union:2 july:1 accord:3 census:4 bureau:2 population:10 estimate:4 postal:1 abbreviation:1 id:2 nickname:1 gem:5 nearly:3 every:2 know:2 find:3 everything:1 agate:1 zircon:1 rick:1 star:4 garnet:4 snapshot:1 meridian:3 radio:1 addition:1 one:5 two:11 place:4 world:6 himalaya:1 mountain:16 india:1 six:3 point:7 motto:2 esto:2 perpetua:2 latin:1 let:2 forever:1 geography:1 border:4 canadian:2 province:2 washington:9 oregon:5 west:6 nevada:4 utah:4 south:4 montana:2 wyoming:2 east:3 also:7 share:1 short:1 british:1 columbia:3 north:13 landscape:1 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5,220 | Mile | milestatute nautical1.609344 km 1.852 km1,609.344 m 1,852 m1,760 yd 2,025.372 yd5,280 ft 6,076.115 ft63,360 in 72,913.4 in A mile is a unit of length, usually used to measure distance, in a number of different systems. In contemporary English contexts, mile most commonly refers to the statute mile of 5,280 feet (exactly 1,609.344 meters) or the nautical mile of 1,852 meters (about 6,076.1 ft). There are many other historical miles, and similar units in other systems translated as miles in English, varying between one and fifteen kilometers. It is about a third of the old measurement, a League. The measurement is now used almost exclusively in the United States, Britain, Liberia and Myanmar. It has been replaced by the kilometer as a measure of distance elsewhere. It is sometimes retained as a customary unit. There have been several abbreviations for mile (with and without trailing period): mi, ml, m, M. In the United States, the National Institute of Standards and Technology now uses and recommends mi Tina Butcher et al. ed. (2007) Appendix C, p. C-13. but in everyday usage (at least in the United States and in the United Kingdom) usages such as miles per hour and miles per gallon are almost always abbreviated as mph or mpg (rather than mi/h or mi/gal). The formula "multiply by 8 and divide by 5" to convert international miles to kilometers gives a conversion of 1.6, which, at less than 1% high, makes a useful approximation. Statute mile The statute mile was defined by English Act of Parliament (hence the name) in 1592, during the reign of Queen Elizabeth I; Klein (1974, corrected 1988), p. 69. it is equal to 1760 yards (5280 feet). For surveying, the statute mile is divided into eight furlongs; each furlong is ten chains; each chain is four rods (also known as poles or perches); and each rod is 25 links. This makes the rod equal to 5½ yards or 16½ feet in both Imperial and U.S. usage. The exact conversion of the mile to SI units depends on which definition of the yard is in use. The different English-speaking countries maintained independent physical standards for the yard that were found to differ by small but measurable amounts, and even to slowly shorten in length. . The United States redefined the U.S. yard in 1893, but this meant that U.S. and Imperial units with the same names had very slightly different values. The confusion was resolved in 1959 with the definition of the international yard in terms of the metre by Australia, Canada, New Zealand, South Africa, the United Kingdom, and the United States. Barbrow & Judson, (1976), pp. 16, 17, 20. The "international mile" of 1760 international yards is exactly 1609.344 metres. The difference from the previous standards was about 2 ppm, or about a tenth of an inch in each mile, the old U.S. standard being slightly longer and the old Imperial standards slightly shorter than the international mile. The older standards for the yard (and hence the foot and the mile) continue in use for some surveying purposes in the United States Astin, A. V., Karo, H. A.; Mueller, F. H. (June 25, 1959). "Refinement of Values for the Yard and the Pound." Federal Register Doc. 59-5442. When reading the document it helps to bear in mind that 999,998 = 3937 × 254. and in India. Schedule to the Standards of Weights and Measures Act, 1976. For most applications, the difference between the two definitions is insignificant — one international foot is exactly 0.999998 of a U.S. survey foot, for a difference of about 3 millimeters per mile — but it affects the definition of the State Plane Coordinate Systems (SPCSs), which can stretch over hundreds of miles. . When international measure was introduced in the English-speaking countries, the basic geodetic datum in North America was the North American Datum of 1927 (NAD27), which had been constructed by triangulation based on the definition of the foot in the Mendenhall Order of 1893, that is 1 foot = meters: this definition was retained for data derived from NAD27, but renamed the U.S. survey foot to distinguish it from the international foot. The NAD27 was replaced in the 1980s by the North American Datum of 1983 (NAD83), which is defined in meters. The SPCSs were also updated, but the National Geodetic Survey left the decision of which (if any) definition of the foot to use to the individual states. All SPCSs are defined in meters, but seven states also have SPCSs defined in U.S. survey feet and an eighth state in international feet: the other 42 states use only meter-based SPCSs. The current National Topographic Database of the Survey of India is based on the metric WGS-84 datum, Survey of India, "National Map Policy – 2005". which is also used by the Global Positioning System. State legislation is also important for determining the conversion factor to be used for everyday land surveying and real estate transactions, although the difference (2 ppm) is of no practical significance given the precision of normal surveying measurements over short distances (usually much less than a mile). In the U.S., twenty-four states have legislated that surveying measures should be based on the U.S. survey foot, eight have legislated that they be made on the basis of the international foot, and eighteen have not specified the conversion factor from metric units. Historical miles in Britain and Ireland The statute of Elizabeth I was not the only definition of the mile in Britain and Ireland. Perhaps the earliest tables of English linear measures, Arnold's Customs of London (c. 1500) indicates a mile consisted of 8 furlongs, each of 625 feet, for a total of 5000 feet (1666⅔ yards, 0.95 statute miles): this is the same definition of the mile in terms of feet as used by the Romans. The "old English" mile of mediaeval and early modern times appears to have measured approximately 1.3 statute miles. Scots mile The Scots mile was longer than the English mile, but varied in length from place to place. It was formally abolished by an Act of the Parliament of Scotland in 1685, "Act for a standard of miles" (16 June 1685). APS viii: 494, c.59. RPS 1685/4/83. and again by the Treaty of Union with England in 1707, Union with England Act 1707 (c. 7), art. 17. but continued in use as a customary unit during the 18th century. It was obsolete by the time of final abolition by the Weights and Measures Act 1824. An estimate of its length can be made from other Scots units: in Scots, the rod was usually called the fall or faw, and was equal to six ells of 37 inches. As there are 320 rods in a mile, this would make the Scots mile equal to 5920 feet (1973⅓ yards, 1.12 statute miles). Other estimates are similar. Irish mile The Irish mile was longer still. In Elizabethan times, four Irish miles was often equated to five English, though whether the statute mile or the "old English" mile is unclear. By the seventeenth century, it was 2240 yards (6720 feet, 1.27 statute miles) . Again, the difference arose from a different length of the rod in Ireland (usually called the perch locally): 21 feet as opposed to 16½ feet in England. From 1774, through the 1801 union with Britain, until the 1820s, the grand juries of 25 Irish counties commissioned surveyed maps at scales of one or two inches per Irish mile. Scottish engineer William Bald's County Mayo maps of 1809–30 were drawn in English miles and rescaled to Irish miles for printing. The Howth–Dublin Post Office extension of the London–Holyhead turnpike engineered by Thomas Telford had mileposts in English miles. Although legally abolished by the Weights and Measures Act 1824, the Irish mile was used till 1856 by the Irish Post Office. The Ordnance Survey of Ireland, from its establishment in 1824, used English miles. In 1894, Alfred Austin complained after visiting Ireland that "the Irish mile is a fine source of confusion when distances are computed. In one county a mile means a statute mile, in another it means an Irish mile". When the Oxford English Dictionary definition of "mile" was published in 1906, it described the Irish mile as "still in rustic use". A 1902 guide says regarding milestones, "Counties Dublin, Waterford, Cork, Antrim, Down, and Armagh use English, but Donegal Irish Miles ; the other counties either have both, or only one or two roads have Irish". Variation in signage persisted till the publication of standardised road traffic regulations by the Irish Free State in 1926. In 1937, a man prosecuted for driving outside the 15-mile limit of his licence offered the unsuccessful defence that, since the state was independent, the limit ought to use Irish miles, "just as no one would ever think of selling land other than as Irish acres". A 1965 proposal by two TDs, to replace statute miles with Irish miles in a clause of the Road Transport Act, was rejected. The term is now obsolete as a specific measure, though an "Irish mile" colloquially is a long but vague distance akin to a "country mile". Metric mile The term metric mile is used in sports such as athletics and speed skating to denote a distance of 1500 meters. In United States high school competition, the term is sometimes used for a race of 1600 meters. Rowlett (2005). s.v. mile. Nautical mile On the utility of the nautical mileEach circle shown is a great circle – the analog of a line in spherical trigonometry – and hence the shortest path connecting two points on the globular surface. Meridians are great circles that pass through the poles. The nautical mile was originally defined as one minute of arc along a meridian of the Earth. Maloney, (1978), 34. It is a convenient reference since it is fairly constant at all latitudes, in contrast with degrees of longitude which vary from 1 NM at the equator to zero at the poles. Navigators use dividers to step off the distance between two points on the navigational chart, then place the open dividers against the minutes-of-latitude scale at the edge of the chart, and read off the distance in nautical miles. Maloney, (1978), 34–35. Since it is now known that the Earth is not perfectly spherical but an oblate spheroid, the length derived from this method varies slightly from the equator to the poles. For instance, using the WGS84 Ellipsoid, the commonly accepted Earth model for many purposes today, one minute of latitude at the WGS84 equator is 6,087 feet and at the poles is 6,067 feet. On average it is about 6,076 feet (about 1852 meters or 1.15 statute miles). In the United States of America, the nautical mile was defined in the nineteenth century as 6,080.2 feet (1,853.249 m), whereas in the United Kingdom the Admiralty nautical mile was defined as 6,080 feet (1,853.184 m) and was approximately one minute of latitude in the latitudes of the south of the UK. Other nations had different definitions of the nautical mile, but it is now internationally defined to be exactly 1,852 meters. Related nautical units The nautical mile per hour is known as the knot. Nautical miles and knots are almost universally used for aeronautical and maritime navigation because of their relationship with degrees and minutes of latitude and the convenience of using the latitude scale on a map for distance measuring. The data mile is used in radar-related subjects and is equal to 6,000 feet (1.8288 kilometers). Rowlett (2005). s.v. data mile. The radar mile is a unit of time (in the same way that the light year is a unit of distance), equal to the time required for a radar pulse to travel a distance of two miles (one mile each way). Thus, the radar statute mile is 10.8 μs and the radar nautical mile is 12.4 μs. Rowlett (2005). s.v. radar mile. Roman mile In Roman times, the unit of long distance (literally "a thousand paces" in Latin, with one pace being equal to two steps) was first used by the Romans and denoted a distance of 1,000 paces or 5,000 Roman feet, and is reckoned to correspond to about 1,479 meters (1,617 yards). This unit is now known as the Roman mile. Smith (1875), p. 171. This unit spread throughout the Roman empire, often with modifications to fit local systems of measurements. Grid system Cities in the continental United States often have streets laid out by miles. Phoenix, Arizona and Las Vegas and Miami are several examples. Typically the largest streets are about one mile apart, with others at half-mile, quarter-mile intervals. Also in Manhattan (New York) "streets" are almost exactly 20 per mile, while "avenues" are about six per mile. Other miles The Arab mile (or Arabic mile) was a unit of length used by medieval Muslim geographers. Its precise length is uncertain, but believed to be around 1925 meters. The Danish (traditional) was 24,000 Danish feet or 7532.5 meters. Sometimes it was interpreted as exactly 7.5 kilometers. It is the same as the north German (below). Rowlett (2005). s.v. mil [4]. The was a traditional unit in German speaking countries, much longer than a western European mile. It was 24,000 German feet; the SI equivalent was 7586 meters in Austria or 7532.5 meters in northern Germany. There was a version known as the which was 4 Admiralty nautical miles, 7,412.7 meters, or 1/15 degree. Rowlett (2005), s.v meile. In Norway and Sweden a mil is a unit of length which is equal to 10 kilometers and commonly used in everyday language. However in more formal situations, like on road signs and when there is risk of confusion with English miles, kilometers are used instead. The traditional Swedish spanned the range from 6000-14,485 meters, depending on province. It was however standardized in 1649 to 36,000 Swedish feet, or 10.687 kilometers. The Norwegian was 11.298 kilometers. When the metric system was introduced in the Norwegian-Swedish union in 1889, one standardized the to exactly 10 kilometers The Russian was a traditional Russian unit of distance, equal to 7 verst, or 7.468 km The (Croatian mile) is 11,130 meters = 11.13 kilometers = 1/10 of equator's degree. Centuries of Natural Science in Croatia : Theory and Application Kartografija i putopisi , first time used by Jesuit Stjepan Glavač on map from 1673. The (also called ) (mile of Croatian Ban, Croatian mile) was 7586 meters = 7.586 kilometers, or 24,000 feet. Vijenac Mrvice s banskoga stola . Idioms Even in countries that have moved from the Imperial to the Metric system (for example, Australia and New Zealand), the mile is still used in a variety of idioms. These include: A country mile is used colloquially to denote a very long distance. "An inch is as good as a mile" (failure by a narrow margin is no better than any other failure) "Give him an inch and he'll take a mile" (the person in question will become greedy if shown generosity) "Missed by a mile" (missed by a wide margin) "Talk a mile a minute" (speak at a rapid rate) "To go the extra mile" (to put in extra effort) "Miles away" (lost in thought, or daydreaming) See also Anthropic units Fibonacci sequence for miles converting to kilometers Four-minute mile Geographical mile Imperial units League Mile run Roman mile Scandinavian Mile Square mile Systems of measurement U.S. customary units Notes References American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (3rd ed.) (1992). Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. Astin. V. and H. Arnold Karo. (1959). Refinement of values for the yard and the pound, Washington DC: National Bureau of Standards, republished on National Geodetic Survey web site and the Federal Register (Doc. 59-5442, Filed, June 30, 1959, 8:45 a.m.) Barbrow, Louis E. and Lewis V. Judson (1976). Weights and Measures Standards of the United States: a brief history. National Institute of Standards and Technology. Butcher, Tina et al. ed. (2007). NIST Handbook 44: Specifications, Tolerances, and Other Technical Requirements for Weighing and Measuring Devices. Appendix C, p. C-13. Klein, Herbert Arthur (1974, corrected 1988). The Science of Measurement: A Historical Survey. New York: Dover. (previously published by Simon & Schuster under the title The World of Measurements: Masterpieces, Mysteries and Muddles of Metrology) Maloney, Elbert S. (1978). Dutton's Navigation and Piloting''. 13th Ed. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press. Rowlett, Russ (2005). How Many? A Dictionary of Units of Measurement. Faculty member's web page at University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Accessed 2007-11-10. Thompson, Ambler, and Taylor, Barry. (2008). Guide for the Use of the International System of Units (SI) (Special Publication 811). Gaithersburg, MD: National Institute of Standards and Technology. 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5,221 | Operand | An operand is one of the inputs (arguments) of an operator in mathematics. The following arithmetic expression shows an example of operators and operands: 3 + 6 = 9 Here '+' is the operator and '3' and '6' are the operands. Notation Expressions as operands Operands may be complex, and may consist of expressions also made up of operators with operands. (3 + 5) x 2 In the above expression '(3 + 5)' is the first operand for the multiplication operator and '2' the second. The operand '(3 + 5)' is an expression in itself, which contains an addition operator, with the operands '3' and '5'. Order of operations Rules of precedence affect which values form operands for which operators: 3 + 5 x 2 In the above expression, the multiplication operator has the higher precedence than the addition operator, so the multiplication operator has operands of '5' and '2'. The addition operator has operands of '3' and '5 x 2'. Positioning of operands Depending on the mathematical notation being used the position of an operator in relation to its operand(s) may vary. In everyday usage infix notation is the most common, however other notations also exist, such as the prefix and postfix notations. These alternate notations are most common within computer science. Below is a comparison of three different notations — all represent an addition of the numbers '1' and '2' 1 + 2 (infix notation) + 1 2 (prefix notation) 1 2 + (postfix notation) Arity The number of operands of an operator is called its arity. Based on arity, operators are classified as nullary (no operands), unary (1 operand), binary (2 operands), ternary (3 operands) etc. Computer science In computer programming languages, the definitions of operator and operand are almost the same as in mathematics. Additionally, in assembly language, an operand is a value (an argument) on which the instruction, named by mnemonic, operates. The operand may be a processor register, a memory address, a literal constant, or a label. A simple example (in the x86 architecture) is MOV DS, AX where the value in register operand 'AX' is to be moved into register 'DS'. Depending on the instruction, there may be zero, one, two, or more operands. See also Instruction set | Operand |@lemmatized operand:24 one:2 input:1 argument:2 operator:15 mathematics:2 following:1 arithmetic:1 expression:6 show:1 example:2 notation:10 may:5 complex:1 consist:1 also:3 make:1 x:3 first:1 multiplication:3 second:1 contain:1 addition:4 order:1 operation:1 rule:1 precedence:2 affect:1 value:3 form:1 high:1 positioning:1 depend:2 mathematical:1 use:1 position:1 relation:1 vary:1 everyday:1 usage:1 infix:2 common:2 however:1 exist:1 prefix:2 postfix:2 alternate:1 within:1 computer:3 science:2 comparison:1 three:1 different:1 represent:1 number:2 arity:3 call:1 base:1 classify:1 nullary:1 unary:1 binary:1 ternary:1 etc:1 programming:1 language:2 definition:1 almost:1 additionally:1 assembly:1 instruction:3 name:1 mnemonic:1 operate:1 processor:1 register:3 memory:1 address:1 literal:1 constant:1 label:1 simple:1 architecture:1 mov:1 ax:2 move:1 ds:1 zero:1 two:1 see:1 set:1 |@bigram operator_operand:7 infix_notation:2 postfix_notation:2 |
5,222 | Albert_Schweitzer | Albert Schweitzer (14 January 1875 – 4 September 1965) was a Germen-French theologian, musician, philosopher, and physician. He was born in Kaysersberg in the province of Elsass-Lothringen (Alsace-Lorraine), at the time in the German Empire. Schweitzer challenged both the secular view of Jesus as depicted by historical-critical methodology current at his time in certain academic circles, as well the traditional Christian view, depicting a Jesus Christ who expected and predicted the imminent end of the world. He received the 1952 Nobel Peace Prize in 1953 for his philosophy of "Reverence for Life", Nobel Peace Prize 1952 — Presentation Speech expressed in many ways, but most famously in founding and sustaining the Albert Schweitzer Hospital in Lambaréné, now in Gabon, west central Africa (then French Equatorial Africa). As a music scholar and organist, he studied the music of German composer Johann Sebastian Bach and influenced the Organ reform movement (Orgelbewegung). Schweitzer's passionate quest was to discover a universal ethical philosophy, anchored in a universal reality, and make it directly available to all of humanity. This is reflected in some of his sayings, such as: Biography Albert Schweitzer was born on 14 January 1875 in Kaysersberg, Alsace, the son of a Lutheran pastor. He attended high school in Mülhausen (Mulhouse), Alsace. From 1893 to 1899 he studied Philosophy and Protestant theology, first at the University of Strasbourg, then at the universities of Berlin, Paris, and University of Tübingen, where he completed his doctoral degree and published his Ph.D. in 1899. In 1900 he became pastor of the Church of St. Nicolas in Strassburg, then in 1901, principal of the Theological Seminary in Strassburg. In 1905 he completed The Quest of the Historical Jesus (Geschichte der Leben-Jesu-Forschung), a classic work of Biblical historical criticism (published in 1906). He then began to study for a medical degree. In 1911, he completed his medical degree and published his medical dissertation. In 1912 he married Helene Bresslau, daughter of the Jewish pan-Germanist historian Harry Bresslau. The two left for Africa later that year to establish a missionary hospital in Lambaréné (Gabon). In 1917 they came back to Europe for medical treatment. In 1919 their daughter Rhena was born. During World War I, the French made Schweitzer and his wife, both Germans, leave Africa. In 1924 Schweitzer returned a second time to Lambaréné, this time without his wife. He would remain there off and on for the rest of his life, returning frequently to Europe for speaking engagements. In 1931 he published his autobiography, Aus Meinem Leben und Denken ("Out Of My Life and Thought"). In 1953 he was awarded the Nobel peace prize for the year 1952. On November 5, 1961, at the age of 86, Schweitzer became a Unitarian-Universalist and adhered to the Church of the Larger Fellowship. Albert Blanchard-Gaillard, Albert Schweitzer fut-il unitarien ? Profils de liberté Schweitzer died on September 4, 1965, aged 90, in his own hospital in Lambaréné. His death was attributed to circulatory trouble brought on by his advanced age. Education Albert Schweitzer's birthplace, Kaysersberg. Born in Kaysersberg, Schweitzer spent his childhood in the village of Gunsbach, Alsace (), where his father, the local Lutheran-Evangelical pastor, taught him how to play music. Family tree During Schweitzer's youth, the region was a traditional part of Germany but following the treaties of World War I, it was assumed by France. The tiny village is home to the Association Internationale Albert Schweitzer (AIAS). Association Internationale Albert Schweitzer The Günsbach, Medieval-era parish church was of a special Protestant-Catholic kind found in various places in Germany even today: it was shared by the two congregations, which held their prayers in different areas of the same church at different times on Sundays - a compromise made after the Protestant Reformation and the Thirty Years War. Schweitzer, the pastor's son, grew up in this exceptional environment of religious tolerance, and developed the belief that true Christianity should always work towards a unity of faith and purpose. G. Seaver, Albert Schweitzer - The Man and his Mind (A. & C. Black, London 1951), 3-9. Schweitzer's home language was an Alsatian dialect of German. At Mülhausen (Mulhouse) high school he got his "Abitur" (the certificate at the end of secondary education), in 1893. He studied organ there from 1885-1893 with Eugène Munch, organist of the Protestant Temple, who inspired Schweitzer with his profound enthusiasm for the music of German composer Richard Wagner. A. Schweitzer, Eugene Munch (J. Brinkmann, Mulhouse 1898). In 1893 he played for the French organist Charles-Marie Widor (at Saint-Sulpice, Paris), for whom Johann Sebastian Bach's organ-music contained a mystic sense of the eternal. Widor, deeply impressed, agreed to teach Schweitzer without fee, and a great and influential friendship was begun. Music in the Life of Albert Schweitzer, edited by Charles R. Joy (London, A. & C. Black 1953), 23-24. From 1893 he studied Protestant theology at the Kaiser Wilhelm Universität of Straßburg. There he also received instruction in piano and counterpoint from professor Gustav Jacobsthal, and associated closely with Ernest Munch (the brother of his former teacher), organist of St William church, who was also a passionate admirer of J.S. Bach's music. C. R. Joy (Ed.) 1953, 24. Schweitzer did his one year's obligitory military service in 1894. Schweitzer saw many operas of Richard Wagner at Straßburg (under Otto Lohse), and in 1896 he pulled together the funds to visit Bayreuth to see Wagner's Der Ring des Nibelungen and Parsifal, and was deeply affected. Soon afterwards he visited the new organ in the Liederhalle at Stuttgart, and, appalled by its lack of clarity, experienced another great realization. In 1898 he went back to Paris to write a Ph.D. dissertation on The Religious Philosophy of Kant at the Sorbonne, and to study in earnest with Widor. Here he often met with the elderly Aristide Cavaillé-Coll. He also studied piano at that time with Marie Jaëll. George N. Marshall, David Poling, Schweitzer He completed his theology degree in 1899 and published his Ph.D. at the University of Tübingen in 1899. C. R. Joy 1953, 24-25. Music Schweitzer rapidly gained prominence as a musical scholar and organist, dedicated also to the rescue, restoration and study of historic pipe organs. With theological insight, he interpreted the use of pictorial and symbolical representation in J. S. Bach's religious music. In 1899 he astonished Widor by explaining figures and motifs in Bach's Chorale Preludes as painter-like tonal and rhythmic imagery illustrating themes from the words of the hymns on which they were based. They were works of devotional contemplation in which the musical design corresponded to literary ideas, conceived visually. (Widor had not grown up with knowledge of the old Lutheran hymns.) Seaver 1951, 20. The exposition of these ideas, encouraged by Widor and Munch, became Schweitzer's next task, and appeared in the masterly study J. S. Bach: Le Musicien-Poète, written in French and published in 1905. During its preparation he became a friend of Cosima Wagner (then in Strasbourg), with whom he had many theological and musical conversations, exploring his view of Bach's descriptive music, and playing the major Chorale Preludes for her at the Temple Neuf. Schweitzer, in C. R. Joy (Ed.) 1953, 53-57. There was a great demand for a German edition, but instead he rewrote it Schweitzer, My Life and Thought, pp 80-81; cf. Seaver 1951, 231-232. in two volumes (J. S. Bach) in German, which were published in 1908, and in an English translation by Ernest Newman in 1911. C. R. Joy (Ed.) 1953, 58-62. Schweitzer's interpretative approach greatly influenced the modern understanding of Bach's music. He became a welcome guest at the Wagner's home, Wahnfried. C. R. Joy (Ed.) 1953, 53-57, quoting from and translating A. Schweitzer, 'Mes Souvenirs sur Cosima Wagner', in L'Alsace Française, XXXV no. 7 (12 February 1933), p. 124 ff. 175jpg|The Choir Organ at St Thomas's Church, Strasbourg, designed in 1905 on principles defined by Albert Schweitzer. His pamphlet "The Art of Organ Building and Organ Playing in Germany and France" (1906, Reproduced in C. R. Joy (Ed.) 1953, 127-129, 129-165: cf. also Seaver 1951, 29-36. republished with an appendix on the state of the organ-building industry in 1927) effectively launched the twentieth-century Orgelbewegung, which turned away from romantic extremes and rediscovered baroque principles — although this sweeping reform movement in organ building eventually went further than Schweitzer himself had intended. In 1909 he addressed the Third Congress of the International Society of Music at Vienna on the subject. Having circulated a questionnaire among players and organ-builders in several European countries, he produced a very considered report. C. R. Joy (Ed.) 1953, 165-166: Text of 1909 Questionnaire and Report, 235-269. This provided the basis for the International Regulations for Organ Building. He envisaged instruments in which the French late-romantic full-organ sound should work integrally with the English and German romantic reed pipes, and with the classical Alsace Silbermann organ resources and baroque flue pipes, all in registers regulated (by stops) to access distinct voices in fugue or counterpoint capable of combination without loss of distinctness: different voices singing together in the same music. In 1905 Widor and Schweitzer were among the six musicians who founded the Paris Bach Society, a choir dedicated to performing J.S. Bach's music, for whose concerts Schweitzer took the organ part regularly until 1913. He was also appointed organist for the Bach Concerts of the Orféo Català at Barcelona and often travelled there for the purpose. He and Widor collaborated on a new edition of Bach's organ works, with detailed analysis of each work in three languages (English, French, German). Schweitzer, who insisted that the score should show Bach's notation with no additional markings, wrote the commentaries for the Preludes and Fugues, and Widor those for the Sonatas and Concertos: six volumes were published in 1912-14. Three more, to contain the Chorale Preludes with Schweitzer's analyses, were to be worked on in Africa: but these were never completed, perhaps because for him they were inseparable from his evolving theological thought. Seaver 1951, 44. On departure for Lambaréné in 1913 he was presented with a piano with pedal attachments (to operate like an organ pedal-keyboard). Given by the Paris Bach Society, Seaver 1951, 63: but C. R. Joy 1953, 177, says it was given by the Paris Missionary Society. Built especially for the tropics, it was delivered by river in a huge dug-out canoe to Lambaréné, packed in a zinc-lined case. At first he regarded his new life as a renunciation of his art, and fell out of practise: but after some time he resolved to study and learn by heart the works of Bach, Mendelssohn, Widor, César Franck, and Max Reger systematically. Seaver 1951, 63-64. It became his custom to play during the lunch hour and on Sunday afternoons. Schweitzer's piano-organ was still in use at Lambaréné in 1946. C. R. Joy (Ed.) 1953, Plate facing p. 177. Sir Donald Tovey dedicated his conjectural completion of Bach's Die Kunst der Fuge (Art of the Fugue) to Schweitzer. Theology Saint-Nicolas, Strasbourg In 1899 Schweitzer became a deacon at the church Saint-Nicolas of Strasbourg. In 1900, with the completion of his licentiate in theology, he was ordained as curate, and that year he witnessed the Oberammergau Passion Play. In the following year he became provisional Principal of the Theological College of Saint Thomas (from which he had just graduated), and in 1903 his appointment was made permanent. He officiated at the wedding of Theodor Heuss (later the first President of the Federal Republic of Germany) on 11 April 1908. Since the mid-1890s Schweitzer had formed the inner resolve that it was needful for him as a Christian to repay to the world something for the happiness which it had given to him, and he determined that he would pursue his younger interests until the age of thirty and then give himself to serving humanity, with Jesus serving as his example. In 1906 he published Geschichte der Leben-Jesu-Forschung ("History of the Jesus-life research"). This book established his reputation, and it is worth reviewing its publication history. The original edition was translated into English by William Montgomery and published in 1910 under the somewhat aberrant title The Quest of the Historical Jesus. This title stuck however, and the book became famous under that name in the English-speaking world. A second German edition was published in 1913, containing theologically significant revisions and expansions. This revised edition did not appear in English until 2001. In The Quest, Schweitzer reviewed all prior work on the question of the "historical Jesus" starting in the late 18th century. He pointed out how Jesus' image had changed with the times and with the personal proclivities of the various authors. He concluded with his own synopsis and interpretation of what had been learned over the course of the previous century. He took the position that the life of Jesus must be interpreted in the light of Jesus' own convictions, which he characterized as those of "late Jewish eschatology." Schweitzer wrote that Jesus and his followers expected the imminent end of the world. He became very focused on the study and cross referencing of the many Biblical verses promising the return of Jesus and the exact details of this promised event, as it was originally believed that it would unfold, in the First Century. He noted that in the gospel of Mark, Jesus speaks of a "tribulation," with his coming in the clouds with great power and glory," and even tells his disciples exactly when all this will happen: "Verily I say unto you, This generation shall not pass, till all these things be fulfilled."(Matthew 24:34) The same story is told in the gospel of Matthew, with Jesus promising his rapid return: "Verily I say unto you, All these things shall come upon this generation."(Matthew 23:36) Schweitzer observes that St. Paul believed in the immediacy of the "Second Coming of Jesus," mentioned in 1 Thessalonians 4, "Then we which are alive and remain shall be caught up together with them in the clouds, to meet the Lord in the air: and so shall we ever be with the Lord." Schweitzer concludes that Christians of the first century theology literally believed in the imminent fulfillment of the promise of the World's ending, within the lifetime of Jesus's original followers. Schweitzer cross references many Biblical verses to confirm this very serious theologic problem: "Verily I say unto you, There be some standing here, which shall not taste of death, till they see the Son of man coming in his kingdom." (Matthew 16:28) and "But I tell you of a truth, there be some standing here, which shall not taste of death, till they see the kingdom of God." (Luke 9:27) Other key Biblical verses that Schweitzer documents in The Quest demonstrate the impossibility of the original Gospels' literal accuracy are: "Verily I say unto you, This generation shall not pass away, till all be fulfilled." (Luke 21:32), "But this I say, brethren, the time is short: it remaineth, that both they that have wives be as though they had none." (1 Corinthians 7:29) and "Hath in these last days spoken unto us by his Son...." (Hebrews 1:2) He finds also, "Who verily was foreordained before the foundation of the world, but was manifest in these last times for you." (1 Peter 1:20, "But the end of all things is at hand." (1 Peter 4:7) and "Surely I come quickly." Revelation 22:20) The publication of The Quest for the Historical Jesus, effectively put a stop for decades to work on the Historical Jesus as a sub-discipline of New Testament studies. This work resumed however with the development of the so-called "Second Quest", among whose notable exponents was Rudolf Bultmann's student Ernst Käsemann. Schweitzer writes that the many modern versions of Christianity deliberately ignore the urgency of the message that Jesus originally promised, for an immediate "world end," that was so powerfully proclaimed in his First Century theology. Each new generation hopes to be the one to see the world destroyed, another world coming, and the saints governing a new earth. Schweitzer brilliantly concludes that the First Century theology, originating in the lifetimes of those who first followed Jesus, is both incompatible and far removed from those beliefs later made official by the Roman Emperor Constantine in 325 CE. Schweitzer established his reputation further as a New Testament scholar with other theological studies including The Psychiatric Study of Jesus (1911); and his two studies of the apostle Paul, Paul and his Interpreters, and the more complete The Mysticism of Paul the Apostle (1930). This examined the eschatological beliefs of Paul and (through this) the message of the New Testament. Medicine At the age of 30, in 1905, he answered the call of "The Society Of The Evangelist Missions of Paris" who were looking for a Medical Doctor. However, the committee of this (Roman Catholic) French Missionary Society was not ready to accept his offer, considering that his Lutheran theology was "incorrect". Seaver 1951, 40. He could easily have obtained a place in a German Evangelical mission, but wished to follow the original call despite the doctrinal difficulties. Amid a hail of protests from his friends, family and colleagues, he resigned his post and re-entered the University as a student in a punishing seven-year course towards the degree of a Doctorate in Medicine, a subject in which he had little knowledge or previous aptitude. He planned to spread the Gospel by the example of his Christian labor of healing, rather than through the verbal process of preaching, and believed that this service should be acceptable within any branch of Christian teaching. Even in his study of medicine, and through his clinical course, Schweitzer pursued the ideal of the philosopher-scientist. By extreme application and hard work he completed his studies successfully at the end of 1911. His medical degree dissertation was another work on the historical Jesus, The Psychiatric Study of Jesus. In June 1912 he married Helene Bresslau, daughter of the Jewish pan-Germanist historian Harry Bresslau. In 1912, now armed with a medical degree, Schweitzer made a definite proposal to go as a medical doctor to work at his own expense in the Paris Missionary Society's mission at Lambaréné on the Ogooué river, in what is now the Gabon, in Africa (then a French colony). He refused to attend a committee to inquire into his doctrine, but met each committee member personally and was at last accepted. By concerts and other fund-raising he was ready to equip a small hospital, taking satisfaction that Bach himself had assisted in the enterprise. From the Primeval Forest, Chapter 1. In Spring 1913 he and his wife set off to establish a hospital near an already existing mission post. The site was nearly 200 miles (14 days by raft From the Primeval Forest Chapter 6. ) upstream from the mouth of the Ogooé at Port Gentil (Cape Lopez) (and so accessible to external communications), but downstream of most tributaries, so that internal communications within Gabon converged towards Lambaréné. The watershed of the Ogooé occupies most of Gabon. Lambaréné is marked. In the first nine months he and his wife had about 2,000 patients to examine, some travelling many days and hundreds of kilometers to reach him. In addition to injuries he was often treating severe sandflea and crawcraw sores (washing with mercuric chloride), framboesia (using arseno-benzol injections), tropical eating sores (cleaning and potassium permanganate), heart disease (treated with digitalin), tropical dysentery (emetine (syrup of ipecac) and arseno-benzol), tropical malaria (quinine and Arrhenal (arsenic)), sleeping sickness, treated at that time with atoxyl, leprosy (chaulmoogra oil), fevers, strangulated hernias (surgery), necrosis, abdominal tumours and chronic constipation and nicotine poisoning, while also attempting to deal with deliberate poisonings, fetishism and fear of cannibalism among the Mbahouin. Frau Schweitzer was anaesthetist for surgical operations, using chloroform and omnipon, a synthesized morphine derivative. After briefly occupying a shed formerly used as a chicken hut, in autumn 1913 they built their first hospital of corrugated iron, with two 13-foot rooms (consulting room and operating theatre) and with a dispensary and sterilising room in spaces below the broad eaves. The waiting room and dormitory (42 by 20 feet), were built like native huts, of unhewn logs, along a 30-yard path leading from the hospital to the landing-place. The Schweitzers had their own bungalow, and employed as their assistant Joseph, a French-speaking Galoa (Mpongwe) who first came as a patient. From the Primeval Forest, Chapters 3-5. When World War I broke out in summer of 1914, Schweitzer and his wife, Germans in a French colony, were put under supervision at Lambaréné (where work continued) by the French military. Timeline In 1917, exhausted by over four years' work and by tropical anaemia, they were taken to Bordeaux and interned first in Garaison, and then from March 1918 in Saint-Rémy-de-Provence. In July 1918, after having been transferred via Switzerland to his home in the Alsace, he was a free man again. At this time Schweitzer, born a German citizen, obtained French nationality. Then, working as medical assistant and assistant-pastor in Strasbourg, he advanced his project on The Philosophy of Civilization, which had occupied his mind since 1900. By 1920, his health recovering, he was giving organ recitals and doing other fund-raising work to repay borrowings and raise funds for returning to Gabon. In 1922 he delivered the Dale Memorial Lectures in Oxford University, and from these in the following year appeared Volumes I and II of his great work, The Decay and Restoration of Civilization and Civilization and Ethics. The two remaining volumes, on The World-View of Reverence for Life and a fourth on the Civilized State, were never completed. In 1924 he returned without his wife but with an Oxford undergraduate, Noel Gillespie, as assistant. Everything was heavily decayed and building and doctoring progressed together for months. He now had salvarsan for treating syphilitic ulcers and framboesia. Additional medical staff, nurse (Miss) Kottmann and Dr. Victor Nessmann, Dr. Nessmann worked with the French Resistance during the Second World War, was captured and executed by the Gestapo in Limoges in 1944. cf Guy Penaud, Dictionaire Biographique de Perigord, p. 713. ISBN 2-86577-14-4. joined him in 1924, and Dr. Mark Lauterberg in 1925; the growing hospital was manned by native orderlies. Later Dr. Trensz replaced Nessmann, and Martha Lauterberg and Hans Muggenstorm joined them. Joseph also returned. In 1925-6 new hospital buildings were constructed, and also a ward for white patients, so that the site became like a village. The onset of famine and a dysentery epidemic created fresh problems. Much of the building work was carried out with the help of local people and patients. Drug advances for sleeping sickness included Germanin and tryparsamide. Dr. Trensz conducted experiments showing that the non-amoebic strain of dysentery was caused by a paracholera vibrion (facultative anaerobic bacteria). With the new hospital built and the medical team established, Schweitzer returned to Europe in 1927, this time leaving a functioning hospital at work. He was there again from 1929-1932. Gradually his opinions and concepts became acknowledged, not only in Europe, but worldwide. There was a further period of work in 1935. In January 1937 he returned again to Lambaréné, and continued working there throughout the Second War. Controversy in Africa Schweitzer considered his work as a medical missionary in Africa to be his response to Jesus' call to become "fishers of men" but also as a small recompense for the historic guilt of European colonizers: Schweitzer, Albert. On the Edge of the Primeval Forest. New York: Macmillan. 1931. p. 115. OCLC 2097590 Rather than being a supporter of colonialism, Schweitzer was one of its harshest critics. In a sermon that he preached on 6 January 1905, before he had told anyone of his plans to dedicate the rest of his life to work as a doctor in Africa, he said: Schweitzer, Albert, and James Brabazon. Albert Schweitzer: Essential Writings. Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books. 2005. pp. 76–80. ISBN 1570756023. {{quote |"Our culture divides people into two classes: civilized men, a title bestowed on the persons who do the classifying; and others, who have only the human form, who may perish or go to the dogs for all the "civilized men" care."Oh, this "noble" culture of ours! It speaks so piously of human dignity and human rights and then disregards this dignity and these rights of countless millions and treads them underfoot, only because they live overseas or because their skins are of different color or because they cannot help themselves. This culture does not know how hollow and miserable and full of glib talk it is, how common it looks to those who follow it across the seas and see what it has done there, and this culture has no right to speak of personal dignity and human rights… "I will not enumerate all the crimes that have been committed under the pretext of justice. People robbed native inhabitants of their land, made slaves of them, let loose the scum of mankind upon them. Think of the atrocities that were perpetrated upon people made subservient to us, how systematically we have ruined them with our alcoholic "gifts", and everything else we have done…We decimate them, and then, by the stroke of a pen, we take their land so they have nothing left at all… "If all this oppression and all this sin and shame are perpetrated under the eye of the German God, or the American God, or the British God, and if our states do not feel obliged first to lay aside their claim to be "Christian" — then the name of Jesus is blasphemed and made a mockery. And the Christianity of our states is blasphemed and made a mockery before those poor people. The name of Jesus has become a curse, and our Christianity — yours and mine — has become a falsehood and a disgrace, if the crimes are not atoned for in the very place where they were instigated. For every person who committed an atrocity in Jesus' name, someone must step in to help in Jesus' name; for every person who robbed, someone must bring a replacement; for everyone who cursed, someone must bless. "And now, when you speak about missions, let this be your message: We must make atonement for all the terrible crimes we read of in the newspapers. We must make atonement for the still worse ones, which we do not read about in the papers, crimes that are shrouded in the silence of the jungle night…"}} Schweitzer was nonetheless still sometimes accused of being paternalistic or colonialist in his attitude towards Africans, and in some ways his views did differ from many liberals of the 1960s. For instance, he thought Gabonese independence came too early, without adequate education or accommodation to local circumstances. Edgar Berman quotes Schweitzer speaking these lines in 1960: Berman, Edgar. In Africa With Schweitzer. Far Hills, New Jersey: New Horizon Press. 1986, p. 139. ISBN 0882820257. Chinua Achebe has quoted Schweitzer as saying: "The African is indeed my brother but my junior brother," Chinua Achebe. "An Image of Africa: Racism in Conrad's Heart of Darkness." — the Massachusetts Review. 1977. (c/o North Carolina State University) which Achebe criticized him for, though Achebe seems to acknowledge that Schweitzer's use of the word "brother" at all was, for a European of the early 20th century, an unusual expression of human solidarity between whites and blacks. Later in his life, Schweitzer was quoted as saying: "The time for speaking of older and younger brothers has passed." Source: Quoted by Lachlan Forrow in his Foreword to current (2002) edition of African Notebook. The journalist James Cameron visited Lambaréné in 1953 (when Schweitzer was 78) and found significant flaws in the practices and attitudes of Schweitzer and his staff. The hospital suffered from squalor, was without modern amenities and Schweitzer had little contact with the local people. Cameron did not make public what he had seen at the time: according to a recent BBC dramatisation, On Monday 7 April 2008 ("The Walrus and the Terrier" — programme outline) BBC Radio 4 broadcast an Afternoon Play "The Walrus and the Terrier" by Christopher Ralling concerning Cameron's visit. he made the unusual journalistic decision to withhold the story, and resisted the expressed wish of his employers to publish an exposé aimed at debunking Schweitzer. American journalist John Gunther also visited Lambaréné in the 1950s and reported Schweitzer's patronizing attitude towards Africans. He also noted the lack of Africans trained to be skilled workers . After three decades in Africa Schweitzer still depended on Europe for nurses. By comparison, his contemporary Sir Albert Cook in Uganda had been training nurses and midwives since the 1910s and had published a manual of midwifery in the local language of Luganda . Philosophy Reverence for Life Albert Schweitzer, Etching by Arthur William Heintzelman. The keynote of Schweitzer's personal philosophy (which he considered to be his greatest contribution to mankind) was the idea of Reverence for Life ("Ehrfurcht vor dem Leben"). He thought that Western civilization was decaying because it had abandoned affirmation of (and respect for) life as its ethical foundation. In the Preface to Civilization and Ethics (1923) he presents the view that Western philosophy from Descartes to Kant had set out to define the objective, material world in the expectation that humanity would be found to have a special significance and value within it. But no proof of this was found, and as a result the rationalist life-affirmation of the Age of Enlightenment began to evaporate. So a split occurred between this materialist world-view, as knowledge, and the life-view, understood as will or volition, and expressed in the pessimist philosophies from Schopenhauer onward. Scientific materialism (exemplified in the arguments of Spencer and Darwin) revealed an objective world-process which was devoid of ethics, entirely an expression of the will-to-live. Schweitzer stated that mankind must accept this reality that the objective material world is ethically neutral. Therefore it was necessary for Mankind to affirm a new Enlightenment by the rebirth of spiritual rationalism, by giving priority to volition, to ethical will as life-view, in order to define and build the structures of civilization. Mankind must choose to create the moral structures of civilization: the world-view must derive from the life-view, not vice-versa. Because the world is an expression of will-to-life, respect for life has to become the highest principle. Civilization and Ethics, Preface and Chapter II, 'The Problem of the Optimistic World-View'. Implications In a similar exaltation of life to that of Friedrich Nietzsche, Schweitzer followed the same line as that of Leo Tolstoy.. He wrote: Life and love in his view are based on, and follow out of the same principle: respect for every manifestation of life, and a personal, spiritual relationship towards the universe. Ethics, according to Schweitzer, consists in the compulsion to show toward the will-to-live of each and every being the same reverence as one does to one's own. Circumstances where we apparently fail to satisfy this compulsion should not lead us to defeatism, since the will-to-live renews itself again and again, as an outcome of an evolutionary necessity and a phenomenon with a spiritual dimension. However, as Schweitzer himself pointed out, it is neither impossible nor difficult to spend one's life and not follow it: the history of world philosophies and religions shows many instances of denial of the principle of reverence for life. He points to the prevailing philosophy in the European Middle Ages, and the Indian Brahminic philosophy as examples. Nevertheless, he contends that this kind of attitude lacks genuineness. The will to live is naturally both parasitic and antagonistic towards other forms of life. Only in the thinking being has the will to live become conscious of other wills to live, and desirous of solidarity with it. This solidarity, however, cannot be brought about, because human life does not escape the puzzling and horrible circumstance that it must live at the cost of other life. But as an ethical being one strives to escape whenever possible from this necessity, and to put a stop to this disunion of the Will to live, so far as it is within one's power. Schweitzer advocated the concept of reverence for life widely throughout his entire life. The historical Enlightenment waned and corrupted itself, Schweitzer held, because it has not been well enough grounded in thought, but compulsively followed the ethical will-to-live. Hence, he looked forward to a renewed and more profound Renaissance and Enlightenment, "in the course of which humanity will discover that the ethical impulse is the highest truth and the highest purposiveness..." Civilization and Ethics 1923, Preface. See also Out of My Life and Thought, epilogue. Albert Schweitzer nourished hope in a humankind that is more profoundly aware of its position in the Universe. His optimism was based in "belief in truth". He persistently emphasized the necessity to think, rather than merely acting on basis of passing impulses or by following the most widespread opinions, common among those found ignoring the conflationary elements so apparent in religious identity. Respect for life, resulting from contemplation on one's own conscious will to live, leads the individual to live in the service of other people and of every living creature. Schweitzer was much respected for putting his theory into practice in his own life. Later life The Schweitzer house and Museum at Königsfeld in the Black Forest. After the birth of their daughter, Mme Helene Schweitzer was no longer able to live in Lambaréné owing to her health. A house was maintained at Königsfeld im Schwarzwald, Baden-Württemberg, and this house is now maintained as a Schweitzer Museum. Albert Schweitzer's house at Gunsbach, now a museum and archive. Albert Schweitzer Memorial and Museum in Weimar (1984) From 1939–48 he stayed in Lambaréné, unable to go back to Europe because of the war. Three years after the end of World War II, in 1948, he returned for the first time to Europe and kept traveling back and forth (and once to the USA) as long as he was able. During his return visits to his home village of Gunsbach, Schweitzer continued to make use of the family house, which after his death became an Archive and Museum to his life and work. His life was portrayed in the 1952 movie Il est minuit, Docteur Schweitzer, starring Pierre Fresnay as Albert Schweitzer and Jeanne Moreau as his nurse Marie. Schweitzer inspired actor Hugh O'Brian when O'Brian visited in Africa. O'Brian returned to the United States and founded the Hugh O'Brian Youth Leadership Foundation (HOBY). Albert Schweitzer Monument in Wagga Wagga, Australia The Nobel Peace Prize of 1952 was awarded to Dr Albert Schweitzer. His "The Problem of Peace" lecture is considered one of the best speeches ever given. From 1952 until his death he worked against nuclear tests and nuclear weapons with Albert Einstein and Bertrand Russell. In 1957 and 1958 he broadcast four speeches over Radio Oslo which were published in Peace or Atomic War. In 1957, Schweitzer was one of the founders of The Committee for a Sane Nuclear Policy. On 23 April 1957, Dr. Schweitzer made his "Declaration of Conscience" speech, it was broadcast to the world over Radio Oslo, pleading for the abolition of nuclear weapons. He ended his speech, saying: Declaration of Conscience speech — at Tennessee Players In 1955 he was made an honorary member of the Order of Merit by Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom. He was also a chevalier of the Military and Hospitaller Order of Saint Lazarus of Jerusalem. Schweitzer died on 4 September 1965 at his beloved hospital in Lambaréné, Gabon. His grave, on the banks of the Ogowe River, is marked by a cross he made himself. His grand niece Anne-Marie Schweitzer Sartre was the mother of Jean-Paul Sartre. The Albert Schweitzer Fellowship sends third-year medical students to spend three months working as Fellows at the Albert Schweitzer Hospital in Lambaréné, Gabon on clinical rotations. http://www.Schweitzerfellowship.org Sayings "Do something wonderful, people may imitate it." "Therefore search and see if there is not some place where you may invest your humanity." "There are two means of refuge from the miseries of life: music and cats." "Constant kindness can accomplish much. As the sun makes ice melt, kindness causes misunderstanding, mistrust and hostility to evaporate." "A man is truly ethical only when he obeys the compulsion to help all life which he is able to assist, and shrinks from injuring anything that lives." "Example is not the main thing in influencing others. It is the only thing." Sound recordings Recordings of Schweitzer playing the music of Bach are available on CD. During 1934 and 1935 he was for some time in Britain, delivering the Gifford Lectures at Edinburgh, and those on Religion in Modern Civilization at Oxford and London. He had originally conducted trials for recordings for HMV on the organ of the old Queen's Hall in London. These records did not satisfy him, the instrument being too harsh. In mid-December 1935 he began to record for Columbia Records on the organ of All Hallows, Barking-by-the-Tower (London). This fine 1909 Harrison and Harrison organ was blitzed in the War (cf W. Kent, The Lost Treasures of London (Phoenix House 1947), 94-95) but was rebuilt in 1957, see . Then at his suggestion the sessions were transferred to the church of Ste Aurélie in Strasbourg, on a mid-18th century organ by Johann Andreas Silbermann (brother of Gottfried), an organ-builder greatly revered by Bach, which had been restored by the Lorraine organ-builder Frédéric Härpfer shortly before the First World War. These recordings were made in the course of a fortnight in October 1936. Seaver 1951, 139-152. Columbia recordings Altogether his early Columbia discs included 25 records of Bach and eight of César Franck. The Bach titles were mainly distributed as follows: Queen's Hall: Organ Prelude and Fugue in E minor (Edition Peters Schweitzer's Bach recordings are usually identified with reference to the Peters Edition of the Organ-works in 9 volumes, edited by Friedrich Conrad Griepenkerl and Ferdinand Roitzsch, in the form revised by Hermann Keller. Vol 3, 10); Herzlich thut mich verlangen (BWV 727); Wenn wir in höchsten Nöten sein (Vol 7, 58 (Leipzig 18)). (78 rpm HMV C 1532 and C 1543), cf R.D. Darrell, The Gramophone Shop Encyclopedia of Recorded Music (New York 1936). All Hallows: Prelude and Fugue in C major; Fantasia and Fugue in G minor (the Great); Prelude and Fugue in G major; Prelude and Fugue in F minor; Little Fugue in G minor; Toccata and Fugue in D minor. (78 rpm Columbia ROX 146–52), cf. Darrell 1936. Ste Aurélie: Prelude and Fugue in C minor; Prelude and Fugue in E minor; Toccata and Fugue in D minor. Chorale Preludes: Schmücke dich, O liebe Seele (Peters Vol 7, 49 (Leipzig 4)); O Mensch, bewein' dein Sünde groß (Vol 5, 45); O Lamm' Gottes, unschuldig (Vol 7, 48 (Leipzig 6)); Christus der uns selig macht (Vol 5, 8); Da Jesus an dem Kreuze stand (Vol 5, 9); An Waßerflüßen Babylon (Vol 6, 12b); Christum wir wollen loben schon (Vol 5, 6); Liebster Jesu, wir sind hier (Vol 5, app 5); Mit Fried' und Freud' ich fahr' dahin (Vol 5, 4); Sei gegrusset, Jesu gutig (Var 11, Vol 5, app. 3); Jesus Christus, unser Heiland (Vol 6, 31 (Leipzig 15)); Christ lag in Todesbanden (Vol 5, 5); Erschienen ist der herrlich' Tag? (Vol 5, 15). C. R. Joy, 1953, 226-230. The 78s were issued in albums, with a specially designed record label (Columbia ROX 8020-8023, 8032-8035, etc). Ste Aurélie recordings appeared also on LP as Columbia 33CX1249) E.M.I., A Complete List of EMI, Columbia, Parlophone and MGM Long Playing Records issued up to and including June 1955 (London 1955) for this and discographical details following. Gunsbach parish church, where the later recordings were made Later recordings were made at Parish church, Günsbach: Fugue in A minor (Peters, Vol 2, 8); Fantasia and Fugue in G minor (Great) (Vol 2, 4); Toccata, Adagio and Fugue in C major (Vol 3, 8). Columbia LP 33CX1074 Prelude in C major (Vol 4, 1); Prelude in D major (Vol 4, 3); Canzona in D minor (Vol 4, 10) (with Mendelssohn, Sonata in D minor op 65.6). Columbia LP 33CX1084 Chorale-Preludes: O Mensch, bewein' dein' Sünde gross (1st and 2nd vsns, Peters Vol 5, 45); Wenn wir in höchsten Nöten sein (Vor deinen Thron tret ich hiermit) (vol 7, 58 (Leipzig 18)); Ich ruf' zu dir, Herr Jesu Christ (Vol 5, 30); Gelobet seist du, Jesu Christ (Vol 5, 17); Herzlich tut mich verlangen (Vol 5, 27); Nun komm', der Heiden Heiland (vol 7, 45 (BWV 659a)). Columbia LP 33CX1081 Philips recordings J. S. Bach: Prelude and Fugue in A major, BWV 536; Prelude and Fugue in F minor, BWV 534; Prelude and Fugue in B minor, BWV 544; Toccata and Fugue in D minor, BWV 538. E.M.G., The Art of Record Buying (London 1960), pp. 12–3. Philips ABL 3092, issued March 1956. J. S. Bach: Passacaglia in C minor, BWV 582; Prelude and Fugue in E minor, BWV 533; Prelude and Fugue in A minor, BWV 543; Prelude and Fugue in G major, BWV 541; Toccata and Fugue in D minor, BWV 565. E.M.G., op. cit., Philips ABL 3134, issued September 1956. Other selections are on Philips GBL 5509. César Franck: Organ Chorales, no. 1 in E Major; no. 2 in B minor; no. 3 in A minor. Philips ABL 3221. References in popular culture American anarcho-punk band Aus-Rotten mentions him in a sound clip for their anti-sexist song "Sexist Appeal." On an episode of The Dick Van Dyke Show, Rob and Laura Petrie are eavesdropping on their neighbors Jerry and Millie Helper, when Jerry and Millie's discussion turns critical of and almost hostile to Rob and Laura. At one point, Jerry says that Rob isn't exactly Albert Schweitzer. On The Brady Bunch episode "The Power of the Press", Peter fails one of his classes, so he writes a (somewhat dishonest) glowing article about his teacher. Marcia tells Mike that the article sounds like a joke, and Mike says that the article makes the teacher sound like a cross between Albert Einstein and Albert Schweitzer. On an episode of Star Trek Voyager the Holographic Doctor uses the name Schweitzer as a pseudonym or possible choice for a name in his continuing search for a suitable name. He later changes his mind and carries on nameless. In the April 26, 1960 edition of Peanuts Charlie Brown suggests that Lucy take Linus to see a movie about Albert Schweitzer. In the 1961 movie "Breakfast at Tiffany's", Holly mentions Albert Schweitzer as one of her ideal husbands along with Nero and Leonard Bernstein. In an episode of the Simpsons, when Homer becomes the leader of the Stonecutters, Moe responds to his appeal to aid others by saying "He`s gone mad with power... just like that Albert Schweizer guy". In the book Fahrenheit 451, Granger mentions him to Montag. In the 1991 movie "What About Bob", actor Bill Murray references Albert Schweitzer while being interviewed by Good Morning America. Portrayals In 1952 Pierre Fresnay played him in biopic movie Il est minuit, Docteur SchweitzerIn 1957 Schweitzer himself and Phillip Eckert played him in biopic movie Albert SchweitzerIn 1962 Jean-Pierre Marielle played him in a TV remake of Il est minuit, Docteur SchweitzerIn 1982 Christopher Carey played him in an episode of Voyagers! In 1990 Malcolm McDowell played him in biopic movie SchweitzerIn 1992 Friedrich von Thun played him in two episodes of The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles In 1995 André Wilms played him in biopic Le Grand blanc de LambarénéIn 2006 Jeff McCarthy played him in TV biopic Albert Schweitzer: Called to Africa IMDB List of Albert Schweitzer appearances BibliographyThe Quest of the Historical Jesus; A Critical Study Of Its Progress From Reimarus To Wrede, (German, 1906). English edition, translated by William Montgomery, A. & C. Black, London 1910, 1911. Augsburg Fortress Publishers, 2001 edition: ISBN 0800632885J. S. Bach, Le Musicien-Poète, with introduction by C. M. Widor (Breitkopf & Härtel with P. Costellot, Leipzig 1905). (French work).J. S. Bach (enlarged German edition) (Breitkopf & Härtel, Leipzig 1908). (English translation by Ernest Newman, with author's alterations and additions, London 1911.)Deutsche und französische Orgelbaukunst und Orgelkunst (German and French organbuilding and organ art)((Breitkopf & Härtel, Leipzig 1906) (first printed in Musik, vols 13 and 14 (5th year)).The Psychiatric Study of Jesus: Exposition and Criticism. (1911), Gloucester, Massachusetts: Peter Smith Publisher. 1948. ISBN 0844628948The Mystery of the Kingdom of God: The Secret of Jesus' Messiahship and Passion. (1914), Prometheus Books. 1985. ISBN 0879752947On the Edge of the Primeval Forest ("Zwischen Wasser und Urwald"), Translated by C. T. Campion. A. & C. Black, London 1922.The Decay and the Restoration of Civilization and Civilization and Ethics (The Philosophy of Civilization, Vols I & II of the projected but not completed four-volume work), A. & C. Black, London 1923. Material from these volumes is rearranged in a modern compilation, The Philosophy of Civilization (Prometheus Books, 1987), ISBN 0879754036.The Mysticism of Paul the Apostle. (1930), Johns Hopkins University Press. 1998. ISBN 0801860989More From the Primeval Forest ("Mitteilungen aus Lambaréné"), Tr. C. T. Campion. A. & C. Black, London 1931.Out of My Life and Thought: An Autobiography. ("Aus Meinem Leben und Denken", Felix Meiner Verlag, Leipzig, 1931), (English Translation 1933, George Allen & Unwin, Woking) Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998 edition with foreword by Jimmy Carter: ISBN 0801860970Indian Thought and Its Development. Boston, Massachusetts: Beacon Press. 1935. OCLC 8003381Afrikanische Geschichten (Felix Meiner, Leipzig u. Hamburg 1938): tr. Mrs C. E. B. Russell as From My African Notebook (George Allen and Unwin, London 1938/Henry Holt, New York 1939). Modern edition with Foreword by Dr. L. Forrow (Syracuse University Press, 2002).Peace or Atomic War? New York: Henry Holt. 1958. ISBN 0804615519The Kingdom of God and Primitive Christianity, with Ulrich Neuenschwander. New York: Seabury Press. 1968. OCLC 321874 References Further reading Brabazon, James. Albert Schweitzer: A Biography. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons. 1975. ISBN 0399114211 Brabazon, James. Albert Schweitzer: A Biography: 2nd edition. Syracuse, New York: Syracuse University Press. 2000. ISBN 978-0815606758 External links Obituary: "Albert Schweitzer, 90, Dies at His Hospital" — New York Times'' — 6 September 1965 Albert Schweitzer — at AlbertSchweitzer.info Albert Schweitzer — at Encyclopaedia Britannica Schweitzer Fellows "Albert Schweitzer: Exemplar of Life" Albert Schweitzer Fellowship Records at Syracuse University Albert Schweitzer Hopital in Haiti The Albert Schweitzer Institute at Quinnipiac University Albert Schweitzer and Music by Rainer Noll The Albert Schweitzer Page Albert Schweitzer Papers at Syracuse University Albert Schweitzer Quotes Association Internationale Albert Schweitzer Biographical information A Declaration of Conscience - 23 April 1957 Friends of Albert Schweitzer (UK) — a charity promoting Reverence for Life Goethe: His Personality and His Work - keynote address at the Goethe Bicentennial Convocation, Aspen, Colorado, July 1949 Nobel e-Museum Schweitzer page Paul and His Interpreters at The DCL. Readings on "Reverence for Life" Schweitzer Institute Schweitzer Nobel Presentation Speech by Gunnar Jahn Schweitzerforlaget (Norwegian text only) A Short History of the Organ Revival, by Lawrence Phelps (describes Schweitzer's work to reform organ building) Transcript of a diary kept by Ava Helen Pauling recounting her visit to the Schweitzer compound at Lambaréné, Gabon | Albert_Schweitzer |@lemmatized albert:50 schweitzer:133 january:4 september:5 germen:1 french:16 theologian:1 musician:2 philosopher:2 physician:1 bear:5 kaysersberg:4 province:1 elsass:1 lothringen:1 alsace:7 lorraine:2 time:18 german:17 empire:1 challenge:1 secular:1 view:13 jesus:33 depict:2 historical:10 critical:3 methodology:1 current:2 certain:1 academic:1 circle:1 well:2 traditional:2 christian:6 christ:4 expect:2 predict:1 imminent:3 end:9 world:25 receive:2 nobel:6 peace:7 prize:4 philosophy:14 reverence:9 life:42 presentation:2 speech:7 express:2 many:9 way:2 famously:1 found:3 sustain:1 hospital:15 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5,223 | Chaparral | Chaparral is a shrubland or heathland plant community found primarily in the U.S. state of California and in the northern portion of the Baja California peninsula, Mexico. It is shaped by a Mediterranean climate (mild, wet winters and hot dry summers) and wildfire. Similar plant communities are found in the four other Mediterranean climate regions around the world, including the Mediterranean Basin (where it is known as maquis), central Chile (where it is called matorral), South African Cape Region (known there as fynbos), and in Western and Southern Australia. The word chaparral is a loan word from Spanish. The Spanish word comes from the word chaparro, which means both small and dwarf evergreen oak, which itself comes from the Basque word txapar, with the same meaning. Chaparral, Santa Ynez Mountains, near Santa Barbara, California A typical chaparral plant community consists of densely-growing evergreen scrub oaks and other drought-resistant shrubs. It often grows so densely that it is all but impenetrable to large animals and humans. This, and its generally arid condition, makes it notoriously prone to wildfires. Although many chaparral plant species require some fire cue (heat, smoke, or charred wood) for germination, chaparral plants are not "adapted" to fire per se. Rather, these species are adapted to particular fire regimes involving season, frequency, intensity and severity of the burn. Plant Species In Central and Southern California chaparral forms a dominant habitat. Members of the chaparral biota native to California, all of which tend to regrow quickly after fires, include: Black sage (Salvia mellifera) Bush monkeyflower (Mimulus aurantiacus) Bush rue (Cneoridium dumosum) Ceanothus (Ceanothus spp.) Chamise (Adenostoma fasciculatum) Chaparral Pea (Pickeringia montana) California buckwheat (Eriogonum fasciculatum) California Coffeeberry (Rhamnus californica) Deerweed (Lotus scoparius) Islay or Hollyleaf Cherry (Prunus ilicifolia) Laurel sumac (Malosma laurina) Lemonade berry (Rhus integrifolia) Manzanita (Arctostaphylos spp.) Mission manzanita (Xylococcus bicolor) Mountain mahogany (Cercocarpus spp.) Redshanks (Adenostoma sparsifolium) Scrub oak (Quercus berberidifolia, Q. dumosa, Q. wislizenii var. frutescens) Silk-tassel bush (Garrya spp.) Sugar bush (Rhus ovata) Toyon (Heteromeles arbutifolia) Wild cucumber (Marah macrocarpus) Yucca (Hesperoyucca whipplei) Bird Species The complex ecology of chaparral habitats supports a very large number of animal species. Here is a short list of birds which are an integral part of the chaparral systems. These first few are essential to the health of the system. California thrasher (Toxostoma redivivum) California towhee (Pipilo crissalis) Spotted towhee (Piplio maculatus) Western scrub jay (Aphelocoma californica) These are very common inhabitants Anna's hummingbird (Calypte anna) Bushtit (Psaltriparus minimus) Costa's hummingbird (Calypte costae) Greater roadrunner (Geococcyx californianus) Wrentit (Chamaea fasciata) Ecology of fire in chaparral Because of the hot, dry conditions that exist in the summer and fall, chaparral is one of the most fire-prone plant communities in North America. Some fires are caused by lightning, but these are usually during periods of high humidity and low winds and are easily controlled. Nearly all of the very large wildfires are human caused during periods of very hot, dry easterly Santa Ana winds. These human caused fires are generally due to power lines, arson, sparking machinery, or campfires. There are two assumptions relating to California chaparral fire regimes that appear to have caused considerable confusion and controversy within the fields of wildfire and land management: first, older stands of chaparral become “senescent” or “decadent” implying they need fire to remain healthy (Hanes 1971), and second, fire suppression policies have allowed chaparral to accumulate unnatural levels of fuel leading to larger fires (Minnich 1983). The perspective that older chaparral is unhealthy or unproductive may have originated during the 1940s when studies were conducted measuring the amount of forage available to deer populations in chaparral stands. However, according to recent studies, California chaparral is extraordinarily resilient to very long periods without fire (Keeley, Pfaff, and Safford 2005) and continues to maintain productive growth throughout pre-fire conditions (Hubbard 1986, Larigauderie et al. 1990). Seeds of many chaparral plants actually require 30 years or more worth of accumulated leaf litter before they will successfully germinate (e.g. scrub oak: Quercus berberidifolia, toyon: Heteromeles arbutifolia, holly-leafed cherry: Prunus ilicifolia). When intervals between fires drop below 10 to 15 years, many chaparral species are eliminated and the system is typically replaced by non-native, weedy grassland (Haidinger and Keeley 1993, Keeley 1995, Zedler 1995). The idea that older chaparral is responsible for causing large fires was originally proposed in the 1980’s by comparing wildfires in Baja California and southern California. It was suggested that fire suppression activities in southern California allowed more fuel to accumulate which in turn led to larger fires (in Baja, fires often burn without active suppression efforts). This is similar to the argument that fire suppression in western United States has allowed Ponderosa Pine forests to become “overstocked.” In the past, surface-fires burned through these forests at intervals of anywhere between 4 and 36 years, clearing out the understory and creating a more ecologically balanced system. However, chaparral has a crown-fire regime, meaning fires consume the entire system whenever they burn. Detailed analysis of historical fire data has shown that fire suppression activities have failed to exclude fire from southern California chaparral as they have in Ponderosa Pine forests (Keeley et al. 1999). In addition, the number of fires is increasing in step with population growth. Overall, chaparral stand age does not have a significant correlation to its tendency to burn (Moritz et al. 2004). Low humidity, low fuel moisture, and high winds appear to be the primary factors in determining when a chaparral stand burns. The Chaparral is a coastal biome with hot dry summers and mild, rainy winters. Droughts are very normal during the summertime. The Chaparral area gets about of precipitation a year and has an average temperature of . This makes the chaparral most vulnerable to fire in the late summer and fall. See also California chaparral and woodlands California montane chaparral Heath (habitat) International Association of Wildland Fire References Haidinger, T.L., and J.E. Keeley. 1993. Role of high fire frequency in destruction of mixed chaparral. Madrono 40: 141-147. Hanes, T. L. 1971. Succession after fire in the chaparral of southern California. Ecol. Monographs 41: 27-52. Hubbard, R.F. 1986. Stand age and growth dynamics in chamise chaparral. Master’s thesis, San Diego State University, San Diego, California. Keeley, J. E., C. J. Fotheringham, and M. Morais. 1999. Reexamining fire suppression impacts on brushland fire regimes. Science 284:1829-1832. Keeley, J.E. 1995. Future of California floristics and systematics: wildfire threats to the California flora. Madrono 42: 175-179. Keeley, J.E., A.H. Pfaff, and H.D. Stafford. 2005. Fire suppression impacts on postfire recovery of Sierra Nevada chaparral shrublands. International Journal of Wildland Fire 14: 255-265. Larigauderie, A., T.W. Hubbard, and J. Kummerow. 1990. Growth dynamics of two chaparral shrub species with time after fire. Madrono 37: 225-236. Minnich, R. A. 1983. Fire mosaics in southern California and northern Baja California. Science 219:1287-1294. Moritz, M.A., J.E. Keeley, E.A. Johnson, and A.A. Schaffner. 2004. Testing a basic assumption of shrubland fire management: How important is fuel age? Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 2:67-72. Zedler, P.H. 1995. Fire frequency in southern California shrublands: biological effects and management options, pp. 101-112 in J.E. Keeley and T. Scott (eds.), Brushfires in California wildlands: ecology and resource management. International Association of Wildland Fire, Fairfield, Wash. | Chaparral |@lemmatized chaparral:36 shrubland:2 heathland:1 plant:8 community:4 find:2 primarily:1 u:1 state:3 california:25 northern:2 portion:1 baja:4 peninsula:1 mexico:1 shape:1 mediterranean:3 climate:2 mild:2 wet:1 winter:2 hot:4 dry:4 summer:4 wildfire:6 similar:2 four:1 region:2 around:1 world:1 include:2 basin:1 know:2 maquis:1 central:2 chile:1 call:1 matorral:1 south:1 african:1 cape:1 fynbos:1 western:3 southern:8 australia:1 word:5 loan:1 spanish:2 come:2 chaparro:1 mean:2 small:1 dwarf:1 evergreen:2 oak:4 basque:1 txapar:1 meaning:1 santa:3 ynez:1 mountain:2 near:1 barbara:1 typical:1 consist:1 densely:2 grow:2 scrub:4 drought:2 resistant:1 shrub:2 often:2 impenetrable:1 large:6 animal:2 human:3 generally:2 arid:1 condition:3 make:2 notoriously:1 prone:2 although:1 many:3 specie:6 require:2 fire:40 cue:1 heat:1 smoke:1 char:1 wood:1 germination:1 adapt:2 per:1 se:1 rather:1 particular:1 regime:4 involve:1 season:1 frequency:3 intensity:1 severity:1 burn:6 form:1 dominant:1 habitat:3 member:1 biota:1 native:2 tend:1 regrow:1 quickly:1 black:1 sage:1 salvia:1 mellifera:1 bush:4 monkeyflower:1 mimulus:1 aurantiacus:1 rue:1 cneoridium:1 dumosum:1 ceanothus:2 spp:4 chamise:2 adenostoma:2 fasciculatum:2 pea:1 pickeringia:1 montana:1 buckwheat:1 eriogonum:1 coffeeberry:1 rhamnus:1 californica:2 deerweed:1 lotus:1 scoparius:1 islay:1 hollyleaf:1 cherry:2 prunus:2 ilicifolia:2 laurel:1 sumac:1 malosma:1 laurina:1 lemonade:1 berry:1 rhus:2 integrifolia:1 manzanita:2 arctostaphylos:1 mission:1 xylococcus:1 bicolor:1 mahogany:1 cercocarpus:1 redshank:1 sparsifolium:1 quercus:2 berberidifolia:2 q:2 dumosa:1 wislizenii:1 var:1 frutescens:1 silk:1 tassel:1 garrya:1 sugar:1 ovata:1 toyon:2 heteromeles:2 arbutifolia:2 wild:1 cucumber:1 marah:1 macrocarpus:1 yucca:1 hesperoyucca:1 whipplei:1 bird:2 species:1 complex:1 ecology:4 support:1 number:2 short:1 list:1 integral:1 part:1 system:5 first:2 essential:1 health:1 thrasher:1 toxostoma:1 redivivum:1 towhee:2 pipilo:1 crissalis:1 spot:1 piplio:1 maculatus:1 jay:1 aphelocoma:1 common:1 inhabitant:1 anna:2 hummingbird:2 calypte:2 bushtit:1 psaltriparus:1 minimus:1 costa:2 great:1 roadrunner:1 geococcyx:1 californianus:1 wrentit:1 chamaea:1 fasciata:1 exist:1 fall:2 one:1 north:1 america:1 cause:5 lightning:1 usually:1 period:3 high:3 humidity:2 low:3 wind:3 easily:1 control:1 nearly:1 easterly:1 ana:1 due:1 power:1 line:1 arson:1 spark:1 machinery:1 campfire:1 two:2 assumption:2 relate:1 appear:2 considerable:1 confusion:1 controversy:1 within:1 field:1 land:1 management:4 old:3 stand:5 become:2 senescent:1 decadent:1 imply:1 need:1 remain:1 healthy:1 hanes:2 second:1 suppression:7 policy:1 allow:3 accumulate:2 unnatural:1 level:1 fuel:4 lead:2 minnich:2 perspective:1 unhealthy:1 unproductive:1 may:1 originate:1 study:2 conduct:1 measure:1 amount:1 forage:1 available:1 deer:1 population:2 however:2 accord:1 recent:1 extraordinarily:1 resilient:1 long:1 without:2 keeley:10 pfaff:2 safford:1 continue:1 maintain:1 productive:1 growth:4 throughout:1 pre:1 hubbard:3 larigauderie:2 et:3 al:3 seed:1 actually:1 year:4 worth:1 accumulated:1 leaf:1 litter:1 successfully:1 germinate:1 e:8 g:1 holly:1 leafed:1 interval:2 drop:1 eliminate:1 typically:1 replace:1 non:1 weedy:1 grassland:1 haidinger:2 zedler:2 idea:1 responsible:1 originally:1 propose:1 compare:1 suggest:1 activity:2 turn:1 active:1 effort:1 argument:1 united:1 ponderosa:2 pine:2 forest:3 overstocked:1 past:1 surface:1 anywhere:1 clear:1 understory:1 create:1 ecologically:1 balanced:1 crown:1 consume:1 entire:1 whenever:1 detailed:1 analysis:1 historical:1 data:1 show:1 fail:1 exclude:1 addition:1 increase:1 step:1 overall:1 age:3 significant:1 correlation:1 tendency:1 moritz:2 moisture:1 primary:1 factor:1 determine:1 coastal:1 biome:1 rainy:1 normal:1 summertime:1 area:1 get:1 precipitation:1 average:1 temperature:1 vulnerable:1 late:1 see:1 also:1 woodlands:1 montane:1 heath:1 international:3 association:2 wildland:3 reference:1 l:2 j:8 role:1 destruction:1 mixed:1 madrono:3 succession:1 ecol:1 monograph:1 r:2 f:1 dynamic:2 master:1 thesis:1 san:2 diego:2 university:1 c:1 fotheringham:1 morais:1 reexamine:1 impact:2 brushland:1 science:2 future:1 floristics:1 systematics:1 threat:1 flora:1 h:3 stafford:1 postfire:1 recovery:1 sierra:1 nevada:1 shrublands:2 journal:1 w:1 kummerow:1 time:1 mosaic:1 johnson:1 schaffner:1 test:1 basic:1 important:1 frontier:1 environment:1 p:1 biological:1 effect:1 option:1 pp:1 scott:1 eds:1 brushfires:1 wildlands:1 resource:1 fairfield:1 wash:1 |@bigram baja_california:3 santa_barbara:1 drought_resistant:1 per_se:1 oak_quercus:2 santa_ana:1 et_al:3 ponderosa_pine:2 san_diego:2 sierra_nevada:1 |
5,224 | Book_of_Micah | The Book of Micah (Hebrew: ספר מיכה) is one of the books of the Hebrew Bible and the Christian Old Testament, traditionally attributed to Micah the Prophet. Authorship Micah of Moresheth (most likely the same city as Moresheth-Gath, mentioned in Micah) prophesied during the days of King Hezekiah of Judah. This paraphrase of Jeremaiah 26:18 contains practically everything we know of the Prophet himself. Moresheth-Gath was most likely a small town in SW Judah (this has yet to be confirmed). Some scholars argue over how much of the book of Micah can be attributed to Micah himself. There is general consensus that the majority of chapers 1-3 are in fact Micah’s own (excluding 2:12-13). The remaining passages are seen by some as redactions. This will be further argued in the section on controversy. Some Old Testament scholars, for example Dr Bruce Waltke in IVP`s 'New Bible Commentary', defend Micah's authorship of the entire book. It is generally agreed that Micah composed chapters 1 through 3; some scholars hold that chapter 6 and sections of chapter 7 were also written by the historical Micah. The primary reasons given are because chapters 3-5 foretell of events in the 6th century BCE and chapters 6-7 have elements of a universal religious outlook which was not widely present in Judaism until much later. Date of composition Micah was active in Judah from before the fall of Samaria (1:2-7) in 722 BCE; he lived under king Ahaz (735-715 BCE) and king Hezekiah (715-687), and (apparently) experienced the devestation brought on by Senacherib’s invasion of Judah (701 BCE). The heading of the book (1:1) also adds the name of king Jotham (742-735 BCE) but nothing in the book confirms this fact. This would make Micah active from 742 (at earliest) to 701 (at latest) BCE. The message in Micah 1:2–9 was given before the destruction of Samaria in 721. The appeal of Jeremiah's supporters to the prophecy of Micah confirms his connection with Hezekiah: "And some of the land arose and said to all the assembled people, Micah of Moresheth prophesied during the days of Hezekiah king of Judah" (Jeremiah 26:17). Setting Nearly fifty years after the start of the reigns of Uzziah, king of Judah, and Jeroboam II, king of Israel, the period of relative peace and prosperity began to wane. This was in part due to the rise of the nation of Assyria, who, after a period of quiescence, became a potent political force in the Near East. With the rise of Assyria came a rise in military pressure upon the kingdoms of Judah and Israel. At the same time, as trade and commerce flourished, this was done largely at the expense of small landowners and peasants, who lost their land to the greed of the wealthy classes. Rich landowners bribed judges to look favorably upon illicit land acquisitions, which resulted in a rapid disappearance of small farmers. Those who were dispossessed drifted from the countryside to the cities, which led to overcrowding in the major population centers. Micah outspokenly reproaches these practices of perverting the covenant so as to increase economical gains. Micah, and the other minor prophets, also speak out against the lack of obedience to the Covenantal stipulations. Many aspects of the covenant had been abandoned in favor of Baal-worship and other Pagan practices. In this light, Samaria, one of the leaders in this apostasy, is condemned to destruction. Micah’s period of activity also overlaps that of Isaiah’s, and it is possible that the two contemporaries were often mistook for one another. Jeremaiah 26:18-20 speaks of Micah’s effect on the King, and that he and the king not only were able to meet, but also that Micah’s message was able to bring the king to repentance. However, some scholars view that it may be more probable that Isaiah was the one who caused the king’s repentance, as he, having access to the king, was much more likely to influence the king’s decisions. Literary Structure and Devices The book of Micah, like many of the minor prophets, is made up of many poetical ideas placed together. These individual poems are listed, with brief synopses, by the Anchor Bible Dictionary. Here is a paraphrase of this section. The Heading (1:1): As is typical of prophetic books, an anonymous editor has supplied the name of the prophet, an indication of his time of activity, and an identification of his speech as the “word of Yahweh.” Samaria and Jerusaelm are given prominence as the foci of the prophet’s attention. Punishment of Samaria (1:2-7): Drawing upon ancient traditions for depicting a theophany, the prophet depicts the coming of Yahweh to punish the idolatrous city. A transitional Lament (1:8-9): depicting the prophet’s own excessive grief at the calamity leading to the new subject: the doom of Judah and Jerusalem. A Taunt or Lament over Judah (1:10-16): describes the destruction of the lesser towns of Judah, either as already suffered or as to come (this latter point evidently referring to the invasion of Judah by Sennacherib, 701 BCE). N.B. For these passages of doom that will befall the various cities, the device paronomasia is used. Paronomasia is a literary device which 'plays' on the sound of each word for literary effect. For example, the inhabitants of Beth-le-aphrah (“house of dust”) are told to “roll yourselves in the dust.” 1:14. Though most of the Paronomasia is lost in translation, it is the equivalent of ‘Ashdod shall be but ashes,’ where the fate of the city matches its name. Two Successive Doom speeches (2:1-5, 6-11): introduce themes characteristic of the prophet Micah as champion of the oppressed small landholder. These speeches warn of the impending doom that will befall those who accumulate land from the sacred community. The Divine Shepherd King (2:12-13): is pictured as gathering and leading a dispersed people. Though all agree that this passage is not connected to its immediate textual context, there is still debate over whether this is actually Micah’s own words. Speech against the courts (3:1-4): which focuses on the judges who are allowing illicit land acquisition. Speech against the prophets (3:5-8): that depicts the prophets who were members of the prophetic guilds at that time as venal and blind. Climactic Speech about Zion (3:9-12) resumes the indictment of judges and prophets, adds a line against priests and culminates in the famous saying, “Zion shall be plowed as a field.” The Coming Kingdom of God (4:1-5) centered at the sacred mountain, Zion, this passage shares themes with Isaiah (2:2-4), preaching universal justice, peace, and security. The remainder of the chapter is made up of poems that focus on the glorious future: The Kingdom of the Gathered Exiles (4:6-7) Zion’s Rule Restored (4:8) Deliverance from Distress in Babylon (4:9-10) The Threshing of Enemies (4:11-13) The Humiliation of the King (4:14): Some scholars consider this a fragment that is incomplete, though it still serves its purpose to introduce the theme of the royal Messiah. The Return of the Great Ruler from Bethlehem (5:1-4): this foretold king is very influential among the book’s Christian interpreters. The remainder of this chapter’s poems are focused on expounding on the coming peace Assyria Eliminated (5:4-5) The Irresistible Might of Jacob (5:6-8) The Purified Nation (5:9-14): Alien elements that offend Yahweh are removed A Covenant lawsuit (6:1-8): that represents God as indicting his people for breach of their breach of the covenant. The City as a Cheat (6:9-16): It is unsure whether it is Jerusalem or Samaria, but the city is reprimanded for its dishonest trade practices. A Disintegrated Society (7:17): gives a grim picture of the loss of trust due to the dishonesty of the society. A Prophetic Liturgy (7:8-20): has been known by this designation since the studies of H. Gunkel (in 1924). It is a ‘liturgy’ due to the alteration of speakers, the combination of themes, and the progression of mood. Controversy Modern Critics of Micah argue that only chapters 1-3 of Micah (excluding 2:12-13), are actually the prophet’s. The hopeful material appears to contradict these initial chapters, especially in the light of Jeremiah 26:18, which portrays the prophet as a prophet of doom, without mentioning the passages of hope. Other critics focus on the ‘liturgy’ which they say presupposes a different historical situation than that of the 8th century prophet. Unfortunately, due to the restricted compass of Micah, the study of vocabulary and style has had little place in these arguments. Some scholars have sought to restore a kind of unity to the book of micah by picturing it as the result of a process of growth over time within a community, changing to fit their needs. However, the range of speculation for this theory is very great, and though this theory has some appeal, the lack of agreement only weakens this argument. Another idea is presented in the commentary by Hillers (Micah Hermeneia). It attempts to view the book of Micah as changing due to Micah’s own experiences. Beginning as a call of doom, once Samaria falls and the Assyrian pressure increases, Micah’s reacts to this depressing situation with a call of hope. This allows for the book of Micah to adopt these two, more different tones, while still remaining united. This theory would place the writing of parts of Micah at different times, and may well be the best fit for unifying Micah. This is under the pretense that Micah is a unified text, which is still argued by many critics who insist that only the first three chapters are, in fact, Micah’s. References “Book of Micah.” The Anchor Bible Dictionary. Vol. 4, Editor-in-Chief: Freedman, David N. Doubleday; New York, NY. 1992. “Book of Micah.” International Standard Bible Encyclopedia. General Editor: Bromley, G.W. Wlliam B. Erdmans Publishing Co.; Grand Rapids, MI. 1986. Holy Bible: The New Oxford Annotated Bible. Coogan; Oxford University Press, 2007. “Micah.” The New Oxford Bible Commentary. Ed.: Barton, John & Muddiman, John. Oxford University Press; New York, NY. 2007. Easton's Bible Dictionary, 1897. LaSor, William Sanford et al. Old Testament Survey: the Message, Form, and Background of the Old Testament. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1996. BELIEVE Religious Information Source. Book of Micah. (n.d.). 13 Paragraphs. Retrieved October 4, 2005, from http://mb-soft.com/believe/txs/micah.htm Hailey, Homer. (1973). A Commentary on the Minor Prophets. Grand Rapids: Baker Book House. Maxey, Al. THE MINOR PROPHETS: Micah. (n.d.). 20 Paragraphs. Retrieved October 4, 2005, from http://www.zianet.com/maxey/Proph11.htm McKeating, Henry. (1971). The Books of AMOS, HOSEA, AND MICAH. New York: the Syndics of the Cambridge University Press. Pusey, E. B. (1963). The Minor Prophets: A Commentary (Vol. II). Grand Rapids: Baker Book House. Smith, John Merlin Powis. (1914). A Commentary on the Books of AMOS, HOSEA, AND MICAH. New York: The MacMillan Company. Wood, Joyce Rilett. (2000). Speech and action in Micah’s prophecy. Catholic Biblical Quarterly, no. 4(62), 49 paragraphs. Retrieved September 30, 2005, from OCLC (FirstSearch) database http://newfirstsearch.oclc.org Stahlhoefer, A. B. Exegese de Miquéias 2.6-11. São Bento do Sul: FLT, 2005 External links Jewish translations: Michah - Micah (Judaica Press) translation with Rashi's commentary at Chabad.org Christian translations: Online Bible at GospelHall.org (ESV, KJV, Darby, American Standard Version, Bible in Basic English) BibleGateway.com (New International Version) Micah at The Great Books (New Revised Standard Version) | Book_of_Micah |@lemmatized book:20 micah:47 hebrew:2 ספר:1 מיכה:1 one:4 bible:11 christian:3 old:4 testament:4 traditionally:1 attribute:2 prophet:19 authorship:2 moresheth:4 likely:3 city:7 gath:2 mention:2 prophesy:2 day:2 king:16 hezekiah:4 judah:11 paraphrase:2 jeremaiah:2 contains:1 practically:1 everything:1 know:2 small:4 town:2 sw:1 yet:1 confirm:3 scholar:6 argue:4 much:3 general:2 consensus:1 majority:1 chapers:1 fact:3 exclude:2 remain:2 passage:5 see:1 redaction:1 section:3 controversy:2 example:2 dr:1 bruce:1 waltke:1 ivp:1 new:10 commentary:7 defend:1 entire:1 generally:1 agree:2 compose:1 chapter:10 hold:1 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5,225 | Irreducible_fraction | An irreducible fraction (or fraction in lowest terms or reduced form) is a vulgar fraction in which the numerator and denominator are smaller than those in any other equivalent vulgar fraction. It can be shown that a fraction a⁄b is irreducible if and only if a and b are coprime, that is, if a and b have a greatest common divisor of 1. More formally, if a, b, c, and d are all integers, then the fraction a⁄b is irreducible if and only if there is no other equivalent fraction c⁄d such that |c| < |a| or |d| < |b|. Note that |a| means the absolute value of a. This definition is more rigorous and expandable than a simpler one involving common divisors, and it is often necessary to use it to determine the rationality or reducibility of numbers that are expressed in terms of variables. For example, 1⁄4, 5⁄6, and -101⁄100 are all irreducible fractions. On the other hand, 2⁄4 is not irreducible since it is equal in value to 1⁄2, and the numerator of the latter (1) is less than the numerator of the former (2). A fraction that is reducible can be reduced by dividing both the numerator and denominator by a common factor. It can be fully reduced to lowest terms if both are divided by their greatest common divisor. In order to find the greatest common divisor, the Euclidean algorithm may be used. Using the Euclidean algorithm is a simple method that can even be performed without a calculator. Examples In the first step both numbers were divided by 10, which is a factor common to both 120 and 90. In the second step, they were divided by 3. The final result, 4/3, is an irreducible fraction because 4 and 3 have no common factors. The original fraction could have also been reduced in a single step by using the greatest common divisor of 90 and 120, which would be gcd(90,120)=30. Which method is faster "by hand" depends on the fraction. See also Anomalous cancellation | Irreducible_fraction |@lemmatized irreducible:6 fraction:12 low:2 term:3 reduce:4 form:1 vulgar:2 numerator:4 denominator:2 small:1 equivalent:2 show:1 b:6 coprime:1 great:4 common:8 divisor:5 formally:1 c:3 integer:1 note:1 mean:1 absolute:1 value:2 definition:1 rigorous:1 expandable:1 simpler:1 one:1 involve:1 often:1 necessary:1 use:4 determine:1 rationality:1 reducibility:1 number:2 express:1 variable:1 example:2 hand:2 since:1 equal:1 latter:1 less:1 former:1 reducible:1 divide:4 factor:3 fully:1 order:1 find:1 euclidean:2 algorithm:2 may:1 simple:1 method:2 even:1 perform:1 without:1 calculator:1 first:1 step:3 second:1 final:1 result:1 original:1 could:1 also:2 single:1 would:1 gcd:1 faster:1 depend:1 see:1 anomalous:1 cancellation:1 |@bigram irreducible_fraction:3 vulgar_fraction:2 numerator_denominator:2 common_divisor:5 euclidean_algorithm:2 |
5,226 | Dead_Sea | For the Brian Keene book of the same name, see Dead Sea (novel). The Dead Sea (, , "Sea of Salt"; , , "Dead Sea";) is a salt lake between Israel and the West Bank to the west, and Jordan to the east. It is below sea level, Monitoring of the Dead Sea. Israel Marine Data Center (ISRAMAR). and its shores are the lowest point on the surface of Earth on dry land. The Dead Sea is deep, the deepest hypersaline lake in the world. It is also one of the world's saltiest bodies of water, with 33.7% salinity. Only Lake Assal (Djibouti), Garabogazköl and some hypersaline lakes of the McMurdo Dry Valleys in Antarctica (such as Don Juan Pond and perhaps Lake Vanda) have a higher salinity. It is 8.6 times as salty as the ocean. Goetz, P.W. (ed.) The New Encyclopaedia Britannica (15th ed.). Vol. 3, p. 937. Chicago, 1986 This salinity makes for a harsh environment where animals cannot flourish, hence its name. The Dead Sea is long and wide at its widest point. It lies in the Jordan Rift Valley, and its main tributary is the Jordan River. The Dead Sea has attracted visitors from around the Mediterranean basin for thousands of years. Biblically, it was a place of refuge for King David. It was one of the world's first health resorts (for Herod the Great), and it has been the supplier of a wide variety of products, from balms for Egyptian mummification to potash for fertilizers. People also use the salt and the minerals from the Dead Sea to create cosmetics and herbal sachets. Etymology In Arabic the Dead Sea is called ("the Dead Sea"), or less commonly (, "the Sea of Lot"). Another historic name in Arabic was the "Sea of Zoʼar", after a nearby town. In Hebrew, the Dead Sea is , meaning "sea of salt," or (, "sea of death"). In antiquity it was sometimes referred to as (, "the Eastern sea") or (, "Sea of the Arabah"). The Greeks called it Lake Asphaltites (Attic Greek , , "the Asphaltite" See Bitumen and asphalt for more about asphaltite. sea. Geography Satellite photograph showing the location of the Dead Sea The Dead Sea is an endorheic lake located in the Jordan Rift Valley, a geographic feature formed by the Dead Sea Transform (DST). This left lateral-moving transform fault lies along the tectonic plate boundary between the African Plate and the Arabian Plate. It runs between the East Anatolian Fault zone in Turkey and the northern end of the Red Sea Rift offshore of the southern tip of Sinai. The Jordan River is the only major water source flowing into the Dead Sea, although there are small perennial springs under and around the Dead Sea, creating pools and quicksand pits along the edges. Springs and quicksand at the Dead Sea Retrieved on 2008-08-27 There are no outlet streams. Rainfall is scarcely 100 mm (4 in) per year in the northern part of the Dead Sea and barely 50 mm (2 in) in the southern part. The Dead Sea zone's aridity is due to the rainshadow effect of the Judean Hills. The highlands east of the Dead Sea receive more rainfall than the Dead Sea itself. To the west of the Dead Sea, the Judean Hills rise less steeply, and are much lower, than the mountains to the east. Along the southwestern side of the lake is a 210 m (700 ft) tall halite formation called "Mount Sodom". Natural history There are two contending hypotheses about the origin of the low elevation of the Dead Sea. The older hypothesis is that it lies in a true rift zone, an extension of the Red Sea Rift, or even of the Great Rift Valley of eastern Africa. A more recent hypothesis is that the Dead Sea basin is a consequence of a "step-over" discontinuity along the Dead Sea Transform, creating extension of the crust with consequent subsidence. Around three million years ago what is now the valley of the Jordan River, Dead Sea, and Wadi Arabah was repeatedly inundated by waters from the Mediterranean Sea. The waters formed in a narrow, crooked bay which was connected to the sea through what is now the Jezreel Valley. The floods of the valley came and went depending on long scale climate change. The lake that occupied the Dead Sea Rift, named "Lake Sodom", deposited beds of salt, eventually coming to be 3 km (2 miles) thick. According to geological theory, approximately two million years ago the land between the Rift Valley and the Mediterranean Sea rose to such an extent that the ocean could no longer flood the area. Thus, the long bay became a lake. The first such prehistoric lake is named "Lake Gomorrah." Lake Gomorrah was a freshwater or brackish lake that extended at least 80 km (50 mi) south of the current southern end of the Dead Sea and 100 km (60 mi) north, well above the present Hula Depression. As the climate became more arid, Lake Gomorrah shrank and became saltier. The large, saltwater predecessor of the Dead Sea is called "Lake Lisan." Near Ein Gedi, salt builds up along the shores of the Dead Sea. Cobble encrusted with halite evaporated from the Dead Sea near Ein Gedi. Pebbles cemented with halite on the western shore of the Dead Sea near Ein Gedi. In prehistoric times great amounts of sediment collected on the floor of Lake Gomorrah. The sediment was heavier than the salt deposits and squeezed the salt deposits upwards into what are now the Lisan Peninsula and Mount Sodom (on the southwest side of the lake). Geologists explain the effect in terms of a bucket of mud into which a large flat stone is placed, forcing the mud to creep up the sides of the pail. When the floor of the Dead Sea dropped further due to tectonic forces, the salt mounts of Lisan and Mount Sodom stayed in place as high cliffs. (see salt domes) From 70 000 to 12 000 years ago the lake level was to higher than its current level. This lake, called "Lake Lisan", fluctuated dramatically, rising to its highest level around 26,000 years ago, indicating very wet climate in the Near East. Sometime around 10 000 years ago the lake level dropped dramatically, probably to levels even lower than today. During the last several thousand years the lake has fluctuated approximately with some significant drops and rises. Current theories as to the cause of this dramatic drop in levels rule out volcanic activity, therefore it may have been a seismic event. Climate Many people believe that the mud of the Dead Sea has special healing and cosmetic uses. The Dead Sea's climate offers year-round sunny skies and dry air with low pollution. It has less than mean annual rainfall and a summer average temperature between 32 and 39 °C (90-102 °F). Winter average temperatures range between 20 and 23 °C (68-74 °F). The region has weakened ultraviolet radiation, particularly the UVB (erythrogenic rays), and an atmosphere characterized by a high oxygen content due to the high barometric pressure. The sea affects temperatures nearby because of the moderating effect a large body of water has on climate. During the winter, sea temperatures tend to be higher than land temperatures, and vice versa during the summer months. This is the outcome of slow penetration of the sun's rays into the sea, which is a huge mass that takes a long time to warm up. Chemistry A tourist (on the Jordanian side) demonstrates the unusual buoyancy caused by high salinity. Until the winter of 1978-79, when a major mixing event took place, the Dead Sea was composed of two stratified layers of water that differed in temperature, density, age, and salinity. The topmost or so of the Dead Sea had a salinity that ranged between 300 and 400 parts per thousand and a temperature that swung between 19 °C (66.2 °F) and 37 °C (98.6 °F). Underneath a zone of transition, the lowest level of the Dead Sea had waters of a consistent 22 °C (71.6 °F) temperature and complete saturation of sodium chloride (NaCl). Since the water near the bottom is saturated, the salt precipitates out of solution onto the sea floor. Beginning in the 1960s water inflow to the Dead Sea from the Jordan River was reduced as a result of large-scale irrigation and generally low rainfall. By 1975 the upper water layer of the Dead Sea was saltier than the lower layer. Nevertheless, the upper layer remained suspended above the lower layer because its waters were warmer and thus less dense. When the upper layer finally cooled down so that its density was greater than the lower layer the waters of the Dead Sea mixed (1978-79). For the first time in centuries the lake was a homogeneous body of water. Since then stratification has begun to redevelop. A rough Dead Sea, with salt deposits on cliffs. The mineral content of the Dead Sea is very different from that of ocean water. The exact composition of the Dead Sea water varies mainly with season, depth and temperature. In the early 1980s the concentration of ionic species (in g/kg) of Dead Sea surface water was Cl− (181.4), Br− (4.2), SO42− (0.4), HCO3− (0.2), Ca2+ (14.1), Na+ (32.5), K+ (6.2) and Mg2+ (35.2). The total salinity was 276 g/kg. I. Steinhorn, In Situ Salt Precipitation at the Dead Sea, Limnol. Oceanogr. 28(3),1983, 580-583 These results show that w/w% composition of the salt, as anhydrous chlorides, was calcium chloride (CaCl2) 14.4%, potassium chloride (KCl) 4.4%, magnesium chloride (MgCl2) 50.8% and sodium chloride (common salt, NaCl) 30.4%. In comparison, the salt in the water of most oceans and seas is approximately 97% sodium chloride. The concentration of sulfate ions (SO42−) is very low, and the concentration of bromide ions (Br−) is the highest of all waters on Earth. The salt concentration of the Dead Sea fluctuates around 31.5%. This is unusually high and results in a nominal density of 1.24 kg/L. Anyone can easily float in the Dead Sea because of natural buoyancy. In this respect the Dead Sea is similar to the Great Salt Lake in Utah in the United States. One of the most unusual features of the Dead Sea is its discharge of asphalt. From deep seeps, the Dead Sea constantly spits up small pebbles of the black substance. After earthquakes, chunks as large as houses have been found. Health effects and therapies The Dead Sea area has become a major centre for health research and treatment for several reasons. The mineral content of the water, the very low content of pollens and other allergens in the atmosphere, the reduced ultraviolet component of solar radiation, and the higher atmospheric pressure at this great depth each have specific health effects. For example, persons suffering reduced respiratory function from diseases such as cystic fibrosis seem to benefit from the increased atmospheric pressure. Sufferers of the skin disorder psoriasis also benefit from the ability to sunbathe for long periods in the area due to its position below sea level and subsequent result that many of the sun's harmful UV rays are reduced. S. Halevy et al. Dead sea bath salt for the treatment of psoriasis vulgaris: a double-blind controlled study. Journal of the European Academy of Dermatology and Venereology, Volume 9, Issue 3: 237-242. Thus, the region's climate and low elevation have made it a popular center for several types of therapies: Climatotherapy: Treatment which exploits local climatic features such as temperature, humidity, sunshine, barometric pressure and special atmospheric constituents. Heliotherapy: Treatment that exploits the biological effects of the sun's radiation. Thalassotherapy: Treatment that exploits bathing in Dead Sea water. Flora and fauna Dead Sea in the morning, seen from Masada The sea is called "dead" because its high salinity prevents macroscopic aquatic organisms, such as fish and aquatic plants, from living in it, though minuscule quantities of bacteria and microbial fungi are present. In times of flood, the salt content of the Dead Sea can drop from its usual 35% salinity to 30% or lower. The Dead Sea temporarily comes to life in the wake of rainy winters. In 1980, after one such rainy winter, the normally dark blue Dead Sea turned red. Researchers from Hebrew University found the Dead Sea to be teeming with a type of algae called Dunaliella. The Dunaliella in turn nourished carotenoid-containing (red-pigmented) halobacteria whose presence caused the color change. Since 1980, the Dead Sea basin has been dry and the algae and the bacteria have not returned in measurable numbers. Many animal species live in the mountains surrounding the Dead Sea. Hikers can see camels, ibex, hares, hyraxes, jackals, foxes, and even leopards. Hundreds of bird species inhabit the zone as well. Both Jordan and Israel have established nature reserves around the Dead Sea. The delta of the Jordan river was formerly a veritable jungle of papyrus and palm trees. Flavius Josephus described Jericho as "the most fertile spot in Judea". In Roman and Byzantine times sugarcane, henna, and sycamore fig all made the lower Jordan valley quite wealthy. One of the most valuable products produced by Jericho was the sap of the balsam tree, which could be made into perfume. But by the 19th century Jericho's fertility had disappeared. Human settlement There are several small communities near the Dead Sea. These include the West Bank Israeli settlements in the Megilot Regional Council: Vered Yeriho, Kalya, Almog, Beit Ha'arava, Mitzpe Shalem and Avnat. There is a beautiful nature preserve at Ein Gedi, and the Dead Sea hotels are located on the southwest end at Ein Bokek near Neve Zohar. Highway 90 runs north-south on the Israeli side. Potash City is a small community on the Jordanian side of the Dead Sea. Highway 65 runs north-south on the Jordanian side. Human history World's lowest (dry) point, Jordan, 1971 The human history of the Dead Sea goes all the way back to remote antiquity. Bedouin tribes have continuously lived in the area. In Judaism Just north of the Dead Sea is Jericho. Somewhere, perhaps on the southeast shore, would be the cities mentioned in the Book of Genesis which were said to have been destroyed in the time of Abraham: Sodom and Gomorra (Genesis 18) and the three other "Cities of the Plain" - Admah, Zeboim and Zoar (Deuteronomy 29:23). But Zoar escaped destruction when Abraham's nephew Lot escaped there from Sodom (Genesis 19:21-22). Before the destruction, the dead sea was a valley full of natural tar pits, which was called the vale of Siddim. King David was said to have hidden from Saul at Ein Gedi nearby. Prophecies In there is a specific prophecy that the sea will ".. be healed and made fresh", becoming a normal lake capable of supporting marine life. A similar prophecy is stated in , which says that "Living waters will go out from Jerusalem, half of them to the eastern sea (likely the Dead Sea) and half to the western sea (the Mediterranean)..." Ancient Greek period The Greeks knew the Dead Sea as "Lake Asphaltites", due to the naturally surfacing asphalt. Aristotle wrote about the remarkable waters. Later, the Nabateans discovered the value of bitumen extracted from the Dead Sea needed by the Egyptians for embalming their mummies. Herodian period King Herod the Great built or rebuilt several fortresses and palaces on the Western Bank of the Dead Sea. The most famous was Masada, where, in 70-73 AD, a small group of Jewish Zealots held out against the might of the Roman legion, and Machaerus where, according to Josephus, John the Baptist was imprisoned by Herod Antipas and died. Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews 18.119. Also in Roman times, some Essenes had settled on the Dead Sea's western shore; Pliny the Elder identifies their location with the words, "on the west side of the Dead Sea, away from the coast ... [above] the town of Engeda" (Natural History, Bk 5.73); and it is therefore a hugely popular but contested hypothesis today, that same Essenes are identical with the settlers at Qumran and that "the Dead Sea Scrolls" discovered during the 20th century in the nearby caves had been their own library. In Christianity The remoteness of the region attracted Greek Orthodox monks since the Byzantine era. Their monasteries such as Saint George in Wadi Kelt and Mar Saba in the Judean Desert are places of pilgrimage. Mount Sodom, on the southwest side of the lake, is a giant mountain of halite. In Islam In Islamic tradition, the Dead Sea was about the land in which the Prophet Lot lived. The people of the towns and cities were wicked for their acts of homosexuality, robbery and murder, and had therefore been given a punishment for such deeds. The punishment arrived when angels in the form of beautiful men were sent down by God as guests for Lot to host. When Lot's people heard of the men, they rushed to Lot's house to misbehave and asked him to turn the men over. This was their final test which they failed so the angel Gabriel raised the land where the prophet's people lived, tipped it upside down and threw it back on earth, causing the ground near the impact to cave in. Thus, the lowest land on Earth was formed because of this punishment. The non-believers (in the monotheism doctrine) were destroyed and the followers were saved. According to some interpretations, the sura of ar-Rum of the Quran refers to the Dead Sea as the lowest place on Earth. Predictions in the Qur'an Here is an allusion from the Final Testament (The Quran) to the Dead Sea which covers most of the region in which Sodom and Gomorrah were once situated. Its waters contain so highly a percentage of sulfur and potash that no fish and plants can live in them. 29:33-35: And when Our messengers came unto Lot, he was sorely grieved on their account, seeing that it was beyond his power to shield them; but they said: "Fear not, and grieve not! Behold, we shall save thee and thy household-all but thy wife: she will indeed be among those who stay behind. Verily, we shall bring down upon the people of this land a horror from heaven in requital of all their iniquitous doings! And [so it happened; and] thereof, indeed,We have left a clear sign for people who use their reason. Recent History Turkish trenches at the shores of the Dead Sea, World War I, 1917. More recently, explorers and scientists arrived in the area to analyze the minerals and research the unique climate. Tourism in the region has been developed since the 1960s. The Dead Sea Scrolls were found in caves at Qumran at the Dead Sea. The world's lowest road, Highway 90, runs along the Israeli and West Bank shores of the Dead Sea at below sea level. There are also health spas and hot springs along the shore, besides the unique water of the Dead Sea itself. A golf course named for Sodom and Gomorrah was built by the British at Kalia on the northern shore. The first major hotels were built in Israel, first at nearby Arad, and since the 1960s at the Neve Zohar resort complex. The Jordanian side has seen increasing development in recent years. For example, three international franchises have opened seaside resort hotels near the King Hussein Bin Talal Convention Center along the eastern coast of the Dead Sea. Industry View of salt evaporation pans on the Dead Sea, taken in 1989 from the Space Shuttle Columbia. The southern half is now separated from the northern half at what used to be the Lisan Peninsula because of the fall of the level of Dead Sea. In the early part of the 20th century, the Dead Sea began to attract interest from chemists who deduced that the Sea was a natural deposit of potash and bromine. The Palestine Potash Company was chartered in 1929 after its founder, Siberian Jewish engineer and pioneer of Lake Baikal exploitation Moses Novomeysky, worked for the charter ex for over ten years. The first plant was on the north shore of the Dead Sea at Kalia and produced potash, or potassium chloride, by solar evaporation of the brine. Employing Arabs and Jews, it was an island of peace in turbulent times. The company quickly grew into the largest industrial site in the Middle East and in 1934 built a second plant on the southwest shore, in the Mount Sodom area, south of the 'Lashon' region of the Dead Sea. Palestine Potash Company supplied half of Britain's potash during World War II, but ultimately became a casualty of the 1948 Arab-Israeli War. Its remnants were nationalised and Dead Sea Works Ltd. was established in 1952 in its stead as a state-owned company to extract potash and other minerals from the Dead Sea. From the Dead Sea brine, Israel produces (2001) 1.77 million tons potash, 206,000 tons elemental bromine, 44,900 tons caustic soda, 25,000 tons magnesium metal, and sodium chloride. On the Jordanian side of the Dead Sea, Arab Potash (APC), formed in 1956, produces 2.0 million tons of potash annually, as well as sodium chloride and bromine. Both companies use extensive salt evaporation pans that have essentially diked the entire southern end of the Dead Sea for the purpose of producing carnallite, potassium magnesium chloride, which is then processed further to produce potassium chloride. The power plant on the Israeli side allows production of magnesium metal (by a subsidiary, Dead Sea Magnesium Ltd.). The salt evaporation pans are visible from space. Due to the popularity of the sea's therapeutic and healing properties, several companies have also shown interest in the manufacturing and supplying of Dead Sea salts as raw materials for body and skin care products. Recession Line painted in 1900 (at top of image) by Robert A.S. Macalister of the Palestine Exploration Fund showing the level of the Dead Sea. In recent decades, the Dead Sea has been rapidly shrinking because of diversion of incoming water. The southern end is fed by a canal maintained by the Dead Sea Works, a company that converts the sea's raw materials. From a depression of below sea level in 1970 C. Klein, A. Flohn, Contribution to the Knowledge in the Fluctuations of the Dead Sea Level. Theoretical and Applied Climatology, vol. 38, p. 151–156, 1987 it fell to below sea level in 2006, reaching a drop rate of per year. Although the Dead Sea may never entirely disappear, because evaporation slows down as surface area decreases and salinity increases, it is feared that the Sea's characteristics may substantially change. The Dead Sea level drop has been followed by a groundwater level drop, causing brines that used to occupy underground layers near the shoreline to be flushed out by freshwater. This is believed to be the cause of the recent appearance of large sinkholes along the western shore — incoming freshwater dissolves salt layers, rapidly creating subsurface cavities that subsequently collapse to form these sinkholes. M. Abelson, Y. Yechieli, O. Crouvi, G. Baer, D. Wachs, A. Bein, V. Shtivelman. "Evolution of the Dead Sea Sinkholes", in New Frontiers in Dead Sea Paleoenvironmental Research, Geological Society of America, special paper 401, p. 241–253, 2006 One plan suggested for stopping the recession is to channel water from the Mediterranean or the Red Sea, either through tunnels or canals (the Dead Sea Canal). Although a Mediterranean structure would be shorter, Israel is now committed to building a Red Sea canal in deference to Jordan's needs. The plan is to pump water up the Arava/Arabah from Aqaba or Eilat, tunnel under the highest point of the Arava/Arabah valley, and then canalize the river of seawater as it falls to the Dead Sea. The downhill flow would be harnessed hydroelectrically, and the arriving seawater would run into a desalination plant to be constructed in Jordan. The salt water remaining after desalination would be deposited into the Dead Sea. On 9 May 2005, Jordan, Israel, and the Palestinian Authority signed an agreement to begin feasibility studies on the project, to be officially known as the "Two Seas Canal". The scheme calls for the pumping of 870 million cubic metres of sea water from the Red Sea per year and generation of 550 Megawatts of electricity. The World Bank is supportive of the project. However, several environmental groups have raised concerns about possible negative impacts of the project on the natural environment of the Dead Sea and Arava. In 2007, the level of the Dead Sea was reported to have fallen by another 1 metre. Gallery See also The Dead Sea region Dead Sea Canal Two Seas Canal List of places on land with elevations below sea level Great Salt Lake World Discoveries III: Dead Sea Further reading Yehouda Enzel, et al., eds (2006) New Frontiers in Dead Sea Paleoenvironmental Research, Geological Society of America, ISBN 0-8137-2401-5 Niemi, Tina M., Ben-Avraham, Z., and Gat, J., eds., 1997, The Dead Sea: The Lake and Its Setting: N.Y., Oxford University Press, 286 p. References External links Information about Health and Nature skin and body treatment from the Dead Sea The official Israeli site Places To Visit at the Dead Sea (English) Ezekiel's Water Project High Res virtual tours gallery of the Dead Sea The Magic Dead Sea Race is on to save the Dead Sea A Web Documentary On The Dead Sea Multilateral project for sustainable water management in the lower Jordan Valley Google Books The Dead Sea: The Lake and Its Setting By Tina M. Niemi, Zvi Ben-Avraham, Joel Gat 1997 Oxford University Press US ISBN 0195087038 nan:Sí-hái be-x-old:Мёртвае мора | Dead_Sea |@lemmatized brian:1 keene:1 book:3 name:6 see:8 dead:122 sea:158 novel:1 salt:27 lake:33 israel:7 west:6 bank:5 jordan:15 east:6 level:19 monitoring:1 marine:2 data:1 center:3 isramar:1 shore:12 low:20 point:4 surface:3 earth:5 dry:5 land:8 deep:3 hypersaline:2 world:9 also:7 one:6 salty:4 body:5 water:31 salinity:10 assal:1 djibouti:1 garabogazköl:1 mcmurdo:1 valley:12 antarctica:1 juan:1 pond:1 perhaps:2 vanda:1 high:14 time:9 ocean:4 goetz:1 p:5 w:3 ed:3 new:3 encyclopaedia:1 britannica:1 vol:2 chicago:1 make:5 harsh:1 environment:2 animal:2 cannot:1 flourish:1 hence:1 long:5 wide:3 lie:3 rift:8 main:1 tributary:1 river:6 attract:3 visitor:1 around:7 mediterranean:6 basin:3 thousand:3 year:13 biblically:1 place:8 refuge:1 king:4 david:2 first:6 health:6 resort:3 herod:3 great:8 supplier:1 variety:1 product:3 balm:1 egyptian:2 mummification:1 potash:12 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5,227 | Transportation_in_Guam | Guam has no railways, nor does it have a merchant marine. The largest port is Apra Harbor, which serves almost all commercial traffic including cruise, cargo and fishing vessels. There are smaller harbors located on the island (most notably one in Hagatna and one in Agat) which serve recreational boaters. Roads are primarily paved out of a coral/oil mixture. When wet, the oil tends to float to the surface of the roads making them very slippery and dangerous. However, as roads undergo repair and maintenance, a different mixture of asphalt is used than previously, so the roads aren't as slippery as before. This is one of the reasons the speed limit on most of the island is 35mph. Its main commercial airport is the Antonio B. Won Pat International Airport. Route Marker for Guam Highway 8. Highways: total: 885 km paved: 675 km unpaved: 210 km note: there is another 685 km of roads classified non-public, including roads located on federal government installations Airports: 5 (1999 est.) Airports - with paved runways: total: 4 over 3,047 m: 2 2,438 to 3,047 m: 1 914 to 1,523 m: 1 (2007 est.) Airports - with unpaved runways: total: 1 under 914 m: 1 (2007 est.) See also: Guam, List of highways in Guam | Transportation_in_Guam |@lemmatized guam:4 railway:1 merchant:1 marine:1 large:1 port:1 apra:1 harbor:2 serve:2 almost:1 commercial:2 traffic:1 include:2 cruise:1 cargo:1 fishing:1 vessel:1 small:1 locate:2 island:2 notably:1 one:3 hagatna:1 agat:1 recreational:1 boater:1 road:6 primarily:1 pave:2 coral:1 oil:2 mixture:2 wet:1 tend:1 float:1 surface:1 make:1 slippery:2 dangerous:1 however:1 undergo:1 repair:1 maintenance:1 different:1 asphalt:1 use:1 previously:1 reason:1 speed:1 limit:1 main:1 airport:5 antonio:1 b:1 win:1 pat:1 international:1 route:1 marker:1 highway:3 total:3 km:4 unpaved:2 note:1 another:1 classify:1 non:1 public:1 federal:1 government:1 installation:1 est:3 paved:1 runway:2 see:1 also:1 list:1 |@bigram merchant_marine:1 km_unpaved:1 unpaved_km:1 airport_paved:1 paved_runway:1 airport_unpaved:1 unpaved_runway:1 |
5,228 | Avionics | Avionics means "aviation electronics". It comprises electronic systems for use on aircraft, artificial satellites and spacecraft, comprising communications, navigation and the display and management of multiple systems. It also includes the hundreds of systems that are fitted to aircraft to meet individual roles, these can be as simple as a search light for a police helicopter or as complicated as the tactical system for an Airborne Early Warning platform. History The term avionics was not in general use until the early 1970s. Up to this point instruments, radios, radar, fuel systems, engine controls and radio navigation aids had formed individual (and often mechanical) systems. In the 1970s, avionics was born, driven by military need rather than civil airliner development. Military aircraft had become flying sensor platforms, and making large amounts of electronic equipment work together had become the new challenge. Today, avionics as used in military aircraft almost always forms the biggest part of any development budget. Aircraft like the F-15E and the now retired F-14 have roughly 80 percent of their budget spent on avionics. Most modern helicopters now have budget splits of 60/40 in favour of avionics. The civilian market has also seen a growth in cost of avionics. Flight control systems (fly-by-wire) and new navigation needs brought on by tighter airspaces, have pushed up development costs. The major change has been the recent boom in consumer flying. As more people begin to use planes as their primary method of transportation, more elaborate methods of controlling aircraft safely in these high restrictive airspaces have been invented. With the continued refinement of precision miniature aerospace bearings, guidance and navigation systems of aircrafts have become more exact. Main categories Aircraft avionics The cockpit of an aircraft is a major location for avionic equipment, including control, monitoring, communication, navigation, weather, and anti-collision systems. The majority of aircraft drive their avionics using 14 or 28 volt DC electrical systems; however, large, more sophisticated aircraft (such as airliners or military combat aircraft) have AC systems operating at 400 Hz, rather than the more common 50 and 60 Hz of North American home electrical devices. 400 Hz Electrical Systems There are several major vendors of flight avionics, including Honeywell (which now owns Bendix/King, Baker Electronics, Allied Signal, etc..]), Rockwell Collins, Thales Group, Garmin, Avidyne Corporation, and Narco Avionics. Communications Communications connect the flight deck to the ground, and the flight deck to the passengers. On board communications are provided by public address systems and aircraft intercoms. The VHF aviation communication system works on the Airband of 118.000 MHz to 136.975 MHz. Each channel is spaced from the adjacent by 8.33 kHz. Amplitude Modulation (AM) is used. The conversation is performed by simplex mode. Aircraft communication can also take place using HF (especially for trans-oceanic flights) or satellite communication. Navigation Navigation is the determination of position and direction on or above the surface of the Earth. Avionics can use satellite-based systems (such as GPS and WAAS), ground-based systems (such as VOR or LORAN), or any combination thereof. Older avionics required a pilot or navigator to plot the intersection of signals on a paper map to determine an aircraft's location; modern systems calculate the position automatically and display it to the flight crew on moving map displays. Monitoring Glass cockpits started to come into being with the Gulfstream G-IV private jet in 1985. Display systems display sensor data that allows the aircraft to fly safely. Much information that used to be displayed using mechanical gauges appears on electronic displays in newer aircraft. Almost all new aircraft include glass cockpits. ARINC 818, titled Avionics Digital Video Bus, is a protocol used by many new glass cockpit displays in both commercial and military aircraft. Aircraft flight control systems Airplanes and helicopters have means of automatically controlling flight. They reduce pilot workload at important times (like during landing, or in hover), and they make these actions safer by 'removing' pilot error. The first simple auto-pilots were used to control heading and altitude and had limited authority on things like thrust and flight control surfaces. In helicopters, auto stabilization was used in a similar way. The old systems were electromechanical in nature until very recently. The advent of fly by wire and electro actuated flight surfaces (rather than the traditional hydraulic) has increased safety. As with displays and instruments, critical devices which were electro-mechanical had a finite life. With safety critical systems, the software is very strictly tested. Collision-avoidance systems To supplement air traffic control, most large transport aircraft and many smaller ones use a TCAS (Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance System), which can detect the location of nearby aircraft, and provide instructions for avoiding a midair collision. Smaller aircraft may use simpler traffic alerting systems such as TPAS, which are passive (they do not actively interrogate the transponders of other aircraft) and do not provide advisories for conflict resolution. To help avoid collision with terrain, (CFIT) aircraft use systems such as ground-proximity warning systems (GPWS), radar altimeter being the key element in GPWS. A major weakness of (GPWS) is the lack of "look-ahead" information as it only provides altitude above terrain "look-down". To overcome this weakness, modern aircraft use the Terrain Awareness Warning System (TAWS). Weather systems Weather systems such as weather radar (typically Arinc 708 on commercial aircraft) and lightning detectors are important for aircraft flying at night or in Instrument meteorological conditions, where it is not possible for pilots to see the weather ahead. Heavy precipitation (as sensed by radar) or severe turbulence (as sensed by lightning activity) are both indications of strong convective activity and severe turbulence, and weather systems allow pilots to deviate around these areas. Lightning detectors like the Storm scope or Strike finder have become inexpensive enough that they are practical for light aircraft. In addition to radar and lightning detection, observations and extended radar pictures (such as NEXRAD) are now available through satellite data connections, allowing pilots to see weather conditions far beyond the range of their own in-flight systems. Modern displays allow weather information to be integrated with moving maps, terrain, traffic, etc. onto a single screen, greatly simplifying navigation. Aircraft management systems There has been a progression towards centralized control of the multiple complex systems fitted to aircraft, including engine monitoring and management. Health and Usage Monitoring Systems (HUMS) are integrated with aircraft management computers to allow maintainers early warnings of parts that will need replacement. The Integrated Modular Avionics concept proposes an integrated architecture with application software portable across an assembly of common hardware modules. It has been used in Fourth generation jet fighters and the latests generation of Airliners. Mission or tactical avionics Military aircraft have been designed either to deliver a weapon or to be the eyes and ears of other weapon systems. The vast array of sensors available to the military is used for whatever tactical means required. As with aircraft management, the bigger sensor platforms (like the E-3D, JSTARS, ASTOR, Nimrod MRA4, Merlin HM Mk 1) have mission management computers. Police and EMS aircraft also carry sophisticated tactical sensors. Military communications While aircraft communications provide the backbone for safe flight, the tactical systems are designed to withstand the rigours of the battle field. UHF, VHF Tactical (30-88 MHz) and SatCom systems combined with ECCM methods, and cryptography secure the communications. Data links like Link 11, 16, 22 and BOWMAN, JTRS and even TETRA provide the means of transmitting data (such as images, targeting information etc.). Radar Airborne radar was one of the first tactical sensors. The benefit of altitude providing range has meant a significant focus on airborne radar technologies. Radars include Airborne Early Warning (AEW), Anti-Submarine Warfare (ASW), and even Weather radar (Arinc 708) and ground tracking/proximity radar. The military uses radar in fast jets to help pilots fly at low levels. While the civil market has had weather radar for a while, there are strict rules about using it to navigate the aircraft. Sonar Dipping sonar fitted to a range of military helicopters allows the helicopter to protect shipping assets from submarines or surface threats. Maritime support aircraft can drop active and passive sonar devices (Sonobuoys) and these are also used to determine the location of hostile submarines. Electro-Optics Electro-optic systems include Forward Looking Infrared (FLIR), and Passive Infrared Devices (PIDS). These are all used to provide imagery to crews. This imagery is used for everything from Search and Rescue through to acquiring better resolution on a target. ESM/DAS Electronic support measures and defensive aids are used extensively to gather information about threats or possible threats. They can be used to launch devices (in some cases automatically) to counter direct threats against the aircraft. They are also used to determine the state of a threat and identify it. Aircraft networks The avionics systems in military, commercial and advanced models of civilian aircraft are interconnected using an avionics databus. Common avionics databus protocols, with their primary application, include: Aircraft Data Network (ADN): Ethernet derivative for Commercial Aircraft Avionics Full-Duplex Switched Ethernet (AFDX): Specific implementation of ARINC 664 (ADN) for Commercial Aircraft ARINC 429: Generic Medium-Speed Data Sharing for Private and Commercial Aircraft ARINC 664: See ADN above ARINC 629: Commercial Aircraft (Boeing 777) ARINC 708: Weather Radar for Commercial Aircraft ARINC 717: Flight Data Recorder for Commercial Aircraft IEEE 1394b: Military Aircraft MIL-STD-1553: Military Aircraft MIL-STD-1760: Military Aircraft Police and air ambulance Police and EMS aircraft (mostly helicopters) are now a significant market. Military aircraft are often now built with the capability to support response to civil disobedience. Police helicopters are almost always fitted with video/FLIR systems allowing them to track suspects. They can also be equipped with searchlights and loudspeakers. EMS and police helicopters will be required to fly in unpleasant conditions which may require more aircraft sensors, some of which were until recently considered purely for military aircraft. See also ACARS Flight recorder Distress radiobeacon Integrated Modular Avionics Avionics software ARINC References Avionics: Development and Implementation (Electrical Engineering Handbook) by Cary R. Spitzer (Hardcover - December 15, 2006) Principles of Avionics-4th Edition by Albert Helfrick, Len Buckwalter, and Avionics Communications Inc. (Paperback - July 1, 2007) Avionics Training: Systems, Installation, and Troubleshooting by Len Buckwalter (Paperback - June 30, 2005) External links The Avionic Systems Standardisation Committee Space Shuttle Avionics Aviation Today Avionics magazine RAES Avionics homepage On-Board Electronics related papers (in Portuguese) [ISBN 9788536501574 - Book: Eletrônica Embarcada Automotiva] (in Portuguese) Repair Factory | Avionics |@lemmatized avionics:29 mean:5 aviation:3 electronics:3 comprise:2 electronic:4 system:42 use:27 aircraft:55 artificial:1 satellite:4 spacecraft:1 communication:12 navigation:8 display:10 management:6 multiple:2 also:8 include:8 hundred:1 fit:4 meet:1 individual:2 role:1 simple:2 search:2 light:2 police:6 helicopter:9 complicate:1 tactical:7 airborne:4 early:4 warning:3 platform:3 history:1 term:1 general:1 point:1 instrument:3 radio:2 radar:15 fuel:1 engine:2 control:10 aid:2 form:2 often:2 mechanical:3 bear:1 drive:2 military:16 need:3 rather:3 civil:3 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5,229 | Cannon | A cannon is any tubular piece of artillery that uses gunpowder or other usually explosive-based propellants to launch a projectile over a distance. Cannon vary in caliber, range, mobility, rate of fire, angle of fire, and firepower; different forms of cannon combine and balance these attributes in varying degrees, depending on their intended use on the battlefield. The word cannon is derived from several languages, in which the original definition can usually be translated as tube, cane, or reed. In modern times, cannon has fallen out of common usage, usually replaced by "guns" or "artillery", if not a more specific term, such as "mortar" or "howitzer". First used in China, cannon were among the earliest forms of gunpowder artillery, and over time replaced siege engines—among other forms of aging weaponry—on the battlefield. The first hand cannon appeared during the 1260 Battle of Ain Jalut between the Mamluks and Mongols in the Middle East. The first cannon in Europe were probably used in Iberia, during the Reconquista, in the 13th century, and English cannon were first deployed in the Hundred Years' War, at the Battle of Crécy, in 1346. It was during this period, the Middle Ages, that cannon became standardized, and more effective in both the anti-infantry and siege roles. After the Middle Ages most large cannon were abandoned in favor of greater numbers of lighter, more maneuverable pieces. In addition, new technologies and tactics were developed, making most defenses obsolete; this led to the construction of star forts, specifically designed to withstand artillery bombardment and the associated siege tactics. Cannon also transformed naval warfare: the Royal Navy, in particular, took advantage of their firepower. As rifling became more commonplace, the accuracy of cannon was significantly improved, and they became deadlier than ever, especially to infantry. In World War I, the majority of all deaths were caused by cannon; they were also used widely in World War II. Most modern cannon are similar to those used in the Second World War, except for heavy naval guns, which have been replaced by missiles. In particular, autocannon have remained nearly identical to their World War II counterparts. Etymology and terminology Cannon is derived from the Old Italian word cannone, meaning large tube, which came from Latin canna, in turn originating from the kanna—Greek for cane, or reed—and ultimately deriving from the Akkadian term qanu, meaning tube or reed. The word has been used to refer to a gun since 1326 in Italy, and 1418 in England. Cannon serves both as the singular and plural of the noun, although the plural cannons is also correct. Any large, smoothbore, muzzle-loading gun—used before the advent of breech-loading, rifled guns—may be referred to as a cannon, though the term specifically refers to a gun designed to fire a shot, as opposed to a demi-cannon (), culverin (). or demi-culverin (). Gun specifically refers to a type of cannon that fires projectiles at high speeds, and usually at relatively low angles; they have been used in warships extensively, and as field artillery, as well. The term cannon also applies to the autocannon, a modern gun with a high rate of fire. Autocannon have been used extensively in fighter aircraft since World War II, and are sometimes used on land vehicles. History Early history Earliest known representation of a firearm (a fire lance) and a grenade (upper right), Dunhuang, 10th century The earliest known cannon, though not driven by gunpowder, was invented by Ctesibius of Alexandria, in the 3rd century BC. Little is known about this primitive invention—as most of Ctesibius' works were lost—but it was noted by Philo of Byzantium that it operated using compressed air. Like firearms, cannon are a descendant of the fire lance, a gunpowder-filled tube attached to the end of a spear and used as a flamethrower in China. Shrapnel was sometimes placed in the barrel, so that it would fly out along with the flames. Eventually, the paper and bamboo of which fire lance barrels were originally constructed came to be replaced by metal. It has been disputed at which point flame-projecting cannons were abandoned in favor of missile-projecting ones, as words meaning either incendiary or explosive are commonly translated as gunpowder. The earliest known depiction of a gun is a sculpture from a cave in Sichuan, dating to the 12th century, that portrays a figure carrying a vase-shaped bombard, firing flames and a ball. The oldest surviving gun, dated to 1288, has a muzzle bore diameter of ; the second oldest, dated to 1332, has a muzzle bore diameter of . Hand cannon from the Mongol Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368) The first documented battlefield use of gunpowder artillery took place on January 28, 1132, when Song General Han Shizhong used huochong to capture a city in Fujian. The world'e earliest known cannon, dated 1282, was found in Mongol-held Manchuria. C.P.Atwood-Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire, p.354 The first known illustration of a cannon is dated to 1326. In his 1341 poem, The Iron Cannon Affair, one of the first accounts of the use of gunpowder artillery in China, Xian Zhang wrote that a cannonball fired from an eruptor could "pierce the heart or belly when it strikes a man or horse, and can even transfix several persons at once." Joseph Needham suggests that the proto-shells described in the Huolongjing may be among the first of their kind. The Chinese also mounted over 3,000 cast bronze and iron cannon on the Great Wall of China, to defend themselves from the Mongols. The weapon was later taken up by both the Mongol conquerors and the Koreans. Chinese soldiers fighting under the Mongols appear to have used hand cannon in Manchurian battles during 1288, a date deduced from archaeological findings at battle sites. In the 1593 Siege of Pyongyang, 40,000 Ming troops deployed a variety of cannon to bombard an equally large Japanese army. Despite both forces having similar numbers, the Japanese were defeated in one day, due to the Ming advantage in firepower. Throughout the Seven Year War in Korea, the Chinese-Korean coalition used artillery widely, in both land and naval battles. Islamic world The Hungarian Cannon, named after the engineer Orban from Hungary who cast the gun for the Ottoman besiegers of Constantinople. Today it belongs to the British Royal Armouries collection. Ahmad Y. al-Hassan claims that the Battle of Ain Jalut in 1260 saw the Mamluks use against the Mongols in "the first cannon in history" gunpowder formulae which were almost identical with the ideal composition for explosive gunpowder, which he claims were not known in China or Europe until much later. However, Iqtidar Alam Khan states that it was invading Mongols who introduced gunpowder to the Islamic world . and cites Mamluk antagonism toward early riflemen in their infantry as an example of how gunpowder weapons were not always met with open acceptance in the Middle East. . Al-Hassan interprets Ibn Khaldun as reporting the use of cannon as siege machines by the Marinid sultan Abu Yaqub Yusuf at the siege of Sijilmasa in 1274. Also intended for siege warfare, the first supergun, the Great Turkish Bombard, was used by the troops of Mehmed II to capture Constantinople, in 1453. Urban, a Hungarian cannon engineer, is credited with the invention of this cannon. It had a bore, and could fire stones a mile, and the sound of their blast could reportedly be heard from a distance of . The Great Turkish Bombards were cast in bronze and made in two parts: the chase and the breech, which, together, weighed 16 tonnes. The two parts were screwed together using levers to facilitate the work. Another weapon invented in the Islamic world, fashioned for killing infantry, was the first known autocannon. It was invented in the 16th century, by Fathullah Shirazi, a Persian-Indian polymath and mechanical engineer, who worked for Akbar the Great in the Mughal Empire. As opposed to the polybolos and repeating crossbows used earlier in Ancient Greece and China, respectively, Shirazi's rapid-firing machine had multiple gun barrels that fired hand cannon. Medieval Europe Earliest picture of a European cannon, "De Nobilitatibus Sapientii Et Prudentiis Regum", Walter de Milemete, 1326 In Europe, the first mention of gunpowder's composition in express terms appeared, in Roger Bacon's "De nullitate magiæ" at Oxford, published in 1216. ; Note the Long s. Later, in 1248, his "Opus Maior" describes a recipe for gunpowder and recognized its military use: It is unknown whether this last phrase is a cipher or a clerical error, as the oldest known manuscript was published 300 years later. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v121/n3041/abs/121208a0.html The first confirmed use of gunpowder in Europe was the Moorish cannon, first used by the Andalusians in the Iberian Peninsula, at the siege of Seville in 1248, and the siege of Niebla in 1262. By this time, hand guns were probably in use, as scopettieri—"gun bearers"—were mentioned in conjunction with crossbowmen, in 1281. In Iberia, the "first artillery-masters on the Peninsula" were enlisted, at around the same time. Western European handgun, 1380 The first metal cannon was the pot-de-fer. Loaded with an arrow-like bolt that was probably wrapped in leather to allow greater thrusting power, it was set off through a touch hole with a heated wire. This weapon, and others similar, were used by both the French and English during the Hundred Years' War, when cannon saw their first real use on the European battlefield. While still a relatively rarely used weapon, cannon were employed in increasing numbers during the war. "Ribaldis", which shot large arrows and simplistic grapeshot, were first mentioned in the English Privy Wardrobe accounts during preparations for the Battle of Crécy, between 1345 and 1346. The Florentine Giovanni Villani recounts their destructiveness, indicating that by the end of the battle, "the whole plain was covered by men struck down by arrows and cannon balls." Similar cannon were also used at the Siege of Calais, in the same year, although it was not until the 1380s that the "ribaudekin" clearly became mounted on wheels. The first cannon appeared in Russia around 1380, though they were used only in sieges, often by the defenders. Around the same period, the Byzantine Empire began to accumulate its own cannon to face the Ottoman threat, starting with medium-sized cannon long and of 10 in caliber. The first definite use of artillery in the region was against the Ottoman siege of Constantinople, in 1396, forcing the Ottomans to withdraw. They acquired their own cannon, and laid siege to the Byzantine capital again, in 1422, using "falcons", which were short but wide cannon. By 1453, the Ottomans used 68 Hungarian-made cannon for the 55-day bombardment of the walls of Constantinople, "hurling the pieces everywhere and killing those who happened to be nearby." The largest of their cannon was the Great Turkish Bombard, which required an operating crew of 200 men and 70 oxen, and 10,000 men to transport it. Gunpowder made the formerly devastating Greek fire obsolete, and with the final fall of Constantinople—which was protected by what were once the strongest walls in Europe—on May 29, 1453, "it was the end of an era in more ways than one." Turnbull, p. 43. Early modern period Various 16th century artillery pieces, including culverin, falconet and mortar. By the 1500s, cannon were made in a great variety of lengths and bore diameters, but the general rule was that the longer the barrel, the longer the range. Some cannon made during this time had barrels exceeding in length, and could weigh up to . Consequently, large amounts of gunpowder were needed, to allow them to fire stone balls several hundred yards. By mid-century, European monarchs began to classify cannon to reduce the confusion. Henry II of France opted for six sizes of cannon, The six sizes are, in order from largest to smallest: the cannon, great culverin, bastard culverin, "legitimate" culverin, falcon, and falconet. but others settled for more; the Spanish used twelve sizes, and the English sixteen. They are, from largest to smallest: the cannon royal, cannon, cannon serpentine, bastard cannon, demicannon, pedrero, culverin, basilisk, demiculverin, bastard culverin, saker, minion, falcon, falconet, serpentine, and rabinet. Better powder had been developed by this time as well. Instead of the finely ground powder used by the first bombards, powder was replaced by a "corned" variety of coarse grains. This coarse powder had pockets of air between grains, allowing fire to travel through and ignite the entire charge quickly and uniformly. Tunis, p. 88. The Tsar Cannon, the largest howitzer ever made, cast by Andrey Chokhov. The end of the Middle Ages saw the construction of larger, more powerful cannon, as well their spread throughout the world. As they were not effective at breaching the newer fortifications resulting from the development of cannon, siege engines—such as siege towers and trebuchets—became less widely used. However, wooden "battery-towers" took on a similar role as siege towers in the gunpowder age—such as that used at siege of Kazan in 1552, which could hold ten large-caliber cannon, in addition to 50 lighter pieces. Another notable effect of cannon on warfare during this period was the change in conventional fortifications. Niccolò Machiavelli wrote, "There is no wall, whatever its thickness that artillery will not destroy in only a few days." Although castles were not immediately made obsolete by cannon, their use and importance on the battlefield rapidly declined. Instead of majestic towers and merlons, the walls of new fortresses were thicker, angulated, and sloped, while towers became lower and stouter; increasing use was also made of earthen, brick, and stone breastworks and redoubts. These new defenses became known as "star forts", after their characteristic shape. A few of these featured cannon batteries, such as the Tudors' Device Forts, in England. Star forts soon replaced castles in Europe, and, eventually, those in the Americas, as well. Remains of a post-medieval cannon battery, mounted on a medieval town wall By the end of the 15th century, several technological advancements were made, making cannon more mobile. Wheeled gun carriages and trunnions became common, and the invention of the limber further facilitated the transportation of artillery. Manucy, p. 5. As a result, field artillery became viable, and began to emerge, often used alongside the larger cannon intended for sieges. The better gunpowder, improved, cast-iron projectiles, and the standardization of calibers meant that even relatively light cannon could be deadly. In The Art of War, Niccolò Machiavelli observed that "It is true that the arquebuses and the small artillery do much more harm than the heavy artillery." This was the case at Flodden, in 1513: the English field guns outpaced the Scottish siege artillery, firing twice, or even thrice, as many rounds. Sadler, p. 60. Despite the increased maneuverability, however, cannon were still much slower than the rest of the army: a heavy English cannon required 23 horses to transport, while a culverin, nine, yet, even with this many animals transporting them, they still moved at a walking pace. Due to their relatively slow speed, and lack of organization, discipline, and tactics, the combination of pike and shot still dominated the battlefields of Europe. Manucy, p. 6. Innovations continued, notably the German invention of the mortar, a thick-walled, short-barreled gun that blasted shot upward at a steep angle. Mortars were useful for sieges, as they could fire over walls and other defenses. This cannon found more use with the Dutch, who learned to shoot bombs filled with powder from them. However, setting the bomb fuse in the mortar was a problem. "Single firing" was the first technique used to set the fuse, where the bomb was placed with the fuse down against the propelling charge. This practice often resulted in the fuse being blown into the bomb, causing it to blow up in front of the mortar. Because of this danger, "double firing" was developed, where the fuse was turned up and the gunner lighted the fuse and the touch hole simultaneously. This, however, required much skill and timing, and was especially dangerous when the gun failed to fire, leaving a lighted bomb in the barrel. Not until 1650 was it accidentally discovered that double-lighting was a superfluous process: the heat of firing was enough to light the fuse. Tunis, p. 90. Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden emphasized the use of light cannon and mobility in his army, and created new formations and tactics that revolutionized artillery. He discontinued using all 12 pounder—or heavier—cannon as field artillery, preferring, instead, to use cannon that could be manned by only a few men. One gun, called the "leatheren", could be serviced by only two persons, but was abandoned, replaced by 4 pounder and 9 pounder demi-culverins. These could be operated by three men, and pulled by only two horses. Also, Adolphus's army was the first to use a special cartridge that contained both powder and shot, which sped up loading, and therefore increased the rate of fire. Manucy, pp. 7–8. Additionally, he pioneered the use of canister shot against infantry, which was essentially a can, filled with musket balls. Tunis, p. 96. At the time, for each thousand infantrymen, there was one cannon on the battlefield; Gustavus Adolphus increased the number of cannon in his army so dramatically, that there were six cannon for each one thousand infantry. Each regiment was assigned two pieces, though he often decided to arrange his artillery into batteries, instead. These were to destroy the enemy's infantry, while his cavalry outflanked their heavy guns. Manucy, p. 8. At the Battle of Breitenfeld, in 1631, Adolphus proved the effectiveness of the changes made to his army, in particular his artillery, by defeating Johann Tserclaes, Count of Tilly. Although severely outnumbered, the Swedes were able to fire between three and five times as many volleys of artillery without losing ground, due to their infantry's linear formations. Battered by cannon fire, and low on morale, Tilly's men broke rank, and fled. |Fort Bourtange, a star fort, was built with angles and sloped walls specifically to defend against cannon. Around this time also came the idea of aiming the cannon to hit a target. Gunners controlled the range of their cannon by measuring the angle of elevation, using a "gunner's quadrant." Cannon did not have sights, therefore, even with measuring tools, aiming was still largely guesswork. Tunis, p. 97. In the latter half of the 17th century, the French engineer Vauban introduced a more systematic and scientific approach to attacking gunpowder fortresses, in a time when many field commanders "were notorious dunces in siegecraft." Careful sapping forward, supported by enfilading ricochet fire, was a key feature of this system, and it even allowed Vauban to calculate the length of time a siege would take. He was also a prolific builder of star forts, and did much to popularize the idea of "depth defense" in the face of cannon. Griffith, p 29 These principles were followed into the mid-19th century, when changes in armaments necessitated greater depth defense than Vauban had provided for. It was only in the years prior to World War I that new works began to break radically away from his designs. Griffith, pp. 56-57. 18th and 19th centuries 30 pounder long gun at the ready The lower tier of 17th-century English ships of the line were usually equipped with demi-cannon, guns that fired a solid shot, and could weigh up to . Demi-cannon were capable of firing these heavy metal balls with such force that they could penetrate more than a meter of solid oak, from a distance of , and could dismast even the largest ships at close range. Full cannon fired a shot, but were discontinued by the 18th century, as they were too unwieldy. By the end of the century, principles long adopted in Europe specified the characteristics of the Royal Navy's cannon, as well as the acceptable defects, and their severity. The United States Navy tested guns by measuring them, firing them two or three times—termed "proof by powder"—and using pressurized water to detect leaks. The carronade was adopted by the Royal Navy in 1779; the lower muzzle velocity of the round shot when fired from this cannon was intended to create more wooden splinters when hitting the structure of an enemy vessel, as they were believed to be deadly. The carronade was much shorter, and weighed between a third to a quarter less than an equivalent long gun; for example, a 32 pounder carronade weighed less than a ton, compared with a 32 pounder long gun, which weighed over 3 tons. The guns were, therefore, easier to handle, and also required less than half as much gunpowder, allowing fewer men to crew them. Carronades were manufactured in the usual naval gun calibers, 12, 18, 24, 32, and 42 pounders, but 6 pounder and 68 pounder versions are known. but were not counted in a ship of the line's rated number of guns. As a result, the classification of Royal Navy vessels in this period can be misleading, as they often carried more cannon than were listed. In the 1810s and 1820s, greater emphasis was placed on the accuracy of long-range gunfire, and less on the weight of a broadside. The carronade, although initially very successful and widely adopted, disappeared from the Royal Navy in the 1850s, after the development of steel, jacketed cannon, by William George Armstrong and Joseph Whitworth. Nevertheless, carronades were used in the American Civil War. A cannon from the Battle of Chancellorsville The Great Turkish Bombards of the Siege of Constantinople, after being on display for four centuries, were used to battle a British fleet in 1807, in the Dardanelles Operation. The artillery hit a British ship with two cannonballs, killing 60 sailors; in total, the cannon claimed over 100 lives, prompting the British to retreat. In 1867, Sultan Abdul Aziz gifted Queen Victoria the 17-ton "Dardanelles Gun", one of the cannon used at the siege of Constantinople. In contrast to these antiquated weapons, Western cannon during the 19th century became larger, more destructive, more accurate, and could fire at longer range. One example is the American wrought-iron, muzzle-loading howitzer, used during the American Civil War, which had an effective range of over . Another is the smoothbore 12 pounder Napoleon, which was renowned for its sturdiness, reliability, firepower, flexibility, relatively light weight, and range of . Cannon were crucial in Napoleon Bonaparte's rise to power, and continued to play an important role in his army in later years. During the French Revolution, the unpopularity of the Directory led to riots and rebellions. When over 25,000 of these royalists—led by General Danican—assaulted Paris, Paul François Jean Nicolas, vicomte de Barras was appointed to defend the capital; outnumbered five to one and disorganized, the Republicans were desperate. When Napoleon arrived, he reorganized the defenses, while realizing that without cannon, the city could not be held. He ordered Joachim Murat to bring the guns from the Sablons artillery park; the Major and his cavalry fought their way to the recently captured cannon, and brought them back to Napoleon. When Danican's poorly trained men attacked, on 13 Vendémiaire, 1795—October 5, 1795, in the calendar used in France, at the time—Napoleon ordered his cannon to fire grapeshot into the mob, Asprey, pp. 112–113. an act that became known as the "whiff of grapeshot." Conner, p. 13. The slaughter effectively ended the threat to the new government, while, at the same time, made Bonaparte a famous—and popular—public figure. Conner, pp. 12–13. Among the first generals to recognize that artillery was not being used to its full potential, Napoleon often massed his cannon into batteries, and introduced several changes into the French artillery, improving it significantly, and making it among the finest in Europe. Baynes, p. 669. Such tactics were successfully used by the French, for example, at the Battle of Friedland, when sixty-six guns fired a total of 3,000 roundshot and 500 rounds of grapeshot, inflicting severe casualties to the Russian forces, whose losses numbered over 20,000 killed and wounded, in total. At the Battle of Waterloo—Napoleon's final battle—the French army had many more artillery pieces than either the British or Prussians. As the battlefield was muddy, recoil caused cannon to bury themselves into the ground after firing, resulting in slow rates of fire, as more effort was required to move them back into an adequate firing position; also, roundshot did not ricochet with as much force from the wet earth. Despite the drawbacks, sustained artillery fire proved deadly during the engagement, especially during the French cavalry attack. Wilkinson-Latham, p. 36. The British infantry, having formed infantry squares, took heavy losses from the French guns, while their own cannon fired at the cuirassiers and lancers, when they fell back to regroup. Eventually, the French ceased their assault, after taking heavy losses from the British cannon and musket fire. Nofi, pp. 115–116. U.S. troops fire during the 1899 Battle of Manila, Philippine-American War The practice of rifling—casting spiraling lines inside the cannon's barrel—was applied to artillery more frequently by 1855, as it gave cannon gyroscopic stability, which improved their accuracy. One of the earliest rifled cannon was the Armstrong Gun—also invented by William George Armstrong—which boasted significantly improved range, accuracy, and power than earlier weapons. The projectile fired from the Armstrong gun could reportedly pierce through a ship's side, and explode inside the enemy vessel, causing increased damage, and casualties. The British military adopted the Armstrong gun, and was impressed; the Duke of Cambridge even declared that it "could do everything but speak." Despite being significantly more advanced than its predecessors, the Armstrong gun was rejected soon after its integration, in favor of the muzzle-loading pieces that had been in use before. While both types of gun were effective against wooden ships, neither had the capability to pierce the armor of ironclads; due to reports of slight problems with the breeches of the Armstrong gun, and their higher cost, the older muzzle-loaders were selected to remain in service, instead. Realizing that iron was more difficult to pierce with breech-loaded cannon, Armstrong designed rifled muzzle-loading guns, Bastable, p. 72. which proved successful; The Times reported: "even the fondest believers in the invulnerability of our present ironclads were obliged to confess that against such artillery, at such ranges, their plates and sides were almost as penetrable as wooden ships." Bastable, p. 73. The superior cannon of the Western world brought them tremendous advantages in warfare. For example, in the Opium War in China, during the 19th century, British battleships bombarded the coastal areas and fortifications from afar, safe from the reach of the Chinese cannon. Similarly, the shortest war in recorded history, the Anglo-Zanzibar War of 1896, was brought to a swift conclusion by shelling from British battleships. The cynical attitude toward recruited infantry in the face of ever more powerful field artillery is the source of the term cannon fodder, first used by François-René de Chateaubriand, in 1814; "De Buonaparte et des Bourbons" – full text in the French Wikisource. however, the concept of regarding soldiers as nothing more than "food for powder" was mentioned by William Shakespeare as early as 1598, in Henry IV, Part 1. Part 1, act 4, sc. 2, l. 65-7. 20th and 21st centuries Comparison of 1888 and 1913 German cannon Cannon in the 20th and 21st centuries are usually divided into sub-categories, and given separate names. Some of the most widely used types of modern cannon are howitzers, mortars, guns, and autocannon, although a few superguns—extremely large, custom-designed cannon—have also been constructed. Nuclear artillery were experimented with, but were abandoned as impractical. Modern artillery is used in a variety of roles, depending on its type. According to NATO, the general role of artillery is to provide fire support, which is defined as "the application of fire, coordinated with the maneuver of forces to destroy, neutralize, or suppress the enemy." When referring to cannon, the term gun is often used incorrectly. In military usage, a gun is a cannon with a high muzzle velocity and comparatively flat trajectory, as opposed to other types of artillery, such as howitzers or mortars, which have lower muzzle velocities, and usually fire indirectly. Artillery Nine-person crew firing a US M198 howitzer By the early 20th century, infantry weapons became more powerful and accurate, forcing most artillery away from the front lines. Despite the change to indirect fire, cannon still proved highly effective during World War I, causing over 75% of casualties. Manucy, p. 20. The onset of trench warfare after the first few months of World War I greatly increased the demand for howitzers, as they fired at a steep angle, and were thus better suited than guns at hitting targets in trenches. Furthermore, their shells carried larger amounts of explosives than those of guns, and caused considerably less barrel wear. The German army took advantage of this, beginning the war with many more howitzers than the French. World War I also marked the use of the Paris Gun, the longest-ranged gun ever fired. This caliber gun was used by the Germans to bombard Paris, and was capable of hitting targets more than away. Young, p. 113. Royal Artillery howitzers at the Battle of the Somme The Second World War sparked new developments in cannon technology. Among them were sabot rounds, hollow-charge projectiles, and proximity fuses, all of which were marginally significant. The proximity fuse emerged on the battlefields of Europe in late December 1944. They became known as the American artillery's "Christmas present" for the German army, and were employed primarily in the Battle of the Bulge. Proximity fuses were effective against German personnel in the open, and hence were used to disperse their attacks. Also used to great effect in anti-aircraft projectiles, proximity fuses were used in both the European and Pacific Theaters of Operations, against V-1 flying bombs and kamikaze planes, respectively. Anti-tank guns were also tremendously improved during the war: in 1939, the British used primarily 2 pounder and 6 pounder guns. By the end of the war, 17 pounders had proven much more effective against German tanks, and 32 pounders had entered development. Meanwhile, German tanks were continuously upgraded with better main guns, in addition to other improvements. For example, the Panzer III was originally designed with a 37 mm gun, but was mass produced with a 50 mm cannon. To counter the threat of the Russian T-34s, another, more powerful 50 mm gun was introduced, only to give way to a larger 75 mm cannon. Green, p. 47. Despite the improved guns, production of the Panzer III was ended in 1943, as the tank still could not match the T-34, and was, furthermore, being replaced by the Panzer IV and Panther tanks. In 1944, the 8.8 cm KwK 43—and its multiple variations—entered service, used by the Wehrmacht, and was adapted to be both a tank's main gun, and the PaK 43 anti-tank gun. One of the most powerful guns to see service in World War II, it was capable of destroying any Allied tank at very long ranges. The firing her guns Despite being designed to fire at trajectories with a steep angle of descent, howitzers can be fired directly, as was done by the 11th Marine Regiment at the Battle of Chosin Reservoir, during the Korean War. Two field batteries fired directly upon a battalion of Chinese infantry; the Marines were forced to brace themselves against their howitzers, as they had no time to dig them in. The Chinese infantry took heavy casualties, and were forced to retreat. A 5 inch/54 caliber (127mm) Mark 45 gun being fired from USS Benfold (DDG 65) The tendency to create larger caliber cannon during the World Wars has been reversed in more recent years. The United States Army, for example, sought a lighter, more versatile howitzer, to replace their aging pieces. As it could be towed, the M198 was selected to be the successor to the World War II-era cannon used at the time, and entered service in 1979. Still in use today, the M198 is, in turn, being slowly replaced by the M777 Ultralightweight howitzer, which weighs nearly half as much, and can be transported by helicopter — as opposed to the M198, which requires a C-5 or C-17 to airlift. Although land-based artillery such as the M198 are powerful, long-ranged, and accurate, naval guns have not been neglected, despite being much smaller than in the past, and, in some cases, having been replaced by cruise missiles. However, the 's planned armament includes the Advanced Gun System (AGS), a pair of 155 mm guns, which fire the Long Range Land-Attack Projectile. The warhead, which weighs , has a circular error of probability of , and will be mounted on a rocket, to increase the effective range to —a longer range than that of the Paris Gun. The AGS's barrels will be water cooled, and will be capable of firing 10 rounds per minute, per gun. The combined firepower from both turrets will give Zumwalt-class destroyers the firepower equivalent to 18 conventional M-198 howitzers. The reason for the re-integration of cannon as a main armament in United States Navy ships is because satellite-guided munitions fired from a gun are far less expensive than a cruise missile, and are therefore a better alternative to many combat situations. Autocannon Autocannon have an automatic firing mode, similar to that of a machine gun. They have mechanisms to automatically load their ammunition, and therefore have a faster rate of fire than artillery, often approaching — and, in the case of Gatling guns, surpassing — that of a machine gun. While there is no minimum bore for autocannon, they are usually larger than machine guns, typically 20 mm or greater since World War II. Most nations use these rapid-fire cannon on their light vehicles, replacing a more powerful, but heavier, tank gun. A typical autocannon is the 25 mm "Bushmaster" chain gun, mounted on the LAV-25 and M2 Bradley armored vehicles. The GAU-8/A Avenger autocannon, mounted in an A-10 Thunderbolt II Autocannon are often found in aircraft, augmenting or replacing machine guns, while providing greater firepower. The first airborne cannon appeared in World War II, but each airplane could carry only one or two, as large bore cannon and their ammunition are generally heavier than machine guns, the standard armament. They were variously mounted, often in the wings, but also high on the forward fuselage, where they would fire through the propeller, or even through the propeller hub. Due both to the low number of cannon per aircraft and the lower rate of fire of cannon, machine guns continued to be used widely early in the war, as there was a greater probability of hitting enemy aircraft. However, as large cannon were more effective against more heavily armored bomber aircraft, they were eventually integrated into newer fighters, which usually carried between two and four autocannon. The Hispano-Suiza HS.404, Oerlikon 20 mm cannon, MG FF, and their numerous variants became among the most widely used autocannon in the war. Nearly all modern fighter aircraft are armed with an autocannon, and most are derived from their counterparts from the Second World War. The largest, heaviest, and most powerful airborne cannon used by the military of the United States is the GAU-8/A Avenger Gatling-type rotary cannon; it is surpassed only by the specialized artillery pieces carried on the AC-130 gunship. Cannon are in principle capable of a very high rate of fire, but the ammunition is heavy, limiting the amount that can be carried by vehicles or aircraft. For this reason, both the 25 mm Bushmaster and the 30 mm RARDEN are deliberately designed with relatively slow rates of fire, so that they can operate for longer with a limited supply of ammunition. The typical rate of fire of modern autocannon ranges from 90 to 1,800 rounds per minute. Systems with multiple barrels — gatling guns — can have rates of fire of several thousand rounds per minute; the fastest of these is the GSh-6-30K, which has a rate of fire of over 6,000 rounds per minute. Operation The parts of a cannon described in John Roberts' The Compleat Cannoniere, London, 1652 In the 1770s, cannon operation worked as follows: each cannon would be manned by two gunners, six soldiers, and four officers of artillery. The right gunner was to prime the piece and load it with powder, and the left gunner would fetch the powder from the magazine and be ready to fire the cannon at the officer's command. On each side of the cannon, three soldiers stood, to ram and sponge the cannon, and hold the ladle. The second soldier on the left tasked with providing 50 bullets. Before loading, the cannon would be cleaned with a wet sponge to extinguish any smoldering material from the last shot. Fresh powder could be set off prematurely by lingering ignition sources. The powder was added, followed by wadding of paper or hay, and the ball was placed in and rammed down. After ramming the cannon would be aimed with the elevation set using a quadrant and a plummet. At 45 degrees, the ball had the utmost range: about ten times the gun's level range. Any angle above a horizontal line was called random-shot. Wet sponges were used to cool the pieces every ten or twelve rounds. Cannon operation as described in the 1771 edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica During the Napoleonic Wars, a British gun team consisted of five gunners to aim it, clean the bore with a damp sponge to quench any remaining embers before a fresh charge was introduced, and another to load the gun with a bag of powder and then the projectile. The fourth gunner pressed his thumb on the vent hole, to prevent a draught that might fan a flame. The charge loaded, the fourth would prick the bagged charge through the vent hole, and fill the vent with powder. On command, the fifth gunner would fire the piece with a slowmatch. When a cannon had to be abandoned such as in a retreat or surrender, the touch hole of the cannon would be plugged flush with a iron spike, disabling the cannon (at least until metal boring tools could be used to remove the plug). This was called "spiking the cannon". Deceptive use Historically, logs or poles have sometimes been used to simulate cannon, in order to mislead the enemy as to the strength of an emplacement. The "Quaker gun trick" was used by Colonel William Washington's Continentals, during the American Revolutionary War; in 1780, approximately 100 Loyalists surrendered to them, rather than face "bombardment." During the American Civil War, Quaker guns were also used by the Confederates, to compensate for their shortage of artillery. The decoy cannon were painted black at the "muzzle", and positioned behind fortifications to delay Union attacks on those positions. On occasion, real gun carriages were used to complete the deception. Music Cannon have sometimes been used in classical pieces with a military theme. Giuseppe Sarti is believed to be the first composer to orchestrate real cannons in a musical work. His Te Deum celebrates the Russian victory at Ochakov (1789) with the firing of a real cannon and the use of fireworks, to heighten the martial effect of the music. One of the best known examples of such a piece is another Russian work, Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky's 1812 Overture. The overture is properly performed using an artillery section together with the orchestra, resulting in noise levels requiring musicians to wear ear protection. The cannon fire simulates Russian artillery bombardments of the Battle of Borodino, a critical battle in Napoleon's invasion of Russia, whose defeat the piece celebrates. When the overture was first performed, the cannon were fired by an electric current triggered by the conductor. However, the overture was not recorded with real cannon fire until Mercury Records and conductor Antal Doráti's 1958 recording of the Minnesota Orchestra. Cannon fire is also frequently used annually in presentations of the 1812 on the American Independence Day, a tradition started by Arthur Fiedler of the Boston Pops in 1974. The hard rock band AC/DC also used cannon in their song "For Those About to Rock (We Salute You)." The album of the same name also featured a cannon on its cover; in live shows, replica Napoleonic cannon and pyrotechnics were used to perform the piece. Restoration Cannon recovered from the sea are often extensively damaged from exposure to salt water; because of this, electrolytic reduction treatment is required to forestall the process of corrosion. The cannon is then washed in deionized water to remove the electrolyte, and is treated in tannic acid, which prevents further rust and gives the metal a bluish-black color. After this process, cannon on display may be protected from oxygen and moisture by a wax sealant. A coat of polyurethane may also be painted over the wax sealant, to prevent the wax-coated cannon from attracting dust in outdoor displays. Notes References External links Artillery Tactics and Combat during the Napoleonic Wars Handgonnes and Matchlocks - History of firearms to 1500 – Patent for a Casting ordnance – Cannon patent – Muzzle loading ordnance patent | Cannon |@lemmatized cannon:166 tubular:1 piece:17 artillery:47 use:89 gunpowder:20 usually:9 explosive:4 base:2 propellant:1 launch:1 projectile:8 distance:3 vary:2 caliber:8 range:18 mobility:2 rate:11 fire:68 angle:8 firepower:7 different:1 form:4 combine:1 balance:1 attribute:1 degree:2 depend:2 intend:4 battlefield:9 word:4 derive:4 several:6 language:1 original:1 definition:1 translate:2 tube:4 cane:2 reed:3 modern:8 time:18 fall:2 common:2 usage:2 replace:13 gun:80 specific:1 term:8 mortar:8 howitzer:14 first:29 china:7 among:7 early:14 siege:23 engine:2 age:5 weaponry:1 hand:5 appear:5 battle:20 jalut:2 mamluks:2 mongol:9 middle:5 east:2 europe:11 probably:3 iberia:2 reconquista:1 century:20 english:7 deploy:2 hundred:3 year:8 war:37 crécy:2 period:5 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5,230 | Deuterium | Deuterium, also called heavy hydrogen, is a stable isotope of hydrogen with a natural abundance in the oceans of Earth of approximately one atom in 6500 of hydrogen (~154 PPM). Deuterium thus accounts for approximately 0.015% (alternately, on a weight basis: 0.030%) of all naturally occurring hydrogen in the oceans on Earth (see VSMOW; the abundance changes slightly from one kind of natural water to another). Deuterium abundance on Jupiter is about 2.25·10-5 (about 22 atoms in 1,000,000 or 15% of the terrestrial deuterium-to-hydrogen ratio) ; these ratios presumably reflect the early solar nebula ratios, and those after the Big Bang. However, other sources suggest a much higher abundance of e.g. 6·10-4 (6 atoms in 10,000 or 0.06% atom basis) . There is little deuterium in the interior of the Sun, since thermonuclear reactions destroy it. However, it continues to persist in the outer solar atmosphere at roughly the same concentration as in Jupiter. The nucleus of deuterium, called a deuteron, contains one proton and one neutron, whereas the far more common hydrogen nucleus contains no neutrons. The isotope name is formed from the Greek deuteros meaning "second", to denote the two particles composing the nucleus. Deuteros at studylight.org Differences between deuterium and common hydrogen (protium) Chemical symbol Deuterium is frequently represented by the chemical symbol D. Since it is an isotope of hydrogen with mass number 2, it is also represented by ²H. IUPAC allows both D and ²H, although ²H is preferred. § IR-3.3.2, Provisional Recommendations, Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry, Chemical Nomenclature and Structure Representation Division, IUPAC. Accessed on line October 3, 2007. The reason deuterium has a distinct chemical symbol may be its large mass difference with protium (¹H); deuterium has a mass of 2.014102 u, compared to the mean hydrogen atomic weight of 1.007947 u, and protium's mass of 1.007825 u. The isotope weight ratios within other chemical elements are largely insignificant in this regard, explaining the lack of unique isotope symbols elsewhere. Natural abundance Deuterium occurs in trace amounts naturally as deuterium gas, written ²H2 or D2, but most natural occurrence in the universe is bonded with a typical ¹H atom, a gas called hydrogen deuteride (HD or ¹H²H). The existence of deuterium on Earth, elsewhere in the solar system (as confirmed by planetary probes), and in the spectra of stars, is an important datum in cosmology. Stellar fusion destroys deuterium, and there are no known natural processes other than the Big Bang nucleosynthesis, which might have produced deuterium at anything close to the observed natural abundance of deuterium (deuterium is produced by the rare cluster decay, and occasional absorption of naturally-occuring neutrons by light hydrogen, but these are trivial sources). The natural deuterium abundance seems to be a very similar fraction of hydrogen, wherever hydrogen is found. Thus, the existence of deuterium at a low but constant fraction in all hydrogen, is one of the arguments in favor of the Big Bang theory over the steady state theory of the universe. It is estimated that the abundances of deuterium have not evolved significantly since their production about 13.7 billion years ago. The End of Cosmology?: Scientific American The world's leading "producer" of deuterium (technically, merely enricher or concentrator of deuterium) was Canada, until 1997 when the last plant was shut down (see more in the heavy water article). Canada uses heavy water as a neutron moderator for the operation of the CANDU reactor design. India is now probably the world's largest concentrator of heavy water, also used in nuclear power reactors. Physical properties The physical properties of deuterium compounds can exhibit significant kinetic isotope effects and other physical and chemical property differences from the hydrogen analogs; for example, D2O is more viscous than H2O. . Chemically, deuterium behaves similarly to ordinary hydrogen, but there are differences in bond energy and length for compounds of heavy hydrogen isotopes which are larger than the isotopic differences in any other element. Bonds involving deuterium and tritium are somewhat stronger than the corresponding bonds in hydrogen, and these differences are enough to make significant changes in biological reactions (see heavy water). Deuterium can replace the normal hydrogen in water molecules to form heavy water (D2O), which is about 10.6% denser than normal water (enough that ice made from it sinks in ordinary water). Heavy water is slightly toxic in eukaryotic animals, with 25% substitution of the body water causing cell division problems and sterility, and 50% substitution causing death by cytotoxic syndrome (bone marrow failure and gastrointestinal lining failure). Prokaryotic organisms, however, can survive and grow in pure heavy water (though they grow more slowly). Consumption of heavy water would not pose a health threat to humans unless very large quantities (in excess of 10 liters) were consumed over many days. Small doses of heavy water (a few grams in humans, containing an amount of deuterium comparable to that normally present in the body) are routinely used as harmless metabolic tracers in humans and animals. Quantum properties The deuteron has spin +1 and is thus a boson. The NMR frequency of deuterium is significantly different from common light hydrogen. Infrared spectroscopy also easily differentiates many deuterated compounds, due to the large difference in IR absorption frequency seen in the vibration of a chemical bond containing deuterium, versus light hydrogen. The two stable isotopes of hydrogen can also be distinguished by using mass spectrometry. Nuclear properties Deuterium is one of only four stable nuclides with an odd number of protons and odd number of neutrons. (2H, 6Li, 10B, 14N; also, the long-lived radioactive nuclides 40K, 50V, 138La, 180mTa occur naturally.) Most odd-odd nuclei are unstable with respect to beta decay, because the decay products are even-even, and are therefore more strongly bound, due to nuclear pairing effects. Deuterium, however, benefits from having its proton and neutron coupled to a spin-1 state, which gives a stronger nuclear attraction; the corresponding spin-1 state does not exist in the two-neutron or two-proton system, due to the Pauli exclusion principle which would require one or the other identical particle with the same spin to have some other different quantum number, such as orbital angular momentum. But orbital angular momentum of either particle gives a lower binding energy for the system, primarily due to increasing distance of the particles in the steep gradient of the nuclear force. In both cases, this causes the di-proton and di-neutron nucleus to be unstable. The proton and neutron making up deuterium can be dissociated through neutral current interactions with neutrinos. The cross section for this interaction is comparatively large, and deuterium was successfully used as a neutrino target in the Sudbury Neutrino Observatory experiment. Deuterium as an isospin singlet Due to the similarity in mass and nuclear properties between the proton and neutron, they are sometimes considered as two symmetric types of the same object, a nucleon. While only the proton has an electric charge, this is often negligible due of the weakness of the electromagnetic interaction relative to the strong nuclear interaction. The symmetry relating the proton and neutron is known as isospin and denoted . Isospin is an SU(2) symmetry, like ordinary spin, so is completely analogous to it. The proton and neutron form an isospin doublet, with a "down" state being a neutron, and an "up" state being a proton. A pair of nucleons can either be in an antisymmetric state of isospin called singlet, or in a symmetric state called triplet. In terms of the "down" state and "up" state, the singlet is This is a nucleus with one proton and one neutron, i.e. a deuterium nucleus. The triplet is And thus consists of three types of nuclei, which are supposed to be symmetric - a deuterium nucleus (actually a highly excited state of it), a nucleus with two protons, and a nucleus with two neutrons. The latter two nuclei are not stable or nearly stable, and therefore so is this type of deuterium (meaning that it is indeed a highly excited state of deuterium). Approximated wavefunction of the deuteron The total wavefunction of both the proton and neutron must be antisymmetric, because they are both fermions. Apart from their isospin, the two nucleons also have spin and spatial distributions of their wavefunction. The latter is symmetric if the deuteron is symmetric under parity (i.e. have an "even" or "positive" parity) , and antisymmetric if the deuteron is antisymmetric under parity (i.e. have an "odd" or "negative" parity). The parity is fully determined by the total orbital angular momentum of the two nucleons: if it is even then the parity is even (positive), and if it is odd then the parity is odd (negative). The deuteron, being an isospin singlet, is antisymmetric under nucleons exchange due to isospin, and therefore must be symmetric under the double exchange of their spin and location. Therefore it can be in either of the following two different states: Symmetric spin and symmetric under parity. In this case, the exchange of the two nucleons will multiply the deuterium wavefunction by (-1) from isospin exchange, (+1) from spin exchange and (+1) from parity (location exchange), for a total of (-1) as needed for antisymmetry. Antisymmetric spin and antisymmetric under parity. In this case, the exchange of the two nucleons will multiply the deuterium wavefunction by (-1) from isospin exchange, (-1) from spin exchange and (-1) from parity (location exchange), again for a total of (-1) as needed for antisymmetry. In the first case the deuteron is a Spin triplet, so that its total spin s is 1. It also has an even parity and therefore even orbital angular momentum l ; The lower its orbital angular momentum, the lower its energy. Therefore the lowest possible energy state has s =1, l =0. In the second case the deuteron is a spin singlet, so that its total spin s is 0. It also has an odd parity and therefore odd orbital angular momentum l . Therefore the lowest possible energy state has s =0, l =1. Since s =1 gives a stronger nuclear attraction, the deuterium ground state is in the s =1, l =0 state. The same considerations lead to the possible states of an isospin triplet having s =0, l =even or s =1, l =odd. Thus the state of lowest energy has s =1, l =1, higher than that of the isospin singlet. The analysis just given is in fact only approximate, both because isospin is not an exact symmetry, and more importantly because the strong nuclear interaction between the two nucleons is related to angular momentum in spin-orbit interaction that mixes different s and l states. That is, s and l are not constant in time (they do not commute with the Hamiltonian), and over time a state such as s =1, l =0 may become a state of s =1, l =2. Parity is still constant in time so these do not mix with odd l states (such as s =0, l =1). Therefore the quantum state of the deuterium is a superposition (a linear combination) of the s =1, l =0 state and the s =1, l =2 state, even though the first component is much bigger. Since the total angular momentum j is also a good quantum number (it is a constant in time), both components must have the same j, and therefore j =1. This is the total spin of the deuterium nucleus. To summarize, the deuterium nucleus is antisymmetric in terms of isospin, and has spin 1 and even (+1) parity. The relative angular momentum of its nucleons l is not well defined, and the deuteron is a superposition of mostly l =0 with some l =2. Magnetic and electric multipoles In order to find theoretically the deuterium magnetic dipole moment , one uses the formula for a nuclear magnetic moment with g(l) and g(s) are g-factors of the nucleons. Since the proton and neutron have different values for g(l) and g(s), one must separate their contributions. Each gets half of the deuterium orbital angular momentum and spin . One arrives at where subscripts p and n stand for the proton and neutron, and g(l)n = 0. By using the same identities as here and using the value g(l)p = 1 in nuclear magneton units, we arrive at the following result, in nuclear magneton units For the s =1, l =0 state j =1 and we get, in nuclear magneton units For the s =1, l =2 state with j =1 we get, in nuclear magneton units The measured value of the deuterium magnetic dipole moment, in nuclear magneton units, is 0.857. This suggests that the state of the deuterium is indeed only approximately s =1, l =0 state, and is actually a linear combination of (mostly) this state with s =1, l =2 state. The electric dipole is zero as usual. The measured electric quadropole of the deuterium is 0.2859 e fm², where e is the proton electric charge and fm is fermi. While the order of magnitude is reasonable, since the deuterium radius is of order of 1 fermi (see below) and its electric charge is e, the above model does not suffice for its computation. More specifically, the electric quadropole does not get a contribution from the l =0 state (which is the dominant one) and does get a contribution from a term mixing the l =0 and the l =2 states, because the electric quadrupole operator does not commute with angular momentum. The latter contribution is dominant in the absence of a pure l =0 contribution, but cannot be calculated without knowing the exact spatial form of the nucleons wavefunction inside the deuterium. Higher magnetic and electric multipole moments cannot be calculated by the above model, for similar reasons. Deuterium radius The square root of the average squared radius of the deuterium, measured experimentally, is fermi (= 0.96 fm). Applications Emission spectrum of an ultraviolet deuterium arc lamp. Deuterium has a number of commercial and scientific uses. These include: Deuterium in nuclear reactors Deuterium is useful in nuclear fusion reactions, especially in combination with tritium, because of the large reaction rate (or nuclear cross section) and high energy yield of the D-T reaction. There is an even higher-yield D-He3 fusion reaction, though the breakeven point of D-He3 is higher than that of most other fusion reactions; together with the scarcity of He3, this makes it implausible as a practical power source until at least D-T and D-D fusion reactions have been performed on a commercial scale. Deuterium is used in heavy water moderated fission reactors, usually as liquid D2O, to slow neutrons without high neutron absorption of ordinary hydrogen. A stable isotope tracer In chemistry, biochemistry and environmental sciences, deuterium is used as a non-radioactive, stable isotopic tracer. In chemical reactions and metabolic pathways, deuterium behaves similarly to ordinary hydrogen, but it can be distinguished from ordinary hydrogen by its mass, using mass spectrometry or infrared spectrometry. Deuterium can be detected by femtosecond infrared spectroscopy, since the mass difference drastically affects the frequency of molecular vibrations; deuterium-carbon bond vibrations are found in locations free of other signals. Measurements of small variations in the natural abundances of deuterium, along with those of the stable heavy oxygen isotopes 17O and 18O, are of importance in hydrology, to trace the geographic origin of Earth's waters. The heavy isotopes of hydrogen and oxygen in rainwater (so-called meteoric water) are enriched as a function of the environmental temperature of the region in which the precipitation falls (and thus enrichment is related to mean latitude). The relative enrichment of the heavy isotopes in rainwater (as referenced to mean ocean water), when plotted against temperature falls predictably along a line called the global meteoric water line (GMWL). This plot allows samples of precipitation-originated water to be identified along with general information about the climate in which it originated. Evaporative and other processes in bodies of water, and also ground water processes, also differentially alter the ratios of heavy hydrogen and oxygen isotopes in fresh and salt waters, in characteristic and often regionally-distinctive ways. Neutron scattering scattering contrast properties Neutron scattering techniques particularly profit from availability of deuterated samples: The H and D cross sections are very distinct and different in sign, which allows contrast variation in such experiments. Further, a nuisance problem of ordinary hydrogen is its large incoherent neutron cross section, which is nil for D and delivers much clearer signals in deuterated samples. Hydrogen occurs in all materials of organic chemistry and life science, but cannot be seen by X-ray diffraction methods. Hydrogen can be seen by neutron diffraction and scattering, which makes neutron scattering, together with a modern deuteration facility, indispensable for many studies of macromolecules in biology and many other areas. Nuclear resonance spectroscopy Deuterium is useful in hydrogen nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (proton NMR). NMR ordinarily requires compounds of interest to be analyzed as dissolved in solution. Because of deuterium's nuclear spin properties which differ from the light hydrogen usually present in organic molecules, NMR spectra of hydrogen/protium are highly differentiable from that of deuterium, and in practice deuterium is not "seen" by an NMR instrument tuned to light-hydrogen. Deuterated solvents (including heavy water, but also compounds like deuterated chloroform, CDCl3) are therefore routinely used in NMR spectroscopy, in order to allow only the light-hydrogen spectra of the compound of interest to be measured, without solvent-signal interference. History Lighter element isotopes suspected The existence of nonradioactive isotopes of lighter elements had been suspected in studies of neon as early as 1913, and proven by mass spectroscopy of light elements in 1920. The prevailing theory at the time, however, was that the isotopes were due to the existence of differing numbers of "nuclear electrons" in different atoms of an element. It was expected that hydrogen, with a measured average atomic mass very close to 1 u, and a nucleus thought to be composed of a single proton (a known particle), could not contain nuclear electrons, and thus could have no heavy isotopes. Deuterium predicted and finally detected Deuterium was predicted in 1926 by Walter Russell, using his "spiral" periodic table. It was first detected spectroscopically in late 1931 by Harold Urey, a chemist at Columbia University. Urey's collaborator, Ferdinand Brickwedde, distilled five liters of cryogenically-produced liquid hydrogen to 1 mL of liquid, using the low-temperature physics laboratory that had recently been established at the National Bureau of Standards in Washington, D.C. (now the National Institute of Standards and Technology). This concentrated the fraction of the mass-2 isotope of hydrogen to a degree that made its spectroscopic identification unambiguous; Urey called the isotope "deuterium" from the Greek and Latin words for "two". The amount inferred for normal abundance of this heavy isotope was so small (only about 1 atom in 6400 hydrogen atoms in ocean water) that it had not noticeably affected previous measurements of (average) hydrogen atomic mass. Urey was also able to concentrate water to show partial enrichment of deuterium. Gilbert Newton Lewis prepared the first samples of pure heavy water in 1933. The discovery of deuterium, coming before the discovery of the neutron in 1932, was an experimental shock to theory, and after the neutron was reported, deuterium won Urey the Nobel Prize in chemistry in 1934. "Heavy water" experiments in World War II Shortly before the war, Hans von Halban and Lew Kowarski moved their research on neutron moderation from France to England, smuggling the entire global supply of heavy water (which had been made in Norway) across in twenty-six steel drums. During World War II, Nazi Germany was known to be conducting experiments using heavy water as moderator for a nuclear reactor design. (Heavy water is water in which the hydrogen is deuterium.) Such experiments were a source of concern because they might allow them to produce plutonium for an atomic bomb. Ultimately it led to the Allied operation called the "Norwegian heavy water sabotage," the purpose of which was to destroy the Vemork deuterium production/enrichment facility in Norway. At the time this was considered important to the potential progress of the war. After World War II ended, the Allies discovered that Germany was not putting as much serious effort into the program as had been previously thought. The Germans had completed only a small, partly-built experimental reactor (which had been hidden away). By the end of the war, the Germans did not even have a fifth of the amount of heavy water needed to run the reactor, partially due to the Norwegian heavy water sabotage operation. However, even had the Germans succeeded in getting a reactor operational (as the U.S. did with a graphite reactor in late 1942), they would still have been at least several years away from development of an atomic bomb with maximal effort. The engineering process, even with maximal effort and funding, required about two and a half years (from first critical reactor to bomb) in both the U.S. and U.S.S.R, for example. Data Density: 0.180 kg/m³ at STP (0 °C, 101.325 kPa). Atomic weight: 2.01355321270. Mean abundance in ocean water (see VSMOW) about 0.0156 % of H atoms = 1/6400 H atoms. Data at approximately 18 K for D2 (triple point): Density: Liquid: 162.4 kg/m3 Gas: 0.452 kg/m3 Viscosity: 12.6 µPa·s at 300 Kelvin (gas phase) Specific heat capacity at constant pressure cp: Solid: 2950 J/(kg·K) Gas: 5200 J/(kg·K) Anti-deuterium An antideuteron is the antiparticle of the nucleus of deuterium, consisting of an antiproton and an antineutron. The antideuteron was first produced in 1965 at the Proton Synchrotron at CERN and the Alternating Gradient Synchrotron at Brookhaven National Laboratory . A complete atom, with a positron orbiting the nucleus, would be called antideuterium, but as of 2005 antideuterium has not yet been created. The proposed symbol for antideuterium is D, that is, D with an overbar. Pycnodeuterium Deuterium atoms can be absorbed into a palladium (Pd) lattice. They are effectively solidified as an ultrahigh density deuterium lump (Pycnodeuterium) inside each octahedral space within the unit cell of the palladium host lattice. Some believe it may be possible to use this as a nuclear fuel in cold fusion. Arata Y, Zhang Y-C, Fujita H, Inoue A; Koon Gakkaishi 29(2) (2003). "Discovery of solid deuterium nuclear fusion of pycnodeuterium-lumps solidified locally within nano-Pd particles".Formation of condensed metallic deuterium lattice and nuclear fusion (2006/10/17). However, cold fusion by this mechanism has not been generally accepted by the scientific community. See also Isotopes of hydrogen Nuclear fusion Tokamaks Tritium Heavy water References Notes General references Nuclear Data Evaluation Lab Annotated bibliography for Deuterium from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues Missing Gas Found in Milky Way. 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5,231 | Divergence | In vector calculus, the divergence is an operator that measures the magnitude of a vector field's source or sink at a given point; the divergence of a vector field is a (signed) scalar. For example, consider air as it is heated or cooled. The relevant vector field for this example is the velocity of the moving air at a point. If air is heated in a region it will expand in all directions such that the velocity field points outward from that region. Therefore the divergence of the velocity field in that region would have a positive value, as the region is a source. If the air cools and contracts, the divergence is negative and the region is called a sink. More technically, the divergence represents the volume density of the outward flux of a vector field from an infinitesimal volume around a given point. Definition of divergence: the source density In physical terms, the divergence of a three dimensional vector field is the extent to which the vector field flow behaves like a source or a sink at a given point. It is a local measure of its "outgoingness"—the extent to which there is more exiting an infinitesimal region of space than entering it. If the divergence is nonzero at some point then there must be a source or sink at that position DIVERGENCE of a Vector Field . (Note that we are imagining the vector field to be like the velocity vector field of a fluid (in motion) when we use the terms flow, sink and so on.) More rigorously, the divergence is defined as derivative of the net flow of the vector field across the surface of a small region relative to the volume of that region. Formally, where V is the volume of an arbitrary shaped region in R3 that includes the point p, S(V) is the surface of that volume , and the integral is a surface integral with n being the outward normal to that surface. The result, div F, is a function of the location p. From this definition it also becomes explicitly visible that div F can be seen as the source density of the flux F. In light of the physical interpretation, a vector field with constant zero divergence is called incompressible or solenoidal – in this case, no net flow can occur across any closed surface. The intuition that the sum of all sources minus the sum of all sinks should give the net flow outwards of a region is made precise by the divergence theorem. Application in Cartesian coordinates Let x, y, z be a system of Cartesian coordinates on a 3-dimensional Euclidean space, and let i, j, k be the corresponding basis of unit vectors. The divergence of a continuously differentiable vector field F = Fx i + Fy j + Fz k is defined to be the scalar-valued function: Although expressed in terms of coordinates, the result is invariant under orthogonal transformations, as the physical interpretation suggests. The common notation for the divergence ∇·F is a convenient mnemonic, where the dot denotes an operation reminiscent of the dot product: take the components of ∇ (see del), apply them to the components of F, and sum the results. As a result, this is considered an abuse of notation. Decomposition theorem It can be shown that any stationary flux which is at least two times continuously differentiable in and vanishes sufficiently fast for can be decomposed into an irrotational part and a source-free part Moreover, these parts are explicitly determined by the respective source-densities (see above) and circulation densities (see the article Curl): For the irrotational part one has with The source-free part, , can be similarly written: one only has to replace the scalar potential by a vector potential and the terms by , and finally the source-density by the circulation-density This "decomposition theorem" is in fact a by-product of the stationary case of electrodynamics. It is a special case of the more general Helmholtz decomposition which works in dimensions greater than three as well. Properties The following properties can all be derived from the ordinary differentiation rules of calculus. Most importantly, the divergence is a linear operator, i.e. for all vector fields F and G and all real numbers a and b. There is a product rule of the following type: if is a scalar valued function and F is a vector field, then or in more suggestive notation Another product rule for the cross product of two vector fields F and G in three dimensions involves the curl and reads as follows: or The Laplacian of a scalar field is the divergence of the field's gradient. The divergence of the curl of any vector field (in three dimensions) is equal to zero: If a vector field F with zero divergence is defined on a ball in R3, then there exists some vector field G on the ball with F = curl(G). For regions in R3 more complicated than balls, this latter statement might be false (see Poincaré lemma). The degree of failure of the truth of the statement, measured by the homology of the chain complex (where the first map is the gradient, the second is the curl, the third is the divergence) serves as a nice quantification of the complicatedness of the underlying region U. These are the beginnings and main motivations of de Rham cohomology. Relation with the exterior derivative One can establish a parallel between the divergence and a particular case of the exterior derivative, when it takes a 2-form to a 3-form in R3. If we define: its exterior derivative is given by See also Hodge star operator. Generalizations The divergence of a vector field can be defined in any number of dimensions. If in a Euclidean coordinate system where and , define The appropriate expression is more complicated in curvilinear coordinates. For any n, the divergence is a linear operator, and it satisfies the "product rule" for any scalar-valued function φ. The divergence can be defined on any manifold of dimension n with a volume form (or density) e.g. a Riemannian or Lorentzian manifold. Generalising the construction of a two form for a vectorfield on , on such a manifold a vectorfield X defines a n-1 form obtained by contracting X with . The divergence is then the function defined by Standard formulas for the Lie derivative allow us to reformulate this as This means that the divergence measures the rate of expansion of a volume element as we let it flow with the vectorfield. On a Riemannian or Lorentzian manifold the divergence with respect to the metric volume form can be computed in terms of the Levi Civita connection where the second expression is the contraction of the vectorfield valued 1 -form with itself and the last expression is the traditional coordinate expression used by physicists. See also Divergence theorem Curl Gradient Laplacian Del in cylindrical and spherical coordinates Notes References External links The idea of divergence and curl | Divergence |@lemmatized vector:22 calculus:2 divergence:28 operator:4 measure:4 magnitude:1 field:23 source:11 sink:6 give:5 point:7 sign:1 scalar:6 example:2 consider:2 air:4 heat:2 cool:2 relevant:1 velocity:4 move:1 region:12 expand:1 direction:1 outward:3 therefore:1 would:1 positive:1 value:5 contract:2 negative:1 call:2 technically:1 represent:1 volume:8 density:8 flux:3 infinitesimal:2 around:1 definition:2 physical:3 term:5 three:4 dimensional:2 extent:2 flow:6 behaves:1 like:2 local:1 outgoingness:1 exit:1 space:2 enter:1 nonzero:1 must:1 position:1 note:2 imagine:1 fluid:1 motion:1 use:2 rigorously:1 define:9 derivative:5 net:3 across:2 surface:5 small:1 relative:1 formally:1 v:2 arbitrary:1 shaped:1 include:1 p:2 integral:2 n:4 normal:1 result:4 div:2 f:11 function:5 location:1 also:3 become:1 explicitly:2 visible:1 see:7 light:1 interpretation:2 constant:1 zero:3 incompressible:1 solenoidal:1 case:4 occur:1 closed:1 intuition:1 sum:3 minus:1 outwards:1 make:1 precise:1 theorem:4 application:1 cartesian:2 coordinate:7 let:3 x:3 z:1 system:2 euclidean:2 j:2 k:2 corresponding:1 basis:1 unit:1 continuously:2 differentiable:2 fx:1 fy:1 fz:1 although:1 express:1 invariant:1 orthogonal:1 transformation:1 suggest:1 common:1 notation:3 convenient:1 mnemonic:1 dot:2 denote:1 operation:1 reminiscent:1 product:6 take:2 component:2 del:2 apply:1 abuse:1 decomposition:3 show:1 stationary:2 least:1 two:3 time:1 vanishes:1 sufficiently:1 fast:1 decompose:1 irrotational:2 part:5 free:2 moreover:1 determine:1 respective:1 circulation:2 article:1 curl:7 one:3 similarly:1 write:1 replace:1 potential:2 finally:1 fact:1 electrodynamics:1 special:1 general:1 helmholtz:1 work:1 dimension:5 great:1 well:1 property:2 follow:2 derive:1 ordinary:1 differentiation:1 rule:4 importantly:1 linear:2 e:2 g:5 real:1 number:2 b:1 following:1 type:1 suggestive:1 another:1 cross:1 involve:1 read:1 laplacian:2 gradient:3 equal:1 ball:3 exist:1 complicated:2 latter:1 statement:2 might:1 false:1 poincaré:1 lemma:1 degree:1 failure:1 truth:1 homology:1 chain:1 complex:1 first:1 map:1 second:2 third:1 serve:1 nice:1 quantification:1 complicatedness:1 underlying:1 u:2 beginning:1 main:1 motivation:1 de:1 rham:1 cohomology:1 relation:1 exterior:3 establish:1 parallel:1 particular:1 form:7 hodge:1 star:1 generalization:1 appropriate:1 expression:4 curvilinear:1 satisfy:1 φ:1 manifold:4 riemannian:2 lorentzian:2 generalise:1 construction:1 vectorfield:4 obtain:1 standard:1 formula:1 lie:1 allow:1 reformulate:1 mean:1 rate:1 expansion:1 element:1 respect:1 metric:1 compute:1 levi:1 civita:1 connection:1 contraction:1 last:1 traditional:1 physicist:1 cylindrical:1 spherical:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 idea:1 |@bigram cartesian_coordinate:2 dimensional_euclidean:1 continuously_differentiable:2 exterior_derivative:3 levi_civita:1 civita_connection:1 external_link:1 |
5,232 | Bijection | A bijective function. In mathematics, a bijection, or a bijective function is a function f from a set X to a set Y with the property that, for every y in Y, there is exactly one x in X such that f(x) = y. Alternatively, f is bijective if it is a one-to-one correspondence between those sets; i.e., both one-to-one (injective) and onto (surjective). (One-to-one function means one-to-one correspondence (i.e., bijection) to some authors, but injection to others.) For example, consider the function succ, defined from the set of integers to , that to each integer x associates the integer succ(x) = x + 1. For another example, consider the function sumdif that to each pair (x,y) of real numbers associates the pair sumdif(x,y) = (x + y, x − y). A bijective function from a set to itself is also called a permutation. The set of all bijections from X to Y is denoted as XY. Bijective functions play a fundamental role in many areas of mathematics, for instance in the definition of isomorphism (and related concepts such as homeomorphism and diffeomorphism), permutation group, projective map, and many others. Composition and inverses A function f is bijective if and only if its inverse relation f −1 is a function. In that case, f −1 is also a bijection. The composition g o f of two bijections f XY and g YZ is a bijection. The inverse of g o f is (g o f)−1 = (f −1) o (g−1). A bijection composed of an injection (left) and a surjection (right). On the other hand, if the composition g o f of two functions is bijective, we can only say that f is injective and g is surjective. A relation f from X to Y is a bijective function if and only if there exists another relation g from Y to X such that g o f is the identity function on X, and f o g is the identity function on Y. Consequently, the sets have the same cardinality. Bijections and cardinality If X and Y are finite sets, then there exists a bijection between the two sets X and Y if and only if X and Y have the same number of elements. Indeed, in axiomatic set theory, this is taken as the very definition of "same number of elements", and generalising this definition to infinite sets leads to the concept of cardinal number, a way to distinguish the various sizes of infinite sets. Examples and counterexamples For any set X, the identity function idX from X to X, defined by idX(x) = x, is bijective. The function f from the real line R to R defined by f(x) = 2x + 1 is bijective, since for each y there is a unique x = (y − 1)/2 such that f(x) = y. The exponential function g : R R, with g(x) = ex, is not bijective: for instance, there is no x in R such that g(x) = −1, showing that g is not surjective. However if the codomain is changed to be the positive real numbers R+ = (0,+∞), then g becomes bijective; its inverse is the natural logarithm function ln. The function h : R [0,+∞) with h(x) = x² is not bijective: for instance, h(−1) = h(+1) = 1, showing that h is not injective. However, if the domain too is changed to [0,+∞), then h becomes bijective; its inverse is the positive square root function. is not a bijection because −1, 0, and +1 are all in the domain and all map to 0. is not a bijection because π/3 and 2π/3 are both in the domain and both map to (√3)/2. Properties A function f from the real line R to R is bijective if and only if its plot is intersected by any horizontal line at exactly one point. If X is a set, then the bijective functions from X to itself, together with the operation of functional composition (o), form a group, the symmetric group of X, which is denoted variously by S(X), SX, or X! (the last reads "X factorial"). For a subset A of the domain with cardinality |A| and subset B of the codomain with cardinality |B|, one has the following equalities: |f(A)| = |A| and |f−1(B)| = |B|. If X and Y are finite sets with the same cardinality, and f: X → Y, then the following are equivalent: f is a bijection. f is a surjection. f is an injection. At least for a finite set S, there is a bijection between the set of possible total orderings of the elements and the set of bijections from S to S. That is to say, the number of permutations (another name for bijections) of elements of S is the same as the number of total orderings of that set -- namely, n!. Bijections and category theory Formally, bijections are precisely the isomorphisms in the category Set of sets and functions. However, the bijections are not always the isomorphisms. For example, in the category Top of topological spaces and continuous functions, the isomorphisms must be homeomorphisms in addition to being bijections. See also Category theory Injective function Symmetric group Surjective function Bijective numeration Bijective proof | Bijection |@lemmatized bijective:18 function:26 mathematics:2 bijection:10 f:26 set:21 x:38 property:2 every:1 exactly:2 one:11 alternatively:1 correspondence:2 e:2 injective:4 onto:1 surjective:4 mean:1 author:1 injection:3 others:2 example:4 consider:2 succ:2 define:3 integer:3 associate:2 another:3 sumdif:2 pair:2 real:4 number:7 also:3 call:1 permutation:3 bijections:9 denote:2 xy:2 play:1 fundamental:1 role:1 many:2 area:1 instance:3 definition:3 isomorphism:4 relate:1 concept:2 homeomorphism:1 diffeomorphism:1 group:4 projective:1 map:3 composition:4 inverses:1 inverse:4 relation:3 case:1 g:15 two:3 yz:1 compose:1 leave:1 surjection:2 right:1 hand:1 say:2 exist:2 identity:3 consequently:1 cardinality:5 finite:3 element:4 indeed:1 axiomatic:1 theory:3 take:1 generalise:1 infinite:2 lead:1 cardinal:1 way:1 distinguish:1 various:1 size:1 counterexample:1 idx:2 line:3 r:9 since:1 unique:1 exponential:1 ex:1 show:2 however:3 codomain:2 change:2 positive:2 becomes:2 natural:1 logarithm:1 ln:1 h:6 domain:4 square:1 root:1 π:1 plot:1 intersect:1 horizontal:1 point:1 together:1 operation:1 functional:1 form:1 symmetric:2 variously:1 sx:1 last:1 read:1 factorial:1 subset:2 b:4 following:1 equality:1 follow:1 equivalent:1 least:1 possible:1 total:2 ordering:2 name:1 namely:1 n:1 category:4 formally:1 precisely:1 always:1 top:1 topological:1 space:1 continuous:1 must:1 homeomorphisms:1 addition:1 see:1 numeration:1 proof:1 |@bigram homeomorphism_diffeomorphism:1 exponential_function:1 topological_space:1 |
5,233 | Naomi_Wolf | Naomi Wolf at the 2008 Brooklyn Book Festival.Naomi Wolf (born November 12, 1962) is an American author and political consultant. With the publication of The Beauty Myth, she became a leading spokesperson of what was later described as the third-wave of the feminist movement. She remains an advocate of feminist causes and progressive politics, with a more recent emphasis on arguing that there has been a deterioration of democratic institutions in the United States. Biography Wolf was born in San Francisco, California in 1962 of Jewish descent. Wolf, in an interview with Alex Jones on The Alex Jones Show podcast 22 October 08 @ 2:40:38 into the program: "Well, you know, I'm Jewish and so, you know, I think there's this very deep reaction in people with my ancestry because my dad's family was largely wiped out by the holocaust, a sensitivity to travel restrictions because for people of my ethnicity there's a giant divide between people who got out before the border hardened during the National Socialist regime and those who waited a little too long. So I watch with concern when I travel, the growth of the [US] watchlist which is growing by 20,000 names a month..." Her mother is Deborah Goleman who is an anthropologist and the author of "The Lesbian Community". DID FATHER KNOW BEST? Her father, Leonard Wolf, is also an author. She attended Lowell High School and debated in regional speech tournaments as a member of the Lowell Forensic Society. She attended Yale University, where she received in 1984 her Bachelor of Arts in English literature; she was a Rhodes Scholar at New College, Oxford from 1985 to 1987. Naomi Wolf Bio In her 2004 essay, 'The Silent Treatment', she claimed that, while she was attending Yale, academic Prof. Harold Bloom touched her inner thigh. http://nymag.com/nymetro/news/features/n_9932/ Wolf was married to the former Clinton speechwriter David Shipley, with whom she has two children. Her daughter Rosa was born in 1995 and her son Joseph was born in 2000. She and Shipley divorced in 2005. "Finding her heart – and getting a divorce." In 2006, Scotland’s Sunday Herald carried an interview in which Wolf claimed that, while meditating, she had a visual experience in which she was a 13-year-old boy sitting next to Jesus. "Naomi Wolf: I had a vision of Jesus" Naomi Wolf Finds Jesus Christ "Naomi Wolf Meets Jesus Christ" Wolf has subsequently declined to discuss the matter in interviews. "Naomi Wolf: The Treehouse and the Epiphany" Works Naomi Wolf speaking at Brooklyn Law School, January 29, 2009. The Beauty Myth In the early 1990s, Wolf garnered international public notoriety as a spokesperson of third-wave feminism Project Syndicate "The Next Wave." Wolf, Naomi. The Beauty Myth. New York: Bantham Doubleday Dell Publishing, 1991. pp. 281: "The beauty myth can be defeated only through an electric resurgence of the woman-centered political activism of the seventies--a feminist third wave--updated to take on the new issues of the nineties...I've become convinced that there are thousands of young women ready and eager to join forces with a peer-driven feminist third wave that would take on, along with the classic feminist agenda, the new problems that have arisen with the shift in Zeitgeist and beauty backlash." as a result of the tremendous success of her first book The Beauty Myth, which became an international bestseller. The Huffington Post: Naomi Wolf. In the book, she argues that "beauty" as a normative value is entirely socially constructed, and that the patriarchy determines the content of that construction with the goal of reproducing its own hegemony. Wolf posits the idea of an "iron-maiden," an intrinsically unattainable standard that is then used to punish women physically and psychologically for their failure to achieve and conform to it. Wolf criticized the fashion and beauty industries as exploitative of women, but claimed the beauty myth extended into all areas of human functioning. Wolf writes that women should have "the choice to do whatever we want with our faces and bodies without being punished by an ideology that is using attitudes, economic pressure, and even legal judgments regarding women's appearance to undermine us psychologically and politically." Wolf argues that women were under assault by the "beauty myth" in five areas: work, religion, sex, violence, and hunger. Ultimately, Wolf argues for a relaxation of normative standards of beauty. The Beauty Myth. pp. 17-18, 20, 86, 131, 179, 218. In her introduction, Wolf positioned her argument against the concerns of second-wave feminists and offered the following analysis: Wolf's book became an overnight bestseller, garnering intensely polarized responses not only from the public and mainstream media but among feminists themselves. Second-wave feminist Germaine Greer wrote that The Beauty Myth was "the most important feminist publication since The Female Eunuch, and British novelist Fay Weldon called the book "essential reading for the New Woman." Kim Hubbard, The Tyranny of Beauty, To Naomi Wolf, Pressure to Look Good Equals Oppression, People, June 24, 1991. In contrast, Camille Paglia, whose Sexual Personae was published the same year as The Beauty Myth, derided Wolf as unable to perform "historical analysis," and called her education "completely removed from reality." Paglia, Camiile. Sex, Art, and American Culture. New York: Random House, 1992. pp. 262. Her comments touched off a series of contentious debates between Wolf and Paglia in the pages of The New Republic. Naomi Wolf. "Feminist Fatale." The New Republic. March 16, 1992. pp. 23-25. Camille Paglia. "Wolf Pack." The New Republic. April 13, 1992. pp. 4-5. Naomi Wolf and Camille Paglia. "The Last Words." The New Republic. May 18, 1992. pp. 4-5. Likewise, Christina Hoff Sommers criticized Wolf for publishing the claim that 150,000 women were dying every year from anorexia. Sommers wrote that the actual number is closer to 100, a figure which others, such as Jennifer Baumgardner and Amy Richards, claimed to be much too low. In the same interview, Sommers stated that Wolf had retracted the figure. Think Tank. "Has Feminism Gone too Far?" In the mainstream press, The New York Times published a harshly critical assessment of Wolf's work: Caryn James lambasted the book as a "sloppily researched polemic as dismissible as a hackneyed adventure film...Even by the standards of pop-cultural feminist studies, "The Beauty Myth" is a mess." After rejecting her thesis, the review leveled even harsher appraisal of her methodology and statistics, writing, "Ms. Wolf doesn't begin to prove her claims because her logic is so lame, her evidence so easily knocked down...Her statistics are shamefully secondhand and outdated." Caryn, James. The New York Times. "Feminine Beauty as a Masculine Plot." In a comparatively positive review, The Washington Post called the book "persuasive" and praised its "accumulated evidence." Yalom, Marilyn. The Washington Post. "Feminism's Latest Makeover." Promiscuities Promiscuities reports on and analyzes the shifting patterns of contemporary adolescent sexuality. Wolf claims that literature is rife with examples of male coming-of-age stories, covered autobiographically by D. H. Lawrence, Tobias Wolff, J. D. Salinger, and Ernest Hemingway, and covered misogynistically by Henry Miller, Philip Roth, and Norman Mailer. Wolf insists, however, that female accounts of adolescent sexuality have been systematically suppressed. She adduces cross-cultural material to demonstrate that women have, across history, been celebrated as more carnal than men. Wolf argues that women must reclaim the legitimacy of their own sexuality by shattering the polarization of women between virgin and whore. Wolf, Naomi. Promiscuities. New York: Balantine Publishing Group, 1997. Promiscuities received, in general, negative reviews. The New York Times published a stinging review that characterized Wolf as a "frustratingly inept messenger: a sloppy thinker and incompetent writer. She tries in vain to pass off tired observations as radical apercus, subjective musings as generational truths, sappy suggestions as useful ideas." Feminism Lite: She Is Woman, Hear Her Roar Two days earlier, however, a different Times reviewer praised the book, writing, "Anyone--particularly anyone who, like Ms. Wolf, was born in the 1960s--will have a very hard time putting down 'Promiscuities.' Told through a series of confessions, her book is a searing and thoroughly fascinating exploration of the complex wildlife of female sexuality and desire." Growing Up Sexual In contrast, The Library Journal excoriated the work, writing, "Overgeneralization abounds as she attempts to apply the microcosmic events of this mostly white, middle-class, liberal milieu to a whole generation....There is a desperate defensiveness in the tone of this book which diminishes the force of her argument." The Library Journal, June 1997. Misconceptions Misconceptions examines the modern problems surrounding pregnancy and childbirth. Most of the book is told through the prism of Wolf's personal experience of her first pregnancy. She describes the "vacuous impassivity" of the ultrasound technician who gives her the first glimpse of her new baby. Wolf both laments and rages against the doctor who performed her C-section, and advocates a return to more personally attached practices akin to midwifery. Wolf, Naomi. Misconceptions. New York: Doubleday Publishing, 2001. Wolf's book was panned by the New York Times, responding to the book "with a feeling of exhaustion and dissatisfaction at the pie-in-the-sky laundry list of complaints." What to Expect The End of America In The End of America: A Letter of Warning to a Young Patriot, Wolf takes a historical look at the rise of Fascism, outlining the 10 steps necessary for a Fascistic group (or government) to destroy the democratic character of a nation-state and subvert the social/political liberty previously exercised by its citizens: Invoke a terrifying internal and external enemy. Create secret prisons where torture takes place. Develop a thug caste or paramilitary force not answerable to citizens. Set up an internal surveillance system. Harass citizens' groups. Engage in arbitrary detention and release. Target key individuals. Control the press. Treat all political dissidents as traitors. Suspend the rule of law. Wolf, Naomi. "Fascist America, in 10 Easy Steps." The Guardian. April 24, 2007. The book details how this pattern was implemented in Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy, and elsewhere, and analyzes its emergence and application in American political affairs since the September 11 attacks. Wolf, Naomi. The End of America: A Letter of Warning to a Young Patriot. White River, VT: Chelsea Green Publishing, 2007. The End of America was adapted for the screen as a documentary by filmmakers Annie Sundberg and Ricki Stern, best known for The Devil Came on Horseback and The Trials of Darryl Hunt. It had its worldwide premiere at the Hamptons International Film Festival on October 17, 2008. It has since been screened at Sheffield DocFest in the UK, as well as in limited release at New York City's IFC Center. The film became available online on October 21, 2008 at SnagFilms.com. End of America was favorably reviewed in the New York Times by Stephen Holden. (URL: http://movies.nytimes.com/2008/12/03/movies/03end.html) as well as in Variety (URL: http://www.variety.com/review/VE1117938760.html?categoryid=31&cs=1) Give Me Liberty "Give Me Liberty: A Handbook for American Revolutionaries" was written as a sequel to The End of America: A Letter of Warning to a Young Patriot, for those who understand the threats now posed to America and want to know "What do we do?". In the book, Ms. Wolf looks at times and places in history where citizens were faced with the closing of an open society and successfully fought back, and looks back at the ordinary people of the Founding Fathers of the United States' generation, the ones not named by history, all of whom had this "vision of liberty" and moved it forward by putting their lives on the line to make the vision real. She also examines the core principles of what America is supposed to give us, because of the manipulation that is moving Americans away from those principles, through the use of fake patriotism, fake democracy and hyped crisis. Ms. Wolf then goes about outlining a "battle plan" for ordinary people to follow in order to fight back, by overcoming the confusion and becoming organized activists to bring back the rule of law as set by the United States Constitution. Other writings Wolf's other books include Fire with Fire on politics, female empowerment and women's sexual liberation. Wolf, Naomi. Fire with Fire. New York: Random House, 1993. The New York Times assailed the work for its "dubious oversimplifications and highly debatable assertions," its "sloppy thinking and even sloppier prose," and its "disconcerting penchant for inflationary prose." "Books of The Times; Helpful Hints for an Era of Practical Feminism." In 2005, Wolf published The Tree House: Eccentric Wisdom from my Father on How to Live, Love, and See, which chronicled her midlife crisis attempt to reclaim her creative and poetic vision and revalue her father's love, and her father's force as an artist and a teacher. "I had turned my face away from the grace of the imagination," she wrote. Germaine Greer, who had vociferously praised The Beauty Myth, criticized the work as Oedipal, and as an acceptance of the patriarchy that Wolf had once opposed. Wolf said that she wanted to evolve from feminism and polemics, to get past the "us versus them approach." The Observer. "Father from the Truth." January 22, 2006. Feminist positions Wolf considers herself a liberal feminist, a stance that has attracted criticism from radical feminists who argue that a patriarchal prejudice inheres to democratic liberalism. Jaggar, Alison. Feminist Politics and Human Nature. New York: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 1988. Abortion In publishing an article in The New Republic that fiercely criticized contemporary pro-choice rhetoric, Wolf staked out a qualified pro-choice position. She argued that the movement had "developed a lexicon of dehumanization" and urged feminists to accept abortion as murder and defend the procedure within the ambiguity of this moral conundrum. She continues, "Abortion should be legal; it is sometimes even necessary. Sometimes the mother must be able to decide that the fetus, in its full humanity, must die." Wolf, Naomi. The New Republic. "Our Bodies, Our Souls." Wolf finishes her article by speculating that in a world of "real gender equality," passionate feminists "might well hold candlelight vigils at abortion clinics, standing shoulder to shoulder with the doctors who work there, commemorating and saying goodbye to the dead." Pro-life commentators seized on Wolf's claims to accuse her of "failing to carry through fully in her analysis...this simply is not, or should not be, the unqualified response of our society to the destruction of innocent life." A Sheep in Wolf's Clothing Pornography Departing from the anti-pornography emphasis of such second-wave feminist writers as Andrea Dworkin, Susan Brownmiller, and Catharine Mackinnon, Wolf suggested in 2003 that the ubiquity of Internet pornography tends to enervate the sexual attraction of men toward typical real women. She writes, "The onslaught of porn is responsible for deadening male libido in relation to real women, and leading men to see fewer and fewer women as 'porn-worthy.' Far from having to fend off porn-crazed young men, young women are worrying that as mere flesh and blood, they can scarcely get, let alone hold, their attention." Wolf advocates abstaining from porn not on moral grounds, but because "greater supply of the stimulant equals diminished capacity." The Porn Myth: In the end, porn doesn’t whet men’s appetites—it turns them off the real thing. October 20, 2003 She later followed up on this theme with the assertion that Saturday-night parties with significant alcohol consumption tended toward an increase in one-night stands, which she refers to as "hooking up". "Hooking Up" Comes With A Price, Author and Feminist Naomi Wolf Tells DePauw Audience September 21, 2005 Sexual harassment In 2004, Wolf wrote an article for New York Magazine accusing acclaimed literary scholar Harold Bloom of sexual harassment more than two decades earlier. Explaining why she had finally gone public with the charges, Wolf wrote, "I began, nearly a year ago, to try—privately—to start a conversation with my alma mater that would reassure me that steps had been taken in the ensuing years to ensure that unwanted sexual advances of this sort weren’t still occurring. I expected Yale to be responsive. After nine months and many calls and e-mails, I was shocked to conclude that the atmosphere of collusion that had helped to keep me quiet twenty years ago was still intact—as secretive as a Masonic lodge." Reflecting on Yale University's sexual harassment guidelines, Wolf writes, "Sexual encroachment in an educational context or a workplace is, most seriously, a corruption of meritocracy; it is in this sense parallel to bribery. I was not traumatized personally, but my educational experience was corrupted. If we rephrase sexual transgression in school and work as a civil-rights and civil-society issue, everything becomes less emotional, less personal. If we see this as a systemic-corruption issue, then when people bring allegations, the focus will be on whether the institution has been damaged in its larger mission." Wolf, Naomi. New York Magazine. "The Silent Treatment." Wolf's article drew intense criticism. Slate Magazine wrote, "Both her evidence and her reasoning are deeply flawed...Her gaps and imprecision give fodder to skeptics who think sexual harassment charges are often just a form of hysteria." O'Rourke, Meghan. Slate. Crying Wolf: Naomi Wolf Sets Back the Fight Against Sexual Harassment. Scholar and journalist Laura Kipnis wrote, "The power actually doesn't flow in only one direction in these encounters, nor does the vulnerability...What she's resenting, ironically enough, is the fact that she has power over him." Kipnis, Laura. Slate. "The Anxiety of (Sexual) Influence." The New York Observer wrote that she had "expertly microwaved an instant drama, attempting to be a simultaneously avenging and sympathetic angel," and drew attention to the welter of inconsistencies in her account. Donadio, Rachel. The New York Observer. "Naomi Wolf Makes Much Ado about Nuzzling at Yale." New York Press wrote, "Victim feminism has fallen out of fashion—and nobody warned Naomi Wolf about the tanking stocks." Farver, Celia. New York Press. "One Last Grope." In the mainstream press, Wolf attracted similar derision. The Wall Street Journal wrote, "One is left with the unpleasant suspicion that Ms. Wolf wanted to get back into the spotlight and went rummaging in her basket of anecdotes until she found a juicy one to squeeze for publicity." Gurdon, Meghan Cox. The Wall Street Journal. "The Anxiety of His Influence." The Washington Post called for an end to "exaggerated victimhood as embodied by Wolf." Applebaum, Anne. The Washington Post. "I am Victim." Author Camille Paglia said she was "shocked" at the allegations and told The Guardian, "It really smacks of the Salem witch-hunts and all the accompanying hysteria. It really grates on me that Naomi Wolf for her entire life has been batting her eyes and bobbing her boobs in the face of men and made a profession out of courting male attention." Barton, Laura. The Guardian. "Who's Crying Wolf?" Newspaper reports described Paglia as enraged over the accusations, blasting Wolf's decision to "wait for 20 years to bring all of this down on an elderly man who has health problems, to drag him into a 'he said/she said' scenario so late in the game...This is regressive. It's childish. Move on! Get on to menopause next!" Feminists at war over 'sex pest' professor Women in Islamic countries and Israel Wolf has spoken favorably about the dress required of women living in Muslim countries. She observed The West interprets veiling as repression of women and suppression of their sexuality. But when I travelled in Muslim countries and was invited to join a discussion in women-only settings within Muslim homes, I learned that Muslim attitudes toward women's appearance and sexuality are not rooted in repression, but in a strong sense of public versus private, of what is due to God and what is due to one's husband. It is not that Islam suppresses sexuality, but that it embodies a strongly developed sense of its appropriate channelling - toward marriage, the bonds that sustain family life, and the attachment that secures a home. Behind the veil lives a thriving Muslim sexuality She has written the same of women conforming to the requirements of Orthodox Judaism: "I will never forget a visit I made to Ilana, an old friend who had become an Orthodox Jew in Jerusalem. When I saw her again, she had abandoned her jeans and T-shirts for long skirts and a head scarf. [...] Her husband never even sees another woman’s hair. She must feel, I thought, so hot." The Porn Myth: In the end, porn doesn’t whet men’s appetites—it turns them off the real thing. October 20, 2003 Political consultant Wolf was involved in Bill Clinton's 1996 re-election bid, brainstorming with the president's team about ways to reach "soccer moms" and other female voters. Katharine Q. Seelye, Adviser Pushes Gore to Be Leader of the Pack, New York Times, November 1, 1999 During Al Gore's unsuccessful bid for the presidency in the 2000 election, Wolf was hired as a consultant to target female voters, reprising her role in the Clinton campaign. Wolf's ideas and participation in the Gore campaign generated considerable media coverage and criticism. According to a report by Michael Duffy in Time, Wolf was paid a monthly salary of $15,000 "in exchange for advice on everything from how to win the women’s vote to shirt-and-tie combinations." This article was the original source of the widely reported claim that Wolf was responsible for Gore's "three-buttoned, earth-toned look." Liberties; "The Alpha-Beta Macarena." In an interview with Melinda Henneberger in the New York Times, Wolf denied ever advising Gore on his wardrobe. Wolf herself claimed she mentioned the term "alpha male" only once in passing and that "it was just a truism, something the pundits had been saying for months, that the vice president is in a supportive role and the President is in an initiatory role...I used those terms as shorthand in talking about the difference in their job descriptions." "Naomi Wolf, Feminist Consultant to Gore, Clarifies Her Campaign Role." Selected books The Beauty Myth: How Images of Beauty Are Used Against Women (1990) ISBN 0060512180 Fire with Fire (1994) ISBN 0449909514 Promiscuities: The Secret Struggle for Womanhood (or a Secret History of Female Desire) (1998) ISBN 0449907643 ISBN 0099205912 ISBN 0517454475 Misconceptions (2001) The Tree House (2005) The End of America: A Letter of Warning to a Young Patriot (2007) ISBN 978-1933392790 Give Me Liberty: A Handbook for American Revolutionaries (2008) ISBN 978-1416590569 References External links "America's Slow-Motion Fascist Coup" 50-minute conversation between Naomi Wolf and Lew Rockwell Half-hour interview on 4 October 2008 about the U.S. <i>coup d'etat<i> on YouTube "The Next Wave:" Naomi Wolf's monthly op/ed commentary for Project Syndicate Naomi Wolf's blog in the Huffington Post American Freedom Campaign Naomi Wolf's pro-democracy website The Woodhull Institute for Ethical Leadership Women's leadership organization co-founded by Naomi Wolf Interview by Amy Goodman on Democracy Now!, November 28, 2007 (video & audio links, and print transcript) 2007 Feature Interview with Naomi Wolf ('The End of America') on The Alcove with Mark Molaro Critical Resources: Naomi Wolf FORA.tv - Wolf talks about "The End of America" | Naomi_Wolf |@lemmatized naomi:33 wolf:95 brooklyn:2 book:18 festival:2 born:1 november:3 american:7 author:5 political:6 consultant:4 publication:2 beauty:20 myth:15 become:7 lead:2 spokesperson:2 later:2 describe:3 third:4 wave:9 feminist:20 movement:2 remain:1 advocate:3 cause:1 progressive:1 politics:3 recent:1 emphasis:2 argue:6 deterioration:1 democratic:3 institution:2 united:3 state:5 biography:1 bear:4 san:1 francisco:1 california:1 jewish:2 descent:1 interview:8 alex:2 jones:2 show:1 podcast:1 october:6 program:1 well:4 know:5 think:4 deep:1 reaction:1 people:7 ancestry:1 dad:1 family:2 largely:1 wipe:1 holocaust:1 sensitivity:1 travel:3 restriction:1 ethnicity:1 giant:1 divide:1 get:6 border:1 harden:1 national:1 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5,234 | Abbess | An abbess (Latin abbatissa, fem. form of abbas, abbot) is the female superior, or Mother Superior, of an abbey of nuns. In Roman Catholic and Anglican abbeys, the mode of election, position, rights, and authority of an abbess correspond generally with those of an abbot. The office is elective, the choice being by the secret votes of the sisters from their own body. Like the abbot, the abbess is solemnly admitted to her office by formal blessing, conferred by the bishop in whose territory the monastery is or by an abbot or another bishop with his permission. Unlike the abbot, she receives only the ring and a copy of the rule of the order: the abbess does not receive the mitre, and she is not given a crosier as part of the blessing ceremony though, by ancient tradition, she may carry one when leading her sisters. She also traditionally adds a pectoral cross to her habit as a symbol of office. Abbesses are, like abbots, major superiors in canon law. They receive the vows of the sisters of the abbey and have full authority in its administration. As they do not receive Holy Orders, in the Roman Catholic Church they do not have many of the other powers conferred upon abbots, however, and they do not exercise authority over territories outside of their monastery. Historically, in some Celtic monasteries abbesses presided over joint-houses of monks and nuns, the most famous example being St. Brigid's leadership in the founding of the monastery at Kildare. This custom accompanied Celtic monastic missions to France and Spain, and even to Rome itself. At a later period, in 1115, Robert, the founder of Fontevraud Abbey near Chinon and Saumur, France, committed the government of the whole order, men as well as women, to a female superior. In the Lutheran Church the title of abbess (Äbtissin) has in some cases — e.g. Itzehoe — survived to designate the heads of abbeys which since the Protestant Reformation haves continued as Stifte, i.e. collegiate foundations, which provide a home and an income for unmarried ladies, generally of noble birth, called canonesses (Kanonissinen) or more usually Stiftsdamen. This office of abbess is of considerable social dignity, and was sometimes filled by princesses of the reigning houses. Until the dissolution of Holy Roman Empire and mediatization of smaller imperial fiefs by Napoleon, the evangelical Abbess of Quedlinburg was also per officio the head of that reichsunmittelbar state. The last such ruling abbess was Sofia Albertina, Princess of Sweden. References Catholic Encyclopedia-Abbess See also List of abbots and abbesses of Kildare | Abbess |@lemmatized abbess:11 latin:1 abbatissa:1 fem:1 form:1 abbas:1 abbot:8 female:2 superior:4 mother:1 abbey:5 nun:2 roman:3 catholic:3 anglican:1 mode:1 election:1 position:1 right:1 authority:3 correspond:1 generally:2 office:4 elective:1 choice:1 secret:1 vote:1 sister:3 body:1 like:2 solemnly:1 admit:1 formal:1 blessing:2 confer:2 bishop:2 whose:1 territory:2 monastery:4 another:1 permission:1 unlike:1 receive:4 ring:1 copy:1 rule:1 order:3 mitre:1 give:1 crosier:1 part:1 ceremony:1 though:1 ancient:1 tradition:1 may:1 carry:1 one:1 lead:1 also:3 traditionally:1 add:1 pectoral:1 cross:1 habit:1 symbol:1 major:1 canon:1 law:1 vow:1 full:1 administration:1 holy:2 church:2 many:1 power:1 upon:1 however:1 exercise:1 outside:1 historically:1 celtic:2 abbesses:1 preside:1 joint:1 house:2 monk:1 famous:1 example:1 st:1 brigid:1 leadership:1 founding:1 kildare:2 custom:1 accompany:1 monastic:1 mission:1 france:2 spain:1 even:1 rome:1 late:1 period:1 robert:1 founder:1 fontevraud:1 near:1 chinon:1 saumur:1 commit:1 government:1 whole:1 men:1 well:1 woman:1 lutheran:1 title:1 äbtissin:1 case:1 e:2 g:1 itzehoe:1 survive:1 designate:1 head:2 since:1 protestant:1 reformation:1 continue:1 stifte:1 collegiate:1 foundation:1 provide:1 home:1 income:1 unmarried:1 lady:1 noble:1 birth:1 call:1 canonesses:1 kanonissinen:1 usually:1 stiftsdamen:1 considerable:1 social:1 dignity:1 sometimes:1 fill:1 princess:2 reigning:1 dissolution:1 empire:1 mediatization:1 small:1 imperial:1 fief:1 napoleon:1 evangelical:1 quedlinburg:1 per:1 officio:1 reichsunmittelbar:1 state:1 last:1 ruling:1 sofia:1 albertina:1 sweden:1 reference:1 encyclopedia:1 see:1 list:1 |@bigram abbot_abbess:2 pectoral_cross:1 monk_nun:1 protestant_reformation:1 |
5,235 | Hemoglobin | Hemoglobin (also spelled haemoglobin and abbreviated Hb or Hgb) is the iron-containing oxygen-transport metalloprotein in the red blood cells of vertebrates, and the tissues of some invertebrates. In mammals, the protein makes up about 97% of the red blood cell’s dry content, and around 35% of the total content (including water). Hemoglobin transports oxygen from the lungs or gills to the rest of the body where it releases the oxygen for cell use. It also has a variety of other roles of gas transport and effect-modulation which vary from species to species, and are quite diverse in some invertebrates. Hemoglobin has an oxygen binding capacity of between 1.36 and 1.37 ml O2 per gram Hemoglobin , which increases the total blood oxygen capacity seventyfold. Discovery The oxygen-carrying protein hemoglobin was discovered by Hünefeld in 1840. . . In 1851 , Otto Funke published a series of articles in which he described growing hemoglobin crystals by successively diluting red blood cells with a solvent such as pure water, alcohol or ether, followed by slow evaporation of the solvent from the resulting protein solution. Hemoglobin’s reversible oxygenation was described a few years later by Felix Hoppe-Seyler. In 1959 Max Perutz determined the molecular structure of hemoglobin by X-ray crystallography. This work resulted in his sharing with John Kendrew the 1962 Nobel Prize in Chemistry. The role of hemoglobin in the blood was elucidated by physiologist Claude Bernard. The name hemoglobin is the portmanteau of heme and globin, reflecting the fact that each subunit of hemoglobin is a globular protein with an embedded heme (or haem) group. Each heme group contains one iron atom, that can bind one oxygen molecule through ion-induced dipole forces. The most common type of hemoglobin in mammals contains four such subunits. Genetics Mutations in the genes for the hemoglobin protein in a species result in hemoglobin variants, A Syllabus of Human Hemoglobin Variants (1996) Hemoglobin Variants some of which cause a group of hereditary diseases termed the hemoglobinopathies in humans. The best known is sickle-cell disease, which was the first human disease whose mechanism was understood at the molecular level. A (mostly) separate set of diseases called thalassemias involves underproduction of normal and sometimes abnormal hemoglobins, through problems and mutations in globin gene regulation. These diseases also often produce anemia. The chemical formulae of hemoglobins vary widely across species, and even (through common mutations) slightly among subgroups of humans. Synthesis Hemoglobin (Hb) is synthesized in a complex series of steps. The heme part is synthesized in a series of steps in the mitochondria and the cytosol of immature red blood cells, while the globin protein parts are synthesized by ribosomes in the cytosol. Production of Hb continues in the cell throughout its early development from the proerythroblast to the reticulocyte in the bone marrow. At this point, the nucleus is lost in mammalian red blood cells, but not in birds and many other species. Even after the loss of the nucleus in mammals, residual ribosomal RNA allows further synthesis of Hb until the reticulocyte loses its RNA soon after entering the vasculature (this hemoglobin-synthetic RNA in fact gives the reticulocyte its reticulated appearance and name). Structure Heme group In most humans, the hemoglobin molecule is an assembly of four globular protein subunits. Each subunit is composed of a protein chain tightly associated with a non-protein heme group. Each protein chain arranges into a set of alpha-helix structural segments connected together in a globin fold arrangement, so called because this arrangement is the same folding motif used in other heme/globin proteins such as myoglobin. This folding pattern contains a pocket which strongly binds the heme group. A heme group consists of an iron (Fe) ion (charged atom) held in a heterocyclic ring, known as a porphyrin. The iron ion, which is the site of oxygen binding, coordinates with the four nitrogens in the center of the ring, which all lie in one plane. The iron is also bound strongly to the globular protein via the imidazole ring of the F8 histidine residue below the porphyrin ring. A sixth position can reversibly bind oxygen, completing the octahedral group of six ligands. Oxygen binds in an "end-on bent" geometry where one oxygen atom binds Fe and the other protrudes at an angle. When oxygen is not bound, a very weakly bonded water molecule fills the site, forming a distorted octahedron. The iron ion may either be in the Fe2+ or Fe3+ state, but ferrihemoglobin (methemoglobin) (Fe3+) cannot bind oxygen. In binding, oxygen temporarily oxidizes (Fe2+) to (Fe3+), so iron must exist in the +2 oxidation state in order to bind oxygen. The enzyme methemoglobin reductase reactivates hemoglobin found in the inactive (Fe3+) state by reducing the iron center. In adult humans, the most common hemoglobin type is a tetramer (which contains 4 subunit proteins) called hemoglobin A, consisting of two α and two β subunits non-covalently bound, each made of 141 and 146 amino acid residues, respectively. This is denoted as α2β2. The subunits are structurally similar and about the same size. Each subunit has a molecular weight of about 17,000 daltons, for a total molecular weight of the tetramer of about 68,000 daltons (64,458 g/mol ). 1 g/dL = 0.6206 mmol/L. Hemoglobin A is the most intensively studied of the hemoglobin molecules. The four polypeptide chains are bound to each other by salt bridges, hydrogen bonds, and hydrophobic interactions. There are two kinds of contacts between the α and β chains: α1β1 and α1β2. Oxyhemoglobin is formed during respiration when oxygen binds to the heme component of the protein hemoglobin in red blood cells. This process occurs in the pulmonary capillaries adjacent to the alveoli of the lungs. The oxygen then travels through the blood stream to be dropped off at cells where it is utilized in aerobic glycolysis and in the production of ATP by the process of oxidative phosphorylation. It does not, however, help to counteract a decrease in blood pH. Ventilation, or breathing, may reverse this condition by removal of carbon dioxide, thus causing a shift up in pH. Deoxyhemoglobin is the form of hemoglobin without the bound oxygen. The absorption spectra of oxyhemoglobin and deoxyhemoglobin differ. The oxyhemoglobin has significantly lower absorption of the 660 nm wavelength than deoxyhemoglobin, while at 940 nm its absorption is slightly higher. This accounts for hemoglobin's red colour and deoxyhemoglobin's blue colour. This difference is used for measurement of the amount of oxygen in patient's blood by an instrument called pulse oximeter. Iron's oxidation state in oxyhemoglobin Assigning oxygenated hemoglobin's oxidation state is difficult because oxyhemoglobin (Hb-O2), by experimental measurement, is diamagnetic (no net unpaired electrons), yet the low-energy electron configurations in both oxygen and iron are paramagnetic (suggesting at least one unpaired electron in the complex). The low-energy forms are these: Triplet oxygen, the lowest energy molecular oxygen species, has two unpaired electrons in antibonding π* molecular orbitals. Iron(II) tends to exist in a high-spin configuration where unpaired electrons exist in Eg antibonding orbitals. Iron(III) has an odd number of electrons, and thus must have one or more unpaired electrons, in any energy state. All of these structures are paramagnetic (have unpaired electrons), not diamagnetic. Thus, a non-intuitive distribution of electrons in the combination of iron and oxygen must exist, to explain the observed diamagnetism and no unpaired electrons. The three logical possibilities to produce diamagnetic (no net spin) Hb-O2 are: Low-spin Fe2+ binds to singlet oxygen. Both low-spin iron and singlet oxygen are diamagnetic. However, the singlet form of oxygen is the higher-energy form of the molecule. Low-spin Fe3+ binds to .O2- (the superoxide ion) and the two unpaired electrons couple antiferromagnetically, giving diamagnetic properties. Low-spin Fe4+ binds to peroxide, O22-. Both are diamagnetic. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy suggests iron has an oxidation state of approximately 3.2 and infrared stretching frequencies of the O-O bond suggests a bond length fitting with superoxide (a bond order of about 1.6, with superoxide being 1.5). The nearest formal oxidation state of iron in Hb-O2 is thus the +3 state, with oxygen in the -1 state (as superoxide .O2-). The diamagnetism in this configuration arises from the single unpaired electron on superoxide aligning antiferromagnetically from the single unpaired electron on iron, to give no net spin to the entire configuration, in accordance with experiment. The second choice being correct is not surprising because singlet oxygen (possibility #1) and large separations of charge (possibility #3) are both unfavorably high-energy states. Iron's shift to a higher oxidation state in Hb-O2 decreases the atom's size, and allows it into the plane of the porphyrin ring, pulling on the coordinated histidine residue and initiating the allosteric changes seen in the globulins. Early postulates by bio-inorganic chemists claimed that possibility #1 (above) was correct and that iron should exist in oxidation state II. This seemed particularly likely since the iron oxidation state III as methemoglobin, when not accompanied by superoxide .O2- to "hold" the oxidation electron, was known to render hemoglobin incapable of binding normal triplet O2 as it occurs in the air. It was thus assumed that iron remained as Fe(II) when oxygen gas was bound in the lungs. The iron chemistry in this previous classical model was elegant, but the required presence of the required diamagnetic high-energy singlet oxygen was never explained. It was classically argued that the binding of an oxygen molecule placed high-spin iron(II) in an octahedral field of strong-field ligands; this change in field would increase the crystal field splitting energy, causing iron's electrons to pair into the low-spin configuration, which would be diamagnetic in Fe(II). This forced low-spin pairing is indeed thought to happen in iron when oxygen binds, but is not enough to explain iron's change in size. Extraction of an additional electron from iron by oxygen is required to explain both iron's smaller size and observed increased oxidation state, and oxygen's weaker bond. It should be noted that the assignment of a whole-number oxidation state is a formalism, as the covalent bonds are not required to have perfect bond orders involving whole electron-transfer. Thus, all three models for paramagnetic Hb-O2 may contribute to some small degree (by resonance) to the actual electronic configuration of Hb-O2. However, the model of iron in Hb-O2 being Fe(III) is more correct than the classical idea that it remains Fe(II). Ligand binding Besides the oxygen ligand which binds to hemoglobin in a cooperative manner, hemoglobin ligands also include competitive inhibitors such as carbon monoxide (CO) and allosteric ligands such as carbon dioxide (CO2). Cooperative A schematic visual model of oxygen binding process, showing all four monomers and hemes, and protein chains only as diagramatic coils, to facilitate visualization into the molecule. Oxygen is not shown in this model, but for each of the iron atoms it binds to the iron (red sphere) in the flat heme. For example, in the upper left of the four hemes shown, oxygen binds at the left of the iron atom shown in the upper left of diagram. This causes the iron atom to move backward into the heme which holds it, tuging the histidine residue (modeled as a red pentagon on the right of the iron) closer, as it does. This, in turn, pulls on the protein chain holding the histidine. Another view of how binding and release of ligands induces a conformational (structural) change in hemoglobin. Only one of the four heme groups is shown, but more of the electron cloud of the protein chain is included in this diagram, as compared with above. The binding and release of oxygen (shown now in green) illustrates the structural differences between oxy- and deoxyhemoglobin, respectively. The histidine which is pulled by motion of the iron atom, is shown here in yellow. When oxygen binds to the iron complex, it causes the iron atom to move back toward the center of the plane of the porphyrin ring (see moving diagram). At the same time, the imidazole side chain of the histidine residue interacting at the other pole of the iron is pulled toward the porphyrin ring. This interaction forces the plane of the ring sideways toward the outside of the tetramer, and also induces a strain in the protein helix containing the histidine as it moves nearer to the iron atom. This strain is transmitted to the remaining three monomers in the tetramer where it induces a similar conformational change in the other heme sites such that binding of oxygen to these site becomes easier. In the tetrameric form of normal adult hemoglobin, the binding of oxygen is thus a cooperative process. The binding affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen is increased by the oxygen saturation of the molecule, with the first oxygens bound influencing the shape of the binding sites for the next oxygens, in a way favorable for binding. This positive cooperative binding is achieved through steric conformational changes of the hemoglobin protein complex as discussed above, i.e. when one subunit protein in hemoglobin becomes oxygenated, this induces a conformational or structural change in the whole complex, causing the other subunits to gain an increased affinity for oxygen. As a consequence, the oxygen binding curve of hemoglobin is sigmoidal, or S-shaped, as opposed to the normal hyperbolic curve associated with noncooperative binding. Competitive Hemoglobin's oxygen-binding capacity is decreased in the presence of carbon monoxide because both gases compete for the same binding sites on hemoglobin, carbon monoxide binding preferentially in place of oxygen. The binding of oxygen is affected by molecules such as carbon monoxide (CO) (for example from tobacco smoking, car exhaust and incomplete combustion in furnaces). CO competes with oxygen at the heme binding site. Hemoglobin binding affinity for CO is 200 times greater than its affinity for oxygen Guyton A C: Medical Physiology 11ed. 2005, page 509 , meaning that small amounts of CO dramatically reduce hemoglobin's ability to transport oxygen. When hemoglobin combines with CO, it forms a very bright red compound called carboxyhemoglobin. When inspired air contains CO levels as low as 0.02%, headache and nausea occur; if the CO concentration is increased to 0.1%, unconsciousness will follow. In heavy smokers, up to 20% of the oxygen-active sites can be blocked by CO. In similar fashion, hemoglobin also has competitive binding affinity for cyanide (CN-), sulfur monoxide (SO), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), and sulfide(S2-), including hydrogen sulfide (H2S). All of these bind to iron in heme without changing its oxidation state, but they nevertheless inhibit oxygen-binding, causing grave toxicity. The iron atom in the heme group must initially be in the ferrous (Fe2+) oxidation state to support oxygen and other gases' binding and transport (it temporarily switches to ferric during the time oxygen is bound, as explained above). Initial oxidation to the ferric (Fe3+) state without oxygen converts hemoglobin into "hemiglobin" or methemoglobin (pronounced "MET-hemoglobin"), which cannot bind oxygen. Hemoglobin in normal red blood cells is protected by a reduction system to keep this from happening. Nitrogen dioxide and nitrous oxide are capable of converting a small fraction of hemoglobin to methemoglobin; however, this is not usually of medical importance (nitrogen dioxide is poisonous by other mechanisms, and nitrous oxide is routinely used in surgical anesthesia in most people without undue methemoglobin buildup). Allosteric Carbon dioxide occupies a different binding site on the hemoglobin. Carbon dioxide is more readily dissolved in deoxygenated blood, facilitating its removal from the body after the oxygen has been released to tissues undergoing metabolism. This increased affinity for carbon dioxide by the venous blood is known as the Haldane effect. Through the enzyme carbonic anhydrase, carbon dioxide reacts with water to give carbonic acid, which decomposes into bicarbonate and protons: CO2 + H2O → H2CO3 → HCO3- + H+ The sigmoidal shape of hemoglobin's oxygen-dissociation curve results from cooperative binding of oxygen to hemoglobin. Hence blood with high carbon dioxide levels is also lower in pH (more acidic). Hemoglobin can bind protons and carbon dioxide which causes a conformational change in the protein and facilitates the release of oxygen. Protons bind at various places on the protein, while carbon dioxide binds at the α-amino group. Carbon dioxide binds to hemoglobin and forms carbaminohemoglobin. This decrease in hemoglobin's affinity for oxygen by the binding of carbon dioxide and acid is known as the Bohr effect (shifts the O2-saturation curve to the right). Conversely, when the carbon dioxide levels in the blood decrease (i.e., in the lung capillaries), carbon dioxide and protons are released from hemoglobin, increasing the oxygen affinity of the protein. In people acclimated to high altitudes, the concentration of 2,3-Bisphosphoglycerate (2,3-BPG) in the blood is increased, which allows these individuals to deliver a larger amount of oxygen to tissues under conditions of lower oxygen tension. This phenomenon, where molecule Y affects the binding of molecule X to a transport molecule Z, is called a heterotropic allosteric effect. A variant hemoglobin, called fetal hemoglobin (HbF, α2γ2), is found in the developing fetus, and binds oxygen with greater affinity than adult hemoglobin. This means that the oxygen binding curve for fetal hemoglobin is left-shifted (i.e., a higher percentage of hemoglobin has oxygen bound to it at lower oxygen tension), in comparison to that of adult hemoglobin. As a result, fetal blood in the placenta is able to take oxygen from maternal blood. Hemoglobin also carries nitric oxide in the globin part of the molecule. This improves oxygen delivery in the periphery and contributes to the control of respiration. NO binds reversibly to a specific cysteine residue in globin; the binding depends on the state (R or T) of the hemoglobin. The resulting S-nitrosylated hemoglobin influences various NO-related activities such as the control of vascular resistance, blood pressure and respiration. NO is released not in the cytoplasm of erythrocytes but is transported by an anion exchanger called AE1 out of them. Types in humans Hemoglobin variants are a part of the normal embryonic and fetal development, but may also be pathologic mutant forms of hemoglobin in a population, caused by variations in genetics. Some well-known hemoglobin such variants such as sickle-cell anemia are responsible for diseases, and are considered hemoglobinopathies. Other variants cause no detectable pathology, and are thus considered non-pathological variants. In the embryo: Gower 1 (ζ2ε2) Gower 2 (α2ε2) () Hemoglobin Portland (ζ2γ2) In the fetus: Hemoglobin F (α2γ2) () In adults: Hemoglobin A (α2β2) () - The most common with a normal amount over 95% Hemoglobin A2 (α2δ2) - δ chain synthesis begins late in the third trimester and in adults, it has a normal range of 1.5-3.5% Hemoglobin F (α2γ2) - In adults Hemoglobin F is restricted to a limited population of red cells called F-cells. However, the level of Hb F can be elevated in persons with sickle-cell disease. Variant forms which cause disease: Hemoglobin H (β4) - A variant form of hemoglobin, formed by a tetramer of β chains, which may be present in variants of α thalassemia. Hemoglobin S (α2βS2) - A variant form of hemoglobin found in people with sickle cell disease. There is a variation in the β-chain gene, causing a change in the properties of hemoglobin which results in sickling of red blood cells. Hemoglobin C (α2βC2) - Another variant due to a variation in the β-chain gene. This variant causes a mild chronic hemolytic anemia. Hemoglobin AS - A heterozygous form causing Sickle cell trait with one adult gene and one sickle cell disease gene Hemoglobin SC disease - Another heterozygous form with one sickle gene and another encoding Hemoglobin C. Degradation in vertebrate animals When red cells reach the end of their life due to aging or defects, they are broken down, the hemoglobin molecule is broken up and the iron gets recycled. When the porphyrin ring is broken up, the fragments are normally secreted in the bile by the liver. This process also produces one molecule of carbon monoxide for every molecule of heme degraded. This is one of the few natural sources of carbon monoxide production in the human body, and is responsible for the normal blood levels of carbon monoxide even in people breathing pure air. The other major final product of heme degradation is bilirubin. Increased levels of this chemical are detected in the blood if red cells are being destroyed more rapidly than usual. Improperly degraded hemoglobin protein or hemoglobin that has been released from the blood cells too rapidly can clog small blood vessels, especially the delicate blood filtering vessels of the kidneys, causing kidney damage. Role in disease In sickle cell hemoglobin (HbS) glutamic acid in position 6 (in beta chain) is mutated to valine. This change allows the deoxygenated form of the hemoglobin to stick to each other. Hemoglobin deficiency can be caused either by decrease amount of hemoglobin molecules as in anemia, or decreased ability of each molecule to bind oxygen at the same partial pressure of oxygen. hemoglobinopathies (genetic defects resulting in abnormal structure of the hemoglobin molecule ) may cause both. In any case, hemoglobin deficiency decreases blood oxygen-carrying capacity. Hemoglobin deficiency is generally strictly distinguished from hypoxemia, defined as decreased partial pressure of oxygen in blood, britannica.com --> blood disease, stating hypoxemia (reduced oxygen tension in the blood). Retrieved on May 25, 2009 Biology-Online.org --> Dictionary » H » Hypoxemia last modified 00:05, 29 December 2008 Page 430 -> Pathophysiology of acute respiratory failure in Trauma By William C. Wilson, Christopher M. Grande, David B. Hoyt Edition: illustrated Published by CRC Press, 2007 ISBN 082472920X, 9780824729202 1384 pages Hazards of hypoxemia: How to protect your patient from low oxygen levels In Nursing , May 1996 by McGaffigan, Patricia A although both are causes of hypoxia (insufficient oxygen supply to tissues). The ability of each hemoglobin molecule to carry oxygen is normally modified by altered blood pH or CO2, causing an altered oxygen-haemoglobin dissociation curve. However, it can also be pathologically altered in e.g. carbon monoxide poisoning. Decrease of hemoglobin, with or without an absolute decrease of red blood cells, leads to symptoms of anemia. Anemia has many different causes, although iron deficiency and its resultant iron deficiency anemia are the most common causes in the Western world. As absence of iron decreases heme synthesis, red blood cells in iron deficiency anemia are hypochromic (lacking the red hemoglobin pigment) and microcytic (smaller than normal). Other anemias are rarer. In hemolysis (accelerated breakdown of red blood cells), associated jaundice is caused by the hemoglobin metabolite bilirubin, and the circulating hemoglobin can cause renal failure. Some mutations in the globin chain are associated with the hemoglobinopathies, such as sickle-cell disease and thalassemia. Other mutations, as discussed at the beginning of the article, are benign and are referred to merely as hemoglobin variants. There is a group of genetic disorders, known as the porphyrias that are characterized by errors in metabolic pathways of heme synthesis. King George III of the United Kingdom was probably the most famous porphyria sufferer. To a small extent, hemoglobin A slowly combines with glucose at the terminal valine (an alpha aminoacid) of each β chain. The resulting molecule is often referred to as Hb A1c. As the concentration of glucose in the blood increases, the percentage of Hb A that turns into Hb A1c increases. In diabetics whose glucose usually runs high, the percent Hb A1c also runs high. Because of the slow rate of Hb A combination with glucose, the Hb A1c percentage is representative of glucose level in the blood averaged over a longer time (the half-life of red blood cells, which is typically 50–55 days). Elevated levels of hemoglobin are associated with increased numbers or sizes of red blood cells, called polycythemia. This elevation may be caused by congenital heart disease, cor pulmonale, pulmonary fibrosis, too much erythropoietin, or polycythemia vera. Hemoglobin at Medline Plus Diagnostic uses Hemoglobin concentration measurement is among the most commonly performed blood tests, usually as part of a complete blood count. For example it is typically tested before blood donation. Results are reported in g/L, g/dL or mol/L. 1 g/dL equals about 0.6206 mmol/L. Normal levels are: Men: 13.5 to 16.5 g/dl Women: 12.1 to 15.1 g/dl Children: 11 to 16 g/dl Pregnant women: 11 to 12 g/dl Hemoglobin Level Test Normal values of hemoglobin in 1st and 3rd trimester of pregnant women must be at least 11 g/dl and at least 10.5 g/dl during 2nd trimester. Murray S.S. & McKinney E.S.(2006). Foundations of Maternal-Newborn Nursing.(4th ed., p 919).Philadelphia: Saunders Elsevier If the concentration is below normal, this is called anemia. Anemias are classified by the size of red blood cells, the cells which contain hemoglobin in vertebrates. The anemia is called "microcytic" if red cells are small, "macrocytic" if they are large, and "normocytic" otherwise. Hematocrit, the proportion of blood volume occupied by red blood cells, is typically about three times the hemoglobin level. For example, if the hemoglobin is measured at 17, that compares with a hematocrit of 51. Long-term control of blood sugar concentration can be measured by the concentration of Hb A1c. Measuring it directly would require many samples because blood sugar levels vary widely through the day. Hb A1c is the product of the irreversible reaction of hemoglobin A with glucose. A higher glucose concentration results in more Hb A1c. Because the reaction is slow, the Hb A1c proportion represents glucose level in blood averaged over the half-life of red blood cells, is typically 50–55 days. An Hb A1c proportion of 6.0% or less show good long-term glucose control, while values above 7.0% are elevated. This test is especially useful for diabetics. This Hb A1c level is only useful in individuals who have red blood cells (RBCs) with normal survivals (i.e., normal half-life). In individuals with abnormal RBCs, whether due to abnormal hemoglobin molecules (such as Hemoglobin S in Sickle Cell Anemia) or RBC membrane defects - or other problems, the RBC half-life is frequently shortened. In these individuals an alternative test called "fructosamine level" can be used. It measures the degree of glycation (glucose binding) to albumin, the most common blood protein, and reflects average blood glucose levels over the previous 18-21 days, which is the half-life of albumin molecules in the circulation. The functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) machine may use the signal from oxyhemoglobin as it partially aligns these molecules with the magnetic field. The machine sends a series of magnetic pulses at the participant's head or other body structure, slowly knocking the molecules out of alignment, and a radio wave is emitted when they are back in alignment. The machine can then pick up these signals and use them to make scans, which are cross-sectional maps showing blood flow. Analogues in non-vertebrate organisms A variety of oxygen transport and binding proteins exist in organisms throughout the animal and plant kingdoms. Organisms including bacteria, protozoans and fungi all have hemoglobin-like proteins whose known and predicted roles include the reversible binding of gaseous ligands. Since many of these proteins contain globins and the heme moiety (iron in a flat porphyrin support), they are often called hemoglobins, even if their overall tertiary structure is very different from that of vertebrate hemoglobin. In particular, the distinction of “myoglobin” and hemoglobin in lower animals is often impossible, because some of these organisms do not contain muscles. Or, they may have a recognizable separate circulatory system but not one which deals with oxygen transport (for example, many insects and other arthropods). In all these groups, heme/globin containing molecules (even monomeric globin ones) which deal with gas-binding are referred to as hemoglobins. In addition to dealing with transport and sensing of oxygen, they may also deal with NO, CO2, sulfide compounds, and even O2 scavenging in environments which must be anaerobic. They may even deal with detoxification of chlorinated materials in a way analogous to heme-containing P450 enzymes and peroxidases. The giant tube worm Riftia pachyptila showing red hemoglobin-containing plumes The structure of hemoglobins varies across species. Hemoglobin occurs in all kingdoms of organisms, but not in all organisms. Primitive species such as bacteria, protozoa, algae, and plants often have single-globin hemoglobins. Many nematode worms, molluscs and crustaceans contain very large multisubunit molecules, much larger than those in vertebrates. Particularly, chimeric hemoglobins found in fungi and giant annelids may contain both globin and other types of proteins. One of the most striking occurrences and uses of hemoglobin in organisms is in the giant tube worm (Riftia pachyptila, also called Vestimentifera) which can reach 2.4 meters length and populates ocean volcanic vents. Instead of a digestive tract, these worms contain a population of bacteria constituting half the organism’s weight. The bacteria react with H2S from the vent and O2 from the water to produce energy to make food from H2O and CO2. The worms end with a deep red fan-like structure ("plume") which extends into the water and absorbs H2S and O2 for the bacteria, and CO2 for use as synthetic raw material similar to photosynthetic plants. The structures are bright red due to containing several extraordinarily complex hemoglobins which have up to 144 globin chains, each presumably including associated heme structures. These hemoglobins are remarkable for being able to carry oxygen in the presence of sulfide, and even to carry sulfide, without being completely "poisoned" or inhibited by it as hemoglobins in most other species are. Other oxygen-binding proteins Myoglobin: Found in the muscle tissue of many vertebrates, including humans, it gives muscle tissue a distinct red or dark gray color. It is very similar to hemoglobin in structure and sequence, but is not a tetramer; instead, it is a monomer that lacks cooperative binding. It is used to store oxygen rather than transport it. Hemocyanin: The second most common oxygen-transporting protein found in nature, it is found in the blood of many arthropods and molluscs. Uses copper prosthetic groups instead of iron heme groups and is blue in color when oxygenated. Hemerythrin: Some marine invertebrates and a few species of annelid use this iron-containing non-heme protein to carry oxygen in their blood. Appears pink/violet when oxygenated, clear when not. Chlorocruorin: Found in many annelids, it is very similar to erythrocruorin, but the heme group is significantly different in structure. Appears green when deoxygenated and red when oxygenated. Vanabins: Also known as vanadium chromagens, they are found in the blood of sea squirts and are hypothesised to use the rare metal vanadium as its oxygen binding prosthetic group. Erythrocruorin: Found in many annelids, including earthworms, it is a giant free-floating blood protein containing many dozens — possibly hundreds — of iron- and heme-bearing protein subunits bound together into a single protein complex with a molecular mass greater than 3.5 million daltons. Pinnaglobin: Only seen in the mollusc Pinna squamosa. Brown manganese-based porphyrin protein. Leghemoglobin: In leguminous plants, such as alfalfa or soybeans, the nitrogen fixing bacteria in the roots are protected from oxygen by this iron heme containing oxygen-binding protein. The specific enzyme protected is nitrogenase, which is unable to reduce nitrogen gas in the presence of free oxygen. In history, art and music The planet Mars Historically, the color of blood was associated with rust, as ancient Romans associated the planet Mars with the god of war since Mars is orange-red. The color of Mars is due to iron-oxygen in the Martian soil, but the red in blood is not due to the iron in hemoglobin and its oxides, which is a common misconception. The red is due to the porphyrin moiety of hemoglobin to which the iron is bound, not the iron itself, although the ligation and redox state of the iron can influence the pi to pi* electronic transitions of the porphyrin and hence its optical characteristics. Heart of Steel (Hemoglobin) (2005) by Julian Voss-Andreae. The images show the 5' (1.60 m) tall sculpture right after installation, after 10 days, and after several months of exposure to the elements. Artist Julian Voss-Andreae created a sculpture called "Heart of Steel (Hemoglobin)" in 2005, based on the protein's backbone. The sculpture was made from glass and weathering steel. The intentional rusting of the initially shiny work of art mirrors hemoglobin's fundamental chemical reaction of oxygen binding to iron. Rock band Placebo recorded a song called Haemoglobin with the lyrics "Haemoglobin is the key to a healthy heartbeat". See also Chlorophyll Globin fold Hemocyanin Hemoprotein Sickle-cell disease Hemoglobin variants: Hb A1C Hemoglobin A2 Hemoglobin C Hemoglobin F Hemoglobin protein subunits (genes): Alpha globin 1 Beta globin Delta globin Haemoglobin compounds: Carbaminohaemoglobin (with carbon dioxide, coloured blue) Carboxyhaemoglobin (with carbon monoxide, coloured cherry-red) Oxyhaemoglobin (with diatomic oxygen, coloured blood-red) References Further reading . . PMID 16368297. . . . PMID 8650150. . PMID 16368110. . External links Interactive models of hemoglobin (Requires MDL Chime) Interactive hemoglobin saturation curves National Anemia Action Council - anemia.org New hemoglobin type causes mock diagnosis with pulse oxymeters Pulse Oximetry Glossary | Hemoglobin |@lemmatized hemoglobin:139 also:17 spell:1 haemoglobin:5 abbreviated:1 hb:26 hgb:1 iron:57 contain:16 oxygen:97 transport:11 metalloprotein:1 red:36 blood:59 cell:37 vertebrate:7 tissue:6 invertebrate:3 mammal:3 protein:39 make:4 dry:1 content:2 around:1 total:3 include:9 water:6 lung:4 gill:1 rest:1 body:4 release:8 use:12 variety:2 role:4 gas:6 effect:4 modulation:1 vary:3 specie:10 quite:1 diverse:1 bind:41 capacity:4 ml:1 per:1 gram:1 increase:9 seventyfold:1 discovery:1 carry:6 discover:1 hünefeld:1 otto:1 funke:1 publish:2 series:4 article:2 describe:2 grow:1 crystal:2 successively:1 dilute:1 solvent:2 pure:2 alcohol:1 ether:1 follow:2 slow:3 evaporation:1 result:10 solution:1 reversible:2 oxygenation:1 year:1 later:1 felix:1 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5,236 | Harold_Kushner | Harold S. Kushner is a prominent American rabbi aligned with the progressive wing of Conservative Judaism. Education Born in Brooklyn, Kushner was educated at Columbia University and later obtained his rabbinical ordination from the Jewish Theological Seminary (JTS) in 1960. The same institution awarded him a doctoral degree in Bible in 1972. Kushner has also studied at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, taught at Clark University and the Rabbinical School of the JTS, and received six honorary doctorates. Congregational Rabbi He served as the long time congregational rabbi of Temple Israel of Natick, in Natick, Massachusetts for twenty-four years and belongs to the Rabbinical Assembly. Author He is the author of a best selling book on the problem of evil, When Bad Things Happen to Good People. Written following the death of his son, the book deals with questions about human suffering, God, Omnipotence and Theodicy. Kushner has written a number of other popular theological books, such as How Good Do We Have to Be?, To Life! and many others. In collaboration with the late Chaim Potok, Kushner co-edited Etz Hayim: A Torah Commentary, the new official Torah commentary of the Conservative movement, which was jointly published in 2001 by the Rabbinical Assembly and the Jewish Publication Society. His Living a Life That Matters became a best seller in the fall of 2001. Kushner's book, The Lord Is My Shepherd, was a meditation on the Twenty-Third Psalm released in 2003. Kushner also wrote a response to Simon Wiesenthal's question of forgiveness in the book The Sunflower: On the Possibilities and Limits of Forgiveness. List of publications Faith & Family: Favorite Sermons of Rabbi Harold S. Kushner is Kushner's latest book, published in October 2007. Overcoming Life's Disappointments When Bad Things Happen to Good People When All You've Ever Wanted Isn't Enough: The Search for a Life That Matters Who Needs God When Children ask about God: A Guide for Parents Who Don't Always Have All the Answers How Good Do We Have to Be? A New Understanding of Guilt and Forgiveness Living a Life That Matters: Resolving the Conflict Between Conscience and Success To Life: A Celebration of Jewish Being and Thinking The Lord Is My Shepherd: Healing Wisdom of the Twenty-third Psalm Living a Life that Matters Practice Random Acts of Kindness: Bring More Peace, Love, And Compassion... Miscellaneous Kushner offered a reading from the Bible at the State Funeral of Ronald Reagan in the Washington National Cathedral on June 11, 2004. In 2007 Rabbi Kushner was given the Lifetime Achievement Award by the Jewish Book Council. External links Rabbi Kushner's High Holiday Sermons Rabbi Harold Kushner talks and gives stories in relation to his latest book Overcoming Life's Disappointments (video) | Harold_Kushner |@lemmatized harold:3 kushner:13 prominent:1 american:1 rabbi:7 align:1 progressive:1 wing:1 conservative:2 judaism:1 education:1 bear:1 brooklyn:1 educate:1 columbia:1 university:3 later:1 obtain:1 rabbinical:4 ordination:1 jewish:4 theological:2 seminary:1 jts:2 institution:1 award:2 doctoral:1 degree:1 bible:2 also:2 study:1 hebrew:1 jerusalem:1 taught:1 clark:1 school:1 receive:1 six:1 honorary:1 doctorate:1 congregational:2 serve:1 long:1 time:1 temple:1 israel:1 natick:2 massachusetts:1 twenty:3 four:1 year:1 belongs:1 assembly:2 author:2 best:2 selling:1 book:8 problem:1 evil:1 bad:2 thing:2 happen:2 good:4 people:2 write:3 follow:1 death:1 son:1 deal:1 question:2 human:1 suffering:1 god:3 omnipotence:1 theodicy:1 number:1 popular:1 life:8 many:1 others:1 collaboration:1 late:3 chaim:1 potok:1 co:1 edit:1 etz:1 hayim:1 torah:2 commentary:2 new:2 official:1 movement:1 jointly:1 publish:2 publication:2 society:1 live:3 matter:4 become:1 seller:1 fall:1 lord:2 shepherd:2 meditation:1 third:2 psalm:2 release:1 response:1 simon:1 wiesenthal:1 forgiveness:3 sunflower:1 possibility:1 limit:1 list:1 faith:1 family:1 favorite:1 sermon:2 october:1 overcome:2 disappointment:2 ever:1 want:1 enough:1 search:1 need:1 child:1 ask:1 guide:1 parent:1 always:1 answer:1 understanding:1 guilt:1 resolve:1 conflict:1 conscience:1 success:1 celebration:1 think:1 healing:1 wisdom:1 practice:1 random:1 act:1 kindness:1 bring:1 peace:1 love:1 compassion:1 miscellaneous:1 offer:1 reading:1 state:1 funeral:1 ronald:1 reagan:1 washington:1 national:1 cathedral:1 june:1 give:2 lifetime:1 achievement:1 council:1 external:1 link:1 high:1 holiday:1 talk:1 story:1 relation:1 video:1 |@bigram harold_kushner:3 conservative_judaism:1 theological_seminary:1 doctoral_degree:1 honorary_doctorate:1 rabbinical_assembly:2 best_selling:1 simon_wiesenthal:1 ronald_reagan:1 lifetime_achievement:1 external_link:1 |
5,237 | Cuba_Libre | For other meanings of 'Cuba Libre' see Cuba libre (disambiguation) The Cuba Libre (IPA /'kuβ̞a'liβ̞ɾe/ in Spanish, kjuːbʌ liːbɹeɪ/ in English, "Free Cuba") is a highball made of Cola, lime, and rum. This highball is often referred to as a Rum and Coke in the United States and Canada, where the lime juice is optional. History Accounts of the invention of the Cuba Libre vary. One account claims that the drink (Spanish for Free Cuba) was invented in Havana, Cuba around 1900. Patriots aiding Cuba during the Spanish-American War — and, later, expatriates avoiding Prohibition regularly mixed rum and Cola as a highball and a toast to this West Indies island. According to Bacardi: The world's most popular drink was born in a collision between the United States and Spain. It happened during the Spanish-American War at the turn of the century when Teddy Roosevelt, the Rough Riders, and Americans in large numbers arrived in Cuba. One afternoon, a group of off-duty soldiers from the U.S. Signal Corps were gathered in a bar in Old Havana. Fausto Rodriguez, a young messenger, later recalled that a captain came in and ordered Bacardi (Gold) rum and Coca-Cola on ice with a wedge of lime. The captain drank the concoction with such pleasure that it sparked the interest of the soldiers around him. They had the bartender prepare a round of the captain's drink for them. The Bacardi rum and Coke was an instant hit. As it does to this day, the drink united the crowd in a spirit of fun and good fellowship. When they ordered another round, one soldier suggested that they toast ¡Por Cuba Libre! in celebration of the newly freed Cuba. The captain raised his glass and sang out the battle cry that had inspired Cuba's victorious soldiers in the War of Independence. Cuba Libre Cocktail Recipe However, there are some problems with Bacardi's account, as the Spanish-American war was fought in 1898, Cuba's liberation was in 1898, and the Rough Riders left Cuba in September 1898, Theodore Roosevelt Association article on the Rough Riders but Coca-Cola was not available in Cuba until 1900. The Chronicle of Coca-Cola article on thecoca-colacompany.com According to a 1965 deposition by Fausto Rodriguez, the Cuba Libre was first mixed at a Cuban bar in August 1900 by a member of the U.S. Signal Corps, referred to as "John Doe". According to Havana Club: Along with the Mojito and the Daiquiri, the Cuba Libre shares the mystery of its exact origin. The only certainty is that this cocktail was first sipped in Cuba. The year? 1900. 1900 is generally said to be the year that cola first came to Cuba, introduced to the island by American troops. But “Cuba Libre!” was the battle cry of the Cuba Liberation Army during the war of independence that ended in 1878. Popularity This drink was once viewed as exotic, with its dark syrup, made (at that time) from cola nuts and coca. Soon enough, as Charles H. Baker points out in his Gentlemen's Companion of 1934, the Cuba Libre "caught on everywhere throughout the [American] South ... filtered through the North and West," aided by the ample supply of its ingredients. In The American Language, 1921, H.L. Mencken writes of an early variation of the drink: "The troglodytes of western South Carolina coined 'jump stiddy' for a mixture of Coca-Cola and denatured alcohol (usually drawn from automobile radiators); connoisseurs reputedly preferred the taste of what had been aged in Model-T Fords." The drink gained further popularity in the United States after the Andrews Sisters recorded a song (in 1945) named after the drink's ingredients, "Rum and Coca-Cola." Cola and rum were both cheap at the time and this also contributed to the widespread popularity of the concoction. A homemade Cuba Libre Recipe variations The Cuba Pintada ("stained Cuba") is one part rum with two parts club soda and just enough cola so that it tints the club soda. The Cuba Campechana ("straightforward Cuba") contains one part rum topped off with equal parts of club soda and cola. They are both popular refreshments, especially among young people. A recent variation is the Coppertone which uses Malibu Rum (rum with a natural coconut extract) and Cherry Coke (or Cherry Pepsi or Cherry RC Cola) for the cola component. The resulting drink smells like suntan lotion and the name is an allusion to that. Another recent variation is called the Cuba Light made with rum and Diet Coke. Another variation of the Cuba Libre is the Cuban Missile Crisis. Compared to a normal Cuba Libre, it uses a higher proof rum, such as Bacardi 151 (75.5%). An interesting variation of the Cuba Libre popular in the West Indies is a “Hot” Cuba Libre which includes a splash of Caribbean hot sauce (e.g. Capt'n Sleepy's Quintessential Habanero, or Matouk's). Some people substitute Cream Soda and spiced rum to create a bright gold drink, often referred to as a Midas. Another recent variation is the Venezuela Libre, inspired by the increasing cooperation between the revolutionary governments of Venezuela and Cuba. It has 1.5 ounces of Venezuelan White Rum, 1.5 ounces of Venezuelan Gold Rum, 3 ounces of lemon mix, 1 lemon wedge and a dash of angostura bitters, diet coke is used instead of normal coke. Virgin Cuba Libre is Cuba Libre without rum. Local variations The drink's name has evolved somewhat in both Cuba and the United States, where some choose to refer to it as a Mentirita ("a little lie"), in an opinionated reference to Cuban politics. In Nicaragua, when it is mixed using Flor de Caña (the national brand of rum) and cola, it is called a Nica Libre. In Venezuela the Cuba Libre Preparado ("Prepared Cuba Libre") includes a dash of gin and a dash of Angostura bitters. In Spain Rioja Libre is an alternate name for Kalimotxo, a mixture of Spanish red wine and cola popular among the young people. It is named after the Rioja wine region. Cuba Libre is also called "Ron-Cola" and "Cubata" in Spain. In Australia, where the drink enjoys huge popularity, it is known simply as Rum and Coke. It is sold pre-mixed in cans. However, Bundaberg Rum, a dark rum, is generally substituted for white rum, a generic cola is used instead of Coke, and the resulting drink is served without lime. In the , the drink is sometimes known as a Lou Bega, after the popular singer. This variety of the drink is always served with the squeezed lime rubbed around the rim of the glass. In Peru, a variation called Peru Libre is made with pisco rather than rum. In the Netherlands the drink is commonly called Baco, from the two ingredients of Bacardi rum and cola. In Puerto Rico it is called the Qbalibre when it is mixed using Ron Don Q, the rum is prefered by Puerto Ricans over Bacardi. In Beverly Hills, California mixing Captain Morgan's Spiced Rum with Coca-Cola is called a Ted's after Ted's of Beverly Hills Steakhouse proprietor Ted Bell. References | Cuba_Libre |@lemmatized meaning:1 cuba:40 libre:24 see:1 disambiguation:1 ipa:1 kuβ:1 liβ:1 ɾe:1 spanish:6 kjuːbʌ:1 liːbɹeɪ:1 english:1 free:3 highball:3 make:4 cola:20 lime:5 rum:26 often:2 refer:4 coke:8 united:4 state:4 canada:1 juice:1 optional:1 history:1 account:3 invention:1 vary:1 one:5 claim:1 drink:17 invent:1 havana:3 around:3 patriot:1 aid:2 american:7 war:5 later:2 expatriate:1 avoid:1 prohibition:1 regularly:1 mixed:5 toast:2 west:3 indies:1 island:2 accord:3 bacardi:7 world:1 popular:5 bear:1 collision:1 spain:3 happen:1 turn:1 century:1 teddy:1 roosevelt:2 rough:3 rider:3 large:1 number:1 arrive:1 afternoon:1 group:1 duty:1 soldier:4 u:2 signal:2 corp:2 gather:1 bar:2 old:1 fausto:2 rodriguez:2 young:3 messenger:1 recall:1 captain:5 come:2 order:2 gold:3 coca:7 ice:1 wedge:2 concoction:2 pleasure:1 spark:1 interest:1 bartender:1 prepare:2 round:2 instant:1 hit:1 day:1 unite:1 crowd:1 spirit:1 fun:1 good:1 fellowship:1 another:4 suggest:1 por:1 celebration:1 newly:1 raise:1 glass:2 sing:1 battle:2 cry:2 inspire:2 victorious:1 independence:2 cocktail:2 recipe:2 however:2 problem:1 fight:1 liberation:2 leave:1 september:1 theodore:1 association:1 article:2 available:1 chronicle:1 thecoca:1 colacompany:1 com:1 deposition:1 first:3 cuban:3 august:1 member:1 john:1 doe:1 club:4 along:1 mojito:1 daiquiri:1 share:1 mystery:1 exact:1 origin:1 certainty:1 sip:1 year:2 generally:2 say:1 introduce:1 troop:1 army:1 end:1 popularity:4 view:1 exotic:1 dark:2 syrup:1 time:2 nut:1 soon:1 enough:2 charles:1 h:2 baker:1 point:1 gentleman:1 companion:1 caught:1 everywhere:1 throughout:1 south:2 filter:1 north:1 ample:1 supply:1 ingredient:3 language:1 l:1 mencken:1 writes:1 early:1 variation:9 troglodyte:1 western:1 carolina:1 coin:1 jump:1 stiddy:1 mixture:2 denature:1 alcohol:1 usually:1 draw:1 automobile:1 radiator:1 connoisseur:1 reputedly:1 prefer:2 taste:1 age:1 model:1 ford:1 gain:1 andrew:1 sister:1 record:1 song:1 name:5 cheap:1 also:2 contribute:1 widespread:1 homemade:1 pintada:1 stain:1 part:4 two:2 soda:4 tint:1 campechana:1 straightforward:1 contain:1 top:1 equal:1 refreshment:1 especially:1 among:2 people:3 recent:3 coppertone:1 use:6 malibu:1 natural:1 coconut:1 extract:1 cherry:3 pepsi:1 rc:1 component:1 result:1 smell:1 like:1 suntan:1 lotion:1 allusion:1 call:7 light:1 diet:2 missile:1 crisis:1 compare:1 normal:2 high:1 proof:1 interesting:1 indie:1 hot:2 include:2 splash:1 caribbean:1 sauce:1 e:1 g:1 capt:1 n:1 sleepy:1 quintessential:1 habanero:1 matouk:1 substitute:2 cream:1 spice:2 create:1 bright:1 midas:1 venezuela:3 increase:1 cooperation:1 revolutionary:1 government:1 ounce:3 venezuelan:2 white:2 lemon:2 mix:2 dash:3 angostura:2 bitter:2 instead:2 virgin:1 without:2 local:1 evolve:1 somewhat:1 choose:1 mentirita:1 little:1 lie:1 opinionated:1 reference:2 politics:1 nicaragua:1 flor:1 de:1 caña:1 national:1 brand:1 nica:1 preparado:1 gin:1 rioja:2 alternate:1 kalimotxo:1 red:1 wine:2 region:1 ron:2 cubata:1 australia:1 enjoy:1 huge:1 know:2 simply:1 sell:1 pre:1 bundaberg:1 generic:1 resulting:1 serve:2 sometimes:1 lou:1 bega:1 singer:1 variety:1 always:1 squeezed:1 rub:1 rim:1 peru:2 pisco:1 rather:1 netherlands:1 commonly:1 baco:1 puerto:2 rico:1 qbalibre:1 q:1 ricans:1 beverly:2 hill:2 california:1 morgan:1 ted:3 steakhouse:1 proprietor:1 bell:1 |@bigram cuba_libre:20 rum_coke:3 lime_juice:1 havana_cuba:1 rum_cola:3 west_indies:1 rough_rider:3 coca_cola:6 bacardi_rum:2 cocktail_recipe:1 theodore_roosevelt:1 l_mencken:1 diet_coke:2 cuban_missile:1 west_indie:1 angostura_bitter:2 bundaberg_rum:1 puerto_rico:1 puerto_ricans:1 beverly_hill:2 |
5,238 | Ariane_5 | Ariane 5 is a European expendable launch system designed to deliver payloads into geostationary transfer orbit or low Earth orbit. It is manufactured under the authority of the European Space Agency (ESA) and the Centre National d'Etudes Spatiales (CNES), with EADS Astrium Space Transportation (Astrium) as prime contractor, leading a consortium of sub-contractors. The rocket is operated and marketed by Arianespace as part of the Ariane programme. Astrium builds the rockets in Europe and Arianespace launches them from the Guiana Space Centre. It succeeded Ariane 4, but does not derive from it directly. Its development took 10 years and cost $7 billion. Ariane 5 has been refined since the first launch in successive versions, G, G+, GS, ECA, and most recently, ES. ESA originally designed Ariane 5 to launch the manned mini shuttle Hermes, and thus intended it to be "human rated" from the beginning. After ESA cancelled Hermes, the rocket became a purely robotic launcher. Two satellites can be mounted using a SYLDA carrier (SYstème de Lancement Double Ariane). Three main satellites are possible depending on size using SPELTRA (Structure Porteuse Externe Lancement TRiple Ariane). Up to eight secondary payloads, usually small experiment packages or minisatellites, can be carried with an ASAP (Ariane Structure for Auxiliary Payloads) platform. By mid 2007, Arianespace has ordered a total of 99 Ariane 5 launchers from Astrium. The first batch ordered in 1995 consisted of 14 launchers, while the second—P2—batch ordered in 1999 consisted of 20 launchers. A third—PA—batch consisting of 25 ECA and 5 ES launchers was ordered in 2004. The latest batch ordered in mid 2007 consist of another 35 ECA launchers. Through these orders, the Ariane 5 will be the workhorse of Arianespace at least through 2015. Components Cut drawing of an Ariane 5 ECA Vulcain engine Cryogenic main stage Ariane 5’s cryogenic H158 main stage (H173 for Ariane 5 ECA) is called the EPC (Étage Principal Cryotechnique - Cryotechnic Main Stage). It consists of a large tank 30.5 metres high with two compartments, one for 130 tonnes of liquid oxygen and one for 25 tonnes of liquid hydrogen, and a Vulcain engine at the base with thrust of 115 tonnes-force (1.13 meganewtons). This part of the first stage weighs about 15 tonnes when empty. Solid boosters Attached to the sides are two solid rocket boosters (SRBs or EAPs from the French Les Étages d’Accélérations à Poudre), P238 (P241 for Ariane 5 ECA), each weighing about 277 tonnes full. Each delivers a thrust of about 630 tonnes-force (). These SRBs are usually allowed to sink to the bottom of the ocean, but like the Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Boosters they can be recovered with parachutes, and this is occasionally done for post-flight analysis. (Unlike Space Shuttle SRBs Ariane 5 boosters are not reused.) The most recent attempt was for the first Ariane 5 ECA mission. One of the two boosters was successfully recovered and returned to the Guiana Space Center for analysis. Prior to that mission, the last such recovery and testing was done in 2003. In March 2000 the nose cone of an Ariane 5 booster washed ashore on the South Texas coast, and was recovered by beachcombers. Second stages The second stage is on top of the main stage and below the payload. The Ariane 5G used the EPS (Étage à Propergols Stockables - Storable Propellant Stage), which is fueled by monomethylhydrazine (MMH) and nitrogen tetroxide, whereas the Ariane 5 ECA uses the ESC (Étage Supérieur Cryotechnique - Cryogenic Upper Stage), which is fueled by liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen. Fairing The payload and all upper stages are covered at launch by a fairing, which splits off once sufficient altitude has been reached. Ariane 5G+ used and Ariane 5 GS and ES use an improved EPS upper stage. Multiple upper stage burns The EPS upper stage is capable of re-ignition, which has been demonstrated twice. The first demonstration occurred during flight V26, which was launched on 5 October 2007. This was purely to test the engine, and occurred after the payloads had been deployed. The first operational use of restart capability as part of a mission, came on 9 March 2008, when two burns were made to deploy the first Automated Transfer Vehicle into a circular parking orbit. Following spacecraft separation, a third burn took place to de-orbit the upper stage. Variants The original version is dubbed Ariane 5G (Generic) with a launch mass of 737 tonnes. Its payload capability to geostationary transfer orbit (GTO) was initially specified as , but was increased after the qualification flights to . The Ariane 5G+ had an improved second stage, with a GTO capacity of for a single payload. It flew three times in 2004. It was replaced in 2005 by the Ariane 5GS, with the same solid EAP as the Ariane 5 ECA and a modified first Stage with a Vulcain 1B engine. It can carry a single payload of to GTO. The Ariane 5 ECA (Evolution Cryotechnique type A) has a GTO launch capacity of for dual payloads or for a single payload. This variant uses a new Vulcain 2 first-stage engine, and an ESC-A (Etage Supérieur Cryogénique-A) second stage, powered by an HM-7B engine, weighing and carrying of cryogenic propellant. The second stage was previously used as the third stage of Ariane 4; in ECA use, the tanks are modified to shorten stage length. The revised Vulcain has a longer, more efficient nozzle with more efficient flow cycle and denser propellant ratio. The new ratio demanded length modifications to the first-stage tanks. Also, the solid EAP casings have been lightened with new welds, and packed with more propellant. The ESC-A cryogenic second stage does not improve the performance to Low Earth orbit compared to Ariane 5G, and for this reason the Ariane 5 ECA will not be used to launch the Automated Transfer Vehicle (ATV). The Ariane 5 ES-ATV (Evolution Storable-) is used to launch the Automated Transfer Vehicle. It includes all the performance improvements of Ariane 5 ECA on EPC ESA launchers glossary (Etage Principal Cryogénique - main stage) and EAP (Etage d'Accélération à Poudre - solid rocket booster) stages while the second stage is the EPS (Etage à Propergols Stockable) used on Ariane 5GS variants. It is estimated that the Ariane 5 ES-ATV can put up to in LEO. The first such launch occurred at 04:03 GMT on 9 March 2008. Comparable rockets: Delta IV - Atlas V - Chang Zheng 5 - GSLV Mk.III - Angara - Proton - Falcon 9 - H-IIB Future developments Ariane 5 ECB development restarted Ariane 5 ECB was planned to have an ESC-B upper stage using a new Vinci expander cycle type engine. The GTO capacity was to increase to , but ECB was put on hold due to budget cuts. At an ESA conference (December 2005) in Berlin there was no decision to restart or cancel the program, meaning it is currently on hold. The Vinci engine, which is designed to power the Ariane 5 ECB upper stage, is still being developed, though at a lower pace. At the ESA's Council of Ministers 25-26 Nov. 2008 there was an agreement for the funding of a modernized second stage ( see ) Solid propellant stage Work on the Ariane 5 EAP motors have been continued in the Vega programme. The Vega 1st stage engine—the P80 engine—is a shorter derivation of the EAP. The P80 booster casing is made of filament wound graphite epoxy, much lighter than the current stainless steel casing. A new composite steerable nozzle has been developed while new thermal insulation material and a narrower throat improve the expansion ratio and subsequently the overall performance. Additionally, the nozzle now has electromechanical actuators which have replaced the heavier hydraulic ones used for thrust vector control. These developments will probably later make their way back into the Ariane programme. The incorporation of the ESC-B with the improvements to the solid motor casing and an uprated Vulcain engine would deliver to LEO. This would be developed for any lunar missions but the performance of such a design may not be possible if the higher Max-Q for the launch of this rocket poses a constraint on the mass delivered to orbit. Launch history Launch of the 34th Ariane 5 at Kourou. Ariane 5's first test flight (Ariane 5 Flight 501) on 4 June 1996 failed, with the rocket self-destructing 37 seconds after launch because of a malfunction in the control software, which was arguably one of the most expensive computer bugs in history. A data conversion from 64-bit floating point to 16-bit signed integer value had caused a processor trap (operand error). The floating point number had a value too large to be represented by a 16-bit signed integer. Efficiency considerations had led to the disabling of the software handler (in Ada code) for this trap, although other conversions of comparable variables in the code remained protected. The second test flight, L502 on 30 October 1997 was a partial failure. The Vulcain nozzle caused a roll problem, leading to premature shutdown of the core stage. The upper stage operated successfully but could not reach the intended orbit. A subsequent test flight on 21 October 1998 proved successful and the first commercial launch occurred on 10 December 1999 with the launch of the XMM-Newton X-ray observatory satellite. Another partial failure occurred on 12 July 2001, with the delivery of two satellites into an incorrect orbit, at only half the height of the intended GTO. The ESA Artemis telecommunications satellite was able to reach its intended orbit on 31 January 2003, through the use of its experimental ion propulsion system. The next launch did not occur until 1 March 2002, when the Envisat environmental satellite successfully reached an orbit above the Earth in the 11th launch. At , it was the heaviest single payload until the launch of the first ATV on March 9, 2008 (~9000 kg). The first launch of the ECA variant on 11 December 2002 ended in failure when a main booster problem caused the rocket to veer off-course, forcing its self-destruction three minutes into the flight. Its payload of two communications satellites (Stentor and Hot Bird 7), valued at about EUR 630 million, was lost in the ocean. The fault was determined to have been caused by a leak in coolant pipes allowing the nozzle to overheat. After this failure, Arianespace SA delayed the expected January 2003 launch for the Rosetta mission to 26 February 2004, but this was again delayed to early March 2004 due to a minor fault in the foam that protects the cryogenic tanks on the Ariane 5. On 27 September 2003 the last Ariane 5 G boosted three satellites (including the first European lunar probe, SMART-1), in Flight 162. On 18 July 2004 an Ariane 5 G+ boosted what was at the time the heaviest telecommunication satellite ever, Anik F2, weighing almost . The first successful launch of the Ariane 5 ECA took place on 12 February 2005. The payload consisted of the XTAR-EUR military communications satellite, a 'SLOSHSAT' small scientific satellite and a MaqSat B2 payload simulator. The launch had been originally scheduled for October 2004, but additional testing and the military requiring a launch at that time (of an Helios 2A observation satellite) delayed the attempt. On 11 August 2005, the first Ariane 5GS (featuring the Ariane 5 ECA's improved solid motors) boosted Thaïcom-4/iPStar-1, the heaviest telecommunications satellite to date at Gunter's Space Page - Information on Launch vehicles, Satellites, Space Shuttle and Astronautics , into orbit. On 16 November 2005, the third Ariane 5 ECA launch (the second successful ECA launch) took place. It carried a dual payload consisting of Spaceway-F2 for DirecTV and Telkom-2 for PT Telekomunikasi of Indonesia. This was the rocket's heaviest dual payload to date, at more than . On 11 March 2006, the fourth Ariane 5 ECA launch boosted another dual payload to orbit. This payload consisted of Hot Bird 7A for Eutelsat (a replacement for the Hot Bird 7 satellite lost in the first Ariane 5 ECA launch), and SPAINSAT, a Spanish government telecommunications satellite for HISDESAT. On 27 May 2006, an Ariane 5 ECA rocket set a new commercial payload lifting record of 8.2 tonnes. The dual-payload consisted of the Thaicom 5 and Satmex 6 satellites. On 4 May 2007 the Ariane 5 ECA set another new commercial record, lifting into transfer orbit the Astra 1L and Galaxy 17 communication satellites with a combined weight of 8.6 tonnes, and a total payload weight of 9.4 tonnes. This record was again broken by another Ariane 5 ECA, launching the Skynet 5B and Star One C1 satellites, on 11 November 2007. The total payload weight for this launch was . On 9 March 2008, the first Ariane 5 ES-ATV was launched to deliver the first ATV called Jules Verne to the International Space Station. On 18 April 2008, an Ariane 5ECA launched Star One C-2, and Vinasat-1, Vietnam's first satellite. On 20 December 2008, an Ariane 5ECA launched Hot Bird 9 and W2M, both communications satellites developed for Eutelsat. On 12 January 2009, an Ariane 5ECA Launched Hot Bird 10 and NSS-9 Telecommunication satellites, along with two spirale early warning satellites for the French government. Ariane 5 flights Date & Time (UTC) Flight (Vol) 5G, 5G+,5GS ECA ES Serial number Payload Result #04.06.1996 12:34:06 V-89 5G 501 Cluster Failure 130.10.1997 13:43:00 V-101 5G 502 MaqSat H & TEAMSAT, MaqSat B, YES Partial failure 221.10.1998 16:37:21 V-112 5G 503 MaqSat 3, ARD Success 310.12.1999 14:32:07 V-119 5G 504 XMM-Newton Success 421.03.2000 23:28:19 V-128 5G 505 INSAT 3B, AsiaStar Success 514.09.2000 22:54:07 V-130 5G 506 Astra 2B, GE 7 Success 616.11.2000 01:07:07 V-135 5G 507 PAS 1R, Amsat P3D, STRV 1C, STRV 1D Success 720.12.2000 00:26:00 V-138 5G 508 Astra 2D, GE 8 (Aurora 3), LDREX Success 808.03.2001 22:51:00 V-140 5G 509 Eurobird 1, BSat 2a Success 912.07.2001 22:58:00 V-142 5G 510 Artemis, BSat 2b Partial failure 1001.03.2002 01:07:59 V-145 5G 511 Envisat Success 1105.07.2002 23:22:00 V-153 5G 512 Stellat 5, N-Star c Success 1228.08.2002 22:45:00 V-155 5G 513 Atlantic Bird 1, MSG 1, MFD Success 1311.12.2002 22:22:00 V-157 5ECA 517 Hot Bird 7, Stentor, MFD A, MFD B Failure 1409.04.2003 22:52:19 V-160 5G 514 Insat 3A, Galaxy 12 Success 1511.06.2003 22:38:15 V-161 5G 515 Optus C1, BSat 2c Success 1627.09.2003 23:14:46 V-162 5G 516 Insat 3E, eBird 1, SMART-1 Success 1702.03.2004 07:17:44 V-158 5G+ 518 Rosetta Success 1818.07.2004 00:44:00 V-163 5G+ 519 Anik F2 Success 1918.12.2004 16:26:00 V-165 5G+ 520 Helios 2A, Essaim 1, 2, 3 and 4, PARASOL, Nanosat 01 Success 2012.02.2005 21:03:00 V-164 5ECA 521 XTAR-EUR, Maqsat B2, Sloshsat Success 2111.08.2005 08:20:00 V-166 5GS 523 Thaicom 4 - iPStar Success 2213.10.2005 22:32:00 V-168 5GS 524 Syracuse 3A, Galaxy 15 Success 2316.11.2005 23:46:00 V-167 5ECA 522 Spaceway F2, TELKOM-2 Success 2421.12.2005 22:33:00 V-169 5GS 525 Insat 4A, MSG 2, MFD C Success 2511.03.2006 22:32:50 V-170 5ECA 527 Spainsat, MFD C, MFD C, Hot Bird 7A Success 26 26.05.2006 21:08:50 V-171 5ECA 529 Satmex 6, Thaicom 5 Success 27 11.08.2006 22:15:00 V-172 5ECA 531 JCSat 10, Syracuse 3B Success 28 13.10.2006 20:56:00 V-173 5ECA 533 DirecTV-9S, Optus D1, LDREX-2 Success 29 08.12.2006 22:08:00 V-174 5ECA 534 WildBlue 1, AMC 18 Success 30 11.03.2007 22:03 V-175 5ECA 535 Skynet-5A, Insat-4B Success 31 04.05.2007 22:29 V-176 5ECA 536 Astra 1L, Galaxy 17 Success 32 14.08.2007 23:44 V-177 5ECA 537 Spaceway F3, BSAT-3A Success 33 05.10.2007 22:02 V-178 5GS 526 Intelsat 11, Optus D2 Success 34 14.11.2007 22:06 V-179 5ECA 538 Skynet 5B, Star One C1 Success 35 21.12.2007 21:41 V-180 5GS 530 RASCOM-QAF 1, Horizons 2 Success 36 09.03.2008 04:03 V-181 ES ATV 528 Automated Transfer Vehicle-1 - "Jules-Verne" Success 37 18.04.2008 22:17 V-182 5ECA 539 Star One C2, Vinasat-1 Success 38 12.06.2008 22:05 V-183 5ECA 540 Turksat 3A, Skynet-5C Success 39 07.07.2008 21:47 V-184 5ECA 541 BADR-6, ProtoStar I Success 40 14.08.2008 20:44 V-185 5ECA 542 AMC-21, Superbird 7 Success 41 20.12.2008 22:35 V-186 5ECA 543 Eutelsat W2M, Hot Bird 9 Success 42 12.02.2009 22:09 V-187 5ECA 545 Hot Bird 10 , NSS-9 , Spirale A , Spirale B Success 43 14.05.2009 13:12 V-188 5ECA 546 Herschel, Planck Success 44 Upcoming flights Date Flight Model Serial number Payload Result 2009-06-24 V-189 Ariane 5ECA 547 TerreStar-1 Planned 2009-08 V-190 Ariane 5ECA 548 JCSat 12 / Optus D3 Planned 2009-09 V-191 Ariane 5ECA 549 ? / ? Planned 2009-10 V-192 Ariane 5ECA 550 ? / ? Planned 2009-12 V-193 Ariane 5GS 532 Helios IIB Planned2010-11-10 V-xxx Ariane 5ES 544 ATV-2 "Johannes Kepler" Planned Ariane 5GS unit 532 is the final GS model to be launched. See also Comparison of heavy lift launch systems References External links Ariane launches page on LyngSat ESA description of the Ariane 5 Ariane 5 technical notes, available as PDF from http://www.arianespace.com/site/documents/document_sub_index.html Actually Launch on Arianespace Homepage The last and the next Launch BBC News report on the (delayed) successful launch of the Ariane 5 ECA flight on November 16, 2005. Vinci Engine development Watch an Ariane 5 launch (webcast begins 20 mins before launch). 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5,239 | Order_of_magnitude | An order of magnitude is the class of scale or magnitude of any amount, where each class contains values of a fixed ratio to the class preceding it. In its most common usage, the amount being scaled is 10 and the scale is the exponent being applied to this amount. Such differences in order of magnitude can be measured on the logarithmic scale in "factors of ten" or decades (meaning "power of ten", not "10 years"). The entries in the table at right lead to lists of items that are of the same order of magnitude in various units of measurement. This is useful for getting an intuitive sense of the comparative scale of familiar objects. Orders of magnitude are generally used to make very approximate comparisons. If two numbers differ by one order of magnitude, one is about ten times larger than the other. If they differ by two orders of magnitude, they differ by a factor of about 100. Two numbers of the same order of magnitude have roughly the same scale: the larger value is less than ten times the smaller value. This is the reasoning behind significant figures: the amount rounded by is usually a few orders of magnitude less than the total, and therefore insignificant. The order of magnitude of a number is, intuitively speaking, the number of powers of 10 contained in the number. More precisely, the order of magnitude of a number can be defined in terms of the common logarithm, usually as the integer part of the logarithm, obtained by truncation. For example, 4,000,000 has a logarithm of 6.602; its order of magnitude is 6. When truncating, a number of this order of magnitude is between 106 and 107. In a similar example, "He had a seven-figure income", the order of magnitude is the number of figures minus one, so it is very easily determined without a calculator to be 6. An order of magnitude is an approximate position on a logarithmic scale. An order of magnitude estimate of a variable whose precise value is unknown is an estimate rounded to the nearest power of ten. For example, an order of magnitude estimate for a variable between about 3 billion and 30 billion (such as the human population of the Earth) is 10 billion. In other words; when rounding its logarithm, a number of order of magnitude 10 is in between 109.7 and 1010.6. An order of magnitude estimate is sometimes also called a zeroth order approximation. An order of magnitude difference between two values is a factor of 10. For example, the mass of the planet Saturn is 95 times that of Earth, so Saturn is two orders of magnitude more massive than Earth. Order of magnitude differences are called decades when measured on a logarithmic scale. Inwords (long scale) Inwords (short scale) Prefix Decimal Powerof ten Order ofmagnitude quadrillionth septillionth yocto- 0.000000000000000000000001 10−24 −24 trilliardth sextillionth zepto- 0.000000000000000000001 10−21 −21 trillionth quintillionth atto- 0.000000000000000001 10−18 −18 billiardth quadrillionth femto- 0.000000000000001 10−15 −15 billionth trillionth pico- 0.000000000001 10−12 −12 milliardth billionth nano- 0.000000001 10−9 −9 millionth millionth micro- 0.000001 10−6 −6 thousandth thousandth milli- 0.001 10−3 −3 hundredth hundredth centi- 0.01 10−2 −2 tenth tenth deci- 0.1 10−1 −1 one one - 1 100 0 ten ten deca- 10 101 1 hundred hundred hecto- 100 102 2 thousand thousand kilo- 1,000 103 3 million million mega- 1,000,000 106 6 milliard billion giga- 1,000,000,000 109 9 billion trillion tera- 1,000,000,000,000 1012 12 billiard quadrillion peta- 1,000,000,000,000,000 1015 15 trillion quintillion exa- 1,000,000,000,000,000,000 1018 18 trilliard sextillion zetta- 1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 1021 21 quadrillion septillion yotta- 1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 1024 24 Non-decimal orders of magnitude Other orders of magnitude may be calculated using bases other than 10. The ancient Greeks ranked the nighttime brightness of celestial bodies by 6 levels in which each level was twice as bright as the nearest weaker level of brightness, so that the brightest level is 5 orders of magnitude brighter than the weakest, which can also be stated as a factor of 32 times brighter. The different decimal numeral systems of the world use a larger base to better envision the size of the number, and have created names for the powers of this larger base. The table shows what number the order of magnitude aim at for base 10 and for base 1,000,000. It can be seen that the order of magnitude is included in the number name in this example, because bi- means 2 and tri- means 3, and the suffix -illion tells that the base is 1,000,000. But the number names billion, trillion themselves (here with other meaning than in the first chapter) are not names of the orders of magnitudes, they are names of "magnitudes", that is the numbers 1,000,000,000,000 etc. order of magnitude is log10 of is log1000000 of 1 10 1,000,000 million 2 100 1,000,000,000,000 trillion 3 1000 1,000,000,000,000,000,000 quintillion units in the table at right are used together with SI prefixes, which were devised with mainly base 1000 magnitudes in mind. The IEC standard prefixes with base 1024 was invented for use in context of electronic technology. The ancient apparent magnitudes for the brightness of stars uses the base and is reversed. The modernized version has however turned into a logarithmic scale with non-integer values. Extremely large numbers For extremely large numbers, a generalized order of magnitude can be based on their double logarithm or super-logarithm. Rounding these downward to an integer gives categories between very "round numbers", rounding them to the nearest integer and applying the inverse function gives the "nearest" round number. The double logarithm yields the categories: ..., 1.0023–1.023, 1.023–1.26, 1.26–10, 10–1010, 1010–10100, 10100–101000, ... (the first two mentioned, and the extension to the left, may not be very useful, they merely demonstrate how the sequence mathematically continues to the left). The super-logarithm yields the categories: , or negative numbers, 0–1, 1–10, 10–1e10, 1e10–10^1e10, 10^1e10–10^^4, 10^^4–10^^5, etc. (see tetration) The "midpoints" which determine which round number is nearer are in the first case: 1.076, 2.071, 1453, 4.20e31, 1.69e316,... and, depending on the interpolation method, in the second case −.301, .5, 3.162, 1453, 1e1453, 10^1e1453, 10^^2@1e1453,... (see notation of extremely large numbers) For extremely small numbers (in the sense of close to zero) neither method is suitable directly, but of course the generalized order of magnitude of the reciprocal can be considered. Similar to the logarithmic scale one can have a double logarithmic scale (example provided here) and super-logarithmic scale. The intervals above all have the same length on them, with the "midpoints" actually midway. More generally, a point midway between two points corresponds to the generalised f-mean with f(x) the corresponding function log log x or slog x. In the case of log log x, this mean of two numbers (e.g. 2 and 16 giving 4) does not depend on the base of the logarithm, just like in the case of log x (geometric mean, 2 and 8 giving 4), but unlike in the case of log log log x (4 and 65536 giving 16 if the base is 2, but different otherwise). See also Orders of approximation Powers of Ten Orders of magnitude (length) Orders of magnitude (mass) Orders of magnitude (numbers) Big O notation Decibel Logarithmic scale External links Powers of 10, a graphic animated illustration that starts with a view of the Milky Way at 1023 meters and ends with subatomic particles at 10-16 meters. 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5,240 | Law_of_multiple_proportions | John Dalton The law of multiple proportions is one of the basic laws in chemistry, and is a major tool of chemical measurement (stoichiometry). This law states that when elements combine they do so in a ratio of small whole numbers. For example, carbon and oxygen react to form CO or CO2, but not CO1.3 for instance. Furthermore, it states that if two elements form more than one compound between them then the ratios of the masses of the second element combined with a fixed mass of the first element will also be in ratios of small whole numbers. The English chemist John Dalton first expressed this observation in 1803 and it is sometimes called Dalton's Law (although this term usually refers to his law of partial pressures). The three laws Law 1: Law of Conservation of Mass The total mass of all products of a chemical reaction is equal to the total mass of all reactants of that reaction. These statements are summaries of many observations, which required a tremendous amount of experimentation to achieve and even more creative thinking to systematize as we have written them here. By making these assumptions, we can proceed directly with the experiments which led to the development of the atomic-molecular theory. Goals: The statements above, though correct, are actually more vague than they might first appear. For example, exactly what do we mean when we say that all materials are made from elements? Why is it that the elements cannot be decomposed? What does it mean to combine elements into a compound? We want to understand more about the nature of elements and compounds so we can describe the processes by which elements combine to form compounds, by which compounds are decomposed into elements, and by which compounds are converted from one to another during chemical reactions. One possibility for answering these questions is to assume that a compound is formed when indestructible elements are simply mixed together, as for example, if we imagine stirring together a mixture of sugar and sand. Neither the sand nor the sugar is decomposed in the process. And the mixture can be decomposed back into the original components. In this case, though, the resultant mixture exhibits the properties of both components: for example, the mixture would taste sweet, owing to the sugar component, but gritty, characteristic of the sand component. In contrast, the compound we call iron rust bears little resemblance to elemental iron: iron rust does not exhibit elemental iron's color, density, hardness, magnetism, etc. Since the properties of the elements are not maintained by the compound, then the compound must not be a simple mixture of the elements. We could, of course, jump directly to the answers to these questions by stating that the elements themselves are composed of atoms: indivisible, identical particles distinctive of that element. Then a compound is formed by combining the atoms of the composite elements. Certainly, the Law of Conservation of Mass would be easily explained by the existence of immutable atoms of fixed mass. However, if we do decide to jump to conclusions and assume the existence of atoms without further evidence (as did the leading chemists of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries), it does not lead us anywhere. What happens to iron when, after prolonged heating in air, it converts to iron rust? Why is it that the resultant combination of iron and air does not maintain the properties of either, as we would expect if the atoms of each are mixed together? An atomic view of nature would not yet provide any understanding of how the air and the iron have interacted or combined to form the new compound, and we can't make any predictions about how much iron will produce how much iron rust. There is no basis for making any statements about the properties of these atoms. We need further observations. Observation 1: Mass relationships during chemical reactions The Law of Conservation of Mass, by itself alone, does not require an atomic view of the elements. Mass could be conserved even if matter were not atomic. The importance of the Law of Conservation of Mass is that it reveals that we can usefully measure the masses of the elements which are contained in a fixed mass of a compound. As an example, we can decompose copper carbonate into its constituent elements, copper, oxygen, and carbon, weighing each and taking the ratios of these masses. The result is that every sample of copper carbonate is 51.5% copper, 38.8% oxygen, and 9.7% carbon. Stated differently, the masses of copper, oxygen, and carbon are in the ratio of 5.3 : 4 : 1, for every measurement of every sample of copper carbonate. Similarly, lead sulfide is 86.7% lead and 13.3% sulfur, so that the mass ratio for lead to sulfur in lead sulfide is always 6.5 : 1. Every sample of copper carbonate and every sample of lead sulfide will produce these elemental proportions, regardless of how much material we decompose or where the material came from. These results are examples of a general principle known as the Law of Definite Proportions. Law 2: Law of Definite Proportions When two or more elements combine to form a compound, their masses in that compound are in a fixed and definite ratio. This data helps justify an atomic view of matter. We can simply argue that, for example, lead sulfide is formed by taking one lead atom and combining it with one sulfur atom. If this were true, then we also must conclude that the ratio of the mass of a lead atom to that of a sulfur atom is the same as the 6.5 : 1 lead to sulfur mass ratio we found for the bulk lead sulfide. This atomic explanation looks like the definitive answer to the question of what it means to combine two elements to make a compound, and it should even permit prediction of what quantity of lead sulfide will be produced by a given amount of lead. For example, 6.5g of lead will produce exactly 7.5g of lead sulfide, 50g of lead will produce 57.7g of lead sulfide, etc. There is a problem, however. We can illustrate with three compounds formed from hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. The three mass proportion measurements are given in Table 1. First we examine nitric oxide, to find that the mass proportion is 8 : 7 oxygen to nitrogen. If this is one nitrogen atom combined with one oxygen atom, we would expect that the mass of an oxygen atom is 8/7=1.14 times that of a nitrogen atom. Second we examine ammonia, which is a combination of nitrogen and hydrogen with the mass proportion of 7 : 1.5 nitrogen to hydrogen. If this is one nitrogen combined with one hydrogen, we would expect that a nitrogen atom mass is 4.67 times that of a hydrogen atom mass. These two expectations predict a relationship between the mass of an oxygen atom and the mass of a hydrogen atom. If the mass of an oxygen atom is 1.14 times the mass of a nitrogen atom and if the mass of a nitrogen atom is 4.67 times the mass of a hydrogen atom, then we must conclude that an oxygen atom has a mass which is 1.14 × 4.67 = 5.34 times that of a hydrogen atom. But there is a problem with this calculation. The third line of Table 1 shows that the compound formed from hydrogen and oxygen is water, which is found to have mass proportion 8:1 oxygen to hydrogen. Our expectation should then be that an oxygen atom mass is 8.0 times a hydrogen atom mass. Thus the three measurements in Table 1 appear to lead to contradictory expectations of atomic mass ratios. How are we to reconcile these results? + Table 1: Mass Relationships for Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Oxygen Compounds Compound Total Mass Mass of Hydrogen Mass of Nitrogen Mass of Oxygen "Expected" Relative Atomic Mass of Hydrogen "Expected" Relative Atomic Mass of Nitrogen "Expected" Relative Atomic Mass of Oxygen Nitric Oxide 15.0 g - 7.0 g 8.0 g - 7.0 8.0 Ammonia 8.5 g 1.5 g 7.0 g - 1.5 7.0 - Water 9.0 g 1.0 g - 8.0 g 1.0 - 8.0 One possibility is that we were mistaken in assuming that there are atoms of the elements which combine to form the different compounds. If so, then we would not be surprised to see variations in relative masses of materials which combine. Another possibility is that we have erred in our reasoning. Looking back, we see that we have to assume how many atoms of each type are contained in each compound to find the relative masses of the atoms. In each of the above examples, we assumed the ratio of atoms to be 1:1 in each compound. If there are atoms of the elements, then this assumption must be wrong, since it gives relative atomic masses which differ from compound to compound. How could we find the correct atomic ratios? It would help if we knew the ratio of the atomic masses: for example, if we knew that the oxygen to hydrogen mass ratio were 8:1, then we could conclude that the atomic ratio in water would be 1 oxygen and 1 hydrogen. Our reasoning seems to circular: to know the atomic masses, we must know the formula of the compound (the numbers of atoms of each type), but to know the formula we must know the masses. Which of these possibilities is correct? Without further observations, we cannot say for certain whether matter is composed of atoms or not. Observation 2: Multiple Mass Ratios Significant insight into the above problem is found by studying different compounds formed from the same elements. For example, there are actually three oxides of nitrogen, that is, compounds composed only of nitrogen and oxygen. For now, we will call them oxide A, oxide B, and oxide C. Oxide A has oxygen to nitrogen mass ratio 2.28 : 1. Oxide B has oxygen to nitrogen mass ratio 1.14 : 1, and oxide C has oxygen to nitrogen mass ratio 0.57 : 1. The fact that there are three mass ratios might seem to contradict the Law of Definite Proportions, which on the surface seems to say that there should be just one ratio. However, each mass combination gives rise to a completely unique chemical compound with very different chemical properties. For example, oxide A is very toxic, whereas oxide C is used as an anesthetic. It is also true that the mass ratio is not arbitrary or continuously variable: we cannot pick just any combination of masses in combining oxygen and nitrogen, rather we must obey one of only three. So there is no contradiction: we simply need to be careful with the Law of Definite Proportions to say that each unique compound has a definite mass ratio of combining elements. These new mass ratio numbers are highly suggestive in the following way. Notice that, in each case, we took the ratio of oxygen mass to a nitrogen mass of 1, and that the resultant ratios have a very simple relationship: 2.28:1.14:0.57 = 2:1:0.5 = 4:2:1 The masses of oxygen appearing in these compounds are in simple whole number ratios when we take a fixed amount of nitrogen. The appearance of these simple whole numbers is very significant. These integers imply that the compounds contain a multiple of a fixed unit of mass of oxygen. The simplest explanation for this fixed unit of mass is that oxygen is particulate. We call the fixed unit of mass an atom. We now assume that the compounds have been formed from combinations of atoms with fixed masses, and that different compounds have differing numbers of atoms. The mass ratios make it clear that oxide B contains twice as many oxygen atoms (per nitrogen atom) as does oxide C and half as many oxygen atoms (per nitrogen atom) as does oxide A. The simple mass ratios must be the result of the simple ratios in which atoms combine into molecules. If, for example, oxide C has the molecular formula NO, then oxide B has the formula NO2, and oxide A has the formula NO4. There are other possibilities: if oxide B has molecular formula NO, then oxide A has formula NO2, and oxide C has formula N2O. Or if oxide A has formula NO, then oxide B has formula N2O and oxide C has formula N4O. These three possibilities are listed in Table 2. + Table 2: Possible Molecular Formulas for Nitrogen Oxides+ Assuming that: Oxide C is NO Oxide B is NO Oxide A is NO Oxide A NO4 NO2 NO Oxide B NO2 NO N2O Oxide C NO N2O N4O We don't have a way (from these data) to know which of these sets of molecular formula are right. But we can assert that either one of them or one analogous to them is right. Similar data are found for any set of compounds formed from common elements. For example, there are two oxides of carbon, one with oxygen-to-carbon mass ratio 1.33:1 and the other with mass ratio 2.66:1. The second oxide must have twice as many oxygen atoms, per carbon atom, as does the first. The general statement of this observation is the Law of Multiple Proportions. Law 3: Law of Multiple Proportions When two elements are forced together to form more than one compound, the mass of element A combines in the first compound with a specific amount of element B and has a simple whole number ratio, while the mass of element A which combines in the second compound with the same given mass of element B. This sounds confusing, but an example clarifies this statement. Consider the carbon oxides, and let carbon be element B and oxygen be element A. Take a fixed given mass of carbon (element B), say 1 gram. The mass of oxygen which combines with 1 gram of carbon to form the first oxide is 1.33 grams. The mass of oxygen which combines with 1 gram of carbon to form the second oxide is 2.66. These masses are in ratio 2.66:1.33=2:1, a simple whole number ratio. In explaining our observations of the Law of Multiple Proportions for the carbon oxides and the nitrogen oxides, we have concluded that the simple mass ratio arises from the simple ratio of atoms contained in the individual molecules. Thus, we have established the following postulates of the Atomic Molecular Theory. In short, the law of multiple proportions states: "When two elements form more than one compound, the different masses of one element that are combined with the same mass of the other element are in a ratio of small whole numbers." See also Dalton's atomic theory References This article incorporates text from the Connexions article "About: The Atomic Molecular Theory" by author John S. Hutchinson, which was released under the Creative Commons - Attribution (CC-by) 1.0 license. This statement is included in accordance with the license attribution requirements | Law_of_multiple_proportions |@lemmatized john:3 dalton:4 law:21 multiple:7 proportion:14 one:19 basic:1 chemistry:1 major:1 tool:1 chemical:6 measurement:4 stoichiometry:1 state:5 element:37 combine:21 ratio:38 small:3 whole:7 number:10 example:15 carbon:13 oxygen:35 react:1 form:18 co:1 instance:1 furthermore:1 two:7 compound:39 mass:82 second:5 fixed:10 first:7 also:4 english:1 chemist:2 express:1 observation:8 sometimes:1 call:4 although:1 term:1 usually:1 refer:1 partial:1 pressure:1 three:8 conservation:4 total:3 product:1 reaction:4 equal:1 reactant:1 statement:6 summary:1 many:5 require:2 tremendous:1 amount:4 experimentation:1 achieve:1 even:3 creative:2 thinking:1 systematize:1 write:1 make:6 assumption:2 proceed:1 directly:2 experiment:1 lead:20 development:1 atomic:18 molecular:7 theory:4 goal:1 though:2 correct:3 actually:2 vague:1 might:2 appear:3 exactly:2 mean:3 say:5 material:4 cannot:3 decompose:6 want:1 understand:1 nature:2 describe:1 process:2 convert:2 another:2 possibility:6 answer:3 question:3 assume:7 indestructible:1 simply:3 mixed:2 together:4 imagine:1 stir:1 mixture:5 sugar:3 sand:3 neither:1 back:2 original:1 component:4 case:2 resultant:3 exhibit:2 property:5 would:9 taste:1 sweet:1 owe:1 gritty:1 characteristic:1 contrast:1 iron:10 rust:4 bear:1 little:1 resemblance:1 elemental:3 color:1 density:1 hardness:1 magnetism:1 etc:2 since:2 maintain:2 must:9 simple:11 could:4 course:1 jump:2 compose:3 atom:43 indivisible:1 identical:1 particle:1 distinctive:1 composite:1 certainly:1 easily:1 explain:2 existence:2 immutable:1 however:3 decide:1 conclusion:1 without:2 evidence:1 seventeenth:1 eighteenth:1 century:1 u:1 anywhere:1 happen:1 prolonged:1 heating:1 air:3 combination:5 either:2 expect:6 view:3 yet:1 provide:1 understanding:1 interact:1 new:2 prediction:2 much:3 produce:5 basis:1 need:2 relationship:4 alone:1 conserve:1 matter:3 importance:1 reveal:1 usefully:1 measure:1 contain:5 copper:7 carbonate:4 constituent:1 weigh:1 take:5 result:4 every:5 sample:4 differently:1 similarly:1 sulfide:8 sulfur:5 always:1 regardless:1 come:1 general:2 principle:1 know:8 definite:6 data:3 help:2 justify:1 argue:1 true:2 conclude:4 find:7 bulk:1 explanation:2 look:2 like:1 definitive:1 permit:1 quantity:1 give:6 problem:3 illustrate:1 hydrogen:16 nitrogen:25 table:6 examine:2 nitric:2 oxide:37 time:6 ammonia:2 expectation:3 predict:1 calculation:1 third:1 line:1 show:1 water:3 thus:2 contradictory:1 reconcile:1 relative:6 g:9 mistake:1 different:5 surprise:1 see:3 variation:1 err:1 reasoning:1 type:2 wrong:1 differ:2 reason:1 seem:3 circular:1 formula:13 certain:1 whether:1 significant:2 insight:1 study:1 b:12 c:9 fact:1 contradict:1 surface:1 rise:1 completely:1 unique:2 toxic:1 whereas:1 use:1 anesthetic:1 arbitrary:1 continuously:1 variable:1 pick:1 rather:1 obey:1 contradiction:1 careful:1 highly:1 suggestive:1 following:1 way:2 notice:1 appearance:1 integer:1 imply:1 unit:3 particulate:1 clear:1 twice:2 per:3 half:1 atoms:1 molecule:2 list:1 possible:1 set:2 right:2 assert:1 analogous:1 similar:1 common:2 force:1 specific:1 sound:1 confusing:1 clarify:1 consider:1 let:1 gram:4 arise:1 individual:1 establish:1 follow:1 postulate:1 short:1 reference:1 article:2 incorporate:1 text:1 connexion:1 author:1 hutchinson:1 release:1 attribution:2 cc:1 license:2 include:1 accordance:1 requirement:1 |@bigram seventeenth_eighteenth:1 nitric_oxide:2 hydrogen_atom:5 nitrogen_oxide:2 carbon_atom:1 |
5,241 | Pot_odds | In poker, pot odds are the ratio of the current size of the pot to the cost of a contemplated call. In other words, if the pot contains $100, and a player must call $10 to stay in the hand, then the player has 100-to-10, or 10-to-1 (commonly expressed as 10:1), pot odds. Pot odds are often compared to the probability of winning a hand with a future card in order to estimate the call's expected value. Indeed, a common usage of the term is to say that one "has pot odds", meaning that the present pot odds, compared to one's estimated chance of winning, make it profitable to call. Converting pot odds to percentage values Pot odds are a ratio, but having their percentage value will often make them easier to work with. The ratio has two numbers: the Size of the Pot, and the Cost of the Call. To get the percentage value, we add the Size of the Pot and the Cost of the Call numbers together and record their Sum. We then divide the Cost of the Call by the Sum. For example, the pot is $30, and the cost of the call is $10. The pot odds in this situation are 30:10, or 3:1 when simplified. To get the percentage, we add $30 plus $10 get a sum of $40. Now we divide $10 by $40, giving us 0.25, or 25 percent. Using pot odds to determine expected value When a player holds a drawing hand, or a hand that is behind now but is likely to win if a certain card is drawn, pot odds are used to determine the expected value of that hand when the player is faced with a bet. The expected value of a call is determined by comparing the pot odds to the odds of drawing a card that wins the pot. When the odds of drawing a card that wins the pot are numerically higher than the pot odds, the call has a positive expectation; on average, you win a portion of the pot that is greater than the cost of the call. Conversely, if the odds of drawing a winning card are numerically lower than the pot odds, the call has a negative expectation, and you can expect to win less money on average than it costs to call the bet. Implied pot odds Implied pot odds, or simply implied odds, are calculated the same way as pot odds, but take into consideration estimated future betting. Implied odds are calculated in situations where the player expects to fold in the following round if the draw is missed, thereby losing no additional bets, but expects to gain additional bets when the draw is made. Since the player expects to always gain additional bets in later rounds when the draw is made, and never lose any additional bets when the draw is missed, the extra bets that the player expects to gain, excluding his own, can fairly be added to the current size of the pot. This adjusted pot value is known as the implied pot. Example (Texas Hold'em) On the second to last betting round, Alice's hand is certainly behind and she faces a $1 call to win a $10 pot against a single opponent. There are four cards remaining in the deck that make her hand a certain winner. Her odds of drawing to one of those cards is 10.5:1 (8.7 percent). Since the pot lays 10:1, Alice will lose money by calling if there is no future betting. However, she expects her opponent to call her additional $1 bet which she will make when she makes her draw. She will fold when she misses her draw (and lose no additional bets). Her implied pot odds are 11:1 ($10 plus the expected $1 call, to her additional $1 bet). This call now has a positive expectation. Reverse implied pot odds Reverse implied pot odds, or simply reverse implied odds, apply to situations where a player will win the minimum if he has the best hand but lose the maximum if he does not have the best hand. Aggressive actions (bets and raises) are subject to reverse implied odds, because they win the minimum if they win immediately (the current pot), but may lose the maximum if called (the current pot plus the called bet or raise). These situations may also occur when a player has a made hand with little chance of improving what he believes may currently be the best hand, but an opponent continues to bet. If the opponent is weak or bluffing, he will likely give up after the player calls and not call any bets the player makes. If the opponent has a superior hand, he will continue the hand (extracting additional bets or calls from the player). Limit Texas hold'em example With one card to come, Alice holds a made hand with little chance of improving and faces a $10 call to win a $30 pot. If her opponent is weak or bluffing, Alice expects no further bets or calls from her opponent. If her opponent has a superior hand, Alice expects the opponent to bet another $10 on the end. Therefore, if Alice wins, she only expects to win the $30 currently in the pot, but if she loses, she expects to lose $20 ($10 call on the turn plus $10 call on the river). Because she is risking $20 to win $30, Alice's reverse implied pot odds are 1.5-to-1 ($30/$20) or 40 percent (1/(1.5+1)). For calling to have a positive expectation, Alice must believe the probability of her opponent having a weak hand is over 40 percent. Manipulating pot odds Often a player will bet to manipulate the pot odds offered to other players. A common example of manipulating pot odds is make a bet to protect a made hand that discourages opponents from chasing a drawing hand. No-limit Texas hold 'em example With one card to come, Bob has a made hand, but the board shows a potential flush draw. Bob wants to bet enough to make it wrong for an opponent with a flush draw to call, but Bob doesn't want to bet more than he has to in the event the opponent already has him beat. How much should Bob bet? Assume a $20 pot and one opponent. If Bob bets $10 (half the pot), when his opponent acts, the pot will be $30 and it will cost $10 to call. The opponent's pot odds will be 3-to-1, or 25 percent. If the opponent is on a flush draw (9/46, approximately 19.565 percent or 4.11-to-1 odds against with one card to come), the pot is not offering adequate pot odds for the opponent to call unless the opponent thinks he can induce additional final round betting from Bob if the opponent completes his flush draw (see implied pot odds). A bet of $6.42, resulting in pot odds of 4.11-to-1, would make his opponent mathematically indifferent to calling. Bluffing frequency According to David Sklansky, Game theory shows that a player should bluff a percentage of the time equal to his opponent's pot odds to call the bluff. For example, in the final betting round, if the pot is $30 and a player is contemplating a $30 bet (which will give his opponent 2-to-1 pot odds for the call), the player should bluff half as often as he would bet for value (one out of three times). However, this conclusion does not take into account some of the context of specific situations. A player's bluffing frequency often accounts for many different factors, particularly the tightness or looseness of their opponents. Bluffing against a tight player is more likely to induce a fold than bluffing against a loose player, who is more likely to call the bluff. Sklansky's strategy is an equilibrium strategy in the sense that it is optimal against someone playing an optimal strategy against it. See also List of poker terms Poker strategy Poker probability Poker probability (Texas hold 'em) Poker probability (Omaha) Notes References External links How to calculate pot odds Pot Odds & Implied Odds Pot Odds & Calling a Bluff Intermediate & Advanced Pot Odds Calculations Pot Odds vs Pot Equity Understanding and Calculating Pot Odds | Pot_odds |@lemmatized poker:6 pot:58 odds:45 ratio:3 current:4 size:4 cost:8 contemplated:1 call:36 word:1 contain:1 player:20 must:2 stay:1 hand:19 commonly:1 express:1 often:5 compare:3 probability:5 win:16 future:3 card:10 order:1 estimate:3 expect:12 value:9 indeed:1 common:2 usage:1 term:2 say:1 one:8 meaning:1 present:1 chance:3 make:13 profitable:1 convert:1 percentage:5 easy:1 work:1 two:1 number:2 get:3 add:3 together:1 record:1 sum:3 divide:2 example:6 situation:5 simplify:1 plus:4 give:3 u:1 percent:6 use:2 determine:3 hold:6 drawing:2 behind:2 likely:4 certain:2 draw:15 expected:3 face:3 bet:27 numerically:2 high:1 positive:3 expectation:4 average:2 portion:1 great:1 conversely:1 low:1 negative:1 less:1 money:2 imply:7 simply:2 implied:6 calculate:4 way:1 take:2 consideration:1 betting:4 fold:3 following:1 round:5 miss:3 thereby:1 lose:8 additional:9 gain:3 since:2 always:1 late:1 never:1 extra:1 exclude:1 fairly:1 adjust:1 know:1 texas:4 em:4 second:1 last:1 alice:8 certainly:1 single:1 opponent:24 four:1 remain:1 deck:1 winner:1 lay:1 however:2 reverse:5 apply:1 minimum:2 best:3 maximum:2 aggressive:1 action:1 raise:2 subject:1 immediately:1 may:3 also:2 occur:1 little:2 improve:2 believe:2 currently:2 continue:2 weak:3 bluffing:4 superior:2 extract:1 limit:2 come:3 made:2 another:1 end:1 therefore:1 turn:1 river:1 risk:1 manipulate:3 offer:2 protect:1 discourage:1 chase:1 bob:6 board:1 show:2 potential:1 flush:4 want:2 enough:1 wrong:1 event:1 already:1 beat:1 much:1 assume:1 half:2 act:1 approximately:1 adequate:1 unless:1 think:1 induce:2 final:2 complete:1 see:2 result:1 would:2 mathematically:1 indifferent:1 frequency:2 accord:1 david:1 sklansky:2 game:1 theory:1 bluff:7 time:2 equal:1 contemplate:1 three:1 conclusion:1 account:2 context:1 specific:1 many:1 different:1 factor:1 particularly:1 tightness:1 looseness:1 tight:1 loose:1 strategy:4 equilibrium:1 sense:1 optimal:2 someone:1 play:1 list:1 omaha:1 note:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 intermediate:1 advance:1 calculation:1 vs:1 equity:1 understanding:1 |@bigram pot_odds:36 expected_value:2 betting_round:2 odds_bet:1 external_link:1 |
5,242 | Alan_Turing | Alan Mathison Turing, OBE, FRS () (23 June, 1912 – 7 June, 1954) was a British mathematician, logician, cryptanalyst and computer scientist. Turing is often considered to be the father of modern computer science. He provided an influential formalisation of the concept of the algorithm and computation with the Turing machine. Of his role in the modern computer, Time Magazine in naming Turing one of the 100 most influential people of the 20th century, states: "The fact remains that everyone who taps at a keyboard, opening a spreadsheet or a word-processing program, is working on an incarnation of a Turing machine." http://www.time.com/time/time100/scientist/profile/turing.html With the Turing test, meanwhile, he made a significant and characteristically provocative contribution to the debate regarding artificial intelligence: whether it will ever be possible to say that a machine is conscious and can think. He later worked at the National Physical Laboratory, creating one of the first designs for a stored-program computer, the ACE, although it was never actually built in its full form. In 1948, he moved to the University of Manchester to work on the Manchester Mark 1, then emerging as one of the world's earliest true computers. During the Second World War, Turing worked at Bletchley Park, Britain's codebreaking centre, and was for a time head of Hut 8, the section responsible for German naval cryptanalysis. He devised a number of techniques for breaking German ciphers, including the method of the bombe, an electromechanical machine that could find settings for the Enigma machine. Near the end of his life Turing became interested in chemistry. He wrote a paper on the chemical basis of morphogenesis<ref>A.M. Turing, "The Chemical Basis of Morphogenesis", Philosophical Transactions of The Royal Society of London, series B, volume 237, pages 37–72, 1952.</ref> and he predicted oscillating chemical reactions such as the Belousov–Zhabotinsky reaction, which were first observed in the 1960s. Turing was homosexual, living in an era when homosexuality was still both illegal and officially considered a mental illness. Subsequent to his being outed, he was criminally prosecuted, which essentially ended his career. He died not long after under ambiguous circumstances. Childhood and youth Alan Turing was conceived in Chhatrapur, Orissa, India. Hodges, 1983, p. 5 His father, Julius Mathison Turing, was a member of the Indian Civil Service. Julius and wife Sara (née Stoney; 1881 – 1976, daughter of Edward Waller Stoney, chief engineer of the Madras Railways) wanted Alan to be brought up in England, so they returned to Maida Vale, London, where Alan Turing was born on 23 June 1912, as recorded by a blue plaque on the outside of the building, now the Colonnade Hotel. He had an elder brother, John. His father's civil service commission was still active, and during Turing's childhood years his parents travelled between Guildford, England and India, leaving their two sons to stay with friends in Hastings in England. Very early in life, Turing showed signs of the genius he was to display more prominently later. His parents enrolled him at St Michael's, a day school, at the age of six. The headmistress recognised his talent early on, as did many of his subsequent educators. In 1926, at the age of 14, he went on to Sherborne School, a famous and expensive public school in Dorset. His first day of term coincided with the General Strike in Britain, but so determined was he to attend his first day that he rode his bicycle unaccompanied more than from Southampton to school, stopping overnight at an inn. The computer room at King's is now named after Turing, who became a student there in 1931 and a Fellow in 1935 Turing's natural inclination toward mathematics and science did not earn him respect with some of the teachers at Sherborne, whose definition of education placed more emphasis on the classics. His headmaster wrote to his parents: "I hope he will not fall between two schools. If he is to stay at public school, he must aim at becoming educated. If he is to be solely a Scientific Specialist, he is wasting his time at a public school". Hodges, 1983, p. 26 Despite this, Turing continued to show remarkable ability in the studies he loved, solving advanced problems in 1927 without having even studied elementary calculus. In 1928, aged 16, Turing encountered Albert Einstein's work; not only did he grasp it, but he extrapolated Einstein's questioning of Newton's laws of motion from a text in which this was never made explicit. Hodges, 1983, p. 34 Turing's hopes and ambitions at school were raised by the close friendship he developed with a slightly older fellow student, Christopher Morcom, who was Turing's first love interest. Morcom died suddenly only a few weeks into their last term at Sherborne, from complications of bovine tuberculosis, contracted after drinking infected cow's milk as a boy. ** Turing's religious faith was shattered and he became an atheist. He adopted the conviction that all phenomena, including the workings of the human brain, must be materialistic. Paul Gray, "Alan Turing," Time Magazine's Most Important People of the Century, p.2 University and his work on computability Turing's unwillingness to work as hard on his classical studies as on science and mathematics meant failure to win a scholarship to Trinity College, Cambridge, and he went on to the college of his second choice, King's College, Cambridge. He was an undergraduate there from 1931 to 1934, graduating with a distinguished degree, and in 1935 was elected a fellow at King's on the strength of a dissertation on the central limit theorem. In his momentous paper "On Computable Numbers, with an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem" (and ) (submitted on 28 May 1936), Turing reformulated Kurt Gödel's 1931 results on the limits of proof and computation, replacing Gödel's universal arithmetic-based formal language with what are now called Turing machines, formal and simple devices. He proved that some such machine would be capable of performing any conceivable mathematical problem if it were representable as an algorithm, even if no actual Turing machine would be likely to have practical applications, being much slower than practically realisable alternatives. Turing machines are to this day the central object of study in theory of computation. He went on to prove that there was no solution to the Entscheidungsproblem by first showing that the halting problem for Turing machines is undecidable: it is not possible to decide, in general, algorithmically whether a given Turing machine will ever halt. While his proof was published subsequent to Alonzo Church's equivalent proof in respect to his lambda calculus, Turing's work is considerably more accessible and intuitive. It was also novel in its notion of a 'Universal (Turing) Machine', the idea that such a machine could perform the tasks of any other machine. The paper also introduces the notion of definable numbers. From September 1936 to July 1938 he spent most of his time at the Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton University, studying under Alonzo Church. As well as his pure mathematical work, he studied cryptology and also built three of four stages of an electro-mechanical binary multiplier. Hodges, 1983, p. 138 In June 1938 he obtained his Ph.D. from Princeton; his dissertation introduced the notion of relative computing, where Turing machines are augmented with so-called oracles, allowing a study of problems that cannot be solved by a Turing machine. Back in Cambridge, he attended lectures by Ludwig Wittgenstein about the foundations of mathematics. Hodges, 1983, p. 152 The two argued and disagreed, with Turing defending formalism and Wittgenstein arguing that mathematics does not discover any absolute truths but rather invents them. Hodges, 1983, pp. 153-154 He also started to work part-time with the Government Code and Cypher School (GCCS). Cryptanalysis Two cottages in the stable yard at Bletchley Park. Turing worked here from 1939 – 1940 until he moved to Hut 8 During the Second World War, Turing was a main participant in the efforts at Bletchley Park to break German ciphers. Building on cryptanalysis work carried out in Poland by Marian Rejewski, Jerzy Różycki and Henryk Zygalski from Cipher Bureau before the war, he contributed several insights into breaking both the Enigma machine and the Lorenz SZ 40/42 (a Teletype cipher attachment codenamed "Tunny" by the British), and was, for a time, head of Hut 8, the section responsible for reading German naval signals. Since September 1938, Turing had been working part-time for the Government Code and Cypher School (GCCS), the British code breaking organisation. He worked on the problem of the German Enigma machine, and collaborated with Dilly Knox, a senior GCCS codebreaker. Jack Copeland, "Colossus and the Dawning of the Computer Age", p. 352 in Action This Day, 2001 On 4 September 1939, the day after the UK declared war on Germany, Turing reported to Bletchley Park, the wartime station of GCCS. Copeland, 2006 p. 378 Turing–Welchman bombe Replica of a bombe machine Within weeks of arriving at Bletchley Park, Turing had designed an electromechanical machine which could help break Enigma faster than bomba from 1932, the bombe, named after and building upon the original Polish-designed bomba. The bombe, with an enhancement suggested by mathematician Gordon Welchman, became one of the primary tools, and the major automated one, used to attack Enigma-protected message traffic. Professor Jack Good, cryptanalyst working at the time with Turing at Bletchley Park, later said: "Turing's most important contribution, I think, was of part of the design of the bombe, the cryptanalytic machine. He had the idea that you could use, in effect, a theorem in logic which sounds to the untrained ear rather absurd; namely that from a contradiction, you can deduce everything." "The Men Who Cracked Enigma", 2003. The bombe searched for possibly correct settings used for an Enigma message (i.e., rotor order, rotor settings, etc.), and used a suitable "crib": a fragment of probable plaintext. For each possible setting of the rotors (which had of the order of 1019 states, or 1022 for the U-boat Enigmas which eventually had four rotors, compared to the usual Enigma variant's three), Professor Jack Good in "The Men Who Cracked Enigma", 2003: with his caveat: "if my memory is correct" the bombe performed a chain of logical deductions based on the crib, implemented electrically. The bombe detected when a contradiction had occurred, and ruled out that setting, moving onto the next. Most of the possible settings would cause contradictions and be discarded, leaving only a few to be investigated in detail. Turing's bombe was first installed on 18 March 1940. Hodges, 1983, p. 191. Over two hundred bombes were in operation by the end of the war. Hut 8 and Naval Enigma In December 1940, Turing solved the naval Enigma indicator system, which was more mathematically complex than the indicator systems used by the other services. Turing also invented a Bayesian statistical technique termed "Banburismus" to assist in breaking Naval Enigma. Banburismus could rule out certain orders of the Enigma rotors, reducing time needed to test settings on the bombes. In the spring of 1941, Turing proposed marriage to Hut 8 co-worker Joan Clarke, although the engagement was broken off by mutual agreement in the summer. In July 1942, Turing devised a technique termed Turingismus or Turingery for use against the Lorenz cipher used in the Germans' new Geheimschreiber machine ("secret writer") which was one of those codenamed "Fish". He also introduced the Fish team to Tommy Flowers who, under the guidance of Max Newman, went on to build the Colossus computer, the world's first programmable digital electronic computer, which replaced simpler prior machines (including the "Heath Robinson") and whose superior speed allowed the brute-force decryption techniques to be applied usefully to the daily-changing cyphers. Copeland, 2006, p. 72. A frequent misconception is that Turing was a key figure in the design of Colossus; this was not the case. Copeland, 2006, pp. 382-383. While working at Bletchley, Turing, a talented long-distance runner, occasionally ran the 40 kilometres to London when he was needed for high-level meetings. Bodyguard of Lies, by Anthony Cave Brown, 1975. Turing travelled to the United States in November 1942 and worked with U.S. Navy cryptanalysts on Naval Enigma and bombe construction in Washington, and assisted at Bell Labs with the development of secure speech devices. He returned to Bletchley Park in March 1943. During his absence, Hugh Alexander had officially assumed the position of head of Hut 8, although Alexander had been de facto head for some time — Turing having little interest in the day-to-day running of the section. Turing became a general consultant for cryptanalysis at Bletchley Park. In the latter part of the war he moved to work at Hanslope Park, where he further developed his knowledge of electronics with the assistance of engineer Donald Bailey. Together they undertook the design and construction of a portable secure voice communications machine codenamed Delilah. Hodges, 1983, p. 270 It was intended for different applications, lacking capability for use with long-distance radio transmissions, and in any case, Delilah was completed too late to be used during the war. Though Turing demonstrated it to officials by encrypting/decrypting a recording of a Winston Churchill speech, Delilah was not adopted for use. In 1945, Turing was awarded the OBE for his wartime services, but his work remained secret for many years. A biography published by the Royal Society shortly after his death recorded: Early computers and the Turing test From 1945 to 1947 he was at the National Physical Laboratory, where he worked on the design of the ACE (Automatic Computing Engine). He presented a paper on 19 February 1946, which was the first detailed design of a stored-program computer. Copeland, 2006, p. 108. Although ACE was a feasible design, the secrecy surrounding the wartime work at Bletchley Park led to delays in starting the project and he became disillusioned. In late 1947 he returned to Cambridge for a sabbatical year. While he was at Cambridge, the Pilot ACE was built in his absence. It executed its first program on 10 May 1950. In 1948 he was appointed Reader in the Mathematics Department at Manchester. In 1949 he became deputy director of the computing laboratory at the University of Manchester, and worked on software for one of the earliest true computers — the Manchester Mark 1. During this time he continued to do more abstract work, and in "Computing machinery and intelligence" (Mind, October 1950), Turing addressed the problem of artificial intelligence, and proposed an experiment now known as the Turing test, an attempt to define a standard for a machine to be called "intelligent". The idea was that a computer could be said to "think" if it could fool an interrogator into thinking that the conversation was with a human. In the paper, Turing suggested that rather than building a program to simulate the adult mind, it would be better rather to produce a simpler one to simulate a child's mind and then to subject it to a course of education. This approach is adopted by the Texai.org project. Bootstrap Dialog: A Conversational English Text Parsing and Generation System, in Artificial General Intelligence Conference Proceedings, Arlington, Virginia, USA, (2009) In 1948, Turing, working with his former undergraduate colleague, D.G. Champernowne, began writing a chess program for a computer that did not yet exist. In 1952, lacking a computer powerful enough to execute the program, Turing played a game in which he simulated the computer, taking about half an hour per move. The game was recorded; Alan Turing vs Alick Glennie (1952) "Turing Test." the program lost to Turing's colleague Alick Glennie, although it is said that it won a game against Champernowne's wife. Pattern formation and mathematical biology Turing worked from 1952 until his death in 1954 on mathematical biology, specifically morphogenesis. He published one paper on the subject called "The Chemical Basis of Morphogenesis" in 1952, putting forth the Turing hypothesis of pattern formation. "Control Mechanism For Biological Pattern Formation Decoded" in ScienceDaily (Nov. 30, 2006) His central interest in the field was understanding Fibonacci phyllotaxis, the existence of Fibonacci numbers in plant structures. He used reaction–diffusion equations which are now central to the field of pattern formation. Later papers went unpublished until 1992 when Collected Works of A.M. Turing was published. Chemical castration Homosexual acts were illegal in the United Kingdom and regarded as a mental illness and subject to criminal sanctions. In 1952, Arnold Murray, a 19-year-old recent acquaintance of Turing's, cf. Hodges, pp. 449–455 helped an accomplice to break into Turing's house, and Turing reported the crime to the police. As a result of the police investigation, Turing acknowledged a sexual relationship with Murray, and Turing and Murray were charged with gross indecency under Section 11 of the Criminal Law Amendment Act 1885, the same crime Oscar Wilde had been convicted of more than fifty years before. Leavitt, David The Man Who Knew Too Much, p. 268, W. W. Norton & Co., 2006 ISBN 0-393-05236-2 Turing was given a choice between imprisonment and probation, conditional on his undergoing hormonal treatment designed to reduce libido. To avoid jail, he accepted chemical castration via estrogen hormone injections Turing, Alan (1912–1954) which lasted for a year. His conviction led to a removal of his security clearance and prevented him from continuing consultancy for GCHQ on cryptographic matters. At the time, there was acute public anxiety about spies and homosexual entrapment by Soviet agents, possibly due to the recent exposure of the first two members of the Cambridge Five, Guy Burgess and Donald Maclean, as KGB double agents. Turing was never accused of espionage but, as with all who had worked at Bletchley Park, could not discuss his war work. Death On 8 June 1954, Turing's cleaner found him dead; the previous day, he had died of cyanide poisoning, apparently from a cyanide-laced apple he left half-eaten beside his bed. The apple itself was never tested for contamination with cyanide, but a post-mortem established that the cause of death was cyanide poisoning. Most believe that his death was intentional, and the death was ruled a suicide. His mother, however, strenuously argued that the ingestion was accidental due to his careless storage of laboratory chemicals. Biographer Andrew Hodges suggests that Turing may have killed himself in this ambiguous way quite deliberately, to give his mother some plausible deniability. Hodges, 1983, pp. 488-489. Others suggest that Turing was re-enacting a scene from Snow White, his favourite fairy tale. Ferris, Timothy. Seeing in the Dark. 2002. p. 250 Because Turing's homosexuality would have been perceived as a security risk, the possibility of assassination has also been suggested. Supporters of the assassination theory point out that Turing's British passport was not revoked after his conviction (although he was denied entry to the United States). He was still free to teach mathematics and to travel to other European countries, which he did on many occasions. His remains were cremated at Woking crematorium on 12 June 1954. Posthumous recognition Since 1966, the Turing Award has been given annually by the Association for Computing Machinery to a person for technical contributions to the computing community. It is widely considered to be the computing world's equivalent to the Nobel Prize. Various tributes to Turing have been made in Manchester, the city where he worked towards the end of his life. In 1994 a stretch of the A6010 road (the Manchester city intermediate ring road) was named Alan Turing Way. A bridge carrying this road was widened, and carries the name 'Alan Turing Bridge'. He is cited as a hero by American novelist Thomas Pynchon. The novel 'Gravity's Rainbow' was, allegedly, in part inspired by Turing. Alan Turing memorial statue in Sackville Park A statue of Turing was unveiled in Manchester on 23 June 2001. It is in Sackville Park, between the University of Manchester building on Whitworth Street and the Canal Street 'gay village'. A celebration of Turing's life and achievements arranged by the British Logic Colloquium and the British Society for the History of Mathematics was held on 5 June 2004 at the University of Manchester; the Alan Turing Institute was initiated in the university that summer. The building housing the School of Mathematics, the Photon Science Institute and the Jodrell Bank Centre for Astrophysics is named the Alan Turing Building and was opened in July 2007. On 23 June 1998, on what would have been Turing's 86th birthday, Andrew Hodges, his biographer, unveiled an official English Heritage Blue Plaque at his birthplace and childhood home in Warrington Crescent, London, now the Colonnade hotel. To mark the 50th anniversary of his death, a memorial plaque was unveiled on 7 June 2004 at his former residence, Hollymeade, in Wilmslow, south Manchester. Plaque marking Turing's home For his achievements in computing, various universities have honoured him. On 28 October 2004 a bronze statue of Alan Turing sculpted by John W Mills was unveiled at the University of Surrey in Guildford. The statue marks the 50th anniversary of Turing's death. It portrays him carrying his books across the campus. Turing Road in the University's Research Park predates this. A building in the School of Technology at Oxford Brookes University is called the Turing Building. The Polytechnic University of Puerto Rico and Los Andes University in Bogotá, Colombia, both have computer laboratories named after Turing. The University of Texas at Austin has an honours computer science programme named the Turing Scholars. Istanbul Bilgi University organises an annual conference on the theory of computation called Turing Days. The computer room in King's College, Cambridge is named the "Turing Room" after him. Carnegie Mellon University has a granite bench, situated in The Hornbostel Mall, with the name "A. M. Turing" carved across the top, "Read" down the left leg, and "Write" down the other. The Boston GLBT pride organization named Turing their 2006 Honorary Grand Marshal. On 13 March 2000, St Vincent & The Grenadines issued a set of stamps to celebrate the greatest achievements of the twentieth century, one of which carries a recognisable portrait of Turing against a background of repeated 0s and 1s, and is captioned '1937: Alan Turing's theory of digital computing'. A 1.5-ton, life-size statue of Turing was unveiled on 19 June 2007 at Bletchley Park. Built from approximately half a million pieces of Welsh slate, it was sculpted by Stephen Kettle, having been commissioned by the late American billionaire Sidney Frank. Bletchley Park Unveils Statue Commemorating Alan Turing, Bletchley Park press release, 20 June 2007 The Turing Relay Turing Trail Relay is a six-stage relay race on riverside footpaths from Ely to Cambridge and back. These paths were used for running by Turing while at Cambridge; his marathon best time was 2 hours, 46 minutes. The Alan Turing Internet Scrapbook: Alan Turing: world class distance runner The marathon world best time in the early 1940s was in the range of 2 hours, 25 minutes. Experimental music duo Matmos, whose members are a homosexual couple, released a limited edition EP in 2006 entitled For Alan Turing. See also Unorganized machine Good–Turing frequency estimation Philosophy of information Turing degree Turing switch Alan Turing Year References Further reading Agar, Jon (2002). The Government Machine. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-01202-2 Beniger, James (1986). The Control Revolution: Technological and Economic Origins of the Information Society. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-16986-7 Campbell-Kelly, Martin (ed.) (1994). Passages in the Life of a Philosopher. London: William Pickering. ISBN 0-8135-2066-5 Campbell-Kelly, Martin, and Aspray, William (1996). Computer: A History of the Information Machine. New York: Basic Books. ISBN 0-465-02989-2 Ceruzzi, Paul (1998). A History of Modern Computing. Cambridge, Massachusetts, and London: MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-53169-0 Chandler, Alfred (1977). The Visible Hand: The Managerial Revolution in American Business. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Belknap Press. ISBN 0-674-94052-0 Edwards, Paul N (1996). The Closed World. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-55028-8 Hodges, Andrew (1983). Alan Turing: The Enigma of Intelligence. London: Burnett Books. ISBN 0-04-510060-8 Hochhuth, Rolf. Alan Turing Leavitt, David (2006) "The Man Who Knew Too Much - Alan Turing and the invention of the computer" Orion Books ltd ISBN 978-0-7538-2200-5 Lubar, Steven (1993) Infoculture. Boston and New York: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-395-57042-5 Petzold, Charles (2008). "The Annotated Turing: A Guided Tour through Alan Turing's Historic Paper on Computability and the Turing Machine". Indianapolis: Wiley Publishing. ISBN 978-0-470-22905-7 Smith, Roger (1997). Fontana History of the Human Sciences. London: Fontana. Weizenbaum, Joseph (1976). Computer Power and Human Reason. London: W.H. Freeman. ISBN 0-7167-0463-3 Williams, Michael R. (1985). A History of Computing Technology. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. ISBN 0-8186-7739-2 Turing's mother, Sara Turing, who survived him by many years, wrote a biography of her son glorifying his life. Published in 1959, it could not cover his war work; scarcely 300 copies were sold (Sara Turing to Lyn Newman, 1967, Library of St John's College, Cambridge). The six-page foreword by Lyn Irvine includes reminiscences and is more frequently quoted. Breaking the Code'' is a 1986 play by Hugh Whitemore, telling the story of Turing's life and death. In the original West End and Broadway runs, Derek Jacobi played Turing – and he recreated the role in a 1997 television film based on the play made jointly by the BBC and WGBH, Boston. The play is published by Amber Lane Press, Oxford. ASIN: B000B7TM0Q External links Alan Turing site maintained by Andrew Hodges including a short biography Alan Turing – Towards a Digital Mind: Part 1 AlanTuring.net - Turing Archive for the History of Computing by Jack Copeland Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry The Turing Archive - contains scans of some unpublished documents and material from the Kings College archive Time 100:Alan Turing Alan Turing in the RKBExplorer The Mind and the Computing Machine a 1949 discussion of Alan Turing and others Alan Turing Year website CiE 2012: Turing Centenary Conference website Papers An extensive list of Turing's papers, reports and lectures, plus translated versions and collections Turing's paper titled "On Computable Numbers with an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem" (PDF) | Alan_Turing |@lemmatized alan:29 mathison:2 turing:139 obe:2 frs:1 june:12 british:6 mathematician:2 logician:1 cryptanalyst:3 computer:22 scientist:2 often:1 consider:3 father:3 modern:3 science:6 provide:1 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5,243 | Kista | Kista seen from above. Kista (Swedish: ) is a district of Stockholm Municipality in Sweden belonging to Rinkeby-Kista borough. Located northwest of central Stockholm, Kista is divided by the Stockholm Metro blue line into a western part which is primarily residential, and an eastern part occupied by commercial ventures, mostly in the telecommunication and computer industry. Kista hosts the IT University, a joint venture between the Royal Institute of Technology and Stockholm University. Because of its computer industries, Kista became referred to as Chipsta or Sweden's Silicon Valley in the 1980s. Kista is named after an old farm, still located in the area. The construction of the modern parts were started in the 1970s. The streets in Kista are named after towns and famous people from Denmark and Iceland. Business and industry Kista Science Tower The construction of the industrial section of Kista began in the 1970s with companies such as SRA (Svenska Radio Aktiebolaget, now a part of Ericsson), RIFA (later Ericsson Microelectronics and now Infineon Technologies) and IBM Svenska AB (the Swedish branch of IBM). The number of employees in Eastern Kista now ranges between 25,000 and 35,000. Ericsson is headquartered in Kista since 2003. See also Kista Science Tower Kista metro station External links Kista Science City The IT University Kista panoramas | Kista |@lemmatized kista:16 see:2 swedish:2 district:1 stockholm:4 municipality:1 sweden:2 belonging:1 rinkeby:1 borough:1 locate:2 northwest:1 central:1 divide:1 metro:2 blue:1 line:1 western:1 part:4 primarily:1 residential:1 eastern:2 occupy:1 commercial:1 venture:2 mostly:1 telecommunication:1 computer:2 industry:3 host:1 university:3 joint:1 royal:1 institute:1 technology:2 become:1 referred:1 chipsta:1 silicon:1 valley:1 name:2 old:1 farm:1 still:1 area:1 construction:2 modern:1 start:1 street:1 town:1 famous:1 people:1 denmark:1 iceland:1 business:1 science:3 tower:2 industrial:1 section:1 begin:1 company:1 sra:1 svenska:2 radio:1 aktiebolaget:1 ericsson:3 rifa:1 later:1 microelectronics:1 infineon:1 ibm:2 ab:1 branch:1 number:1 employee:1 range:1 headquarter:1 since:1 also:1 station:1 external:1 link:1 city:1 panorama:1 |@bigram joint_venture:1 silicon_valley:1 external_link:1 |
5,244 | Abatis | Abatisses are used in war to keep the approaching enemy under fire for as long as possible. Abatis, abattis, or abbattis (a French word meaning a heap of material thrown) is a term in field fortification for an obstacle formed of the branches of trees laid in a row, with the sharpened tops directed outwards, towards the enemy. The trees are usually interlaced or tied with wire. Abatis are used alone or in combination with wire entanglements and other obstacles. There is evidence it was used as early as the Roman Imperial, and as recently as the American Civil War. Abatis is rarely seen nowadays, having been largely replaced by wire obstacles. However, it may be used as a replacement or supplement when barbed wire is in short supply. A form of giant abatis, using whole trees instead of branches, can be used as an improvised anti-tank obstacle. An important weakness of abatis, in contrast to barbed wire, is that it can be destroyed by fire. Also, if laced together with rope instead of wire, the rope can be very quickly destroyed by such fires, after which the abatis can be quickly pulled apart by grappling hooks thrown from a safe distance. An important advantage is that an improvised abatis can be quickly formed in forested areas. This can be done by simply cutting down a row of trees so that they fall with their tops toward the enemy. An alternative is to place explosives so as to blow the trees down. United States military symbol for an abatis Though rarely used by modern conventional military units, abatises are still officially maintained in United States Army and Marine Corps training. Current training instructs engineers or other constructors of such obstacles to fell trees, leaving a 1 or 2 meter stump, in such a manner as the trees fall interlocked pointing at a 45 degree angle towards the direction of approach of the enemy. Furthermore, it is recommended that the trees remain connected to the stumps and the length of roadway covered be at least 75 meters. US military maps record an abatis by use of an inverted "V" with a short line extending from it to the right. United States Army and United States Marine Corps, FM 101-5-1/MCRP 5-2A Operational Terms and Graphics, 30 September 1997 References External links Pamplin Historical Park & The National Museum of the Civil War Soldier includes large and authentic reproduction of abatis used in the U.S. Civil War. | Abatis |@lemmatized abatis:12 use:9 war:4 keep:1 approach:2 enemy:4 fire:3 long:1 possible:1 abattis:1 abbattis:1 french:1 word:1 mean:1 heap:1 material:1 thrown:1 term:2 field:1 fortification:1 obstacle:5 form:3 branch:2 tree:8 lay:1 row:2 sharpened:1 top:2 direct:1 outwards:1 towards:2 usually:1 interlace:1 tie:1 wire:6 alone:1 combination:1 entanglement:1 evidence:1 early:1 roman:1 imperial:1 recently:1 american:1 civil:3 rarely:2 see:1 nowadays:1 largely:1 replace:1 however:1 may:1 replacement:1 supplement:1 barbed:1 short:2 supply:1 giant:1 whole:1 instead:2 improvised:2 anti:1 tank:1 important:2 weakness:1 contrast:1 barb:1 destroy:2 also:1 lace:1 together:1 rope:2 quickly:3 pull:1 apart:1 grapple:1 hook:1 throw:1 safe:1 distance:1 advantage:1 forested:1 area:1 simply:1 cut:1 fall:2 toward:1 alternative:1 place:1 explosive:1 blow:1 united:4 state:4 military:3 symbol:1 though:1 modern:1 conventional:1 unit:1 still:1 officially:1 maintain:1 army:2 marine:2 corp:2 training:2 current:1 instructs:1 engineer:1 constructor:1 fell:1 leave:1 meter:2 stump:2 manner:1 interlocked:1 pointing:1 degree:1 angle:1 direction:1 furthermore:1 recommend:1 remain:1 connect:1 length:1 roadway:1 cover:1 least:1 u:2 map:1 record:1 inverted:1 v:1 line:1 extend:1 right:1 fm:1 mcrp:1 operational:1 graphic:1 september:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 pamplin:1 historical:1 park:1 national:1 museum:1 soldier:1 include:1 large:1 authentic:1 reproduction:1 |@bigram barbed_wire:1 barb_wire:1 marine_corp:2 external_link:1 |
5,245 | Fundamental_theorem_of_arithmetic | In number theory and algebraic number theory, the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic (or Unique-Prime-Factorization Theorem) states that any integer greater than 1 can be written as a unique product (up to ordering of the terms) of prime numbers. For example, are two examples of numbers satisfying the hypothesis of the theorem, that can be written as the product of prime numbers. Intuitively, this theorem characterizes prime numbers uniquely in the sense that they are the "core of all numbers". Proof of existence of a prime factorization is straightforward: proof of uniqueness is more challenging. Some proofs use the fact that if a prime number p divides the product of two natural numbers a and b, then p divides either a or b, a statement known as Euclid's lemma. Since multiplication on the integers is both commutative and associative, it does not matter in what way we write a number greater than 1 as the product of primes; it is generally common to write the (prime) factors in the order of smallest to largest. There are natural extensions of the hypothesis of this theorem, which allow any non-zero integer to be expressed as the product of "prime numbers" and "invertibles". For example, 1 and -1 are allowed to be factors of such representations (although they are not considered to be prime). In this way, one can extend the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic to any Euclidean domain or principal ideal domain bearing in mind certain alterations to the hypothesis of the theorem. A ring in which the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic holds, is called a unique factorization domain. Many authors take the natural numbers to begin with 0, which has no prime factorization. Thus Theorem 1 of takes the form, “Every positive integer, except 1, is a product of primes”, and Theorem 2 (their "Fundamental") asserts uniqueness. By convention, the number 1 is not itself prime, but since it is the product of no numbers, it is often convenient to include it in the theorem by the empty product rule. (See, for example, Calculating the gcd.) Applications The fundamental theorem of arithmetic establishes the importance of prime numbers. Prime numbers are the basic building blocks of any positive integer, in the sense that each positive integer can be constructed from the product of primes with one unique construction. Finding the prime factorization of an integer allows derivation of all its divisors, both prime and non-prime. For example, the above factorization of 6936 shows that any positive divisor of 6936 must have the form 2a × 3b × 17c, where a takes one of the 4 values in {0, 1, 2, 3}, where b takes one of the 2 values in {0, 1}, and where takes one of the 3 values in {0, 1, 2}. Multiplying the numbers of independent options together produces a total of 4 × 2 × 3 = 24 positive divisors. Once the prime factorizations of two numbers are known, their greatest common divisor and least common multiple can be found quickly. For instance, from the above it is shown that the greatest common divisor of 6936 and 1200 is 23 × 3 = 24. However, if the prime factorizations are not known, the use of the Euclidean algorithm generally requires much less calculation than factoring the two numbers. The fundamental theorem ensures that additive and multiplicative arithmetic functions are completely determined by their values on the powers of prime numbers. Proof The theorem was practically proved by Euclid (in book 7 of Euclid's elements, propositions 30 and 32), but the first full and correct proof is found in the Disquisitiones Arithmeticae by Carl Friedrich Gauss. It may be important to note that Egyptians like Ahmes used earlier practical aspects of the factoring, and lowest common multiple, of the fundamental theorem of arithmetic allowing a long tradition to develop, as formalized by Euclid, and rigorously proven by Gauss. Although at first sight the theorem seems 'obvious', it does not hold in more general number systems, including many rings of algebraic integers. This was first pointed out by Ernst Kummer in 1843, in his work on Fermat's Last Theorem. The recognition of this failure is one of the earliest developments in algebraic number theory. Euclid's proof (of existence) The proof consists of two steps. In the first step every number is shown to be a product of zero or more primes. In the second, the proof shows that any two representations may be unified into a single representation. Non-prime composite numbers Suppose there were a positive integer which cannot be written as a product of primes. Then there must be a smallest such number (see well-order): let it be n. This number n cannot be 1, because of the empty-product convention above. It cannot be a prime number either, since any prime number is a product of a single prime, itself. So it must be a composite number. Thus n = ab where both a and b are positive integers smaller than n. Since n is the smallest number which cannot be written as a product of primes, both a and b can be written as products of primes. But then n = ab can be written as a product of primes as well, a proof by contradiction. This is a minimal counterexample argument. Proof of uniqueness The key step in proving uniqueness is Euclid's proposition 30 of book 7 (known as Euclid's lemma), which states that, for any prime number p and any natural numbers a, b: if p divides ab then either p divides a or p divides b. This may be proved as follows: Suppose that a prime p divides ab (where a, b are natural numbers) but does not divide a. We must prove that p divides b. Since p does not divide a, the greatest common divisor of p and a is . By Bézout's identity, it follows that for some integers x, y (possibly negative), Multiplying both sides by b, Since p divides both summands on the left, p divides b. A proof of the uniqueness of the prime factorization of a given integer proceeds as follows. Let s be the smallest natural number that can be written as (at least) two different products of prime numbers. Denote these two factorizations of s as p1···pm and q 1···qn, such that s = p1p2···pm = q 1q2···qn. By Euclid's proposition either p1 divides q1, or p1 divides q 2···qn. Both q1 and q 2···qn must have unique prime factorizations (since both are smaller than s), and thus p1 = qj (for some j). But by removing p1 and qj from the initial equivalence we have a smaller integer factorizable in two ways, contradicting our initial assumption. Therefore there can be no such s, and all natural numbers have a unique prime factorization. Alternate proof Assume that s is the least integer that can be written as (at least) two different products of prime numbers. Denote these two factorizations of s as p1···pm and q 1···qn, such that s = p1p2···pm = q 1q2···qn. No pi (with 1 ≤ i ≤ m) can be equal to any qj (with 1 ≤ j ≤ n</sub>), as there would otherwise be a smaller integer factorizable in two ways (by removing prime factors common in both products), violating the above assumption. Now it can be assumed without loss of generality that p1 is a prime factor smaller than any q j (with 1 ≤ j ≤ n). Let d be the quotient and r the remainder from dividing q 1 by p1. By the division algorithm d and r are guaranteed to be integers such that q 1 = dp1 + r and 0 ≤ r < p1. Note immediately that since q 1 is prime it cannot be a multiple of p1 and thus Also, since q1 is greater than p1 Substituting in for q1 in the original definition of s above, By distributivity: Define a new integer k = s −dp1q2···qn = rq2···qn. Since d≥ 1, it is clear that k must be smaller than s. And since r>0, k must be positive. From the definition of k, it follows that: and by factoring out p1: Therefore there is a prime factorization of k that includes p1. But it is also true that Since r < p1, p1 cannot be a prime factor of r. Thus, by combining the prime factors of r with q2···qn, it is also possible to construct a prime factorization of k that does not include p1. Therefore k has two different prime factorizations. However, an even smaller number than k must exist with more than one prime factorization by the same reasoning. This gives an infinite descent of such numbers, which is impossible because there are no positive integers for which there are an infinite number of smaller positive integers. Thus there can exist no such numbers. Generalizations The Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic generalizes to various contexts; for example in the context of ring theory, where the field of algebraic number theory develops. A ring is said to be a unique factorization domain if the Fundamental theorem of arithmetic (for non-zero elements) holds there. For example, any Euclidean domain or principal ideal domain is necessarily a unique factorization domain. Specifically, a field is trivially a unique factorization domain. See also Fundamental theorem of algebra Fundamental theorem of calculus Integer factorization Prime signature Unique factorization domain References External links GCD and the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic at cut-the-knot PlanetMath: Proof of fundamental theorem of arithmetic Fermat's Last Theorem Blog: Unique Factorization, A blog that covers the history of Fermat's Last Theorem from Diophantus of Alexandria to the proof by Andrew Wiles. "Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic" by Hector Zenil, Wolfram Demonstrations Project, 2007. | Fundamental_theorem_of_arithmetic |@lemmatized number:42 theory:5 algebraic:4 fundamental:14 theorem:26 arithmetic:11 unique:11 prime:48 factorization:23 state:2 integer:20 great:6 write:10 product:19 order:3 term:1 example:7 two:13 satisfy:1 hypothesis:3 intuitively:1 characterize:1 uniquely:1 sense:2 core:1 proof:14 existence:2 straightforward:1 uniqueness:5 challenging:1 use:3 fact:1 p:12 divide:14 natural:7 b:11 either:4 statement:1 know:4 euclid:8 lemma:2 since:12 multiplication:1 commutative:1 associative:1 matter:1 way:4 generally:2 common:7 factor:8 small:12 large:1 extension:1 allow:4 non:4 zero:3 express:1 invertibles:1 representation:3 although:2 consider:1 one:7 extend:1 euclidean:3 domain:9 principal:2 ideal:2 bearing:1 mind:1 certain:1 alteration:1 ring:4 hold:3 call:1 many:2 author:1 take:5 begin:1 thus:6 form:2 every:2 positive:10 except:1 assert:1 convention:2 often:1 convenient:1 include:4 empty:2 rule:1 see:3 calculate:1 gcd:2 applications:1 establishes:1 importance:1 basic:1 building:1 block:1 construct:2 construction:1 find:3 derivation:1 divisor:6 show:4 must:8 value:4 multiply:2 independent:1 option:1 together:1 produce:1 total:1 least:4 multiple:3 quickly:1 instance:1 however:2 algorithm:2 require:1 much:1 less:1 calculation:1 ensure:1 additive:1 multiplicative:1 function:1 completely:1 determine:1 power:1 practically:1 prove:5 book:2 element:2 proposition:3 first:4 full:1 correct:1 disquisitiones:1 arithmeticae:1 carl:1 friedrich:1 gauss:2 may:3 important:1 note:2 egyptian:1 like:1 ahmes:1 earlier:1 practical:1 aspect:1 factoring:1 low:1 long:1 tradition:1 develop:2 formalize:1 rigorously:1 sight:1 seem:1 obvious:1 general:1 system:1 point:1 ernst:1 kummer:1 work:1 fermat:3 last:3 recognition:1 failure:1 early:1 development:1 consist:1 step:3 second:1 unify:1 single:2 composite:2 suppose:2 cannot:6 well:2 let:3 n:8 ab:4 contradiction:1 minimal:1 counterexample:1 argument:1 key:1 follow:4 bézout:1 identity:1 x:1 possibly:1 negative:1 side:1 summands:1 left:1 give:2 proceeds:1 different:3 denote:2 pm:4 q:10 qn:9 qj:3 j:4 remove:2 initial:2 equivalence:1 factorizable:2 contradict:1 assumption:2 therefore:3 alternate:1 assume:2 pi:1 equal:1 sub:1 would:1 otherwise:1 violate:1 without:1 loss:1 generality:1 quotient:1 r:8 remainder:1 division:1 guarantee:1 immediately:1 also:4 substituting:1 original:1 definition:2 distributivity:1 define:1 new:1 k:8 clear:1 true:1 combine:1 possible:1 even:1 exist:2 reasoning:1 infinite:2 descent:1 impossible:1 generalization:1 generalizes:1 various:1 context:2 field:2 say:1 necessarily:1 specifically:1 trivially:1 algebra:1 calculus:1 signature:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 cut:1 knot:1 planetmath:1 blog:2 cover:1 history:1 diophantus:1 alexandria:1 andrew:1 wile:1 hector:1 zenil:1 wolfram:1 demonstration:1 project:1 |@bigram prime_factorization:13 euclid_lemma:2 commutative_associative:1 unique_factorization:6 factorization_domain:5 common_divisor:3 euclidean_algorithm:1 additive_multiplicative:1 disquisitiones_arithmeticae:1 carl_friedrich:1 friedrich_gauss:1 ernst_kummer:1 minimal_counterexample:1 bézout_identity:1 q_qn:6 integer_factorization:1 external_link:1 cut_knot:1 andrew_wile:1 wolfram_demonstration:1 |
5,246 | Craig_Charles | Craig Charles (born 11 July 1964, Liverpool) is an English actor, stand up comedian, author, poet, radio and television presenter and former professional footballer, best known for playing Dave Lister in the British cult-favourite sci-fi sitcom Red Dwarf. He is currently appearing as Lloyd Mullaney in the long-running soap opera Coronation Street. Early life Craig Charles was born to a multiracial family in Liverpool; his father was black and his mother was white Irish. Craig Charles bbc.co.uk He grew up on the Cantril Farm estate and went to school with Micky Quinn, who grew up to be a professional footballer. Before turning to entertainment, Charles played professional football, most notably for Tranmere Rovers. Career Early career He started out his career as a contemporary and urban performance poet on the British cabaret circuit, and his performances were considered original and Charles was described as having a natural ironic wit which appealed to talent scouts. Charles began to appear on television, including the late-night comedy programme, Saturday Live, and later became a presenter of children's television programmes, such as What's That Noise on BBC1. He also appeared, weekly, as a John Cooper Clarke-style 'punk poet' on the BBC1 pop music television programme The Oxford Road Show. In 1990, Charles was heard on London Radio Station Kiss 100 as the Breakfast show presenter. Red Dwarf fame Charles acquired cult status in 1988 as the Liverpudlian slob, Dave Lister, in BBC2's long-running sci-fi comedy television series Red Dwarf. This was a role Charles played in all eight series until 1999 and in the three part special for television channel Dave in 2009. Other television work Charles has appeared briefly in a number of television shows such as EastEnders, Holby City, The Bill, Lexx, The 10 Percenters, Doctors and Celebrity Weakest Link. He was also involved in the controversial mockumentary Ghostwatch in 1992. Charles' other acting work includes briefly playing the title role in the short-lived Channel 4 sitcom Captain Butler (1997). He has also presented a number of television programmes, most notably at the end of the 1990s and early 2000s. Among his credits as a presenter are the virtual reality game show Cyberzone (1993) on BBC2; the late-night entertainment show Funky Bunker (1997) on ITV; the reality television show Jailbreak (2000) on Five; the late-night chat show Weapons of Mass Distraction (2004) on ITV; and most notably Robot Wars on BBC Two from 1998–2003, and on Five from 2003–2004. He also provided the voice-over for the UK version of the Japanese hit TV show Takeshi's Castle, shown on Challenge and Ftn, and was a team captain on the sci-fi-based quiz show Space Cadets (1997) on Channel 4. In 2005, Charles joined the cast of ITV's long-running soap opera Coronation Street, playing philandering taxicab driver Lloyd Mullaney. Later that year, he participated in the Channel 4 reality sports show, The Games, coming fourth overall in the men's competition. Radio work Since 2003 Charles has been a DJ on BBC 6 Music, presenting The Craig Charles Funk Show, a funk and soul radio show. He was briefly suspended from Coronation Street and BBC 6 Music in June 2006 whilst the production companies investigated allegations of crack cocaine usage. Charles returned to presenting his show from 4 November 2006, but the programme is now renamed The Funk & Soul Show and has been reduced from two shows per week to one, airing on Saturdays from 6-9pm. Film roles Charles starred in two feature films in 2007, Clubbing to Death and Fated. Writing In 1993, Craig had work with Russell Bell to write about his 'streetwise' sense of humour on to a range of topics from the world's most embarrassing stories to how to explain the mysteries of the universe. In 1997, he and Russell had written Charles' Red Dwarf character's book The Log, where Lister, decides to leave a log detailing mankind's greatest achievements, just in case there is a posterity to find it which didn't appear on Red Dwarf. In 1998, Craig decided to work with Philippa Drakeford on his next book called No Other Blue, which cover a range of subjects, including poems about prison, his mother's final illness and politics at home and abroad. In 2000, he wrote his first autobiography about his experience growing-up in Liverpool No Irish, No Niggers. In 2007, Craig announced that he would release his autobiography in March 2008, published by Hodder Headline as On the Rocks, which would cover the recent incidents of his life. The autobiography would be based on much of his journal, which he said he kept while in rehab. Personal life Relationships In 1984, at the age of 20, Charles married English actress and fellow Liverpudlian Cathy Tyson. Their son Jack Charles was born in 1988. The couple divorced in 1989. Afterward, Charles dated Irish singer-songwriter Suzanne Rhatigan, co-writing some lyrics for her album To Hell with Love and directing a video for her. Rhatigan also appeared alongside Charles in the fourth series of Red Dwarf for the episode "Camille". In August 1997, Charles married his second wife, Jackie with whom he has two daughters Anna-Jo (born in 1998) and Nellie (born in 2003). False rape allegations In 1994, Charles and a friend were arrested and remanded in custody for several months on a rape charge. In February 1995, both Charles and his friend were acquitted in their trial. Whilst in prison Charles was attacked by a man wielding a knife. After being cleared, Charles spoke of the need to restore anonymity for those accused of rape. He stated that "the fact that my name and address along with my picture can appear on the front of the papers before the so-called victim has even signed a statement proves that anonymity for rape defendants is a must and that the law must be changed" http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4158/is_19950306/ai_n13969745 Drug use In June 2006, a photograph was printed in the Daily Mirror newspaper purporting to show Charles smoking crack cocaine in the back seat of a taxi. According to the story by writer Stephen Moyes, Charles spent four hours in the taxi smoking crack cocaine from an old drinks can, while instructing the driver to buy him pornography. These allegations resulted in Charles being suspended from Coronation Street until February 2007, and from BBC 6 Music while an investigation was held. Charles was arrested in August 2006 on suspicion of possession of a Class A drug, and later released on bail pending further enquiries. On 22 September 2006 he accepted a caution for possession of a Class A drug. In an interview, Charles blamed his relapse into drug use on the death of his father, combined with the bitterness stemming from being falsely accused of rape. http://www.dailymail.co.uk/tvshowbiz/article-1162513/Craig-Charles-I-spent-250-000-crack.html Filmography Year Title Role Notes1987Business As Usual1987The MarksmanMcFadden1987Night NetworkSelf1988-1999Red DwarfDave Lister1988Craig Goes Mad In MelbourneSelf1989What's That NoiseSelf1991Comic ReliefDave Lister1991Them And UsSelf1992GhostwatchSelf1993Cyberpunks And TechnophobesSelf1993CyberZoneHost1993Prince CindersCat (voice)1993CyberZoneHost1994Asterix Conquers AmericaAsterix (voice)English language version1994Red Dwarf: Smeg UpsDave ListerVideo Release (archive footage)1995Red Dwarf: Smeg OutsDave ListerVideo Release (new and archive footage)1995The Bill1995The GovernorEugene Buffy1996Cyberspace1997Captain ButlerCaptain Butler1997Space CadetsSpace Captain1997Funky BunkerSelf1998Universe ChallengeSelfOne-off special edition of University Challenge1998Can't Smeg, Won't SmegDave ListerOne-off special edition of BBC2's Can't Cook, Won't Cook1998-2004Robot WarsHostAfter replacing Jeremy Clarkson1999Ripley's Believe It or Not!HostUK Presenter1999The Colour Of FunnyKeith Dennis2000JailbreakHost2001Top Ten TV Sci-FiSelf2001Don't WalkNarrator (voice)2002EastEnders: Ricky And BiancaVinceEastEnders spin-off drama2002-2004Takeshi's CastleNarratorUK version2003Ten MinutesMark2003The Sitcom StorySelf2003Sushi TVNarratorUK version, after replacing Julian Clary2004Britain's Best SitcomSelf2004-2005Dream TeamAgent2005Forty Years Of FuckSelf2005The GamesSelfSeries 32005-presentCoronation StreetLloyd Mullaney2006FatedPedro2007Clubbing to DeathBegsley2009 Red Dwarf: Back to EarthDave Lister Bibliography 1993 Craig Charles Almanac of Total Knowledge by Craig Charles and Russell Bell (Penguin Books Ltd) 1997 The Log by Craig Charles and Russell Bell (Penguin Books Ltd) 1998 No Other Blue by Craig Charles and Philippa Drakeford (Penguin Books Ltd) Autobiographies 2000 No Irish, No Niggers (Penguin Books Ltd) 2008 On the Rocks (Hodder Headline) References External links The Craig Charles Funk Show BBC 6Music Book Craig Charles The Edge Entertainment Agency | Craig_Charles |@lemmatized craig:14 charles:38 born:1 july:1 liverpool:3 english:3 actor:1 stand:1 comedian:1 author:1 poet:3 radio:4 television:10 presenter:4 former:1 professional:3 footballer:2 best:2 know:1 play:5 dave:3 lister:4 british:2 cult:2 favourite:1 sci:4 fi:3 sitcom:3 red:7 dwarf:9 currently:1 appear:7 lloyd:2 mullaney:2 long:3 run:3 soap:2 opera:2 coronation:4 street:4 early:3 life:3 bear:4 multiracial:1 family:1 father:2 black:1 mother:2 white:1 irish:4 bbc:6 co:3 uk:3 grow:3 cantril:1 farm:1 estate:1 go:2 school:1 micky:1 quinn:1 turn:1 entertainment:3 football:1 notably:3 tranmere:1 rover:1 career:3 start:1 contemporary:1 urban:1 performance:2 cabaret:1 circuit:1 consider:1 original:1 describe:1 natural:1 ironic:1 wit:1 appeal:1 talent:1 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5,247 | Amethyst | Amethyst is a violet variety of quartz often used in jewelry. The name comes from the Ancient Greek a- ("not") and methustos ("intoxicated"), a reference to the belief that the stone protected its owner from drunkenness; the ancient Greeks and Romans wore amethyst and made drinking vessels of it in the belief that it would prevent intoxication. Chemistry Amethyst is the violet variety of quartz; its chemical formula is SiO2. In the 20th century, the color of amethyst was attributed to the presence of manganese. However, since it is capable of being greatly altered and even discharged by heat, the color was believed by some authorities to be from an organic source. Ferric thiocyanate was suggested, and sulfur was said to have been detected in the mineral. More recent work has shown that amethysts' coloration is due to ferric iron impurities. Klein, Cornelis and Hurlbut, Cornelius S., 1985 Manual of Mineralogy (after JD Dana) 20th edition, p. 441, John Wiley & Sons, New York Further study has shown a complex interplay of iron and aluminium is responsible for the color. Cohen, Alvin J., 1985, ''Amethyst color in quartz,the result of radiation protection involving iron', American Mineralogist, V. 70, pp 1180-1185 On exposure to heat, amethyst generally becomes yellow, and much of the citrine, cairngorm, or yellow quartz of jewelry is said to be merely "burnt amethyst". Veins of amethystine quartz are apt to lose their color on the exposed outcrop. Synthetic amethyst is made to imitate the best quality amethyst. Its chemical and physical properties are so similar to that of natural amethyst that it can not be differentiated with absolute certainty without advanced gemological testing (which is often cost-prohibitive). There is one test based on "Brazil law twinning" (a form of quartz twinning where right and left hand quartz structures are combined in a single crystal ) which can be used to identify synthetic amethyst rather easily. In theory however it is possible to create this material synthetically as well, but this type is not available in large quantities in the market. Composition Amethyst is composed of an irregular superposition of alternate lamellae of right-handed and left-handed quartz. It has been shown that this structure may be due to mechanical stresses. Because it has a hardness of seven on the Mohs scale, amethyst is suitable for use in jewelery. Hue and tone Amethyst occurs in primary hues from a light pinkish violet to a deep purple. Amethyst may exhibit one or both secondary hues, red and blue. The ideal grade is called "Deep Siberian" and has a primary purple hue of around 75–80 percent, 15–20 percent blue and (depending on the light source) red secondary hues. Secrets of the Gem Trade; The Connoisseur's Guide to Precious Gemstones Richard W Wise, Brunswick House Press, Lenox, Massachutes., 2003 The inside of an Amethyst Geode. History Amethyst was used as a gemstone by the ancient Egyptians and was largely employed in antiquity for intaglios. The Greeks believed amethyst gems could prevent intoxication, while medieval European soldiers wore amethyst amulets as protection in battle. Beads of amethyst were found in Anglo-Saxon graves in England. A huge geode, or "amethyst-grotto", from near Santa Cruz in southern Brazil was exhibited at the Düsseldorf, Germany Exhibition of 1902. Mythology The Greek word "amethystos" may be translated as "not drunken". Amethyst was considered to be a strong antidote against drunkenness, which is why wine goblets were often carved from it. In Greek mythology, Dionysus, the god of intoxication, was pursuing a maiden named Amethystos, who refused his affections. Amethystos prayed to the gods to remain chaste, which the goddess Artemis granted and transformed her into a white stone. Humbled by Amethystos's desire to remain chaste, Dionysus poured wine over the stone as an offering, dyeing the crystals purple. Variations of the story include that Dionysus had been insulted by a mortal and swore to slay the next mortal who crossed his path, creating fierce tigers to carry out his wrath. The mortal turned out to be a beautiful young woman, Amethystos, who was on her way to pay tribute to Artemis. Her life is spared by Artemis, who transformed the maiden into a statue of pure crystalline quartz to protect her from the brutal claws. Dionysus wept tears of wine in remorse for his action at the sight of the beautiful statue. The god's tears then stained the quartz purple. http://gemstone.org/gem-by-gem/english/amethyst.html source Another variation involves the goddess Rhea presenting Dionysus with the amethyst stone to preserve the wine-drinker's sanity. (Nonnus, Dionysiaca, XII.380) Geographic distribution Amethyst is produced in abundance from the state of Minas Gerais in Brazil where it occurs in large geodes within volcanic rocks. It is also found and mined in South Korea. The largest opencast amethyst vein in the world is in Maissau, Lower Austria. Many of the hollow agates of Brazil and Uruguay contain a crop of amethyst crystals in the interior. Much fine amethyst comes from Russia, especially from near Mursinka in the Ekaterinburg district, where it occurs in drusy cavities in granitic rocks. Many localities in India yield amethyst. One of the largest global amethyst producers is Zambia with an annual production of about 1,000 t.Museum-quality piece of Amethyst Amethyst occurs at many localities in the United States, but these specimens are rarely fine enough for use in jewelry. Among these may be mentioned Amethyst Mountain, Texas; Yellowstone National Park; Delaware County, Pennsylvania; Haywood County, North Carolina; Deer Hill and Stow, Maine. It is found also in the Lake Superior region. Amethyst is relatively common in Ontario, and in various locations throughout Nova Scotia, but uncommon elsewhere in Canada. Value Traditionally included in the cardinal, or most valuable, gemstones (along with diamond, sapphire, ruby, and emerald), amethyst has lost much of its value due to the discovery of extensive deposits in locations such as Brazil. The highest grade amethyst (called "Deep Russian") is exceptionally rare and therefore its value is dependent on the demand of collectors when one is found. It is however still orders of magnitude lower than the highest grade sapphires or rubies (Padparadscha sapphire or "pigeon's blood" ruby). See also List of minerals Notes References External links http://mineral.galleries.com/minerals/gemstone/amethyst/amethyst.htm http://mindat.org/min-198.html http://gemstone.org/gem-by-gem/english/amethyst.html | Amethyst |@lemmatized amethyst:40 violet:3 variety:2 quartz:10 often:3 use:5 jewelry:3 name:2 come:2 ancient:3 greek:5 methustos:1 intoxicate:1 reference:2 belief:2 stone:4 protect:2 owner:1 drunkenness:2 roman:1 wear:2 make:2 drinking:1 vessel:1 would:1 prevent:2 intoxication:3 chemistry:1 chemical:2 formula:1 century:1 color:5 attribute:1 presence:1 manganese:1 however:3 since:1 capable:1 greatly:1 alter:1 even:1 discharge:1 heat:2 believe:2 authority:1 organic:1 source:3 ferric:2 thiocyanate:1 suggest:1 sulfur:1 say:2 detect:1 mineral:4 recent:1 work:1 show:3 coloration:1 due:3 iron:3 impurity:1 klein:1 cornelis:1 hurlbut:1 cornelius:1 manual:1 mineralogy:1 jd:1 dana:1 edition:1 p:1 john:1 wiley:1 son:1 new:1 york:1 far:1 study:1 complex:1 interplay:1 aluminium:1 responsible:1 cohen:1 alvin:1 j:1 result:1 radiation:1 protection:2 involve:2 american:1 mineralogist:1 v:1 pp:1 exposure:1 generally:1 becomes:1 yellow:2 much:3 citrine:1 cairngorm:1 merely:1 burnt:1 vein:2 amethystine:1 apt:1 lose:2 expose:1 outcrop:1 synthetic:2 imitate:1 best:1 quality:2 physical:1 property:1 similar:1 natural:1 differentiate:1 absolute:1 certainty:1 without:1 advanced:1 gemological:1 testing:1 cost:1 prohibitive:1 one:4 test:1 base:1 brazil:5 law:1 twin:2 form:1 right:2 leave:2 hand:3 structure:2 combine:1 single:1 crystal:3 identify:1 rather:1 easily:1 theory:1 possible:1 create:2 material:1 synthetically:1 well:1 type:1 available:1 large:4 quantity:1 market:1 composition:1 compose:1 irregular:1 superposition:1 alternate:1 lamella:1 may:4 mechanical:1 stress:1 hardness:1 seven:1 mohs:1 scale:1 suitable:1 jewelery:1 hue:5 tone:1 occur:4 primary:2 light:2 pinkish:1 deep:3 purple:4 exhibit:2 secondary:2 red:2 blue:2 ideal:1 grade:3 call:2 siberian:1 around:1 percent:2 depend:1 secret:1 gem:6 trade:1 connoisseur:1 guide:1 precious:1 gemstone:6 richard:1 w:1 wise:1 brunswick:1 house:1 press:1 lenox:1 massachutes:1 inside:1 geode:3 history:1 egyptian:1 largely:1 employ:1 antiquity:1 intaglio:1 could:1 medieval:1 european:1 soldier:1 amulet:1 battle:1 bead:1 find:4 anglo:1 saxon:1 graf:1 england:1 huge:1 grotto:1 near:2 santa:1 cruz:1 southern:1 düsseldorf:1 germany:1 exhibition:1 mythology:2 word:1 amethystos:5 translate:1 drunken:1 consider:1 strong:1 antidote:1 wine:4 goblet:1 carve:1 dionysus:5 god:3 pursue:1 maiden:2 refuse:1 affection:1 pray:1 remain:2 chaste:2 goddess:2 artemis:3 grant:1 transform:2 white:1 humble:1 desire:1 pour:1 offering:1 dye:1 variation:2 story:1 include:2 insult:1 mortal:3 swore:1 slay:1 next:1 cross:1 path:1 fierce:1 tiger:1 carry:1 wrath:1 turn:1 beautiful:2 young:1 woman:1 way:1 pay:1 tribute:1 life:1 spar:1 statue:2 pure:1 crystalline:1 brutal:1 claw:1 wept:1 tear:2 remorse:1 action:1 sight:1 stain:1 http:4 org:3 english:2 html:3 another:1 rhea:1 present:1 preserve:1 drinker:1 sanity:1 nonnus:1 dionysiaca:1 xii:1 geographic:1 distribution:1 produce:1 abundance:1 state:2 mina:1 gerais:1 within:1 volcanic:1 rock:2 also:3 mine:1 south:1 korea:1 opencast:1 world:1 maissau:1 low:2 austria:1 many:3 hollow:1 agate:1 uruguay:1 contain:1 crop:1 interior:1 fine:2 russia:1 especially:1 mursinka:1 ekaterinburg:1 district:1 drusy:1 cavity:1 granitic:1 locality:2 india:1 yield:1 global:1 producer:1 zambia:1 annual:1 production:1 museum:1 piece:1 united:1 specimen:1 rarely:1 enough:1 among:1 mention:1 mountain:1 texas:1 yellowstone:1 national:1 park:1 delaware:1 county:2 pennsylvania:1 haywood:1 north:1 carolina:1 deer:1 hill:1 stow:1 maine:1 lake:1 superior:1 region:1 relatively:1 common:1 ontario:1 various:1 location:2 throughout:1 nova:1 scotia:1 uncommon:1 elsewhere:1 canada:1 value:3 traditionally:1 cardinal:1 valuable:1 along:1 diamond:1 sapphire:3 ruby:3 emerald:1 discovery:1 extensive:1 deposit:1 high:2 russian:1 exceptionally:1 rare:1 therefore:1 dependent:1 demand:1 collector:1 still:1 order:1 magnitude:1 padparadscha:1 pigeon:1 blood:1 see:1 list:1 note:1 external:1 link:1 gallery:1 com:1 htm:1 mindat:1 min:1 |@bigram klein_cornelis:1 hurlbut_cornelius:1 manual_mineralogy:1 wiley_son:1 absolute_certainty:1 cost_prohibitive:1 mohs_scale:1 connoisseur_guide:1 precious_gemstone:1 anglo_saxon:1 santa_cruz:1 pay_tribute:1 nonnus_dionysiaca:1 mina_gerais:1 north_carolina:1 nova_scotia:1 sapphire_ruby:2 external_link:1 mindat_org:1 |
5,248 | Naoko_Takeuchi | , born March 15, 1967, is a manga artist who lives in Tokyo, Japan. Takeuchi's works are widely admired by anime/manga fans. She is a well-known mangaka worldwide. Her most popular work, Sailor Moon, has been widely reprinted and marketed worldwide. Biography Early life Naoko Takeuchi was born to Kenji and Ikuko Takeuchi. She has a younger brother named Shingo. She used their names in the manga of Sailor Moon and mentions this in interviews and several comic strips she did in the place of author notes. She attended Kofu Ichi High. She wore sailor suits and was in the astronomy and manga clubs. Interview with Naoko Takeuchi This experience later heavily influenced her work, Sailor Moon as well as previous manga such as Love Call and Rain Kiss. She wanted to be a manga artist at this age, however her father, Kenji, said that in case she did not make it that she should find another profession. This is when she went to college for a degree in chemistry. Takeuchi graduated from Kyoritsu University of Pharmacy, where she received a degree in chemistry. However, Kyoritsu University of Pharmacy has merged with Keio University as of 2006. The buildings still exists. She became a licensed pharmacist. Her senior thesis was entitled "Heightened Effects of Thrombolytic Actions Due to Ultrasound." While she was in College she did Miko work at Shiba Daijingu which is not far from the university she went to. The University is highlighted at the top left corner the shrine is on the bottom right. This experience later became the ground work for one of her characters in Sailor Moon, Rei Hino. Working for Kodansha Naoko Takeuchi then worked for Kodansha starting at the age of 19 when she published Love Call which received an award. She worked steadily on one-shot pieces until Maria. Maria was her first serial comic which was loosely based on Daddy-Long-Legs and her friend Marie Koizumi, who helped her write it. She again had another serial with The Cherry Project which ran for three volumes which was about skating. Upon completing The Cherry Project she wanted to do a manga on outer space and girl fighters. Her editor Fumio Osano (nicknamed Osa-P) asked her to put the fighters in Sailor Suits, and Sailor V was born. When Sailor V was going to be turned into an anime she reworked the series and added four other Sailor Soldiers. This became Sailor Moon which was a hit. While she worked on Sailor Moon she also simultaneously worked on Sailor V. However the magazine that Sailor V was running in was canceled. The project to turn Sailor V into an anime was canceled with the magazine. :"Run-Run, the magazine she was serialized in, went belly-up. The OVA they planned to put out never came out. She met a harsh fate. It's enough to make one sick. [Minako]: Where did Run-Run go? When is my video coming out?" She then worked on PQ Angels. This gained a fair amount of popularity but was suddenly canceled due to Kodansha losing seven pages of manuscript. It is possible that it was meant to be turned into an anime since there was mention of Toei having the manuscript. Princess Takeuchi Naoko's Return-to-Society Punch!! Round 1 PNP establishment PNP stands for Princess Naoko Planning. She established this company name to manage her properties for mainly Sailor Moon. Later this encompassed Togashi's work as well. She runs it by herself. This name shows up on several musical credits such as Shin Kaguya Shima Densetsu. Leaving Kodansha Naoko Takeuchi was upset at the loss of seven pages of the PQ Angels manuscript in 1997. The manga was originally slated to become a tankoubon, but with the manuscript pages lost it became impossible. Osano Fumio also left her for a shōnen magazine. Then the plans for the Materials Collection were canceled. Naoko Takeuchi left Kodansha. She went to Shueisha hoping to find out more about the manga industry and if manuscripts are often lost. In 1998 she visited the United States and attended San Diego Comic Con. She answered questions with the help of Tokyopop, Mixx Entertainment at the time to mainly answer questions on Sailor Moon. She also asked the audience if they liked the occult which was most likely the beginnings of Love Witch. She also that year published the first Sailor Moon Property since leaving Kodansha, Sailor Moon Infinity Collection Art Book with limited releases. Working for Togashi and marriage In her short comic strip Princess Naoko Takeuchi Back-to-Work Punch!!, she states that she met Yoshihiro Togashi at a meeting and had a meeting arranged between them by Megumi Ogata, Princess Takeuchi Naoko's Return-to-Society Punch!! - Round 2 Princess Takeuchi Naoko's Return-to-Society Punch!! - Round 2 voice of Sailor Uranus as well as Togashi's character Kurama. She worked for him as an assistant (doing screentone) and a manager on volume 1 of Hunter × Hunter. However the work and the demands were more than she expected so she ended up quitting. Around this time she conceived of the idea for Toki*Meka which eventually turned into Toki*Meca. Togashi had a similar idea at the same time as her, but it was never fully realized. He helped somewhat with Toki*Meka at this point in developing the idea by drawing some concept sketches, which Naoko Takeuchi showed in Toki*Meca volume 1. They dated and were married in 1999. They have a son, born in January 2001, whose real name they choose not to disclose, but whom they have nicknamed "Petit Ōji," which means "little prince" in combined French and Japanese. Return to Kodansha Sailor Moon's license was about to expire. Kodansha eventually made a deal with Takeuchi and she returned in 1999 to make the Materials Collection. Her first serialized manga after her return was and made Love Witch. Love Witch was cancelled for unknown reasons. Takeuchi also started to work on the reprints of Sailor Moon and Sailor V. She also made a one-shot Toki*Meka. Establishing of official website Naoko Takeuchi also established with the help of Bandai the Sailor Moon official website. The establishment of the website coincides with the establishment of Pretty Guardian Sailor Moon, the Sailor Moon live action series. She posted updates such as character biographies, pictures and whatever she was working on. After the end of PGSM the website was drastically changed and stripped. It now contains animated versions of the reprinted manga and flash animations and profiles. It still is up and continuing. PGSM involvement Naoko Takeuchi was heavily involved in the live action Sailor Moon Series, Pretty Guardian Sailor Moon. She, for example designed Sailor Luna's costume. Naoko Takeuchi in an interview had stated that she was interested in learning more about the anime industry. Kappa Magazine #62, translated by Mina Kaye. Kia Asamiya interviewed Naoko Takeuchi. Naoko Takeuchi expressed an interest in coloring for Asamiya. This culminated in the creation of Pretty Guardian Sailor Moon. The series plot displays a plot heavily reliant on the manga and also explores many themes that the manga was unable to explore. She showed up at the official conference with a fist up, meaning good luck in Act Zero. During the time she worked on PGSM, no new manga were released. Return to drawing manga After the series PGSM wrapped up she worked on Toki*Meca. During Toki*Meca Fumio Osano returned to be her editor. During this time she worked more closely with managing PNP and gave talks to college students. ひみつのお部屋 During this time she also wrote a children's book titled Oboo-nu- to Chiboo-nu- as a birthday present to her son. Her husband illustrated the children's book. She made mention of it in the back of volume 1 of Toki*Meca. She still works on the website updating about once a month with new flash animations or profiles. Works Manga The following is a list of Naoko Takeuchi's works, both major and minor, since her debut: Chocolate Christmas (チョコレート・クリスマス Chokorēto Kurisumasu, 1987-1988): A story about a girl that falls in love with a DJ over Christmas. It was collected into a single tankobon volume. Maria (ま・り・あ Ma-ri-a, 1989-1990): A story loosely based on the book Daddy-Long-Legs by Jean Webster. The Cherry Project (Theチェリープロジェクト The Cherī Purojekuto, 1990-1991): A figure skating-themed manga, spanning 3 volumes, involving the young skater Cherry's quest to become a professional skater and win the heart of a boy. The series was released in 3 collected volumes between 1991 and 1992. One of its characters also appears in Sailor Moon. Codename: Sailor V (コードネームはセーラーV Kōdonēmu wa Sērā Bui, 1991-1997): This series follows the adventures of costumed "magical girl" Sailor V. It was the direct predecessor to (and something of a prototype for) Pretty Soldier Sailor Moon, and introduced Minako Aino, alias "Sailor V," who would become a supporting character in the latter series. The series was concluded after the author had already finished Sailor Moon, and featured an ending that tied the two series together. Originally released in 3 volumes, Codename: Sailor V was re-released in 2004 in a deluxe two-volume "Renewal Edition" (新装版 Shinzōban) format. Pretty Soldier Sailor Moon (美少女戦士セーラームーン Bishōjo Senshi Sērāmūn, 1992-1997) Known to American audiences simply as Sailor Moon, this manga is Naoko Takeuchi's most famous work, which spawned an anime, several films, stage musicals, a live-action television series and video games of various genres. A fusion of styles between the mahō shōjo and sentai genres, Sailor Moon tells the story of Usagi Tsukino, a girl who discovered one day that she was the reincarnation of a celestial heroine fighting for love and justice. This series was largely responsible for the late-1990s resurgence of "magical girl" anime and manga. The series was originally released in 18 volumes, but was re-released in 2003 and 2004 in a deluxe 12-volume "Renewal Edition" (新装版 Shinzōban) format, with two supplementary volumes containing side stories to the main work. Characters from her previous work, Codename Sailor V, return in this one. Miss Rain (ミス・レイン Misu Rein, 1993): A collection of 5 short manga, including the title work. Prism Time (プリズム・タイム Purizumu Taimu, 1986-1997): A collection of one-shot stories from early works to those from the late 1990s. It is available in 2 volumes, released in 1995 and 1997, respectively. PQ Angels (ＰＱエンジェルス PQ Enjerusu, 1997): Features two alien girls, able to turn into cockroaches, who are searching for their princess. The series was a complete disaster for Takeuchi: it was discontinued abruptly after only 4 chapters, and Kodansha lost the proofs of the portion that had been written. For obvious reasons, it has only appeared in its original serialization, from September to December 1997. Princess Naoko Takeuchi's Return-to-Society Punch!! (1998-?): A collection of short strips detailing what Takeuchi did after Sailor Moon. It ran for a number of years under a changing title, giving details about her post-Sailor Moon slump and recovery, as well as her meeting, marrying, and starting a family with fellow manga creator Yoshihiro Togashi. The comic ran in Shueisha's Young You magazine, rather than a Kodansha publication, and has not been collected since its original serialization. There are similar "____ Punch!" comic strips in the same format at the end of some of the Sailor Moon "Renewal Edition" volumes. Toki☆Meka! (とき☆メカ! Toki☆Meka!, 2001): A one-shot story about a robot (Mecha), her creator, and their adventures. Love Witch (ラブ ウィッチ Rabu Witchi, 2002): A story where a girl receives a perfume bottle and becomes a witch, but with a heavy price. It was discontinued after 3 chapters and one side story, with no explanation. It has yet to be reprinted in any sort of compilation. Toki☆Meca! (とき☆めか! Toki☆Meca!, 2005-2006): A serialized version of the original one-shot, begun after the completion of the Sailor Moon and Sailor V re-releases. The first portion ran from the January to April 2005 issues of Nakayoshi, after which the author went on hiatus, promising that she would return to the series later. The second phase of the series was begun in November 2005. One collected volume, released in August 2005, has been published thus far. The serialization officially ended in May 2006. This makes Toki☆Meca! the first series that Takeuchi has completed since Sailor Moon and Codename wa Sailor V. Illustrations Mermaid Panic Volumes 1-3 (written by Marie Koizumi) Atashi no Wagamama (written by Marie Koizumi) Zettai, Kore o Ubbatte Miseru (written by Marie Koizumi) Written books Oboo-nu- to Chiboo-nu- (illustrated by Yoshihiro Togashi) A children's book written for her son's birthday. Song lyrics Takeuchi wrote the lyrics for a number of songs featured in the Sailor Moon anime and live-action series. They are mainly character-based image songs, but do include a few theme songs. These include: Ai wo Shinjiteru ("Believe in Love") — Image song for Sailor Moon Chikara wo Awasete ("Combining Power") — Image song for Taiki/Sailor Star Maker Ginga Ichi Mibun Chigai na Kataomoi ("Unrequited Love a Station Apart in the Galaxy") — Image song for Seiya/Sailor Star Fighter Honoo no Sogekimono (Flame Sniper) — Image song for Sailor Mars Initial U — Image song for Sailor Uranus Katagoshi ni Kinsei ("Venus Over my Shoulder") — PGSM image song for Sailor Venus Kirari*SailorDream! ("Sparkling Sailor Dream!") — Theme Song for Pretty Guardian Sailor Moon Luna! — Image song for Luna Mayonaka Hitori ("Alone At Midnight") — Image song for Yaten/Sailor Star Healer Over Rainbow Tour — PGSM image song for Sailor Moon Princess Moon — Second Ending Theme "Rashiku" Ikimasho ("I'll Go With My Looks") — Ending theme from Supers Route Venus — Image song for Sailor Venus (Sailor Moon R) Sailor Star Song — Theme song to Sailor Stars Sailor Team no Theme (Sailor Team's Theme) Senshi no Omoi (Feelings of a Soldier) — Image song for Sailor Neptune We Believe You — Image song for Sailor Jupiter Awards She has won several awards including the 2nd Nakayoshi Comic Prize for Newcomers, for “Yume ja Nai no Ne,” in 1985. She also won for "Love Call" which won Nakayoshi's New Artist award which debuted in the Nakayoshi Deluxe September 1986 issue. In 1993 she won the 17th Kodansha Manga Award for shōjo for Sailor Moon. References | Naoko_Takeuchi |@lemmatized bear:4 march:1 manga:22 artist:3 live:5 tokyo:1 japan:1 takeuchi:27 work:29 widely:2 admire:1 anime:8 fan:1 well:5 know:2 mangaka:1 worldwide:2 popular:1 sailor:67 moon:36 reprint:4 market:1 biography:2 early:2 life:1 naoko:19 kenji:2 ikuko:1 young:3 brother:1 name:5 shingo:1 use:1 mention:3 interview:4 several:4 comic:7 strip:5 place:1 author:3 note:1 attend:2 kofu:1 ichi:2 high:1 wear:1 suit:2 astronomy:1 club:1 experience:2 later:4 heavily:3 influence:1 previous:2 love:11 call:3 rain:2 kiss:1 want:2 age:2 however:4 father:1 say:1 case:1 make:8 find:2 another:2 profession:1 go:8 college:3 degree:2 chemistry:2 graduate:1 kyoritsu:2 university:5 pharmacy:2 receive:3 merge:1 keio:1 building:1 still:3 exist:1 become:8 licensed:1 pharmacist:1 senior:1 thesis:1 entitle:1 heightened:1 effect:1 thrombolytic:1 action:5 due:2 ultrasound:1 miko:1 shiba:1 daijingu:1 far:2 highlight:1 top:1 left:1 corner:1 shrine:1 bottom:1 right:1 ground:1 one:12 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5,249 | Fritz_Lang | Friedrich Christian Anton "Fritz" Lang (December 5, 1890 – August 2, 1976) was an Austrian-German-American filmmaker, screenwriter and occasional film producer. One of the best known émigrés from Germany's school of Expressionism, he was dubbed the "Master of Darkness" by the BFI. His most famous films are the groundbreaking Metropolis (the world's most expensive silent film at the time of its release) and M, made before he moved to the United States, where he contributed greatly to film noir. Life Friedrich Lang was born in Vienna, in what was then Austria-Hungary, to Anton Lang (August 1, 1860–1940), an architect and construction company manager, and Pauline "Paula" Schlesinger (July 26, 1864–1920) on December 5, 1890. He was the second of two sons (his brother Adolf was nearly seven years older). Both his father and his mother were practicing Roman Catholics, although his mother was Jewish and converted to Catholicism when Fritz was ten. Lang himself was baptized at the Schottenkirche in Vienna. After finishing high school, Lang briefly attended the Technical University of Vienna, where he studied civil engineering and eventually switched to art. In 1910 he left Vienna to see the world, traveling throughout Europe and Africa and later Asia and the Pacific area. In 1913, he studied painting in Paris, France. The next year, he returned home to Vienna at the outbreak of the First World War. In January 1914, he was drafted into service in the Austrian army and fought in Russia and Romania during World War I, where he was wounded three times. While his career had ended without fanfare, his American and later German works were championed by the critics of the Cahiers du Cinema. Lang died in 1976 and was interred in the Forest Lawn - Hollywood Hills Cemetery in Los Angeles. Career While recovering from his injuries and shell shock in 1916, he wrote some scenarios and ideas for films. He was discharged from the army with the rank of lieutenant in 1918 and did some acting in the Viennese theater circuit for a short time before being hired as a writer at Decla, Erich Pommer's Berlin-based production company. His writing stint was brief, as Lang soon started to work as a director at the German film studio Ufa, and later Nero-Film, just as the Expressionist movement was building. In this first phase of his career, Lang alternated between art films such as Der Müde Tod (Destiny, literally "Tired Death") and populist thrillers such as Die Spinnen (Spiders), combining popular genres with Expressionist techniques to create an unprecedented synthesis of popular entertainment with art cinema. In 1920, he met his future wife, the writer and actress Thea von Harbou. She and Lang co-wrote all of his movies from 1921 through 1933, including 1922's Dr. Mabuse, der Spieler (Dr. Mabuse the Gambler), which ran for four hours in two parts in the original version and was the first in the Dr. Mabuse trilogy, 1924's Die Nibelungen, the famed 1927 masterpiece Metropolis, and the 1931 classic, M, his first "talking" picture. Fritz Lang and Thea von Harbou in their Berlin flat, 1923 or 1924 Although some consider Lang's work to be simple melodrama, he produced a coherent oeuvre that helped to establish the characteristics of film noir, with its recurring themes of psychological conflict, paranoia, fate and moral ambiguity. His work influenced filmmakers as disparate as Jacques Rivette and William Friedkin. In 1931, between Woman in the Moon and Das Testament des Dr. Mabuse, Lang directed what many film scholars consider to be his masterpiece: M, a disturbing story of a child murderer (Peter Lorre in his first starring role) who is hunted down and brought to rough justice by Berlin's criminal underworld. M remains a powerful work; it was remade in 1951 by Joseph Losey, but this version had little impact on audiences, and has become harder to see than the original film. Lang epitomized the stereotype of the tyrannical German film director such as Erich von Stroheim and Otto Preminger; he was known for being hard to work with. During the climactic final scene in M, he allegedly threw Peter Lorre down a flight of stairs in order to give more authenticity to Lorre's battered look. He even wore a monocle that added to the stereotype. Upon his arrival in Hollywood, Lang joined the MGM studio and directed the crime drama Fury. He became a naturalized citizen of the United States in 1939. Lang made twenty-one features in the next twenty-one years, working in a variety of genres at every major studio in Hollywood, occasionally producing his films as an independent. These films, often compared unfavourably by contemporary critics to Lang's earlier works, have since been reevaluated as being integral to the emergence and evolution of American genre cinema, film noir in particular. During the 1950s, Lang found it harder to find congenial production conditions in Hollywood and his advancing age left him less inclined to grapple with American backers. The German producer, Artur Brauner, was expressing interest in remaking not only The Indian Tomb (a story that Lang had developed in the twenties that was ultimately taken from him by studio heads and directed instead by Joe May) but also Lang's earlier Doctor Mabuse pictures. Fearing that Brauner would proceed with or without his assent, Lang abandoned his plans for retirement and returned to Germany in order to make his Indian Epic, which is regarded as a masterpiece by a number of film scholars today. Following the production, Brauner was ready to proceed with his remake of Das Testament des Doctor Mabuse when Lang approached him with the idea of adding another original film to the series. The result was The Thousand Eyes of Dr. Mabuse (1960), made in a hurry and with a relatively small budget. It can be viewed as the marriage between the director's early experiences with expressionist techniques in Germany as well as the spartan style already visible in his late American work. Lang was approaching blindness during the production, making it his final project. One of his most famous film noirs is the police drama The Big Heat (1953), noted for its uncompromising brutality, especially for a scene in which Lee Marvin throws scalding coffee on Gloria Grahame's face. During this period, his visual style simplified (owing in part to the constraints of the Hollywood studio system) and his worldview became increasingly pessimistic, culminating in the cold, geometric style of his last American films, While the City Sleeps (1956) and Beyond a Reasonable Doubt (1957). Goebbels rumor On a film set, 1929 Many of the rumours about Lang's life and career are hard to verify. One rumour, perhaps the most famous of all, has it that Joseph Goebbels called Lang to his offices for a meeting in which he gave Lang two pieces of news: the first was that his most recent film, Das Testament des Dr. Mabuse (The Testament of Dr. Mabuse, 1933) was being banned as an incitement to public disorder. The second was that he was nevertheless so impressed by Lang's abilities as a filmmaker, he was offering Lang a position as the head of German film studio UFA. Lang had been, unbeknownst to Goebbels, already planning to leave Germany for Paris, but the meeting with Goebbels ran so long that the banks were closed by the time it finished, and Lang fled that night without his money, not to return until after the war. The problem is that many portions of the story cannot be checked, and of those that can, most are contradicted by the evidence: Lang actually left Germany with most of his money, unlike most refugees, and made several return trips later in the same year. There were of course no witnesses to the meeting besides Goebbels and Lang, but Goebbels's appointment books, when they refer to the meeting, mention only the banning of Testament. No evidence has been discovered in any of Goebbels's writings to affirm the suggestion that he was planning to offer Lang any position. Jean-Luc Godard's film Contempt (1963), in which Lang appeared as himself, presents a bare outline of the story as fact. Whatever the truth of this story, it is known that Lang did in fact leave Germany in 1934 and moved to Paris, where he filmed a version of Ferenc Molnar's Liliom, starring Charles Boyer. This was Lang's only film in French (not counting the French version of Testament). He then went to the United States. Lang's wife Thea von Harbou, who had started to sympathize with the Nazis in the early 1930s and joined the Nazi party (the NSDAP) in 1932, stayed behind. The two were divorced in 1933. Filmography Silent films Year Title Studio Genre Cast Notes Other Roles1910's1919HalbblutThe Half-BreedDecla-BioscopFantasyRessel Orla, Carl de Vogt, Gilda LangerLost filmWriter1919Der Herr der LiebeMaster of LoveHelos FilmRomanceCarl de Vogt, Gilda LangerPartially lost film Actor1919Die Spinnen, 1. Teil: Der Goldene SeeThe Spiders, art 1: The Golden LakeDecla-BioscopAdventureCarl de Vogt, Ressel Orla, George John, Lil DagoverWriter1919HarakiriMadame ButterflyDecla-BioscopDramaLil Dagover1920's1920Die Spinnen, 2. Teil: Das BrillantenschiffThe Spiders, Part 2: The Diamond ShipDecla-BioscopAdventureCarl de Vogt, Ressel Orla, George John, Lil DagoverWriter1920Das Wandernde BildThe Wandering ImageMay-FilmRomanceMia May, Hans MarrPartially lost filmWriter1921Vier um die FrauFour Around a WomanDecla-BioscopDramaCarola Toelle, Rudolf Klein-RoggePartially lost filmWriter1921Der müde TodDestinyDecla-BioscopFantasyLil Dagover, Walter Janssen, Bernhard Goetzke, Rudolf Klein-RoggeWriter, Editor1922Dr. Mabuse der SpielerDr. Mabuse the GamblerUco-FilmThrillerRudolf Klein-RoggeWriter1924Die Nibelungen: SiegfriedSiegfriedDecla-BioscopFantasyPaul Richter, Margarete Schöen, Hanna Ralph, Theodor LoosWriter1924Die Nibelungen: Kriemhelds RacheKriemhild's RevengeDecla-BioscopFantasyMargarete Schöen, Hans Adalbert Schlettow, Theodor Loos1927MetropolisUFA FilmScience FictionAlfred Abel, Brigitte Helm, Gustav Fröhlich, Rudolf Klein-RoggeWriter1928SpioneSpiesUFA FilmThrillerRudolf Klein-Rogge, Gerda Maurus, Willy FritschWriter1929Die Frau im MondThe Woman in the MoonUFA FilmScience FictionWilly Fritsch, Gerda Maurus, Klaus PohlWriter, Producer Sound films Year Title Studio Genre Cast Notes Other Roles1930's1931MNero-FilmThrillerPeter LorreWriter1933Das Testament des Dr. MabuseThe Testamentof Dr. MabuseNero-FilmThrillerRudolf Klein-Rogge, Otto WernickeWriter, Producer1933Le testament du Dr. MabuseNero-FilmThrillerRudolf Klein-Rogge, Jim GéraldFrench version of Das Testament des Dr. Mabuse / Co-directed with René StiWriter1934LiliomFox EuropaFantasyCharles Boyer, Madeleine OzerayWriter1936FuryMGMDramaSpencer Tracy, Sylvia SidneyWriter1937You Only Live OnceWalter Wanger ProductionsFilm-noirSylvia Sidney, Henry Fonda1938You and MeParamount PicturesDramaSylvia Sidney, George RaftProducer1940's1940The Return of Frank James20th Century FoxWesternHenry Fonda, Gene Tierney, Jackie CooperTechnicolor film1941Western Union20th Century FoxWesternRandolph Scott, Robert Young, Dean Jagger, Virginia GilmoreTechnicolor film1941Man Hunt20th Century FoxThrillerWalter Pidgeon, Joan Bennett, George Sanders1942Moontide20th Century FoxDramaJean Gabin, Ida Lupino, Thomas Mitchell, Claude RainsReplaced by Archie Mayo during filming1943Hangmen Also Die!Arnold Pressburger filmsWar DramaHans Heinrich von Twardowski, Brian Donlevy, Walter Brennan, Anna LeeWriter, Producer1944Ministry of FearParamount PicturesFilm-noirRay Milland, Marjorie Reynolds1944The Woman in the WindowInternational PicturesFilm-noirEdward G. Robinson, Joan Bennett, Raymond Massey1945Scarlet StreetFritz Lang ProductionsFilm-noirEdward G. Robinson, Joan Bennett, Dan DuryeaProducer1946Cloak and DaggerUnited States PicturesDramaGary Cooper, Lilli Palmer1948Secret Beyond the DoorDiana Production CompanyThrillerJoan Bennett, Michael RedgraveProducer1950's1950House by the RiverFidelity PicturesFilm-noirLouis Hayward, Lee Bowman, Jane Wyatt1950American Guerrilla in the Philippines20th Century FoxWar DramaTyrone Power, Micheline PresieTechnicolor film1952Rancho NotoriousFidelity PicturesWesternMarlene Dietrich, Arthur Kennedy, Mel FerrerTechnicolor film1952Clash by NightWald-Krasna ProductionsFilm-noirBarbara Stanwyck, Robert Ryan, Paul Douglas, Marilyn Monroe1953The Blue GardeniaBlue Gardenia ProductionsFilm-noirAnne Baxter, Richard Conte, Ann Sothern, Raymond Burr1953The Big HeatColumbia PicturesFilm-noirGlenn Ford, Gloria Grahame, Lee Marvin, Jeanette Nolan1954Human DesireColumbia PicturesFilm-noirGlenn Ford, Gloria Grahame, Broderick Crawford1955MoonfleetMGMAdventureStewart Granger, George Sanders, Joan GreenwoodColor film1956While the City SleepsBert E. Friedlob ProductionsFilm-noirDana Andrews, Rhonda Fleming, George Sanders1957Beyond a Reasonable DoubtBert E. Friedlob ProductionsFilm-noirDana Andrews, Rhonda Fleming, George Sanders1959Der Tiger von EschnapurThe Tiger of EschnapurCentral Cinema Company FilmAdventureDebra Paget, Paul Hubschmid, Walter ReyerTechnicolor film1959Das indische GrabmalThe Indian TombCentral Cinema Company FilmAdventureDebra Paget, Paul Hubschmid, Walter ReyerEastmancolor filmWriter1960's1960Die 1000 Augen des Dr. MabuseThe Thousand Eyes of Dr. MabuseCentral Cinema Company FilmThrillerDawn Addams, Peter van Eyck, Gert FröbeWriter, Producer See also List of famous Austrians References Further reading McGilligan, Patrick. Fritz Lang: The Nature of the Beast; New York: St. Martins Press, 1997; ISBN 0312132476 Friedrich, Otto. City of Nets: A Portrait of Hollywood in the 1940s; New York: Harper & Row, 1986; ISBN 0-06-015626-0 (See e.g. pp. 45–46 for anecdotes revealing Lang's arrogance.) Schnauber, Cornelius. Fritz Lang in Hollywood; Wien: Europaverlag, c1986; ISBN 3203509539 (in German) -- Contains interviews with Fritz Lang and a discussion of the making of the film M. External links Fritz Lang Bibliography (via UC Berkeley Media Resources Center) Senses of Cinema - Biographie Fritz Lang at filmportal.de Interview with Fritz Lang from 1967 Bibliography be-x-old:Фрыц Ланг | Fritz_Lang |@lemmatized friedrich:3 christian:1 anton:2 fritz:9 lang:44 december:2 august:2 austrian:3 german:7 american:6 filmmaker:3 screenwriter:1 occasional:1 film:29 producer:4 one:5 best:1 known:1 émigrés:1 germany:6 school:2 expressionism:1 dub:1 master:1 darkness:1 bfi:1 famous:4 groundbreaking:1 metropolis:2 world:4 expensive:1 silent:2 time:4 release:1 make:6 move:2 united:3 state:4 contribute:1 greatly:1 noir:3 life:2 bear:1 vienna:5 austria:1 hungary:1 architect:1 construction:1 company:5 manager:1 pauline:1 paula:1 schlesinger:1 july:1 second:2 two:4 son:1 brother:1 adolf:1 nearly:1 seven:1 year:6 old:2 father:1 mother:2 practice:1 roman:1 catholic:1 although:2 jewish:1 convert:1 catholicism:1 ten:1 baptize:1 schottenkirche:1 finish:2 high:1 briefly:1 attend:1 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5,250 | Klaus_Fuchs | Klaus Emil Julius Fuchs (29 December 1911 – 28 January 1988), was a German-born British theoretical physicist and atomic spy who in 1950 was convicted of supplying information from the British and American atomic bomb research to the USSR during and shortly after World War II. Fuchs was an extremely competent scientist. While at the Los Alamos National Laboratory, Fuchs was responsible for many significant theoretical calculations relating to the first fission weapons and later, the early models of the hydrogen bomb, the first fusion weapon. Biography Early life Klaus Fuchs was born in Rüsselsheim, Germany, the third of four children to Lutheran pastor Emil Fuchs and his wife Else Wagner. Fuchs' father was later a professor of theology at Leipzig University. Fuchs' grandmother, mother, and one sister eventually committed suicide while his other sister was diagnosed as schizophrenic. Fuchs attended both Leipzig University and Kiel University, and while at Kiel became active in politics. Young Fuchs joined the Social Democratic Party of Germany and, in 1932, the Communist Party of Germany. In 1933, after a violent encounter with the recently installed Nazis, he fled to France and was then able to use family connections to flee to Bristol, England. He earned his PhD in Physics from the University of Bristol in 1937, studying under Nevill Mott, and took a DSc at the University of Edinburgh while studying under Max Born. His paper on quantum mechanics, published in the Proceedings of the Royal Society in 1936, helped win him a teaching position at Edinburgh the following year. Wartime work and espionage At the outbreak of war, German citizens in Britain were interned. Fuchs was put into camps on the Isle of Man and later in Quebec, Canada, from June to December 1940. However, Professor Born intervened on Fuchs' behalf. By early 1941, Fuchs had returned temporarily to Edinburgh. He was approached by Rudolf Peierls of the University of Birmingham to work on the "Tube Alloys" program – the British atomic bomb research project. Despite wartime restrictions, he was granted British citizenship in 1942 and signed the Official Secrets Act. A London GRU message of 10 August 1941 is a reference to the GRU reestablishing contact with Fuchs. His initial Soviet contact was known as "Sonia". Her real name was Ruth Werner – a German communist and a Major in Soviet Military Intelligence. As Fuchs would later testify, after Nazi Germany invaded the Soviet Union in 1941 he concluded that the Soviets had a right to know what the United Kingdom (and later the United States) were working on in secret. Hence he began transmitting military intelligence to the USSR, though the historical record is unclear about exactly when he started. Fuchs's testimony confirms that he contacted a former friend in the Communist Party of Germany, who put him in touch with someone at the Soviet embassy in Britain. His code-name was Rest. In late 1943, Fuchs transferred along with Peierls to Columbia University, in New York City, to work on the Manhattan Project. Although Fuchs was "an asset" of GRU in Britain, his "control" was transferred to the NKGB when he moved to New York. From August 1944 Fuchs worked in the Theoretical Physics Division at Los Alamos, New Mexico under Hans Bethe. His chief area of expertise was the problem of imploding the fissionable core of the plutonium bomb. At one point, Fuchs did calculation work that Edward Teller had refused to do due to lack of interest. He was the author of techniques (such as the still-used Fuchs-Nordheim method) for calculating the energy of a fissile assembly which goes highly prompt critical. Later, he also filed a patent with John von Neumann, describing a method to initiate fusion in a thermonuclear weapon with an implosion trigger. Fuchs was one of the many Los Alamos scientists present at the Trinity test. From late 1947 to May 1949, Fuchs gave Alexandre Feklisov, his case officer, the principal theoretical outline for creating a hydrogen bomb and the initial drafts for its development as the work progressed in England and America. Meeting with Feklisov six times, he provided the results of the test at Eniwetok atoll of uranium and plutonium bombs and the key data on U.S. production of uranium-235. By revealing that America was producing just one hundred kilograms of uranium-235 and twenty kilograms of plutonium per month, Fuchs made it easy for Soviet scientists to calculate the number of atomic bombs the United States possessed. Thus, because of Klaus Fuchs, leaders of the Soviet Union clearly knew the United States was not prepared for a nuclear war at the end of the 1940s, or even in the early 1950s. The information Fuchs gave Soviet intelligence in 1948 coincided with Donald Maclean's reports from Washington, D.C. It was more than abundantly clear, it was obvious to Josef Stalin's strategists: the United States did not have enough nuclear weapons to deal simultaneously with the Berlin blockade and the Communists' victory in China. Fuchs later testified that he passed detailed information on the project to the Soviet Union through a courier known as "Raymond" (later identified as Harry Gold) in 1945, and further information about the hydrogen bomb in 1946 and 1947. Fuchs attended a conference of the Combined Policy Committee (CPC) in 1947, a committee created to facilitate exchange of atomic secrets between the highest levels of government of the U.S., Great Britain and Canada; Donald Maclean, as British co-secretary of CPC, was also in attendance. In 1946 when Fuchs returned to England and the Harwell Atomic Energy Research Establishment as the first Head of the Theoretical Physics Division, he was confronted by intelligence officers as a result of the cracking of Soviet ciphers known as the VENONA project. Under prolonged interrogation by MI5 officer William Skardon, Fuchs confessed he was a spy in January, 1950. Fuchs told interrogators the KGB acquired an agent in Berkeley, California who informed the Soviet Union about electromagnetic separation research of uranium-235 in 1942 or earlier. He was prosecuted by Sir Hartley Shawcross and was convicted on 1 March 1950. He was sentenced the next day to fourteen years in prison, the maximum possible for passing military secrets to a friendly nation. In the infancy of the Cold War, the Soviet Union was nonetheless still classed as an ally, "a friendly nation". A week after his verdict, on 7 March, the Soviet Union issued a terse statement denying that Fuchs served as a Soviet spy. Fuchs' statements to British and American intelligence agencies were used to implicate Harry Gold, a key witness in the trials of David Greenglass and Julius and Ethel Rosenberg in the USA. Value of Fuchs' data to the Soviet project As a result of Fuchs' information, the first Soviet bomb, RDS-1 (above) closely resembled, even in its external shape, the U.S.-developed Fat Man bomb. Hans Bethe once said that Klaus Fuchs was the only physicist he knew who truly changed history. Because of the manner in which the head of the Soviet project, Lavrenty Beria, used foreign intelligence (as a third-party check, rather than giving it directly to the scientists, as he did not trust the information by default) it is unknown whether Fuchs's fission information had a substantial effect (and considering that the pace of the Soviet program was set primarily by the amount of uranium they could procure, it is hard for scholars to accurately judge how much time this saved the Soviets). Some former Soviet scientists said they were actually hampered by Fuchs's data, because Beria insisted that their first bomb ("Joe 1") should resemble the American plutonium bomb ("Fat Man") as much as possible, even though the scientists had discovered a number of improvements and different designs for a more efficient weapon. Whether the information Fuchs passed relating to the hydrogen bomb would have been useful is still somewhat in debate. Most scholars have agreed with the assessment made by Hans Bethe in 1952, which concluded that by the time Fuchs left the thermonuclear program – the summer of 1946 – there was too little known about the mechanism of the hydrogen bomb for his information to be of any necessary use to the Soviet Union (the successful Teller-Ulam design was not discovered until 1951). Soviet physicists would later note that they could see as well as the Americans eventually did that the early designs by Fuchs and Edward Teller were useless. However, later archival work by the Soviet physicist German Goncharov has suggested that while Fuchs' early work (most of which is still classified in the United States, but copies of which were available to the Soviets) did not aid the Soviets in their effort towards the hydrogen bomb, it was actually far closer to the final correct solution than was recognized at the time, and indeed spurred Soviet research into useful problems which eventually resulted in the correct answer. Since most of Fuchs' work on the bomb, including a 1946 patent on a particular model for the weapon, are still classified in the United States, it has been difficult for scholars to fully assess these conclusions. In any case, it seems clear that Fuchs could not have just given the Soviets the "secret" to the hydrogen bomb, since he did not himself actually know it. Overall Fuchs works were not a success and infact KGB had to use other spys in order to get the details. Later life and death After Fuchs' confession and a trial lasting less than 90 minutes, Lord Goddard sentenced him to fourteen years' imprisonment, the maximum for espionage. In December 1950 he was stripped of his British citizenship. Some claim that his confession was made to avoid the death penalty, but, according to at least one of his interrogators, he mistakenly believed that he would be allowed back to work at Harwell. He was released on 23 June 1959, after serving nine years and four months of his sentence at Wakefield Prison, and promptly emigrated to Dresden, which was then in the German Democratic Republic (East Germany). The tutorial he gave to Chinese physicists helped them to develop the bomb they tested five years later. Physics Today, September 2008, p. 53. Thomas C. Reed and Danny B. Stillman, The Nuclear Express: A Political History of the Bomb and Its Proliferation, Zenith Press, Jan 2009. Also in 1959, he married a friend from his years as a student Communist, Margarete Keilson. He continued his scientific career and achieved considerable prominence. He was elected to the Academy of Sciences and the SED central committee, and was later appointed deputy director of the Institute for Nuclear Research in Rossendorf, where he served until he retired in 1979. He received the Fatherland's Order of Merit and the Order of Karl Marx. Klaus Fuchs: Atom Bomb Spy, Crime Library Klaus Fuchs died near Dresden on 28 January 1988. See also Theodore Hall (another atomic spy at Los Alamos, though he and Fuchs were not aware of each other at the time) Atomic spies References Further reading Ronald Friedmann: Klaus Fuchs. Der Mann, der kein Spion war. Das Leben des Kommunisten und Wissenschaftlers Klaus Fuchs, 2006, ISBN 3-938686-44-8 Hans Bethe, "Memorandum on the History of the Thermonuclear Program" (28 May 1952). Rodney P. Carlisle, "Fuchs, Klaus Emil Julius", American National Biography Online Feb. 2000, accessed 24 September 2005. Mary Flowers, "Fuchs, (Emil Julius) Klaus (1911–1988)", rev., Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004, , accessed 24 September 2005. (requires library access) German A. Goncharov, "American and Soviet H-bomb development programmes: historical background," Physics - Uspekhi 39:10 (1996): 1033–1044. Alexei Kojevnikov, Stalin's Great Science: The Times and Adventures of Soviet Physicists (Imperial College Press, 2004), ISBN 1-86094-420-5 (discusses use of Fuchs's passed on information by Soviets, based on now-declassified files) Ruth Werner Nuclear Secrets Superspy BBC Television, accessed 23 February 2007 Robert Chadwell Williams, Klaus Fuchs: Atom Spy (Harvard University Press, 1987) ISBN 0-674-50507-7 External links Visit the Cold War International History Project (CWIHP) for the full text of Alexander Vassiliev's Notebooks containing more information on Fuchs' involvement in espionage An Interactive Rosenberg Espionage Ring Timeline and Archive Biography of Fuchs Klaus Fuchs' 1950 confession PBS.org on Fuchs, with photo German Goncharov on: What the Soviets Learned From Klaus Fuchs Communist spy jailed for 14 years (BBC News) Klaus Fuchs at Carey Sublette's NuclearWeaponArchive.org, which includes information about the specific information given by Fuchs to the Soviets from declassified KGB files Venona: Soviet Espionage and the American Response (CIA publication), contains letter from agents in 1949 about Klaus Fuchs. 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5,251 | Battery_Park_City | The promenade of Battery Park City. Battery Park City is a 92 acre (0.4 km²) planned community at the southwestern tip of lower Manhattan in New York City, United States. The land upon which it stands was created on the Hudson River using 1.2 million cubic yards (917,000 m³) of dirt and rocks excavated during the construction of the World Trade Center and certain other construction projects, as well as from sand dredged from New York Harbor off Staten Island. Howe, Arthur. "IN N.Y.C., A $1 BILLION DREAM RISES", The Philadelphia Inquirer, June 6, 1982. Accessed August 4, 2007. "Construction already is under way on the southern tip of Manhattan, at Battery Park City, land named for the British fort built there in 1693. The area was expanded by 1.2 million cubic yards of earth and rock excavated for the foundations of the World Trade Center nearby." The neighborhood, which is the site of the World Financial Center along with numerous housing, commercial and retail buildings, is named for adjacent Battery Park. Battery Park City is owned and managed by the Battery Park City Authority (BPCA), a public-benefit corporation created by New York State under the authority of the Urban Development Corporation 6 BUILDERS CHOSEN FOR HOUSING AT BATTERY PARK CITY - New York Times - August 19, 1981 . Excess revenue from the area was to be contributed to other housing efforts, typically low-income projects in the Bronx and Harlem. Under the 1989 agreement between the BPCA and the City of New York, $600 million was transferred by the BPCA to the city. Charles J. Urstat, the first Chairman and CEO of the BPCA, noted in an August 19, 2007 op-ed piece in the New York Post that the aggregate figure of funds transferred to the City of New York is above $1.4 billion with the BPCA continuing to contribute $200 million a year. Much of this funding has historically been diverted to general city expenses, under section 3.d of the 1989 agreement. However, in July 2006, Mayor Bloomberg, Governor Pataki, and Comptroller William C. Thompson, Jr. announced the final approval for the New York City Housing Trust Fund derived from $130 million in Battery Park City revenues. The Fund aims to preserve or create 4,300 affordable units over the next three years. It also provided seed financing for the New York Acquisition Fund, a $230 million initiative that aims to serve as a catalyst for the construction and preservation of more than 30,000 units of affordable housing Citywide over the next 10 years. The Acquisition Fund has since established itself as a model for similar funds in cities and states across the country. http://www.nyc.gov/html/hpd/downloads/pdf/New-Housing-Market-Place-Plan.pdf MAYOR BLOOMBERG’S AFFORDABLE HOUSING PLAN], New York City Department of Housing Preservation and Development, August 2008. Accessed September 11, 2008. Geography Location of Battery Park City The Hudson waterfront before Battery Park City. The Hudson waterfront with Battery Park City. Battery Park City is bounded on the east by West Street, which isolates the area from the Financial District of downtown Manhattan. To the west, north and south, the area is surrounded by the tidal estuary of the Hudson River. The development consists of roughly five major sections. Traveling North to South, the first neighborhood, the "North Residential Neighborhood," consists of high-rise residential buildings, a large hotel, Stuyvesant High School and a mall (currently occupied by a movie theater, restaurants and a discount store for leather goods and accessories). Scheff, Jonathan. "City Living: Battery Park City", Chicago Tribune, March 8, 2007. Accessed September 11, 2008. Former parkland in the area is being converted into high-rise buildings. Goldman Sachs is building a new headquarters building in this area. Immediately to the South lies the World Financial Center, a complex of several commercial buildings occupied by tenants including American Express, Dow Jones & Company, Merrill Lynch and Deloitte & Touche. The World Financial Center's ground floor and portions of the second floor are occupied by a mall; its center point is a steel-and-glass atrium known as the Winter Garden. Outside of the Winter Garden lies a sizeable yacht harbor on the Hudson known as North Cove. South of the World Financial Center lies the majority of Battery Park City's residential areas, in three sections: "Gateway Plaza", a high-rise building complex; the "Rector Place Residential Neighborhood" and the "Battery Place Residential Neighborhood", mostly low-rise building complexes. These neighborhoods contain most of the area's residential buildings, along with park space and various types of supporting businesses (supermarkets, restaurants, movie theatres.) Construction of residential buildings began north of the World Financial Center in the late 1990s. Demographics As of the 2000 census, there were 7,951 people residing in Battery Park City. The population density was 41,032 people per square mile (15,855/km²). The racial makeup of the neighborhood was 75% White, 17.93% Asian, 0.04% Pacific Islander, 2.97% African American, 0.06% Native American, 1.58% from other races, and 2.42% from two or more races. 5.32% of the population were Hispanic of any race. 27.7% of the population was foreign born, 51.8% came from Asia, 30.8% from Europe, 8.2% from Latin America and 9.2% from other (mostly Canada). Today, about 10,000 people live in Battery Park City, most of whom are upper middle class and upper class (54.0% of households have incomes over $100,000). When fully built out, the neighborhood is projected to have 14,000 residents. Next Door to a Poignant Memory - New York Times History Throughout the 1800s and early 1900s the area adjoining today's Battery Park City was known as the Greek quarter; an even more captivating reminder of the ethnic past is the former St. Nicholas Greek Orthodox Church which was destroyed in the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks. At the corner of Vesey Street and North End Avenue is the Irish Hunger Memorial. By the late 1950s, the once prosperous port area of downtown Manhattan was occupied by a number of dilapidated shipping piers, casualties of the rise of air transport. The initial proposal to reclaim this area through landfill was offered in the early 1960s by private firms and supported by the Mayor. This plan became complicated when Governor Nelson Rockefeller announced his desire to redevelop a part of the area as a separate project. The various groups reached a compromise, and in 1966 the governor unveiled the proposal for what would become Battery Park City. The creation of architect Wallace K. Harrison, the proposal called for a 'comprehensive community' consisting of housing, social infrastructure and light industry. The landscaping of the parkspace and later the Winter Garden was designed by M. Paul Friedberg. In 1968, the New York State Legislature created the Battery Park City Authority (BPCA) to oversee development. The New York State Urban Development Corporation and ten other public agencies were also involved in the development project. For the next several years, the BPCA made slow progress. In 1969, it unveiled a master plan for the area, and in 1972 issued $200 million in bonds to fund construction efforts. Landfill material from construction of the World Trade Center was used to add land. Cellular cofferdams were constructed to retain the material. By 1976 the landfill was completed; in many cases, the pre-existing piers were simply buried. Construction efforts ground to a halt for nearly two years beginning in 1977, as a result of city-wide financial hardships. In 1979, the title to the landfill was transferred from the city to the Battery Park City Authority, which financially restructured itself and created a new, more viable master plan, designed by Alex Cooper and Stanton Eckstut. The design of BPC to some degree reflects the values of vibrant city neighborhoods championed by Jane Jacobs. During the late 1970s and early 1980s the site hosted Creative Time's landmark Art on the Beach sculpture exhibitions. On September 23, 1979, the landfill was the site of an anti-nuclear rally attended by 200,000 people. Construction began on the first residential building in 1980, followed in 1981 with the start of construction on the World Financial Center. Olympia and York, of Toronto, was named as the developer for the World Financial Center in 1981, who then hired Cesar Pelli as the lead architect. By 1985, construction was completed and the World Financial Center saw its first tenants. Throughout the 1980s, the Battery Park City Authority oversaw a great deal of construction, including the entire Rector Place neighborhood and the river Esplanade. It was during this period that current City Planning Department Director Amanda Burden worked on Battery Park City. During the 1980s a total of 13 buildings were constructed. In the early 1990s, Battery Park City became the new home of the Stuyvesant High School. During the 1990s an additional 6 buildings were added to the neighborhood. By the turn of the century, Battery Park City was mostly completed, with the exception of some ongoing construction on West Street. Current residential neighborhoods of Battery Park City are divided into a north and south section, separated by the World Financial Center Complex. The southern section, extending down from the Winter Garden, is the more densely populated region, containing Gateway Plaza, and Rector Place apartment buildings. The northern section, although still under very large construction, consists entirely of large, 20-45 story buildings which are all various shades of orange brick. The September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks had a major impact on Battery Park City. The residents of lower Manhattan and particularly of Battery Park City were displaced for an extended period of time. Parts of the community were an official crime-scene and therefore residents were unable to return to live or even collect property. Many of the displaced residents were not allowed to return to the area for months and none were given government guidance of where to live temporarily on the already crowded island of Manhattan. With most hotel rooms booked, residents, including young children and the elderly were forced to fend for themselves. When they were finally allowed to return to Battery Park City, some found that their homes had been looted. Upon return the air in the area was still filled with toxic smoke from the World Trade Center fires that persisted until January 2002. More than half of the area's residents moved away permanently from the community after the adjacent World Trade Center towers collapsed and spread toxic dust, debris, and smoke. Gateway Plaza's 600 building, Hudson View East and, the then Parc Place, now Rector Square were punctured by airplane parts. The Winter Garden and other portions of the World Financial Center were severely damaged. Environmental concerns regarding dust from the Trade Center are a continuing source of concern for many residents, scientists, and elected officials. Since the attacks, the damage has been repaired. Temporarily reduced rents and government subsidies helped restore residential occupancy in the years following the attacks. After the events of 2001, residents of Battery Park City and Tribeca formed The Tribattery Pops. The “Pops” have been Grammy nominated and are the first lower Manhattan all volunteer community band in a century. Since then, real estate development in the area has continued robustly. Commercial development includes the Goldman Sachs Group World Headquarters scheduled for occupancy in 2009. Goldman Sachs is seeking gold-level certification under the United States Green Building Council’s Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) program by incorporating various water and energy conservation features. Several residential projects are underway, including LEED buildings which cater to the environmentally conscious. Construction History: Emporis NYC Districts and Zones: Battery Park City 1980's: 13 buildings, residential and commercial 1990's: 6 buildings, all residential 2000's: 13 buildings; 10 completed, residential and commercial; 1 under construction: Goldman Sachs New World Headquarters; 2 approved References External links Cooper, Robertson & Partners EE&K Architects Battery Park City Authority 291neighborhoods.com Photos Photo Gallery of Battery Park City NYCfoto.com Photos of Battery Park City Battery Park City ONLINE Community Web-site North Cove Marina Battery Park in Spanish | Battery_Park_City |@lemmatized promenade:1 battery:36 park:36 city:46 acre:1 plan:6 community:6 southwestern:1 tip:2 low:5 manhattan:7 new:18 york:14 united:2 state:6 land:3 upon:2 stand:1 create:5 hudson:6 river:3 use:2 million:7 cubic:2 yard:2 dirt:1 rock:2 excavate:2 construction:16 world:17 trade:6 center:17 certain:1 project:6 well:1 sand:1 dredge:1 harbor:2 staten:1 island:2 howe:1 arthur:1 n:1 c:2 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5,252 | Cytochrome | Cytochrome c with heme c. Cytochromes are, in general, membrane-bound hemoproteins that contain heme groups and carry out electron transport. They are found either as monomeric proteins (e.g., cytochrome c) or as subunits of bigger enzymatic complexes that catalyze redox reactions. They are found in the mitochondrial inner membrane and endoplasmic reticulum of eukaryotes, in the chloroplasts of plants, in photosynthetic microorganisms, and in bacteria. History Cytochromes were initially described in 1884 by MacMunn as respiratory pigments (myohematin or histohematin). In the 1920s, Keilin rediscovered these respiratory pigments and named them the cytochromes, or “cellular pigments”, and classified these heme proteins, on the basis of the position of their lowest energy absorption band in the reduced state, as cytochromes a (605 nm), b (~565 nm), and c (550 nm). The UV-visible spectroscopic signatures of hemes are still used to identify heme type from the reduced bis-pyridine-ligated state, i.e., the pyridine hemochrome method. Within each class, cytochrome a, b, or c, early cytochromes are numbered consecutively, e.g. cyt c, cyt c1, and cyt c2, with more recent examples designated by their reduced state R-band maximum, e.g. cyt c559 . Structure and function The heme group is a highly-conjugated ring system (which allows its electrons to be very mobile) surrounding a metal ion, which readily interconverts between the oxidation states. For many cytochromes, the metal ion present is that of iron, which interconverts between Fe2+ (reduced) and Fe3+ (oxidized) states (electron-transfer processes) or between Fe2+ (reduced) and Fe3+ (formal, oxidized) states (oxidative processes). Cytochromes are, thus, capable of performing oxidation and reduction. Because the cytochromes (as well as other complexes) are held within membranes in an organized way, the redox reactions are carried out in the proper sequence for maximum efficiency. In the process of oxidative phosphorylation, which is the principal energy-generating process undertaken by organisms, which need oxygen to survive, other membrane-bound and -soluble complexes and cofactors are involved in the chain of redox reactions, with the additional net effect that protons (H+) are transported across the mitochondrial inner membrane. The resulting transmembrane proton gradient ([protonmotive force]) is used to generate ATP, which is the universal chemical energy currency of life. ATP is consumed to drive cellular processes that require energy (such as synthesis of macromolecules, active transport of molecules across the membrane, and assembly of flagella). Types Several kinds of cytochrome exist and can be distinguished by spectroscopy, exact structure of the heme group, inhibitor sensitivity, and reduction potential. Three types of cytochrome are distinguished by their prosthetic groups: Type prosthetic group Cytochrome a heme a Cytochrome b heme b Cytochrome d tetrapyrrolic chelate of iron The definition of cytochrome c is not defined in terms of the heme group. . There is no "cytochrome e," but there is a cytochrome f, which is often considered a type of cytochrome c. In mitochondria and chloroplasts, these cytochromes are often combined in electron transport and related metabolic pathways: Cytochromes Combination a and a3 Cytochrome c oxidase ("Complex IV") b and c1 Coenzyme Q - cytochrome c reductase ("Complex III") b6 and f Plastoquinol—plastocyanin reductase A completely distinct family of cytochromes is known as the cytochrome P450 oxidases, so named for the characteristic Soret peak formed by absorbance of light at wavelengths near 450 nm when the heme iron is reduced (with sodium dithionite) and complexed to carbon monoxide. These enzymes are primarily involved in steroidogenesis and detoxification. References External links Scripps Database of Metalloproteins | Cytochrome |@lemmatized cytochrome:26 c:10 heme:11 general:1 membrane:6 bound:2 hemoproteins:1 contain:1 group:6 carry:2 electron:4 transport:4 find:2 either:1 monomeric:1 protein:2 e:5 g:3 subunit:1 big:1 enzymatic:1 complex:5 catalyze:1 redox:3 reaction:3 mitochondrial:2 inner:2 endoplasmic:1 reticulum:1 eukaryote:1 chloroplast:2 plant:1 photosynthetic:1 microorganism:1 bacteria:1 history:1 initially:1 describe:1 macmunn:1 respiratory:2 pigment:3 myohematin:1 histohematin:1 keilin:1 rediscover:1 name:2 cellular:2 classify:1 basis:1 position:1 low:1 energy:4 absorption:1 band:2 reduced:1 state:6 nm:4 b:5 uv:1 visible:1 spectroscopic:1 signature:1 still:1 use:2 identify:1 type:5 reduce:5 bi:1 pyridine:2 ligated:1 hemochrome:1 method:1 within:2 class:1 early:1 number:1 consecutively:1 cyt:4 recent:1 example:1 designate:1 r:1 maximum:2 structure:2 function:1 highly:1 conjugate:1 ring:1 system:1 allow:1 mobile:1 surround:1 metal:2 ion:2 readily:1 interconverts:2 oxidation:2 many:1 present:1 iron:3 oxidize:2 transfer:1 process:5 formal:1 oxidative:2 thus:1 capable:1 perform:1 reduction:2 well:1 hold:1 organized:1 way:1 proper:1 sequence:1 efficiency:1 phosphorylation:1 principal:1 generate:2 undertake:1 organism:1 need:1 oxygen:1 survive:1 soluble:1 cofactor:1 involve:2 chain:1 additional:1 net:1 effect:1 proton:2 h:1 across:2 result:1 transmembrane:1 gradient:1 protonmotive:1 force:1 atp:2 universal:1 chemical:1 currency:1 life:1 consume:1 drive:1 require:1 synthesis:1 macromolecule:1 active:1 molecule:1 assembly:1 flagellum:1 several:1 kind:1 exist:1 distinguish:2 spectroscopy:1 exact:1 inhibitor:1 sensitivity:1 potential:1 three:1 prosthetic:2 tetrapyrrolic:1 chelate:1 definition:1 define:1 term:1 f:2 often:2 consider:1 mitochondrion:1 combine:1 related:1 metabolic:1 pathway:1 combination:1 oxidase:2 iv:1 coenzyme:1 q:1 reductase:2 iii:1 plastoquinol:1 plastocyanin:1 completely:1 distinct:1 family:1 know:1 characteristic:1 soret:1 peak:1 form:1 absorbance:1 light:1 wavelength:1 near:1 sodium:1 dithionite:1 complexed:1 carbon:1 monoxide:1 enzyme:1 primarily:1 steroidogenesis:1 detoxification:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 scripps:1 database:1 metalloproteins:1 |@bigram redox_reaction:3 endoplasmic_reticulum:1 nm_uv:1 oxidative_phosphorylation:1 proton_gradient:1 mitochondrion_chloroplast:1 metabolic_pathway:1 coenzyme_q:1 cytochrome_oxidase:1 carbon_monoxide:1 external_link:1 |
5,253 | Dejima | View of Dejima island in Nagasaki Bay (from Siebold's Nippon, 1897) , was a fan-shaped artificial island in the bay of Nagasaki that was a Dutch trading post during Japan's self-imposed isolation (sakoku) of the Edo period, from 1641 until 1853. History Dutchmen with Courtesans in Nagasaki c.1800. The artificial island, constructed in 1634 on orders of shogun Iemitsu, originally accommodated Portuguese merchants. The sakoku and Shimabara uprising of 1637, in which Christian Japanese took an active part, was crushed with the help of the Dutch. The Portuguese and other Catholic nations were expelled from Japan in 1638 except the Dutch East India Company (Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie, VOC). The shogunate ordered the Dutch to transfer its trading operations from the island port of Hirado to Dejima in 1641. At its maximum the Hirado trading post covered a large area. Edo-Tokyo Museum exhibition catalog. (2000). A Very Unique Collection of Historical Significance: The Kapitan (the Dutch Chief) Collection from the Edo Period – The Dutch Fascination with Japan, p.206. In 1637 and in 1639, stone warehouses were constructed within the ambit of this Hirado trading post. Dutch builders incorporated these very dates into the stonework, but the Tokugawa shogunate disapproved of the use of any Christian era year dates and so ordered the immediate destruction of the structures. Edo-Tokyo Museum exhibition catalog, p. 207. Organization From then on, only the Chinese and the Dutch could trade with Japan. It is significant that Dejima was an artificial island, and hence not part of Japan proper. Thus, the foreigners were kept at arm's length from the sacred soil of Japan. Dejima was a small island, 120 by 75 meters, Ken Vos - The article "Dejima als venster en doorgeefluik" in the catalog (Brussels, 5 October 1989 - 16 December 1989) of the exhibition Europalia 1989 : "Oranda : De Nederlanden in Japan (1600-1868) linked to the mainland by a small bridge, guarded on both sides, and with a gate on the Dutch side. It contained houses for about twenty Dutchmen, warehouses, and accommodation for Japanese government officials. The Dutch were watched by a number of Japanese officials, gatekeepers, night watchmen, and a supervisor (otona) with about fifty subordinates. There were a number of merchants for supplies and catering and about 150 tsūji ("interpreters"). They all had to be paid by the VOC. Dejima was under direct central supervision of Edo by a governor, called a bugyō, who was responsible for all contact between the VOC and all contacts with anyone in the Japanese archipelago. Every Dutch ship that arrived in Dejima was inspected by the bugyō, and sails were seized until that ship was set to leave. Religious books and weapons were sealed and confiscated. No religious services were allowed on the island. Dejima and Nagasaki Bay, circa 1820. Two Dutch ships and numerous Chinese trading junks are depicted. Despite the financial burden of the isolated outpost on Dejima, the trade with Japan was very profitable for the VOC, initially yielding profits of 50% or more. Trade declined in the 18th century, as only two ships per year were allowed to dock at Dejima. After the bankruptcy of the VOC in 1795, the Dutch government took over the settlement. Times were especially hard when the Netherlands (then called the Batavian Republic) was under French Napoleonic rule and all ties with the homeland were severed. For a while Dejima remained the only place in the world where the Dutch flag was flown. The chief VOC official in Japan was called the Opperhoofd, or Kapitan. This descriptive title did not change when the island's trading fell under Dutch state authority. Throughout these years, the plan was to have one incumbent per year—but sometimes plans needed to be flexible. Scale model of Dutch trading post on display in Dejima (1995) Trade Originally, the Dutch mainly traded in silk, but sugar became more important later. Also, deer pelts and shark skin were transported to Japan from Asia, as well as woolen cloth and glassware from Europe. In return, the Dutch traders bought Japanese copper and silver. To this was added the personal trade of individual Dutch traders in charge of Dejima, called kanbang trade, which was an important source of income for the employees and allowed the Japanese to procure books or scientific instruments. More than 10,000 foreign books on various scientific subjects were thus sold to the Japanese from the end of the 18th to the early 19th century, thus becoming the central factor of the Rangaku movement, or Dutch studies. Ship arrivals In all, 606 Dutch ships arrived at Dejima during two centuries of settlement, from 1641 to 1847. The first period, from 1641 to 1671, was rather free, and saw an average of 7 Dutch ships every year (12 perished in this period). From 1671 to 1715, about 5 Dutch ships were allowed to visit Dejima every year. From 1715, only 2 ships were permitted every year, which was reduced to 1 ship in 1790, and again increased to 2 ships in 1799. During the Napoleonic wars, in which the Netherlands was occupied by and a satellite of France, Dutch ships could not safely reach Japan in the face of British opposition, so they instead relied on "neutral" American and Danish ships. (Interestingly, when the Netherlands was made a province by France (1811-1814), and Britain conquered Dutch colonial possessions in Asia, Dejima remained for four years the only place in the world where the free Dutch flag was still flying, under the leadership of Hendrik Doeff.) After the liberation of the Netherlands in 1815, regular traffic was reestablished. Sakoku policy Japanese painting of Dutch practicing astronomy at Dejima. For two hundred years, Dutch merchants were generally not allowed to cross from Dejima to Nagasaki, and Japanese were likewise banned from entering Dejima, except for prostitutes from Nagasaki teahouses. These yūjo were handpicked from 1642 by the Japanese, often against their will. From the 18th century there were some exceptions to this rule, especially following Tokugawa Yoshimune's doctrine of promoting European practical sciences. A few Oranda-yuki ("those who stay with the Dutch") were allowed to stay for longer periods, but they had to report regularly to the Japanese guard post. European scholars such as Engelbert Kaempfer, Carl Peter Thunberg, Isaac Titsingh and Philipp Franz von Siebold were allowed to enter the mainland with the shogunate's permission. In the context of Commodore Perry's "opening" of Japan in 1853, American naval expedition planners did have the reasonable forethought to incorporate reference material written by men whose published accounts of Japan were based on first-hand experience. J.W. Spaulding brought with him books by Japanologists Engelbert Kaempfer, Carl Peter Thunberg, and Isaac Titsingh. Screech, T. (2006). Secret Memoirs of the Shoguns: Isaac Titsingh and Japan, 1779-1822, p.73. Starting in the 1700s, Dejima became known throughout Japan as a center of medicine, military science, and astronomy, and many samurai travelled there for "Dutch studies" (Rangaku). In addition, the Opperhoofd was treated like a Japanese daimyo, which meant that he had to pay a visit of homage to the Shogun in Edo regularly (the so-called sankin kotai). In contrast to a daimyo, the Dutch delegation traveled to Edo yearly between 1660 and 1790 and once every four years thereafter. This prerogative was denied to the Chinese traders. This lengthy travel to the imperial court broke the boredom of their stay, but it was a costly affair to the Dutch. The shōgun let them know in advance and in detail which (expensive) gifts he expected, such as astrolabes, a pair of glasses, telescopes, globes, medical instruments, medical books, or exotic animals and tropical birds. In return, the Dutch delegation received some gifts from the shogun. On arrival in Edo the Opperhoofd and his retinue (usually his scribe and the factory doctor) had to wait in the Nagasakiya, their mandatory residence until they were summoned at the court. After their official audience, they were expected, according to Engelbert Kaempfer, to perform Dutch dances and songs etc. for the amusement of the shogunate. But they also used the opportunity of their stay of about two to three weeks in the capital to exchange knowledge with learned Japanese and, under escort, visit the town. New introductions to Japan Scene of badminton playing in Dejima. Dutch playing billards in Dejima. Badminton, a sport that originated in India, was introduced by the Dutch during the 18th century and is mentioned in the "Sayings of the Dutch." Billiards were introduced in Japan on Dejima in 1794 and are mentioned as "Ball throwing table" (玉突の場) in the paintings of Kawahara Keika (川原慶賀). Beer seems to have been introduced as imports during the period of isolation. The Dutch governor Doeff made his own beer in Nagasaki, following the disruption of trade during the Napoleonic wars. Local production of beer would start in Japan in 1880. Clover was introduced in Japan by the Dutch as packing material for fragile cargo. The Japanese called it "White packing herb" (シロツメクサ), in reference to its white flowers. Coffee was introduced in Japan by the Dutch under the name Moka. Siebold refers to Japanese coffee amateurs in Nagasaki around 1823. Piano. Japan's oldest piano was introduced by Siebold in 1823 and later given to a tradesperson in the name of Kumatani (熊谷). The piano is today on display in the Kumatani Museum (萩市の熊谷美術館). Painting, used for ships, was introduced by the Dutch. The original Dutch name (Pek) was also adopted in Japanese (Penki/ペンキ). Cabbage and tomatoes were introduced in the 17th century by the Dutch. Chocolate was introduced between 1789 and 1801 and is mentioned as a drink in the pleasure houses of Maruyama. Nagasaki Naval Training Center The Nagasaki Training Center, in Nagasaki, next to Dejima (in the background). Following the forcible opening of Japan by US Navy Commodore Perry in 1854, the Bakufu suddenly increased its interactions with Dejima in an effort to build up knowledge of Western shipping methods. The Nagasaki Naval Training Center (Jp:長崎海軍伝習所/Nagasaki Kaigun Denshūsho), a naval training institute, was established in 1855 by the government of the Shogun right at the entrance of Dejima, allowing maximum interaction with Dutch naval know-how. The center was also equipped with Japan's first steamship, the Kankō Maru, given by the government of the Netherlands the same year. The future Admiral Enomoto Takeaki was one of the students of the Training Center. Reconstruction The Dutch East India Company's trading post at Dejima was closed in 1857, once Dutch merchants were allowed to trade in Nagasaki City. Since then, the island has been surrounded by reclaimed land and merged into Nagasaki. Extensive redesigning of Nagasaki Harbor in 1904 has obscured the location. Edo-Tokyo Museum exhibition catalog, p. 47. The footprint of Dejima island's original location has been marked by rivets; but as restoration progresses, the ambit of the island will be easier to grasp at a glance. Edo-era boundaries of Dejima island (outlined in red) within the modern city of Nagasaki. Dejima today has plainly become a work in progress. The island was designated a national historical site in 1922, but further steps were slow to follow. Restoration work was started in 1953, but that project languished. In 1996, restoration of Dejima began with plans for rebuilding 25 buildings to their early 19th century state. To better display Dejima's fan-shaped form, the project anticipated rebuilding only parts of the surrounding embankment wall that had once enclosed the island. Buildings that remained from the Meiji Period were to be used. In 2000, five buildings including the Deputy Factor's Quarters were completed and opened to the public. In the spring of 2006, the finishing touches were put on the Chief Factor's Residence, the Japanese Officials' Office, the Head Clerk's Quarters, the No. 3 Warehouse, and the Sea Gate. The long-term planning now anticipates that Dejima should again be surrounded by water on all four sides, which means that Dejima’s characteristic fan-shaped form and all of its embankment walls will be fully restored. This long-term plan will involve a large-scale urban redevelopment in the area. If Dejima is to be an island again, the project will require rerouting the Nakashima River and moving a part of Route 499. The project is ambitious, but the eventual completion of this restoration project will create a unique window through which Nagasaki's past can be glimpsed. Chronology of Dejima Scene in the modern reconstruction of Dejima Monument erected in Dejima by Siebold to honor Kaempfer and Thunberg 1550: Portuguese ships visit Hirado. 1570: Nagasaki Harbor is opened for trade and six town blocks are built. 1571: The first Portuguese ships enter Nagasaki Harbor. 1580: Omura Sumitada cedes jurisdiction over Nagasaki and Mogi to the Society of Jesus. 1588: Toyotomi Hideyoshi exerts direct control over Nagasaki, Mogi, and Urakami from the Jesuits. 1609: The Dutch East India Company opens a factory in Hirado. It closes in 1623. 1612: Japan's feudal government decrees that Christian proselytizing on Bakufu lands is forbidden. 1616: All trade with foreigners except that with China is confined to Hirado and Nagasaki. 1634: The construction of Dejima begins. 1636: Dejima is completed; the Portuguese are interned on Dejima (Fourth National Isolation Edict). 1639: Portuguese ships are prohibited from entering Japan. Consequently, the Portuguese are banished from Dejima. 1641: The Dutch East India Company on Hirado is moved to Nagasaki. 1649: German surgeon Caspar Schamberger comes to Japan. 1662: A shop is opened on Dejima to sell Imari porcelain. 1673: The English ship "Return" enters Nagasaki, but the Shogunate refuses its request for trade. 1678: A bridge connecting Dejima with the shore is replaced with a stone bridge. 1690: The German physician Engelbert Kaempfer comes to Dejima. 1696: Warehouses for secondary cargo reach completion on Dejima. 1698: The Nagasaki Kaisho (trade association) is founded. 1699: The Sea Gate is built at Dejima. 1707: Water pipes are installed on Dejima. 1775: Carl Thunberg starts his term as physician on Dejima. 1779: Surgeon Isaac Titsingh arrives for his first tour of duty as "Opperhoofd." 1798: Many buildings, including the Chief Factor's Residence, are destroyed by the Great Kansei Fire of Dejima. 1804: Russian Ambassador N.P. Rezanov visits Nagasaki to request an exchange of trade between Japan and Imperial Russia. 1808: The Phaeton Incident occurs. VOC outpost Opperhoofd is a Dutch word (plural Opperhoofden) which literally means 'supreme head[man]'. In its historical usage, the word is a gubernatorial title, comparable to the English Chief factor, for the chief executive officer of a Dutch factory in the sense of trading post, as lead by a Factor, i.e. agent. See more at VOC Opperhoofden in JapanView of VOC compound at Hirado island – west coast of Kyushu (c1669). The last of the Dejima-based Opperhoofden handled the 1855 delivery of the Kankō Maru (観光丸), Japan's first modern steam warship – a gift from the Dutch King Willem III to the Tokugawa Shogunate. At Hirado François Caron: 3.2.1639 - 13.2.1641 [Caron was last Opperhoofd at Hirado.] At Dejima François Caron: 3.2.1639 - 13.2.1641 [Caron was the first Opperhoofd in Dejima following the forced move from Hirado.] Zacharias Wagenaer [Wagener]: 1.11.1656 - 27.10.1657 Zacharias Wagenaer [Wagener]: 22.10.1658 - 4.11.1659 Andreas Cleyer [Andries]: 20.10.1682 - 8.11.1683 Andreas Cleyer: 17.10.1685 - 5.11.1686 Hendrik Godfried Duurkoop: 23.11.1776 - 11.11.1777 Isaac Titsingh: 29.11.1779 - 5.11.1780 Isaac Titsingh: 24.11.1781 - 26.10.1783 Isaac Titsingh: _.8.1784 - 30.11.1784 Hendrik Doeff: 14.11.1803 - 6.12.1817 Jan Cock Blomhoff: 6.12.1817 - 20.11.1823 Janus Henricus Donker Curtius: 2.11.1852 - 28.2.1860 [Donker Curtius became the last in a long list of hardy Dutch Opperhoofden who were stationed at Dejima; and fortuitously, Curtius also became the first of many Dutch diplomatic and trade representatives in Japan during the burgeoning pre-Meiji years.] References Sources Hendrik Doeff and a Balinese servant in Dejima, Japanese painting. Blomhoff, J.C. (2000). The Court Journey to the Shogun of Japan: From a Private Account by Jan Cock Blomhoff. Amsterdam Blussé, L. et al., eds. (1995-2001) The Deshima [sic] Dagregisters: Their Original Tables of Content. Leiden. Blussé, L. et al., eds. (2004). The Deshima Diaries Marginalia 1740-1800. Tokyo. Boxer. C.R. (1950). Jan Compagnie in Japan, 1600-1850: An Essay on the Cultural, Aristic, and Scientific Influence Exercised by the Hollanders in Japan from the Seventeenth to the Nineteenth Centuries. Den Haag. Caron, François. (1671). A True Description of the Mighty Kingdoms of Japan and Siam. London. Doeff, Hendrik. (1633). Herinneringen uit Japan. Amsterdam. [Doeff, H. "Recollections of Japan" (ISBN 1-55395-849-7)] Edo-Tokyo Museum exhibition catalog. (2000). A Very Unique Collection of Historical Significance: The Kapitan (the Dutch Chief) Collection from the Edo Period—The Dutch Fascination with Japan. Catalog of "400th Anniversary Exhibition Regarding Relations between Japan and the Netherlands," a joint project of the Edo-Tokyo Museum, the City of Nagasaki, the National Museum of Ethnology, the National Natuurhistorisch Museum and the National Herbarium of the Netherlands in Leiden, the Netherlands. Tokyo. Leguin, F. (2002). Isaac Titsingh (1745-1812): Een passie voor Japan, leven en werk van de grondlegger van de Europese Japanologie. Leiden. Nederland's Patriciaat, Vol. 13 (1923). Den Haag. Screech, Timon. (2006). Secret Memoirs of the Shoguns: Isaac Titsingh and Japan, 1779-1822. London: RoutledgeCurzon. ISBN 0-700-71720-X Siebold, P.F.v. (1897). Nippon. Würzburg e Leipzig.Click link for full text in modern German Titsingh, I. (1820). Mémoires et Anecdotes sur la Dynastie régnante des Djogouns, Souverains du Japon. Paris: Nepveau. Titsingh, I. (1822). Illustrations of Japan; consisting of Private Memoirs and Anecdotes of the reigning dynasty of The Djogouns, or Sovereigns of Japan.'' London: Ackerman. See also Rangaku - Dutch studies Sakoku - "chained country" External links Dejima: The Island Comes Back to Life Hendrick Hamel in Japan: Deshima, layout and building placement WorldStatesmen - Japan New York Public Library Digital Gallery: NYPL ID 481279, Engelbert Kaempfer's map of Nagasaki harbor, 1727: Deshima location Gallery views A bird's-eye view of Nagasaki harbor as published in the Illustrated London News (March 23, 1853). In the center – the fan-shape of the Dutch traders' Dejima island compound and the Chinese compound is shown just to the left, separated from each other by narrow stretch of water. Bakufu supervision of these foreigners was under the control of the Governor of Nagasaki (the Nagasaki bugyō. 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5,254 | India | India, officially the Republic of India ( ; see also other Indian languages), is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country, and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the west, and the Bay of Bengal on the east, India has a coastline of . It is bordered by Pakistan to the west; Footnote: The Government of India also considers Afghanistan to be a bordering country. This is because it considers the entire state of Jammu and Kashmir to be a part of India including the portion bordering Afghanistan. A ceasefire sponsored by the United Nations in 1948 froze the positions of Indian and Pakistani-held territory. As a consequence, the region bordering Afghanistan is in Pakistan-administered Kashmir. People's Republic of China (PRC), Nepal, and Bhutan to the north; and Bangladesh and Myanmar to the east. India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka, the Maldives, and Indonesia in the Indian Ocean. Home to the Indus Valley Civilization and a region of historic trade routes and vast empires, the Indian subcontinent was identified with its commercial and cultural wealth for much of its long history. Oldenburg, Phillip. 2007. "India: History," Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2007© 1997–2007 Microsoft Corporation. Four major world religions, Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism originated there, while Zoroastrianism, Judaism, Christianity and Islam arrived in the first millennium CE and shaped the region's diverse culture. Gradually annexed by the British East India Company from the early eighteenth century and colonised by the United Kingdom from the mid-nineteenth century, India became an independent nation in 1947 after a struggle for independence that was marked by widespread nonviolent resistance. India is a republic consisting of 28 states and seven union territories with a parliamentary system of democracy. It has the world's twelfth largest economy at market exchange rates and the fourth largest in purchasing power. Economic reforms since 1991 have transformed it into one of the fastest growing economies; however, it still suffers from high levels of poverty, Poverty estimates for 2004-05, Planning commission, Government of India, March 2007. Accessed: 25 August 2007. illiteracy, and malnutrition. A pluralistic, multilingual, and multiethnic society, India is also home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats. Etymology The name India () is derived from Indus, which is derived from the Old Persian word Hindu, from Sanskrit Sindhu, the historic local appellation for the Indus River. "India", Oxford English Dictionary, second edition, 2100a.d. Oxford University Press. The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi (Ινδοί), the people of the Indus. The Constitution of India and common usage in various Indian languages also recognise Bharat (, ) as an official name of equal status. Hindustan (), which is the Persian word for “Land of the Hindus” and historically referred to northern India, is also occasionally used as a synonym for all of India. History Stone Age rock shelters with paintings at the Bhimbetka rock shelters in Madhya Pradesh are the earliest known traces of human life in India. The first known permanent settlements appeared over 9,000 years ago and gradually developed into the Indus Valley Civilisation, dating back to 3300 BCE in western India. It was followed by the Vedic period, which laid the foundations of Hinduism and other cultural aspects of early Indian society, and ended in the 500s BCE. From around 550 BCE, many independent kingdoms and republics known as the Mahajanapadas were established across the country. Paintings at the Ajanta Caves in Aurangabad, Maharashtra, sixth century In the third century BCE, most of South Asia was united into the Maurya Empire by Chandragupta Maurya and flourished under Ashoka the Great. From the third century CE, the Gupta dynasty oversaw the period referred to as ancient "India's Golden Age." Heitzman, James. (2007). "Gupta Dynasty," Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2007. Empires in Southern India included those of the Chalukyas, the Cholas and the Vijayanagara Empire. Science, engineering, art, literature, astronomy, and philosophy flourished under the patronage of these kings. Following invasions from Central Asia between the 10th and 12th centuries, much of North India came under the rule of the Delhi Sultanate and later the Mughal Empire. Under the rule of Akbar the Great, India enjoyed much cultural and economic progress as well as religious harmony. Mughal emperors gradually expanded their empires to cover large parts of the subcontinent. However, in North-Eastern India, the dominant power was the Ahom kingdom of Assam, among the few kingdoms to have resisted Mughal subjugation. The first major threat to Mughal imperial power came from a Hindu state known as the Maratha confederacy, that dominated much of India in the mid-18th century. The Mughals: The Marathas. From the 16th century, European powers such as Portugal, the Netherlands, France, and the United Kingdom established trading posts and later took advantage of internal conflicts to establish colonies in the country. By 1856, most of India was under the control of the British East India Company. A year later, a nationwide insurrection of rebelling military units and kingdoms, known as India's First War of Independence or the Sepoy Mutiny, seriously challenged the Company's control but eventually failed. As a result of the instability, India was brought under the direct rule of the British Crown. Mahatma Gandhi (right) with Jawaharlal Nehru, 1937. Nehru would go on to become India's first prime minister in 1947. In the 20th century, a nationwide struggle for independence was launched by the Indian National Congress and other political organisations. Indian leader Mahatma Gandhi led millions of people in national campaigns of non-violent civil disobedience. On 15 August 1947, India gained independence from British rule, but at the same time Muslim-majority areas were partitioned to form a separate state of Pakistan. On 26 January 1950, India became a republic and a new constitution came into effect. Since independence, India has faced challenges from religious violence, casteism, naxalism, terrorism and regional separatist insurgencies, especially in Jammu and Kashmir and Northeast India. Since the 1990s terrorist attacks have affected many Indian cities. India has unresolved territorial disputes with P. R. China, which in 1962 escalated into the Sino-Indian War; and with Pakistan, which resulted in wars in 1947, 1965, 1971 and 1999. India is a founding member of the United Nations (as British India) and the Non-Aligned Movement. In 1974, India conducted an underground nuclear test and five more tests in 1998, making India a nuclear state. Beginning in 1991, significant economic reforms have transformed India into one of the fastest-growing economies in the world, increasing its global clout. Government The Constitution of India, the longest and the most exhaustive constitution of any independent nation in the world, came into force on 26 January, 1950. The preamble of the constitution defines India as a sovereign, socialist, secular, democratic republic. at p. 421. India has a bicameral parliament operating under a Westminster-style parliamentary system. Its form of government was traditionally described as being 'quasi-federal' with a strong centre and weaker states, but it has grown increasingly federal since the late 1990s as a result of political, economic and social changes. at pp. 19–20; at pp. 25–33. The President of India is the head of state elected indirectly by an electoral college for a five-year term. The Prime Minister is the head of government and exercises most executive powers. Appointed by the President, the Prime Minister is by convention supported by the party or political alliance holding the majority of seats in the lower house of Parliament. The executive branch consists of the President, Vice-President, and the Council of Ministers (the Cabinet being its executive committee) headed by the Prime Minister. Any minister holding a portfolio must be a member of either house of parliament. In the Indian parliamentary system, the executive is subordinate to the legislature, with the Prime Minister and his Council being directly responsible to the lower house of the Parliament. The Legislature of India is the bicameral Parliament, which consists of the upper house called the Rajya Sabha (Council of States) and the lower house called the Lok Sabha (House of People). The Rajya Sabha, a permanent body, has 245 members serving staggered six year terms. Most are elected indirectly by the state and territorial legislatures in proportion to the state's population. 543 of the Lok Sabha's 545 members are directly elected by popular vote to represent individual constituencies for five year terms. The other two members are nominated by the President from the Anglo-Indian community if the President is of the opinion that the community is not adequately represented. India has a unitary three-tier judiciary, consisting of the Supreme Court, headed by the Chief Justice of India, twenty-one High Courts, and a large number of trial courts. at p. 478. The Supreme Court has original jurisdiction over cases involving fundamental rights and over disputes between states and the Centre, and appellate jurisdiction over the High Courts. It is judicially independent, and has the power to declare the law and to strike down Union or State laws which contravene the Constitution. at pp. 423–424. The role as the ultimate interpreter of the Constitution is one of the most important functions of the Supreme Court. Political and administrative divisions India consists of twenty-eight states and seven Union Territories. All states, and the two union territories of Puducherry and the National Capital Territory of Delhi, have elected legislatures and governments patterened on the Westminister model. The other five union territories are directly ruled by the Centre through appointed administrators. In 1956, under the States Reorganisation Act, states were formed on a linguistic basis. ; See also: Political integration of India. Since then, this structure has remained largely unchanged. Each state or union territory is further divided into administrative districts. The districts in turn are further divided into tehsils and eventually into villages. Politics The North Block, in New Delhi, houses key government offices. India is the most populous democracy in the world. For most of the years since independence, the federal government has been led by the Indian National Congress (INC). Politics in the states have been dominated by several national parties including the INC, the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), the Communist Party of India (Marxist) (CPI(M)) and various regional parties. From 1950 to 1990, barring two brief periods, the INC enjoyed a parliamentary majority. The INC was out of power between 1977 and 1980, when the Janata Party won the election owing to public discontent with the state of emergency declared by the then Prime Minister Indira Gandhi. In 1989, a Janata Dal-led National Front coalition in alliance with the Left Front coalition won the elections but managed to stay in power for only two years. As the 1991 elections gave no political party a majority, the INC formed a minority government under Prime Minister P.V. Narasimha Rao and was able to complete its five-year term. The years 1996–1998 were a period of turmoil in the federal government with several short-lived alliances holding sway. The BJP formed a government briefly in 1996, followed by the United Front coalition that excluded both the BJP and the INC. In 1998, the BJP formed the National Democratic Alliance (NDA) with several other parties and became the first non-Congress government to complete a full five-year term. In the 2004 Indian elections, the INC won the largest number of Lok Sabha seats and formed a government with a coalition called the United Progressive Alliance (UPA), supported by various Left-leaning parties and members opposed to the BJP. UPA again came into power in Indian general election, 2009 although the weigtage of Left leaning parties have reduced drastically in the coalition. Foreign relations and military The Sukhoi-30 MKI is the Indian Air Force's prime air superiority fighter and the most advanced version of the Su-27 series. Since its independence in 1947, India has maintained cordial relationships with most nations. It took a leading role in the 1950s by advocating the independence of European colonies in Africa and Asia. India was involved in two brief military interventions in neighboring countries – Indian Peace Keeping Force in Sri Lanka and Operation Cactus in Maldives. India is a member of the Commonwealth of Nations and a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement. After the Sino-Indian War and the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965, India's relationship with the Soviet Union warmed and continued to remain so until the end of the Cold War. India has fought two wars with Pakistan over the Kashmir dispute. A third war between India and Pakistan in 1971 resulted in the creation of Bangladesh (then East Pakistan). Additional skirmishes have taken place between the two nations over the Siachen Glacier. In 1999, India and Pakistan fought an undeclared war over Kargil. India and Russia share an extensive economic, defense and technological relationship. Shown here is PM Manmohan Singh with President Dmitry Medvedev at the 34th G8 Summit. In recent years, India has played an influential role in the SAARC, and the WTO. India's negotiation positions at the WTO. India has provided as many as 55,000 Indian military and police personnel to serve in thirty-five UN peace keeping operations across four continents. Despite criticism and military sanctions, India has consistently refused to sign the CTBT and the NPT, preferring instead to maintain sovereignty over its nuclear program. Recent overtures by the Indian government have strengthened relations with the United States, China and Pakistan. In the economic sphere, India has close relationships with other developing nations in South America, Asia and Africa. India maintains the third-largest military force in the world, which consists of the Indian Army, Navy, Air Force and auxiliary forces such as the Paramilitary Forces, the Coast Guard, and the Strategic Forces Command. The President of India is the supreme commander of the Indian Armed Forces. India maintains close defence cooperation with Russia, Israel and France, who are the chief suppliers of arms. The Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) oversees indigenous development of sophisticated arms and military equipment, including ballistic missiles, fighter aircraft and main battle tanks, to reduce India's dependence on foreign imports. India became a nuclear power in 1974 after conducting an initial nuclear test, Operation Smiling Buddha and further underground testing in 1998. India maintains a "no first use" nuclear policy. On 10 October, 2008 Indo-US civilian nuclear agreement was signed, prior to which India received IAEA and NSG waivers, ending restrictions on nuclear technology commerce with which India became de facto sixth nuclear power in world. . Geography Topographic map of India. India, the major portion of the Indian subcontinent, sits atop the Indian tectonic plate, a minor plate within the Indo-Australian Plate. India's defining geological processes commenced seventy-five million years ago, when the Indian subcontinent, then part of the southern supercontinent Gondwana, began a northeastwards drift—lasting fifty million years—across the then unformed Indian Ocean. The subcontinent's subsequent collision with the Eurasian Plate and subduction under it, gave rise to the Himalayas, the planet's highest mountains, which now abut India in the north and the north-east. In the former seabed immediately south of the emerging Himalayas, plate movement created a vast trough, which, having gradually been filled with river-borne sediment, now forms the Indo-Gangetic Plain. To the west of this plain, and cut off from it by the Aravalli Range, lies the Thar Desert. The original Indian plate now survives as peninsular India, the oldest and geologically most stable part of India, and extending as far north as the Satpura and Vindhya ranges in central India. These parallel ranges run from the Arabian Sea coast in Gujarat in the west to the coal-rich Chota Nagpur Plateau in Jharkhand in the east. To their south, the remaining peninsular landmass, the Deccan Plateau, is flanked on the left and right by the coastal ranges, Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats respectively; the plateau contains the oldest rock formations in India, some over one billion years old. Constituted in such fashion, India lies to the north of the equator between 6°44' and 35°30' north latitude India's northernmost point is the region of the disputed Siachen Glacier in Jammu and Kashmir; however, the Government of India regards the entire region of the former princely state of Jammu and Kashmir (including the Northern Areas currently administered by Pakistan) to be its territory, and therefore assigns the longitude 37° 6' to its northernmost point. and 68°7' and 97°25' east longitude. India's coast is long; of this distance, belong to peninsular India, and to the Andaman, Nicobar, and Lakshadweep Islands. According to the Indian naval hydrographic charts, the mainland coast consists of the following: 43% sandy beaches, 11% rocky coast including cliffs, and 46% mudflats or marshy coast. Tso Kiagar Lake at Ladakh on the Himalayas Major Himalayan-origin rivers that substantially flow through India include the Ganges and the Brahmaputra, both of which drain into the Bay of Bengal. Important tributaries of the Ganges include the Yamuna and the Kosi, whose extremely low gradient causes disastrous floods every year. Major peninsular rivers whose steeper gradients prevent their waters from flooding include the Godavari, the Mahanadi, the Kaveri, and the Krishna, which also drain into the Bay of Bengal; and the Narmada and the Tapti, which drain into the Arabian Sea. Among notable coastal features of India are the marshy Rann of Kutch in western India, and the alluvial Sundarbans delta, which India shares with Bangladesh. India has two archipelagos: the Lakshadweep, coral atolls off India's south-western coast; and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, a volcanic chain in the Andaman Sea. India's climate is strongly influenced by the Himalayas and the Thar Desert, both of which drive the monsoons. The Himalayas prevent cold Central Asian katabatic winds from blowing in, keeping the bulk of the Indian subcontinent warmer than most locations at similar latitudes. The Thar Desert plays a crucial role in attracting the moisture-laden southwest summer monsoon winds that, between June and October, provide the majority of India's rainfall. Four major climatic groupings predominate in India: tropical wet, tropical dry, subtropical humid, and montane. Flora and fauna India, which lies within the Indomalaya ecozone, displays significant biodiversity. One of eighteen megadiverse countries, it is home to 7.6% of all mammalian, 12.6% of all avian, 6.2% of all reptilian, 4.4% of all amphibian, 11.7% of all fish, and 6.0% of all flowering plant species. Many ecoregions, such as the shola forests, exhibit extremely high rates of endemism; overall, 33% of Indian plant species are endemic. Botanical Survey of India. 1983. Flora and Vegetation of India — An Outline. Botanical Survey of India, Howrah. p. 24. Valmik Thapar, Land of the Tiger: A Natural History of the Indian Subcontinent, 1997. ISBN 978-0520214705. India's forest cover ranges from the tropical rainforest of the Andaman Islands, Western Ghats, and North-East India to the coniferous forest of the Himalaya. Between these extremes lie the sal-dominated moist deciduous forest of eastern India; the teak-dominated dry deciduous forest of central and southern India; and the babul-dominated thorn forest of the central Deccan and western Gangetic plain. Tritsch, M.E. 2001. Wildlife of India Harper Collins, London. 192 pages. ISBN 0-00-711062-6. Important Indian trees include the medicinal neem, widely used in rural Indian herbal remedies. The pipal fig tree, shown on the seals of Mohenjo-daro, shaded Gautama Buddha as he sought enlightenment. Many Indian species are descendants of taxa originating in Gondwana, to which India originally belonged. Peninsular India's subsequent movement towards, and collision with, the Laurasian landmass set off a mass exchange of species. However, volcanism and climatic changes 20 million years ago caused the extinction of many endemic Indian forms. K. Praveen Karanth. (2006). Out-of-India Gondwanan origin of some tropical Asian biota. Soon thereafter, mammals entered India from Asia through two zoogeographical passes on either side of the emerging Himalaya. Consequently, among Indian species, only 12.6% of mammals and 4.5% of birds are endemic, contrasting with 45.8% of reptiles and 55.8% of amphibians. Notable endemics are the Nilgiri leaf monkey and the brown and carmine Beddome's toad of the Western Ghats. India contains 172, or 2.9%, of IUCN-designated threatened species. Groombridge, B. (ed). 1993. The 1994 IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. lvi + 286 pp. These include the Asiatic Lion, the Bengal Tiger, and the Indian white-rumped vulture, which suffered a near-extinction from ingesting the carrion of diclofenac-treated cattle. In recent decades, human encroachment has posed a threat to India's wildlife; in response, the system of national parks and protected areas, first established in 1935, was substantially expanded. In 1972, India enacted the Wildlife Protection Act and Project Tiger to safeguard crucial habitat; in addition, the Forest Conservation Act was enacted in 1980. Along with more than five hundred wildlife sanctuaries, India hosts thirteen biosphere reserves, four of which are part of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves; twenty-five wetlands are registered under the Ramsar Convention. Economy The Bombay Stock Exchange, in Mumbai, is Asia's oldest and India's largest stock exchange. For an entire generation from the 1950s until the 1980s, India followed socialist-inspired policies. The economy was shackled by extensive regulation, protectionism, and public ownership, leading to pervasive corruption and slow growth. Since 1991, the nation has moved towards a market-based system. The policy change in 1991 came after an acute balance of payments crisis, and the emphasis since then has been to use foreign trade and foreign investment as integral parts of India's economy. With an average annual GDP growth rate of 5.8% for the past two decades, the economy is among the fastest growing in the world. It has the world's second largest labour force, with 516.3 million people. In terms of output, the agricultural sector accounts for 28% of GDP; the service and industrial sectors make up 54% and 18% respectively. Major agricultural products include rice, wheat, oilseed, cotton, jute, tea, sugarcane, potatoes; cattle, water buffalo, sheep, goats, poultry; fish. Major industries include textiles, chemicals, food processing, steel, transport equipment, cement, mining, petroleum, machinery, software. India's trade has reached a relatively moderate share 24% of GDP in 2006, up from 6% in 1985. India's share of world trade has reached 1%. Major exports include petroleum products, textile goods, gems and jewelry, software, engineering goods, chemicals, leather manufactures. Major imports include crude oil, machinery, gems, fertilizer, chemicals. India's GDP is US$1.089 trillion, which makes it the twelfth-largest economy in the world or fourth largest by purchasing power adjusted exchange rates. India's nominal per capita income US$977 is ranked 128th in the world. In the late 2000s, India's economic growth has averaged 7½% a year, which will double the average income in a decade. Despite India's impressive economic growth over recent decades, it still contains the largest concentration of poor people in the world, and has a higher rate of malnutrition among children under the age of three (46% in year 2007) than any other country in the world. http://siteresources.worldbank.org/SOUTHASIAEXT/Resources/DPR_FullReport.pdf Retrieved on May 7, 2009 http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/asia/article1421393.ece Retrieved on May 8, 2009 . The percentage of people living below the new international poverty line $1.08 a day (PPP, in nominal terms Rs 21.6 a day in urban areas and Rs 14.3 in rural areas in 2005) decreased from 60% in 1981 to 42% in 2005 - the 3rd highest rate in South Asia after Nepal and Bangladesh, despite having a higher per capita income earning overall 85.7% of the population was living on less than $2.50 (PPP) a day in 2005, compared with 80.5% for Sub-Saharan Africa. Even though India has avoided famines in recent decades, half of children are underweight, one of the highest rates in the world and nearly double the rate of Sub-Saharan Africa. Ongoing reforms are watched closely as India could become potentially important for the global economy. A Goldman Sachs report predicts that "from 2007 to 2020, India’s GDP per capita will quadruple," and that the Indian economy will surpass the United States by 2043, but India "will remain a low-income country for several decades, with per capita incomes well below its other BRIC peers. But if it can fulfill its growth potential, it can become a motor for the world economy, and a key contributor to generating spending growth.". Although the Indian economy has grown steadily over the last two decades; its growth has been uneven when comparing different social groups, economic groups, geographic regions, and rural and urban areas. World Bank suggests that the most important priorities are public sector reform, infrastructure, agricultural and rural development, removal of labor regulations, reforms in lagging states, and HIV/AIDS. Demographics Population density map of India. With an estimated population of 1.17 billion, representing 17% of the world population, India Likely to Surpass China in Population by 2030, Matt Rosenberg. India is the world's second most populous country. The last 50 years have seen a rapid increase in population due to medical advances and massive increase in agricultural productivity The end of India's green revolution?, BBC News. made by the green revolution. Food First/Institute for Food and Development Policy. Almost 70% of Indians reside in rural areas, although in recent decades migration to larger cities has led to a dramatic increase in the country's urban population. India's largest cities are Mumbai (formerly Bombay), Delhi, Kolkata (formerly Calcutta), Chennai (formerly Madras), Bengaluru (formerly Bangalore), Hyderabad and Ahmedabad. India is the most culturally, linguistically and genetically diverse geographical entity after the African continent. India is home to two major linguistic families: Indo-Aryan (spoken by about 74% of the population) and Dravidian (spoken by about 24%). Other languages spoken in India come from the Austro-Asiatic and Tibeto-Burman linguistic families. Hindi, with the largest number of speakers, is the official language of the union. Mallikarjun, B. (Nov., 2004), Fifty Years of Language Planning for Modern Hindi–The Official Language of India, Language in India, Volume 4, Number 11. ISSN 1930-2940. English, which is extensively used in business and administration, has the status of a 'subsidiary official language;' it is also important in education, especially as a medium of higher education. In addition, every state and union territory has its own official languages, and the constitution also recognises in particular 21 other languages that are either abundantly spoken or have classical status. While Sanskrit and Tamil have been studied as classical languages for many years, . Quote: "Tamil ... It is therefore one of India's two classical languages, alongside the more widely known Indo-Aryan language Sanskrit." 2. Quote: "Tamil, one of the two classical languages of India, is a Dravidian language spoken today by 50 million Indians, ..." the Government of India, using its own criteria, has also accorded classical language status to Kannada and Telugu. The number of dialects in India is as high as 1,652. Over 800 million Indians (80.5%) are Hindu. Other religious groups include Muslims (13.4%), Christians (2.3%), Sikhs (1.9%), Buddhists (0.8%), Jains (0.4%), Jews, Zoroastrians, Bahá'ís and others. Tribals constitute 8.1% of the population. India has the third-highest Muslim population in the world and has the highest population of Muslims for a non-Muslim majority country. India's literacy rate is 64.8% (53.7% for females and 75.3% for males). The state of Kerala has the highest literacy rate (91%); Bihar has the lowest (47%). The national human sex ratio is 944 females per 1,000 males. India's median age is 24.9, and the population growth rate of 1.38% per annum; there are 22.01 births per 1,000 people per year. Culture The Taj Mahal in Agra was built by Shah Jahan as memorial to wife Mumtaz Mahal. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site considered to be of "outstanding universal value". India's culture is marked by a high degree of syncretism and cultural pluralism. It has managed to preserve established traditions while absorbing new customs, traditions, and ideas from invaders and immigrants and spreading its cultural influence to other parts of Asia. Traditional Indian society is defined by relatively strict social hierarchy. The Indian caste system describes the social stratification and social restrictions in the Indian subcontinent, in which social classes are defined by thousands of endogamous hereditary groups, often termed as jātis or castes. Traditional Indian family values are highly respected, and multi-generational patriarchal joint families have been the norm, although nuclear family are becoming common in urban areas. An overwhelming majority of Indians have their marriages arranged by their parents and other respected family members, with the consent of the bride and groom. Marriage is thought to be for life, and the divorce rate is extremely low. Child marriage is still a common practice, with half of women in India marrying before the legal age of 18. Indian cuisine is characterized by a wide variety of regional styles and sophisticated use of herbs and spices. The staple foods in the region are rice (especially in the south and the east) and wheat (predominantly in the north). Delphine, Roger, "The History and Culture of Food in Asia", in Spices originally native to the Indian subcontinent that are now consumed world wide include black pepper; in contrast, hot chili peppers, popular across India, were introduced by the Portuguese. , Traditional Indian dress varies across the regions in its colours and styles and depends on various factors, including climate. Popular styles of dress include draped garments such as sari for women and dhoti or lungi for men; in addition, stitched clothes such as salwar kameez for women and kurta-pyjama and European-style trousers and shirts for men, are also popular. Many Indian festivals are religious in origin, although several are celebrated irrespective of caste and creed. Some popular festivals are Diwali, Ganesh Chaturthi, Ugadi, Thai Pongal, Holi, Onam, Vijayadasami, Durga Puja, Eid ul-Fitr, Bakr-Id, Christmas, Buddha Jayanti and Vaisakhi. India has three national holidays. Other sets of holidays, varying between nine and twelve, are officially observed in individual states. Religious practices are an integral part of everyday life and are a very public affair. Indian architecture is one area that represents the diversity of Indian culture. Much of it, including notable monuments such as the Taj Mahal and other examples of Mughal architecture and South Indian architecture, comprises a blend of ancient and varied local traditions from several parts of the country and abroad. Vernacular architecture also displays notable regional variation. Indian music covers a wide range of traditions and regional styles. Classical music largely encompasses the two genres – North Indian Hindustani, South Indian Carnatic traditions and their various offshoots in the form of regional folk music. Regionalised forms of popular music include filmi and folk music; the syncretic tradition of the bauls is a well-known form of the latter. Indian dance too has diverse folk and classical forms. Among the well-known folk dances are the bhangra of the Punjab, the bihu of Assam, the chhau of West Bengal, Jharkhand and sambalpuri of Orissa and the ghoomar of Rajasthan. Eight dance forms, many with narrative forms and mythological elements, have been accorded classical dance status by India's National Academy of Music, Dance, and Drama. These are: bharatanatyam of the state of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu, kathak of Uttar Pradesh, kathakali and mohiniyattam of Kerala, kuchipudi of Andhra Pradesh, manipuri of Manipur, odissi of Orissa and the sattriya of Assam. 1. "South Asian arts: Techniques and Types of Classical Dance" From: Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 12 Oct. 2007. 2. Sangeet Natak Academi (National Academy of Music, Dance, and Drama, New Delhi, India). 2007. Dance Programmes. 3. Kothari, Sunil. 2007. Sattriya dance of the celibate monks of Assam, India. Royal Holloway College, University of London. Theatre in India often incorporates music, dance, and improvised or written dialogue. . Often based on Hindu mythology, but also borrowing from medieval romances, and news of social and political events, Indian theatre includes the bhavai of state of Gujarat, the jatra of West Bengal, the nautanki and ramlila of North India, the tamasha of Maharashtra, the burrakatha of Andhra Pradesh, the terukkuttu of Tamil Nadu, and the yakshagana of Karnataka. . Quote: "The folk-theatre is no isolated theatrical form in India. We have a number of such theatrical traditions all around Karnataka... In far off Assam we have similar plays going on by the name of Ankia Nat, in neighouring Bengal we have the very popular Jatra plays. Maharashtra has Tamasa. (p. 26.) The Indian film industry is the largest in the world. Bollywood, based in Mumbai, makes commercial Hindi films and is the most prolific film industry in the world. . Established traditions also exist in Bengali, Kannada, Malayalam, Marathi, Tamil, and Telugu language cinemas. . The earliest works of Indian literature were transmitted orally and only later written down. These included works of Sanskrit literature – such as the early Vedas, the epics Mahābhārata and Ramayana, the drama Abhijñānaśākuntalam (The Recognition of Śakuntalā), and poetry such as the Mahākāvya , , and . – and the Tamil language Sangam literature. 1. Encyclopaedia Britannica (2008), "Tamil Literature." Quote: "Apart from literature written in classical (Indo-Aryan) Sanskrit, Tamil is the oldest literature in India. Some inscriptions on stone have been dated to the 3rd century BC, but Tamil literature proper begins around the 1st century AD. Much early poetry was religious or epic; an exception was the secular court poetry written by members of the sangam, or literary academy (see Sangam literature)." 2. Quote: "These poems are 'classical,' i.e. early, ancient; they are also 'classics,' i.e. works that have stood the test of time, the founding works of a whole tradition. Not to know them is not to know a unique and major poetic achievement of Indian civilization. Early classical Tamil literature (c. 100 BC–AD 250) consists of the Eight Anthologies (Eţţuttokai), the Ten Long Poems (Pattuppāţţu), and a grammar called the Tolkāppiyam or the 'Old Composition.' ... The literature of classical Tamil later came to be known as Cankam (pronounced Sangam) literature. (pp. ix-x.)" Among Indian writers of the modern era active in Indian languages or English, Rabindranath Tagore won the Nobel Prize in 1913. Sports A 2008 Indian Premier League Twenty20 cricket match being played between the Chennai Super Kings and Kolkata Knight Riders India's official national sport is field hockey, administered by the Indian Hockey Federation. The Indian field hockey team won the 1975 Men's Hockey World Cup and 8 gold, 1 silver and 2 bronze medals at the Olympic games. However, cricket is the most popular sport; the India national cricket team won the 1983 Cricket World Cup and the 2007 ICC World Twenty20, and shared the 2002 ICC Champions Trophy with Sri Lanka. Cricket in India is administered by the Board of Control for Cricket in India, and domestic competitions include the Ranji Trophy, the Duleep Trophy, the Deodhar Trophy, the Irani Trophy and the Challenger Series. In addition Indian cricket league and Indian premier league organize Twenty20 competitions. Tennis has become increasingly popular, owing to the victories of the India Davis Cup team. Association football is also a popular sport in northeast India, West Bengal, Goa and Kerala. The Indian national football team has won the South Asian Football Federation Cup several times. Chess, commonly held to have originated in India, is also gaining popularity with the rise in the number of Indian Grandmasters. Traditional sports include kabaddi, kho kho, and gilli-danda, which are played nationwide. India is also home to the ancient martial arts, Kalarippayattu and Varma Kalai. The Rajiv Gandhi Khel Ratna and the Arjuna Award are India's highest awards for achievements in sports, while the Dronacharya Award is awarded for excellence in coaching. India hosted or co-hosted the 1951 and the 1982 Asian Games, the 1987 and 1996 Cricket World Cup. It is also scheduled to host the 2010 Commonwealth Games and the 2011 Cricket World Cup. See also Index of India-related articles Outline of India Notes References History Geography Flora and fauna . . . . . . . Culture . . . . . . . . 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5,255 | John_Hancock | John Hancock (January 23, 1737 – October 8, 1793) was a merchant, statesman, and prominent Patriot of the American Revolution. He served as president of the Second Continental Congress and was the first governor of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. He is remembered for his large and stylish signature on the United States Declaration of Independence, so much so that "John Hancock" became, in the United States, a synonym for signature. Before the American Revolution, Hancock was one of the wealthiest men in the Thirteen Colonies, having inherited a profitable shipping business from his uncle. Hancock began his political career in Boston as a protégé of Samuel Adams, an influential local politician, though the two men would later become estranged. As tensions between colonists and Great Britain increased in the 1760s, Hancock used his wealth to support the colonial cause. He became very popular in Massachusetts, especially after British officials seized his sloop Liberty in 1768 and charged him with smuggling. Although the charges against Hancock were eventually dropped, he has often been described as a smuggler in historical accounts, but the accuracy of this characterization has been questioned. Hancock was one of Boston's leaders during the crisis that led to the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War in 1775. He served more than two years in the Continental Congress in Philadelphia, and as president of Congress was the first to sign the Declaration of Independence. Hancock returned to Massachusetts and was elected as governor of the Commonwealth for most of his remaining years. He used his influence to ensure that Massachusetts ratified the United States Constitution in 1788. Hancock has often been regarded as an enigma. He was a wealthy aristocrat who was popular with the general public but disliked by many of his peers. While the Massachusetts electorate saw Hancock as a generous and steadfast patriot, and consistently voted him into office in landslide victories, some of his fellow politicians considered him a vain and shallow mediocrity. Although a Founding Father of the United States, he was not an important writer, political theorist, or military leader. Hancock's reputation among historians has sometimes been very poor, but he has often been considered an effective politician who ably used his wealth and prestige to promote the American Revolution. Early life John Hancock was born on January 23, 1737; according to the Old Style calendar then in use, the date was January 12, 1736. According to the New Style calendar, Hancock was born on January 23, 1737 (Allan, Patriot in Purple, 22, 372n48). Not all sources fully convert Hancock's birth date to the New Style, and so the date is also given as January 12, 1736 (Old Style), January 12, 1737 (partial conversion), or January 12, 1736/7 (dual dating). Hancock was born in Braintree, Massachusetts, in a part of town which eventually became the separate city of Quincy. Hancock was born in the North Precinct of Braintree, which was later incorporated as Quincy (Allan, Patriot in Purple, 22). He was the son of the Reverend John Hancock of Braintree and Mary Hawke Thaxter, who was from nearby Hingham. As a child, Hancock became a casual acquaintance of young John Adams, whom the Reverend Hancock had baptized in 1734. Fowler, Baron of Beacon Hill, 8; Unger, Merchant King, 14. The Hancocks lived a comfortable life, and owned one slave to help with household work. Fowler, Baron of Beacon Hill, 8. After Hancock's father died in 1744, John was sent to live with his uncle and aunt, Thomas Hancock and Lydia (Henchman) Hancock. Thomas Hancock was the proprietor of a firm known as the House of Hancock, which imported manufactured goods from Britain and exported rum, whale oil, and fish. Fowler, "Thomas Hancock", American National Biography. Thomas Hancock's highly successful business made him one of Boston's richest and best-known residents. Fowler, Baron of Beacon Hill, 11–14; Unger, Merchant King, 16. He and Lydia lived in Hancock Manor on Beacon Hill, an imposing estate with several servants and slaves. The couple, who did not have any children of their own, became the dominant influence on John's life. Fowler, Baron of Beacon Hill, 18. After graduating from the Boston Latin School in 1750, Hancock enrolled in Harvard University and received a bachelors degree in 1754. Fowler, Baron of Beacon Hill, 31; Allan, Patriot in Purple, 32–41. Upon graduation, he began to work for his uncle, just as the French and Indian War (1754–1763) had begun. Thomas Hancock had close relations with the royal governors of Massachusetts, and secured profitable government contracts during the war. Allan, Patriot in Purple, 61. John Hancock learned much about his uncle's shipping business during these years, and was trained for eventual partnership in the firm. Hancock worked hard, but he also enjoyed playing the role of a wealthy aristocrat, and developed a fondness for expensive clothes. Allan, Patriot in Purple, 58–59; Unger, Merchant King, 50. From 1760 to 1761, Hancock lived in England while building relationships with customers and suppliers. Back in Boston, Hancock gradually took over the House of Hancock as his uncle's health failed, becoming a full partner in January 1763. Fowler, Baron of Beacon Hill, 46; Allan, Patriot in Purple, 74; Unger, Merchant King, 63. He became a member of the Masonic Lodge of St. Andrew in October 1762, which connected him with many of Boston's most influential citizens. Allan, Patriot in Purple, 85. When Thomas Hancock died in August 1764, John inherited the business, Hancock Manor, two or three household slaves, and thousands of acres of land, becoming one of the wealthiest men in the colonies. Fowler, Baron of Beacon Hill, 48–59; Unger, Merchant King, 66–68. The household slaves continued to work for John and his aunt, but were eventually freed through the terms of Thomas Hancock's will; there is no evidence that John Hancock ever bought or sold slaves. Fowler, Baron of Beacon Hill, 78. Growing imperial tensions After the Seven Years' War (1756–1763), the British Empire was deep in debt. Looking for new sources of revenue, the British Parliament sought, for the first time, to directly tax the colonies, beginning with the Sugar Act of 1764. Fowler, Baron of Beacon Hill, 53. The act provoked outrage in Boston, where it was widely viewed as a violation of colonial rights. Men such as James Otis and Samuel Adams argued that because the colonists were not represented in Parliament, they could not be taxed by that body; only the colonial assemblies, where the colonists were represented, could levy taxes upon the colonies. Hancock was not yet a political activist, however: he criticized the tax for economic, rather than constitutional, reasons. Fowler, Baron of Beacon Hill, 53. Hancock emerged as a leading political figure in Boston just as tensions with Great Britain were increasing. In March 1765, he was elected as one of Boston's five selectmen, an office previously held by his uncle for many years. Fowler, Baron of Beacon Hill, 55. Soon after, Parliament passed the 1765 Stamp Act, a wildly unpopular measure in the colonies that produced riots and organized resistance. Hancock initially took a moderate position: as a loyal British subject, he thought that the colonists should submit to the act, even though he believed that Parliament was misguided. Fowler, Baron of Beacon Hill, 56. Within a few months, Hancock had changed his mind, although he continued to disapprove of violence and the intimidation of royal officials by mobs. Fowler, Baron of Beacon Hill, 58–60. Hancock joined the resistance to the Stamp Act by participating in a boycott of British goods, which made him popular in Boston. After Bostonians learned of the impending repeal of the Stamp Act, Hancock was elected to the Massachusetts House of Representatives in May 1766. Fowler, Baron of Beacon Hill, 63–64. Hancock's political success benefited from the support of Samuel Adams, the clerk of the House of Representatives and a leader of Boston's "popular party", also known as "Whigs" and later as "Patriots". The two men made an unlikely pair. Fifteen years older than Hancock, Adams had a somber, Puritan outlook that stood in marked contrast to Hancock's taste for luxury and extravagance. Fowler, Baron of Beacon Hill, 109; Fowler, Samuel Adams, 96. Some traditional stories suggest that Adams masterminded Hancock's political ascendancy so that the merchant's great wealth could be used to further Adams's agenda. In some of these tales, Hancock is portrayed as shallow and vain, easily manipulated by Adams. Adams, "Empty Barrel", 428. In other versions, Hancock is moderate and reasonable, while Adams is radical and dangerous. According to journalist Harlow Unger, for example, Hancock joined Adams out of fear, essentially paying Adams off to protect himself from the Adams-controlled mob (Merchant King, 95), but biding his time until he could "seize patriot leadership from the radicals" (122). Unger embraces the traditional "Tory interpretation" of Adams as a Machiavellian radical—calling him, for example, a "sinister, power-hungry plotter" (151)—a view now regarded as an inaccurate stereotype by many academic historians; see James M. O'Toole, "The Historical Interpretations of Samuel Adams", New England Quarterly 49 (March 1976), 82–96. Historian William M. Fowler, who wrote biographies of both men, argued that these stories contain a grain of truth, but are mostly folklore. Fowler characterized the relationship between the two as symbiotic, with Adams as the mentor and Hancock the protégé. Fowler, Baron of Beacon Hill, 64–65; Fowler, Samuel Adams, 73. Townshend Acts crisis After the repeal of the Stamp Act, Parliament took a different approach to raising revenue, passing the 1767 Townshend Acts, which established new duties on various imports and strengthened the customs agency by creating the American Customs Board. The British government believed that a more efficient customs system was necessary because many colonial American merchants had been smuggling. Smugglers violated the Navigation Acts by trading with ports outside of the British Empire and avoiding import taxes. Parliament hoped that the new system would reduce smuggling and generate revenue for the government. Fowler, Baron of Beacon Hill, 71–72. Colonial merchants, even those not involved in smuggling, found the new regulations oppressive. Other colonists protested that new duties were another attempt by Parliament to tax the colonies without their consent. Hancock joined other Bostonians in calling for a boycott of British imports until the Townshend duties were repealed. Tyler, Smugglers & Patriots, 111–14; Fowler, Baron of Beacon Hill, 73. In their enforcement of the customs regulations, the Customs Board targeted Hancock, Boston's wealthiest Whig. They may have suspected that he was a smuggler, or they may have wanted to harass him because of his politics, especially after Hancock snubbed Governor Francis Bernard by refusing to attend public functions when the customs officials were present. Fowler, Baron of Beacon Hill, 82; Dickerson, "Notorious Smuggler", 527–28. On April 9, 1768, two customs employees (called tidesmen) boarded Hancock's brig Lydia in Boston Harbor. Hancock was summoned, and finding that the agents lacked a writ of assistance (a general search warrant), did not allow them to go below deck. When one of them later managed to get into the hold, Hancock's men forced the tidesman back on deck. Dickerson, "Notorious Smuggler", 530; Allan, Patriot in Purple, 103; Unger, Merchant King, 118. The exact details and sequence of events in the Lydia affair varies slightly in these accounts. Customs officials wanted to file charges, but the case was dropped when Massachusetts Attorney General Jonathan Sewell ruled that Hancock had broken no laws. Dickerson, "Notorious Smuggler", 530–31; Fowler, Baron of Beacon Hill, 82; Unger, Merchant King, 118–19. Later, some of Hancock's most ardent admirers would call this incident the first act of physical resistance to British authority in the colonies and credit Hancock with initiating the American Revolution. Allan, Patriot in Purple, 103. Allan does not fully endorse this view. Liberty affair The next incident proved to be a major event in the coming of the American Revolution. On the evening of May 9, 1768, Hancock's sloop Liberty arrived in Boston Harbor, carrying a shipment of Madeira wine. When custom officers inspected the ship the next morning, they found that it contained 25 pipes of wine, just one fourth of the ship's carrying capacity. Unger, Merchant King, 119; Fowler, Baron of Beacon Hill, 84. For uncertainty of how much wine the Liberty held, see Dickerson, "Notorious Smuggler", 525. Hancock paid the duties on the 25 pipes of wine, but officials suspected that he had arranged to have additional pipes of wine unloaded during the night to avoid paying the duties for the entire cargo. Fowler, Baron of Beacon Hill, 84; Wroth and Zobel, Adams Legal Papers, 2:174. They did not have any evidence to prove this, however, since the two tidesmen who had stayed on the ship over night gave a sworn statement that nothing had been unloaded. Dickerson, "Notorious Smuggler", 521–22; Unger, Merchant King, 119. One month later, while the British warship HMS Romney was in port, one of the tidesmen changed his story: he now claimed that he had been forcibly held on the Liberty while it had been illegally unloaded. Dickerson, "Notorious Smuggler", 522; Unger, Merchant King, 120; Wroth and Zobel, Adams Legal Papers, 2:175. On June 10, customs officials seized the Liberty, which had since been loaded with new cargo, and towed it out to the Romney. Bostonians, already angry because the captain of the Romney had been impressing sailors in Boston Harbor, began to riot. The riot may have arisen because observers thought that sailors and marines coming ashore to seize the Liberty were a press gang; Reid, Rebellious Spirit, 92–93. The next day, customs officials, claiming that they were unsafe in town, relocated to the Romney, and then to Castle William, an island fort in the harbor. Fowler, Baron of Beacon Hill, 85; Unger, Merchant King, 120. Whigs insisted that the customs officials were exaggerating the danger to convince London to send troops; Reid, Rebellious Spirit, 104–20. Hancock was involved in two lawsuits stemming from the Liberty incident: an in rem suit against the ship, and an in personam suit against himself. As was the custom, any penalties assessed by the court would be awarded to the governor, the informer, and the Crown, each getting a third. Wroth and Zobel, Adams Legal Papers, 186. The first suit, filed on June 22, 1768, resulted in the confiscation of the Liberty in August. Customs officials then used the ship to enforce trade regulations until it was burned by angry colonists in Rhode Island the following year. Wroth and Zobel, Adams Legal Papers, 179–80; Fowler, Baron of Beacon Hill, 90; Unger, Merchant King, 124. The second trial began in October 1768, when charges were filed against Hancock and five others for allegedly unloading 100 pipes of wine from the Liberty without paying the duties. Dickerson, "Notorious Smuggler", 534; Wroth and Zobel, Adams Legal Papers, 180–81. If convicted, the defendants would have had to pay a penalty of triple the value of the wine, which came to £9,000. With John Adams serving as his lawyer, Hancock was prosecuted in a highly publicized trial by a vice admiralty court, which had no jury and did not always allow the defense to cross-examine the witnesses. Dickerson, "Notorious Smuggler", 535–36. After dragging out for nearly five months, the proceedings against Hancock were dropped without explanation. Fowler, Baron of Beacon Hill, 100; Dickerson, "Notorious Smuggler", 539; Wroth and Zobel, Adams Legal Papers, 183. The Liberty incident created two popular images of Hancock: supporters celebrated him as a martyr to the Patriot cause, while critics portrayed him as a scheming smuggler. Historians have been similarly divided. "Hancock's guilt or innocence and the exact charges against him", wrote historian John W. Tyler in 1986, "are still fiercely debated." Tyler, Smugglers & Patriots, 114. Historian Oliver Dickerson argued that Hancock was the victim of an essentially criminal racketeering scheme perpetrated by Governor Bernard and the customs officials. Dickerson believed that there is no reliable evidence that Hancock was guilty in the Liberty case, and that the purpose of the trials was to punish Hancock for political reasons and to plunder his property. Dickerson, "Notorious Smuggler", 518–25. Opposed to Dickerson's interpretation were Kinvin Wroth and Hiller Zobel, the editors of John Adams's legal papers, who argued that "Hancock's innocence is open to question", and that the British officials acted legally, if unwisely. Wroth and Zobel, Adams Legal Papers, 185–89, quote on page 185. Aside from the Liberty affair, the degree to which Hancock was engaged in smuggling, which was widespread in the colonies, has been questioned. Given the clandestine nature of smuggling, records are naturally scarce. Tyler, Smugglers & Patriots, 13. If Hancock was a smuggler, no documentation of this has been found. John W. Tyler identified 23 smugglers in his study of more than 400 merchants in revolutionary Boston, but found no written evidence that Hancock was one of them. Tyler, Smugglers & Patriots, 5, 16, 266. Biographer William Fowler concluded that while Hancock was probably engaged in some smuggling, most of his business was legitimate, and his reputation as the "king of the colonial smugglers" is a myth without foundation. Fowler, Baron of Beacon Hill, 82. Massacre to Tea Party The Liberty affair reinforced a previously made British decision to suppress unrest in Boston with a show of military might. The decision had been prompted by Samuel Adams's 1768 Circular Letter, which was sent to other British American colonies in hopes of coordinating resistance to the Townshend Acts. Lord Hillsborough, secretary of state for the colonies, sent four regiments of the British Army to Boston to support embattled royal officials, and instructed Governor Bernard to order the Massachusetts legislature to revoke the Circular Letter. Hancock and the Massachusetts House voted against rescinding the letter, and instead drew up a petition demanding Governor Bernard's recall. Fowler, Baron of Beacon Hill, 86–87. When Bernard returned to England in 1769, Bostonians celebrated. Fowler, Baron of Beacon Hill, 112; Allan, Patriot in Purple, 109. The British troops remained, however, and tensions between soldiers and civilians eventually resulted in the killing of five civilians in the so-called Boston Massacre of March 1770. Hancock was not involved in the incident, but afterwards he led a committee to demand the removal of the troops. Meeting with Bernard's successor, Governor Thomas Hutchinson, and the British officer in command, Colonel William Dalrymple, Hancock claimed that there were 10,000 armed colonists ready to march into Boston if the troops did not leave. Fowler, Baron of Beacon Hill, 124; Allan, Patriot in Purple, 120. Hutchinson knew that Hancock was bluffing, but the soldiers were in a precarious position when garrisoned within the town, and so Dalrymple agreed to remove both regiments to Castle William. Fowler, Baron of Beacon Hill, 124. Hancock was celebrated as a hero for his role in getting the troops withdrawn. Unger, Merchant King, 145; Allan, Patriot in Purple, 120. His reelection to the Massachusetts House in May was nearly unanimous. Fowler, Baron of Beacon Hill, 131; Brown, Middle-Class Democracy, 271. After Parliament partially repealed the Townshend duties in 1770, Boston's boycott of British goods ended. Tyler, Smugglers & Patriots, 140. Politics became quieter in Massachusetts, although tensions remained. Brown, Middle-Class Democracy, 268–69. Hancock tried to improve his relationship with Governor Hutchinson, who in turn sought to woo Hancock away from Adams's influence. Brown, Middle-Class Democracy, 289–90. See also Brown, Revolutionary Politics, 61n7. In April 1772, Hutchinson approved Hancock's election as colonel of the Boston Cadets, a militia unit whose primary function was to provide a ceremonial escort for the governor and the General Court. Fowler, Baron of Beacon Hill, 136; Allan, Patriot in Purple, 124-27. In May, Hutchinson even approved of Hancock's election to the Council, the upper chamber of the General Court, whose members were elected by the House but subject to veto by the governor. Hancock's previous elections to the Council had been vetoed, but now Hutchinson allowed the election to stand. Hancock declined the office, however, not wanting to appear to have been co-opted by the governor. Nevertheless, Hancock used the improved relationship to resolve an ongoing dispute. To avoid hostile crowds in Boston, Hutchinson had been convening the legislature outside of town; now he agreed to allow the General Court to sit in Boston once again, to the relief of the legislators. Fowler, Baron of Beacon Hill, 136–42. Hutchinson had dared to hope that he could win over Hancock and discredit Adams. Brown, Middle-Class Democracy, 285. To some, it seemed that Adams and Hancock were indeed at odds: when Adams formed the Boston Committee of Correspondence in November 1772 to advocate colonial rights, Hancock declined to join, creating the impression that there was a split in the Whig ranks. Brown, Revolutionary Politics, 57–60. But whatever their differences, Hancock and Adams came together again in 1773 with the renewal of major political turmoil. They cooperated in the revelation of private letters of Thomas Hutchinson, in which the governor seemed to recommend "an abridgement of what are called English liberties" to bring order to the colony. Fowler, Baron of Beacon Hill, 150–52. The Massachusetts House, blaming Hutchinson for the military occupation of Boston, called for his removal as governor. Fowler, Baron of Beacon Hill, 152. Even more trouble followed Parliament's passage of the 1773 Tea Act. On November 5, Hancock was elected as moderator at a Boston town meeting that resolved that anyone who supported the Tea Act was an "Enemy to America". Fowler, Baron of Beacon Hill, 156–57. Hancock and others tried to force the resignation of the agents who had been appointed to receive the tea shipments. Unsuccessful in this, they attempted to prevent the tea from being unloaded after three tea ships had arrived in Boston Harbor. Hancock was at the fateful meeting on December 16, where he reportedly told the crowd, "Let every man do what is right in his own eyes." Fowler, Baron of Beacon Hill, 161; Unger, Merchant King, 169. Hancock did not take part in the Boston Tea Party that night, but he approved of the action, although he was careful not to publicly praise the destruction of private property. Fowler, Baron of Beacon Hill, 159–62. Over the next few months, Hancock was disabled by gout, which would trouble him with increasing frequency in the coming years. By March 5, 1774, he had recovered enough to deliver the fourth annual Massacre Day oration, a commemoration of the Boston Massacre. Hancock's speech denounced the presence of British troops in Boston, who he said had been sent there "to enforce obedience to acts of Parliament, which neither God nor man ever empowered them to make". Fowler, Baron of Beacon Hill, 163. The speech, probably written by Hancock in collaboration with Adams, Joseph Warren, and others, was published and widely reprinted, enhancing Hancock's stature as a leading Patriot. Fowler, Baron of Beacon Hill, 165–66. Revolution begins Parliament responded to the Tea Party with the Boston Port Act, one of the so-called Coercive Acts intended to strengthen British control of the colonies. Hutchinson was replaced as governor by General Thomas Gage, who arrived in May 1774. On June 17, the Massachusetts House elected five delegates to send to the First Continental Congress in Philadelphia, which was being organized to coordinate colonial response to the Coercive Acts. Hancock did not serve in the first Congress, possibly for health reasons, or possibly to remain in charge while the other Patriot leaders were away. Fowler, Baron of Beacon Hill, 176; Unger, Merchant King, 181. Gage soon dismissed Hancock from his post as colonel of the Boston Cadets. Fowler, Baron of Beacon Hill, 174. In October 1774, Gage canceled the scheduled meeting of the General Court. In response, the House resolved itself into the Massachusetts Provincial Congress, a body independent of British control. Hancock was elected as president of the Provincial Congress and was a key member of the Committee of Safety. Fowler, Baron of Beacon Hill, 177. The Provincial Congress created the first minutemen companies, consisting of militiamen who were to be ready for action on a moment's notice. Fowler, Baron of Beacon Hill, 177; Unger, Merchant King, 185. A revolution had begun. On December 1, 1774, the Provincial Congress elected Hancock as a delegate to the Second Continental Congress to replace James Bowdoin, who had been unable to attend the first Congress because of illness. Fowler, Baron of Beacon Hill, 177; Unger, Merchant King, 187. Before Hancock reported to the Continental Congress in Philadelphia, the Provincial Congress unanimously reelected him as their president in February 1775. Hancock's multiple roles gave him enormous influence in Massachusetts, and as early as January 1774 British officials had considered arresting him. Fowler, Baron of Beacon Hill, 179. After attending the Provincial Congress in Concord in April 1775, Hancock and Samuel Adams decided that it was not safe to return to Boston before leaving for Philadelphia. They stayed instead at Hancock's childhood home in Lexington. Fischer, Paul Revere's Ride, 94, 108; Unger, Merchant King, 190. On April 14, 1775, Gage received a letter from Lord Dartmouth advising him "to arrest the principal actors and abettors in the Provincial Congress whose proceedings appear in every light to be acts of treason and rebellion". Fischer, Paul Revere's Ride, 76; Alden, "March to Concord", 451; Fowler, Baron of Beacon Hill, 181. On the night of April 18, Gage sent out a detachment of soldiers on the fateful mission that would spark the American Revolutionary War. The purpose of the British expedition was to seize and destroy military supplies that the colonists had stored in Concord. According to many historical accounts, Gage also instructed his men to arrest Hancock and Adams, but, as historian John Alden pointed out in 1944, the written orders issued by Gage made no mention of arresting the Patriot leaders. Alden, "March to Concord", 453. Gage apparently decided that he had nothing to gain by arresting Hancock and Adams, since other leaders would simply take their place, and the British would be portrayed as the aggressors. Alden, "March to Concord", 452; Fischer, Paul Revere's Ride, 85. Although Gage had evidently decided against seizing Hancock and Adams, Patriots initially believed otherwise. From Boston, Joseph Warren dispatched messenger Paul Revere to warn Hancock and Adams that British troops were on the move and might attempt to arrest them. Revere reached Lexington around midnight and gave the warning. Fischer, Paul Revere's Ride, 110; Fowler, Baron of Beacon Hill, 183. Hancock, still considering himself a militia colonel, wanted to take the field with the Patriot militia at Lexington, but Adams and others convinced him to avoid battle, arguing that he was more valuable as a political leader than as a soldier. Fisher, Paul Revere's Ride, 177–78; Fowler, Baron of Beacon Hill, 184. As Hancock and Adams made their escape, the first shots of the war were fired at Lexington and Concord. Soon after the battle, Gage issued a proclamation granting a general pardon to all who would "lay down their arms, and return to the duties of peaceable subjects"—with the exceptions of Hancock and Samuel Adams. The text of Gage's proclamation is available online from the Library of Congress. Singling out Hancock and Adams in this manner only added to their renown among Patriots. Fowler, Baron of Beacon Hill, 193. President of Congress Dorothy Quincy, by John Singleton Copley, c. 1772 With the war underway, Hancock made his way to the Continental Congress in Philadelphia with the other Massachusetts delegates. On May 24, 1775, he was unanimously elected President of the Continental Congress, succeeding Peyton Randolph after Henry Middleton declined the nomination. Hancock was a good choice for president for several reasons. Fowler, Baron of Beacon Hill, 190; Unger, Merchant King, 206. He was experienced, having often presided over legislative bodies and town meetings in Massachusetts. His wealth and social standing inspired the confidence of moderate delegates, while his association with Boston radicals made him acceptable to other radicals. His position was somewhat ambiguous, because the role of the president was not fully defined, and it was not clear if Randolph had resigned or was on a leave of absence. Fowler, Baron of Beacon Hill, 191. Like other presidents of Congress, Hancock's authority was limited to that of a presiding officer. William M. Fowler. "Hancock, John"; American National Biography Online, February 2000. He also had to handle a great deal of official correspondence, and he found it necessary to hire clerks at his own expense to help with the paperwork. Fowler, Baron of Beacon Hill, 205; Unger, Merchant King, 237. In Congress on June 15, 1775, Massachusetts delegate John Adams nominated George Washington as commander in chief of the army then gathered around Boston. Many years later, Adams wrote that Hancock had shown great disappointment at not getting the command for himself. If true, Hancock did not let his disappointment interfere with his duties, and he always showed admiration and support for General Washington, Fowler, Baron of Beacon Hill, 192. even though Washington politely declined Hancock's request for a military appointment. Unger, Merchant King, 215. When Congress recessed on August 1, 1775, Hancock took the opportunity to wed his fiancée, Dorothy "Dolly" Quincy. The couple was married on August 28 in Fairfield, Connecticut. Fowler, Baron of Beacon Hill, 197; Unger, Merchant King, 218. John and Dorothy would have two children, neither of whom survived to adulthood. Their daughter Lydia Henchman Hancock was born in 1776 and died ten months later. Fowler, Baron of Beacon Hill, 214, 218. Their son John George Washington Hancock was born in 1778 and died in 1787 after falling down and hitting his head while ice skating. Fowler, Baron of Beacon Hill, 229, 265; Unger, Merchant King, 309. Hancock served in Congress through some of the darkest days of the Revolutionary War. The British drove Washington from New York and New Jersey in 1776, which prompted Congress to flee to Baltimore, Maryland. Unger, Merchant King, 248. Hancock and Congress returned to Philadelphia in March 1777, but were compelled to flee six months later when the British occupied Philadelphia. Unger, Merchant King, 255. Hancock wrote innumerable letters to colonial officials, raising money, supplies, and troops for Washington's army. Unger, Merchant King, 216–22. He chaired the Marine Committee, and took pride in helping to create a small fleet of American frigates, including the USS Hancock, which was named in his honor. Fowler, Baron of Beacon Hill, 198–99; Unger, Merchant King, 245. Signing the Declaration Hancock was president of Congress when the Declaration of Independence was adopted and signed. He is primarily remembered by Americans for his large, flamboyant signature on the Declaration, so much so that "John Hancock" became, in the United States, an informal synonym for signature. Allan, Patriot in Purple, vii; see also Merriam-Webster online and Dictionary.com. According to a popular legend, Hancock signed his name largely and clearly so that King George could read it without his spectacles, but this fanciful story did not appear until many years later. Unger, Merchant King, 241. See also "John Hancock and Bull Story", from Snopes.com. Hancock's signature as it appears on the engrossed copy of the Declaration of Independence Contrary to popular mythology, there was no ceremonial signing of the Declaration on July 4, 1776. Fowler, Baron of Beacon Hill, 213. After Congress approved the wording of the text on July 4, a copy was sent to be printed. As president, Hancock may have signed the document that was sent to the printer, but this is uncertain because that document is lost, perhaps destroyed in the printing process. Boyd, "Mystery of the Lost Original", 450. The printer produced the first published version of the Declaration, the widely distributed Dunlap broadside. Hancock, as President of Congress, was the only delegate whose name appeared on the broadside, which meant that until a second broadside was issued six months later with all of the signers listed, Hancock was the only delegate whose name was publicly attached to the treasonous document. Allan, Patriot in Purple, 230–31. Hancock sent a copy of the Dunlap broadside to George Washington, instructing him to have it read to the troops "in the way you shall think most proper". Unger, Merchant King, 242. Hancock's name was printed, not signed, on the Dunlap broadside; his iconic signature appears on a different document—a sheet of parchment that was carefully handwritten sometime after July 19 and signed on August 2 by Hancock and those delegates present. Boyd, "Mystery of the Lost Original", 464–65. Known as the engrossed copy, this is the famous document on display at the National Archives in Washington, D.C. Return to Massachusetts In John Trumbull's famous painting The Declaration of Independence, Hancock, as presiding officer, is seated on the right as the drafting committee presents their work. In October 1777, after more than two years in Congress, President Hancock requested a leave of absence. Fowler, Baron of Beacon Hill, 219; Unger, Merchant King, 256. He asked George Washington to arrange a military escort for his return to Boston. Although Washington was short on manpower, he nevertheless sent fifteen horsemen to accompany Hancock on his journey home. Fowler, Baron of Beacon Hill, 220; Unger, Merchant King, 256–57. By this time Hancock had become estranged from Samuel Adams, who disapproved of what he viewed as Hancock's vanity and extravagance, which Adams believed were inappropriate in a republican leader. When Congress voted to thank Hancock for his service, Adams and the other Massachusetts delegates voted against the resolution, as did a few delegates from other states. Fowler, Baron of Beacon Hill, 207, 220, 230. Back in Boston, Hancock was reelected to the House of Representatives. As in previous years, his philanthropy made him popular. Although his finances had suffered greatly because of the war, he gave to the poor, helped support widows and orphans, and loaned money to friends. According to biographer William Fowler, "John Hancock was a generous man and the people loved him for it. He was their idol." Fowler, Baron of Beacon Hill, 225–26. In December 1777, he was reelected as a delegate to the Continental Congress and as moderator of the Boston town meeting. Fowler, Baron of Beacon Hill, 225. Hancock rejoined the Continental Congress in Pennsylvania in June 1778, but his brief time there was unhappy. In his absence, Congress had elected Henry Laurens as its new president, which was a disappointment to Hancock, who had hoped to reclaim his chair. Hancock got along poorly with Samuel Adams, and missed his wife and newborn son. Fowler, Baron of Beacon Hill, 230–31. On July 9, 1778, Hancock and the other Massachusetts delegates joined the representatives from seven other states in signing the Articles of Confederation; Unger, Merchant King, 270. the remaining states were not yet prepared to sign, and the Articles would not be ratified until 1781. Hancock returned to Boston in July 1778, motivated by the opportunity to finally lead men in combat. Back in 1776, he had been appointed as the senior major general of the Massachusetts militia. Fowler, Baron of Beacon Hill, 207. Now that the French fleet had come to the aid of the Americans, General Washington instructed General John Sullivan of the Continental Army to lead an attack on the British garrison at Newport, Rhode Island, in August 1778. Hancock nominally commanded 6,000 militiamen in the campaign, although he let the professional soldiers do the planning and issue the orders. It was a fiasco: French Admiral d'Estaing abandoned the operation, after which Hancock's militia mostly deserted Sullivan's Continentals. Fowler, Baron of Beacon Hill, 232–34; Unger, Merchant King, 270–73. Hancock suffered some criticism for the debacle but emerged from his brief military career with his popularity intact. Fowler, Baron of Beacon Hill, 234–35; Unger, Merchant King, 274–75. After much delay, the new Massachusetts Constitution finally went into effect in October 1780. To no one's surprise, Hancock was elected Governor of Massachusetts in a landslide, winning over 90% of the vote. Fowler, Baron of Beacon Hill, 243–44. He governed Massachusetts through the end of the Revolutionary War and into an economically troubled postwar period. Hancock took a hands-off approach to governing, avoiding controversial issues as much as possible. According to William Fowler, Hancock "never really led" and "never used his strength to deal with the critical issues confronting the commonwealth". Fowler, Baron of Beacon Hill, 246–47. Hancock was easily reelected to annual terms as governor, Fowler, Baron of Beacon Hill, 255. until his surprise resignation on January 29, 1785. Hancock cited his failing health as the reason, but he may also have been aware of growing unrest in the countryside and wanted to get out of office before the trouble came. Fowler, Baron of Beacon Hill, 258–59. Hancock's critics often suspected that he suffered from "political gout", which is when an official allegedly uses an illness to avoid a difficult political situation. Allan, Patriot in Purple, 222; J. T. Adams, "Empty Barrel", 430. Adams wrote that Hancock's "two chief resources were his money and his gout, the first always used to gain popularity, and the second to prevent his losing it." The turmoil that Hancock avoided became known as Shays' Rebellion, which Hancock's successor James Bowdoin had to deal with. After the uprising, Hancock was reelected in 1787, and he promptly pardoned all the rebels. Fowler, Baron of Beacon Hill, 265–66; Unger, Merchant King, 311. Hancock was reelected to annual terms as governor for the remainder of his life. Final years Hancock's memorial in Boston's Granary Burying Ground, erected in 1896. Allan, Patriot in Purple, viii. When he had resigned as governor in 1785, Hancock was again elected as a delegate to the Continental Congress, known as the Confederation Congress after the ratification of the Articles of Confederation in 1781. Congress had declined in importance after the Revolutionary War, and was frequently ignored by the states. Congress elected Hancock to serve as its president, but he never attended because of his poor health and because he was not interested. He sent Congress a letter of resignation in 1786. Fowler, Baron of Beacon Hill, 264. In 1787, in an effort to remedy the perceived defects of the Articles of Confederation, delegates met at the Philadelphia Convention and drafted the United States Constitution, which was then sent to the states for ratification or rejection. Hancock, who was not present at the Philadelphia Convention, had misgivings about the new Constitution's lack of a bill of rights and its shift of power to a central government. Fowler, Baron of Beacon Hill, 267–69. In January 1788, Hancock was elected president of the Massachusetts ratifying convention, although he was ill and not present when the convention began. Fowler, Baron of Beacon Hill, 268. Hancock mostly remained silent during the contentious debates, but as the convention was drawing to close, he gave a speech in favor of ratification. For the first time in years, Samuel Adams supported Hancock's position. Fowler, Baron of Beacon Hill, 270. Even with the support of Hancock and Adams, the Massachusetts convention narrowly ratified the Constitution by a vote of 187 to 168. Hancock's support was probably a deciding factor in the ratification. Fowler, Baron of Beacon Hill, 271; Allan, Patriot in Purple, 331–32. Hancock was put forth as a candidate in the 1789 U. S. presidential election. As was the custom in an era where political ambition was viewed with suspicion, Hancock did not campaign or even publicly express interest in the office; he instead made his wishes known indirectly. Like everyone else, Hancock knew that George Washington was going to be elected as the first president, but Hancock may have been interested in being vice president, despite his poor health. Fowler, Baron of Beacon Hill, 274. Hancock received only four electoral votes in the election, however, none of them from his home state; the Massachusetts electors all voted for another native son, John Adams, who became the vice president. Fowler, Baron of Beacon Hill, 275. Hancock was disappointed with his poor showing, but he remained as popular as ever in Massachusetts. Fowler, Baron of Beacon Hill, 275. His health failing, Hancock spent his final few years as essentially a figurehead governor. With his wife at his side, he died in bed on October 8, 1793, at fifty-six years of age. Fowler, Baron of Beacon Hill, 279; Unger, Merchant King, 330. By order of acting governor Samuel Adams, the day of Hancock's burial was a state holiday; the lavish funeral was perhaps the grandest given to an American up to that time. Allan, Patriot in Purple, 358; Unger, Merchant King, 331. Legacy Hancock's famous signature on the stern of the destroyer USS John Hancock Many places and things in the United States have been named in honor of John Hancock. The U.S. Navy has named vessels USS Hancock and USS John Hancock; a World War II Liberty ship was also named in his honor. Unger, Merchant King, 355. Ten states have a Hancock County named for him; Gannett, Place Names, 148. other places named after him include Hancock, Massachusetts; Hancock, Michigan; Hancock, New York; and Mount Hancock in New Hampshire. The John Hancock Insurance company, founded in Boston in 1862, was also named for him; it had no connection to Hancock's own business ventures. Unger, Merchant King, 337. The insurance company has passed on the name to famous office buildings (the John Hancock Tower in Boston and the John Hancock Center in Chicago) and the John Hancock Student Village at Boston University. Notes References Adams, James Truslow. "Portrait of an Empty Barrel". Harpers Magazine 161 (September 1930), 425–34. Alden, John R. "Why the March to Concord?" The American Historical Review 49 (1944), 446–54. Allan, Herbert S. John Hancock: Patriot in Purple. New York: Macmillan, 1948. Boyd, Julian P. "The Declaration of Independence: The Mystery of the Lost Original". Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 100, number 4 (October 1976) , 438–67. Available online from the Historical Society of Pennsylvania. Brown, Richard D. Revolutionary Politics in Massachusetts: The Boston Committee of Correspondence and the Towns, 1772–1774. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1970. ISBN 0-393-008-10-X. Brown, Robert E. Middle-Class Democracy and the Revolution in Massachusetts, 1691–1789. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1955. Dickerson, O. M. "John Hancock: Notorious Smuggler or Near Victim of British Revenue Racketeers?" The Mississippi Valley Historical Review 32, no. 4 (March 1946), 517–40. This article was later incorporated into Dickerson's The Navigation Acts and the American Revolution (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1951). Fischer, David Hackett. Paul Revere's Ride. New York: Oxford University Press, 1994. ISBN 0-19-508847-6. Fowler, William M., Jr. The Baron of Beacon Hill: A Biography of John Hancock. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1980. ISBN 0-395-27619-5. ———. Samuel Adams: Radical Puritan. New York: Longman, 1997. ISBN 0-673-99293-4. Gannett, Henry. The Origin of Certain Place Names in the United States. 2nd ed. Baltimore: Genealogical Pub. Co., 1973. ISBN 0806305444. Nobles, Gregory. "Yet the Old Republicans Still Persevere: Samuel Adams, John Hancock, and the Crisis of Popular Leadership in Revolutionary Massachusetts, 1775–90" in Ronald Hoffman and Peter J. Albert, eds., The Transforming Hand of Revolution: Reconsidering the American Revolution as a Social Movement. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1995, 258–85. Proctor, Donald J. "John Hancock: New Soundings on an Old Barrel". The Journal of American History 64, no. 3 (December 1977), 652–77. Reid, John Phillip. In a Rebellious Spirit: The Argument of Facts, the Liberty Riot, and the Coming of the American Revolution. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1979. ISBN 0-271-00202-6. Tyler, John W. Smugglers & Patriots: Boston Merchants and the Advent of the American Revolution. Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1986. ISBN 0-930350-76-6. Wroth, L. Kinvin and Hiller B. Zobel, eds. Legal Papers of John Adams, volume 2. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1965. Unger, Harlow Giles. John Hancock: Merchant King and American Patriot. New York: Wiley & Sons, 2000. ISBN 0-471-33209-7. Further reading Baxter, William T. The House of Hancock: Business in Boston, 1724–1775. 1945. Reprint, New York: Russell & Russell, 1965. Deals primarily with Thomas Hancock's business career. Brandes, Paul D. John Hancock’s Life and Speeches: A Personalized Vision of the American Revolution, 1763–1793. Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press, 1996. ISBN 0810830760. Contains the full text of many speeches. Brown, Abram E. John Hancock, His Book. Boston, 1898. Mostly extracts from Hancock's letters. Sears, Lorenzo. John Hancock, The Picturesque Patriot. 1912. The first full biography of Hancock. Wolkins, George G. "The Seizure of John Hancock's Sloop Liberty". Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society 55 (1923), 239–84. Reprints the primary documents. 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5,256 | Antarctica | Antarctica This map uses the Lambert azimuthal projection.The South Pole is at the centre. Area (Overall) (ice-free) (ice-covered) 14,000,000 km2 (5,000,000 sq mi) 280,000 km2 (100,000 sq mi) 13,720,000 km2 (5,300,000 sq mi) Population (permanent) (non-permanent) 7th nil ≈1,000 Dependencies Official Territorial claims Antarctic Treaty System Unofficial Territorial claims Reserved the right to make claims Time Zones None UTC-3 (Graham Land only) Internet Top-level domain .aq Calling Code Dependent on the parent country of each base Adelie Penguin chicks in Antarctica, with MS Explorer and an iceberg in the background. The image was taken in January 1999. MS Explorer sank on 23 November 2007, after hitting an iceberg in Antarctica. Antarctica (, alternatively ) is Earth's southernmost continent, underlying the South Pole. It is situated in the Antarctica region of the southern hemisphere, almost entirely south of the Antarctic Circle, and is surrounded by the Southern Ocean. At 14.0 million km² (5.4 million sq mi), it is the fifth-largest continent in area after Asia, Africa, North America, and South America. About 98% of Antarctica is covered by ice, which averages at least 1.6 kilometres (1.0 mi) in thickness. Antarctica, on average, is the coldest, driest, and windiest continent, and has the highest average elevation of all the continents. Antarctica is considered a desert, with annual precipitation of only 200 mm (8 inches) along the coast and far less inland. There are no permanent human residents but anywhere from 1,000 to 5,000 people reside throughout the year at the research stations scattered across the continent. Only cold-adapted plants and animals survive there, including penguins, seals, mosses, lichen, and many types of algae. The name Antarctica is the romanized version of the Greek compound word ανταρκτική (antarktiké), feminine of ανταρκτικός (antarktikos), Antarktikos, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, at Perseus meaning "opposite to the north". Although myths and speculation about a Terra Australis ("Southern Land") date back to antiquity, the first confirmed sighting of the continent is commonly accepted to have occurred in 1820 by the Russian expedition of Mikhail Lazarev and Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen. The continent, however, remained largely neglected for the rest of the 19th century because of its hostile environment, lack of resources, and isolation. The first formal use of the name "Antarctica" as a continental name in the 1890s is attributed to the Scottish cartographer John George Bartholomew. The Antarctic Treaty was signed in 1959 by twelve countries; to date, forty-six countries have signed the treaty. The treaty prohibits military activities and mineral mining, supports scientific research, and protects the continent's ecozone. Ongoing experiments are conducted by more than 4,000 scientists of many nationalities and with different research interests. History The snow surface at Dome C Station is typical of most of the continent's surface. An iceberg dwarfs a ship in this 1920s English magazine illustration of a whaler in the Antarctic. Belief in the existence of a Terra Australis — a vast continent in the far south of the globe to "balance" the northern lands of Europe, Asia and North Africa — had existed since the times of Ptolemy (1st century AD), who suggested the idea to preserve the symmetry of all known landmasses in the world. Depictions of a large southern landmass were common in maps such as the early 16th century Turkish Piri Reis map. Even in the late 17th century, after explorers had found that South America and Australia were not part of the fabled "Antarctica", geographers believed that the continent was much larger than its actual size. European maps continued to show this hypothetical land until Captain James Cook's ships, HMS Resolution and Adventure, crossed the Antarctic Circle on 17 January 1773, in December 1773 and again in January 1774. Cook in fact came within about of the Antarctic coast before retreating in the face of field ice in January 1773. James Cook, The Journals, edited by Philip Edwards. Penguin Books, 2003, p. 250. The first confirmed sighting of Antarctica can be narrowed down to the crews of ships captained by three individuals. According to various organizations (the National Science Foundation, NASA, the University of California, San Diego, and other sources), ships captained by three men sighted Antarctica in 1820: Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen (a captain in the Russian Imperial Navy), Edward Bransfield (a captain in the Royal Navy), and Nathaniel Palmer (an American sealer out of Stonington, Connecticut). Von Bellingshausen saw Antarctica on 27 January 1820, three days before Bransfield sighted land, and ten months before Palmer did so in November 1820. On that day the two-ship expedition led by Von Bellingshausen and Mikhail Petrovich Lazarev reached a point within 32 kilometers (20 mi) of the Antarctic mainland and saw ice fields there. The first documented landing on mainland Antarctica was by the American sealer John Davis in West Antarctica on 7 February 1821, although some historians dispute this claim. In December, 1839, as part of the United States Exploring Expedition of 1838–42 conducted by the United States Navy (sometimes called the "Ex. Ex.", or "the Wilkes Expedition"), an expedition sailed from Sydney, Australia, into the Antarctic Ocean, as it was then known, and reported the discovery "of an Antarctic continent west of the Balleny Islands". That part of Antarctica was later named "Wilkes Land", a name it maintains to this day. Explorer James Clark Ross passed through what is now known as the Ross Sea and discovered Ross Island (both of which were named for him) in 1841. He sailed along a huge wall of ice that was later named the Ross Ice Shelf (also named for him). Mount Erebus and Mount Terror are named after two ships from his expedition: HMS Erebus and Terror. Mercator Cooper landed in East Antarctica on 26 January 1853. Nimrod Expedition South Pole Party (left to right): Wild, Shackleton, Marshall and Adams During the Nimrod Expedition led by Ernest Shackleton in 1907, parties led by T. W. Edgeworth David became the first to climb Mount Erebus and to reach the South Magnetic Pole. Douglas Mawson, who assumed the leadership of the Magnetic Pole party on their perilous return, went on to lead several expeditions until retiring in 1931. In addition, Shackleton himself and three other members of his expedition made several firsts in December 1908 – February 1909: they were the first humans to traverse the Ross Ice Shelf, the first to traverse the Transantarctic Mountain Range (via the Beardmore Glacier), and the first to set foot on the South Polar Plateau. An expedition led by Norwegian polar explorer Roald Amundsen from the ship Fram became the first to reach the geographic South Pole on 14 December 1911, using a route from the Bay of Whales and up the Axel Heiberg Glacier. One month later, the ill-fated Scott Expedition reached the pole. Richard Evelyn Byrd led several voyages to the Antarctic by plane in the 1930s and 1940s. He is credited with implementing mechanized land transport on the continent and conducting extensive geological and biological research. However, it was not until 31 October 1956 that anyone set foot on the South Pole again; on that day a U.S. Navy group led by Rear Admiral George J. Dufek successfully landed an aircraft there. The first person to sail single-handed to Antarctica was the New Zealander David Henry Lewis, in a 10-meter steel sloop Ice Bird. Geography A satellite composite image of Antarctica Elevation colorized relief Speed of ice streams Size comparison Europe-Antarctica Centered asymmetrically around the South Pole and largely south of the Antarctic Circle, Antarctica is the southernmost continent and is surrounded by the Southern Ocean; alternatively, it may be considered to be surrounded by the southern Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian Oceans, or by the southern waters of the World Ocean. It covers more than 14 million km² (5.4 million sq mi), making it the fifth-largest continent, about 1.3 times as large as Europe. The coastline measures 17,968 kilometres (11,160 mi) and is mostly characterized by ice formations, as the following table shows: + Coastal types around Antarctica (Drewry, 1983) Type Frequency Ice shelf (floating ice front) 44% Ice walls (resting on ground) 38% Ice stream/outlet glacier (ice front or ice wall) 13% Rock 5% Total 100% Maritime Antarctica Antarctica is divided in two by the Transantarctic Mountains close to the neck between the Ross Sea and the Weddell Sea. The portion west of the Weddell Sea and east of the Ross Sea is called West Antarctica and the remainder East Antarctica, because they roughly correspond to the Western and Eastern Hemispheres relative to the Greenwich meridian. About 98% of Antarctica is covered by the Antarctic ice sheet, a sheet of ice averaging at least 1.6 kilometres (1.0 mi) thick. The continent has about 90% of the world's ice (and thereby about 70% of the world's fresh water). If all of this ice were melted, sea levels would rise about 60 metres (200 ft). In most of the interior of the continent, precipitation is very low, down to per year; in a few "blue ice" areas precipitation is lower than mass loss by sublimation and so the local mass balance is negative. In the dry valleys the same effect occurs over a rock base, leading to a desiccated landscape. West Antarctica is covered by the West Antarctic Ice Sheet. The sheet has been of recent concern because of the real, if small, possibility of its collapse. If the sheet were to break down, ocean levels would rise by several metres in a relatively geologically short period of time, perhaps a matter of centuries. Several Antarctic ice streams, which account for about 10% of the ice sheet, flow to one of the many Antarctic ice shelves. East Antarctica lies on the Indian Ocean side of the Transantarctic Mountains and comprising Coats Land, Queen Maud Land, Enderby Land, Mac Robertson Land, Wilkes Land and Victoria Land. All but a small portion of this region lies within the Eastern Hemisphere. East Antarctica is largely covered by the East Antarctic Ice Sheet. Mount Erebus, an active volcano on Ross Island. Vinson Massif, the highest peak in Antarctica at 4,892 metres (16,050 ft), is located in the Ellsworth Mountains. Antarctica contains many other mountains, both on the main continent and the surrounding islands. Although Antarctica is home to many volcanoes, only Mount Erebus is known to be active. Located on Ross Island, Erebus is the southernmost active volcano. There is another famous volcano called Deception Island, which is famous for its giant eruption in 1970. Minor eruptions are frequent and lava flow has been observed in recent years. Other dormant volcanoes may potentially be active. In 2004, an underwater volcano was found in the Antarctic Peninsula by American and Canadian researchers. Recent evidence shows this unnamed volcano may be active. Antarctica is home to more than 70 lakes that lie at the base of the continental ice sheet. Lake Vostok, discovered beneath Russia's Vostok Station in 1996, is the largest of these subglacial lakes. It was once believed that the lake had been sealed off for 500,000 to one million years but a recent survey suggests that, every so often, there are large flows of water from one lake to another. There is some evidence, in the form of ice cores drilled to about above the water line, that Vostok's waters may contain microbial life. The frozen surface of the lake shares similarities with Jupiter's moon Europa. If life is discovered in Lake Vostok, this would strengthen the argument for the possibility of life on Europa. and On 7 February 2008, a NASA team embarked on a mission to Lake Untersee, searching for extremophiles in its highly alkaline waters. If found, these resilient creatures could further bolster the argument for extraterrestrial life in extremely cold, methane-rich environments. Geology Geological history and paleontology More than 170 million years ago, Antarctica was part of the supercontinent Gondwana. Over time, Gondwana gradually broke apart and Antarctica as we know it today was formed around 25 million years ago. Paleozoic era (540–250 Ma) Survey route During the Cambrian periodic stage, Gondwana had a mild climate. West Antarctica was partially in the Northern Hemisphere, and during this period large amounts of sandstones, limestones and shales were deposited. East Antarctica was at the equator, where sea floor invertebrates and trilobites flourished in the tropical seas. By the start of the Devonian period (416 Ma), Gondwana was in more southern latitudes and the climate was cooler, though fossils of land plants are known from this time. Sand and silts were laid down in what is now the Ellsworth, Horlick and Pensacola Mountains. Glaciation began at the end of the Devonian period (360 Ma), as Gondwana became centered around the South Pole and the climate cooled, though flora remained. During the Permian period, the plant life became dominated by fern-like plants such as Glossopteris, which grew in swamps. Over time these swamps became deposits of coal in the Transantarctic Mountains. Towards the end of the Permian period, continued warming led to a dry, hot climate over much of Gondwana. Mesozoic era (250–65 Ma) Bransfield Strait As a result of continued warming, the polar ice caps melted and much of Gondwana became a desert. In East Antarctica, the seed fern became established, and large amounts of sandstone and shale were laid down at this time. The Antarctic Peninsula began to form during the Jurassic period (206–146 Ma), and islands gradually rose out of the ocean. Ginkgo trees and cycads were plentiful during this period, as were reptiles such as Lystrosaurus. In West Antarctica, coniferous forests dominated through the entire Cretaceous period (146–65 Ma), though Southern beech began to take over at the end of this period. Ammonites were common in the seas around Antarctica, and dinosaurs were also present, though only two Antarctic dinosaur genera (Cryolophosaurus, from the Hanson Formation, and Antarctopelta) have been described to date. It was during this period that Gondwana began to break up. Gondwanaland breakup (160–23 Ma) The cooling of Antarctica occurred stepwise by the continental spread changing the oceanic currents from longitudinal equator-to-pole temperature-equalizing currents to latitudinal currents that preserved and accentuated latitude temperature differences. Africa separated from Antarctica around 160 Ma, followed by the Indian subcontinent, in the early Cretaceous (about 125 Ma). About 65 Ma, Antarctica (then connected to Australia) still had a tropical to subtropical climate, complete with a marsupial fauna. About 40 Ma Australia-New Guinea separated from Antarctica, so that latitudinal current could isolate Antarctica from Australia, and so the first ice began to appear. Around 23 Ma, the Drake Passage opened between Antarctica and South America, which resulted in the Antarctic Circumpolar Current. The ice spread, replacing the forests that then covered the continent. Since about 15 Ma, the continent has been mostly covered with ice, with the Antarctic ice cap reaching its present extension around 6 Ma. Geology of present-day Antarctica Subglacial topography and bathymetry of bedrock underlying Antarctica ice sheet. The geological study of Antarctica has been greatly hindered by the fact that nearly all of the continent is permanently covered with a thick layer of ice. However, new techniques such as remote sensing, ground-penetrating radar and satellite imagery have begun to reveal the structures beneath the ice. Geologically, West Antarctica closely resembles the Andes mountain range of South America. The Antarctic Peninsula was formed by uplift and metamorphism of sea bed sediments during the late Paleozoic and the early Mesozoic eras. This sediment uplift was accompanied by igneous intrusions and volcanism. The most common rocks in West Antarctica are andesite and rhyolite volcanics formed during the Jurassic period. There is also evidence of volcanic activity, even after the ice sheet had formed, in Marie Byrd Land and Alexander Island. The only anomalous area of West Antarctica is the Ellsworth Mountains region, where the stratigraphy is more similar to the eastern part of the continent. Antarctica without its ice sheet. This map does not consider that sea level would rise because of the melted ice, nor that the landmass would rise by several hundred meters over a few tens of thousands of years after the weight of the ice was no longer depressing the landmass. East Antarctica is geologically very varied, dating from the Precambrian era, with some rocks formed more than 3 billion years ago. It is composed of a metamorphic and igneous platform which is the basis of the continental shield. On top of this base are various modern rocks, such as sandstones, limestones, coal and shales laid down during the Devonian and Jurassic periods to form the Transantarctic Mountains. In coastal areas such as Shackleton Range and Victoria Land some faulting has occurred. The main mineral resource known on the continent is coal. It was first recorded near the Beardmore Glacier by Frank Wild on the Nimrod Expedition, and now low-grade coal is known across many parts of the Transantarctic Mountains. The Prince Charles Mountains contain significant deposits of iron ore. The most valuable resources of Antarctica lie offshore, namely the oil and natural gas fields found in the Ross Sea in 1973. Exploitation of all mineral resources is banned until the year 2048 by the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty. Climate The blue ice covering Lake Fryxell, in the Transantarctic Mountains, comes from glacial meltwater from the Canada Glacier and other smaller glaciers. Antarctica is the coldest place on Earth. The coldest natural temperature ever recorded on Earth was −89.2 °C (−128.6 °F) at the Russian Vostok Station in Antarctica on 21 July 1983. For comparison, this is colder than subliming dry ice. Antarctica is a frozen desert with little precipitation; the South Pole itself receives less than 10 centimeters (4 in) per year, on average. Temperatures reach a minimum of between and and in the interior in winter and reach a maximum of between and and near the coast in summer. Sunburn is often a health issue as the snow surface reflects almost all of the ultraviolet light falling on it. East Antarctica is colder than its western counterpart because of its higher elevation. Weather fronts rarely penetrate far into the continent, leaving the center cold and dry. Despite the lack of precipitation over the central portion of the continent, ice there lasts for extended time periods. Heavy snowfalls are not uncommon on the coastal portion of the continent, where snowfalls of up to 1.22 meters (48 in) in 48 hours have been recorded. At the edge of the continent, strong katabatic winds off the polar plateau often blow at storm force. In the interior, however, wind speeds are typically moderate. During summer, more solar radiation reaches the surface during clear days at the South Pole than at the equator because of the 24 hours of sunlight each day at the Pole. Antarctica is colder than the Arctic for two reasons. First, much of the continent is more than 3 kilometers (2 mi) above sea level, and temperature decreases with elevation. Second, the Arctic Ocean covers the north polar zone: the ocean's relative warmth is transferred through the icepack and prevents temperatures in the Arctic regions from reaching the extremes typical of the land surface of Antarctica. Mountain glaciation Given the latitude, long periods of constant darkness or constant sunlight create climates unfamiliar to human beings in much of the rest of the world. The aurora australis, commonly known as the southern lights, is a glow observed in the night sky near the South Pole created by the plasma-full solar winds that pass by the Earth. Another unique spectacle is diamond dust, a ground-level cloud composed of tiny ice crystals. It generally forms under otherwise clear or nearly clear skies, so people sometimes also refer to it as clear-sky precipitation. A sun dog, a frequent atmospheric optical phenomenon, is a bright "spot" beside the true sun. Population Antarctica has no permanent residents, but a number of governments maintain permanent manned research stations throughout the continent. The number of people conducting and supporting scientific research and other work on the continent and its nearby islands varies from about 1,000 in winter to about 5,000 in the summer. Many of the stations are staffed year-round, the over-wintering personnel typically arriving from their home countries for a one-year assignment. An Orthodox church opened in 2004 at the Russian Bellingshausen Station is also manned year-round by one or two priests, who are similarly rotated every year. (Interview with Father Vladimir Petrakov, a priest who twice spent a year at the station) Two researchers studying plankton through microscopes The first semi-permanent inhabitants of regions near Antarctica (areas situated south of the Antarctic Convergence) were British and American sealers who used to spend a year or more on South Georgia, from 1786 onward. During the whaling era, which lasted until 1966, the population of that island varied from over 1,000 in the summer (over 2,000 in some years) to some 200 in the winter. Most of the whalers were Norwegian, with an increasing proportion of Britons. The settlements included Grytviken, Leith Harbour, King Edward Point, Stromness, Husvik, Prince Olav Harbour, Ocean Harbour and Godthul. Managers and other senior officers of the whaling stations often lived together with their families. Among them was the founder of Grytviken, Captain Carl Anton Larsen, a prominent Norwegian whaler and explorer who, along with his family, adopted British citizenship in 1910. Field work being carried out on Melnik Peak, Livingston Island The first child born in the southern polar region was Norwegian girl Solveig Gunbjørg Jacobsen, born in Grytviken on 8 October 1913, and her birth was registered by the resident British Magistrate of South Georgia. She was a daughter of Fridthjof Jacobsen, the assistant manager of the whaling station, and of Klara Olette Jacobsen. Jacobsen arrived on the island in 1904 to become the manager of Grytviken, serving from 1914 to 1921; two of his children were born on the island. R.K. Headland, The Island of South Georgia, Cambridge University Press, 1984. Emilio Marcos Palma was the first person born on the Antarctic mainland, at Base Esperanza in 1978; his parents were sent there along with seven other families by the Argentine government to determine if family life was suitable on the continent. In 1984, Juan Pablo Camacho was born at the Frei Montalva Station, becoming the first Chilean born in Antarctica. Several bases are now home to families with children attending schools at the station. Flora and fauna Flora The climate of Antarctica does not allow extensive vegetation. A combination of freezing temperatures, poor soil quality, lack of moisture, and lack of sunlight inhibit the flourishing of plants. As a result, plant life is limited to mostly mosses and liverworts. The autotrophic community is made up of mostly protists. The flora of the continent largely consists of lichens, bryophytes, algae, and fungi. Growth generally occurs in the summer, and only for a few weeks at most. More than 200 species of lichens are known to exist in Antarctica. There are more than 200 species of lichens and about 50 species of bryophytes, such as mosses. Seven hundred species of algae exist, most of which are phytoplankton. Multicolored snow algae and diatoms are especially abundant in the coastal regions during the summer. There are two species of flowering plants found in the Antarctic Peninsula: Deschampsia antarctica (Antarctic hair grass) and Colobanthus quitensis (Antarctic pearlwort). Fauna Few terrestrial vertebrates live in Antarctica. Invertebrate life includes microscopic mites, lice, nematodes, tardigrades, rotifers, krill and springtails. The flightless midge Belgica antarctica, just in size, is the largest purely terrestrial animal in Antarctica. The Snow Petrel is one of only three birds that breed exclusively in Antarctica. They have been seen at the South Pole. Emperor Penguins in Ross Sea, Antarctica. A variety of marine animals exist and rely, directly or indirectly, on the phytoplankton. Antarctic sea life includes penguins, blue whales, orcas, colossal squids and fur seals. The Emperor penguin is the only penguin that breeds during the winter in Antarctica, while the Adélie Penguin breeds farther south than any other penguin. The Rockhopper penguin has distinctive feathers around the eyes, giving the appearance of elaborate eyelashes. King penguins, Chinstrap penguins, and Gentoo Penguins also breed in the Antarctic. The Antarctic fur seal was very heavily hunted in the 18th and 19th centuries for its pelt by sealers from the United States and the United Kingdom. The Weddell Seal, a "true seal", is named after Sir James Weddell, commander of British sealing expeditions in the Weddell Sea. Antarctic krill, which congregates in large schools, is the keystone species of the ecosystem of the Southern Ocean, and is an important food organism for whales, seals, leopard seals, fur seals, squid, icefish, penguins, albatrosses and many other birds. The passing of the Antarctic Conservation Act in the U.S. brought several restrictions to U.S. activity on the continent. The introduction of alien plants or animals can bring a criminal penalty, as can the extraction of any indigenous species. The overfishing of krill, which plays a large role in the Antarctic ecosystem, led officials to enact regulations on fishing. The Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR), a treaty that came into force in 1980, requires that regulations managing all Southern Ocean fisheries consider potential effects on the entire Antarctic ecosystem. Despite these new acts, unregulated and illegal fishing, particularly of Patagonian toothfish (marketed as Chilean Sea Bass in the U.S.), remains a serious problem. The illegal fishing of toothfish has been increasing, with estimates of 32,000 tonnes (35,300 short tons) in 2000. A census of sea life carried out during the International Polar Year and which involved some 500 researchers is due for release in 2010. The research is part of the global Census of Marine Life (CoML) and has disclosed some remarkable findings. More than 235 marine organisms live in both polar regions, having bridged the gap of 12 000 km. Large animals such as some cetaceans and birds make the round trip annually. More surprising are small forms of life such as mudworms, sea cucumbers and free-swimming snails found in both polar oceans. Various factors may aid in their distribution - fairly uniform temperatures of the deep ocean at the poles and the equator which differ by no more than 50C, and the major current systems or marine conveyor belt which transport egg and larvae stages. BBC news item Politics Resupply by the Uruguayan Navy vessel Vanguardia. Antarctica has no government and belongs to no country. Various countries claim areas of it but, while some have mutually recognized each other's claims, "Australia, New Zealand, France, Norway and the United Kingdom reciprocally recognize the validity of each other's claims." no other countries recognize such claims. New claims on Antarctica have been suspended since 1959 and the continent is considered politically neutral. Its status is regulated by the 1959 Antarctic Treaty and other related agreements, collectively called the Antarctic Treaty System. Antarctica is defined as all land and ice shelves south of 60° S for the purposes of the Treaty System. The treaty was signed by twelve countries including the Soviet Union (and later Russia), the United Kingdom, Argentina, Chile, Australia, and the United States. It set aside Antarctica as a scientific preserve, established freedom of scientific investigation and environmental protection, and banned military activity on the continent. This was the first arms control agreement established during the Cold War. Designed by Graham Bartram, this is the most popular unofficial flag of Antarctica, symbolizing the continent's neutrality. In 1983, the Antarctic Treaty Parties began negotiations on a convention to regulate mining in Antarctica. A coalition of international organisations launched a public pressure campaign to prevent any minerals development in the region, led largely by Greenpeace International which established its own scientific station – World Park Base - in the Ross Sea region and conducted annual expeditions to document environmental effects of humans on the continent. In 1988, the Convention on the Regulation of Antarctic Mineral Resources (CRAMRA) was adopted. The following year, however, Australia and France announced that they would not ratify the convention, rendering it dead for all intents and purposes. They proposed instead that a comprehensive regime to protect the Antarctic environment be negotiated in its place. The Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty (the ‘Madrid Protocol’) was negotiated as other countries followed suit and on 14 January 1998 it entered into force. The Madrid Protocol bans all mining in Antarctica, designating the continent as a ‘natural reserve devoted to peace and science’. The Antarctic Treaty prohibits any military activity in Antarctica, including the establishment of military bases and fortifications, military manoeuvers, and weapons testing. Military personnel or equipment are permitted only for scientific research or other peaceful purposes. The only documented military land manoeuvre was Operation NINETY by the Argentine military. The United States military issues the Antarctica Service Medal to military members or civilians who perform research duty in Antarctica. The medal includes a "wintered over" bar issued to those who remain on the continent for 2 six-month seasons. Antarctic territories Argentina Australia Chile France New Zealand Norway United Kingdom DateCountryTerritoryClaim limits 1908 20°W to 80°W 1923 Ross Dependency 150°W to 160°E 1924 Adélie Land 142°2'E to 136°11'E 1929 1933 160°E to 142°2'E and 136°11'E to 44°38'E 1939 44°38'E to 20°W 1940 Antártica 53°W to 90°W 1943 25°W to 74°W — None Unclaimed territory(Marie Byrd Land) 90°W to 150°W(except the Peter I Island) The Argentine, British, and Chilean claims all overlap, and have caused friction. Australia claims the largest area. Countries interested in participating in a possible territorial division of Antarctica This group of countries participating as members of Antarctica Treaty have a territorial interest in the Antarctic continent but the provisions of the Treaty do not allow them to make their claims while it is in force. http://www.afese.com/img/revistas/revista40/laantartida.pdf has a designated 'zone of interest' that is not an actual claim; has formally reserved its right to make a claim. has formally reserved its right to make a claim. has reserved its right to claim "territories discovered by Russians", which potentially may refer to the entire continent. has formally reserved its right to make a claim. Nazi Germany also maintained a claim to Antarctica, known as New Swabia, between 1939 and 1945. It was situated from 20°E to 10°W, overlapping Norway's claim. The claim was abandoned after the fall of Nazi Germany in 1945. Economy The illegal capture and sale of the Patagonian toothfish has led to several arrests. Pictured here is the Antarctic toothfish, a sister species. Although coal, hydrocarbons, iron ore, platinum, copper, chromium, nickel, gold and other minerals have been found, they have not been in large enough quantities to exploit. The 1991 Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty also restricts a struggle for resources. In 1998, a compromise agreement was reached to place an indefinite ban on mining, to be reviewed in 2048, further limiting economic development and exploitation. The primary economic activity is the capture and offshore trading of fish. Antarctic fisheries in 2000–01 reported landing 112,934 tonnes. Antarctic postal services. Small-scale "expedition tourism" has existed since 1957 and is currently subject to Antarctic Treaty and Environmental Protocol provisions, but in effect self-regulated by the International Association of Antarctica Tour Operators (IAATO). Not all vessels associated with Antarctic tourism are members of IAATO, but IAATO members account for 95% of the tourist activity. Travel is largely by small or medium ship, focusing on specific scenic locations with accessible concentrations of iconic wildlife. A total of 37,506 tourists visited during the 2006–07 Austral summer with nearly all of them coming from commercial ships. The number is predicted to increase to over 80,000 by 2010. There has been some recent concern over the potential adverse environmental and ecosystem effects caused by the influx of visitors. A call for stricter regulations for ships and a tourism quota have been made by some environmentalists and scientists. The primary response by Antarctic Treaty Parties has been to develop, through their Committee for Environmental Protection and in partnership with IAATO, "site use guidelines" setting landing limits and closed or restricted zones on the more frequently visited sites. Antarctic sight seeing flights (which did not land) operated out of Australia and New Zealand until the fatal crash of Air New Zealand Flight 901 in 1979 on Mount Erebus, which killed all 257 aboard. Qantas resumed commercial overflights to Antarctica from Australia in the mid-1990s. Transport Transport on the continent has transformed from explorers crossing the isolated remote area of Antarctica on foot to a more open area due to human technologies enabling more convenient and faster transport by land and predominantly by air and water. The use of dogs to pull researchers and sledges has been banned on objections that dogs are an alien species to Antarctica. Electric buggies used in place of the dogs are disadvantaged in that while dogs could sense crevices and thin ice, the buggies can not. Research A full moon and 25-second exposure allowed sufficient light for this photo to be taken at Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station during the long Antarctic night. The station can be seen at far left, the power plant in the center and the mechanic's garage in the lower right. The green light in the background is the Aurora Australis. Each year, scientists from 27 different nations conduct experiments not reproducible in any other place in the world. In the summer more than 4,000 scientists operate research stations; this number decreases to nearly 1,000 in the winter. McMurdo Station is capable of housing more than 1,000 scientists, visitors, and tourists. Researchers include biologists, geologists, oceanographers, physicists, astronomers, glaciologists, and meteorologists. Geologists tend to study plate tectonics, meteorites from outer space, and resources from the breakup of the supercontinent Gondwanaland. Glaciologists in Antarctica are concerned with the study of the history and dynamics of floating ice, seasonal snow, glaciers, and ice sheets. Biologists, in addition to examining the wildlife, are interested in how harsh temperatures and the presence of people affect adaptation and survival strategies in a wide variety of organisms. Medical physicians have made discoveries concerning the spreading of viruses and the body's response to extreme seasonal temperatures. Astrophysicists at Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station study the celestial dome and cosmic microwave background radiation. Many astronomical observations are better made from the interior of Antarctica than from most surface locations because of the high elevation, which results in a thin atmosphere, low temperature, which minimizes the amount of water vapour in the atmosphere, and absence of light pollution, thus allowing for a view of space clearer than anywhere else on Earth. Antarctic ice serves as both the shield and the detection medium for the largest neutrino telescope in the world, built 2 kilometers below Amundsen-Scott station. Since the 1970s, an important focus of study has been the ozone layer in the atmosphere above Antarctica. In 1985, three British Scientists working on data they had gathered at Halley Station on the Brunt Ice Shelf discovered the existence of a hole in this layer. In 1998, NASA satellite data showed that the Antarctic ozone hole was the largest on record, covering 27 million km² (10 million sq mi). It was eventually determined that the destruction of the ozone was caused by chlorofluorocarbons emitted by human products. With the ban of CFCs in the Montreal Protocol of 1989, it is believed that the ozone hole will close up over the next fifty years. Princess Elisabeth Polar Science Station On 6 September 2007, Belgian-based International Polar Foundation unveiled the Princess Elisabeth station, the world's first zero-emissions polar science station in Antarctica to research climate change. Costing $16.3 million, the prefabricated station, which is part of International Polar Year, was shipped to the South Pole from Belgium by the end of 2008 to monitor the health of the polar regions. Belgian polar explorer Alain Hubert stated: "This base will be the first of its kind to produce zero emissions, making it a unique model of how energy should be used in the Antarctic." Johan Berte is the leader of the station design team and manager of the project which conducts research in climatology, glaciology and microbiology. belspo.be - Princess Elisabeth Station Meteorites Antarctic meteorite, named ALH84001, from Mars. Meteorites from Antarctica are an important area of study of material formed early in the solar system; most are thought to come from asteroids, but some may have originated on larger planets. The first meteorites were found in 1912. In 1969, a Japanese expedition discovered nine meteorites. Most of these meteorites have fallen onto the ice sheet in the last million years. Motion of the ice sheet tends to concentrate the meteorites at blocking locations such as mountain ranges, with wind erosion bringing them to the surface after centuries beneath accumulated snowfall. Compared with meteorites collected in more temperate regions on Earth, the Antarctic meteorites are well-preserved. This large collection of meteorites allows a better understanding of the abundance of meteorite types in the solar system and how meteorites relate to asteroids and comets. New types of meteorites and rare meteorites have been found. Among these are pieces blasted off the Moon, and probably Mars, by impacts. These specimens, particularly ALH84001 discovered by ANSMET, are at the center of the controversy about possible evidence of microbial life on Mars. Because meteorites in space absorb and record cosmic radiation, the time elapsed since the meteorite hit the Earth can be determined from laboratory studies. The elapsed time since fall, or terrestrial residence age, of a meteorite represents more information that might be useful in environmental studies of Antarctic ice sheets. In 2006, a team of researchers from Ohio State University used gravity measurements by NASA's GRACE satellites to discover the -wide Wilkes Land crater, which probably formed about 250 million years ago. Volcanic eruption In January 2008, the British Antarctic Survey (Bas) scientists, led by Hugh Corr and David Vaughan, reported (in the journal Nature Geoscience) that 2,200 years ago, a volcano erupted under Antarctica ice sheet (based on airborne survey with radar images). The biggest eruption in Antarctica in the last 10,000 years, the volcanic ash was found deposited on the ice surface under the Hudson Mountains, close to Pine Island Glacier. Ice mass and global sea level Due to its location at the South Pole, Antarctica receives relatively little solar radiation. This means that it is a very cold continent where water is mostly in the form of ice. Precipitation is low (most of Antarctica is a desert) and almost always in the form of snow, which accumulates and forms a giant ice sheet which covers the land. Parts of this ice sheet form moving glaciers known as ice streams, which flow towards the edges of the continent. Next to the continental shore are many ice shelves. These are floating extensions of outflowing glaciers from the continental ice mass. Offshore, temperatures are also low enough that ice is formed from seawater through most of the year. It is important to understand the various types of Antarctic ice to understand possible effects on sea levels and the implications of global warming. Sea ice expands annually in the Antarctic winter and melts in the summer. This ice is formed from the ocean water and floats in the same water and thus does not contribute to rise in sea level. The extent of sea ice around Antarctica has remained roughly constant in recent decades, although the thickness changes are unclear. Melting of floating ice shelves (ice that originated on the land) does not in itself contribute much to sea-level rise (since the ice displaces only its own mass of water). However it is the outflow of the ice from the land to form the ice shelf which causes a rise in global sea level. This effect is offset by snow falling back onto the continent. Recent decades have witnessed several dramatic collapses of large ice shelves around the coast of Antarctica, especially along the Antarctic Peninsula. Concerns have been raised that disruption of ice shelves may result in increased glacial outflow from the continental ice mass. On the continent itself, the large volume of ice present stores around 70 % of the world's fresh water. This ice sheet is constantly gaining ice from snowfall and losing ice through outflow to the sea. West Antarctica is currently experiencing a net outflow of glacial ice, which will increase global sea level over time. A review of the scientific studies looking at data from 1992 to 2006 suggested a net loss of around 50 Gigatonnes of ice per year was a reasonable estimate (around 0.14 mm of sea level rise). Significant acceleration of outflow glaciers in the Amundsen Sea Embayment may have more than doubled this figure for the year 2006. East Antarctica is a cold region with a ground base above sea level and occupies most of the continent. This area is dominated by small accumulations of snowfall which becomes ice and thus eventually seaward glacial flows. The mass balance of the East Antarctic Ice Sheet as a whole is thought to be slightly positive (lowering sea level) or near to balance. However, increased ice outflow has been suggested in some regions. Effects of global warming <center>Warming trend from 1957 through 2006 Some of Antarctica has been warming up, particularly strong warming has been noted on the Antarctic Peninsula. A study by Eric Steig published in 2009 noted for the first time that the continent-wide average surface temperature trend of Antarctica is slightly positive at >0.05°C/decade from 1957 to 2006. This study also noted that West Antarctica has warmed by more than 0.1°C/decade in the last 50 years, and this warming is strongest in winter and spring. Although this is partly offset by fall cooling in East Antarctica. > There is evidence from one study that Antarctica is warming as a result of human emissions. However, the small amount of surface warming in West Antarctica is not believed to be directly affecting the West Antarctic Ice Sheet's contribution to sea level. Instead the recent increases in glacier outflow are believed to be due to an inflow of warm water from the deep ocean, just off the continental shelf. The net contribution to sea level from the Antarctic Peninsula is more likely to be a direct result of the much greater atmospheric warming there. In 2003 the Antarctic Peninsula's Larsen-B ice shelf collapsed. Between 28 February and 8 March 2008, about 570 square kilometers of ice from the Wilkins Ice Shelf on the southwest part of the peninsula collapsed, putting the remaining 15,000 square kilometers of the ice shelf at risk. The ice was being held back by a "thread" of ice about 6 km wide, prior to its collapse on April 5, 2009. According to NASA, the most widespread Antarctic surface melting of the past 30 years occurred in 2005, when an area of ice comparable in size to California briefly melted and refroze; this may have resulted from temperatures rising to as high as . Ozone depletion Image of the largest Antarctic ozone hole ever recorded due to CFC accumulation (September 2006). Each year a large ozone hole grows over Antarctica covering the whole continent, this hole is at its largest in September and in 2008 was one of the longest lasting on record, continuing until the end of December. The hole was detected by scientists in 1973 and has tended to expand over the years of observation. The ozone hole is attributed to the emission of chlorofluorocarbons or CFCs into the atmosphere, which decompose the ozone into other gases. See also Antarctica (region) Geographic regions Antarctic Peninsula Antarctica ecozone East Antarctica West Antarctica Extreme points of the Antarctic List of Antarctic and sub-Antarctic islands McMurdo Sound Ross Sea Weddell Sea Geography Ancient world maps List of Bulgarian toponyms in Antarctica List of deserts by area List of places with fewer than ten residents (Note: refers to permanent residents) List of research stations in Antarctica World map Geopolitics Antarctica Treaty Antarctic Treaty Secretariat Argentine Antarctic Geopolitics Brazil Antarctic Geopolitics Chile Antarctic Geopolitics Flags of Antarctica Other Antarctic Stamps Antarctica Marathon Communications in Antarctica The Icebird, an Australian supply vessel. Life in the Freezer, a BBC natural history television series on life on and around Antarctica March of the Penguins, an Academy Award winning documentary film depicting the annual journey Emperor Penguins make to their ancestral breeding grounds. Soviet Antarctic Expedition Trinity Church, Antarctica References External links Antarctic Treaty Secretariat, de facto government GoogleMaps, interactive map of Antarctica on the Web Portals on the World - Antarctica from the Library of Congress NASA's LIMA (Landsat Image Mosaic of Antarctica) (USGS mirror) Antarctica travel guide from WikiTravel World Environment Day 2007 "Melting Ice" image gallery at The Guardian South African National Antarctic Programme - Official Website Greenpeace in Antarctica BAS Online Palaeontology Collection Australian Antarctic Division U.S. Antarctic Program Portal The Antarctic Sun (Online newspaper of the U.S. Antarctic Program) SCAR's Marine Biodiversity Information Network, SCAR-MarBIN (open access to Antarctic marine biodiversity data for free) be-x-old:Антарктыда | Antarctica |@lemmatized antarctica:129 map:8 use:9 lambert:1 azimuthal:1 projection:1 south:31 pole:21 centre:1 area:14 overall:1 ice:94 free:3 cover:14 sq:6 mi:11 population:3 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5,257 | Minimal_pair | In phonology, minimal pairs are pairs of words or phrases in a particular language, which differ in only one phonological element, such as a phone, phoneme, toneme or chroneme and have a distinct meaning. They are used to demonstrate that two phones constitute two separate phonemes in the language. As an example for English vowels, the pair "let" + "lit" can be used to demonstrate that the phones (in let) and (in lit) do in fact represent distinct phonemes and . An example for English consonants is the minimal pair of "pat" + "bat". In phonetics, this pair, like any other, differs in number of ways. In this case, the contrast appears largely to be conveyed with a difference in the voice onset time of the initial consonant as the configuration of the mouth is same for and ; however, there is also a possible difference in duration, which visual analysis using high quality video supports. Phonemic differentiation may vary between different dialects of a language, so that a particular minimal pair in one accent is a pair of homophones in another. This does not necessarily mean that one of the phonemes is absent in the homonym accent; merely that it is not present in the same range of contexts. Examples Differentiations in English Following pairs prove existence of various distinct phonemes in English. word 1 word 2 IPA 1 IPA 2 note pin bin initial consonant rot lot zeal seal bin bean / vowel pen pan / hat had final consonant Differentiating consonants with same location and manner of articulation In the articulation of bilabial plosives, 4 phones are defined by the characteristics voiced/unvoiced and aspirated/unaspirated: , , and . In different languages only some of these may occur and the number of phonemes formed may be different again. Pattern Language(s) Explanation English Phones as in "spin" and as in "pin" both occur, but are allophones of the phoneme and no minimal pair can be found to distinguish them, but the word "bin" shows that the phone forms a phoneme separate from . Mandarin Only phones (and phonemes) and occur. In the Pinyin transcription is written "p" and is written "b" (using the two available Latin letters for the two phonemes). French/Portuguese In romance languages and other European languages only phones (and phonemes) and occur. Hindi/Urdu All four phones are separate phonemes. Thai Three phones occur and form three phonemes, as in these examples: ใบ "sheet" ไป "to go" ภัย "danger" Differentiating vowels The following table shows a minimal set in French distinguishing vowels, some or all of which may sound alike to an Anglophone, because the and sounds do not exist in English: word IPA meaning cire wax sûre sure sœur sister sieur sir sueur sweat Differentiating consonants A minimal triplet of consonants in French is: word IPA meaning bête noire black beast, pet peeve baie noire black berry (not blackberry, which is mûre sauvage) baignoire bathtub Because is not a single phoneme in French, this shows a minimal pair between the presence and absence of next to , which shares its point of articulation. and differ only in point of articulation. There are three verbs in Hebrew which demonstrate the distinction, in some dialects, between a velar stop and an uvular stop on one hand, and a glottal stop with and without tightening of the throat on the other: word IPA meaning קרא read, call קרע tear apart כרע kneel In the following two Hebrew verbs, the only distinction is a glottal stop in the middle of the first word: word IPA meaning לראות see לירות shoot In Korean, phones in "Korea' and in "Seoul" are allophones of one phoneme and are perceived by native speakers of Korean as a single phoneme. The difference is that is an allophone of this phoneme before vowels. In Spanish, and are both allophones of . appears only before voiced consonants as in mismo . Differentiating chronemes Hungarian, Italian and Polish have distinctive length of consonants, as did Latin. A differentiator for length may be called a chroneme. In the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), lengthening can be indicated by doubling the symbol, or by the special sign . Doubling is commonly used for consonants, while the special symbol is used for vowels. E.g. in Italian: word IPA meaning pala spade palla ball Hungarian, German and Thai have distinctive vowel length, as did Latin. E.g. in Thai (and compare this example also to the one on tone): word IPA RTGS quality meaning เขา khǎo short, rising tone he/she ขาว khǎo long, rising tone white เข้า khâo short, falling tone enter ข้าว khâo long, falling tone rice เข่า khào short, low tone knee ข่าว khào long, low tone news Differentiating tonemes Languages such as Mandarin Chinese, Thai and many African languages. (See: pitch accent and tonal language.) For example in Thai: word IPA RTGS quality meaning ขาว khǎ:o rising tone white ข้าว khâ:o falling tone rice ข่าว khà:o low tone news Differentiating stress Spanish, Portuguese, Romanian and Italian have many minimal pairs differing only in stress. Dutch has several, e.g. (stress indicated by acute accent): language word IPA meaning Dutch voorkómen prevent Dutch vóórkomen occur Romanian copíi children Romanian cópii copies Portuguese andarão will walk Portuguese andaram walked Italian becchìno undertaker Italian bécchino let them peck Spanish límite (the) limit Spanish limite he/she limits, you (formal) limit Spanish limité I limited Minimal pairs may differ superficially in more than one place if one feature is dependent on the other. For example, English record (noun) and record (verb) (and similar pairs) appear superficially not to be minimal pairs for stress because they differ in vowel quality as well. However, since the differences in vowel quality are predictable consequences of the differences in stress, such pairs are considered minimal pairs. The case is similar in Russian, eg. мука ('torture, pain') and мука ('flour'). External links Software that generates a list of minimal pairs from a wordlist Consonant Contrasts Australian English (non-rhotic) Minimal Pair Words and Pictures from Caroline Bowen. Most of these will "work" in other dialects of English. Vowel and Diphthong Contrasts: Australian English (non-rhotic) Minimal Pair Words and Pictures from Caroline Bowen. Most of these will "work" in other dialects of English. Picturable Minimal Pairs ... ... and other word lists (without pictures) in English from Caroline Bowen. Phonological Therapy Speech-Language Pathologists' intervention "tricks" and techniques involving minimal pairs - Words and Pictures from Caroline Bowen Freebies Index Many words and pictures: singleton consonant lists, revisions and repairs, minimal pairs, etc from Caroline Bowen | Minimal_pair |@lemmatized phonology:1 minimal:17 pair:22 word:18 phrase:1 particular:2 language:12 differ:5 one:8 phonological:2 element:1 phone:11 phoneme:17 toneme:1 chroneme:2 distinct:3 meaning:5 use:6 demonstrate:3 two:5 constitute:1 separate:3 example:7 english:12 vowel:10 let:3 light:1 lit:1 fact:1 represent:1 consonant:12 pat:1 bat:1 phonetics:1 like:1 differs:1 number:2 way:1 case:2 contrast:3 appear:3 largely:1 convey:1 difference:5 voice:2 onset:1 time:1 initial:2 configuration:1 mouth:1 however:2 also:2 possible:1 duration:1 visual:1 analysis:1 high:1 quality:5 video:1 support:1 phonemic:1 differentiation:2 may:6 vary:1 different:3 dialect:4 accent:4 homophone:1 another:1 necessarily:1 mean:5 absent:1 homonym:1 merely:1 present:1 range:1 context:1 follow:2 prove:1 existence:1 various:1 ipa:11 note:1 pin:2 bin:3 rot:1 lot:1 zeal:1 seal:1 bean:1 pen:1 pan:1 hat:1 final:1 differentiate:5 location:1 manner:1 articulation:4 bilabial:1 plosive:1 define:1 characteristic:1 unvoiced:1 aspirated:1 unaspirated:1 occur:6 form:3 pattern:1 explanation:1 spin:1 allophone:4 find:1 distinguish:1 show:3 mandarin:2 pinyin:1 transcription:1 write:2 p:1 b:1 available:1 latin:3 letter:1 french:4 portuguese:4 romance:1 european:1 hindi:1 urdu:1 four:1 thai:5 three:3 ใบ:1 sheet:1 ไป:1 go:1 ภ:1 ย:1 danger:1 differentiating:1 table:1 set:1 distinguishing:1 sound:2 alike:1 anglophone:1 exist:1 cire:1 wax:1 sûre:1 sure:1 sœur:1 sister:1 sieur:1 sir:1 sueur:1 sweat:1 triplet:1 bête:1 noire:2 black:2 beast:1 pet:1 peeve:1 baie:1 berry:1 blackberry:1 mûre:1 sauvage:1 baignoire:1 bathtub:1 single:2 presence:1 absence:1 next:1 share:1 point:2 verb:3 hebrew:2 distinction:2 velar:1 stop:4 uvular:1 hand:1 glottal:2 without:2 tightening:1 throat:1 קרא:1 read:1 call:2 קרע:1 tear:1 apart:1 כרע:1 kneel:1 following:1 middle:1 first:1 לראות:1 see:2 לירות:1 shoot:1 korean:2 korea:1 seoul:1 perceive:1 native:1 speaker:1 spanish:5 voiced:1 mismo:1 chronemes:1 hungarian:2 italian:5 polish:1 distinctive:2 length:3 differentiator:1 international:1 phonetic:1 alphabet:1 lengthen:1 indicate:2 double:1 symbol:2 special:2 sign:1 doubling:1 commonly:1 e:3 g:3 pala:1 spade:1 palla:1 ball:1 german:1 compare:1 tone:10 rtgs:2 เขา:1 khǎo:2 short:3 rise:3 ขาว:2 long:3 white:2 เข:2 า:2 khâo:2 fall:3 enter:1 ข:4 าว:4 rice:2 khào:2 low:3 knee:1 news:2 tonemes:1 chinese:1 many:3 african:1 pitch:1 tonal:1 khǎ:1 khâ:1 khà:1 stress:5 romanian:3 dutch:3 several:1 acute:1 voorkómen:1 prevent:1 vóórkomen:1 copíi:1 child:1 cópii:1 copy:1 andarão:1 walk:2 andaram:1 becchìno:1 undertaker:1 bécchino:1 peck:1 límite:1 limit:4 limite:1 formal:1 limité:1 superficially:2 place:1 feature:1 dependent:1 record:2 noun:1 similar:2 well:1 since:1 predictable:1 consequence:1 consider:1 russian:1 eg:1 мука:2 torture:1 pain:1 flour:1 external:1 link:1 software:1 generate:1 list:3 wordlist:1 australian:2 non:2 rhotic:2 picture:5 caroline:5 bowen:5 work:2 diphthong:1 picturable:1 therapy:1 speech:1 pathologist:1 intervention:1 trick:1 technique:1 involve:1 freebie:1 index:1 singleton:1 revision:1 repair:1 etc:1 |@bigram manner_articulation:1 voice_unvoiced:1 allophone_phoneme:2 hindi_urdu:1 glottal_stop:2 voiced_consonant:1 phonetic_alphabet:1 acute_accent:1 external_link:1 non_rhotic:2 caroline_bowen:5 vowel_diphthong:1 |
5,258 | Wikipedia:Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing%2FI_-_K | symbols - B -- C - D -- E - H -- I - K -- L - N -- O - Q -- R - S -- T - W -- X - Z -- FOLDOC Status Page i18n I2O i386 i486 i487 i860 IA IAB IAD IAL IAM IANA IANAL IAP I-APL IAR IAS IAW IBEX IBM IBM 1403 IBM 1620 NO IMPORT IBM 1710 NO IMPORT IBM 2741 IBM 3270 IBM 360 NO IMPORT IBM 3720 NO IMPORT IBM 650 NO IMPORT IBM 704 IBM 7040 IBM 705 IBM 709 IBM 7090 IBM 7094 IBM 801 IBM compatible IBM Customer Engineer IBM discount IBM PC -- DONE IBM PC AT IBM PCjr IBM PC XT IBM Systems Engineer Ibpag2 Iburg IC ICAM I-CASE ICBM address ICE icebreaker ICES ICETRAN ICI ICL ICMP ICMP Router Discovery Protocol I-Comm iCOMP Icon DONE as either Unisys ICON or Icon programming language icon Iconicode ICONIX Software Engineering, Inc. IC-Prolog IC Prolog II ICQ ICSI ICT ICW ICWS Id id I-D IDAMS IDE IDEA IDEAL ideal Idealized CSP Idealized Instruction Set IDEF idempotent IDF I didn't change anything! IDL IDMS IDMSX Id Nouveau IDOL IDS/I id Software IDSS IE ie IEC IEC 559 IEEE IEEE 1076 IEEE 1394 -- DONE (renamed Firewire) IEEE 488 IEEE 754 IEEE 802 IEEE 802.2 -- DONE IEEE 802.3 IEEE 802.3u IEEE 802.3z IEEE 802.4 IEEE 802.5 IEEE Computer Society IEEE Floating Point Standard -- DONE IEEE Standard 1149.1 IEF IEN IEPG IESG IETF IF1 IF2 IFAC ifdef out IFDL IFF IFIP IFP IFS IFX If you want X, you know where to find it. IGC IGES IGL IGMP IGP IGPL IGU IHS IHV IIcx IIDMS/R IINREN IIOP IIR IIRC IIS IIT IITF IITRAN il ILBM ILF ILIAD I-Link ILISP ill-behaved ILLIAC Illiac IV ILOC Ilog Solver image image formats image map image processing image recognition imaging Imago Europe plc Imago On-line imake IMAO IMAP imc IMD IMHO IML immediate version Imminent Death Of The Net Predicted! IMNSHO IMO IMP impact printer imperative language Imperial Software Technology IMPlementation language implicit parallelism implicit type conversion implies imprecise probability IMProved Mercury autocode IMR IMS IMS 6100 Imsai IMS/Data Base IMS/Data Communications IMSE IMTC in Ina Jo InARP in-band inc incantation include include war inclusive incomparable incremental analysis incremental backup incremental constraint solver Incremental Prototyping Technology for Embedded Realtime Systems [incr Tcl] indel indent style Independent Logical File Independent Verification and Validation index Index Data Indexed Sequential Access Method indices indirect address indirect addressing indirection induction inductive inference inductive relation Industrial Programming, Inc. Industrial Robot Language Industry Standard Architecture -- DONE inetd inews infant mortality (computer) infeasible path inference inference engine inference rule infimum infinite Infinite Impulse Response infinite loop Infinite Monkey Theorem infinite set infinity infix notation infix syntax inflate INFN Infobahn Info BASIC infobot Informatics Corporation Information Algebra Information and Communication Technology Information Appliance Information Builders Information Engineering Facility information highway Information Innovation information island Information Management Information Management System Information Processing Language Information Resource Management information superhighway Information Systems Factory Information Technology Information Technology Infrastructure Library Informix InfoSeek InfoStreet, Inc. InfoWord Office infrared Infrared Data Association infrastructure Inglish INGRES inheritance initgame initialise Initial Microprogram Load Initial Operational Test and Evaluation Initial Program Load Initial Program Loader initiator injection inkjet printer ink printer inline - DONE inline image INMOS transputer inner join inner product InnovAda inode Inprise Corporation Input input input device input/output input/output redirection inquiry/response system INRIA insanely great insertion sort INSIGHT Insignia Solutions, Inc. inspection installable file system installed user base installer instance instance variable instantiate instantiation Institute for Global Communications Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc. Institut National de Recherche en Informatique et Automatique Instruction Address Register instruction mnemonic instruction prefetch instruction scheduling instruction set instruction set architecture Instruction Set Processor instrument int INTCODE integer Integer SPECbaserate Integer SPECbaseratio Integer SPECrate Integer SPECratio integrated circuit Integrated Database Management System Integrated Drive Electronics Integrated Information Technology Integrated Modelling Support Environment Integrated Project Support Environment Integrated Services Digital Network Integrated Systems Architecture integration integration testing integrity constraint Intel 4004 Intel 4040 Intel 486 Intel 486DX Intel 486SX Intel 487SX Intel 8008 Intel 80186 Intel 80188 Intel 80286 Intel 80386 Intel 80386SX Intel 8048 Intel 80486 Intel 8051 Intel 8080 Intel 8085 Intel 8086 Intel 8088 Intel 80x86 Intel 8751 Intel Comparative Microprocessor Performance index Intel Corporation IntelDX4 Intel i960 INTELLECT intellectual property intelligent backtracking intelligent database Intelligent Input/Output Intelligent I/O intelligent key intelligent terminal IntelliMouse Intel Literature Sales Intelsat intensional Intent to Package INTERACTIVE interactive Interactive CourseWare Interactive Data Entry/Access Interactive Data Language interactive development environment Interactive Development Environments Interactive Software Engineering Interactive System Productivity Facility Interactive Voice Response Interagency Interim National Research and Education Network InterBase INTERCAL Interchange File Format INTERCOM Interest Group in Pure and Applied Logics interesting interface interface analysis Interface Architect Interface Definition Language Interface Description Language Interface Message Processor Interior Gateway Protocol interlace interlaced image interlacing Interlan Interleaf interleave interleaving INTERLINK Interlisp Interlisp-10 Interlisp-D Intermedia Intermedia Interchange Format Intermediate Distribution Frame Intermediate Programming Language Intermediate System Intermediate System-Intermediate System Intermetrics, Inc. intermodulation distortion internal field separators Internal Translator International Algebraic Language International Atomic Time International Business Machines International Computers Limited plc International Core War Society International Data Encryption Algorithm International Electrotechnical Commission International Federation for Information Processing International Function Point Users Group internationalisation internationalization International Multimedia Teleconferencing Consortium International Olympiad in Informatics International Organisation for Standardisation International Organization for Standardization International Phonetic Alphabet International Programmable Airline Reservation System International Smalltalk Association International Standard International Telecommunications Union International Traffic in Arms Regulation Internet internet Internet Access Provider Internet Adapter Internet address internet address Internet Architecture Board Internet Assigned Numbers Authority Internet backbone Internet Chess Server Internet Control Message Protocol Internet-Draft Internet Engineering and Planning Group Internet Engineering Steering Group Internet Engineering Task Force Internet Experiment Note Internet Explorer Internet Express Internet Go Server Internet Group Management Protocol Internet Information Server Internet Inter-ORB Protocol Internet Message Access Protocol Internet Monthly Report Internet Network Information Center internet number Internet Open Trading Protocol Internet Protocol Internet Protocol Control Protocol Internet Protocol version 4 Internet Protocol version 6 Internet Public Library Internet Registry Internet Relay Chat Internet Research Steering Group Internet Research Task Force Internet Security Association and Key Management Protocol Internet Server Application Programming Interface Internet Service Provider Internet Society Internet Telephony Internet Telephony Service Providers internetworking Internetwork Packet eXchange Internet Worm Internex On-Line InterNIC interoperability interoperable database inter-packet gap interpolation Interpress interpreted interpreter DONE Interpretive Menu Processor inter-process communication DONE interrupt interrupt handler interrupt list interrupt priority level interrupt request interrupts Intersil 6100 Intersil 6120 InterViews interworking intranet Intrinsics Intrusion Countermeasure Electronics Intrusive Testing Intuition intuitionism intuitionistic logic intuitionistic probability intuitionist logic invariant inverse Inverse Address Resolution Protocol inverted index InWorld VR io I/O IOI Iomega Corporation I-OOA I/O redirection IOS Iota IOT&E IOW IP IPA IP address IPARS I-Pay IPC REDIRECT inter-process communication IPCP IPE IPL IP next generation IPng IP number IPS IPSE IPSec IPT IP Telephony IPv4 IPv6 IPX IPXCP IQ iq IQL IR ir IrBUS IRC ircop IRC penis war IrDA IrDA-C IrDA Control IrDA Data IRDATA IRDP IRDS IRET IRIS Iris IRIX IRL IRM iron Iron Age iron box Ironman ironmonger IRQ irrational number irrefutable IRSG IRTF IRUS Irvine Dataflow Irvine Research Unit in Software IS is IS-11172 IS-13818 ISA -- DONE (redirected to Industry Standard Architecture Isabelle Isabelle-92 Isabelle-93 ISA bus ISAKMP ISAM ISAPI ISAPI filter ISBL ISDE ISDN ISE ISEE I see no X here. ISETL ISF ISINDEX ISIS IS-IS ISL ISLisp ISMAP ISO ISO 10646 ISO 8072 ISO 8073 ISO 8208 ISO 8326 ISO 8327 ISO 8613 ISO 8649 ISO 8650 ISO 8805 ISO 8807 ISO 8822 ISO 8823 ISO 8825 ISO 8859 ISO 8859-1 ISO 8879 ISO 9000 ISO 9072 ISO 9660 ISO 9735 ISOC ISO C isochronous isochronous transfer ISODE ISO Development Environment ISO/IEC 10646-1 isolated ISO Latin 1 isometry isomorphic isomorphism isomorphism class ISO Pascal ISO seven layer model ISP ISPBX ISPF ISPL ISPS IST ISTAR ISTM ISV ISWIM IT it ITAR Iterated Function System iteration iterative deepening Iternet ITHACA ITIL ITP ITS it's a feature ITSP ITU ITU-T ITU-T X.680 ITU X.209 Ivan Ivan Sutherland Iverson's Language IVR ivs IVTRAN IV&V IVY IWay IWBNI IXC IXI Limited IXO IYFEG J J2EE J2ME J2SE J3 J73 jabber JACAL jaccl jack in Jack Kilby Jackson method Jacquard, Joseph-Marie Jacquard loom JAD JADE Jade jadeTeX JAffer's Canonical ALgebra jaggies JaM jam James Clark James' DSSSL Engine James Gosling James H. Clark JANET JANET IP Service Janus japh DONE (renamed Just another Perl hacker) jar Jargon File Java Java 2 Java 2 Platform Java 2 Platform, Enterprise Edition Java 2 Platform, Micro Edition Java 2 Platform, Standard Edition Java 2 SDK Java 2 Software Development Kit Java archive JavaBeans Java Database Connectivity Java Development Kit Java Message Service Java Native Interface Java Open Language Toolkit Java Remote Method Protocol Java Run-Time Environment JavaScript Java servelet JavaServer Pages Java servlet Java Servlet Development Kit Java Virtual Machine Java VM JAZ Jaz Jaz Drive JAZELLE JBIG JBOD JBOPS jc JCL JCS-13 JDBC JDK JEAN Jean E. Sammet JEDR Jef Raskin Jerry Sussman JES JES2 JES3 JFCL JFET JFIF jiffy Jim Clark Jini JIPS JIT jitter JK flip-flop jm JMHO JMS JNI jo job Job Control Language Job Entry System Jobs job security jock joe joe code John Gilmore John McCarthy John Ousterhout John von Neumann join Joint Academic NETwork Joint Bi-level Image Experts Group Joint Photographic Experts Group Joint Technical Committee Joint Test Action Group jolix JOLT Jon Postel JOOP Joseph-Marie Jacquard JOSS Jossle journalling jove JOVIAL Joyce joystick Joy, William jp JPEG JPEG File Interchange Format jpg JPL JPLDIS J. Presper Eckert J. Random J. Random Hacker JRE JRL JRMP JRN JRST JS JSA JSDK JSP JTAGDONE JTB JTC JTC1/SC24 JTS juggling eggs Jughead jukebox jump jumper jump off into never-never land jump trace buffer Junction FET Junction Field Effect Transistor Juno jupiter Just a Bunch Of Disks just-in-time JVM Jym K K5 K56flex K6 DONE K7 DONE KA9Q DONE KADS DONE kahuna NO not in FOLDOC Kaleidoscope Kali kamikaze packet DONE redirect Kamin's interpreters kana kangaroo code DONE kanji KAOS DONE KAP Karel katakana Kb KBMS No too little info kbps KBS KCL ke KEE Keldysh Institute of Applied Mathematics ken Ken Thompson Kerberos Kermit kernal kernel (computers) Kernel Parlog Kernel User Interface Package DONE kerning Kevo key keyboard Keyboard Commando DONE keyboard plaque DONE Keyboard Send Receive DONE Keyed-Hashing Message Authentication DONE Keyed Sequential Data Set DONE key escrow DONE key field DONE key frame DONE KeyNote Software NO a company, little info keypal DONE KeySpell DONE keyword DONE KFX DONE kg NO country code kgbvax DONE redirect kh NO country code Khornerstone ki NO country code KIBO DONE kiboze DONE kick Kid DONE KIDASA Software NO limited company info killer micro DONE killer poke DONE kill file DONE kilo- REDIRECT prefix kilobaud REDIRECT baud kilobit REDIRECT bit kilobyte kiloflops REDIRECT FLOPS kiosk DONE KIPS DONE KIS REDIRECT Knowbot Information Service KISS DONE KISS Principle DONE kit DONE KL0 DONE KL1 DONE Klamath DONE KLB REDIRECT Known Lazy Bastard Kleene closure REDIRECT Kleene star Kleene star Kleene, Stephen Cole DONE Klerer-May System DONE KLOC DONE klone REDIRECT clone KL-ONE DONE kludge kluge kluge around DONE km NO country code KMODEL DONE KMS REDIRECT Knowledge Management System kn NO country code knapsack problem -- DONE Knights of the Lambda-Calculus DONE knowbot DONE Knowbot Information Service DONE knowledge Knowledge Analysis and Design System knowledge base knowledge-based system knowledge level Knowledge Management System Knowledge Query and Manipulation Language knowledge representation Knowledge Sharing Effort Knowledge Systems Laboratory Known Lazy Bastard DONE Knuth DONE Kodak NO insufficient company info. Kohonen NO insufficient info for redirect. KOMPILER DONE Konrad Zuse Korn Shell DONE kp NO country code KQML REDIRECT Knowledge Query and Manipulation Language KR REDIRECT knowledge representation kr NO country code K and R DONE KRC DONE K and R C DONE kremvax DONE KRL DONE KRS DONE KRYPTON DONE ksh REDIRECT Korn Shell KSL REDIRECT Knowledge Systems Laboratory KSR DONE KTH REDIRECT Kungliga Tekniska Hogskolan KUIP REDIRECT Kernel User Interface Package Kungliga Tekniska Hogskolan KUTGW DONE Kvatro Telecom AS DONE Kvikkalkul kw NO country code ky NO country code Kyoto Common Lisp DONE kyrka REDIRECT feature key kz NO country code See also : Free On-line Dictionary of Computing | Wikipedia:Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing%2FI_-_K |@lemmatized symbol:1 b:1 c:4 e:2 h:2 k:4 l:1 n:1 q:1 r:4 w:1 x:5 z:1 foldoc:2 status:1 page:2 ia:2 iab:1 iad:1 ial:1 iam:1 iana:1 ianal:1 iap:1 apl:1 iar:1 iaw:1 ibex:1 ibm:24 import:5 compatible:1 customer:1 engineer:3 discount:1 pc:3 pcjr:1 xt:1 system:22 iburg:1 ic:3 icam:1 case:1 icbm:1 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5,259 | Common_chimpanzee | The Common Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes), also known as the Robust Chimpanzee, is a great ape. The name troglodytes, Greek for 'cave-dweller', was coined by Johann Friedrich Blumenbach in his Handbuch der Naturgeschichte (Handbook of Natural History) published in 1779. Colloquially, it is often called the chimpanzee (or simply 'chimp'), though technically this term refers to both species in the genus Pan: the Common Chimpanzee and the closely-related Bonobo, or Pygmy Chimpanzee. Subspecies Several subspecies of the Common Chimpanzee have been recognized: Central Chimpanzee, Pan troglodytes troglodytes, in Cameroon, the Central African Republic, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, the Republic of the Congo, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo; Western Chimpanzee, Pan troglodytes verus, in Guinea, Mali, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, and Nigeria; Nigeria-Cameroon Chimpanzee, Pan troglodytes vellerosus, in Nigeria and Cameroon; Eastern Chimpanzee, Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii, in the Central African Republic, the Sudan, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, Tanzania, and Zambia. Basic facts Common Chimpanzees are found in the tropical forests and wet savannas of Western and Central Africa. They once inhabited most of this region, but their habitat has been dramatically reduced in recent years. Adults in the wild weigh between 40 and 65 kilograms (88 and 143 lb); males can measure up to 160 centimetres (63 in) and females to 130 cm (51 in). Its body is covered by a coarse dark brown hair, except for the face, fingers, toes, palms of the hands and soles of the feet. Both of its thumbs and its big toes are opposable, allowing a precision grip. Its gestation period is eight months. Infants are weaned when they are about three years old, but usually maintain a close relationship with their mother for several more years; they reach puberty at the age of eight to ten, and their lifespan in captivity is about fifty years. Diet Although omnivorous, its diet is mainly vegetarian (but eats meat whenever it is available) consisting of fruits, leaves, nuts, seeds, tubers, and other miscellaneous vegetation. There are also instances of organized hunting; in some cases, such as the killing of Leopard cubs http://content.karger.com/ProdukteDB/produkte.asp?Aktion=ShowPDF&ArtikelNr=000156259&Ausgabe=238792&ProduktNr=223842&filename=000156259.pdf , this primarily seems to be a protective effort, since the Leopard is the main natural predator of the Common Chimpanzee. However, meat is a necessary source of nutrient, and the Common Chimpanzee sometimes band together and hunt prey such as the Western Red Colobus Monkeys (Piliocolobus badius). Isolated cases of cannibalism have also been documented, as well as preying on human flesh. The West African Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes verus) is the only animal besides humans known to routinely create and use specialized tools specifically for hunting. Chimpanzees near Kédougou, Senegal were observed to create spears by breaking off tree limbs, stripping them of their bark, and sharpening one end with their teeth. They then used these weapons to kill galagos sleeping in hollows. Behaviour Common Chimpanzee infant and mother. Common Chimpanzees live in communities that typically range from twenty to more than 150 members, but spend most of their time travelling in small parties of just a few individuals. They are both arboreal and terrestrial, spending equal time in the trees and on the ground. Their habitual gait is quadrupedal, using the soles of their feet and resting on their knuckles, but they can walk upright for short distances. Common Chimpanzees are 'knuckle walkers', like gorillas, in contrast to the quadrupedal locomotion of orangutans and bonobos, 'palm walkers' who use the outside edge of their palms. The Common Chimpanzee lives in a fission-fusion society, where mating is promiscuous, and may be found in groups of the following types: all-male, adult females and offspring, consisting of both sexes, one female and her offspring, or a single individual. At the core of social structures are males, who roam around, protect group members, and search for food. Among males, there is generally a dominance hierarchy. However, this unusual fission-fusion social structure, "in which portions of the parent group may on a regular basis separate from and then rejoin the rest", is highly variable in terms of which particular individual chimpanzees congregate at a given time. This is mainly due to chimpanzees having a high level of individual autonomy within their fission-fusion social groups. Also, communities have large ranges that overlap with those of other groups. As a result, individual chimpanzees often forage for food alone, or in smaller groups (as opposed to the much larger parent group, which encompasses all the chimpanzees who regularly come into contact and congregate into parties in a particular area). As stated, these smaller groups also emerge in a variety of types, for a variety of purposes. For example, an all-male troop may be organized in order to hunt for meat, while a group consisting of one mature male and one mature female may occur for the purposes of copulation. An individual may encounter certain individuals quite frequently, but have run-ins with others almost never or only in large-scale gatherings. Due to the varying frequency at which chimpanzees associate, the structure of their societies is highly complicated. When confronted by a predator, chimpanzees will react with loud screams and use any object they can get against the threat. As noted above, the leopard is the chimp's main natural predator, but they have fallen prey to lions as well. Tool use While it has long been known that modern chimpanzees use tools, recent research indicates that chimpanzee stone tool use dates to at least 4300 years ago. A recent study revealed the use of such advanced tools as spears, which West African Chimpanzees in Senegal sharpen with their teeth, being used to spear Senegal Bushbabies out of small holes in trees. An Eastern Chimpanzee has been observed using a modified branch as a tool to capture a squirrel. A Common Chimpanzee from the Kasakela chimpanzee community was the first non-human animal observed making a tool, by modifying a twig to use as an instrument for extracting termites from their mound. Chimpanzee Genome Project Relationships among apes. The numbers in this diagram are branch lengths, a measure of evolutionary distinctness. Based on protein electrophoresis data of Goldman et al., PNAS 84: 3307-3311 Human and Common Chimpanzee DNA are very similar. After the completion of the Human genome project, a Common Chimpanzee Genome Project was initiated. In December 2003, a preliminary analysis of 7600 genes shared between the two genomes confirmed that certain genes, such as the forkhead-box P2 transcription factor which is involved in speech development, have undergone rapid evolution in the human lineage. A draft version of the chimpanzee genome was published on September 1, 2005, in an article produced by the Chimpanzee Sequencing and Analysis Consortium. The DNA sequence differences between humans and chimpanzees is about thirty-five million single-nucleotide changes, five million insertion/deletion events, and various chromosomal rearrangements. Typical human and chimp protein homologs differ in only an average of two amino acids. About 30% of all human proteins are identical in sequence to the corresponding chimp protein. Duplications of small parts of chromosomes have been the major source of differences between human and chimp genetic material; about 2.7% of the corresponding modern genomes represent differences, produced by gene duplications or deletions, during the approximately four to six million years since humans and chimps diverged from their common evolutionary ancestor. Results from human and chimp genome analyses, currently being conducted by geneticists including David Reich, should help in understanding the genetic basis of some human diseases. Link with Human Immunodeficiency Virus type 1 Two types of Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) infect humans: HIV-1 and HIV-2. HIV-1 is the more virulent and easily transmitted, and is the source of the majority of HIV infections throughout the world; HIV-2 is largely confined to west Africa. Both types originated in west and central Africa, jumping from primates to humans. HIV-1 has evolved from a Simian Immunodeficiency Virus (SIVcpz) found in the Common Chimpanzee subspecies, Pan troglodytes troglodytes, native to southern Cameroon. Kinshasa, in the Democratic Republic of Congo, has the greatest genetic diversity of HIV-1 so far discovered, suggesting that the virus has been there longer than anywhere else. HIV-2 crossed species from a different strain of SIV, found in the Sooty Mangabey, monkeys in Guinea-Bissau. Divergence from the Bonobo Recent DNA evidence suggests the Bonobo and Common Chimpanzee species separated from each other less than one million years ago (similar in relation between Homo sapiens and Neanderthals). The chimpanzee line split from the last common ancestor of the human line approximately six million years ago. Because no species other than Homo sapiens has survived from the human line of that branching, both chimpanzee species are the closest living relatives of humans. The chimpanzee's genus, Pan, diverged from the Gorilla's genus about 7 million years ago. See also Great Ape personhood Jane Goodall List of non-human apes - list of notable individuals Theory of mind References General references Johann Friedrich Blumenbach, De Generis Humani Varietate Nativa, 1775. External links Fisher Center for Study and Conservation of Apes, Lincoln Park Zoo, Chicago Jane Goodall web site DiscoverChimpanzees.org Chimp Haven, The National Chimpanzee Sanctuary (ChimpHaven.org) Chimpanzee Genome resources Primate Info Net Pan troglodytes Factsheets U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service Species Profile New Scientist 19 May 2003 - Chimps are human, gene study implies | Common_chimpanzee |@lemmatized common:17 chimpanzee:44 pan:10 troglodyte:9 also:6 know:3 robust:1 great:3 ape:5 name:1 troglodytes:2 greek:1 cave:1 dweller:1 coin:1 johann:2 friedrich:2 blumenbach:2 handbuch:1 der:1 naturgeschichte:1 handbook:1 natural:3 history:1 publish:2 colloquially:1 often:2 call:1 simply:1 chimp:9 though:1 technically:1 term:2 refer:1 specie:6 genus:3 closely:1 related:1 bonobo:4 pygmy:1 subspecies:3 several:2 recognize:1 central:5 cameroon:4 african:4 republic:6 equatorial:1 guinea:3 gabon:1 congo:4 democratic:3 western:3 verus:2 mali:1 sierra:1 leone:1 liberia:1 côte:1 ivoire:1 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5,260 | Mitochondrion | Electron micrograph of a mitochondrion from mammalian lung tissue showing its matrix and membranes. Schematic of typical animal cell, showing subcellular components. Organelles: (1) Nucleolus (2) nucleus (3) Ribosomes (4) vesicle (5) Rough endoplasmic reticulum (ER) (6) Golgi apparatus (7) Cytoskeleton (8) Smooth ER (9) mitochondria (10) Vacuole (11) Cytoplasm (12) Lysosome (13) Centrioles within Centrosome In cell biology, a mitochondrion (plural mitochondria) is a membrane-enclosed organelle found in most eukaryotic cells. These organelles range from 0.5–10 micrometers (μm) in diameter. Mitochondria are sometimes described as "cellular power plants" because they generate most of the cell's supply of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), used as a source of chemical energy. In addition to supplying cellular energy, mitochondria are involved in a range of other processes, such as signaling, cellular differentiation, cell death, as well as the control of the cell cycle and cell growth. Mitochondria have been implicated in several human diseases, including mitochondrial disorders and cardiac dysfunction, and may play a role in the aging process. The word mitochondrion comes from the Greek μίτος or mitos, thread + χονδρίον or khondrion, granule. Several characteristics make mitochondria unique. The number of mitochondria in a cell varies widely by organism and tissue type. Many cells have only a single mitochondrion, whereas others can contain several thousand mitochondria. The organelle is composed of compartments that carry out specialized functions. These compartments or regions include the outer membrane, the intermembrane space, the inner membrane, and the cristae and matrix. Mitochondrial proteins vary depending on the tissues and species. In human, 615 distinct types of proteins were identified from cardiac mitochondria; whereas in murinae (rats), 940 proteins encoded by distinct genes were reported. The mitochondrial proteome is thought to be dynamically regulated. Although most of a cell's DNA is contained in the cell nucleus, the mitochondrion has its own independent genome. Further, its DNA shows substantial similarity to bacterial genomes. Structure A mitochondrion contains outer and inner membranes composed of phospholipid bilayers and proteins. The two membranes, however, have different properties. Because of this double-membraned organization, there are five distinct compartments within the mitochondrion. There is the outer mitochondrial membrane, the intermembrane space (the space between the outer and inner membranes), the inner mitochondrial membrane, the cristae space (formed by infoldings of the inner membrane), and the matrix (space within the inner membrane). Outer membrane The outer mitochondrial membrane, which encloses the entire organelle, has a protein-to-phospholipid ratio similar to that of the eukaryotic plasma membrane (about 1:1 by weight). It contains large numbers of integral proteins called porins. These porins form channels that allow molecules 5000 Daltons or less in molecular weight to freely diffuse from one side of the membrane to the other. Larger proteins can also enter the mitochondrion if a signaling sequence at their N-terminus binds to a large multisubunit protein called translocase of the outer membrane, which then actively moves them across the membrane. Disruption of the outer membrane permits proteins in the intermembrane space to leak into the cytosol, leading to certain cell death. Intermembrane space The intermembrane space is basically the space between the outer membrane and the inner membrane. Because the outer membrane is freely permeable to small molecules, the concentrations of small molecules such as ions and sugars in the intermembrane space is the same as the cytosol. However, as large proteins must have a specific signaling sequence to be transported across the outer membrane, the protein composition of this space is different than the protein composition of the cytosol. One protein that is localized to the intermembrane space in this way is cytochrome c. Inner membrane The inner mitochondrial membrane contains proteins with four types of functions: Those that perform the redox reactions of oxidative phosphorylation ATP synthase, which generates ATP in the matrix Specific transport proteins that regulate metabolite passage into and out of the matrix Protein import machinery. It contains more than 100 different polypeptides, and has a very high protein-to-phospholipid ratio (more than 3:1 by weight, which is about 1 protein for 15 phospholipids). The inner membrane is home to around 1/5 of the total protein in a mitochondrion. In addition, the inner membrane is rich in an unusual phospholipid, cardiolipin. This phospholipid was originally discovered in beef hearts in 1942, and is usually characteristic of mitochondrial and bacterial plasma membranes. Cardiolipin contains four fatty acids rather than two and may help to make the inner membrane impermeable. Unlike the outer membrane, the inner membrane does not contain porins and is highly impermeable to all molecules. Almost all ions and molecules require special membrane transporters to enter or exit the matrix. Proteins are ferried into the matrix via the translocase of the inner membrane (TIM) complex or via Oxa1. In addition, there is a membrane potential across the inner membrane formed by the action of the enzymes of the electron transport chain. Cristae Cross-sectional image of cristae in rat liver mitochondrion to demonstrate the likely 3D structure and relationship to the inner membrane. The inner mitochondrial membrane is compartmentalized into numerous cristae, which expand the surface area of the inner mitochondrial membrane, enhancing its ability to produce ATP. These are not simple random folds but rather invaginations of the inner membrane, which can affect overall chemiosmotic function. In typical liver mitochondria, for example, the surface area, including cristae, is about five times that of the outer membrane. Mitochondria of cells that have greater demand for ATP, such as muscle cells, contain more cristae than typical liver mitochondria. Matrix The matrix is the space enclosed by the inner membrane. It contains about 2/3 of the total protein in a mitochondrion. The matrix is important in the production of ATP with the aid of the ATP synthase contained in the inner membrane. The matrix contains a highly-concentrated mixture of hundreds of enzymes, special mitochondrial ribosomes, tRNA, and several copies of the mitochondrial DNA genome. Of the enzymes, the major functions include oxidation of pyruvate and fatty acids, and the citric acid cycle. Mitochondria have their own genetic material, and the machinery to manufacture their own RNAs and proteins (see: protein biosynthesis). A published human mitochondrial DNA sequence revealed 16,569 base pairs encoding 37 total genes: 22 tRNA, 2 rRNA, and 13 peptide genes. The 13 mitochondrial peptides in humans are integrated into the inner mitochondrial membrane, along with proteins encoded by genes that reside in the host cell's nucleus. Organization and distribution Mitochondria are found in nearly all eukaryotes. They vary in number and location according to cell type. A single highly branched mitochondrion was described in the unicellular alga "Polytomella agilis". Substantial numbers of mitochondria are in the liver, with about 1000–2000 mitochondria per cell making up 1/5th of the cell volume. The mitochondria can be found nestled between myofibrils of muscle or wrapped around the sperm flagellum. Often they form a complex 3D branching network inside the cell with the cytoskeleton. The association with the cytoskeleton determines mitochondrial shape, which can affect the function as well. Recent evidence suggests vimentin, one of the components of the cytoskeleton, is critical to the association with the cytoskeleton. Function The most prominent roles of the mitochondrion are its production of ATP and regulation of cellular metabolism. The central set of reactions involved in ATP production are collectively known as the citric acid cycle, or the Krebs Cycle. However, the mitochondrion has many other functions in addition to the production of ATP. Energy conversion A dominant role for the mitochondria is the production of ATP, as reflected by the large number of proteins in the inner membrane for this task. This is done by oxidizing the major products of glucose, pyruvate, and NADH, which are produced in the cytosol. This process of cellular respiration, also known as aerobic respiration, is dependent on the presence of oxygen. When oxygen is limited, the glycolytic products will be metabolized by anaerobic respiration, a process that is independent of the mitochondria. The production of ATP from glucose has an approximately 13-fold higher yield during aerobic respiration compared to anaerobic respiration. Recently it has been shown that plant mitochondria can produce a limited amount of ATP without oxygen by using the alternate substrate nitrite. Pyruvate: the citric acid cycle Each pyruvate molecule produced by glycolysis is actively transported across the inner mitochondrial membrane, and into the matrix where it is oxidized and combined with coenzyme A to form CO2, acetyl-CoA, and NADH. The acetyl-CoA is the primary substrate to enter the citric acid cycle, also known as the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle or Krebs cycle. The enzymes of the citric acid cycle are located in the mitochondrial matrix, with the exception of succinate dehydrogenase, which is bound to the inner mitochondrial membrane as part of Complex II. The citric acid cycle oxidizes the acetyl-CoA to carbon dioxide, and, in the process, produces reduced cofactors (three molecules of NADH and one molecule of FADH2) that are a source of electrons for the electron transport chain, and a molecule of GTP (that is readily converted to an ATP). NADH and FADH2: the electron transport chain The redox energy from NADH and FADH2 is transferred to oxygen (O2) in several steps via the electron transport chain. These energy-rich molecules are produced within the matrix via the citric acid cycle but are also produced in the cytoplasm by glycolysis. Reducing equivalents from the cytoplasm can be imported via the malate-aspartate shuttle system of antiporter proteins or feed into the electron transport chain using a glycerol phosphate shuttle. Protein complexes in the inner membrane (NADH dehydrogenase, cytochrome c reductase, and cytochrome c oxidase) perform the transfer and the incremental release of energy is used to pump protons (H+) into the intermembrane space. This process is efficient, but a small percentage of electrons may prematurely reduce oxygen, forming reactive oxygen species such as superoxide. This can cause oxidative stress in the mitochondria and may contribute to the decline in mitochondrial function associated with the aging process. As the proton concentration increases in the intermembrane space, a strong electrochemical gradient is established across the inner membrane. The protons can return to the matrix through the ATP synthase complex, and their potential energy is used to synthesize ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate (Pi). This process is called chemiosmosis, and was first described by Peter Mitchell who was awarded the 1978 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his work. Later, part of the 1997 Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded to Paul D. Boyer and John E. Walker for their clarification of the working mechanism of ATP synthase. Heat production Under certain conditions, protons can re-enter the mitochondrial matrix without contributing to ATP synthesis. This process is known as proton leak or mitochondrial uncoupling and is due to the facilitated diffusion of protons into the matrix. The process results in the unharnessed potential energy of the proton electrochemical gradient being released as heat. The process is mediated by a proton channel called thermogenin, or UCP1. Thermogenin is a 33kDa protein first discovered in 1973. Thermogenin is primarily found in brown adipose tissue, or brown fat, and is responsible for non-shivering thermogenesis. Brown adipose tissue is found in mammals, and is at its highest levels in early life and in hibernating animals. In humans, brown adipose tissue is present at birth and decreases with age. Storage of calcium ions The concentrations of free calcium in the cell can regulate an array of reactions and is important for signal transduction in the cell. Mitochondria can transiently store calcium, a contributing process for the cell's homeostasis of calcium. In fact, their ability to rapidly take in calcium for later release makes them very good "cytosolic buffers" for calcium. The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is the most significant storage site of calcium, and there is a significant interplay between the mitochondrion and ER with regard to calcium. The calcium is taken up into the matrix by a calcium uniporter on the inner mitochondrial membrane. It is primarily driven by the mitochondrial membrane potential. Release of this calcium back into the cell's interior can occur via a sodium-calcium exchange protein or via "calcium-induced-calcium-release" pathways. This can initiate calcium spikes or calcium waves with large changes in the membrane potential. These can activate a series of second messenger system proteins that can coordinate processes such as neurotransmitter release in nerve cells and release of hormones in endocrine cells. Additional functions Mitochondria play a central role in many other metabolic tasks, such as: Regulation of the membrane potential Apoptosis-programmed cell death Calcium signaling (including calcium-evoked apoptosis) Cellular proliferation regulation Regulation of cellular metabolism Certain heme synthesis reactions (see also: porphyrin) Steroid synthesis. Some mitochondrial functions are performed only in specific types of cells. For example, mitochondria in liver cells contain enzymes that allow them to detoxify ammonia, a waste product of protein metabolism. A mutation in the genes regulating any of these functions can result in mitochondrial diseases. Origin Mitochondria have many features in common with prokaryotes. As a result, they are believed to be originally derived from endosymbiotic prokaryotes. A mitochondrion contains DNA, which is organized as several copies of a single, circular chromosome. This mitochondrial chromosome contains genes for redox proteins such as those of the respiratory chain. The CoRR Hypothesis proposes that this Co-location is required for Redox Regulation. The mitochondrial genome also codes for some RNAs of ribosomes, and the twenty-two tRNA's necessary for the translation of messenger RNAs into protein. The circular structure is also found in prokaryotes, and the similarity is extended by the fact that mitochondrial DNA is organized with a variant genetic code similar to that of Proteobacteria. This suggests that their ancestor, the so-called proto-mitochondrion, was a member of the Proteobacteria. In particular, the proto-mitochondrion was probably related to the rickettsia. However, the exact relationship of the ancestor of mitochondria to the alpha-proteobacteria and whether the mitochondria was formed at the same time or after the nucleus, remains controversial. The ribosomes coded for by the mitochondrial DNA are similar to those from bacteria in size and structure. They closely resemble the bacterial 70S ribosome and not the 80S cytoplasmic ribosomes which are coded for by nuclear DNA. The endosymbiotic relationship of mitochondria with their host cells was popularized by Lynn Margulis. The endosymbiotic hypothesis suggests that mitochondria descended from bacteria that somehow survived endocytosis by another cell, and became incorporated into the cytoplasm. The ability of these bacteria to conduct respiration in host cells that had relied on glycolysis and fermentation would have provided a considerable evolutionary advantage. In a similar manner, host cells with symbiotic bacteria capable of photosynthesis would also have had an advantage. The incorporation of symbiotes would have increased the number of environments in which the cells could survive. This symbiotic relationship probably developed 1.7 -2 billion years ago. A few groups of unicellular eukaryotes lack mitochondria: the microsporidians, metamonads, and archamoebae. These groups appear as the most primitive eukaryotes on phylogenetic trees constructed using rRNA information, suggesting that they appeared before the origin of mitochondria. However, this is now known to be an artifact of long-branch attraction – they are derived groups and retain genes or organelles derived from mitochondria (e.g., mitosomes and hydrogenosomes). Genome The human mitochondrial genome is a circular DNA molecule of about 16 kilobases. It encodes 37 genes: 13 for subunits of respiratory complexes I, III, IV and V, 22 for mitochondrial tRNA (for the 20 standard amino acids, plus an extra gene for leucine and serine), and 2 for rRNA. One mitochondrion can contain two to ten copies of its DNA. As in prokaryotes, there is a very high proportion of coding DNA and an absence of repeats. Mitochondrial genes are transcribed as multigenic transcripts, which are cleaved and polyadenylated to yield mature mRNAs. Not all proteins necessary for mitochondrial function are encoded by the mitochondrial genome; most are coded by genes in the cell nucleus and the corresponding proteins imported into the mitochondrion. The exact number of genes encoded by the nucleus and the mitochondrial genome differs between species. In general, mitochondrial genomes are circular, although exceptions have been reported. Also, in general, mitochondrial DNA lacks introns, as is the case in the human mitochondrial genome; however, introns have been observed in some eukaryotic mitochondrial DNA, such as that of yeast and protists, including Dictyostelium discoideum. In animals the mitochondrial genome is typically a single circular chromosome that is approximately 16-kb long and has 37 genes. The genes while highly conserved may vary in location. Curiously this pattern is not found in the human body louse (Pediculus humanus). Instead this mitochondrial genome is arranged in 18 minicircular chromosomes each of which is 3–4 kb long and has one to three genes. This pattern is also found in other sucking lice but not in chewing lice. Recombination has been shown to occur between the minichromosomes. The reason for this difference is not known. While slight variations on the standard code had been predicted earlier, Crick, F. H. C. and Orgel, L. E. (1973) "Directed panspermia." Icarus 19:341-346. p. 344: "It is a little surprising that organisms with somewhat different codes do not coexist." (Further discussion at ) none was discovered until 1979, when researchers studying human mitochondrial genes determined that they used an alternative code. Many slight variants have been discovered since, NCBI: "The Genetic Codes", Compiled by Andrzej (Anjay) Elzanowski and Jim Ostell including various alternative mitochondrial codes. Further, the AUA, AUC, and AUU codons are all allowable start codons. +Exceptions to the universal genetic code (UGC) in mitochondriaOrganismCodonStandardNovelMammalianAGA, AGGArginineStop codonAUAIsoleucineMethionineUGAStop codonTryptophanInvertebratesAGA, AGGArginineSerineAUAIsoleucineMethionineUGAStop codonTryptophanYeastAUAIsoleucineMethionineUGAStop codonTryptophanCUALeucineThreonine Some of these differences should be regarded as pseudo-changes in the genetic code due to the phenomenon of RNA editing, which is common in mitochondria. In higher plants, it was thought that CGG encoded for tryptophan and not arginine; however, the codon in the processed RNA was discovered to be the UGG codon, consistent with the universal genetic code for tryptophan. Of note, the arthropod mitochondrial genetic code has undergone parallel evolution within a phylum, with some organisms uniquely translating AGG to lysine. Mitochondrial genomes have far fewer genes than the bacteria from which they are thought to be descended. Although some have been lost altogether, many have been transferred to the nucleus, such as the respiratory complex II protein subunits. This is thought to be relatively common over evolutionary time. A few organisms, such as the Cryptosporidium, actually have mitochondria that lack any DNA, presumably because all their genes have been lost or transferred. In Cryptosporidium, the mitochondria have an altered ATP generation system that renders the parasite resistant to many classical mitochondrial inhibitors such as cyanide, azide, and atovaquone. Replication and inheritance Mitochondria divide by binary fission similar to bacterial cell division; unlike bacteria, however, mitochondria can also fuse with other mitochondria. . The regulation of this division differs between eukaryotes. In many single-celled eukaryotes, their growth and division is linked to the cell cycle. For example, a single mitochondrion may divide synchronously with the nucleus. This division and segregation process must be tightly controlled so that each daughter cell receives at least one mitochondrion. In other eukaryotes (in humans for example), mitochondria may replicate their DNA and divide mainly in response to the energy needs of the cell, rather than in phase with the cell cycle. When the energy needs of a cell are high, mitochondria grow and divide. When the energy use is low, mitochondria are destroyed or become inactive. In such examples, and in contrast to the situation in many single celled eukaryotes, mitochondria are apparently randomly distributed to the daughter cells during the division of the cytoplasm. An individual's mitochondrial genes are not inherited by the same mechanism as nuclear genes. At fertilization of an egg cell by a sperm, the egg nucleus and sperm nucleus each contribute equally to the genetic makeup of the zygote nucleus. In contrast, the mitochondria, and therefore the mitochondrial DNA, usually comes from the egg only. The sperm's mitochondria enter the egg but do not contribute genetic information to the embryo. Kimball, J.W. (2006) "Sexual Reproduction in Humans: Copulation and Fertilization," Kimball's Biology Pages (based on Biology, 6th ed., 1996)] Instead, paternal mitochondria are marked with ubiquitin to select them for later destruction inside the embryo. Discussed in Science News. The egg cell contains relatively few mitochondria, but it is these mitochondria that survive and divide to populate the cells of the adult organism. Mitochondria are, therefore, in most cases inherited down the female line, known as maternal inheritance. This mode is seen in most organisms including all animals. However, mitochondria in some species can sometimes be inherited paternally. This is the norm among certain coniferous plants, although not in pine trees and yew trees. It has also been suggested that it occurs at a very low level in humans. Uniparental inheritance leads to little opportunity for genetic recombination between different lineages of mitochondria, although a single mitochondrion can contain 2–10 copies of its DNA. For this reason, mitochondrial DNA usually is thought to reproduce by binary fission. What recombination does take place maintains genetic integrity rather than maintaining diversity. However, there are studies showing evidence of recombination in mitochondrial DNA. It is clear that the enzymes necessary for recombination are present in mammalian cells. Further, evidence suggests that animal mitochondria can undergo recombination. The data are a bit more controversial in humans, although indirect evidence of recombination exists. If recombination does not occur, the whole mitochondrial DNA sequence represents a single haplotype, which makes it useful for studying the evolutionary history of populations. Population genetic studies The near-absence of genetic recombination in mitochondrial DNA makes it a useful source of information for scientists involved in population genetics and evolutionary biology. Because all the mitochondrial DNA is inherited as a single unit, or haplotype, the relationships between mitochondrial DNA from different individuals can be represented as a gene tree. Patterns in these gene trees can be used to infer the evolutionary history of populations. The classic example of this is in human evolutionary genetics, where the molecular clock can be used to provide a recent date for mitochondrial Eve. This is often interpreted as strong support for a recent modern human expansion out of Africa. Another human example is the sequencing of mitochondrial DNA from Neanderthal bones. The relatively-large evolutionary distance between the mitochondrial DNA sequences of Neanderthals and living humans has been interpreted as evidence for lack of interbreeding between Neanderthals and anatomically-modern humans. However, mitochondrial DNA reflects the history of only females in a population and so may not represent the history of the population as a whole. This can be partially overcome by the use of paternal genetic sequences, such as the non-recombining region of the Y-chromosome. In a broader sense, only studies that also include nuclear DNA can provide a comprehensive evolutionary history of a population. Dysfunction and disease Mitochondrial diseases With their central place in cell metabolism, damage - and subsequent dysfunction - in mitochondria is an important factor in a wide range of human diseases. Mitochondrial disorders often present as neurological disorders, but can manifest as myopathy, diabetes, multiple endocrinopathy, or a variety of other systemic manifestations. Diseases caused by mutation in the mtDNA include Kearns-Sayre syndrome, MELAS syndrome and Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy. In the vast majority of cases, these diseases are transmitted by a female to her children, as the zygote derives its mitochondria and hence its mtDNA from the ovum. Diseases such as Kearns-Sayre syndrome, Pearson's syndrome, and progressive external ophthalmoplegia are thought to be due to large-scale mtDNA rearrangements, whereas other diseases such as MELAS syndrome, Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy, myoclonic epilepsy with ragged red fibers (MERRF), and others are due to point mutations in mtDNA. In other diseases, defects in nuclear genes lead to dysfunction of mitochondrial proteins. This is the case in Friedreich's ataxia, hereditary spastic paraplegia, and Wilson's disease. These diseases are inherited in a dominance relationship, as applies to most other genetic diseases. A variety of disorders can be caused by nuclear mutations of oxidative phosphorylation enzymes, such as coenzyme Q10 deficiency and Barth syndrome. Environmental influences may also interact with hereditary predispositions and cause mitochondrial disease. For example, there may be a link between pesticide exposure and the later onset of Parkinson's disease. Other pathologies with etiology involving mitochondrial dysfunction include schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, dementia, Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, epilepsy, stroke, cardiovascular disease, retinitis pigmentosa, and diabetes mellitus. A common thread thought to link these seemingly-unrelated conditions is cellular damage causing oxidative stress. How exactly mitochondrial dysfunction fits into the etiology of these pathologies is yet to be elucidated. Possible relationships to aging Given the role of mitochondria as the cell's powerhouse, there may be some leakage of the high-energy electrons in the respiratory chain to form reactive oxygen species. This can result in significant oxidative stress in the mitochondria with high mutation rates of mitochondrial DNA. A vicious cycle is thought to occur, as oxidative stress leads to mitochondrial DNA mutations, which can lead to enzymatic abnormalities and further oxidative stress. A number of changes occur to mitochondria during the aging process. Tissues from elderly patients show a decrease in enzymatic activity of the proteins of the respiratory chain. Large deletions in the mitochondrial genome can lead to high levels of oxidative stress and neuronal death in Parkinson's disease. Hypothesized links between aging and oxidative stress are not new and were proposed over 50 years ago; however, there is much debate over whether mitochondrial changes are causes of aging or merely characteristics of aging. One notable study in mice demonstrated shortened lifespan but no increase in reactive oxygen species despite increasing mitochondrial DNA mutations, suggesting that mitochondrial DNA mutations can cause lifespan shortening by other mechanisms. As a result, the exact relationships between mitochondria, oxidative stress, and aging have not yet been settled. References See also Anti-mitochondrial antibodies Bioenergetics CoRR Hypothesis Human mitochondrial genetics Mitochondrial permeability transition pore Oncocyte Oncocytoma Submitochondrial particle Nebenkern External links Mitochondria Atlas at University of Mainz Mitochondria Research Portal at mitochondrial.net Mitochondria: Architecture dictates function at cytochemistry.net Mitochondria links at University of Alabama MIP Mitochondrial Physiology Society 3D structures of proteins from inner mitochondrial membrane at University of Michigan 3D structures of proteins associated with outer mitochondrial membrane at University of Michigan Mitochondrion - Cell Centered Database Mitochondrion Reconstructed by Electron Tomography at San Diego State University Video Clip of Rat-liver Mitochondrion from Cryo-electron Tomography at wadsworth.org Mitochondria meet Art | Mitochondrion |@lemmatized electron:11 micrograph:1 mitochondrion:84 mammalian:2 lung:1 tissue:7 show:7 matrix:18 membrane:53 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5,261 | Cecil_B._DeMille | Cecil Blount DeMille (August 12, 1881 – January 21, 1959) was an Academy Award-winning American film director. He was renowned for the flamboyance and showmanship of his movies. Early life DeMille was born in Ashfield, Massachusetts while his parents were vacationing there and grew up in Washington, North Carolina. His father, Henry Churchill DeMille (1853–1893), was a North Carolina-born dramatist and lay reader in the Episcopal Church. His mother, Matilda Beatrice (Samuel) DeMille (1853–1923), was born in England to a Sephardic Jewish family but converted to her husband's faith. DeMille attended Pennsylvania Military College in Chester, Pennsylvania from the age of 15. He had an elder brother, William, and a sister Agnes, who died in childhood. Cecil DeMille's famous niece was named for her. After Henry DeMille's death at age 40, Cecil's mother, Beatrice, ran a well-known boarding school for girls in New Jersey. Career DeMille directed dozens of silent films, including Paramount Pictures' first production, The Squaw Man (1914), which was co-directed by Oscar Apfel, before coming into huge popularity during the late 1910s and early 1920s, when he reached the apex of his popularity with such films as Don't Change Your Husband (1919), The Ten Commandments (1923), and The King of Kings (1927). A few of his silent films featured scenes in two-strip Technicolor. Cecil B. DeMille had a keen eye for talent and was known for being an instrumental catalyst for the rising status of many a struggling or unknown actor. Actor Richard Dix's best-remembered early role was in the silent version of DeMille's The Ten Commandments. Richard Cromwell owed his 1930s movie fame in part to being personally selected by DeMille for the role as the leader of the youth gang in DeMille's poignant, now cult-favorite, This Day and Age (1933). DeMille displayed a loyalty to certain supporting performers, casting them over and over in his pictures. They included Henry Wilcoxon, Julia Faye, Joseph Schildkraut, Ian Keith, Charles Bickford, Theodore Roberts, Akim Tamiroff and William Boyd. He also cast leading actors such as Claudette Colbert, Gloria Swanson, Gary Cooper, Jetta Goudal, Robert Preston, Paulette Goddard and Charlton Heston in multiple pictures. He was not known as a particularly good director of actors, often hiring actors whom he relied on to develop their own characters and act accordingly. DeMille also had a reputation for being a tyrant on the set, and he despised actors who were not willing to take physical risks; such was the case with Victor Mature in Samson and Delilah, when Mature refused to wrestle the lion, though the lion was tame and its teeth had been pulled. (DeMille remarked that Mature was "100% yellow"). Paulette Goddard's refusal to risk personal injury in a scene involving fire in Unconquered cost her DeMille's favor and probably a role in The Greatest Show on Earth. DeMille was, however, adept at directing "thousands of extras," and many of his pictures included spectacular set pieces, such as the parting of the Red Sea in both versions of The Ten Commandments; the toppling of the pagan temple in Samson and Delilah; train wrecks in The Road to Yesterday, Union Pacific and The Greatest Show on Earth; and the destruction of a zeppelin in Madame Satan. DeMille knew what the movie-going public wanted, and he provided it. DeMille was one of the first directors in Hollywood to become a celebrity in his own right. From 1936 to 1944, DeMille hosted and even acted as pitchman for Cecil B. DeMille's Lux Radio Theater, which was one of the most popular dramatic radio shows at the time. Gloria Swanson immortalized DeMille with the oft-repeated line, "All right, Mr. DeMille, I'm ready for my close-up" in Billy Wilder's Sunset Boulevard, wherein DeMille played himself. DeMille also appeared as himself in Paramount's 1947 all-star musical comedy Variety Girl and he narrated many of his later films, as well as appearing on screen in the introduction to The Ten Commandments. DeMille first used three-strip Technicolor in Northwest Mounted Police (1940). Following the favorable response to the vivid color photography, shot partly on location in the Canadian Rockies, DeMille decided to always use Technicolor in his films. While he continued to be prolific throughout the 1930s and 1940s, he is probably best known for his 1956 film The Ten Commandments (which is very different from his 1923 film of the same title). Also representative of his penchant for the spectacular was the 1952 production of The Greatest Show on Earth which gave DeMille an Oscar for best picture and a nomination for best director. In 1949 - 1950, DeMille was recruited by Allen Dulles and Frank Wisner to serve on the board of the National Committee for a Free Europe, the public face of the organization that oversaw the Radio Free Europe service. Weiner, Tim: "Legacy of Ashes," page 36. Doubleday, 2007. In 1954, Secretary of the Air Force Harold E. Talbott sought out DeMille for help in designing the cadet uniforms at the newly established United States Air Force Academy. DeMille's designs—most notably his design of the distinctive cadet parade uniform—won praise from Air Force and Academy leadership, were ultimately adopted, and are still worn by cadets today. Bill Radford, "A Digger, A Director and A Practical Joker," (Colorado Springs) Gazette, USAF Academy 50th Anniversary Edition, Spring 2004. Near the end of his life, DeMille began pre-production work on a film biography of Robert Baden-Powell, 1st Baron Baden-Powell, the founder of the Scout Movement and had asked David Niven to star in the film; the film was never made. Because of illness, he asked his son-in-law, actor Anthony Quinn, to direct a remake of his 1938 film The Buccaneer; although DeMille served as executive producer, he was very unhappy with Quinn's work and tried unsuccessfully to remedy the situation. Despite a good cast led by Charlton Heston and Yul Brynner and some impressive battle scenes, the film was a disappointment. Personal life DeMille married Constance Adams on 16 August, 1902 and had one child, Cecilia. The couple adopted Katherine Lester in the early 1920s; her father had been killed in World War I and her mother had died of tuberculosis. Katherine married Anthony Quinn. They also adopted two sons, John and Richard, the latter of whom became a notable filmmaker, author, and psychologist. During on-location filming in Egypt of the Exodus sequence for 1956's The Ten Commandments, the then 73 year-old DeMille climbed a 107-foot ladder to the top of the massive Per Rameses set and suffered a near fatal heart attack. Aided by his daughter Cecilia, but against his doctor's orders, he was back directing the film within a week. He died from heart failure in January 1959 and was entombed in Hollywood Forever Cemetery. At the time of his death, he was planning to direct a movie about space travel. Legacy honor The former film building at Chapman University in Orange, California is named in honor of DeMille. The Lawrence and Kristina Dodge College of Film and Media Arts now resides in Marion Knotts Studios. The Golden Globe Award's annual Cecil B. DeMille Award recognizes lifetime achievement in the film industry. Filmography (as director) The Squaw Man (1914) Brewster's Millions (1914) The Master Mind (1914) The Only Son (1914) The Man on the Box (1914) The Call of the North (1914) The Virginian (1914) What's His Name (1914) The Man from Home (1914) Rose of the Rancho (1914) The Ghost Breaker (1914) The Girl of the Golden West (1915) After Five (1915) The Warrens of Virginia (1915) The Unafraid (1915) The Captive (1915) The Wild Goose Chase (1915) The Arab (1915) Chimmie Fadden (1915) Kindling (1915) Carmen (1915) Chimmie Fadden Out West (1915) The Cheat (1915) Temptation (1915) The Golden Chance (1915) The Trail of the Lonesome Pine (1916) The Heart of Nora Flynn (1916) Maria Rosa (1916) The Dream Girl (1916) Joan the Woman (1917) Lost and Won (1917) A Romance of the Redwoods (1917) The Little American (1917) The Woman God Forgot (1917) Nan of Music Mountain (1917) The Devil-Stone (1917) The Whispering Chorus (1918) Old Wives for New (1918) We Can't Have Everything (1918) Till I Come Back to You (1918) The Squaw Man (1918) Don't Change Your Husband (1919) For Better, for Worse (1919) Male and Female (1919) Why Change Your Wife? (1920) Something to Think About (1920) Forbidden Fruit (1921) The Affairs of Anatol (1921) Fool's Paradise (1921) Saturday Night (1922) Manslaughter (1922) Adam's Rib (1923) The Ten Commandments (1923) Triumph (1924) Feet of Clay (1924) The Golden Bed (1925) The Road to Yesterday (1925) The Volga Boatman (1926) The King of Kings (1927) Walking Back (1928) The Godless Girl (1929) Dynamite (1929) Madam Satan (1930) The Squaw Man (1931) The Sign of the Cross (1932) This Day and Age (1933) Four Frightened People (1934) Cleopatra (1934) The Crusades (1935) The Plainsman (1936) The Buccaneer (1938) Union Pacific (1939) Northwest Mounted Police (1940) Reap the Wild Wind (1942) The Story of Dr. Wassell (1944) Unconquered (1947) California's Golden Beginning (1948) (short subject) Samson and Delilah (1949) The Greatest Show on Earth (1952) The Ten Commandments (1956) Filmography (appearing as himself) Felix in Hollywood (1923) Sunset Boulevard (1950) The Fallbrook Story (short subject) (1951) Son of Paleface (1952) References Bibliographies Cecil B. DeMille bibliography (via UC Berkeley) External links Bibliography of books and articles about Demille via UC Berkeley Media Resources Center Obituary, NY Times, January 22, 1959, Cecil De Mille, 77, Pioneer of Movies, Dead in Hollywood Costs and Grosses for the Early Films of Cecil B. DeMille essay with detailed financial breakdowns by David Pierce Official Cecil B. DeMille Site DeMille Studio Museum also known as the Lasky-DeMille Barn run by Hollywood Heritage. Cecil B. 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5,262 | Abugida | An abugida (, from Ge‘ez አቡጊዳ ’äbugida or Amharic አቡጊዳ ’abugida) or alphasyllabary is a segmental writing system which is based on consonants but in which vowel notation is obligatory. About half the writing systems in the world are abugidas, including the extensive Brahmic family of scripts used in South and Southeast Asia. In general, a full letter of an abugida transcribes a consonant. Full letters are written in a linear sequence in a consistent direction. Vowels are dependent on the consonant. They are written through modification of the consonant letter, either by means of diacritics which are placed in a vowel-dependent position relative to the consonant (rather than always progressing in the same direction as the sequence of full letters) or through changes in the form of the consonant itself. Vowels not preceded by a consonant may be represented with: a zero consonant letter with dependent vowel signs attached separate full letters for each initial vowel, that are distinct from the dependent vowel signs Consonants not followed by a vowel may be represented with: a dependent vowel sign which explicitly indicates lack of a vowel (virama) lack of a dependent vowel sign (often with ambiguity between no vowel and a default inherent vowel) a dependent vowel sign for a short or neutral vowel such as schwa (with ambiguity between no vowel and that short or neutral vowel) conjunct consonant letters where two or more consonant letters are graphically joined in a ligature dependent consonant signs, which may be smaller and/or differently placed versions of the full consonant letters, or distinct signs The term abugida was adopted into English as a linguistic term by Peter T. Daniels. It is the Ethiopian name of the Ge‘ez script, derived from the first four letters aləf, bet, gäməl, dənt (in the traditional A B G D order of Hebrew and Greek), graded by the first four vowel forms, much as the term abecedary is derived from the Latin a be ce de. As Daniels used the word, an abugida contrasts with a syllabary, where letters with shared consonants or vowels show no particular resemblance to each another, and with an alphabet proper, where independent letters are used to denote both consonants and vowels. Sometimes, abugidas have been considered to be syllabaries or intermediate between syllabaries and alphabets ("semi-syllabaries", "alpha-syllabaries", etc.). Less formally, however, abugidas are simply called "alphabets". Description There are three principal families of abugidas, which function somewhat differently. The largest and the oldest is the Brahmic family of India and Southeast Asia, in which vowels are marked with diacritics and syllable-final consonants, when they occur, are indicated with ligatures, diacritics, or with a special vowel-canceling mark. In the Ethiopic family, vowels are marked by modifying the shapes of the consonants, and one of these pulls double duty for final consonants. In the Cree family, vowels are marked by rotating or flipping the consonants, and final consonants are indicated with either special diacritics or superscript forms of the main initial consonants. Thaana of the Maldives has dependent vowels and a zero vowel sign, but no inherent vowel. FeatureNorth IndicSouth IndicThaanaEthiopicCanadianVowel after consonantDependent sign (diacritic)Fused diacriticRotate/reflectInitial vowel letter(s)1 per vowelZero consonant in SEAGlottal stopZero consonantAbsence of vowel sign, , , or N/AN/AVirama (zero vowel sign)OftenAlwaysNoConsonant ligaturesConjunct D,BStack or noneNoFinal consonant dependents onlyNoAllDistinct final forms onlyNoWestern onlyFinal consonant positionTop or inlineInlineSmall, raised Indic (Brahmic) An example of Brāhmī script - Ashoka's Major Rock Edict at Girnar. Indic scripts originated in South Asia and spread to Southeast Asia. All surviving Indic scripts are descendants of the Brahmi alphabet. Today they are used in most languages of South Asia (although replaced by Perso-Arabic in Urdu, Kashmiri and other languages of Pakistan and India) and mainland Southeast Asia (Burma, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia; but not Malaysia or Vietnam). The primary division is into North Indic scripts used in North India, Nepal, Tibet, Bhutan and South Indic scripts used in South India, Sri Lanka, and Southeast Asia. South Indic letter forms are very rounded; North Indic less so, though Oriya, Golmol and Litumol of Nepal script are rounded. Most North Indic scripts' full letters incorporate a horizontal line at the top, with Gujarati script an exception; South Indic scripts do not. Indic scripts indicate vowels through dependent vowel signs (diacritics) around the consonants, often including a sign that explicitly indicates the lack of a vowel. If a consonant has no vowel sign, this indicates a default vowel. Vowel diacritics may appear above, below, to the left, to the right, or around the consonant. The most populous Indic script is Devanagari, used for Hindi, Bhojpuri, Marathi, Nepali, and often Sanskrit. A basic letter such as क represents a syllable with the default vowel, in this case ka (), or, in final position, a final consonant, in this case k. This inherent vowel may be changed by adding vowel marks (diacritics), producing syllables such as कि ki, कु ku, के ke, को ko. The mora a consonant letter represents, either with or without a marked vowel, is called an akshara. A 19th century manuscript in the Devanagari script + Diacritic placement in Brahmic abugidas position syllable pronunciation base form script above के क Devanagari below कु left कि right को around கௌ /kau/ க /ka/ Tamil within ಕಿ /ki/ ಕ /ka/ Kannada In many of the Brahmic scripts, a syllable beginning with a cluster is treated as a single character for purposes of vowel marking, so a vowel marker like -i, falling before the character it modifies, may appear several positions before the place where it is pronounced. For example, the game cricket in Hindi is क्रिकेट krikeţ; the diacritic for /i/ appears before the consonant cluster /kr/, not before the /r/. A more unusual example is seen in the Batak alphabet: Here the syllable bim is written ba-ma-i-(virama). That is, the vowel diacritic and virama are both written after the consonants for the whole syllable. In many abugidas, there is also a diacritic to suppress the inherent vowel, yielding the bare consonant. In Devanagari, क् is k, and ल् is l. This is called the virama in Sanskrit, or halant in Hindi. It may be used to form consonant clusters, or to indicate that a consonant occurs at the end of a word. For text information processing on computer, other means of expressing these functions include special conjunct forms in which two or more consonant characters are merged to express a cluster, such as Devanagari: क्ल kla. (Note that on some fonts display this as क् followed by ल, rather than forming a conjunct. This expedient is used by ISCII and South Asian scripts of Unicode.) Thus a closed syllable such as kal requires two akshara to write. The Róng script used for the Lepcha language goes further than other Indic abugidas, in that a single akshara can represent a closed syllable: Not only the vowel, but any final consonant is indicated by a diacritic. For example, the syllable [sok] would be written as something like , here with an underring representing /o/ and an overcross representing the diacritic for final /k/. Most other Indic abugidas can only indicate a very limited set of final consonants with diacritics, such as /ŋ/ or /r/, if they can indicate any at all. Canadian Aboriginal Syllabics An inscription of Swampy Cree using Canadian Aboriginal syllabics, an abugida developed by Christian missionaries for Aboriginal Canadian languages In the family known as Canadian Aboriginal syllabics, vowels are indicated by changing the orientation of the akshara. Each vowel has a consistent orientation; for example, Inuktitut ᐱ pi, ᐳ pu, ᐸ pa; ᑎ ti, ᑐ tu, ᑕ ta. Although there is a vowel inherent in each, all rotations have equal status and none can be identified as basic. Bare consonants are indicated either by separate diacritics, or by superscript versions of the aksharas; there is no vowel-killer mark. Ethiopic The Ge'ez script, an abugida of Ethiopia In Ethiopic, from which the term abugida originates, the diacritics have fused to the consonants to the point that they must be considered modifications of the form of the letters. Children learn each modification separately, as in a syllabary; nonetheless, the graphic similarities between syllables with the same consonant is readily apparent, unlike the case in a true syllabary. Though now an abugida, the Ge'ez alphabet was actually an abjad until the advent of Christianity ca 350 CE. In the Ge'ez abugida, the form of the letter itself may be altered. For example, ሀ hä (base form), ሁ hu (with a right-side diacritic that does not alter the letter), ሂ hi (with a subdiacritic that compresses the letter, so that the whole fidel occupies the same amount of space), ህ hə or (where the letter is modified with a kink in the left arm). Borderline cases Voweled abjads Consonantal scripts ("abjads") are normally written without indication of many vowels. However in some contexts like teaching materials or scriptures, Arabic and Hebrew are written with full indication of vowels via diacritic marks (harakat, niqqud) making them effectively abugidas. The Brahmic and Ethiopic families are thought to have originated from the Semitic abjads by the addition of vowel marks. The Arabic-alphabet scripts used for Kurdish in Iraq and for Uighur in Xinjiang, China are fully voweled, but since the vowels are full letters rather than diacritics, and there are no inherent vowels, these are considered alphabets rather than abugidas. Phagspa The imperial Mongol script called Phagspa was derived from the Tibetan abugida, but all vowels are written in-line rather than as diacritics. However, it retains the features of having an inherent vowel /a/ and having distinct initial vowel letters. Pahawh Pahawh Hmong is a non-segmental script that indicates syllable onsets and rimes, such as consonant clusters and vowels with final consonants. Thus it is not segmental and cannot be considered an abugida. However, it superficially resembles an abugida with the roles of consonant and vowel reversed. Most syllables are written with two letters in the order rime–onset (typically vowel-consonant), even though they are pronounced as onset-rime (consonant-vowel), rather like the position of the /i/ vowel in Devanagari, which is written before the consonant. Pahawh is also unusual in that, while an inherent rime /āu/ (with mid tone) is unwritten, it also has an inherent onset /k/. For the syllable /kau/, which requires one or the other of the inherent sounds to be overt, it is /au/ that is written. Thus it is the rime (vowel) which is basic to the system. Meroitic It is difficult to draw a dividing line between abugidas and other segmental scripts. For example, the Meroitic script of ancient Sudan did not indicate an inherent a (one symbol stood for both m and ma, for example), and is thus similar to Brahmic family abugidas. However, the other vowels were indicated with full letters, not diacritics or modification, so the system was essentially an alphabet that did not bother to write the most common vowel. Shorthand Several systems of shorthand use diacritics for vowels, but they do not have an inherent vowel, and are thus more similar to Thaana and Kurdish script than to the Brahmic scripts. The Gabelsberger shorthand system and its derivatives modify the following consonant to represent vowels. The Pollard script, which was based on shorthand, also uses diacritics for vowels; the placements of the vowel relative to the consonant indicates tone. Development As the term alphasyllabary suggests, abugidas have been considered an intermediate step between alphabets and syllabaries. Historically, abugidas appear to have evolved from abjads (vowelless alphabets). They contrast with syllabaries, where there is a distinct symbol for each syllable or consonant-vowel combination, and where these have no systematic similarity to each other, and typically develop directly from logographic scripts. Compare the Devanagari examples above to sets of syllables in the Japanese hiragana syllabary: か ka, き ki, く ku, け ke, こ ko have nothing in common to indicate k; while ら ra, り ri, る ru, れ re, ろ ro have neither anything in common for r, nor anything to indicate that they have the same vowels as the k set. Most Indian and Indochinese abugidas appear to have first been developed from abjads with the and Brāhmī scripts; the abjad in question is usually considered to be the Aramaic one, but while the link between Aramaic and Kharosthi is more or less undisputed, this is not the case with Brahmi. The Kharosthi family does not survive today, but Brahmi's descendants include most of the modern scripts of South and Southeast Asia. Although Ge'ez derived from a different abjad, one theory is that its development into an abugida may have been influenced by Christian missionaries from India. Other types of writing systems Abjad Alphabet Logogram Syllabary Partial list of abugidas True abugidas An example of Limbu script Brahmic family, descended from Brāhmī (c. 6th century BC) Ahom (Assamese) Balinese Balti Batak Baybayin, pre-Hispanic script of Tagalog and other Philippine languages Bengali Bhujimol Box-head a script in India Bugis also known as Makassar or Lontara Buhid, used by Mangyans in Mindoro, Philippines Burmese Chalukya Cham Chola Devanagari (used to write Nepali, Sanskrit, Pali, modern Hindi, Marathi etc.) Dehong Dai Golmol Grantha Gujarati Gurmukhi Hanuno'o, a script used by Mangyans in Mindoro, Philippines Javanese Kadamba Kaithi Kannada Khmer Lanna Lepcha Limbu Lao (before spelling reforms) Malayalam Manipuri (Meitei Mayek is the script used) Modi used to write Marathi Oriya Old Kawi progenitor of Indonesian and Philippine scripts Pachumol Phags-Pa created for Kublai Khan's Yuan China Prachalit Nepal Ranjana Redjang Sharada Siddham used to write Sanskrit Sinhala Sorang Sompeng Sourashtra Soyombo Sundanese Syloti Nagri Tagbanwa in Palawan, Philippines Tai Dam Tamil Telugu Thai Tibetan Tirhuta used to write Maithili Tocharian - extinct Varang Kshiti Vatteluttu aka round script (extinct), from the 3rd century BC Ge'ez (Ethiopic), from the 4th century AD Canadian Aboriginal syllabics Cree-Ojibwe syllabics Inuktitut syllabics Blackfoot syllabics Carrier syllabics Abugida-like scripts Meroitic (extinct) Thaana Pitman shorthand Pollard script External links Syllabic alphabets - Omniglot's list of abugidas, including examples of various writing systems Alphabets - list of abugidas and other scripts (in Spanish) Comparing Devanagari with Burmese, Khmer, Thai, and Tai Tham scripts | Abugida |@lemmatized abugida:15 ge:7 ez:7 አቡጊዳ:2 äbugida:1 amharic:1 alphasyllabary:2 segmental:4 writing:1 system:8 base:4 consonant:49 vowel:72 notation:1 obligatory:1 half:1 write:20 world:1 abugidas:19 include:5 extensive:1 brahmic:9 family:10 script:42 use:21 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5,263 | Azerbaijan | Azerbaijan (Pronounced ; ), formally the Republic of Azerbaijan (), is a country in the Caucasus region of Eurasia. Located at the crossroads of Western Asia and Eastern Europe, Azerbaijan may be considered to be in Asia and/or Europe. The UN classification of world regions places Azerbaijan in Western Asia; the CIA World Factbook , National Geographic, and Encyclopædia Britannica also place Georgia in Asia. Conversely, numerous sources place Azerbaijan in Europe such as the BBC , Oxford Reference Online , Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary, and www.worldatlas.com. it is bounded by the Caspian Sea to the east, Russia to the north, Georgia to the northwest, Armenia to the west, and Iran to the south. The exclave of Nakhichevan is bounded by Armenia to the north and east, Iran to the south and west, while has also a short borderline with Turkey to the northwest. The Nagorno-Karabakh region in the southwest of Azerbaijan proper declared itself independent from Azerbaijan in 1991, but it is not recognized by any nation and considered a legal part of Azerbaijan. Azerbaijan, a nation with a majority ethnic Azerbaijani https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/aj.html and Shi‘ite Muslim majority population, is a secular and unitary republic. The Azerbaijan Democratic Republic was the first successful attempt to establish a democratic and secular republic in the Muslim world . Tadeusz Swietochowski. Russia and Azerbaijan: A Borderland in Transition. Columbia University Press, 1995. ISBN 0231070683, 9780231070683 Reinhard Schulze. A Modern History of the Islamic World. I.B.Tauris, 2000. ISBN 1860648223, 9781860648229 Azerbaijan is one of the founder members of GUAM and the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons, and joined the Commonwealth of Independent States in September 1993. A Special Envoy of the European Commission is present in the country, which is also a member of the United Nations, the OSCE, the Council of Europe, and the NATO Partnership for Peace (PfP) program. Etymology of the name The name of Azerbaijan derives from Atropates, Minorsky, V.; Minorsky, V. "Ādharbaydjān (Azarbāydjān ) ." Encyclopaedia of Islam. Edited by: P.Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel and W.P. Heinrichs. Brill, 2007. Brill Online. <http://www.encislam.brill.nl/subscriber/entry?entry=islam_COM-0016 Encyclopedia Iranica, "Azerbaijan: Pre-Islamic History", K. Shippmann a satrap of Persia under the Achaemenid Empire, who was later reinstated as the satrap of Media under Alexander of Macedonia. Historical Dictionary of Azerbaijan by Tadeusz Swietochowski and Brian C. Collins. The Scarecrow Press, Inc., Lanham, Maryland (1999), ISBN 0-8108-3550-9 (retrieved 7 June 2006) The original etymology of this name is thought to have its roots in the ancient Iranian religion of Zoroastrianism. In Avestan Frawardin Yasht ("Hymn to the Guardian Angels"), there is a mention of âterepâtahe ashaonô fravashîm ýazamaide, which literally translates from Old Persian as "we worship the Fravashi of the holy Atare-pata". Atropates ruled over the region of Atropatene (present-day Iranian Azerbaijan). The name "Atropates" itself is the Greek transliteration of an Old-Iranian, probably Median, compounded name with the meaning "Protected by the (Holy) Fire". The Greek name is mentioned by Diodorus Siculus and Strabo, and it is continued as ādurbādagān in the Pahlavi geographical text Shahrestānihā i Erānshahr. ed. Touraj Daryaee, Mazda Publishers, Costa Mesa 2002. The word is translatable as both "the treasury" and "the treasurer" of fire in Modern Persian. In dictionaries: Steingass: āẕar-bād-gān,āẕar-abād-gūn,āẕar, āẕur,ādar,bāygān,pāy. Dehkhoda: آذربایجان/Âzarbâyjân,آذربایگان/Âzarbâygân,آذربادگان/Âzarbâdegân,آذر/Âzar,آدر/Âdar,بایگان/Bâygân,بادگان/Bâdegân,-پای/pây-,گان-/-gân(جان-/-jân) History Petroglyphs in Gobustan dating back to 10,000 BC indicating a thriving culture. The Maiden Tower, XI-XII centuries, in old Baku. Mausoleum of Shirvanshahs in old Baku. The earliest evidence of human settlement in the territory of Azerbaijan dates to the late Stone Age and is related to the Guruchay culture of the Azykh Cave, where archeological evidences promoted the inclusion of Azerbaijan into the map of the ascent man sites of Europe. %20Azerbaijan%20institutional%20report%20FINAL.pdf National report on institutional landscape and research policy Social Sciences and Humanities in Azerbaijan The Upper Paleolithic and late Bronze Age cultures are attested in the caves of Tağılar, Damcılı, Zar, Yataq-yeri and in the necropolises of Leylatepe and Saraytepe. The area was conquered by the Achaemenids around 550 B.C.E., leading to the spread of Zoroastrianism. Later it become part of Alexander the Great's Empire and its successor Seleucid Empire. Caucasian Albanians, the original inhabitants of the area, established an independent kingdom around the fourth century B.C.E. Early Iranian settlements included the Scythians in the ninth century BC. Azerbaijan, US Library of Congress Country Studies (retrieved 7 June 2006). Following the Scythians, Iranian Medes came to dominate the area to the south of the Aras. The Medes forged a vast empire between 900-700 BC, which was integrated into the Achaemenids Empire around 550 BC. During this period, Zoroastrianism spread in the Caucasus and Atropatene. Ancient Azaris spoke Ancient Azari language, which belonged to Iranian branch of Indo-European languages. http://www.iranica.com/newsite/index.isc?Article=http://www.iranica.com/newsite/articles/v3f3/v3f2a88b.html In 252 C.E., the Sassanids turned it into a vassal state, while King Urnayr officially adopted Christianity as the state religion in the fourth century. Despite numerous conquests by the Sassanids and Byzantines, Albania remained an entity in the region until the ninth century. The Islamic Umayyad Caliphate repulsed both the Sassanids and Byzantines from the region and turned Caucasian Albania into a vassal state after the Christian resistance, led by Prince Javanshir, was suppressed in 667. The power vacuum left by the decline of the Abbasid Caliphate was filled by numerous dynasties such as the Sallarids, Sajids, Shaddadids, Rawadids and Buyids. At the beginning of the eleventh century, the territory was gradually seized by waves of Turkic Oghuz tribes from Central Asia. The first of these Turkic dynasties was the Ghaznavids, which entered the area now known as Azerbaijan by 1030. It is notable that Turkification of Azaris was completed only By the late 1800s. The old Iranic speakers found solely in tiny isolated recesses of the mountains or other remote areas (such as Harzand, Galin Guya, Shahrud villages in Khalkhal and Anarjan). Today this Turkic speaking population is also known as Azeris . Locally, the possessions of the subsequent Seljuq Empire were ruled by atabegs, who were technically vassals of the Seljuq sultans, being sometimes de facto rulers themselves. Under the Seljuq Turks, local poets such as Nizami Ganjavi and Khagani Shirvani gave rise to a blossoming of Persian literature on the territory of present-day Azerbaijan. The next ruling state of the Jalayirids was short-lived and fell under the conquests of Timur. The local dynasty of Shirvanshahs became a vassal state of Timur's Empire and assisted him in his war with the ruler of the Golden Horde Tokhtamysh. Following Timur's death two independent and rival states emerged: Kara Koyunlu and Ak Koyunlu. The Shirvanshahs returned, maintaining a high degree of autonomy as local rulers and vassals from 861 until 1539. During their persecution by the Safavids, the last dynasty imposed Shia Islam upon the formerly Sunni population, as it was battling against the Sunni Ottoman Empire. After the Safavids, the area was ruled by the Iranian dynasties of Afshar and Zand and briefly by the Qajars. However, while under Persian sovereignty Encyclopaedia Britannica Online: History of Azerbaijan de facto self-ruling khanates emerged in the area, especially following the collapse of the Zand dynasty and in the early Qajar era. The brief and successful Russian campaign of 1812 was concluded with the Treaty of Gulistan, in which the shah's claims to some of the Khanates of the Caucasus were dismissed by Russia on the ground that they had been de facto independent long before their Russian occupation. Tadeusz Swietochowski. Russian Azerbaijan, 1905-1920, 2004, p. 5 The khanates exercised control over their affairs via international trade route between Central Asia and the West. Charles King. The ghost of freedom: a history of the Caucasus, 2008, p. 10 Engaged in constant warfare, these khanates were eventually incorporated into the Russian Empire in 1813, following two Russo-Persian Wars. The area to the North of the river Arax, amongst which the territory of the contemporary republic of Azerbaijan were Iranian territory untill they were occupied by Russia. Sandra L. Batalden, The newly independent states of Eurasia: handbook of former Soviet republics 1997, Page 98 Robert E. Ebel, Rajan Menon, 2000, Energy and conflict in Central Asia and the Caucasus - Page 181 Elena Andreeva - , Russia and Iran in the great game: travelogues and orientalism, 2007- Page 6 Kemal Çiçek, Ercüment Kuran, Nejat Göyünç, İlber Ortaylı,The Great Ottoman-Turkish Civilisation: Politics, 2000, Karl Ernest Meyer, Shareen Blair Brysac, Tournament of Shadows: The Great Game and the Race for Empire in Central Asia, 2006, p.66 Under the Treaty of Turkmenchay, the Persian Empire recognized Russian sovereignty over the Erivan khanate, the Nakhchivan khanate and the remainder of the Talysh Khanate. Mammed Amin Rasulzade was one of the founding leaders and speaker of Azerbaijan Democratic Republic in 1918, widely regarded as the national leader of Azerbaijan. After the collapse of the Russian Empire during World War I, Azerbaijan, together with Armenia and Georgia became part of the short-lived Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic. When the republic dissolved in May 1918, Azerbaijan declared independence as the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic (ADR). The ADR was the first democratic parliamentary republic in the Muslim world, but lasted only 23 months until the Bolshevik XIth Red Army invaded it in April 1920, establishing the Azerbaijan SSR on 28 April 1920. In 1922, Azerbaijan became part of the Transcaucasian SFSR (TSFSR), which itself became a constituent member of the newly-established Soviet Union. In 1936, TSFSR was dissolved and Azerbaijan SSR became one of the constituent member states of the Soviet Union. During World War II, Azerbaijan supplied much of the Soviet Union's oil on the Eastern Front while close to 600,000 Azerbaijanis fought against Nazi Germany. Operation Edelweiss carried out by the German Wehrmacht targeted Baku because of its importance as the energy (petroleum) dynamo of the USSR. Swietochowski, Tadeusz(1995) Russia and Azerbaijan: A Borderland in Transition, Columbia University, p. 133 A painting by Enver Aliyev depicting Azerbaijani citizens digging entrenchments and antitank obstacles near Baku to prevent a possible Nazi invasion. Following the politics of glasnost, initiated by Mikhail Gorbachev, civil unrest and ethnic strife grew in various regions of the Soviet Union, including Nagorno-Karabakh, a region of the Azerbaijan SSR. The disturbances in Azerbaijan, in response to Moscow's indifference to already heated conflict, resulted in calls for independence and secession, which subsequently culminated in the events of Black January in Baku. At this time, Ayaz Mütallibov was appointed as the First Secretary of the Azerbaijan Communist Party. Later in 1990, the Supreme Council of the Azerbaijan SSR dropped the words "Soviet Socialist" from the title; adopted the Declaration of Sovereignty of the Azerbaijan Republic and restored the modified flag of the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic as a state flag. On 8 September 1991, Ayaz Mütallibov was elected president in nationwide elections in which he was the only candidate. On 18 October 1991, the Supreme Council of Azerbaijan adopted a Declaration of Independence which was affirmed by a nationwide referendum in December 1991, when the Soviet Union was officially dissolved. The early years of independence were overshadowed by the Nagorno-Karabakh War with neighboring Armenia. By the end of hostilities in 1994, Azerbaijan lost control of up to 16% of its territory, including Nagorno-Karabakh itself. Thomas De Waal. Black Garden: Armenia And Azerbaijan Through Peace and War. New York: New York University Press, p. 286. ISBN 0-8147-1945-7 Four United Nations Security Council Resolutions (822, 853, 874, and 884) called for "the withdrawal of occupying forces from occupied areas of the Azerbaijani Republic". In 1993, democratically elected president Abülfaz Elçibay was overthrown by a military insurrection led by Colonel Surat Huseynov, which resulted in the rise to power of the former leader of Soviet Azerbaijan, Heydar Aliyev. In 1994, Surat Huseynov, by that time a prime minister, attempted another military coup against Heydar Aliyev, but Huseynov was arrested and charged with treason. In 1995, another coup attempt against Aliyev, by the commander of the military police, Rovshan Javadov, was averted, resulting in the killing of the latter and disbanding of Azerbaijan's military police. Although during his presidency Aliyev managed to reduce the country's unemployment, reined in criminal groups, established the fundamental institutions of independent statehood, and brought stability, peace and major foreign investment, the country was tainted by rampant corruption in the governing bureaucracy. In October 1998, Aliyev was reelected for a second term. Despite the much improved economy, particularly with the exploitations of Azeri-Chirag-Guneshli oil field and Shah Deniz gas field, Aliyev's presidency became unpopular due to vote fraud, widespread corruption and objection to his autocratic regime. The same harsh criticism followed the elections of former Prime Minister Ilham Aliyev, the second leader of New Azerbaijan Party after the death of his father Heydar. Geography Khinalug has a history of 5.000 years and is among the most ancient places in the world. Mountains of Tingalty near Quba Five Finger Mountain is located in Absheron, Azerbaijan The total length of Azerbaijan's land borders is 2,648 km, of which 1007 are with Armenia, 756 with Iran, 480 with Georgia, 390 with Russia and 15 with Turkey. The coastline stretches for 800 km, and the length of the widest area of the Azerbaijani section of the Caspian Sea is 456 km. The territory of Azerbaijan extends 400 km from north to south, and 500 km from west to east. The three mountain ranges are the Greater and Lesser Caucasus, and the Talysh Mountains, together covering approximately 40% of the country. The highest peak of Azerbaijan is mount Bazardüzü (4,466 m), while the lowest point lies in the Caspian Sea (-28 m). Nearly half of all the mud volcanoes on Earth are concentrated in Azerbaijan. The main water sources are the surface waters. However, only 24 of the 8,350 rivers are greater than 100 km in length. All the rivers drain into the Caspian Sea in the east of the country. The largest lake is Sarysu (67 km²), and the longest river is Kur (1,515 km), which is transboundary. Azerbaijan's four main islands in the Caspian Sea have a combined area of over thirty square kilometres. Climate The formation of climate in Azerbaijan is influenced particularly by cold arctic air masses of Scandinavian anticyclone, temperate of Siberian anticyclone, and Central Asian anticyclone. Azerbaijan's diverse landscape affects the ways air masses enter the country. The Greater Caucasus protects the country from direct influences of cold air masses coming from the north. That leads to the formation of subtropical climate on most foothills and plains of the country. Meanwhile, plains and foothills are characterized by high solar radiation rates. Nine out of eleven existing climate zones are present in Azerbaijan. Both the absolute minimum temperature (-33 °C (-27.4 °F)) and the absolute maximum temperature (+46 °C (114.8 °F)) were observed in Julfa and Ordubad. The maximum annual precipitation falls in Lankaran (1,600 to 1,800 mm) and the minimum in Absheron (200 to 350 mm). Nature and ecology From the water supply point, Azerbaijan is below the average in the world with approximately 100,000 m³/year of water per km². All big water reservoirs are built on Kur. The main areas of plant diversity in Azerbaijan are the highlands of Nakhchivan (60% of the species occur here), the Kura-Araz plain (40%), the Dəvəçi-Quba region east of the Greater Caucasus (38%), the centre of the Lesser Caucasus (29%), Gobustan (26.6%), the Lankaran region in the Talysh Mountains (27%) and the Absheron region (22%). Vast forest areas of Azerbaijan are located on the northern and eastern slopes of the Great Caucasus; the northern, northeastern, and eastern slopes of the Lesser Caucasus; and the Talysh Mountains. There are more than 400 endemic species of plants (including around 16 species of Caspian algae), seven reptiles, fifteen perch, and six subspecies of Gobiidae. Most of the endemic freshwater fish belong to Cypriniformes. However, there are no strictly endemic mammals. The major cause of biodiversity loss in Azerbaijan is the decrease in natural environments. Administrative divisions Azerbaijan is divided into 59 rayons (rayonlar, singular rayon), 11 city districts (şəhərlər, singular şəhər), and one autonomous republic (muxtar respublika) of Nakhchivan, which subdivides into 7 rayons and a city. The President of Azerbaijan appoints the governors of these units, while the government of Nakhchivan is elected and approved by the parliament of Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic. Absheron (Abşeron) Aghjabadi (Ağcabədi) Agdam (Ağdam) Agdash (Ağdaş) Agstafa (Ağstafa) Agsu (Ağsu) Astara Baku (Bakı) Balakan (Balakən) Barda (Bərdə) Beylagan (Beyləqan) Bilasuvar (Biləsuvar) Dashkasan (Daşkəsən) Davachi (Dəvəçi) Fizuli (Füzuli) Gadabay (Gədəbəy) Ganja (Gəncə) Gobustan (Qobustan) Goygol (Göygöl) Goranboy Goychay (Göyçay) Hajigabul (Hacıqabul) Imishli (İmişli) Ismailli (İsmayıllı) Jabrayil (Cəbrayıl) Jalilabad (Cəlilabad) Kalbajar (Kəlbəcər) Khachmaz (Xaçmaz) Khankendi (Xankəndi) Khizi (Xızı) Khojali (Xocalı) Khojavend (Xocavənd) Kurdamir (Kürdəmir) Lachin (Laçın) Lankaran (Lənkəran) Lankaran (Lənkəran) Lerik Masally (Masallı) Mingachevir (Mingəçevir) Naftalan Neftchala (Neftçala) Oghuz (Oğuz) Qabala (Qəbələ) Qakh (Qax) Qazakh (Qazax) Quba Qubadli (Qubadlı) Qusar Saatly (Saatlı) Sabirabad Salyan Samukh (Samux) Shaki (Şəki) Shaki (Şəki) Shamakhi (Şamaxı) Shamkir (Şəmkir) Shirvan (Şirvan) Shusha (Şuşa) Shusha (Şuşa) Siazan (Siyəzən) Sumqayit (Sumqayıt) Tartar (Tərtər) Tovuz Ujar (Ucar) Yardymli (Yardımlı) Yevlakh (Yevlax) Yevlakh (Yevlax) Zangilan (Zəngilan) Zaqatala Zardab (Zərdab) In Nakhchivan Babek (Babək) Julfa (Culfa) Kangarli (Kəngərli) Nakhchivan (Naxçıvan) Ordubad Sadarak (Sədərək) Shakhbuz (Şahbuz) Sharur (Şərur) Note: City districts in italics. Major cities Below are the 20 most populous cities of Azerbaijan: Government and politics Azerbaijani Government House in downtown Baku. Baku City Council Building (the Parliament House of Azerbaijan Democratic Republic in 1918-1920) Ilham Aliyev, the current president of Azerbaijan The structural formation of Azerbaijan's political system was completed by the adoption of the new Constitution on 12 November 1995. According to the Article 23 of Constitution, the state symbols of the Azerbaijan Republic are the flag, the coat of arms and the national anthem. The state power in Azerbaijan is limited only by law for internal issues, but for international affairs is additionally limited by the provisions of international agreements. The government of Azerbaijan is based on the separation of powers among the legislative, executive and judicial branches. The legislative power is held by the unicameral National Assembly and the Supreme National Assembly in the Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic. Parliamentary elections are held every five years, on the first Sunday of November. The accuracy of the election results is checked and confirmed by the Constitutional Court. The laws enacted by the National Assembly, unless specified otherwise, go into effect on the day of their publication. The executive power is held by the President, who is elected for a 5-year term by direct elections. The president is authorized to form the Cabinet, an inferior executive body, subordinated to him. The Cabinet of Azerbaijan consists primarily of the Prime Minister, his Deputies and Ministers. The president does not have the right to dissolve the National Assembly, but he has the right to veto its decisions. To override the presidential veto, the parliament must have a majority of 95 votes. The judicial power is vested in the Constitutional Court, Supreme Court and the Economic Court. The President nominates the judges in these courts. The Security Council is the deliberative body under the president, and he organizes it according to the Constitution. It was established on 10 April 1997. The administrative department is not a part of the president's office but manages the financial, technical and pecuniary activities of both the president and his office. Foreign relations Azerbaijani peacekeepers during the Iraq War. The short-lived Azerbaijan Democratic Republic succeeded in establishing diplomatic relations with six countries, sending diplomatic representatives to Germany and Finland. The process of international recognition of Azerbaijan's independence from the collapsing Soviet Union lasted roughly one year. The most recent country to recognize Azerbaijan was Bahrain, on 6 November 1996. Full diplomatic relations, including mutual exchanges of missions, were first established with Turkey, Pakistan, the United States and Iran. Azerbaijan has diplomatic relations with 158 countries so far and holds membership in 38 international organizations. It holds observer status in the Non-Aligned Movement and World Trade Organization and is a correspondent at the International Telecommunication Union. The Azerbaijani diaspora is found in 36 countries, and in turn there are dozens of centers for ethnic minorities inside Azerbaijan, including the (German cultural society "Karelhaus", Slavic cultural center, Azerbaijani-Israeli community, Kurdish cultural center, International Talysh Association, Lezgin national center "Samur", Azerbaijani-Tatar community, Crimean Tatars society, etc.). On 9 May 2006 Azerbaijan was elected to membership in the newly established Human Rights Council by the United Nations General Assembly. The term of office began on 19 June 2006. Foreign policy priorities of Azerbaijan include: first of all, the restoration of its territorial integrity; elimination of the consequences of the loss of Nagorno-Karabakh and seven other regions of Azerbaijan; development of good-neighbourly and mutually advantageous relations with neighbouring countries; promotion of security and stability in the region; integration into European and Transatlantic security and cooperation structures; and promotion of transregional economic, energy and transportation projects. The Azeri Government, in late 2007, stated that the long-standing dispute over the Armenian-occupied territory of Nagorno-Karabakh is almost certain to spark a new war if it remains unresolved. The Government is in the process of increasing its military budget, as its oil and gas revenues bring a torrent of cash into its coffers. Furthermore, economic sanctions by Turkey to the west and by Azerbaijan itself to the east have combined to greatly erode Armenia's economy, leading to steep increases in prices for basic commodities and a great decline in the Armenian state revenues. Azerbaijan is an active member of international coalitions fighting international terrorism. The country is contributing to peacekeeping efforts in Kosovo, Afghanistan and Iraq. Azerbaijan is an active member of NATO's “Partnership for Peace” program. It also maintains good relations with the European Union and could potentially one day apply for membership. In 2008, a plot was foiled to bomb the Israeli Embassy in Baku, which is located in a high-rise building along with the Thai and Japanese embassies. Two Hizbullah terrorists went on trial for the attempt in May 2009. http://www.israelnationalnews.com/News/News.aspx/131627 Local police narrowly averted the potential disaster, which involved placing three or four car bombs around the high-rise complex to carry out the attack. Terrorists planned the bombing in retaliation for the 2008 assassination in Damascus, Syria of Hizbullah's second in command, Imad Mughniyah, which the Lebanese terrorist group blamed on Israel. News reports suggested Iran was involved in the plan as well. http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-shadow30-2009may30,0,2242157.story Military The history of the modern Azerbaijan army dates back to Azerbaijan Democratic Republic in 1918, when the National Army of the newly formed Azerbaijan Democratic Republic was created on 26 June 1918. Azerbaijan: Short History of Statehood, Embassy of Republic of Azerbaijan in Pakistan, 2005, Chapter 3 Creation of National Army in 1918 When Azerbaijan gained independence after the collapse of the Soviet Union, the Armed Forces of the Republic of Azerbaijan were created according to the Law on the Armed Forces of 9 October 1991. Law of the Republic of Azerbaijan on Armed Forces, No. 210-XII, 9 October 1991 The original date of the establishment of the short-lived National Army is celebrated as Army Day (26 June) in today's Azerbaijan. Azerbaijan's Army Day (26 June) declared by Presidential Decree of 22 May 1998. Initially, the equipment and facilities of Azerbaijan's army were those of the Soviet Fourth Army. The Armed Forces have four branches: Land Forces, Air Force and Air Defence Force (a united branch), Navy and Peacekeeping Forces. Besides the Armed Forces there are several military sub-groups that can be involved in state defence when needed. These are the Interior Troops of the Ministry of Internal Affairs and forces of the State Border Service, which includes the Coast Guard as well. The Azerbaijan National Guard is the first component of the Azerbaijan Army. It operates as a semi-independent entity of the Azerbaijan Defense Department. Azerbaijan adheres to the Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe and has signed all major international arms and weapons treaties. Azerbaijan closely cooperates with NATO in programs such as Partnership for Peace and Individual Partnership Action Plan. Azerbaijan has deployed 151 of its Peacekeeping Forces in Iraq and another 100 in Afghanistan. The military expenditures of Azerbaijan for 2009 are set at $2.46 billion USD. Azerbaijan has its own Defense Industry, which manufactures small arms, artillery systems, tanks, armors and noctovision devices, aviation bombs, pilotless vehicles, various military vehicles and military planes and helicopters. Azerbaijan's Armed Forces have a training cooperation partnership with the Oklahoma Army National Guard. Economy After gaining independence in 1991, Azerbaijan became a member of the International Monetary Fund, the World Bank, the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, the Islamic Development Bank and the Asian Development Bank. The banking system of Azerbaijan consists of the National Bank of Azerbaijan, commercial banks and non-banking credit organizations. The National Bank was created in 1992 based on the Azerbaijan State Savings Bank, an affiliate of the former State Savings Bank of the USSR. The National Bank serves as Azerbaijan's central bank, empowered to issue the national currency, the Azerbaijani manat, and to supervise all commercial banks. Two major commercial banks are the state-owned International Bank of Azerbaijan and the United Universal Joint-Stock Bank. Azneft Square in downtown Baku, named after historical "Azneft" ("AzOil") trust. The National Bank building amid Heydar Aliyev Square in downtown Baku. Pushed up by spending and demand growth, the 2007 Q1 inflation rate reached 16.6%. Nominal incomes and monthly wages climbed 29% and 25% respectively against this figure, but price increases in non-oil industry encouraged inflation in the country. Azerbaijan shows some signs of the so-called "Dutch disease" because of the fast growing energy sector, which causes inflation and makes non-energy exports more expensive. Two thirds of Azerbaijan is rich in oil and natural gas. The region of the Lesser Caucasus accounts for most of the country's gold, silver, iron, copper, titanium, chromium, manganese, cobalt, molybdenum, complex ore and antimony. In September 1994, a 30-year contract was signed between the State Oil Company of Azerbaijan Republic (SOCAR) and 13 oil companies, among them Amoco, BP, Exxon, LUKoil and Statoil. As Western oil companies are able to tap deepwater oilfields untouched by the Soviet exploitation, Azerbaijan is considered one of the most important spots in the world for oil exploration and development. Meanwhile the State Oil Fund was established as an extra-budgetary fund to ensure the macroeconomic stability, transparency in the management of oil revenue, and the safeguarding of resources for future generations. At the beginning of 2007 there were 4,755,100 hectares of utilized agricultural area. In the same year the total wood resources counted 136 million m³. Azerbaijan's agricultural scientific research institutes are focused on meadows and pastures, horticulture and subtropical crops, green vegetables, viticulture and wine-making, cotton growing and medicinal plants. In some lands it is profitable to grow grain, potatoes, sugar beets, cotton and tobacco. The Caspian fishing industry is concentrated on the dwindling stocks of sturgeon and beluga. In 2002 the Azerbaijani merchant marine had 54 ships. Some portions of most products that were previously imported from abroad have begun to be produced locally (among them are Coca Cola by Coca Cola Bottlers LTD, beer by Baki-Kastel, parquet by Nehir and oil pipes by EUPEC Pipe Coating Azerbaijan). Detail of the façade of the historical Ismailiyya building. Azerbaijan is also an important economic hub in the transportation of raw materials. The Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan pipeline (BTC) became operational in May 2006 and extends more than 1,774 kilometers through the territories of Azerbaijan (440 km), Georgia (260 km) and Turkey (1114 km). The BTC is designed to transport up to 50 million tons of crude oil annually and carries oil from the Caspian Sea oilfields to global markets. The South Caucasus Pipeline, also stretching through the territory of Azerbaijan, Georgia and Turkey, became operational at the end of 2006 and offers additional gas supplies to the European market from the Shah Deniz gas field. It is expected to produce up to 296 billion cubic metres of natural gas per year. Azerbaijan also plays a major role in the EU-sponsored Silk Road Project. In 2008, Azerbaijan was cited as one of the top 10 reformers by the World Bank's Doing Business report: Transportation and communications Yacht Club in Baku Bay. In 2002 Azerbaijan led the way in per capita mobile phone use within the CIS. Public pay phones are available for local calls and require a purchase token from the telephone exchange or some shops and kiosks. Tokens allow a call of indefinite duration. As of 2005, there were 1,091,400 main telephone lines and 1,036,000 internet users. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/aj.html#Comm CIA World Factbook, Azerbaijan Internet users: 1.036 million There are three GSM: Azerfon (NarMobile), Bakcell and Azercell mobile network operators and one CDMA. Broad gauge railways in 2005 stretched for 2,957 km and electrified railways numbered 1,278 km. By 2006, there were 36 airports and one heliport. Demographics Ethnic composition (1999) Results of population censuses in Azerbaijan for 1979, 1989, and 1999. Azerbaijani90.6%Lezgins2.2%Russians1.8%Armenians1.5%Talysh1.0%Turks0.6%Other nations2.3% From the total population of about 8 million people as of April 2006, there were 4,380,000 (nearly 51%) city dwellers and a rural population of 4,060,000 (49%). 51% of the total population were female. The sex ratio for total population in that year was therefore 0.94 males per female. The 2006 population growth rate was 0.66%, compared to 1.14% worldwide. A significant factor restricting the population growth is rather a high level of migration. In 2005, for instance, 1,342 men and 1,564 women left the country due to labour migration. In 2006 Azerbaijan saw migration of -4.38/1,000 persons. The highest morbidity in 2005 was from respiratory diseases (806.9 diseases per 10,000 of total population). In 2005, the highest morbidity for infectious and parasitic diseases was noted among influenza and acute respiratory infections (4168,2 per 100,000 population). 2007 estimate for total life expectancy is 66 years, 70.7 years for women and 61.9 for men. The ethnic composition of the population according to the 1999 population census: 90.6% Azeris, 2.2% Lezgins, 1.8% Russians, 1.5% Armenians (Almost all live in the break-away region of Nagorno-Karabakh), 1.0% Talysh (disputed as too low by Talysh nationalists), Disputed number of Talysh in Azerbaijan Reasons for the dispute around the number of Talysh in Azerbaijan: One Europe, Many Nations: A Historical Dictionary of European National Groups, by James Minahan, Greenwood, 2000, ISBN 0313309841, ISBN 9780313309847, p. 674 (viewable on Google Books) 0.6% Avars, 0.5% Turks, 0.4% Tatars, 0.4% Ukrainians, 0.2% Tsakhur, 0.2% Georgians, 0.13% Kurds, 0.13% Tats, 0.1% Jews, 0.05% Udins, other 0.2%. Although Azerbaijani (also called Azeri) is the most widely spoken language in the country, there are 13 other languages spoken natively in the country. Some of these languages are very small communities, others are more vital. Clifton, John M., editor. 2002 (vol 1.), 2003 (vol. 2). Studies in languages of Azerbaijan. Baku, Azerbaijan and Saint Petersburg, Russia: Institute of International Relations, Academy of Sciences of Azerbaijan and North Eurasian Group, SIL International. Azerbaijani is a Turkic language which belongs to the Altaic family and is mutually intelligible with Turkish. The language is written with a modified Latin alphabet today, but was earlier written in the Arabic alphabet (until 1929), in the Uniform Turkic Alphabet (1929-1939), and in the Cyrillic alphabet (1939-1991). Hatcher, Lynley. 2008. Script change in Azerbaijan: acts of identity. International Journal of the Sociology of Language 192:105-116. The changes in alphabet have been largely molded by religious and political forces. The Statue of a Liberated Woman (depicting a woman taking off her veil) in downtown Baku dedicated to the emancipation of Azerbaijani Muslim women in 1919. Religion The religions of Azerbaijan comprise different religious trends spread among the people and ethnic groups residing in the country. There are several confessions in Azerbaijan. Azerbaijan is a secular state, and article 48 of its Constitution ensures the liberty of worship to everyone. Everyone has a right to choose any faith, to adopt any religion or to not practice any religion, to express one's view on the religion and to spread it. Freedom of religion is guaranteed by the Constitution. According to official figures, between 93.4% and 96% of the population is Muslim, of which 85% are Shia and 15% Sunni . Christians comprise 3% to 4% of the population, of whom most are Russian and Armenian Orthodox. In 2003 there were 250 Roman Catholics. Other Christian denominations as of 2002 include Lutherans, Baptists and Molokans. There are also Jewish, Bahá'í, Hare Krishna and Jehovah's Witnesses communities, as well as adherents of the Nehemiah Church, Star in the East Church and the Cathedral of Praise Church. Zoroastrianism had a long history in Azerbaijan, evident in sites such as the Fire Temple of Baku, and along with Manichean. It is estimated that the Zoroastrian community of Azerbaijan numbers around 2,000. Culture Azerbaijani dancers performing Yalli dance during Mugham Festival in Shaki, Azerbaijan. Philharmonic Hall of Baku. Nizami Museum of Azerbaijan Literature at night in Baku, Azerbaijan. Elnur & Samir at Belgrade (2008). State Museum of Art in Baku. Azerbaijani culture has developed as a result of many influences. Today, Western influences, including globalized consumer culture, are strong. Azerbaijan folk consists of Azerbaijanis, the representative part of society, as well as of nations and ethnic groups, compactly living in various areas of the country. Azerbaijani national and traditional dresses are the Chokha and Papakhi. There are radio broadcasts in Russian, Armenian, Georgian, Kurdish, Lezgin and Talysh languages, which are financed from the state budget. Some local radio stations in Balakən and Xaçmaz organize broadcasts in Avar and Tat. In Baku several newspapers are published in Russian, Kurdish (Dengi Kurd), Lezgin (Samur) and Talysh languages. Jewish society "Sokhnut" publishes the newspaper Aziz. According to The Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians "In terms of ethnicity, culture, religion and politics the Azeri are musically much closer to Iran than Turkey." The classical music of Azerbaijan is called mugam (more accurately spelled muğam), and is usually a suite with poetry and instrumental interludes. The sung poetry sometimes includes tahrir segments, which use a form of throat singing similar to yodelling. The poetry is typically about divine love and is most often linked to Sufi Islam. In contrast to the mugam traditions of Central Asian countries, Azeri mugam is more free-form and less rigid; it is often compared to the improvised field of jazz. UNESCO proclaimed the Azerbaijani mugam tradition a Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity on 7 November 2003. Meykhana and Mugham are one of the many musical traditions of Azerbaijan. During Mugam, the singers have to transform their emotions into singing and music. Mugham singer Alim Qasimov is revered as one of the five best singers of all time. "Alim Qasimov: the living legend you’ve never heard of" on timesonline.co.uk Meykhana is a kind of traditional Azeri distinctive folk unaccompanied song, usually performed by several people improvising on a particular subject. Among national musical instruments there are fourteen string instruments, eight percussion instruments and six wind instruments. Azerbaijan made its debut appearance at the Eurovision Song Contest 2008, and placed 8th among 43 contestants. Entrance to the Palace of Shaki Khans in Shaki. Azerbaijani architecture typically combines elements of East and West. Many ancient architectural treasures such as the Maiden Tower and Palace of the Shirvanshahs in the Walled City of Baku survive in modern Azerbaijan. Entries submitted on the UNESCO World Heritage tentative list include the Gobustan State Reserve, the Fire Temple of Baku, the Momine Khatun Mausoleum and the Khan Palace in Sheki. Among other medieval architectural treasures reflecting the influence of several schools are the Shirvan Shahs' palace in Baku, the palace of the Shaki Khan's in the town of Shaki in north-central Azerbaijan, the Surakhany Temple on the Absheron Peninsula, a number of bridges spanning the Aras River, and several mausoleums. In the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, little monumental architecture was created, but distinctive residences were built in Baku and elsewhere. Among the most recent architectural monuments, the Baku subways are noted for their lavish decor. Azerbaijani cuisine is an important part of the country's culture. Climatic diversity and fertility of the land are reflected in the national dishes, which are based on fish from the Caspian Sea, local meat (mainly mutton and beef), and an abundance of seasonal vegetables and greens. Saffron-rice plov is the flagship food in Azerbaijan and black tea is the national beverage. References External links Wikipedia Azerbaijani language edition of Wikipedia Government Global Integrity Report: Azerbaijan has information on anti-corruption efforts State Statistical Committee of Azerbaijan Chief of State and Cabinet Members United Nations Office in Azerbaijan General information All about Azerbaijan Country Profile from BBC News Azerbaijan at UCB Libraries GovPubs Other Azerbaijan International magazine be-x-old:Азэрбайджан | Azerbaijan |@lemmatized azerbaijan:149 pronounce:1 formally:1 republic:26 country:26 caucasus:13 region:15 eurasia:2 locate:4 crossroad:1 western:4 asia:8 eastern:4 europe:7 may:6 consider:3 un:1 classification:1 world:18 place:6 cia:4 factbook:4 national:24 geographic:1 encyclopædia:1 britannica:2 also:10 georgia:6 conversely:1 numerous:3 source:2 bbc:2 oxford:1 reference:2 online:3 merriam:1 webster:1 collegiate:1 dictionary:5 www:8 worldatlas:1 com:5 bound:2 caspian:9 sea:7 east:8 russia:8 north:7 northwest:2 armenia:7 west:6 iran:7 south:5 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5,264 | James_Bond | James Bond 007 is a fictional character created in 1953 by writer Ian Fleming, who featured him in twelve novels and two short story collections. Understanding 007. Retrieved 6 June 2007. The character has also been used in the longest running and most financially successful English language film franchise to date, starting in 1962 with Dr. No. Agent James Bond 007 - Quantum of Solace After Fleming's death in 1964, subsequent James Bond novels were written by Kingsley Amis (as Robert Markham), John Pearson, John Gardner, Raymond Benson and Sebastian Faulks. Moreover, Christopher Wood novelised two screenplays, Charlie Higson wrote a series on a young James Bond while other writers have authored unofficial versions of the character. There have been 22 films in the EON Productions series to date, the most recent of which, Quantum of Solace, was released on 31 October 2008 (UK). In addition there has been an American television adaptation and two independent feature productions. Apart from movies and television, James Bond has also been adapted for many other media, including radio plays, comic strips and video games. The EON Productions films are generally termed as "official" films originating with the purchase of the James Bond film rights by producer Harry Saltzman in the late 1950s. Creation and inspiration Sidney Reilly, The Ace of Spies, is often considered the archetypal muse for Bond. Commander Sir James Bond, (KCMG, RNVR) is an officer of the British Secret Intelligence Service (SIS) (more commonly, MI6). He was created in January 1952 by British journalist Ian Fleming while on holiday at his Jamaican estate, Goldeneye. The hero, James Bond, was named after an American ornithologist, a Caribbean bird expert and author of the definitive field guide book Birds of the West Indies. Fleming, a keen birdwatcher, had a copy of Bond's field guide at Goldeneye. Of the name, Fleming once said in a Reader's Digest interview, "I wanted the simplest, dullest, plainest-sounding name I could find, 'James Bond' was much better than something more interesting, like 'Peregrine Carruthers.' Exotic things would happen to and around him, but he would be a neutral figure — an anonymous, blunt instrument wielded by a government department." Nevertheless, news sources speculated about real spies or other covert agents after whom James Bond might have been modeled or named, such as Sidney Reilly or William Stephenson, best-known by his wartime intelligence codename of Intrepid. Although they are similar to Bond, Fleming confirmed none as the source figure, nor did Ian Fleming Publications nor any of Fleming's biographers, such as John Pearson or Andrew Lycett. James Bond's parents are Andrew Bond, a Scotsman, and Monique Delacroix, from Canton de Vaud, Switzerland. Their nationalities were established in On Her Majesty's Secret Service. Fleming emphasised Bond's Scottish heritage in admiration of Sean Connery's cinematic portrayal, whereas Bond's mother is named after a Swiss fiancée of Fleming's. A planned, but unwritten, novel would have portrayed Bond's mother as a Scot. Ian Fleming was a member of a prominent Scottish banking family. In his fictional biography of secret agent 007, John Pearson gave Bond's birth date as 11 November (Armistice Day) 1920 (The beginning of the film "For Your Eyes Only" gives his wife's birth date as 1943. This seemingly assumes Bond to be younger than Pearson claimed). There is a reference to Bond's age in Fleming's You Only Live Twice, when Tanaka tells him he was born in the Year of the Rat (1924/25 or even 1912/13). In the novel On Her Majesty's Secret Service, Bond's family motto is found to be "Orbis non sufficit" ("The world is not enough"). The novel also states that the family that used this motto may not necessarily be the same Bond family from which James Bond came. Hoagy Carmichael—another James Bond model. After completing the manuscript for Casino Royale, Fleming allowed his friend, later his editor, poet William Plomer to read it. Plomer liked it and submitted it to Jonathan Cape, who did not like it as much. Cape finally published it in 1953 on the recommendation of Fleming's older brother Peter, an established travel writer. Most researchers agree that James Bond is a romanticised version of Ian Fleming, himself a jet-setting womanizer. Both Fleming and Bond attended the same schools, preferred the same foods (scrambled eggs, and coffee), maintained the same habits (drinking, smoking, wearing short-sleeve shirts{?}), shared the same notions of the perfect woman in looks and style, and had similar naval career paths (both rising to the rank of naval Commander). They also shared similar height, hairstyle, and eye colour. Some suggest that Bond's suave and sophisticated persona is based on that of a young Hoagy Carmichael. In Casino Royale, the heroine Vesper Lynd remarks, "Bond reminds me rather of Hoagy Carmichael, but there is something cold and ruthless." Likewise, in Moonraker, Special Branch Officer Gala Brand thinks that Bond is "certainly good-looking . . . Rather like Hoagy Carmichael in a way. That black hair falling down over the right eyebrow. Much the same bones. But there was something a bit cruel in the mouth, and the eyes were cold." Fleming did admit to being partly inspired by his service in the Naval Intelligence Division of the Admiralty, most notably an incident depicted in Casino Royale, when Fleming and Naval Intelligence Director Admiral Godfrey went on a mission to Lisbon en route to the United States during World War II. At the Estoril Casino, which harboured spies of warring regimes due to Portugal's neutrality, Fleming was 'cleaned out' by a "chief German agent" in a game of Chemin de Fer. Admiral Godfrey's account differs in that Fleming played Portuguese businessmen, whom Fleming fantasised as German agents he defeated at cards. Moreover, references to "Red Indians" in Casino Royale (four times; twice in the final page) are to his own 30 Assault Unit. Novels and related works In February 1952, Ian Fleming began writing his first James Bond novel. At the time, Fleming was the foreign manager for Kemsley Newspapers, owners of The Daily Express in London. Upon accepting the job, Fleming asked for two months' yearly vacation in his contract—time spent writing in Jamaica. Between 1953 and his death in 1964, Fleming published twelve novels and one short-story collection (a second collection was published posthumously). Later, continuation novels were written by Kingsley Amis (as Robert Markham), John Gardner, Charlie Higson, Raymond Benson, who was the first American author of James Bond. The Young Bond series of novels was begun in 2005, by Charlie Higson. In July 2007, it was announced that Sebastian Faulks has been commissioned to write a new Bond novel to commemorate Fleming's 100th Birthday. The book - titled Devil May Care - was published on 27 May 2008. Ian Fleming novels 1953 Casino Royale 1954 Live and Let Die 1955 Moonraker 1956 Diamonds Are Forever 1957 From Russia with Love 1958 Dr. No 1959 Goldfinger 1960 For Your Eyes Only - short stories 1961 Thunderball 1962 The Spy Who Loved Me 1963 On Her Majesty's Secret Service 1964 You Only Live Twice 1965 The Man with the Golden Gun 1966 Octopussy and The Living Daylights - short stories Adaptations Films Overview In the late 1950s, EON Productions guaranteed the film adaptation rights for every 007 novel except for Casino Royale (those rights were recovered in 1999 ). In 1962, the first adaptation was made with Dr. No, which starred Sean Connery as 007. Connery starred in 6 more films after his initial portrayal (including 1983's Never Say Never Again, which was not part of the EON series). George Lazenby replaced Connery (for 1 film) before the latter's last EON film, after which the part was played by Roger Moore (for 7 films), Timothy Dalton (for 2 films), Pierce Brosnan (for 4 films) and Daniel Craig (2 films to date). As of 2008, there have been 22 films in the EON series. The 21st film, Casino Royale, with Daniel Craig as James Bond, premiered on 14 November 2006, with the film going on general release in Asia and the Middle East the following day. Notably, it is the first Bond film to be released in China. The second James Bond film to feature Daniel Craig is Quantum of Solace, which gets its title from a short story of the same name by Ian Fleming (For Your Eyes Only, 1960), but shares no similarities with the plot. Daniel Craig is expected to return as James Bond for a third movie in the as yet unnamed "Bond 23." "Bond's late arrival in China" - BBC News. Retrieved 23 April 2007. The film series has grossed over $4 billion (£2 Billion) (nearly $11 billion when adjusted for inflation) worldwide, making it the highest grossing film series ever. The 22nd and newest movie in the series, Quantum of Solace, was released in the UK on 31 October 2008. As of 9 November 2008, global box office totals for Quantum of Solace were almost $161 million (£ 103 million), placing the Bond series ahead of the Harry Potter film series even when not adjusting for inflation. Quantum of Solace (2008) - International Box Office Results The EON films Franchise CountTitleYearActorDirectorTotal Box OfficeBudgetInflation Adjusted Total Box Office**1Dr. No1962Sean ConneryTerence Young$59,600,000$1,200,000$425,488,7412From Russia with Love1963$78,900,000$2,500,000$555,909,8033Goldfinger1964Guy Hamilton$124,900,000$3,500,000$868,659,3544Thunderball1965Terence Young$141,200,000$11,000,000$966,435,5555You Only Live Twice1967Lewis Gilbert$111,600,000$9,500,000$720,388,0236On Her Majesty's Secret Service1969George LazenbyPeter R. Hunt$87,400,000$7,000,000$513,445,2317Diamonds Are Forever1971Sean ConneryGuy Hamilton$116,000,000$7,200,000$617,520,987 8Live and Let Die1973Roger Moore$161,800,000$12,000,000$785,677,4779The Man with the Golden Gun1974$97,600,000$13,000,000$426,826,774 10The Spy Who Loved Me1977Lewis Gilbert$187,300,000$28,000,000$666,367,65611Moonraker1979$210,300,000$34,000,000$624,527,27212For Your Eyes Only1981John Glen$202,800,000$28,000,000$481,005,57913Octopussy1983$187,500,000$27,500,000$405,873,49314A View to a Kill1985$157,800,000$30,000,000$316,186,61615The Living Daylights1987Timothy Dalton$191,200,000$40,000,000$362,876,05616Licence to Kill1989$156,200,000$42,000,000$271,586,45117GoldenEye1995Pierce BrosnanMartin Campbell$353,400,000$60,000,000$499,954,33018Tomorrow Never Dies1997Roger Spottiswoode$346,600,000$110,000,000$465,588,53519The World Is Not Enough1999Michael Apted$390,000,000$135,000,000$504,705,88220Die Another Day2002Lee Tamahori$456,000,000$142,000,000$546,490,27221Casino Royale2006Daniel CraigMartin Campbell$599,200,000$150,000,000$640,803,67722Quantum of Solace 2008Marc Forster$515,588,687$230,000,000$515,588,687TotalsFilms 1-22$4,739,157,447$1,123,000,000$11,615,711,960 </center> * Figure as of 6 May 2007 (source - commanderbond.net). ** Figures are inflated to 2008 dollars as of 24 March 2008 figures based on the Consumer Price Index. *** All figures are in US Dollars Bond franchise Box Office numbers, , Casino Royale Box Office numbers (1967), Box Office numbers + Inflation Non-EON films, radio and television programmes In 1954, CBS paid Ian Fleming for the rights to adapt Casino Royale into a one hour television adventure as part of their Climax! series. However, Barry Nelson played a CIA agent named Jimmy Bond, Clarence Lieter was a British agent played by Michael Pate and Peter Lorre was Le Chiffre. In 1956, Bob Holness starred in a South African radio adaptation of Moonraker, making him the second actor to portray James Bond. According to Andrew Pixley's notes to Danger Man Original soundtrack, Ian Fleming collaborated with Ralph Smart to bring James Bond to television, but dropped out taking his creation with him. Ralph Smart went on to develop Danger Man with Patrick McGoohan who would later turn down James Bond. In 1967, Casino Royale was adapted into a spoof Bond film starring David Niven as Sir James Bond 007 and Ursula Andress as Vesper Lynd. David Niven, had, in fact, been Ian Fleming's preference for the part of James Bond. EON Productions, however, chose Sean Connery. David Niven is the only James Bond actor who is mentioned by name in the text of two of Fleming's James Bond novels. In On Her Majesty's Secret Service, Bond visits an exclusive ski resort and is told that David Niven is a frequent visitor and in You Only Live Twice Kissy Suzuki mentions him as the only man who had been kind to her in her brief foray to Hollywood. Ursula Andress is also mentioned in the text of On Her Majesty's Secret Service as being present at the ski resort. The 1973 BBC documentary Omnibus: The British Hero featured Christopher Cazenove playing a number of such title characters (e.g. Richard Hannay and Bulldog Drummond), including James Bond in dramatised scenes from Goldfinger - notably featuring the hero being threatened with the novel's circular saw, rather than the film's laser beam - and Diamonds Are Forever. Radio Times, 6-12 October 1973, pages 74-79 A legal loophole allowed Kevin McClory to release a remake of Thunderball titled Never Say Never Again in 1983. The film, featuring Sean Connery as Bond, is not considered an "official" James Bond film because it is not part of the Bond film franchise from EON Productions and United Artists, although it is currently owned by United Artists parent MGM. Its original theatrical release in October 1983 actually created a situation in which two Bond movies were playing in theaters at the same time, as the "official" EON Bond film, Octopussy was still playing in theaters. Since then, MGM has bought the name "James Bond", preventing a repeat of this episode. YearTitleTypeActorTotal Box OfficeBudgetInflation Adjusted Total Box Office**1954Casino RoyaleTV EpisodeBarry Nelsonn/a$25,000n/a1956MoonrakerRadioBob Holnessn/an/a1967Casino RoyaleFilmDavid Niven$44,400,000$12,000,000$286,605,9871983Never Say Never AgainFilmSean Connery$160,000,000$36,000,000$346,345,3801990You Only Live TwiceRadioMichael Jaystonn/an/a1991James Bond Jr.TV cartoon seriesCorey Burtonn/an/a2008Dr. NoRadioToby Stephensn/an/aTotals$204,400,000$48,000,000$602,860,000 </center> Actors Cultural impact Statues of Bond actors Pierce Brosnan and Sean Connery at Madame Tussauds. James Bond has long been a household name and remains a huge influence within the genre. The Austin Powers series by writer, producer and comedian Mike Myers, and other parodies such as Johnny English (2003), Bons baisers de Hong Kong, OK Connery, the "Flint" series starring James Coburn as Derek Flint, the "Matt Helm" movies starring Dean Martin, and Casino Royale (1967) are testaments to Bond's prominence in popular culture. The Bond series also received many homages and parodies in popular media. The 1960s TV imitations of James Bond such as I Spy, Get Smart,Charles Vine, Matt Helm and The Man from U.N.C.L.E. went on to become popular successes in their own right, the last having enjoyed contributions by Fleming towards its creation: the show's lead character, "Napoleon Solo," was named after a character in Fleming's novel Goldfinger; Fleming also suggested the character name April Dancer, which was later used in the spin-off series The Girl from U.N.C.L.E.. A reunion television movie, The Return of the Man from U.N.C.L.E. (1983), is notable for featuring a cameo by George Lazenby as James Bond in tribute to Fleming (for legal reasons, the character was credited as "JB"). George Lucas has said on various occasions that Sean Connery's portrayal of Bond was one of the primary inspirations for the Indiana Jones character, a reason Connery was chosen for the role of Indiana's father in the third film of that series. Music The "James Bond Theme" was written by Monty Norman and was first orchestrated by the John Barry Orchestra for 1962's Dr. No, although the actual authorship of the music has been a matter of controversy for many years. In 2001, Norman won £30,000 in libel damages from the British paper The Sunday Times, which suggested that Barry was entirely responsible for the composition. Barry did go on to compose the scores for eleven Bond films in addition to his uncredited contribution to Dr. No, and is credited with the creation of "007," used as an alternate Bond theme in several films, as well as the popular orchestrated theme "On Her Majesty's Secret Service." Both the "James Bond Theme" and "On Her Majesty's Secret Service" have been remixed a number of times by popular artists, including Art of Noise, Moby, Paul Oakenfold, and the Propellerheads. The Beatles used a portion of the "Bond theme" in the introduction of their song "Help" as released on the American version of the "Help" LP. The British/Australian string quartet also named bond (purposely in lower case) recorded their own version of the theme, entitled "Bond on Bond." Barry's legacy was followed by David Arnold, in addition to other well-known composers such as Chris Minear and Corbin Ott and record producers such as George Martin, Bill Conti, Michael Kamen, Marvin Hamlisch and Éric Serra. Arnold is the series' current composer of choice and composed the score for the 22nd Bond film, Quantum of Solace. A Bond film staple are the theme songs heard during their title sequences sung by well-known popular singers (which have included Tina Turner, Paul McCartney and Wings, Sheryl Crow and Tom Jones, among many others). Shirley Bassey performed three themes in total. After Doctor No, On Her Majesty's Secret Service is the only Bond film with a solely instrumental theme, though Louis Armstrong's ballad "We Have All the Time in the World," which serves as Bond and his wife Tracy's love song and whose title is Bond's last line in the film, is considered the unofficial theme. Likewise, although the credit sequence to From Russia with Love features an instrumental version of the film's theme, another version, with lyrics sung by Matt Monro, can be partially heard within the film itself, and is featured on the film's soundtrack album. The themes usually share their names with their film. A large reason for the turning down of Mr. Kiss Kiss Bang Bang for Thunderball was that it was not named after the movie. "Nobody Does It Better", the theme for The Spy Who Loved Me , was the first Bond theme not to share its title with that of the movie, although the words "the spy who loved me" do appear in the lyrics. The song is featured in both credit sequences of the film, and in orchestral form throughout. "Nobody Does It Better" was nominated for an Academy Award for "Best Original Song" of 1977, but lost to the theme song to You Light Up My Life. Hamlisch's score for the film was also nominated for an "Oscar", but lost to John Williams' score for Star Wars. The only other Bond themes to be nominated for an Academy Award for best song are "Live and Let Die", written by Paul and Linda McCartney and performed by their group Wings, and "For Your Eyes Only", written by Bill Conti and Michael Leeson and performed by Sheena Easton, though a few of John Barry's scores have been nominated. The only Bond theme to reach number one on the pop charts in the US was Duran Duran's "A View to a Kill." The only singer, to date, to appear within a title sequence is Sheena Easton during For Your Eyes Only. The only singer of a title song to appear as a character within the film itself, to date, is Madonna, who appeared (uncredited) as fencing instructor Verity, as well as contributing the theme for Die Another Day. The title sequence in Die Another Day is notable, however, for being the only one in which the visuals actually serve to further the plot of the film itself, as opposed to being merely a montage or collage of abstract images related to the film or to the larger James Bond mythos. The latest theme song is Alicia Keys and Jack White's "Another Way to Die", from Quantum of Solace, the first James Bond theme song to be a duet. It is also the fourth Bond movie that doesn't have the name of the movie in its lyrics. In 1998, Barry's music from You Only Live Twice was adapted into the hit song Millennium by producer and composer Guy Chambers for British recording artist Robbie Williams. The music video features Williams parodying James Bond, and references other Bond films such as Thunderball and From Russia With Love. It should also be noted that the video was filmed at Pinewood Studios, where most of the Bond films have been made. In 2004 the Cavaliers Drum and Bugle Corps won the Drum Corps International World Championship with "007," using the music of James Bond as composed by David Arnold. The Cavaliers performed selections from GoldenEye, Die Another Day ("Hovercraft Theme" and "Welcome to Cuba"), and Tomorrow Never Dies. Burt Bacharach's score for 1967's Casino Royale included "The Look Of Love", nominated for an Academy Award for Best Song, has become a standard for its era, with the biggest-selling version recorded by Sergio Mendes and Brasil '66 (#4 on the Billboard pop charts in 1968). It was heard again in the first Austin Powers film, which was to a degree inspired by Casino Royale. Video games In 1983, the first Bond video game, developed and published by Parker Brothers, was released for the Atari 2600, the Atari 5200, the Atari 800, the Commodore 64, and the ColecoVision. Since then, there have been numerous video games either based on the films or using original storylines. Bond video games, however, did not reach their popular stride until 1997's revolutionary GoldenEye 007 by Rare for the Nintendo 64. Subsequently, virtually every Bond video game has attempted to copy the accomplishments and features of GoldenEye 007 to varying degrees of success; even going so far as to have a game entitled GoldenEye: Rogue Agent that had little to do with either the video game GoldenEye 007 or the film of the same name. Bond himself plays only a minor role in which he is "killed" in the beginning during a 'virtual reality' mission, which served as the first level of the game. Since acquiring the licence in 1999, Electronic Arts has released eight games, five of which have original stories, including the popular Everything or Nothing, which broke away from the first-person shooter trend that started with GoldenEye 007 (including the games "Agent Under Fire" and "Nightfire") and instead featured a third-person perspective. It also featured well known actors including Willem Dafoe, Heidi Klum, Judi Dench, John Cleese and Pierce Brosnan as James Bond, although several previous games have used Brosnan's likeness as Bond. In 2005, Electronic Arts released a video game adaptation of From Russia with Love, another game in the same vein as Everything or Nothing. This was the second game based on a Connery Bond film (the first was a 1980s text adventure adaptation of Goldfinger) and the first to allow the player to play as Bond with the likeness of Sean Connery. Connery himself recorded new voice-overs for the game, the first time the actor had played Bond in twenty-two years. In 2006, Activision secured the licence to make Bond-related games, briefly sharing but effectively taking over the licence from EA. The deal became exclusive to Activision in September 2007. Activision studio Treyarch has released the new James Bond game "Quantum of Solace" a movie tie in of "Casino Royale" and "Quantum of Solace" it (not unlike "Goldeneye 007") is a first person shooter and it does include a new 'dashing to cover' and 'cover fire' third person game play. In relation to the twenty-first film in the series Sony Ericsson released a Casino Royale edition of their K800i mobile phone. In this edition, a Java ME game loosely based on the movie was included. Vodafone has also published a game for the same platform called 007: Hoverchase and developed by IOMO. Comic strips and comic books In 1957 the Daily Express, a newspaper owned by Lord Beaverbrook, approached Ian Fleming to adapt his stories into comic strips. After initial reluctance by Fleming who felt the strips would lack the quality of his writing, agreed and the first strip Casino Royale was published in 1958. Since then many illustrated adventures of James Bond have been published, including every Ian Fleming novel as well as Kingsley Amis's Colonel Sun, and most of Fleming's short stories. Later, the comic strip produced original stories, continuing until 1983. Titan Books is presently reprinting these comic strips in an ongoing series of graphic novel-style collections; by the end of 2005 it had completed reprinting all Fleming-based adaptations as well as Colonel Sun and had moved on to reprinting original stories. Several comic book adaptations of the James Bond films have been published through the years, as well as numerous original stories. Most recently, a thinly-veiled version of Bond (called only "Jimmy" to avoid copyright issues) appeared in The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen: Black Dossier. In this story, Bond is the villain; he chases the heroic duo of Mina Murray and Allan Quatermain across London, aided by disguised versions of Bulldog Drummond ("Hugo Drummond") and Emma Peel ("Miss Night"). Jimmy is portrayed as an unpleasant imcompetent servant of the US who only pretends to work with Britain. Characters The James Bond series of novels and films have a plethora of allies and villains. Bond's superiors and other officers of the British Secret Service are known by letters, such as M and Q. In the novels, Bond has employed two secretaries, Loelia Ponsonby and Mary Goodnight, who in the films typically have their roles and lines transferred to M's secretary, Miss Moneypenny. Occasionally Bond is assigned to work a case with his good friend, CIA agent Felix Leiter. Throughout both the novels and the films there have only been a handful of recurring characters. Some of the more memorable ones include Bill Tanner, Rene Mathis, Jack Wade, Jaws and recently Charles Robinson. J.W. Pepper is also a recurring character. Vehicles and gadgets Exotic espionage equipment and vehicles are very popular elements of James Bond's literary and cinematic missions. These items often prove critically important to Bond in successfully completing his missions. An Aston Martin DB5 as seen in Goldfinger. Fleming's novels and early screen adaptations presented minimal equipment such as From Russia with Love'''s booby-trapped attaché case. In Dr. No, Bond's sole gadgets were a Geiger counter and a wristwatch with a luminous (and radioactive) face. The gadgets, however, assumed a higher profile in the 1964 film Goldfinger. The film's success encouraged further espionage equipment from Q Branch to be supplied to Bond. In the opinion of critics, some Bond films have included too many gadgets and vehicles, such as 1979's science fiction-oriented Moonraker and 2002's Die Another Day. James Bond's cars have included the Aston Martin DB5, V8 Vantage (80s), V12 Vanquish and DBS (00s); the Lotus Esprit; the BMW Z3, BMW 750iL and the BMW Z8. Bond's most famous car is the silver grey Aston Martin DB5, first seen in Goldfinger; it later features in Thunderball, GoldenEye, Tomorrow Never Dies, and Casino Royale. The films have used a number of different Aston Martin DB5s for filming and publicity, one of which was sold in January 2006 at an auction in Arizona for $2,090,000 to an unnamed European collector. That specific car was originally sold for £5,000 in 1970. In Fleming's books, Bond had a penchant for "battleship grey" Bentleys, while Gardner awarded the agent a modified Saab 900 Turbo (nicknamed the Silver Beast) and later a Bentley Mulsanne Turbo. In the James Bond film adaptations, Bond has been associated with several well-known watches, usually outfitted with high-tech features not found on production models. The Rolex Submariner, one of the few recurring models, was worn by Sean Connery, George Lazenby, Roger Moore, and Timothy Dalton's versions of James Bond. Roger Moore also sported a number of digital watches by Pulsar and Seiko. Pierce Brosnan's and Daniel Craig's James Bonds were both devotees of the Omega Seamaster. The selection of James Bond's watch has been a matter of both style and finance, as product placement agreements with the watch manufacturers have frequently been arranged. Bond's weapon of choice in the beginning of Dr. No is an Italian-made Beretta 418 .25 calibre, later replaced by the German-made Walther PPK, chambered in 7.65mm (a peculiar choice, as Valentin Zukovsky remarks in GoldenEye: the PPK as found in the U.S. and Western Europe is most commonly chambered in .380ACP). The PPK was used in every subsequent film and became his signature weapon until the ending of Tomorrow Never Dies, when Bond upgraded to the Walther P99. He has subsequently used the P99 pistol in Tomorrow Never Dies, The World Is Not Enough, Die Another Day, and Casino Royale. Strangely, Bond resumed use of the PPK in Quantum of Solace, the direct sequel of Casino Royale''. See also James Bond (character) James Bond (novels) James Bond (ornithologist) The Battle for Bond 9007 James Bond (Asteroid named after the character) Pinewood Studios Fitzroy Maclean Shaken, not stirred References External links Official sites James Bond Official Website Ian Fleming Publications Official Website Young Bond Official Website Pinewood Studios - home of Bond Pinewood Studios Albert R. Broccoli 007 Stage Official Website Ian Fleming's 'Red Indians' - 30AU - Literary James Bond's Wartime unit Unofficial sites 007James - The Site's Bond, James Bond MI6 - The Home of James Bond | James_Bond |@lemmatized james:49 bond:137 fictional:2 character:15 create:3 writer:4 ian:15 fleming:45 feature:16 twelve:2 novel:23 two:8 short:7 story:12 collection:4 understand:1 retrieve:2 june:1 also:16 use:12 long:2 running:1 financially:1 successful:1 english:2 language:1 film:65 franchise:4 date:7 start:2 dr:7 agent:11 quantum:11 solace:12 death:2 subsequent:2 write:9 kingsley:3 amis:3 robert:2 markham:2 john:9 pearson:4 gardner:3 raymond:2 benson:2 sebastian:2 faulks:2 moreover:2 christopher:2 wood:1 novelise:1 screenplay:1 charlie:3 higson:3 series:20 young:7 author:3 unofficial:3 version:10 eon:11 production:7 recent:1 release:12 october:4 uk:2 addition:3 american:4 television:6 adaptation:11 independent:1 apart:1 movie:12 jam:9 adapt:5 many:6 medium:2 include:15 radio:4 play:12 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5,265 | Ford_Motor_Company | The Ford Motor Company () is an American multinational corporation and the world's fourth largest automaker based on worldwide vehicle sales, following Toyota, General Motors, and Volkswagen. Based in Dearborn, Michigan, a suburb of Detroit, the automaker was founded by Henry Ford and incorporated on June 16, 1903. In addition to the Ford, Lincoln, and Mercury brands, Ford also owns Volvo Cars of Sweden, and a small stake in Mazda of Japan and Aston Martin of England. Ford's former UK subsidiaries Jaguar and Land Rover were sold to Tata Motors of India in March 2008. Ford introduced methods for large-scale manufacturing of cars and large-scale management of an industrial workforce using elaborately engineered manufacturing sequences typified by moving assembly lines. Henry Ford's methods came to be known around the world as Fordism by 1914. In 2007, Ford fell from the second-ranked automaker to the third-ranked automaker in US sales for the first time in 56 years, behind General Motors and Toyota. Based on 2007 global sales, Ford fell to the fourth-ranked spot behind Volkswagen. By 2009, Ford had become the second largest automaker in Europe (only behind Volkswagen), with large markets in the United Kingdom and Germany and sales that exceed those in the United States. Ford is the seventh-ranked overall American-based company in the 2008 Fortune 500 list, based on global revenues in 2008 of $146.3 billion. Fortune 500 list for 2009 - based on 2008 sales In 2008, Ford produced 5.532 million automobiles Ford Motor Company / 2008 Annual Report Operating Highlights (pdf) - page 1 and employed about 213,000 employees at around 90 plants and facilities worldwide. Ford Motor Company / 2008 Annual Report About the Company (pdf) - page 2 Starting in 2007, Ford received more initial quality survey awards from J. D. Power and Associates than any other automaker. Five of Ford's vehicles ranked at the top of their categories Money.CNN.com - Ford gets 5 top quality awards - 7 June 2007 and fourteen vehicles ranked in the top three. Edmunds AutoObserver.com - J.D Power: Ford Is a Winner - 7 June 2007 History Henry Ford (ca. 1919) 1896 Ford Quadricycle The Ford Motor Company was launched in a converted factory in 1903 with $28,000 in cash from twelve investors, most notably John and Horace Dodge (who would later found their own car company). Henry's first attempt under his name was the Henry Ford Company on November 3, 1901, which later bacame the Cadillac Motor Company August 22, 1902. During its early years, the company produced just a few cars a day at its factory on Mack Avenue in Detroit, Michigan. Groups of two or three men worked on each car from components made to order by other companies. Henry Ford was 40 years old when he founded the Ford Motor Company, which would go on to become one of the world's largest and most profitable companies, as well as being one to survive the Great Depression. As one of the largest family-controlled companies in the world, the Ford Motor Company has been in continuous family control for over 100 years. Corporate governance Ford World Headquarters in Dearborn, Michigan, known as the Glass House. Members of the board as of early 2007 are: Chief Sir John Bond, Richard Manoogian, Stephen Butler, Ellen Marram, Kimberly Casiano, Alan Mulally (President and CEO), Edsel Ford II, Homer Neal, William Clay Ford Jr., Jorma Ollila, Irvine Hockaday Jr., John L. Thornton and William Clay Ford (Director Emeritus). Ford Motor Company Information - Ford The main corporate officers are: Lewis Booth (Executive Vice President, Chairman (PAG) and Ford of Europe), Mark Fields (Executive Vice President, President of The Americas), Donat Leclair (Executive Vice President and CFO), Mark A. Schulz (Executive Vice President, President of International Operations) and Michael E. Bannister (Group Vice President; Chairman & CEO Ford Motor Credit). Paul Mascarenas (Vice President of Engineering, The Americas Product Development) Recent company developments During the mid to late 1990s, Ford sold large numbers of vehicles, in a booming American economy with soaring stock market and low fuel prices. With the dawn of the new century, legacy healthcare costs, higher fuel prices, and a faltering economy led to falling market shares, declining sales, and sliding profit margins. Most of the corporate profits came from financing consumer automobile loans through Ford Motor Credit Company. Ford fighting to keep its shine By 2005, corporate bond rating agencies had downgraded the bonds of both Ford and GM to junk status, GM, Ford Bond Ratings Cut to Junk Status citing high U.S. health care costs for an aging workforce, soaring gasoline prices, eroding market share, and dependence on declining SUV sales for revenues. Profit margins decreased on large vehicles due to increased "incentives" (in the form of rebates or low interest financing) to offset declining demand. Rebate wars In the face of demand for higher fuel efficiency and falling sales of minivans, Ford moved to introduce a range of new vehicles, including "Crossover SUVs" built on unibody car platforms, rather than more body-on-frame chassis. In developing the hybrid electric powertrain technologies for the Ford Escape Hybrid SUV, Ford licensed similar Toyota hybrid technologies NY Times - Ford to License Toyota's Hybrid Technology - 10 March 2004 to avoid patent infringements. Business Week - Is Ford Innovative? Part Two Ford announced that it will team up with electricity supply company Southern California Edison (SCE) to examine the future of plug-in hybrids in terms of how home and vehicle energy systems will work with the electrical grid. Under the multi-million-dollar, multi-year project, Ford will convert a demonstration fleet of Ford Escape Hybrids into plug-in hybrids, and SCE will evaluate how the vehicles might interact with the home and the utility's electrical grid. Some of the vehicles will be evaluated "in typical customer settings," according to Ford. EERE News: EERE Network News Ford Motor Company - Press Release - Ford Motor Company And Southern California Edison Join Forces To Advance A New Transportation And Energy Vision In December 2006, the company raised its borrowing capacity to about $25 billion, placing substantially all corporate assets as collateral to secure the line of credit. Ford Bets The House Chairman Bill Ford has stated that "bankruptcy is not an option". Ford CEO: Bankruptcy 'Not an Option' In order to control its skyrocketing labor costs (the most expensive in the world), the company and the United Auto Workers, representing approximately 46,000 hourly workers in North America, agreed to a historic contract settlement in November 2007 giving the company a substantial break in terms of its ongoing retiree health care costs and other economic issues. The agreement includes the establishment of a company-funded, independently-run Voluntary Employee Beneficiary Association (more commonly known as a VEBA) trust to shift the burden of retiree health care from the company's books, thereby improving its balance sheet. However, this arrangement will not begin to take effect until January 1, 2010. The agreement also gives hourly workers the job security they were seeking by having the company commit to substantial investments in most of its factories. The automaker reported the largest annual loss in company history in 2006 of $12.7 billion, Ford posts worse than expected quarter loss, record '06 loss - January 25, 2007 and estimated that it would not return to profitability until 2009. Ford hit by record $12.7bn loss However, Ford surprised Wall Street in the second quarter of 2007 by posting a $750 million profit. Despite the gains, the company finished the year with a $2.7 billion loss, largely attributed to finance restructuring at Volvo. FinancialTimes.com - Ford takes $2.4bn writedown for Volvo - 24 January 2008 In June 2, 2008, Ford sold its Jaguar and Land Rover operations to Tata Motors for $2.3 billion. http://www.autoweek.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20080630/FREE/940478590/1528/newsletter01 In January 2008, Ford launched a website listing the ten Built Ford Tough rules as well as a series of webisodes that parodied the show COPS (TV Series). During November 2008, Ford, together with Chrysler and General Motors, sought financial aid at Congressional hearings in Washington D.C. in the face of worsening conditions caused by the automotive industry crisis. The three companies presented action plans for the sustainability of the industry. Detroit Chiefs Plead for Aid. New York Times on November 18, 2008. Retrieved 21 November 2008. The Detroit based automakers were unsuccessful at obtaining assistance through Congressional legislation. GM and Chrysler later received assistance through the Executive Branch from the T.A.R.P. funding provisions. CNBC.com - GM and Chrysler to Receive Up to $17.4 Billion in Loans - 19 December 2008 On December 19, the cost of credit default swaps to insure the debt of Ford was 68 percent the sum insured for five years in addition to annual payments of 5 percent. That means it costs $6.8 million paid upfront to insure $10 million in debt, in addition to payments of $500,000 per year. GM, Ford default swaps fall on Bush bailout plan, Karen Brettell, Reuters, 19 December 2008 In January 2009, Ford announced a $14.6 billion loss in the preceding year, making 2008 its worst year in history. Still, the company claimed to have sufficient liquidity to fund its business plans and thus, did not ask for government aid. "The Way Forward" In the latter half of 2005, Chairman Bill Ford asked newly-appointed Ford Americas Division President Mark Fields to develop a plan to return the company to profitability. Fields previewed the Plan, dubbed The Way Forward, at the December 7, 2005 board meeting of the company; and it was unveiled to the public on January 23, 2006. "The Way Forward" includes resizing the company to match current market realities, dropping some unprofitable and inefficient models, consolidating production lines, and shutting fourteen factories and cutting 30,000 jobs. These cutbacks are consistent with Ford's roughly 25% decline in U.S. automotive market share since the mid-late 1990s. Ford's target is to become profitable again in 2009, a year later than projected. Ford's realignment also includes the sale of its wholly owned subsidiary, Hertz Rent-a-Car to a private equity group for $15 billion in cash and debt acquisition. The sale was completed on December 22, 2005. A 50-50 joint venture with Mahindra and Mahindra Limited of India, called Mahindra Ford India, Limited (MIFL), ended with Ford buying out Mahindra's remaining stake in the company in 2005. Ford Commits $75 Million For India Operations Ford had previously upped its stake to 72% in 1998. Ford India Private Ltd, Ford Cars India, Ford Motors India, Ford Fiesta India, Ford in India Chairman and Chief Executive Officer Ford also became President of the company in April 2006, with the retirement of Jim Padilla. Five months later, in September, he stepped down as President and CEO, and naming Alan Mulally as his successor. Bill Ford continues as Executive Chairman, along with an executive operating committee made up of Mulally, Mark Schulz, Lewis Booth, Don Leclair, and Mark Fields. Online The domain ford.com attracted at least 11 million visitors annually by 2008 according to a Compete.com survey. Brands and marques Today, Ford Motor Company manufactures automobiles under several names including Lincoln and Mercury in the United States. In 1958, Ford introduced a new marque, the Edsel, but poor sales led to its discontinuation in 1960. Later, in 1985, the Merkur brand was introduced to market Fords from Europe in the United States; it met a similar fate in 1989. Ford has major manufacturing operations in Canada, Mexico, the United Kingdom, Germany, Turkey, Brazil, Argentina, Australia, the People's Republic of China, and several other countries, including South Africa where, following divestment during apartheid, it once again has a wholly owned subsidiary. Ford also has a cooperative agreement with Russian automaker GAZ. Ford acquired British sports car maker Aston Martin in 1989, but sold it on March 12, 2007, retaining a small minority stake, Ford Sells Major Stake in Aston Martin. March 12, 2007. and Volvo Cars of Sweden. In November 2008 it reduced its 33.4% Controlling interest in Mazda of Japan, to a 13.4% non-controlling interest. http://miscstuff.wordpress.com/2008/11/18/ford-to-dump-mazda-sell-20-stake/ http://www.google.com/hostednews/ap/article/ALeqM5ijnTbIWCfIBkF8Cxsv1ckWMkmfngD94H8SR03 It shares an American joint venture plant in Flat Rock, Michigan called Auto Alliance with Mazda. It has spun off its parts division under the name Visteon. Ford sold the United Kingdom-based Jaguar and Land Rover companies and brands to Tata Motors of India in March 2008. Also in 2008, Ford Motor is in negotiations with Shanghai Automotive Industry Corporation to sell its Volvo cars division. AUTOSAVANT: Ford to Send Volvo to the Chinese? Ford's FoMoCo parts division sells aftermarket parts under the Motorcraft brand name. Ford's non-manufacturing operations include organizations such as automotive finance operation Ford Motor Credit Company. Ford also sponsors numerous events and sports facilities around the nation, most notably Ford Center in downtown Oklahoma City and Ford Field in downtown Detroit. Overall the Ford Motor Company controls the following operational car marques: Ford, Lincoln, Mercury, and Volvo Cars. In 2008 the Lincoln-Mercury brand dropped on the American Customer Satisfaction Index list to 83, from 86 in 2007. Global markets Initially, Ford Motor Company models sold outside the U.S. were essentially versions of those sold on the home market, but later on, models specific to Europe were developed and sold. Attempts to globalize the model line have often failed, with Europe's Ford Mondeo selling poorly in the United States as the Ford Contour, while U.S. models such as the Ford Taurus have fared poorly in Japan and Australia, even when produced in right hand drive. The small European model Ka, a hit in its home market, did not catch on in Japan, as it was not available as an automatic. The Mondeo was dropped by Ford Australia, because the segment of the market in which it competes had been in steady decline, with buyers preferring the larger local model, the Falcon. One recent exception is the European model of the Focus, which has sold strongly on both sides of the Atlantic. From 2003, Toyota outsold Ford Motor worldwide. USATODAY.com - Toyota outsells Ford worldwide From the second quarter 2006, Toyota has passed Ford as the #2 automaker, by sales, in the United States. » Toyota moves past Ford fordmuscle.com Ford is in partnership talks to license hybrid technology from the Toyota Motor Corporation in a deal that could help establish Toyota's system as a standard for the industry. Ford to License Toyota’s Hybrid Technology Europe At first, Ford in Germany and Ford in Britain built different models from one another until the late 1960s, with the Ford Escort and then the Ford Capri being common to both companies. Later on, the Ford Taunus and Ford Cortina became identical, produced in left hand drive and right hand drive respectively. Rationalization of model ranges meant that production of many models in the UK switched to elsewhere in Europe, including Belgium and Spain as well as Germany. The Ford Sierra replaced the Taunus and Cortina in 1982, drawing criticism for its radical aerodynamic styling, which was soon given nicknames such as "Jellymould" and "The Salesman's Spaceship." Increasingly, the Ford Motor Company has looked to Ford of Europe for its "world cars," such as the Mondeo, Focus, and Fiesta, although sales of European-sourced Fords in the U.S. have been disappointing. In Asia, models from Europe are not as competitively priced as Japanese-built rivals, nor are they perceived as reliable. The Focus has been one exception to this, which has become America's best selling compact car since its launch in 2000. In February 2002, Ford ended car production in the UK. It was the first time in 90 years that Ford cars had not been made in Britain, although production of the Transit van continues at the company's Southampton facility, engines at Bridgend and Dagenham, and transmissions at Halewood. Development of European Ford is broadly split between Dunton in Essex (powertrain, Fiesta/Ka, and commercial vehicles) and Cologne (body, chassis, electrical, Focus, Mondeo) in Germany. Ford also produced the Thames range of commercial vehicles, although the use of this brand name was discontinued circa 1965. Elsewhere in continental Europe, Ford assembles the Mondeo range in Genk (Belgium), Fiesta in Valencia (Spain) and Cologne (Germany), Ka in Valencia, and Focus in Valencia, Saarlouis (Germany) and Vsevolozhsk (Russia). Transit production is in Kocaeli (Turkey), Southampton (UK), and Transit Connect in Kocaeli. Ford also owns a joint-venture production plant in Turkey. Ford-Otosan, established in the 1970s, manufactures the Transit Connect compact panel van as well as the "Jumbo" and long wheelbase versions of the full-size Transit. This new production facility was set up near Kocaeli in 2002, and its opening marked the end of Transit assembly in Genk. Another joint venture plant near Setubal in Portugal, set up in collaboration with Volkswagen, formerly assembled the Galaxy people-carrier as well as its sister ships, the VW Sharan and Seat Alhambra. With the introduction of the third generation of the Galaxy, Ford has moved the production of the people-carrier to the Genk plant, with Volkswagen taking over sole ownership of the Setubal facility. Ford Europe has broken new ground with a number of relatively futuristic car launches over the last 50 years. Its 1959 Anglia two-door saloon was one of the most quirky-looking small family cars in Europe at the time of its launch, but buyers soon became accustomed to its looks and it was hugely popular with British buyers in particular. It was still selling well when replaced by the more practical Escort in 1967. The third incarnation of the Ford Escort was launched in 1980 and marked the company's move from rear-wheel drive saloons to front-wheel drive hatchbacks in the small family car sector. It also offered levels of style, comfort and refinement which were almost unmatched on comparable cars of this era. The fourth generation Escort was produced from 1990 until 2000, although its successor - the Focus - had been on sale since 1998. On its launch, the Focus was arguably the most dramatic-looking and fine-handling small family cars on sale, and sold in huge volumes right up to the launch of the next generation Focus at the end of 2004. The 1982 Ford Sierra - replacement for the long-running and massively popular Cortina and Taunus models - was a style-setter at the time of its launch. Its ultramodern aerodynamic design was a world away from a boxy, sharp-edged Cortina, and it was massively popular just about everywhere it was sold. A series of updates kept it looking relatively fresh until it was replaced by the front-wheel drive Mondeo at the start of 1993. The rise in popularity of small cars during the 1970s saw Ford enter the mini-car market in 1976 with its Fiesta hatchback. Most of its production was concentrated at Valencia in Spain, and the Fiesta sold in huge figures from the very start. An update in 1983 and the launch of an all-new model in 1989 strengthened its position in the small car market. Asia Pacific Ford dealership in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam (August 2005) In New Zealand and Australia, the popular Ford Falcon has long been considered the average family car and is considerably larger than the Mondeo, Ford's largest car sold in Europe. Between 1960 and 1972, the Falcon was based on a U.S. madel of the same name, but since then has been entirely designed and manufactured in Australia, occasionlly being manufactured in New Zealand. Like its General Motors rival, the Holden Commodore, the Falcon utilizes a rear wheel drive layout. High performance variants of the Falcon running locally-built engines produce up to . A ute (short for "utility," known in the US as pickup truck) version is also available with the same range of drivetrains. In addition, Ford Australia sells highly-tuned limited production Falcon sedans and utes through its performance car division, Ford Performance Vehicles. In Australia, the Commodore and Falcon have traditionally outsold all other cars and comprise over 20% of the new car market. In New Zealand, Ford was second in market share in the first eight months of 2006 with 14.4 per cent. More recently Ford has axed it's Falcon-based LWB variant of its lineup - the Fairlane and LTD ranges, and announced that their Geelong engine manufacturing plant may be shut down from 2013. They have also announced local manufacturing of the Focus small car starting from 2011. Ford's presence in Asia has traditionally been much smaller. However, with the acquisition of a stake in Japanese manufacturer Mazda in 1979, Ford began selling Mazda's Familia and Capella (also known as the 323 and 626) as the Ford Laser and Telstar. The Laser was one of the most successful models sold by Ford in Australia and was manufactured in Ford's Homebush plant from 1981 until the plant's closure in September 1994. It outsold the Mazda 323, despite being almost identical to it, due to the fact the Laser was manufactured in Australia and Ford was perceived as a local brand. The Laser was also built in Mexico and sold in the U.S. as the Mercury Tracer, while the 1991 (and on through the end of the model in the early 2000s) American Ford Escort (and 1991-on Tracer) was based on the Laser/Mazda 323, assembled in the US and Mexico. Through its relationship with Mazda, Ford also acquired a stake in South Korean manufacturer Kia, which built the (Mazda-based) Ford Festiva from 1988-1993, and the Ford Aspire from 1994-1997 for export to the United States, but later sold their interest to Hyundai. Kia continued to market the Aspire as the Kia Avella, later replaced by the Rio and once again sold in the US. Ironically, Hyundai also manufactured the Ford Cortina until the 1980s. Ford also has a joint venture with Lio Ho in Taiwan, which assembled Ford models locally since the 1970s. Ford India began production in 1998 with its Ford Escort model, which was later replaced by locally produced Ford Ikon in 2001. It has since added Fusion, Fiesta, Mondeo and Endeavour to its product line. South America In South America, Ford has had to face protectionist government measures in each country, with the result that it built different models in different countries, without particular regard to rationalization or economy of scale inherent to producing and sharing similar vehicles between the nations. In many cases, new vehicles in a country were based on those of the other manufacturers it had entered into production agreements with, or whose factories it had acquired. For example, the Corcel and Del Rey in Brazil were originally based on Renault vehicles. In 1987, Ford of Brasil and Ford of Argentina merged its operations with those of Volkswagen to form a company called Autolatina, with which it shared models. Sales figures and profitability were disappointing, and Autolatina was dissolved in 1995. With the advent of Mercosur, the regional common market, Ford was finally able to rationalize its product line-ups in those countries. Consequently, the Ford Fiesta and Ford EcoSport are only built in Brazil, and the Ford Focus only built in Argentina, with each plant exporting in large volumes to the neighboring countries. Models like the Ford Mondeo from Europe could now be imported completely built up. Ford of Brazil produces a pick-up truck version of the Fiesta, the Courier, which is also produced in South Africa as the Ford Bantam in right hand drive versions. Africa and Middle East In Africa Ford's market presence has traditionally been strongest in South Africa and neighboring countries, with only trucks being sold elsewhere on the continent. Ford in South Africa began by importing kits from Canada to be assembled at its Port Elizabeth facility. Later Ford sourced its models from the UK and Australia, with local versions of the Ford Cortina including the XR6, with a 3.0 V6 engine, and a Cortina 'bakkie' or pick-up, which was exported to the UK. In the mid-1980s Ford merged with a rival company, owned by Anglo American, to form the South African Motor Corporation (Samcor). Following international condemnation of apartheid, Ford divested from South Africa in 1988, and sold its stake in Samcor, although it licensed the use of its brand name to the company. Samcor began to assemble Mazdas as well, which affected its product line-up, which saw the European Fords like the Escort and Sierra replaced by the Mazda-based Laser and Telstar. Ford bought a 45 per cent stake in Samcor following the demise of apartheid in 1994, and this later became, once again, a wholly owned subsidiary, the Ford Motor Company of Southern Africa. Ford now sells a local sedan version of the Fiesta (also built in India and Mexico), and the Focus and Mondeo Europe. The Falcon model from Australia was also sold in South Africa, but was dropped in 2003. Ford's market presence in the Middle East has traditionally been even smaller, partly due to previous Arab boycotts of companies dealing with Israel. Ford and Lincoln vehicles are currently marketed in ten countries in the region. Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, and the UAE are the biggest markets. Ford also established itself in Egypt in 1926, but faced an uphill battle during the 1950s due to the hostile nationalist business environment. Ford's distributor in Saudi Arabia announced in February 2003 that it had sold 100,000 Ford and Lincoln vehicles since commencing sales in November 1986. Half of the Ford/Lincoln vehicles sold in that country were Ford Crown Victorias. In 2004, Ford sold 30,000 units in the region, falling far short of General Motors' 88,852 units and Nissan Motors' 75,000 units. Environmental record Fuel efficiency In 2000, under the leadership of the current Ford chairman, William Clay Ford, the Company announced Ford Commits to Major SUV Fuel Economy Gains a planned 25 percent improvement in the average mileage of its light truck fleet – including its popular SUVs – to be completed by the 2005 calendar year. In 2003, Ford announced that competitive market conditions and technological and cost challenges would prevent the company from achieving this goal. Researchers at the University of Massachusetts have, however, listed Ford as the seventh-worst corporate producer of air pollution, primarily because of the manganese compounds, 1,2,4-trimethylbenzene, and glycol ethers released from its casting, truck, and assembly plants. Political Economy Research Institute The United States Environmental Protection Agency has linked Ford to 54 Superfund toxic waste sites, twelve of which have been cleaned up and deleted from the list. Center for Public Integrity Record of Ford's environmental decisions Ford has a mixed record on environmental issues, consisting of both positive and negative reports. In 2003, Ford discarded its goal of improving mileage on sport-utility vehicles by 25 percent by 2005, saying that it would boost mileage of all vehicles instead. However, this plan had neither specific target nor goal. http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=20601103&sid=aMlQX0p5EMyI&refer=us "Ford to Cut New-Car Greenhouse Emissions 30% by 2020" April 9, 2008 Bloomberg.com May 1, 2008 For the 2007 model year, Ford had thirteen U.S. models that achieve 30 miles per gallon or better (based on the highway fuel economy estimates of the EPA and several of Ford’s vehicles were recognized in the EPA and Department of Energy Fuel Economy Guide for best-in-class fuel economy. Ford claimed to have eliminated nearly three million pounds of smog-forming emissions from their U.S. cars and light trucks over the 2004 to 2006 model years. http://www.ford.com/aboutford/microsites/sustainability-report-2006-07/env.htm Ford Motor Company, May 1, 2008 Small cars, alternative fuel and electric vehicles Ford announced in late 2008 July that it will bring six of its more fuel-efficient European models to the U.S. http://www.forbes.com/vehicles/2008/08/18/cars-americans-love-forbeslife-cx_jm_0819cars.html?partner=autos_newsletter Mulally (second from left) with former President George W. Bush at the Kansas City Assembly plant in Claycomo, Missouri on March 20, 2007, touting Ford's new hybrid cars Ford Research Center in Aachen Alternative fossil fuels The alternative fossil fuel vehicles, such as some versions of the Crown Victoria especially in fleet and taxi service, operate on compressed natural gas—or CNG. Some CNG vehicles have dual fuel tanks - one for gasoline, the other for CNG - the same engine can operate on either fuel via a selector switch. Biofuels Flexible fuel vehicles are designed to operate smoothly using a wide range of available fuel mixtures—from pure gasoline, to bioethanol-gasoline blends such as E85 (85% ethanol, 15% gasoline). Part of the challenge of successful marketing alternative and flexible fuel vehicles, is the general lack of establishment of sufficient fueling stations, which would be essential for these vehicles to be attractive to a wide range of consumers. Significant efforts to ramp up production and distribution of E85 fuels are underway and expanding. Ford is also planning to produce 250,000 E85-capable vehicles a year in the US, adding to some 1.6 million already sold in the last 10 years. Current Ford Flexible Fuel Vehicles: Ford F-150 Ford Crown Victoria Ford Focus / Focus C-MAX / Ford Focus FFV (Flexible-fuel vehicle). Ford Taurus Ford Ranger Ford Explorer Mercury Grand Marquis Lincoln Town Car Hydrogen Ford also continues to study Fuel Cell-powered electric powertrains, and has demonstrated hydrogen-fueled internal combustion engine technologies, as well as developing the next-generation hybrid-electric systems. Compared with conventional vehicles, hybrid vehicles and/or fuel cell vehicles decrease air pollution emissions as well as sound levels, with favorable impacts upon respiratory health and decrease of noise health effects. Ford has launched the production of hydrogen-powered shuttle buses, using hydrogen instead of gasoline in a standard internal combustion engine, for use at airports and convention centers. At the 2006 Greater Los Angeles Auto Show, Ford showcased a hydrogen fuel cell version of its Explorer SUV. The Fuel cell Explorer has a combined output of . It has a large hydrogen storage tank which is situated in the center of the car taking the original place of the conventional model’s automatic transmission. The centered position of the tank assists the vehicle reach a notable range of , the farthest for a fuel cell vehicle so far. The fuel cell Explorer the first in a series of prototypes partly funded by the United States Department of Energy to expand efforts to determine the feasibility of hydrogen- powered vehicles. The fuel cell Explorer is one of several vehicles with green technology Ford being featured at the L.A. show, including the 2008 Ford Escape Hybrid, PZEV emissions compliant Fusion and Focus models and a 2008 Ford F-Series Super Duty outfitted with Ford's clean diesel technology. Electric vehicles 2006 Ford Escape Hybrid Ford Motor Co. expects electric vehicles will represent a "major portion" of its lineup a decade from now as the automaker breaks away from a recent reliance on pickup trucks and SUVs. The stakes are high because Ford's stepped-up investment is coming at a time when the U.S. government is demanding steep increases in fuel economy and has put money forward to help automakers adopt new fuel-saving technologies. http://www.autonews.com/article/20090305/ANE02/903059997/1186 Hybrid electric vehicles Ford did improve fuel efficiency during 2005, with the introduction of the Hybrid-Electric Escape. With this vehicle, Ford was third to the automotive market with a hybrid electric vehicle and the first hybrid electric SUV to market. This was also the first hybrid electric vehicle with a flexible fuel capability to run on E85. The Escape's platform mate Mercury Mariner was also available with the hybrid-electric system in the 2006 model year—a full year ahead of schedule. The similar Mazda Tribute will also receive a hybrid-electric powertrain option, along with many other vehicles in the Ford vehicle line. In 2005 Ford announced its goal to make 250,000 hybrids a year by 2010, but by mid-2006 announced that it would not meet that goal, due to excessively high costs and the lack of sufficient supplies of the hybrid-electric batteries and drivetrain system components. Instead, Ford has committed to accelerating development of next-generation hybrid-electric power plants in Britain, in collaboration with Volvo. This engineering study is expected to yield more than 100 new hybrid-electric vehicle models and derivatives. Ford announced that other hybrids to come out will be the Ford Fusion and Mercury Milan Hybrid version in 2008. There are also plans for hybrid versions of the Ford Edge and Lincoln MKX. Ford announced on 2007-07-09 that it will team up with Southern California Edison (SCE) to examine the future of plug-in hybrids in terms of how home and vehicle energy systems will work with the electrical grid. Under the multi-million-dollar, multi-year project, Ford will convert a demonstration fleet of Ford Escape Hybrids into plug-in hybrids, and SCE will evaluate how the vehicles might interact with the home and the utility's electrical grid. Some of the vehicles will be evaluated "in typical customer settings," according to Ford. On June 12, 2008 USDOE expanded its own fleet of alternative fuel and advanced technology vehicles with the addition of a Ford Escape Plug-In Hybrid Flex-Fuel Vehicle. The vehicle is equipped with a 10-kilowatt lithium-ion battery supplied by Johnson Controls-Saft that stores enough electric energy to drive up to at speeds of up to . http://apps1.eere.energy.gov/news/news_detail.cfm/news_id=11816 Ford is going to introduce a plug-in hybrid challenge the Chevy Volt by 2012 http://apps1.eere.energy.gov/news/news_detail.cfm/news_id=12178 and more charge-maintaining hybrids (traditional gas-electric hybrids), beginning with one in 2011. Current and planned Ford hybrid electric vehicles: 2004– Ford Escape Hybrid 2006– Mercury Mariner 2008– Ford Fusion/Mercury Milan 2009– Ford Edge/Lincoln MKX All-electric vehicles Ford ended the Think City experiment and ordered all the cars repossessed and destroyed, even as many of the people leasing them begged to be able to buy the cars from Ford. After outcry from the lessees and activists in the US and Norway, Ford returned the cars to Norway for sale. Bill Ford was one of the first top industry executives to make regular use of an battery electric vehicle, a Ford Ranger EV, while the company contracted with the United States Postal Service to deliver electric postal vans based on the Ranger EV platform..Ford discontinued a line of electric Ranger pickup trucks and ordered them destroyed, though it reversed in January 2005, after environmentalist protest. Activists Deride Ford over Fuel Inefficiency, ?Greenwashing? - The NewStandard The North American Focus has been modified to take batteries. The variant, known as the Focus RV, is planned to be launched in 2011. Ford plans to have 10,000 of these battery-powered cars on the road beginning in 2011 in partnership with Magna International and it will be a global vehicle that will be sold in the three key markets of North America, Europe and Asia-Pacific. The Focus compact can travel about 160 kilometres before it needs to be charged. http://www.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/story/LAC.20090112.RAUTOMAGNA12/TPStory/TPBusiness/?page=rss&id=GAM.20090112.RAUTOMAGNA12 http://www.motorauthority.com/report-magna-international-may-build-fords-electric-car.html Current and planned Ford hybrid electric vehicles: http://apps1.eere.energy.gov/news/news_detail.cfm/news_id=12178 2010 All-electric commercial van. 2011 All-electric small car in 2011 (Ford Focus RV). Small cars Ford Motor Company announced it will accelerate its plans to transform itself into a maker of smaller and more fuel-efficient cars, changing both its North American manufacturing plans and its lineup of vehicles available in the United States. In terms of North American manufacturing, the company will convert three existing truck and sport utility vehicle (SUV) plants for small car production, with the first conversion starting in December at its Michigan Truck Plant. In addition, Ford's assembly plants near Mexico City, Mexico, and in Louisville, Kentucky, will convert from pickups and SUVs to small cars, including the Ford Fiesta, by 2011. Ford will also introduce to North America six of its European small vehicles, including two versions of the Ford Fiesta, by the end of 2012. And last but not least, Ford is stepping up its production of fuel-efficient "EcoBoost" V-6 and four-cylinder engines, while increasing its production of hybrid vehicles. See the Ford press release. Given Ford's new emphasis on its European vehicles, a virtual trip to the British International Motor Show in London is in order. Ford is displaying five models of its all-new Fiesta at the auto show, which opened to the public on July 23. Among the models on display is the world debut of Ford's "ECOnetic" version of the Ford Fiesta, which combines more aerodynamic styling, a lowered suspension, low-rolling-resistance tires, low-friction oil, and a specially tuned, turbocharged, direct-injection diesel engine. As a result, it achieves on the European combined test cycle, which generally yields higher fuel economy numbers than the U.S. test methods (note also that the U.K. gallon is about 20% larger than the U.S. gallon, so we've adjusted these numbers accordingly). The standard diesel version of the Fiesta achieves 52.3 mpg, while diesel versions of the European Ford Focus achieve 52.3 mpg for most body styles and 54.7 mpg for the ECOnetic model. Of course, the United States has stricter emissions rules than in Europe, so it may not be possible for Ford to offer similar models in the United States. Ford has challenged University teams to create a vehicle that is simple, durable, lightweight and come equipped with a base target price of only $7,000 The students from Aachen University created the “2015 Ford Model T”. http://media.ford.com/article_display.cfm?article_id=29155 http://www.edmunds.com/insideline/do/News/articleId=132692 Auto racing NASCAR NASCAR Ford Fusion race car Ford is one of four manufacturers in NASCAR's three major series: Sprint Cup Series, Nationwide Series, and Camping World Truck Series. Major teams include Roush Fenway Racing and Yates Racing. Ford is represented by the mid-size Fusion in the Sprint Cup and Nationwide Series, and by the F-150 in the Camping World Truck Series. Some of the most successful NASCAR Fords were the aerodynamic fastback Ford Torino and Mercury Montegos, and the aero-era Ford Thunderbirds. The Ford nameplate has won eight manufacturer's championships in Sprint Cup, while Mercury has won one. Formula One Rubens Barrichello driving for the Stewart Grand Prix team in 1997 Ford was heavily involved in Formula One for many years, and supplied engines to a large number of teams from 1967 until 2004. These engines were designed and manufactured by Cosworth, the racing division that was owned by Ford from 1998 to 2004. Ford-badged engines won 176 Grands Prix between 1967 and 2003 for teams such as Team Lotus and McLaren. Ford entered Formula One as a constructor in 2000 under the Jaguar Racing name, after buying the Stewart Grand Prix team which had been its primary 'works' team in the series since 1997. Jaguar achieved little success in Formula One, and after a turbulent five seasons, Ford withdrew from the category after the 2004 season, selling both Jaguar Racing (which became Red Bull Racing) and Cosworth (to Gerald Forsythe and Kevin Kalkhoven). Rally Mikko Hirvonen driving the Ford Focus RS WRC 08 in 2008. Ford has a long history in rallying and has been active in the World Rally Championship since the beginning of the world championship, the 1973 season. Ford took the 1979 manufacturers' title with Hannu Mikkola, Björn Waldegård and Ari Vatanen driving the Ford Escort RS1800. In the Group B era, Ford achieved success with Ford RS200. Since the 1999 season, Ford has used various versions of the Ford Focus WRC to much success. In the 2006 season, BP-Ford World Rally Team secured Ford its second manufacturers' title, with the Focus RS WRC 06 built by M-Sport and driven by Flying Finns Marcus Grönholm and Mikko Hirvonen. Rallying: Gronholm victory delivers manufacturers' title to Ford - Motor Racing, Sport - Independent.co.uk Continuing with Grönholm and Hirvonen, Ford successfully defended the manufacturers' world championship in the 2007 season. Ford is the only manufacturer to score in the points for 92 consecutive races; since the 2002 season opener Monte Carlo Rally. juwra.com | Statistics - Longest make points finish streaks Sports cars Ford GT40 Ford sports cars have always been visible in the world of endurance racing. Most notably the GT40 won the prestigious 24 Hours of Le Mans four times in the 1960s and still stands today as one of the all-time greatest racing cars. The GT40 is the only American car to ever win overall at Le Mans. In 2007 Swiss Matech Racing in collaboration with Ford Racing is opened a new chapter in the annals of the Ford GT. A winning chapter Ford GT Matech team won win title in the European FIA GT3 Championship 2008. Ford Mustang GT (racing GT car) The Ford Mustang has arguably been Ford's most successful sports car. The Mustang won the SCCA Pro B National Championship in 1965 at the hands of Jerry Titus who went on to win the SCCA Trans-Am Championship in another Mustang two year later in 1967. Ford won the Trans-Am Championship again in 1970 with Parnelli Jones and George Folmer driving Boss 302s for Bud Moore Engineering. Ford took the 1985 and 1986 IMSA GTO Chmapionship with Mustangs driven by John Jones and Scott Pruett before returning to Trans-Am glory with a chamiponship in 1989 with Dorsey Schrader. Ford dominated Trans-Am in the 1990s with Tommy Kendal winning championships in 1993, 1995, 1996, and 1997 with Paul Gentilozi adding yet another title in 1999. In 2005 the Ford Mustang FR500C took the championship in the Rolex Koni Challenge Series in its first year on the circuit. In 2007 Ford added a championship in the GT4 European Championship. In 2008 Ford added FR500GT at Ford GT a championship in the FIA GT3 European Championship. 2008 is the first year of the Mustang Challenge for the Miller Cup a new series which pits a full field of identical factory built Ford Mustang race cars against each other. Also in 2008 Ford won both the drivers and manufacturers championship in the Koni Challenge Series with Joe Foster and Steve Maxwell driving HyperSport. Touring cars Ford Performance Racing car Ford Falcon at Eastern Creek in Australia 2008. Ford has campaigned touring cars such as the Focus, Falcon, and Contour/Mondeo and the Sierra Cosworth in many different series throughout the years. Notably, the Mondeo finished 1,2,3 in the British Touring Car Championship in 2000, and the Falcon finished 1,2,3 in the Australian V8 Supercar Series in 2005. Other In the Indianapolis 500, Ford powered IndyCars won 17 times between 1965 and 1996. Ford has also branched out into drifting with the introduction of the new model Mustang. Most noticeable is the Turquoise and Blue Falken Tires Mustang driven by Vaughn Gittin Jr, A.K.A. "JR". with 750 RWHP (Rear Wheel Horsepower). In drag racing, John Force has piloted his Drag Ford Mustang to several NHRA funny-car titles in recent seasons. Formula Ford, a formula for single-seater cars without wings and originally on road tires were conceived in 1966 in the UK as an entry-level formula for racing drivers. Many of today's racing drivers started their car racing careers in this category. Ford trucks 1961 Ford H-Series trucks 1939 Ford pick-up truck Ford has produced trucks since 1908. Countries where Ford commercial vehicles are or were made include Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Canada (badged Mercury too), France, Germany, India, Netherlands, Philippines, Spain (badged Ebro too), Turkey, UK (badged also Fordson and Thames) and USA. Most of all these ventures are now extinct. The European one that lasted longer was the lorries arm of Ford of Britain, that was eventually sold to Iveco group in 1986, and whose last significant models were the Transcontinental and the Cargo. In the USA, Ford's heavy trucks division (Classes 7 and 8) was sold in 1997 to Freightliner Trucks, now part of Daimler AG, which rebranded it as Sterling and augmented the lineup with rebranded trucks from Freightliner and Dodge; the division is currently shutting down operations. Ford continues building medium class trucks with the F-650 and F-750 Ford F-Series and recently introduced the LCF series similar in design to the Ford Cargo trucks of the past. Bus products Ford has manufactured buses in the company's early history, but most Ford buses are built on Ford chassis by other manufacturers. Ford tractors Ford tractor The "Henry Ford and Son Company" began making Fordson tractors in Henry's hometown of Springwells (later part of Dearborn, Michigan from 1907 to 1928, from 1919 to 1932, at Cork, Ireland and 1933-1964 at Dagenham, England(later transferred to Basildon0. They were also produced in Leningrad beginning in 1924. In 1986, Ford expanded its tractor business when it purchased the Sperry-New Holland skid-steer loader and hay baler, hay tools and implement company from Sperry Corporation and formed Ford-New Holland which bought out Versatile tractors in 1988. This company was bought by Fiat in 1993 and the name changed from Ford New Holland to New Holland. New Holland is now part of CNH Global. Criticism Throughout its history, the company has faced a wide range of criticisms. Some have accused the early Fordist model of production of being exploitative, and Ford has been criticized as being willing to collaborate with dictatorships or hire mobs to intimidate union leaders and increase their profits through unethical means. Ford refused to allow collective bargaining until 1941, with the Ford Service Department being set up as an internal security, intimidation, and espionage unit within the company, and quickly gained a reputation of using violence against union organizers and sympathizers. Ford was also criticized for wearing down Firestone tires during driving, which caused many wrecks during a short time period in 2003. Many people were injured and killed due to the wearing down of the tires. Although Firestone received most of the blame, some blame fell on Ford, which advised customers to under-inflate the tires. Alleged Nazi collaboration Other accusations were that the company collaborated with the German Nazi regime and relied on Germany. The German Ford company used slave labor in Cologne between 1941 and 1945 and it had produced military vehicles such as jeeps, planes, and ships used by a fascist regime. Many of these allegations were made in a series of United States lawsuits in 1998. The lawsuit was dismissed in 1999 because the judge concluded "the issues...concerned international treaties between nations and foreign policy and were thus in the realm of the executive branch." Detractors point to Henry Ford's outspoken anti-semitism, including his newspaper, The Dearborn Independent, which published The Protocols of the Elders of Zion. They also point to the fact that in 1938, four months after the German annexation of Austria, Ford accepted the Grand Cross of the German Eagle, the Nazi regime's highest honor for foreigners before the outbreak of the war. Defenders of the company argue that the Ford German division, Fordwerke, had been taken over by the Nazi government after it rose to power, claiming that it was not under the company's control, though Henry Ford, according to court records, did stay in touch with the company. Although Ford's initial motivations were anti-war, the company was heavily involved in the United States Allied war effort after the outbreak of war. Argentine "Dirty War" Ford's Argentine subsidiary was accused of collaborating with the Argentine 1976-1983 military dictatorship, actively helping in the political repression of intellectuals and dissidents that was pursued by said government. No result was proven and the company denied the allegations. In a lawsuit initiated in 1996 by relatives of some of the estimated 600 Spanish citizens who disappeared in Argentina during the "Dirty War", evidence was presented to support the allegation that much of this repression was directed by Ford and the other major industrial firms. According to a 5,000-page report, Ford executives drew up lists of "subversive" workers and handed them over to the military task-forces which were allowed to operate within the factories. These groups allegedly kidnapped, tortured and murdered workers—at times allegedly within the plants themselves. The company denied the allegations. In a second trial, a report brought by the CTA, and the testimonies of former Ford workers themselves, claimed that the company's Argentine factory was used between 1976 and 1978 as a detention center, and that management allowed the military to set up its own bunker inside the plant. The company denied the allegations. The Ford Pinto memo In September 1971 the Ford Motor Company launched the Pinto for the North American market. Through early production of this model it emerged that design flaws could result in fuel tank explosions when the vehicle was subject to a rear-end collision. Some sources even allege this safety data was available to Ford prior to production, but was ignored for economic reasons. Either way, a major scandal followed with the leaking to San Francisco magazine Mother Jones of the notorious "Ford Pinto Memo", an internal Ford cost-benefit analysis showing that the cost of implementing design changes to the subcompact's fuel system was greater than the economic cost of the burn injuries and deaths that could be prevented by doing so. Subsequently some have played down the importance of this case as Pinto explosion fatality estimates range widely from 27 to 900, with the lowest figures being allegedly in line with comparable fatality statistics for other car models. Nevertheless, the affair is an infamous example of a big corporation putting profit before human life because one senior Ford executive, at the time of the memo, is alleged to have written of his Pinto customers: it's "cheaper to let them burn". In the related Ford Pinto product liability case Grimshaw v. Ford Motor Co., 119 Cal. App. 3d 757 (4th Dist. 1981) the California Court of Appeal for the Fourth Appellate District reviewed Ford's conduct and upheld compensatory damages of $2.5 million and punitive damages of $3.5 million against Ford. Of the two plaintiffs, one was killed in the collision that caused her Pinto to explode, and her passenger, 13-year old Richard Grimshaw, was badly burned and scarred for life. See also NASCAR Derrick Kuzak Detroit Automobile Company Dodge v. Ford Motor Company Ford F-Series Ford V-8 Fordson tractor Firestone vs Ford Motor Company controversy The Henry Ford Henry Ford Company History of Ford Motor Company List of Ford vehicles List of Ford factories List of Ford engines List of Ford platforms List of Ford VIN codes List of CEOs of Ford Motor Company Plug-in hybrid Smith Electric Vehicles Southern California Edison Ford Special Vehicle Team (SVT) Ford Special Vehicle Operations (SVO) United States Council for Automotive Research Notes References and further reading Ford Motor Company Bak, Richard. Henry and Edsel: The Creation of the Ford Empire (2003) Bardou; Jean-Pierre, Jean-Jacques Chanaron, Patrick Fridenson, and James M. Laux. The Automobile Revolution: The Impact of an Industry University of North Carolina Press, 1982 Batchelor, Ray. Henry Ford: Mass Production, Modernism and Design Manchester U. Press, 1994 Bonin, Huber et al. Ford, 1902-2003: The European History 2 vol Paris 2003. ISBN 2-914369-06-9 scholarly essays in English on Ford operations in Europe; reviewed in Len Holden, Len. "Fording the Atlantic: Ford and Fordism in Europe" in Business History Volume 47, #1 January 2005 pp 122–127 Brinkley, Douglas G. Wheels for the World: Henry Ford, His Company, and a Century of Progress (2003) Brinkley, Douglas. "Prime Mover". American Heritage 2003 54(3): 44-53. on Model T Bryan, Ford R. Henry's Lieutenants, 1993; ISBN 0-8143-2428-2 Bucci, Federico. Albert Kahn: Architect of Ford Princeton Architectural Press, 1993 Cabadas, Joseph P. River Rouge: Ford's Industrial Colossus (2004), heavily illustrated Dempsey, Mary A. "Fordlandia' Michigan History 1994 78(4): 24-33. Ford's rubber plantation in Brazil Flink, James. America Adopts the Automobile, 1895-1910 MIT Press, 1970 Foster, Mark S. "The Model T, The Hard Sell, and Los Angeles Urban Growth: The Decentralization of Los Angeles During the 1920s." Pacific Historical Review 44.4 (November 1975): 459-84 David Halberstam, The Reckoning (1986) detailed reporting on the crises of 1973-mid 1980s Iacocca, Lee and William Novak. Iacocca: An Autobiography (1984) Jacobson, D. S. "The Political Economy of Industrial Location: the Ford Motor Company at Cork 1912-26." Irish Economic and Social History [Ireland] 1977 4: 36-55. Ford and Irish politics Lacey, Robert "Ford: The Men and the Machine" (Heinnemann, London) 0 414 401027 (1986) Levinson, William A. Henry Ford's Lean Vision: Enduring Principles from the First Ford Motor Plant, 2002; ISBN 1-56327-260-1 Kuhn, Arthur J. GM Passes Ford, 1918-1938: Designing the General Motors Performance-Control System. Pennsylvania State University Press, 1986 Magee, David. Ford Tough: Bill Ford and the Battle to Rebuild America's Automaker (2004) Maxton, Graeme P. and John Wormald, Time for a Model Change: Re-engineering the Global Automotive Industry (2004) May, George S. A Most Unique Machine: The Michigan Origins of the American Automobile Industry Eerdman's, 1975 Maynard, Micheline. The End of Detroit: How the Big Three Lost Their Grip on the American Car Market (2003) McIntyre, Stephen L. "The Failure of Fordism: Reform of the Automobile Repair Industry, 1913-1940: Technology and Culture 2000 41(2): 269-299. repair shops rejected flat rates Rubenstein; James M. The Changing U.S. Auto Industry: A Geographical Analysis Routledge, 1992 Shiomi, Haruhito and Kazuo Wada. Fordism Transformed: The Development of Production Methods in the Automobile Industry Oxford University Press, 1995 Sorensen, Charles E. My Forty Years with Ford Norton, 1956 Studer-Noguez; Isabel. Ford and the Global Strategies of Multinationals: The North American Auto Industry Routledge, 2002 Tedlow, Richard S. "The Struggle for Dominance in the Automobile Market: the Early Years of Ford and General Motors" Business and Economic History 1988 17: 49-62. Ford stressed low price based on efficient factories but GM did better in oligopolistic competition by including investment in manufacturing, marketing, and management Thomas, Robert Paul. "The Automobile Industry and its Tycoon" Explorations in Entrepreneurial History 1969 6(2): 139-157. argues Ford did NOT have much influence on US industry Watts, Steven. The People's Tycoon: Henry Ford and the American Century (2005) Wik, Reynold M. Henry Ford and Grass-Roots America. University of Michigan Press, 1972. impact on farmers Wilkins, Mira and Frank Ernest Hill, American Business Abroad: Ford on Six Continents Wayne State University Press, 1964 Williams, Karel, Colin Haslam and John Williams, "Ford versus `Fordism': The Beginning of Mass Production?" Work, Employment & Society, Vol. 6, No. 4, 517-555 (1992), stress on Ford's flexibility and commitment to continuous improvements. External links Official gateway to global websites Ford News Blog Ford and environment: Greener miles Hybrid vehicles http://www.ford-problems.com/ Ford's Pensions & Health Insurance. 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5,266 | Music | Music is an art form whose medium is sound organized in time. Common elements of music are pitch (which governs melody and harmony), rhythm (and its associated concepts tempo, meter, and articulation), dynamics, and the sonic qualities of timbre and texture. The word derives from Greek μουσική (mousike), "(art) of the Muses". Mousike, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, at Perseus The creation, performance, significance, and even the definition of music vary according to culture and social context. Music ranges from strictly organized compositions (and their recreation in performance), through improvisational music to aleatoric forms. Music can be divided into genres and subgenres, although the dividing lines and relationships between music genres are often subtle, sometimes open to individual interpretation, and occasionally controversial. Within "the arts", music may be classified as a performing art, a fine art, and auditory art. To people in many cultures, music is inextricably intertwined into their way of life. Greek philosophers and ancient Indians defined music as tones ordered horizontally as melodies and vertically as harmonies. Common sayings such as "the harmony of the spheres" and "it is music to my ears" point to the notion that music is often ordered and pleasant to listen to. However, 20th-century composer John Cage thought that any sound can be music, saying, for example, "There is no noise, only sound." John Cage, 79, a Minimalist Enchanted With Sound, Dies According to musicologist Jean-Jacques Nattiez, "the border between music and noise is always culturally defined—which implies that, even within a single society, this border does not always pass through the same place; in short, there is rarely a consensus.... By all accounts there is no single and intercultural universal concept defining what music might be, except that it is 'sound through time'." Nattiez 1990: 47-8, 55 History Prehistoric eras and antiquity Ancient music can only be imagined by scholars, based on findings from a range of paleolithic sites, such as bones in which lateral holes have been pierced: these are usually identified as flutes, Son et musique au paléolithique", Pour La Science,. 253, 52-58 (1998) blown at one end like the Japanese shakuhachi. Instruments, such as the seven-holed flute and various types of stringed instruments have been recovered from the Indus Valley Civilization archaeological sites. The Music of India By Reginald MASSEY, Jamila MASSEY. Google Books India has one of the oldest musical traditions in the world—references to Indian classical music (marga) can be found in the ancient scriptures of the Hindu tradition, the Vedas. The traditional music of China has a history stretching for around three thousand years. Music was an important part of cultural and social life in Ancient Greece: mixed-gender choruses performed for entertainment, celebration and spiritual ceremonies; musicians and singers had a prominent role in ancient Greek theater. In the 9th century, the Arab scholar al-Farabi wrote a book on music titled Kitab al-Musiqi al-Kabir ("Great Book of Music"). He played and invented a variety of musical instruments and devised the Arab tone system of pitch organisation, which is still used in Arabic music. Touma (1996), p.170 Western cultures During the Medieval music era (500-1400), the only European repertory which has survived from before about 800 is the monophonic liturgical plainsong of the Roman Catholic Church, the central tradition of which was called Gregorian chant. Alongside these traditions of sacred and church music there existed a vibrant tradition of secular song. From the Renaissance music era (1400-1600), much of the surviving music of 14th century Europe is secular. By the middle of the 15th century, composers and singers used a smooth polyphony for sacred musical compositions. The introduction of commercial printing helped to disseminate musical styles more quickly and across a larger area. Allegory of Music, by Filippino Lippi The era of Baroque music (1600-1750) began when the first operas were written and when contrapuntal music became prevalent. German Baroque composers wrote for small ensembles including strings, brass, and woodwinds, as well as choirs, pipe organ, harpsichord, and clavichord. During the Baroque period, several major music forms were defined that lasted into later periods when they were expanded and evolved further, including the fugue, the invention, the sonata, and the concerto. Baroque Music by Elaine Thornburgh and Jack Logan, Ph. D. The music of the Classical period (1750-1800) is characterized by homophonic texture, often featuring a prominent melody with accompaniment. These new melodies tended to be almost voice-like and singable. The now popular instrumental music was dominated by further evolution of musical forms initially defined in the Baroque period: the sonata, and the concerto, with the addition of the new form, the symphony. Joseph Haydn and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart are among the central figures of the Classical period. In 1800, the Romantic era (1800-1890s) in music developed, with Ludwig van Beethoven and Franz Schubert as transitional composers who introduced a more dramatic, expressive style. During this era, existing genres, forms, and functions of music were developed, and the emotional and expressive qualities of music came to take precedence over technique and tradition. In Beethoven's case, motifs (developed organically) came to replace melody as the most significant compositional unit. The late 19th century saw a dramatic expansion in the size of the orchestra, and in the role of concerts as part of urban society. Later Romantic composers created complex and often much longer musical works. They used more complex chords and used more dissonance to create dramatic tension. With 20th century music, there was a vast increase in music listening as the radio gained popularity and phonographs were used to replay and distribute music. The focus of art music was characterized by exploration of new rhythms, styles, and sounds. Igor Stravinsky, Arnold Schoenberg, and John Cage were all influential composers in 20th century art music. Jazz evolved and became a significant genre of music over the course of the 20th century, and during the second half of that century, rock music did the same. Jazz is an American musical art form which originated in the beginning of the 20th century in African American communities in the Southern United States from a confluence of African and European music traditions. The style's West African pedigree is evident in its use of blue notes, improvisation, polyrhythms, syncopation, and the swung note. Alyn Shipton, A New History of Jazz, 2nd. ed., Continuum, 2007, pp. 4–5 From its early development until the present, jazz has also incorporated music from 19th and 20th century American popular music. Bill Kirchner, The Oxford Companion to Jazz, Oxford University Press, 2005, Chapter Two. Jazz has, from its early 20th century inception, spawned a variety of subgenres, ranging from New Orleans Dixieland (1910s) to 1970s and 1980s-era jazz-rock fusion. Rock music is a genre of popular music that developed in the 1960s from 1950s rock and roll, rockabilly, blues, and country music. The sound of rock often revolves around the electric guitar or acoustic guitar, and it uses a strong back beat laid down by a rhythm section of electric bass guitar, drums, and keyboard instruments such as organ, piano, or, since the 1970s, digital synthesizers. Along with the guitar or keyboards, saxophone and blues-style harmonica are used as soloing instruments. In its "purest form", it "has three chords, a strong, insistent back beat, and a catchy melody." allmusic - Rock and Roll In the late 1960s and early 1970s, rock music branched out into different subgenres, ranging from blues rock and jazz-rock fusion to heavy metal and punk rock, as well as the more classical influenced genre of progressive rock. Non-Western Classical traditions Indian classical music is one of the oldest musical traditions in the world. World Music: The Basics By Nidel Nidel, Richard O. Nidel (page 219) The Indus Valley civilization has sculptures which show dance World History: Societies of the Past By Charles Kahn (page 98) and old musical instruments, like the seven holed flute. Various types of stringed instruments and drums have been recovered from Harrappa and Mohenjo Daro by excavations carried out by Sir Mortimer Wheeler. World History: Societies of the Past By Charles Kahn (page 11) The Rigveda has elements of present Indian music, with a musical notation to denote the metre and the mode of chanting. World Music: The Basics By Nidel Nidel, Richard O. Nidel (page 10) Indian classical music (marga) is monophonic, and based around a single melody line or raga rhythmically organized through talas. Carnatic music is largely devotional; the majority of the songs are addressed to the Hindu deities. There are a lot of songs emphasising love and other social issues. Hindustani music was also influenced by the Persian performance practices of the Afghan Mughals. Asian music covers the music cultures of Arabia, Central Asia, East Asia, South Asia, and Southeast Asia. Chinese classical music, the traditional art or court music of China, has a history stretching over around three thousand years. It has its own unique systems of musical notation, as well as musical tuning and pitch, musical instruments and styles or musical genres. Chinese music is pentatonic-diatonic, having a scale of twelve notes to an octave (5+7 = 12) as does European-influenced music. Persian music is the music of Persia and Persian language countries: musiqi, the science and art of music, and muzik, the sound and performance of music (Sakata 1983). See also: Music of Iran, Music of Afghanistan, Music of Tajikistan, Music of Uzbekistan). The music of Greece was a major part of ancient Greek theater. In Ancient Greece, mixed-gender choruses performed for entertainment, celebration and spiritual reasons. Instruments included the double-reed aulos and the plucked string instrument, the lyre, especially the special kind called a kithara. Music was an important part of education in ancient Greece, and boys were taught music starting at age six. Greek musical literacy created a flowering of development; Greek music theory included the Greek musical modes, eventually became the basis for Western religious music and classical music. Later, influences from the Roman Empire, Eastern Europe and the Byzantine Empire changed Greek music. Performance Chinese Naxi musicians Performance is the physical expression of music. Often, a musical work is performed once its structure and instrumentation are satisfactory to its creators; however, as it gets performed, it can evolve and change. A performance can either be rehearsed or improvised. Improvisation is a musical idea created without premeditation, while rehearsal is vigorous repetition of an idea until it has achieved cohesion. Musicians will sometimes add improvisation to a well-rehearsed idea to create a unique performance. Many cultures include strong traditions of solo and performance, such as in Indian classical music, and in the Western Art music tradition. Other cultures, such as in Bali, include strong traditions of group performance. All cultures include a mixture of both, and performance may range from improvised solo playing for one's enjoyment to highly planned and organised performance rituals such as the modern classical concert, religious processions, music festivals or music competitions. Chamber music, which is music for a small ensemble with only a few of each type of instrument, is often seen as more intimate than symphonic works. Aural tradition Many types of music, such as traditional blues and folk music were originally preserved in the memory of performers, and the songs were handed down orally, or aurally (by ear). When the composer of music is no longer known, this music is often classified as "traditional". Different musical traditions have different attitudes towards how and where to make changes to the original source material, from quite strict, to those which demand improvisation or modification to the music. A culture's history may also be passed by ear through song. Ornamentation The detail included explicitly in the music notation varies between genres and historical periods. In general, art music notation from the 17th through the 19th century required performers to have a great deal of contextual knowledge about performing styles. For example, in the 17th and 18th century, music notated for solo performers typically indicated a simple, unornamented melody. However, it was expected that performers would know how to add stylistically-appropriate ornaments such as trills and turns. In the 19th century, art music for solo performers may give a general instruction such as to perform the music expressively, without describing in detail how the performer should do this. It was expected that the performer would know how to use tempo changes, accentuation, and pauses (among other devices) to obtain this "expressive" performance style. In the 20th century, art music notation often became more explicit and used a range of markings and annotations to indicate to performers how they should play or sing the piece. In popular music and jazz, music notation almost always indicates only the basic framework of the melody, harmony, or performance approach; musicians and singers are expected to know the performance conventions and styles associated with specific genres and pieces. For example, the "lead sheet" for a jazz tune may only indicate the melody and the chord changes. The performers in the jazz ensemble are expected to know how to "flesh out" this basic structure by adding ornaments, improvised music, and chordal accompaniment. Production Music is composed and performed for many purposes, ranging from aesthetic pleasure, religious or ceremonial purposes, or as an entertainment product for the marketplace. Amateur musicians compose and perform music for their own pleasure, and they do not derive their income from music. Professional musicians are employed by a range of institutions and organisations, including armed forces, churches and synagogues, symphony orchestras, broadcasting or film production companies, and music schools. Professional musicians sometimes work as freelancers, seeking contracts and engagements in a variety of settings. There are often many links between amateur and professional musicians. Beginning amateur musicians take lessons with professional musicians. In community settings, advanced amateur musicians perform with professional musicians in a variety of ensembles and orchestras. In some cases, amateur musicians attain a professional level of competence, and they are able to perform in professional performance settings. A distinction is often made between music performed for the benefit of a live audience and music that is performed for the purpose of being recorded and distributed through the music retail system or the broadcasting system. However, there are also many cases where a live performance in front of an audience is recorded and distributed (or broadcast). Composition "Composition" is often classed as the creation and recording of music via a medium by which others can interpret it (i.e. paper or sound). Many cultures use at least part of the concept of preconceiving musical material, or composition, as held in western classical music. Even when music is notated precisely, there are still many decisions that a performer has to make. The process of a performer deciding how to perform music that has been previously composed and notated is termed interpretation. Different performers' interpretations of the same music can vary widely. Composers and song writers who present their own music are interpreting, just as much as those who perform the music of others or folk music. The standard body of choices and techniques present at a given time and a given place is referred to as performance practice, whereas interpretation is generally used to mean either individual choices of a performer, or an aspect of music which is not clear, and therefore has a "standard" interpretation. In some musical genres, such as jazz and blues, even more freedom is given to the performer to engage in improvisation on a basic melodic, harmonic, or rhythmic framework. The greatest latitude is given to the performer in a style of performing called free improvisation, which is material that is spontaneously "thought of" (imagined) while being performed, not preconceived. Improvised music usually follows stylistic or genre conventions and even "fully composed" includes some freely chosen material. Composition does not always mean the use of notation, or the known sole authorship of one individual. Music can also be determined by describing a "process" which may create musical sounds; examples of this range from wind chimes, through computer programs which select sounds. Music which contains elements selected by chance is called Aleatoric music, and is associated with such composers as John Cage, Morton Feldman, and Witold Lutosławski. Music can be composed for repeated performance or it can be improvised: composed on the spot. The music can be performed entirely from memory, from a written system of musical notation, or some combination of both. Study of composition has traditionally been dominated by examination of methods and practice of Western classical music, but the definition of composition is broad enough to include spontaneously improvised works like those of free jazz performers and African drummers such as the Ewe drummers. What is important in understanding the composition of a piece is singling out its elements. An understanding of music's formal elements can be helpful in deciphering exactly how a piece is constructed. A universal element of music is how sounds occur in time, which is referred to as the rhythm of a piece of music. When a piece appears to have a changing time-feel, it is considered to be in rubato time, an Italian expression that indicates that the tempo of the piece changes to suit the expressive intent of the performer. Even random placement of random sounds, which occurs in musical montage, occurs within some kind of time, and thus employs time as a musical element. Notation Notation is the written expression of music notes and rhythms on paper using symbols. When music is written down, the pitches and rhythm of the music is notated, along with instructions on how to perform the music. The study of how to read notation involves music theory, harmony, the study of performance practice, and in some cases an understanding of historical performance methods. Written notation varies with style and period of music. In Western Art music, the most common types of written notation are scores, which include all the music parts of an ensemble piece, and parts, which are the music notation for the individual performers or singers. In popular music, jazz, and blues, the standard musical notation is the lead sheet, which notates the melody, chords, lyrics (if it is a vocal piece), and structure of the music. Scores and parts are also used in popular music and jazz, particularly in large ensembles such as jazz "big bands." In popular music, guitarists and electric bass players often read music notated in tablature (often abbreviated as "tab"), which indicates the location of the notes to be played on the instrument using a diagram of the guitar or bass fingerboard. Tabulature was also used in the Baroque era to notate music for the lute, a stringed, fretted instrument. Notated music is produced as sheet music. To perform music from notation requires an understanding of both the rhythmic and pitch elements embodied in the symbols and the performance practice that is associated with a piece of music or a genre. Improvisation Musical improvisation is the creation of spontaneous music. Improvisation is often considered an act of instantaneous composition by performers, where compositional techniques are employed with or without preparation. Improvisation is a major part of some types of music, such as blues, jazz, and jazz fusion, in which instrumental performers improvise solos and melody lines. In the Western art music tradition, improvisation was an important skill during the Baroque era and during the Classical era; solo performers and singers would improvise virtuoso cadenzas during concerts. However, in the 20th and 21st century, improvisation played a smaller role in Western Art music. Theory Music theory encompasses the nature and mechanics of music. It often involves identifying patterns that govern composers' techniques. In a more detailed sense, music theory (in the western system) also distills and analyzes the elements of music—rhythm, harmony (harmonic function), melody, structure, and texture. People who study these properties are known as music theorists. Cognition A chamber music group consisting of stringed instrument players, a flutist, and a harpsichordist perform in Salzburg The field of music cognition involves the study of many aspects of music including how it is processed by listeners. Rather than accepting the standard practices of analyzing, composing, and performing music as a given, much research in music cognition seeks instead to uncover the mental processes that underlie these practices. Also, research in the field seeks to uncover commonalities between the musical traditions of disparate cultures and possible cognitive "constraints" that limit these musical systems. Questions regarding musical innateness, and emotional responses to music are also major areas of research in the field. Deaf people can experience music by feeling the vibrations in their body, a process which can be enhanced if the individual holds a resonant, hollow object. A well-known deaf musician is the composer Ludwig van Beethoven, who composed many famous works even after he had completely lost his hearing. Recent examples of deaf musicians include Evelyn Glennie, a highly acclaimed percussionist who has been deaf since age twelve, and Chris Buck, a virtuoso violinist who has lost his hearing. This is relevant because it indicates that music is a deeper cognitive process than unexamined phrases such as, "pleasing to the ear" would suggest. Much research in music cognition seeks to uncover these complex mental processes involved in listening to music, which may seem intuitively simple, yet are vastly intricate and complex. Sociology This Song Dynasty (960–1279) painting, entitled the "Night Revels of Han Xizai", shows Chinese musicians entertaining guests at a party in a 10th century household. Music is experienced by individuals in a range of social settings ranging from being alone to attending a large concert. Musical performances take different forms in different cultures and socioeconomic milieus. In Europe and North America, there is often a divide between what types of music are viewed as a "high culture" and "low culture." "High culture" types of music typically include Western art music such as Baroque, Classical, Romantic, and modern-era symphonies, concertos, and solo works, and are typically heard in formal concerts in concert halls and churches, with the audience sitting quietly in seats. Other types of music—including, but not limited to, jazz, blues, soul, and country—are often performed in bars, nightclubs, and theatres, where the audience may be able to drink, dance, and express themselves by cheering. Until the later 20th century, the division between "high" and "low" musical forms was widely accepted as a valid distinction that separated out better quality, more advanced "art music" from the popular styles of music heard in bars and dance halls. However, in the 1980s and 1990s, musicologists studying this perceived divide between "high" and "low" musical genres argued that this distinction is not based on the musical value or quality of the different types of music. Rather, they argued that this distinction was based largely on the socioeconomics standing or social class of the performers or audience of the different types of music. For example, whereas the audience for Classical symphony concerts typically have above-average incomes, the audience for a rap concert in an inner-city area may have below-average incomes. Even though the performers, audience, or venue where non-"art" music is performed may have a lower socioeconomic status, the music that is performed, such as blues, rap, punk, funk, or ska may be very complex and sophisticated. When composers introduce styles of music which break with convention, there can be a strong resistance from academic music experts and popular culture. Late-period Beethoven string quartets, Stravinsky ballet scores, serialism, bebop-era jazz, hip hop, punk rock, and electronica have all been considered non-music by some critics when they were first introduced. Such themes are examined in the sociology of music. The sociological study of music, sometimes called sociomusicology, is often pursued in departments of sociology, media studies, or music, and is closely related to the field of ethnomusicology. Media and technology The music that composers make can be heard through several media; the most traditional way is to hear it live, in the presence, or as one of the musicians. Live music can also be broadcast over the radio, television or the Internet. Some musical styles focus on producing a sound for a performance, while others focus on producing a recording which mixes together sounds which were never played "live". Recording, even of styles which are essentially live, often uses the ability to edit and splice to produce recordings which are considered better than the actual performance. As talking pictures emerged in the early 20th century, with their prerecorded musical tracks, an increasing number of moviehouse orchestra musicians found themselves out of work. American Federation of Musicians/History During the 1920s live musical performances by orchestras, pianists, and theater organists were common at first-run theaters. Hubbard (1985), p. 429. With the coming of the talking motion pictures, those featured performances were largely eliminated. The American Federation of Musicians (AFM) took out newspaper advertisements protesting the replacement of live musicians with mechanical playing devices. One 1929 ad that appeared in the Pittsburgh Press features an image of a can labeled "Canned Music / Big Noise Brand / Guaranteed to Produce No Intellectual or Emotional Reaction Whatever" "Canned Music on Trial" part of Duke University's Ad*Access project. Since legislation introduced to help protect performers, composers, publishers and producers, including the Audio Home Recording Act of 1992 in the United States, and the 1979 revised Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works in the United Kingdom, recordings and live performances have also become more accessible through computers, devices and Internet in a form that is commonly known as Music-On-Demand. In many cultures, there is less distinction between performing and listening to music, since virtually everyone is involved in some sort of musical activity, often communal. In industrialized countries, listening to music through a recorded form, such as sound recording or watching a music video, became more common than experiencing live performance, roughly in the middle of the 20th century. Sometimes, live performances incorporate prerecorded sounds. For example, a disc jockey uses disc records for scratching, and some 20th century works have a solo for an instrument or voice that is performed along with music that is prerecorded onto a tape. Computers and many keyboards can be programmed to produce and play Musical Instrument Digital Interface (MIDI) music. Audiences can also become performers by participating in karaoke, an activity of Japanese origin which centres around a device that plays voice-eliminated versions of well-known songs. Most karaoke machines also have video screens that show lyrics to songs being performed; performers can follow the lyrics as they sing over the instrumental tracks. Internet The advent of the Internet has transformed the experience of music, partly through the increased ease of access to music and the increased choice. Chris Anderson, in his book The Long Tail: Why the Future of Business is Selling Less of More, suggests that while the economic model of supply and demand describes scarcity, the Internet retail model is based on abundance. Digital storage costs are low, so a company can afford to make its whole inventory available online, giving customers as much choice as possible. It has thus become economically viable to offer products that very few people are interested in. Consumers' growing awareness of their increased choice results in a closer association between listening tastes and social identity, and the creation of thousands of niche markets. Anderson, Chris (2006). The Long Tail: Why the Future of Business is Selling Less of More. Hyperion. ISBN 1-4013-0237-8. Another effect of the Internet arises with online communities like YouTube and MySpace. MySpace has made social networking with other musicians easier, and greatly facilitates the distribution of one's music. YouTube also has a large community of both amateur and professional musicians who post videos and comments. Professional musicians also use YouTube as a free publisher of promotional material. YouTube users, for example, no longer only download and listen to MP3s, but also actively create their own. According to Don Tapscott and Anthony D. Williams, in their book Wikinomics, there has been a shift from a traditional consumer role to what they call a "prosumer" role, a consumer who both creates and consumes. Manifestations of this in music include the production of mashes, remixes, and music videos by fans. Business The music industry refers to the business industry connected with the creation and sale of music. It consists of record companies, labels and publishers that distribute recorded music products internationally and that often control the rights to those products. Some music labels are "independent," while others are subsidiaries of larger corporate entities or international media groups. In the 2000s, the increasing popularity of listening to music as digital music files on MP3 players, iPods, or computers, and of trading music on file sharing sites or buying it online in the form of digital files had a major impact on the traditional music business. Many smaller independent CD stores went out of business as music buyers decreased their purchases of CDs, and many labels had lower CD sales. Some companies did well with the change to a digital format, though, such as Apple's iTunes, an online store which sells digital files of songs over the Internet. Education Non-professional The incorporation of music training from preschool to post secondary education is common in North America and Europe. Involvement in music is thought to teach basic skills such as concentration, counting, listening, and cooperation while also promoting understanding of language, improving the ability to recall information, and creating an environment more conducive to learning in other areas. Woodall and Ziembroski, 2002 In elementary schools, children often learn to play instruments such as the recorder, sing in small choirs, and learn about the history of Western art music. In secondary schools students may have the opportunity to perform some type of musical ensembles, such as choirs, marching bands, concert bands, jazz bands, or orchestras, and in some school systems, music classes may be available. Some students also take private music lessons with a teacher. Amateur musicians typically take lessons to learn musical rudiments and beginner- to intermediate-level musical techniques. At the university level, students in most arts and humanities programs can receive credit for taking music courses, which typically take the form of an overview course on the history of music, or a music appreciation course that focuses on listening to music and learning about different musical styles. In addition, most North American and European universities have some type of musical ensembles that non-music students are able to participate in, such as choirs, marching bands, or orchestras. The study of Western art music is increasingly common outside of North America and Europe, such as the Indonesian Institute of the Arts in Yogyakarta, Indonesia, or the classical music programs that are available in Asian countries such as South Korea, Japan, and China. At the same time, Western universities and colleges are widening their curriculum to include music of non-Western cultures, such as the music of Africa or Bali (e.g. Gamelan music). Academia Musicology is the study of the subject of music. The earliest definitions defined three sub-disciplines: systematic musicology, historical musicology, and comparative musicology or ethnomusicology. In contemporary scholarship, one is more likely to encounter a division of the discipline into music theory, music history, and ethnomusicology. Research in musicology has often been enriched by cross-disciplinary work, for example in the field of psychoacoustics. The study of music of non-western cultures, and the cultural study of music, is called ethnomusicology. Graduates of undergraduate music programs can go on to further study in music graduate programs. Graduate degrees include the Master of Music, the Master of Arts, the Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) (e.g., in musicology or music theory), and more recently, the Doctor of Musical Arts, or DMA. The Master of Music degree, which takes one to two years to complete, is typically awarded to students studying the performance of an instrument, education, voice or composition. The Master of Arts degree, which takes one to two years to complete and often requires a thesis, is typically awarded to students studying musicology, music history, or music theory. Undergraduate university degrees in music, including the Bachelor of Music, the Bachelor of Music Education, and the Bachelor of Arts (with a major in music) typically take three to five years to complete. These degrees provide students with a grounding in music theory and music history, and many students also study an instrument or learn singing technique as part of their program. The PhD, which is required for students who want to work as university professors in musicology, music history, or music theory, takes three to five years of study after the Master's degree, during which time the student will complete advanced courses and undertake research for a dissertation. The DMAis a relatively new degree that was created to provide a credential for professional performers or composers that want to work as university professors in musical performance or composition. The DMA takes three to five years after a Master's degree, and includes advanced courses, projects, and performances. In Medieval times, the study of music was one of the Quadrivium of the seven Liberal Arts and considered vital to higher learning. Within the quantitative Quadrivium, music, or more accurately harmonics, was the study of rational proportions. Zoomusicology is the study of the music of non-human animals, or the musical aspects of sounds produced by non-human animals. As George Herzog (1941) asked, "do animals have music?" François-Bernard Mâche's Musique, mythe, nature, ou les Dauphins d'Arion (1983), a study of "ornitho-musicology" using a technique of Nicolas Ruwet's Language, musique, poésie (1972) paradigmatic segmentation analysis, shows that bird songs are organised according to a repetition-transformation principle. Jean-Jacques Nattiez (1990), argues that "in the last analysis, it is a human being who decides what is and is not musical, even when the sound is not of human origin. If we acknowledge that sound is not organised and conceptualised (that is, made to form music) merely by its producer, but by the mind that perceives it, then music is uniquely human." Music theory is the study of music, generally in a highly technical manner outside of other disciplines. More broadly it refers to any study of music, usually related in some form with compositional concerns, and may include mathematics, physics, and anthropology. What is most commonly taught in beginning music theory classes are guidelines to write in the style of the common practice period, or tonal music. Theory, even that which studies music of the common practice period, may take many other forms. Musical set theory is the application of mathematical set theory to music, first applied to atonal music. Speculative music theory, contrasted with analytic music theory, is devoted to the analysis and synthesis of music materials, for example tuning systems, generally as preparation for composition. Ethnomusicology In the West, much of the history of music that is taught deals with the Western civilization's art music. The history of music in other cultures ("world music" or the field of "ethnomusicology") is also taught in Western universities. This includes the documented classical traditions of Asian countries outside the influence of Western Europe, as well as the folk or indigenous music of various other cultures. Popular styles of music varied widely from culture to culture, and from period to period. Different cultures emphasised different instruments, or techniques, or uses for music. Music has been used not only for entertainment, for ceremonies, and for practical and artistic communication, but also for propaganda in totalitarian countries. There is a host of music classifications, many of which are caught up in the argument over the definition of music. Among the largest of these is the division between classical music (or "art" music), and popular music (or commercial music - including rock and roll, country music, and pop music). Some genres do not fit neatly into one of these "big two" classifications, (such as folk music, world music, or jazz music). As world cultures have come into greater contact, their indigenous musical styles have often merged into new styles. For example, the United States bluegrass style contains elements from Anglo-Irish, Scottish, Irish, German and African instrumental and vocal traditions, which were able to fuse in the United States' multi-ethnic society. Genres of music are determined as much by tradition and presentation as by the actual music. Some works, like George Gershwin's Rhapsody in Blue, are claimed by both jazz and classical music, while Gershwin's Porgy and Bess and Leonard Bernstein's West Side Story are claimed by both opera and the Broadway musical tradition. Many current music festivals celebrate a particular musical genre. Indian music, for example, is one of the oldest and longest living types of music, and is still widely heard and performed in South Asia, as well as internationally (especially since the 1960s). Indian music has mainly three forms of classical music, Hindustani, Carnatic, and Dhrupad styles. It has also a large repertoire of styles, which involve only percussion music such as the talavadya performances famous in South India. Music therapy Music therapy is an interpersonal process in which the therapist uses music and all of its facets—physical, emotional, mental, social, aesthetic, and spiritual—to help clients to improve or maintain their health. In some instances, the client's needs are addressed directly through music; in others they are addressed through the relationships that develop between the client and therapist. Music therapy is used with individuals of all ages and with a variety of conditions, including: psychiatric disorders, medical problems, physical handicaps, sensory impairments, developmental disabilities, substance abuse, communication disorders, interpersonal problems, and aging. It is also used to: improve learning, build self-esteem, reduce stress, support physical exercise, and facilitate a host of other health-related activities. Music has long been used to help people deal with their emotions. In the 17th century, the scholar Robert Burton's The Anatomy of Melancholy argued that music and dance were critical in treating mental illness, especially melancholia. cf. The Anatomy of Melancholy, Robert Burton, subsection 3, on and after line 3,480, "Music a Remedy" He noted that music has an "excellent power ...to expel many other diseases" and he called it "a sovereign remedy against despair and melancholy". He pointed out that in Antiquity, Canus, a Rhodian fiddler, used music to "make a melancholy man merry, ...a lover more enamoured, a religious man more devout." Ismenias the Theban, Chiron the centaur, is said to have cured this and many other diseases by music alone: as now thy do those, saith Bodine, that are troubled with St. Vitus's Bedlam dance. Project Gutenberg's The Anatomy of Melancholy, by Democritus Junior "Humanities are the Hormones: A Tarantella Comes to Newfoundland. What should we do about it?" by Dr. John Crellin, MUNMED, newsletter of the Faculty of Medicine, Memorial University of Newfoundland, 1996. Aung, Steven K.H., Lee, Mathew H.M., "Music, Sounds, Medicine, and Meditation: An Integrative Approach to the Healing Arts", Alternative & Complementary Therapies, Oct 2004, Vol. 10, No. 5: 266-270. In November 2006, Dr. Michael J. Crawford Dr. Michael J. Crawford page at Imperial College London, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Psychological Medicine. and his colleagues also found that music therapy helped schizophrenic patients. In the Ottoman Empire, mental illnesses were treated with music. Treatment of Mental Illnesses With Music Therapy - A different approach from history See also List of basic music topics List of music topics Wikipedia Books: Music References Further reading Colles, Henry Cope (1978). The Growth of Music : A Study in Musical History, 4th ed., London ; New York : Oxford University Press. ISBN 0193161168 (1913 edition online at Google Books) Harwood, Dane (1976). "Universals in Music: A Perspective from Cognitive Psychology", Ethnomusicology 20, no. 3:521-33. Johnson, Julian (2002). Who Needs Classical Music?: Cultural Choice and Musical Value. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-514681-6. Kertz-Welzel, Alexandra. "Piano Improvisation Develops Musicianship." Orff-Echo XXXVII No. 1 (2004): 11-14. Kertz-Welzel, Alexandra. "The Singing Muse: Three Centuries of Music Education in Germany." Journal of Historical Research in Music Education XXVI no. 1 (2004): 8-27. Kertz-Welzel, Alexandra. "Didaktik of Music: A German Concept and its Comparison to American Music Pedagogy." International Journal of Music Education (Practice) 22 No. 3 (2004): 277-286. Kertz-Welzel, Alexandra. "General Music Education in Germany Today: A Look at How Popular Music is Engaging Students." General Music Today 18 no. 2 (Winter 2005): 14-16. Molino, Jean (1975). "Fait musical et sémiologue de la musique", Musique en Jeu, no. 17:37-62. Nattiez, Jean-Jacques (1987). Music and Discourse: Toward a Semiology of Music (Musicologie générale et sémiologue, 1987). Translated by Carolyn Abbate (1979). ISBN 0-691-02714-5. Owen, Harold (2000). Music Theory Resource Book. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-511539-2. Small, Christopher (1977). Music, Society, Education. John Calder Publishers, London. ISBN 0-7145-3614-8 Habib Hassan Touma (1996). The Music of the Arabs, trans. Laurie Schwartz. Portland, Oregon: Amadeus Press. ISBN 0-931340-88-8 Woodall, Laura and Brenda Ziembroski, (2002). Promoting Literacy Through Music. External links BBC Blast Music For 13-19 year olds interested in learning about, making, performing and talking about music. The Virginia Tech Multimedia Music Dictionary, with definitions, pronunciations, examples, quizzes and simulations The Music-Web Music Encyclopedia, for musicians, composers and music lovers Dolmetsch free online music dictionary, complete, with references to a list of specialised music dictionaries (by continent, by instrument, by genre, etc.) Musical Terms - Glossary of music terms from Naxos "On Hermeneutical Ethics and Education: Bach als Erzieher", a paper by Prof. Miguel Ángel Quintana Paz in which he explains the history of the different views hold about music in Western societies, since the Ancient Greece to our days. Monthly Online Features From Bloomingdale School of Music, addressing a variety of musical topics for a wide audience Arts and Music Uplifting Society towards Transformation and Tolerance Articles meant to stimulate people’s awareness about the peace enhancing, transforming, communicative, educational and healing powers of music. http://www.wikimusicguide.com/ be-x-old:Музыка | Music |@lemmatized music:333 art:34 form:18 whose:1 medium:6 sound:20 organize:3 time:11 common:9 element:10 pitch:5 govern:2 melody:13 harmony:6 rhythm:7 associated:1 concept:4 tempo:3 meter:1 articulation:1 dynamic:1 sonic:1 quality:4 timbre:1 texture:3 word:1 derive:2 greek:9 μουσική:1 mousike:2 mus:1 henry:2 george:3 liddell:1 robert:3 scott:1 english:1 lexicon:1 perseus:1 creation:5 performance:33 significance:1 even:11 definition:5 vary:3 accord:4 culture:24 social:8 context:1 range:11 strictly:1 composition:13 recreation:1 improvisational:1 aleatoric:2 divide:3 genre:17 subgenres:3 although:1 dividing:1 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5,267 | Holocene | see also: Anthropocene The Holocene is a geological epoch which began approximately 11 700 years ago (10 000 14C years ago). According to traditional geological thinking, the Holocene continues to the present. The Holocene is part of the Neogene and Quaternary periods. Its name comes from the Greek words (holos, whole or entire) and (kainos, new), meaning "entirely recent". It has been identified with MIS 1 and can be considered an interglacial in the current ice age. Overview It is generally accepted that the Holocene started approximately 10 ka (thousand years) Before Present. The period follows the Wisconsin glaciation (also known as the Baltic-Scandinavian Ice Age or the Weichsel glacial). The Holocene can be subdivided into five chronozones based on climatic fluctuations: Preboreal (10 ka – 9 ka), Boreal (9 ka – 8 ka), Atlantic (8 ka – 5 ka), Subboreal (5 ka – 2.5 ka) and Subatlantic (2.5 ka – present). Human civilization dates entirely within the Holocene. The Blytt-Sernander classification of climatic periods defined, initially, by plant remains in peat mosses, is now of purely historical interest. The scheme was defined for north Europe, but the climate changes have been claimed to occur more widely. The periods of the scheme include a few of the final, pre-Holocene, oscillations of the last glacial period and then classify climates of more recent prehistory. Paleontologists have defined no faunal stages for Holocene. If subdivision is necessary, periods of human technological development such as the Mesolithic, Neolithic, and Bronze Age are usually used. However, the time periods referenced by these terms vary with the emergence of those technologies in different parts of the world. Climatically, the Holocene may be divided evenly into the Hypsithermal and Neoglacial periods; the boundary coincides with the start of the Bronze Age in western civilization. According to some scholars, a third division, the Anthropocene, began in the 18th Century Fred Pearce (2007). With Speed and Violence. Page 21. ISBN 978-0-8070-8576-9 . It is debatable whether this is an age within, or follows, the Holocene epoch. Geology Holocene cinder cone volcano on State Highway 18 near Veyo, Utah. Continental motions are less than a kilometre over a span of only 10 ka. However, ice melt caused world sea levels to rise about 35 m (110 ft) in the early part of the Holocene. In addition, many areas above about 40 degrees north latitude had been depressed by the weight of the Pleistocene glaciers and rose as much as 180 m (600 ft) over the late Pleistocene and Holocene, and are still rising today. The sea level rise and temporary land depression allowed temporary marine incursions into areas that are now far from the sea. Holocene marine fossils are known from Vermont, Quebec, Ontario, and Michigan. Other than higher latitude temporary marine incursions associated with glacial depression, Holocene fossils are found primarily in lakebed, floodplain, and cave deposits. Holocene marine deposits along low-latitude coastlines are rare because the rise in sea levels during the period exceeds any likely upthrusting of non-glacial origin. Post-glacial rebound in the Scandinavia region resulted in the formation of the Baltic Sea. The region continues to rise, still causing weak earthquakes across Northern Europe. The equivalent event in North America was the rebound of Hudson Bay, as it shrank from its larger, immediate post-glacial Tyrrell Sea phase, to near its present boundaries. Climate Climate has been fairly stable over the Holocene. Ice core records show that before the Holocene there were global warming and cooling periods, but climate changes became more regional at the start of the Younger Dryas. During the transition from last glacial to holocene, the Huelmo/Mascardi Cold Reversal in the Southern Hemisphere began before the Younger Dryas, and the maximum warmth flowed south to north from 11 000 to 7 000 years ago. It appears that this was influenced by the residual glacial ice remaining in the Northern Hemisphere until the latter date. The hypsithermal was a period of warming in which the global climate became warmer. However, the warming was probably not uniform across the world. This period ended about 5 500 years ago, when the earliest human civilizations in Asia and Africa were flourishing. This period of warmth ended with the descent into the Neoglacial. At that time, the climate was not unlike today's, but there was a slightly warmer period from the 10th–14th centuries known as the Medieval Warm Period. This was followed by the Little Ice Age, from the 13th or 14th century to the mid 19th century, which was a period of significant cooling, though not everywhere as severe as previous times during neoglaciation. The Holocene warming is an interglacial period and there is no reason to believe that it represents a permanent end to the current ice age. However, the current global warming may result in the Earth becoming warmer than the Eemian Stage, which peaked at roughly 125 000 years ago and was warmer than the Holocene. This prediction is sometimes referred to as a super-interglacial. Compared to glacial conditions, habitable zones have expanded northwards, reaching their northernmost point during the hypsithermal. Greater moisture in the polar regions has caused the disappearance of steppe-tundra. Ecological developments Animal and plant life have not evolved much during the relatively short Holocene, but there have been major shifts in the distributions of plants and animals. A number of large animals including mammoths and mastodons, saber-toothed cats like Smilodon and Homotherium, and giant sloths disappeared in the late Pleistocene and early Holocene—especially in North America, where animals that survived elsewhere (including horses and camels) became extinct. This extinction of American megafauna has been explained as caused by the arrival of the ancestors of Amerindians; though most scholars assert that climatic change also contributed, as well as a cometary bolide event over North America which is theorized to have triggered the Younger Dryas. "Blast from the Past? A controversial new idea suggests that a big space rock exploded on or above North America at the end of the last ice age," by Rex Dalton, Nature, vol. 447, no. 7142, pages 256-257 (17 May 2007). Available on-line at: http://www.geo.arizona.edu/~reiners/blackmat.pdf. Throughout the world, ecosystems in cooler climates that were previously regional have been isolated in higher altitude ecological "islands." The 8.2 ka event, an abrupt cold spell recorded as a negative excursion in the record lasting 400 years, is the most prominent climatic event occurring in the Holocene epoch, and may have marked a resurgence of ice cover. It is thought that this event was caused by the final drainage of Lake Agassiz which had been confined by the glaciers, disrupting the thermohaline circulation of the Atlantic . Human developments The beginning of the Holocene corresponds with the beginning of the Mesolithic age in most of Europe; but in regions such as the Middle East and Anatolia with a very early neolithisation, Epipaleolithic is preferred in place of Mesolithic. Cultures in this period include: Hamburgian, Federmesser, and the Natufian culture. Both are followed by the aceramic Neolithic (Pre-Pottery Neolithic A and Pre-Pottery Neolithic B) and the pottery Neolithic. Impact events Within the Holocene numerous meteorite events have been recently discovered in Europe, as well as in seas such as the Indian Ocean and near remote Siberia (Tunguska event). It has been speculated that an impact effect such as that represented today by the Burckle crater or the Chiemgau Impact crater could have dramatically affected human culture in its early history by the creation of megatsunamis, perhaps inspiring deluge or inundation stories such as that of Noah's Flood. A washout effect from such waves may have breached land bridges with sudden massive erosion, along with violent weather changes. Competing reasons for the various basin floods also include climate change and earthquake fault lines weakening the barriers to ocean encroachment. Further reading Roberts, Neil. (1998). The Holocene: an environmental history. 2nd ed. Malden, MA: Blackwell. Mackay, A.W., Battarbee, R.W., Birks, H.J.B. & Oldfield, F. (2003) Editors. Global change in the Holocene. Publisher: Arnold, London. 528 pp (29 chapters) See also 8.2 kiloyear event Blytt-Sernander Deluge (prehistoric) Holocene calendar Holocene extinction event Holocene Impact Working Group Homogenocene Neolithic Subpluvial Older Peron Piora Oscillation 10th millennium BC Last Glacial Maximum 1 E11 s Cenozoic Era Prehistory References Ogg, Jim; June, 2004, Overview of Global Boundary Stratotype Sections and Points (GSSP's) http://www.stratigraphy.org/gssp.htm Accessed April 30, 2006 External links http://extinctanimals.petermaas.nl/ The 8.2 ka event Detecting Holocene changes in thermohaline circulation | Holocene |@lemmatized see:2 also:5 anthropocene:2 holocene:32 geological:2 epoch:3 begin:3 approximately:2 year:7 ago:5 accord:2 traditional:1 thinking:1 continue:2 present:4 part:3 neogene:1 quaternary:1 period:18 name:1 come:1 greek:1 word:1 holos:1 whole:1 entire:1 kainos:1 new:2 meaning:1 entirely:2 recent:2 identify:1 mis:1 consider:1 interglacial:3 current:3 ice:9 age:9 overview:2 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5,268 | Merchant | "A merchant making up the account" by Katsushika Hokusai Merchants function as professionals who deal with trade, dealing in commodities that they do not produce themselves, in order to produce profit. Merchants can be of two types: A wholesale merchant operates in the chain between producer and retail merchant. Some wholesale merchants only organize the movement of goods rather than move the goods themselves. A retail merchant or retailer, sells commodities to consumers (including businesses). A shop owner is a retail merchant. A merchant class characterizes many pre-modern societies. Its status can range from high (even achieving titles like that of merchant prince or nabob) to low, such as in Chinese culture, due to the soiling capabilities of profiting from "mere" trade, rather than from the labor of others reflected in agricultural produce, craftsmanship, and tribute. Significance in law In the United States, "merchant" is defined (under the Uniform Commercial Code) as any person while engaged in a business or profession or a seller who deals regularly in the type of goods sold. Under the common law and the Uniform Commercial Code in the United States, merchants are held to a higher standard in the selling of products than those who are not engaged in the sale of goods as a profession. For example, when a merchant sells something, he or she is deemed to give an implied warranty of merchantability, guaranteeing that the product is fit to be sold, even if there is nothing in writing to this effect. The UCC also contains a "merchant's confirmation" exception to the Statute of Frauds. References The Merchant Class of Medieval London By Sylvia L. Thrupp See also Agricultural marketing Capitalism Commerce Distribution Mercantilism Merchant marine Merchant account Sales | Merchant |@lemmatized merchant:17 make:1 account:2 katsushika:1 hokusai:1 function:1 professional:1 deal:3 trade:2 commodity:2 produce:3 order:1 profit:2 two:1 type:2 wholesale:2 operate:1 chain:1 producer:1 retail:3 organize:1 movement:1 good:4 rather:2 move:1 retailer:1 sell:4 consumer:1 include:1 business:2 shop:1 owner:1 class:2 characterize:1 many:1 pre:1 modern:1 society:1 status:1 range:1 high:2 even:2 achieve:1 title:1 like:1 prince:1 nabob:1 low:1 chinese:1 culture:1 due:1 soil:1 capability:1 mere:1 labor:1 others:1 reflect:1 agricultural:2 craftsmanship:1 tribute:1 significance:1 law:2 united:2 state:2 define:1 uniform:2 commercial:2 code:2 person:1 engage:2 profession:2 seller:1 regularly:1 common:1 hold:1 standard:1 selling:1 product:2 sale:2 example:1 something:1 deem:1 give:1 implied:1 warranty:1 merchantability:1 guarantee:1 fit:1 nothing:1 write:1 effect:1 ucc:1 also:2 contain:1 confirmation:1 exception:1 statute:1 fraud:1 reference:1 medieval:1 london:1 sylvia:1 l:1 thrupp:1 see:1 marketing:1 capitalism:1 commerce:1 distribution:1 mercantilism:1 marine:1 |@bigram merchant_marine:1 |
5,269 | George_Stephenson | George Stephenson (9 June 1781 – 12 August 1848) was an English civil engineer and mechanical engineer who built the first public railway line in the world to use steam locomotives and is known as the "Father of Railways". The Victorians considered him a great example of diligent application and thirst for improvement, with self-help advocate Samuel Smiles particularly praising his achievements. His rail gauge of , sometimes called "Stephenson gauge", is the world's standard gauge. Early life George Stephenson George Stephenson was born in Wylam, Northumberland, west of Newcastle upon Tyne. He was the second child of Robert and Mabel, neither of whom could read or write. Robert was the fireman for Wylam Colliery pumping engine, earning a low wage, so that there was no money for schooling. At 17, Stephenson became an engineman at Water Row Pit, Newburn. George realised the value of education and paid to study at night school to learn reading, writing and arithmetic. In 1801 he began work at Black Callerton colliery as a ‘brakesman’, controlling the winding gear of the pit. In 1802 he married Frances (Fanny) Henderson and moved to Willington Quay, east of Newcastle. There he worked as a brakesman while they lived in one room of a cottage. George made shoes and mended clocks to supplement his income. In 1803 their son Robert was born, and in 1804 they moved to West Moor, near Killingworth while George worked as a brakesman at Killingworth pit. His wife gave birth to a daughter, who died after a few weeks, and in 1806 Fanny died of consumption. George, then decided to find work in Scotland, and he left Robert with a local woman while he went to work in Montrose. After a few months he returned, probably because his father was blinded in a mining accident. George moved back into his cottage at West Moor and his unmarried sister Eleanor moved in to look after Robert. In 1811 the pumping engine at High Pit, Killingworth was not working properly and Stephenson offered to fix it. He did so with such success that he was soon promoted to enginewright for the neighbouring collieries at Killingworth, responsible for maintaining and repairing all of the colliery engines. He soon became an expert in steam-driven machinery. The miners' safety lamp In 1818, aware of the explosions often caused in mines by naked flames, Stephenson began to experiment with a safety lamp that would burn without causing an explosion. At the same time, Sir Humphry Davy, the eminent scientist was looking at the problem himself. Despite his lack of any scientific knowledge, Stephenson, by trial and error, devised a lamp in which the air entered via tiny holes. Stephenson demonstrated the lamp himself to two witnesses by taking it down Killingworth colliery and holding it directly in front of a fissure from which fire damp was issuing. This was a month before Davy presented his design to the Royal Society. The two designs differed in that, the Davy’s lamp was surrounded by a screen of gauze, whereas Stephenson’s lamp was contained in a glass cylinder. For his invention Davy was awarded £2,000, whilst Stephenson was accused of stealing the idea from Davy. A local committee of enquiry exonerated Stephenson, proved that he had been working separately and awarded him £1,000 but Davy and his supporters refused to accept this. They could not see how an uneducated man such as Stephenson could come up with the solution that he had. In 1833 a House of Commons committee found that Stephenson had equal claim to having invented the safety lamp. Davy went to his grave believing that Stephenson had stolen his idea. The Stephenson lamp was used exclusively in the North East, whereas the Davy lamp was used everywhere else. The experience with Davy gave Stephenson a life-long distrust of London-based, theoretical, scientific experts. Early locomotives Richard Trevithick is credited with building the first locomotive in 1804. Later, he visited Tyneside and built an engine there for a mine-owner. Several local men were inspired by this, and designed engines of their own. Stephenson designed his first locomotive in 1814, a travelling engine designed for hauling coal on the Killingworth wagonway, and named Blücher after the Prussian general Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher. This locomotive could haul 30 tons of coal up a hill at , and was the first successful flanged-wheel adhesion locomotive: its traction depended only on the contact between its flanged wheels and the rail. Altogether, Stephenson produced 16 locomotives at Killingworth. A similar locomotive sold to the Kilmarnock and Troon Railway in 1817 was soon withdrawn from service because of damage to the cast iron rails. Smiles (1857) The new engines were too heavy to be run on wooden rails, and iron rails were in their infancy, with cast iron exhibiting excessive brittleness. Together with William Losh, Stephenson improved the design of cast iron rails to reduce breakage. According to Rolt, he also managed to solve the problem caused by the weight of the engine upon these primitive rails. He experimented with a 'steam spring' (to 'cushion' the weight using steam pressure), but soon followed the new practice of 'distributing' weight by utilising a number of wheels. For the Stockton and Darlington Railway, however, Stephenson would use only wrought iron rails, notwithstanding the financial loss he would suffer from not using his own, patented design (see below). Stephenson was hired to build an 8-mile (13-km) railway from Hetton colliery to Sunderland in 1820. The finished result used a combination of gravity on downward inclines and locomotives for level and upward stretches. It was the first railway using no animal power. Stockton and Darlington Railway In 1821, a parliamentary bill was passed to allow the building of the Stockton and Darlington Railway (S&DR). The railway was intended to connect various collieries situated near Bishop Auckland to the River Tees at Stockton, passing through Darlington on the way. The original plan was to use horses to draw coal carts on metal rails, but after company director Edward Pease met Stephenson he agreed to change the plans. Stephenson surveyed the line in 1821, assisted by his eighteen-year-old son Robert. That same year construction of the line began. A manufacturer was now needed to provide the locomotives for the new line. As it turned out, Pease and Stephenson jointly established a company in Newcastle to manufacture locomotives. The company was set up as Robert Stephenson and Company, and George’s son Robert was the managing director. A fourth partner was Michael Longridge of Bedlington Ironworks. In September 1825 the works at Forth Street, Newcastle completed the first locomotive for the new railway: originally named Active, it was soon renamed Locomotion. It was followed by “Hope”, “Diligence” and “Black Diamond”. The Stockton and Darlington Railway opened on 27 September 1825. Driven by Stephenson, Locomotion hauled an 80-ton load of coal and flour nine miles (15 km) in two hours, reaching a speed of 24 miles per hour (39 km/h) on one stretch. The first purpose-built passenger car, dubbed Experiment, was attached, and carried dignitaries on the opening journey. It was the first time passenger traffic had been run on a steam locomotive railway. The rails used for the new line were wrought-iron ones, produced by John Birkinshaw at the Bedlington Ironworks. Wrought-iron rails could be produced in much longer lengths than the cast-iron ones and were much less liable to crack under the weight of heavy locomotives. William Losh of Walker Ironworks had thought that he had an agreement with Stephenson to use his cast-iron rails, and Stephenson's decision caused a permanent rift between the two men. The gauge that Stephenson chose for the line was , and this subsequently came to be adopted as the standard gauge for railways, not only in Britain, but also throughout the world. Liverpool and Manchester Railway Statue of George Stephenson at the National Railway Museum, York While building the Stockton and Darlington Railway, Stephenson had noticed that even small inclines greatly reduced the speed of locomotives (and slight declines would have made the primitive brakes nearly useless). He came to the conclusion that railways should be kept as level as possible. He used this knowledge while working on the Bolton and Leigh Railway, and the Liverpool and Manchester Railway (L&MR), executing a series of difficult cuts, embankments and stone viaducts to smooth the route the railways took. Defective surveying of the original route of the L&MR caused by the hostility of some of the affected landowners meant that Stephenson encountered difficulty during Parliamentary scrutiny of the original bill, especially under cross-examination by Edward Hall Alderson. The Bill was rejected. A revised bill with a new alignment was submitted and passed in a subsequent session. The revised alignment presented a considerable problem: the crossing of Chat Moss, an apparently bottomless peat bog, which Stephenson eventually overcame by unusual means, effectively floating the line across it. As the L&MR approached completion in 1829, its directors arranged for a competition to decide who would build its locomotives, and the Rainhill Trials were run in October 1829. Entries could weigh no more than six tons and had to travel along the track for a total distance of . Stephenson's entry was Rocket, and its performance in winning the contest made it famous. George’s son Robert had been working in South America from 1824 to 1827 and had returned to run the Forth Street Works while George was living in Liverpool and overseeing the construction of the new line. Robert was very much responsible for the detailed design of Rocket, although he was in constant postal communication with George, who made many suggestions on the design. One significant innovation was the use of a fire-tube boiler, invented by French engineer Marc Seguin that gave improved heat exchange. This was suggested by Henry Booth, the treasurer of the L&MR. The opening ceremony of the L&MR, on 15 September 1830, was a considerable event, drawing luminaries from the government and industry, including the Prime Minister, the Duke of Wellington. The day started with a procession of eight trains setting out from Liverpool. The parade was led by “Northumbrian” driven by George Stephenson, and included “Phoenix” driven by his son Robert, “North Star” driven by his brother Robert and “Rocket” driven by assistant engineer Joseph Locke. The day was marred by the death of William Huskisson, the Member of Parliament for Liverpool, who was struck and killed by Rocket, but the railway was a resounding success. Stephenson became famous, and was offered the position of chief engineer for a wide variety of other railways. Stephenson's skew arch bridge Stephensons Bridge 1830 also saw the grand opening of the skew bridge in Rainhill. The bridge was the first to cross a railway at an angle. This required the structure to be constructed as two flat planes (overlapping in this case by 6') between which the stonework forms a parallelogram shape when viewed from above. This has the effect of flattening the arch and the solution is to lay the bricks forming the arch at an angle to the abutments (the piers on which the arches rest). This technique, which results in a spiral effect in the arch masonry, provides extra strength in the arch to compensate for the angled abutments. The bridge still carries traffic (A57 - Warrington Road) and is now a listed building. Later career The next ten years were the busiest of Stephenson’s life, as he was besieged with requests from railway promoters. Many of the first American railroad builders came to Newcastle to learn from Stephenson, and indeed, the first dozen or so locomotives utilized in the U.S. were purchased from the Stephenson shops. Other talented men were starting to make their marks, such as his son Robert, his pupil Joseph Locke and finally Isambard Kingdom Brunel. His conservative views on the capabilities of locomotives meant that he favoured circuitous routes and civil engineering that were more costly than his successors thought necessary. For example, rather than the West Coast Main Line taking the direct route favoured by Joseph Locke over Shap between Lancaster and Carlisle, Stephenson was in favour of a longer sea-level route via Ulverston and Whitehaven. Locke's route was the one built. Stephenson also tended to be more casual in estimating costs and paperwork in general. He worked with Joseph Locke on the Grand Junction Railway with one half of the line allocated to each man. Stephenson’s estimates proved to be inferior to those of Locke and the board’s impatience led to Stephenson’s resignation. This caused a rift between Stephenson and Locke, which was never healed. Despite Stephenson's losing some routes to competitors due to his caution, he was offered more work than he could cope with, and was unable to decline offers for additional work. He worked on the North Midland line from Derby to Leeds, the York and North Midland line from Normanton to York, the Manchester and Leeds, the Birmingham and Derby, the Sheffield and Rotherham among many others. Stephenson tended to become a reassuring name, rather than a cutting-edge technical adviser. He was the first president of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers on its formation in 1847. He had by this time settled into semi-retirement, supervising his mining interests in Derbyshire - tunnelling work for the North Midland Railway had revealed unworked coal seams, and Stephenson put much of his money into their exploitation. Private life Stephenson’s first wife, Fanny died in 1806, and his only son, Robert was brought up by George and his unmarried sister Eleanor. In 1820, George married Elizabeth Hindmarsh, a farmer’s daughter whom George had wanted to marry when he was young; he had been considered unworthy of her. George and Elizabeth (Betty) had no children, and she died in 1845. In 1848 George married for the third time, to Ellen Gregory who had been his housekeeper. Six months after his wedding, George contracted pleurisy and died, aged 67, on 12 August 1848 at Tapton House in Chesterfield, Derbyshire. He was buried at Holy Trinity Church, Chesterfield, alongside his second wife. Descendants George Stephenson had two children: Robert and Fanny. Robert was born in 1803 and married Frances Sanderson in 1829. Robert died in 1859 having no children. Fanny was born in 1805 but died within weeks of her birth. Legacy Britain led the world in the development of railways and this acted as a stimulus for the industrial revolution, by facilitating the transport of raw materials and manufactured goods. George Stephenson cannot claim to have invented the locomotive. Richard Trevithick deserves that credit. George Stephenson, with his work on the Stockton and Darlington Railway and the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, paved the way for the railway engineers who were to follow, such as his son Robert, his assistant Joseph Locke who went on to carry out much work on his own account and Isambard Kingdom Brunel. These men were following in his footsteps. Stephenson was also farsighted in realising that the individual lines being built would eventually join together, and would need to have the same gauge. The standard gauge used throughout much of the world is due to him. Memorials and commemorations Memorabilia The museum in Chesterfield, Derbyshire has a room full of Stephenson memorabilia, including the straight thick glass tubes in which he invented to grow his cucumbers to stop them curving. Academic buildings George Stephenson College, founded in 2001 on the University of Durham's Queen's Campus in Stockton-on-Tees, is named after him, with the student union bar being named The Rocket. Also named after him and his son is George Stephenson High School in Killingworth, the Stephenson Railway Museum in North Shields and the Stephenson Locomotive Society. The Stephenson Centre, an SEBD Unit of Beaumont Hill School in Darlington, is also named after George Stephenson. Statues and monuments As a tribute to his life and works, a bronze statue of Stephenson was unveiled at Chesterfield railway station (which is overlooked by Tapton House, where Stephenson spent the last ten years of his life) on 28 October 2005, marking the completion of improvements to the station. At the event a full-size working replica of the Rocket was on show, which then spent two days on public display at the Chesterfield Market Festival. Banknotes From 1990 until 2003, Stephenson's portrait appeared on the reverse of Series E £5 notes issued by the Bank of England. Stephenson's face is shown alongside an engraving of his Rocket steam engine and the Skerne Bridge on the Stockton to Darlington Railway. His image was replaced in 2003 by that of Elizabeth Fry. See also History of Science and Technology Industrial Revolution Train Robert Stephenson Robert Stephenson and Company References Biographical works External links Biography Biography Biography Stephenson's birthplace | George_Stephenson |@lemmatized george:26 stephenson:69 june:1 august:2 english:1 civil:2 engineer:7 mechanical:2 build:8 first:13 public:2 railway:32 line:13 world:5 use:14 steam:6 locomotive:19 know:1 father:2 victorian:1 consider:2 great:1 example:2 diligent:1 application:1 thirst:1 improvement:2 self:1 help:1 advocate:1 samuel:1 smile:2 particularly:1 praise:1 achievement:1 rail:12 gauge:7 sometimes:1 call:1 standard:3 early:2 life:6 bear:4 wylam:2 northumberland:1 west:4 newcastle:5 upon:2 tyne:1 second:2 child:4 robert:20 mabel:1 neither:1 could:7 read:1 write:2 fireman:1 colliery:7 pump:2 engine:9 earn:1 low:1 wage:1 money:2 school:4 become:4 engineman:1 water:1 row:1 pit:4 newburn:1 realise:2 value:1 education:1 pay:1 study:1 night:1 learn:2 reading:1 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5,270 | Mandelbrot_set | Initial image of a Mandelbrot set zoom sequence with continuously coloured environment In mathematics, the Mandelbrot set, named after Benoît Mandelbrot, is a set of points in the complex plane, the boundary of which forms a fractal. Mathematically, the Mandelbrot set can be defined as the set of complex values of c for which the orbit of 0 under iteration of the complex quadratic polynomial zn+1 = zn2 + c remains bounded. That is, a complex number, c, is in the Mandelbrot set if, when starting with z0=0 and applying the iteration repeatedly, the absolute value of zn never exceeds a certain number (that number depends on c) however large n gets. For example, letting c = 1 gives the sequence 0, 1, 2, 5, 26,…, which tends to infinity. As this sequence is unbounded, 1 is not an element of the Mandelbrot set. On the other hand, c = i gives the sequence 0, i, (−1 + i), −i, (−1 + i), −i…, which is bounded, and so i belongs to the Mandelbrot set. When computed and graphed on the complex plane, the Mandelbrot Set is seen to have an elaborate boundary, which does not simplify at any given magnification. This qualifies the boundary as a fractal. The Mandelbrot set has become popular outside mathematics both for its aesthetic appeal and for being a complicated structure arising from a simple definition. Benoît Mandelbrot and others worked hard to communicate this area of mathematics to the public. History The Mandelbrot set has its place in complex dynamics, a field first investigated by the French mathematicians Pierre Fatou and Gaston Julia at the beginning of the 20th century. The first pictures of it were drawn in 1978 by Robert Brooks and Peter Matelski as part of a study of Kleinian Groups. Robert Brooks and Peter Matelski, The dynamics of 2-generator subgroups of PSL(2,C), in "Riemann Surfaces and Related Topics", ed. Kra and Maskit, Ann. Math. Stud. 97, 65–71, ISBN 0-691-08264-2 Mandelbrot studied the parameter space of quadratic polynomials in an article that appeared in 1980. Benoît Mandelbrot, Fractal aspects of the iteration of for complex , Annals NY Acad. Sci. 357, 249/259 The mathematical study of the Mandelbrot set really began with work by the mathematicians Adrien Douady and John H. Hubbard, Adrien Douady and John H. Hubbard, Etude dynamique des polynômes complexes, Prépublications mathémathiques d'Orsay 2/4 (1984 / 1985) who established many of its fundamental properties and named the set in honour of Mandelbrot. The mathematicians Heinz-Otto Peitgen and Peter Richter became well-known for promoting the set with stunning photographs, books, and an internationally touring exhibit of the German Goethe-Institut. Frontiers of Chaos, Exhibition of the Goethe-Institut by H.O. Peitgen, P. Richter, H. Jürgens, M. Prüfer, D.Saupe. since 1985 shown in over 40 countries. The cover article of the August 1985 Scientific American introduced the algorithm for computing the Mandelbrot set to a wide audience. The cover featured an image created by Peitgen, et al. Fractals: The Patterns of Chaos. John Briggs. 1992. p. 80. The work of Douady and Hubbard coincided with a huge increase in interest in complex dynamics and abstract mathematics, and the study of the Mandelbrot set has been a centerpiece of this field ever since. An exhaustive list of all the mathematicians who have contributed to the understanding of this set since then is beyond the scope of this article, but such a list would notably include Mikhail Lyubich, Curt McMullen, John Milnor, Mitsuhiro Shishikura, and Jean-Christophe Yoccoz. Formal definition The Mandelbrot set is defined by a family of complex quadratic polynomials given by , where is a complex parameter. For each , one considers the behavior of the sequence obtained by iterating starting at critical point , which either escapes to infinity or stays within a disk of some finite radius. The Mandelbrot set is defined as the set of all points such that the above sequence does not escape to infinity. A mathematician's depiction of the Mandelbrot set M, a point c is coloured black if it belongs to the set, and white if not. Re[c] and Im[c] denote the real and imaginary parts of c. More formally, if denotes the nth iterate of (i.e. composed with itself n times), the Mandelbrot set is the subset of the complex plane given by Mathematically, the Mandelbrot set is just a set of complex numbers. A given complex number c either belongs to M or it does not. A picture of the Mandelbrot set can be made by colouring all the points which belong to M black, and all other points white. The more colourful pictures usually seen are generated by colouring points not in the set according to how quickly or slowly the sequence diverges to infinity. See the section on computer drawings below for more details. The Mandelbrot set can also be defined as the connectedness locus of the family of polynomials . That is, it is the subset of the complex plane consisting of those parameters for which the Julia set of is connected. Basic properties The Mandelbrot set is a compact set, contained in the closed disk of radius 2 around the origin. In fact, a point belongs to the Mandelbrot set if and only if for all . In other words, if the absolute value of ever becomes larger than 2, the sequence will escape to infinity. Correspondence between the mandelbrot set and the logistic map The intersection of with the real axis is precisely the interval . The parameters along this interval can be put in one-to-one correspondence with those of the real logistic family, The correspondence is given by In fact, this gives a correspondence between the entire parameter space of the logistic family and that of the Mandelbrot set. The area of the Mandelbrot set is estimated to be 1.506 591 77 ± 0.000 000 08. http://www.mrob.com/pub/muency/pixelcounting.html Douady and Hubbard have shown that the Mandelbrot set is connected. In fact, they constructed an explicit conformal isomorphism between the complement of the Mandelbrot set and the complement of the closed unit disk. Mandelbrot had originally conjectured that the Mandelbrot set is disconnected. This conjecture was based on computer pictures generated by programs which are unable to detect the thin filaments connecting different parts of . Upon further experiments, he revised his conjecture, deciding that should be connected. The dynamical formula for the uniformisation of the complement of the Mandelbrot set, arising from Douady and Hubbard's proof of the connectedness of , gives rise to external rays of the Mandelbrot set. These rays can be used to study the Mandelbrot set in combinatorial terms and form the backbone of the Yoccoz parapuzzle. The boundary of the Mandelbrot set is exactly the bifurcation locus of the quadratic family; that is, the set of parameters for which the dynamics changes abruptly under small changes of It can be constructed as the limit set of a sequence of plane algebraic curves, the Mandelbrot curves, of the general type known as polynomial lemniscates. The Mandelbrot curves are defined by setting p0=z, pn=pn-12+z, and then interpreting the set of points |pn(z)|=1 in the complex plane as a curve in the real Cartesian plane of degree 2n+1 in x and y. Other properties The main cardioid and period bulbs Periods of hyperbolic components Upon looking at a picture of the Mandelbrot set, one immediately notices the large cardioid-shaped region in the center. This main cardioid is the region of parameters for which has an attracting fixed point. It consists of all parameters of the form for some in the open unit disk. To the left of the main cardioid, attached to it at the point , a circular-shaped bulb is visible. This bulb consists of those parameters for which has an attracting cycle of period 2. This set of parameters is an actual circle, namely that of radius 1/4 around -1. There are infinitely many other bulbs tangent to the main cardioid: for every rational number , with p and q coprime, there is such a bulb that is tangent at the parameter Attracting cycle in 2/5-bulb plotted over Julia set (animation)This bulb is called the -bulb of the Mandelbrot set. It consists of parameters which have an attracting cycle of period and combinatorial rotation number . More precisely, the periodic Fatou components containing the attracting cycle all touch at a common point (commonly called the -fixed point). If we label these components in counterclockwise orientation, then maps the component to the component . Attracting cycles and Julia sets for parameters in the 1/2, 3/7, 2/5, 1/3, 1/4, and 1/5 bulbs cycle periods and antennae The change of behavior occurring at is known as a bifurcation: the attracting fixed point "collides" with a repelling period q-cycle. As we pass through the bifurcation parameter into the -bulb, the attracting fixed point turns into a repelling fixed point (the -fixed point), and the period q-cycle becomes attracting. Hyperbolic components All the bulbs we encountered in the previous section were interior components of the Mandelbrot set in which the maps have an attracting periodic cycle. Such components are called hyperbolic components. It is conjectured that these are the only interior regions of . This problem, known as density of hyperbolicity, may be the most important open problem in the field of complex dynamics. Hypothetical non-hyperbolic components of the Mandelbrot set are often referred to as "queer" components. For real quadratic polynomials, this question was answered positively in the 1990s independently by Lyubich and by Graczyk and Świątek. (Note that hyperbolic components intersecting the real axis correspond exactly to periodic windows in the Feigenbaum diagram. So this result states that such windows exist near every parameter in the diagram.) Not every hyperbolic component can be reached by a sequence of direct bifurcations from the main cardioid of the Mandelbrot set. However, such a component can be reached by a sequence of direct bifurcations from the main cardioid of a little Mandelbrot copy (see below). Local connectivity It is conjectured that the Mandelbrot set is locally connected. This famous conjecture is known as MLC (for Mandelbrot Locally Connected). By the work of Adrien Douady and John H. Hubbard, this conjecture would result in a simple abstract "pinched disk" model of the Mandelbrot set. In particular, it would imply the important hyperbolicity conjecture mentioned above. The celebrated work of Jean-Christophe Yoccoz established local connectivity of the Mandelbrot set at all finitely-renormalizable parameters; that is, roughly speaking those which are contained only in finitely many small Mandelbrot copies. Since then, local connectivity has been proved at many other points of , but the full conjecture is still open. Self-similarity Self similarity in the Mandelbrot set shown by zooming in on a round feature while panning in the negative-x direction. The display center pans from (−1, 0) to (−1.31, 0) while the view magnifies from 0.5 × 0.5 to 0.12 × 0.12 to approximate the Feigenbaum ratio . Self-similarity around Misiurewicz point −0.1011 + 0.9563i. The Mandelbrot set is self-similar under magnification in the neighborhoods of the Misiurewicz points. It is also conjectured to be self-similar around generalized Feigenbaum points (e.g. −1.401155 or −0.1528 + 1.0397i), in the sense of converging to a limit set. Lei.pdf Tan Lei, "Similarity between the Mandelbrot set and Julia Sets", Communications in Mathematical Physics 134 (1990), pp. 587-617. J. Milnor, "Self-Similarity and Hairiness in the Mandelbrot Set", in Computers in Geometry and Topology, M. Tangora (editor), Dekker, New York, pp. 211-257. Quasi-self-similarity in the Mandelbrot setThe Mandelbrot set in general is not strictly self-similar but it is quasi-self-similar, as small slightly different versions of itself can be found at arbitrarily small scales. The little copies of the Mandelbrot set are all slightly different, mostly because of the thin threads connecting them to the main body of the set. Further results The Hausdorff dimension of the boundary of the Mandelbrot set equals 2 as determined by a result of Mitsuhiro Shishikura. Mitsuhiro Shishikura, The Hausdorff dimension of the boundary of the Mandelbrot set and Julia sets, Ann. of Math. 147 (1998) p. 225-267. (First appeared in 1991 as a Stony Brook IMS Preprint, available as arXiv:math.DS/9201282.) It is not known whether the boundary of the Mandelbrot set has positive planar Lebesgue measure. In the Blum-Shub-Smale model of real computation, the Mandelbrot set is not computable, but its complement is computably enumerable. However, many simple objects (e.g., the graph of exponentiation) are also not computable in the BSS model. At present it is unknown whether the Mandelbrot set is computable in models of real computation based on computable analysis, which correspond more closely to the intuitive notion of "plotting the set by a computer." Hertling has shown that the Mandelbrot set is computable in this model if the hyperbolicity conjecture is true. Relationship with Julia sets An "embedded Julia set" As a consequence of the definition of the Mandelbrot set, there is a close correspondence between the geometry of the Mandelbrot set at a given point and the structure of the corresponding Julia set. This principle is exploited in virtually all deep results on the Mandelbrot set. For example, Shishikura proves that, for a dense set of parameters in the boundary of the Mandelbrot set, the Julia set has Hausdorff dimension two, and then transfers this information to the parameter plane. Similarly, Yoccoz first proves the local connectivity of Julia sets, before establishing it for the Mandelbrot set at the corresponding parameters. Adrien Douady phrases this principle as Plough in the dynamical plane, and harvest in parameter space. Map of Julia sets for points on the complex plane, the overall structure, in terms of which julia sets are connected, resembles a Mandelbrot set Geometry Recall that, for every rational number , where p and q are relatively prime, there is a hyperbolic component of period q bifurcating from the main cardioid. The part of the Mandelbrot set connected to the main cardioid at this bifurcation point is called the p/q-limb. Computer experiments suggest that the diameter of the limb tends to zero like . The best current estimate known is the famous Yoccoz-inequality, which states that the size tends to zero like . A period-q limb will have q − 1 "antennae" at the top of its limb. We can thus determine the period of a given bulb by counting these antennas. Image gallery of a zoom sequence The Mandelbrot set shows more intricate detail the closer one looks or magnifies the image, usually called "zooming in". The following example of an image sequence zooming to a selected c value gives an impression of the infinite richness of different geometrical structures, and explains some of their typical rules. The magnification of the last image relative to the first one is about 10,000,000,000 to 1. Relating to an ordinary monitor, it represents a section of a Mandelbrot set with a diameter of 4 million kilometres. Its border would show an inconceivable number of different fractal structures. StartStep 1Step 2Step 3Step 4Step 5Step 6Step 7Step 8Step 9Step 10Step 11Step 12Step 13Step 14 Start: Mandelbrot set with continuously coloured environment. Gap between the "head" and the "body" also called the "seahorse valley". On the left double-spirals, on the right "seahorses". "Seahorse" upside down, its "body" is composed by 25 "spokes" consisting of 2 groups of 12 "spokes" each and one "spoke" connecting to the main cardioid; these 2 groups can be attributed by some kind of metamorphosis to the 2 "fingers" of the "upper hand" of the Mandelbrot set, therefore, the number of "spokes" increases from one "seahorse" to the next by 2; the "hub" is a so-called Misiurewicz point; between the "upper part of the body" and the "tail" a distorted small copy of the Mandelbrot set called satellite may be recognized. The central endpoint of the "seahorse tail" is also a Misiurewicz point. Part of the "tail" — there is only one path consisting of the thin structures that leads through the whole "tail"; this zigzag path passes the "hubs" of the large objects with 25 "spokes" at the inner and outer border of the "tail"; it makes sure that the Mandelbrot set is a so-called simply connected set, which means there are no islands and no loop roads around a hole. Satellite. The two "seahorse tails" are the beginning of a series of concentric crowns with the satellite in the center. Each of these crowns consists of similar "seahorse tails"; their number increases with powers of 2, a typical phenomenon in the environment of satellites, the unique path to the spiral center mentioned in zoom step 5 passes the satellite from the groove of the cardioid to the top of the "antenna" on the "head". "Antenna" of the satellite. Several satellites of second order may be recognized. The "seahorse valley" of the satellite. All the structures from the image of zoom step 1 reappear. Double-spirals and "seahorses" - unlike the image of zoom step 2 they have appendices consisting of structures like "seahorse tails"; this demonstrates the typical linking of n+1 different structures in the environment of satellites of the order n, here for the simplest case n=1. Double-spirals with satellites of second order - analog to the "seahorses" the double-spirals may be interpreted as a metamorphosis of the "antenna". In the outer part of the appendices islands of structures may be recognized; they have a shape like Julia sets Jc; the largest of them may be found in the center of the "double-hook" on the right side. Part of the "double-hook". At first sight, these islands seem to consist of infinitely many parts like Cantor sets, as is actually the case for the corresponding Julia set Jc. Here they are connected by tiny structures so that the whole represents a simply connected set. These tiny structures meet each other at a satellite in the center that is too small to be recognized at this magnification. The value of c for the corresponding Jc is not that of the image center but, relative to the main body of the Mandelbrot set, has the same position as the center of this image relative to the satellite shown in zoom step 7. Zoom animation Mandelbrot set inward zoom of the above image gallery. 128-bit Double-double precision numbers won't allow a deeper zoom than this. Regardless of the extent to which one zooms in on a Mandelbrot set, there is always additional detail to see. During the twelve-second zoom in the animation at left, the set becomes magnified eleven-million fold. Thus, assuming the first frame is life-size at 45 mm across, a carbon atom would comprise 36 pixels in the final frame. Generalizations For general families of holomorphic functions, the boundary of the Mandelbrot set generalizes to the bifurcation locus, which is a natural object to study even when the connectedness locus is not useful. Multibrot sets are bounded sets found in the complex plane for members of the general monic univariate polynomial family of recursions Other non-analytic mappings Of particular interest is the tricorn fractal, the connectedness locus of the anti-holomorphic family The tricorn (also sometimes called the Mandelbar set) was encountered by Milnor in his study of parameter slices of real cubic polynomials. It is not locally connected. This property is inherited by the connectedness locus of real cubic polynomials. Another non-analytic generalization is the Burning Ship fractal which is obtained by iterating the mapping The Multibrot set is obtained by varying the value of the exponent d. The video shows its development from d = 0 to 7 at which point there are 6 i.e. (d - 1) lobes around the perimeter. A similar development with negative exponents results in d+1 clefts on the inside of a ring. Computer drawings Buddhabrot method Still image of a movie of increasing magnification on 0.001643721971153 + 0.822467633298876i Algorithms: Escape time algorithm boolean version (draws M-set and its exterior using 2 colours) — Mandelbrot algorithm discrete (integer) version — level set method (LSM/M); draws Mandelbrot set and colour bands in its exterior continuous version level curves version — draws lemniscates of Mandelbrot set — boundaries of Level Sets decomposition of exterior of Mandelbrot set complex potential Hubbard-Douady (real) potential of Mandelbrot set (CPM/M) - radial part of complex potential external angle of Mandelbrot set — angular part of complex potential abstract M-set Distance estimation method for Mandelbrot set exterior distance estimation — Milnor algorithm (DEM/M) interior distance estimation algorithm used to explore interior of Mandelbrot set period of hyperbolic components multiplier of periodic orbit (internal rays(angle) and internal radius) bof61 and bof60 Every algorithm can be implemented in sequential or parallel version. Mirror symmetry can be used to speed-up calculations. Escape time algorithm The simplest algorithm for generating a representation of the Mandelbrot set is known as the "escape time" algorithm. A repeating calculation is performed for each x, y point in the plot area and based on the behaviour of that calculation, a colour is chosen for that pixel. The x and y locations of each point are used as starting values in a repeating, or iterating calculation (described in detail below). The result of each iteration is used as the starting values for the next. The values are checked during each iteration to see if they have reached a critical 'escape' condition or 'bailout'. If that condition is reached, the calculation is stopped, the pixel is drawn, and the next x, y point is examined. For some starting values, escape occurs quickly, after only a small number of iterations. For starting values very close to but not in the set, it may take hundreds or thousands of iterations to escape. For values within the Mandelbrot set, escape will never occur. The programmer or user must choose how much iteration, or 'depth,' they wish to examine. The higher the maximum number of iterations, the more detail and subtlety emerge in the final image, but the longer time it will take to calculate the fractal image. Escape conditions can be simple or complex. Because no complex number with a real or imaginary part greater than 2 can be part of the set, a common bailout is to escape when either coefficient exceeds 2. A more computationally complex method, but which detects escapes sooner, is to compute the distance from the origin using the Pythagorean theorem, and if this distance exceeds two, the point has reached escape. More computationally-intensive rendering variations such as Buddhabrot detect an escape, then use values iterated along the way. The colour of each point represents how quickly the values reached the escape point. Often black is used to show values that fail to escape before the iteration limit, and gradually brighter colours are used for points that escape. This gives a visual representation of how many cycles were required before reaching the escape condition. For programmers The definition of the Mandelbrot set, together with its basic properties, suggests a simple algorithm for drawing a picture of the Mandelbrot set. The region of the complex plane we are considering is subdivided into a certain number of pixels. To color any such pixel, let be the midpoint of that pixel. We now iterate the critical value under , checking at each step whether the orbit point has modulus larger than 2. If this is the case, we know that the midpoint does not belong to the Mandelbrot set, and we color our pixel. (Either we color it white to get the simple mathematical image or color it according to the number of iterations used to get the well-known colorful images). Otherwise, we keep iterating for a certain (large, but fixed) number of steps, after which we decide that our parameter is "probably" in the Mandelbrot set, or at least very close to it, and color the pixel black. In pseudocode, this algorithm would look as follows. For each pixel on the screen do: { x = x0 = x co-ordinate of pixel y = y0 = y co-ordinate of pixel iteration = 0 max_iteration = 1000 while ( x*x + y*y <= (2*2) AND iteration < max_iteration ) { xtemp = x*x - y*y + x0 y = 2*x*y + y0 x = xtemp iteration = iteration + 1 } if ( iteration == max_iteration ) then color = black else color = iteration plot(x0,y0,color) } where, relating the pseudocode to , and : and so, as can be seen in the pseudocode in the computation of x and y: and y = To get colorful images of the set, the assignment of a color to each value of the number of executed iterations can be made using one of a variety of functions (linear, exponential, etc). One practical way to do it, without slowing down the calculations, is to use the number of executed iterations as an entry to a look-up color palette table initialized at startup. If the color table has, for instance, 500 entries, then you can use n mod 500, where n is the number of iterations, to select the color to use. You can initialize the color palette matrix in various different ways, depending on what special feature of the escape behavior you want to emphasize graphically. Continuous (smooth) coloring This image was rendered with the Escape Time Algorithm. Notice the very obvious "bands" of color. This image was rendered with the Normalized Iteration Count Algorithm. Notice the bands of color have been replaced by a smooth gradient. Another example of the Normalized Iteration Count Algorithm. Notice that there is no banding effect; all of the colors flow into each other. Also, the colors take on the same pattern that would be observed if the Escape Time Algorithm was used. The Escape Time Algorithm is popular for its simplicity. However, it creates bands of color, which, as a type of aliasing can detract from an image's aesthetic value. This can be improved using the Normalized Iteration Count Algorithm, which provides a smooth transition of colors between iterations. The algorithm associates a real number with each value of z using the equation , where n is the number of iterations for z to escape, zn is the value after n iterations, B is the bailout radius (normally 2 for a Mandelbrot set, but it can be changed), and P is the power for which z is raised to in the Mandelbrot set equation (zn+1 = znP + c, P is generally 2). Another formula for this is Note that this new formula is simpler than the first, but it requies a large bailout radius and doesn't work for generalized Mandelbrot sets. While this algorithm is relatively simple to implement (using either formula), there are a few things that need to be taken into consideration. First, the two formulae return a continuous stream of numbers. However, it is up to the programmer to decide on how the return values will be converted into a color. Some type of method for casting these numbers onto a gradient should be developed. Second, it is recommended that a few extra iterations are done so that z can grow. If iterations cease as soon as z escapes, there is the possibility that the smoothing algorithm will not work. Distance estimates One can compute distance from point c (in exterior or interior) to nearest point on the boundary of Mandelbrot set. Exterior distance estimation The proof of the connectedness of the Mandelbrot set in fact gives a formula for the uniformizing map of the complement of (and the derivative of this map). By the Koebe 1/4 theorem, one can then estimate the distance between the mid-point of our pixel and the Mandelbrot set up to a factor of 4. In other words, provided that the maximal number of iterations is sufficiently high, one obtains a picture of the Mandelbrot set with the following properties: <li> Every pixel which contains a point of the Mandelbrot set is colored black. <li> Every pixel which is colored black is close to the Mandelbrot set. Exterior distance estimate may be used to color whole complement of Mandelbrot set The distance estimate of a pixel c (a complex number) from the Mandelbrot set is given by where stands for complex quadratic polynomial stands for n iterations of or , starting with z=c: , ; <li> is the derivative of with respect to c. This derivative can be found by starting with and then . This can easily be verified by using the chain rule for the derivative. From a mathematician's point of view, this formula only works in limit where n goes to infinity, but very reasonable estimates can be found with just a few additional iterations after the main loop exits. Once b is found, by the Koebe 1/4-theorem, we know there's no point of the Mandelbrot set with distance from c smaller than <em>b/4<em>. Interior distance estimation Pixels colored according to the estimated interior distance It is also possible to estimate the distance of a limitly periodic (i.e., inner) point to the boundary of the Mandelbrot set. The estimate is given by where is the period, is the point to be estimated, <li> is the complex quadratic polynomial is compositions of , starting with is any of the points that make the attractor of the iterations of starting with ; satisfies , , , and are various derivatives of , evaluated at . Analogous to the exterior case, once b is found, we know that all points within the distance of b/4 from c are inside the Mandelbrot set. There are two practical problems with the interior distance estimate: first, we need to find precisely, and second, we need to find precisely. The problem with is that the convergence to by iterating requires, theoretically, an infinite number of operations. The problem with period is that, sometimes, due to rounding errors, a period is falsely identified to be an integer multiple of the real period (e.g., a period of 86 is detected, while the real period is only 43=86/2). In such case, the distance is overestimated, i.e., the reported radius could contain points outside the Mandelbrot set. 3D view : smallest absolute value of the orbit of the interior points of the Mandelbrot set Optimizations One way to improve calculations is to find out beforehand whether the given point lies within the cardioid or in the period-2 bulb. To prevent having to do huge numbers of iterations for other points in the set, one can do "periodicity checking"—which means check if a point reached in iterating a pixel has been reached before. If so, the pixel cannot diverge, and must be in the set. This is most relevant for fixed-point calculations, where there is a relatively high chance of such periodicity—a full floating-point (or higher-accuracy) implementation would rarely go into such a period. Periodicity checking is, of course, a trade-off: The need to remember points costs memory and data management instructions, whereas it saves computational instructions. Popular Culture The Jonathan Coulton song, "Mandelbrot Set", is a tribute to both the fractal itself, and its creator Benoît Mandelbrot. A video by a Cornell University student used the song to also pay homage to the mathematician. However, his description of the generation of a Mandelbrot Set is actually one of a Julia Set. In The Ghost from the Grand Banks by Arthur C. Clarke, the Craig family is obsessed with Mandelbrot set, even having a pond in its shape dug. However Clarke's descriptions of the M-set are wrong. See also Burning Ship fractal Newton fractal Pickover stalk Orbit portrait "Mandelbar" set Julia set References Further reading Lennart Carleson and Theodore W. Gamelin, Complex Dynamics, Springer 1993, ISBN 0-387-97942-5 John W. Milnor, Dynamics in One Complex Variable (Third Edition), Annals of Mathematics Studies 160, Princeton University Press 2006, ISBN 0-691-12488-4 (First appeared in 1990 as a Stony Brook IMS Preprint, available as arXiV:math.DS/9201272.) Nigel Lesmoir-Gordon. "The Colours of Infinity: The Beauty, The Power and the Sense of Fractals." ISBN 1-904555-05-5 (The book comes with a related DVD of the Arthur C. Clarke documentary introduction to the fractal concept and the Mandelbrot set, with music by David Gilmour, of the progressive rock band Pink Floyd). Heinz-Otto Peitgen, Hartmut Jürgens, Dietmar Saupe: Chaos and Fractals - New Frontiers of Science, Springer, New-York 1992,2004. ISBN 0-387-20229-3 External links The Mandelbrot Set and Julia Sets by Michael Frame, Benoit Mandelbrot, and Nial Neger | Mandelbrot_set |@lemmatized initial:1 image:20 mandelbrot:117 set:157 zoom:13 sequence:13 continuously:2 colour:11 environment:4 mathematics:5 name:2 benoît:4 point:53 complex:31 plane:12 boundary:12 form:3 fractal:14 mathematically:2 define:5 value:22 c:23 orbit:5 iteration:33 quadratic:7 polynomial:11 zn:4 remain:1 bound:3 number:29 start:9 apply:1 repeatedly:1 absolute:3 never:2 exceed:3 certain:3 depend:2 however:7 large:8 n:11 get:4 example:4 let:2 give:17 tend:3 infinity:7 unbounded:1 element:1 hand:2 belongs:2 compute:4 graph:2 see:8 elaborate:1 simplify:1 magnification:5 qualify:1 become:5 popular:3 outside:2 aesthetic:2 appeal:1 complicate:1 structure:12 arise:2 simple:10 definition:4 others:1 work:8 hard:1 communicate:1 area:3 public:1 history:1 place:1 dynamic:7 field:3 first:11 investigate:1 french:1 mathematician:7 pierre:1 fatou:2 gaston:1 julia:18 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5,271 | Lute | Lute can refer generally to any plucked string instrument with a neck (either fretted or unfretted) and a deep round back, or more specifically to an instrument from the family of European lutes. The European lute and the modern Near-Eastern oud both descend from a common ancestor via diverging evolutionary paths. The lute is used in a great variety of instrumental music from the early renaissance to the late baroque eras. It is also an accompanying instrument, especially in vocal works, often realizing a basso continuo or playing a written-out accompaniment. The player of a lute is called a lutenist, lutanist, or lutist, and a maker of lutes (or any string instrument) is called a luthier. Etymology The words "lute" and "oud" derive from Arabic al‘ud (العود; literally "the wood"). Recent research by Eckhard Neubauer suggests that ‘ud may in turn be an Arabized version of the Persian name rud, which meant "string," "stringed instrument," or "lute." Gianfranco Lotti suggests that the "wood" appellation originally carried derogatory connotations, because of proscriptions of all instrumental music in early Islam. Construction A baroque- or classical-era lute. Soundboard Lutes are made almost entirely of wood. The soundboard is a teardrop-shaped thin flat plate of resonant wood (usually spruce). In all lutes the soundboard has a single (sometimes triple) decorated sound hole under the strings, called the rose. The sound hole is not open, but rather covered with a grille in the form of an intertwining vine or a decorative knot, carved directly out of the wood of the soundboard. Renaissance lute (holding position). Back The back or the shell is assembled from thin strips of hardwood (maple, cherry, ebony, rosewood or other tonewoods) called ribs, joined (with glue) edge to edge to form a deep rounded body for the instrument. There are braces inside on the soundboard to give it strength; see the photo among the external links below. Neck The neck is made of light wood, with a veneer of hardwood (usually ebony) to provide durability for the fretboard beneath the strings. Unlike most modern stringed instruments, the lute's fretboard is mounted flush with the top. The pegbox for lutes before the Baroque era was angled back from the neck at almost 90° (see image), presumably to help hold the low-tension strings firmly against the nut, which is not traditionally glued in place, but is held in place by string pressure only. The tuning pegs are simple pegs of hardwood, somewhat tapered, that are held in place by friction in holes drilled through the pegbox. As with other instruments using friction pegs, the choice of wood used to make pegs is crucial. As the wood suffers dimensional changes through age and loss of humidity, it must as closely as possible retain a circular cross-section in order to function properly, as there are no gears or other mechanical aids for tuning the instrument. Often pegs were made from suitable fruitwoods such as European pearwood, or equally dimensionally stable analogues. Matheson, ca 1720, stated if a lute-player has lived eighty years, he has surely spent sixty years tuning. Belly The geometry of the lute belly is relatively complex, involving a system of barring in which braces are placed perpendicular to the strings at specific lengths along the overall length of the belly, the ends of which are angled quite precisely to abut the ribs on either side for structural reasons. Robert Lundberg, in his book "Historical Lute Construction," suggests that ancient builders placed bars according to whole-number ratios of the scale length and belly length. He further suggests that the inward bend of the soundboard (the 'belly scoop') is a deliberate adaptation by ancient builders to afford the lutenist's right hand a bit more space between the strings and soundboard. The belly thickness is somewhat variable, but hovers between 1.5 and 2 millimeters in general. Some luthiers tune the belly as they build, removing mass and adapting bracing to ensure proper sonic results. The lute belly is almost never finished, though in some cases the luthier may size the top with a very thin coat of shellac or glair in order to help keep it clean. The belly is joined directly to the rib, without a lining glued to the sides, although a cap and counter cap are glued to the inside and outside of the bottom end of the bowl to provide rigidity and increased gluing surface. After joining the top to the sides, a half binding is usually installed around the edge of the belly. The half-binding is approximately half the thickness of the belly and is usually made of a contrasting color wood. The rebate for the half-binding must be extremely precise to avoid compromising structural integrity. Bridge The bridge, usually made of a fruitwood, is attached to the soundboard usually at 1/5 to 1/7 the belly length. It does not have a separate saddle but has holes bored into it to which the strings attach directly. Typically the bridge is made such that it tapers in height and length, with the small end holding the trebles and the higher and wider end carrying the basses. Bridges are often colored black with carbon black in a binder, often shellac, and often have inscribed decoration. The scrolls or other decoration on the ends of lute bridges are usually integral to the bridge, and are not added afterwards as on some Renaissance guitars (cf Joachim Tielke's guitars). Frets The frets are made of loops of gut tied around the neck. They fray with use, and must be replaced from time to time. A few additional partial frets of wood are usually glued to the body of the instrument, to allow stopping the highest-pitched courses up to a full octave higher than the open string ,though these are anachronistic and do not appear on original instruments. Given the choice between nylon and gut, many luthiers prefer to use gut, as it conforms more readily to the sharp angle at the edge of the fingerboard. Strings Strings were historically made of gut (or sometimes in combination with metal), and are still made of gut or a synthetic substitute, with metal windings on the lower-pitched strings. Modern manufacturers make both gut and nylon strings, and both are in common use. Gut is more authentic, though it is also more susceptible to irregularity and pitch instability due to changes in humidity. Nylon, less authentic, offers greater tuning stability but is, of course, anachronistic. Of note are the "catlines" used as basses on historical instruments. Catlines are several gut strings wound together and soaked in heavy metal solutions which increase the mass of the strings. Catlines can be quite large in diameter by comparison with wound nylon strings for the same pitch. They produce a bass which is somewhat different in timbre from nylon basses. The lute's strings are arranged in courses, usually of two strings each, though the highest-pitched course usually consists of only a single string, called the chanterelle. In later Baroque lutes 2 upper courses are single. The courses are numbered sequentially, counting from the highest pitched, so that the chanterelle is the first course, the next pair of strings is the second course, etc. Thus an 8-course Renaissance lute will usually have 15 strings, and a 13-course Baroque lute will have 24. The courses are tuned in unison for high and intermediate pitches, but for lower pitches one of the two strings is tuned an octave higher. (The course at which this split starts changed over the history of the lute.) The two strings of a course are virtually always stopped and plucked together, as if a single string, but in extremely rare cases a piece calls for the two strings of a course to be stopped and/or plucked separately. The tuning of a lute is a somewhat complicated issue, and is described in a separate section of its own, below. The result of the lute's design is an instrument extremely light for its size. History and evolution of the lute Ancient Egyptian tomb painting depicting lute players, 18th Dynasty (c. 1350 BC) The origins of the lute are obscure, and organologists disagree about the very definition of a lute. The highly influential organologist Curt Sachs distinguished between the "long-necked lute" (Langhalslaute) and the short-necked variety: both referred to chordophones with a neck as distinguished from harps and psalteries. Smith and others argue that the long-necked variety should not be called lute at all, since it existed for at least a millennium before the appearance of the short-necked instrument that eventually evolved into what is now known as the lute, nor was it ever called a lute before the 20th century. Ancient Greek (Tanagra) terracotta statuette depicting a player of the pandura, 2nd century BC) Various types of necked chordophones were in use in ancient Egyptian (where they were introduced from Asia in the Middle Kingdom), Hittite, Greek, Roman, Bulgar, Turkic, Indian, Chinese, Armenian/Cilician cultures. The Lute developed its familiar forms as Barbat in Persia, Armenia, and Byzantium beginning in the early 7th century. These instruments often had bodies covered with animal skin, and it is unknown exactly when it became replaced with a wooden soundboard. As early as the 6th century the Bulgars brought the short-necked variety of the instrument called Kobuz to the Balkans, and in the 9th century Moors brought the Oud to Spain. The long-necked Pandora/Quitra had been common Mediterranean lute previously. The Quitra didn't become extinct however, but continued its evolution, its descendants being Chitarra Italiana, Chitarrone and Colascione, aside from the still surviving Kuitra of Algiers and Morocco. In about the year 1500 many Spanish, Catalan and Portuguese lutenists adopted vihuela de mano, a viol-shaped instrument tuned like the lute, but both instruments continued in coexistence. This instrument also found its way to parts of Italy that were under Spanish domination (especially Sicily and the papal states under the Borgia pope Alexander VI who brought many Catalan musicians to Italy), where it was known as the viola da mano. Another important point of transfer of the lute from Arabian to European culture might have been in Sicily, where it was brought either by Byzantine or later by Saracen musicians. There were singer-lutenists at the court in Palermo following the Norman conquest of the island, and the lute is depicted extensively in the ceiling paintings in the Palermo’s royal Cappella Palatina, dedicated by the Norman King Roger II in 1140. By the 14th century, lutes had disseminated throughout Italy. Probably due to the cultural influence of the Hohenstaufen kings and emperor, based in Palermo, the lute had also made significant inroads into the German-speaking lands by the 14th century. Medieval lutes were 4- or 5-course instruments, plucked using a quill for a plectrum. There were several sizes, and by the end of the Renaissance, seven different sizes (up to the great octave bass) are documented. Song accompaniment was probably the lute's primary function in the Middle Ages, but very little music securely attributable to the lute survives from the era before 1500. Medieval and early-Renaissance song accompaniments were probably mostly improvised, hence the lack of written records. In the last few decades of the 15th century, in order to play Renaissance polyphony on a single instrument, lutenists gradually abandoned the quill in favor of plucking the instrument with the fingertips. The number of courses grew to six and beyond. The lute was the premier solo instrument of the 16th century, but continued to be used to accompany singers as well. A man playing a lute, painted by Jan Kupetzky, ca. 1711 By the end of the Renaissance the number of courses had grown to ten, and during the Baroque era the number continued to grow until it reached 14 (and occasionally as many as 19). These instruments, with up to 26-35 strings, required innovations in the structure of the lute. At the end of the lute's evolution the archlute, theorbo and torban had long extensions attached to the main tuning head in order to provide a greater resonating length for the bass strings, and since human fingers are not long enough to stop strings across a neck wide enough to hold 14 courses, the bass strings were placed outside the fretboard, and were played "open", i.e. without fretting/stopping them with the left hand. Over the course of the Baroque era the lute was increasingly relegated to the continuo accompaniment, and was eventually superseded in that role by keyboard instruments. The lute almost fell out of use after 1800. Some sorts of lute were still used for some time in Germany, Sweeden, Ukraine. Lute in the modern world The lute enjoyed a revival with the awakening of interest in historical music around 1900 and throughout the century, and that revival was further boosted by the early music movement in the Twentieth Century. Important pioneers in lute revival were Julian Bream, Hans Neemann, Walter Gerwig, Suzanne Bloch and Diana Poulton. Lute performances are now not uncommon; there are many professional lutenists, especially in Europe where the most employment is to be found, and new compositions for the instrument are being produced by composers. During the early days of the early music movement, many lutes were constructed by available luthiers, whose specialty was often classical guitars. Such lutes were heavily built with construction similar to classical guitars, with fan bracing, heavy tops, fixed frets, and lined sides, all of which are anachronistic to historical lutes. As lutherie scholarship increased, makers began constructing instruments based on historical models, which have proven on the whole to be far lighter and more responsive instruments. Lutes built at present are invariably replicas or near copies of those surviving historical instruments that are to be found in museums or private collections. They are exclusively custom-built or must be bought second hand in a very limited market. As a result, lutes are generally more expensive than mass-produced modern instruments such as the guitar, though not nearly as expensive as the violin. Unlike in the past there are many types of lutes encountered today: 5-course medieval lutes, renaissance lutes of 6 to 10 courses in many pitches for solo and ensemble performance of Renaissance works, the archlute of Baroque works, 11-course lutes in d-minor tuning for 17th century French, German and Czech music, 13/14-course d-minor tuned German Baroque Lutes for later High Baroque and Classical music, theorbo for basso continuo parts in Baroque ensembles, gallichons/mandoras, bandoras, orpharions and others. Lutenistic practice has reached considerable heights in recent years, thanks to a growing number of world-class lutenists: Robert Barto, Eduardo Egüez, Edin Karamazov, Nigel North, Christopher Wilson, Luca Pianca, Pascal Monteilhet, Lex van Sante, Ariel Abramovich, Evangelina Mascardi, Luciano Contini, Hopkinson Smith, Paul O'Dette et alia. Singer-songwriter Sting has also played lute and archlute, in and out of his collaborations with Edin Karamazov, and Jan Akkerman released two albums of lute music in the 1970s while he was a guitarist in the Dutch rock band Focus. Lutes of several regional types are also common in Greece: laouto, and outi. Lute repertoire Orazio Gentileschi's young lutenist, painted ca 1626, plays a 10-course lute, typical of the time from around 1600 AD through the 1630s. Music stands appear very rarely in paintings of the period—the music is most commonly laid flat on a table, as seen here. Although lutes were in widespread use in Europe at least since the 13th century, and documents mention numerous early performers and composers, the earliest surviving music for the instrument dates from the late 15th century. Lute music flourished during the 16th and 17th centuries: numerous composers published collections of their music, and modern scholars have uncovered a vast number of manuscripts from the era—however, much of the music is still lost. In the second half of the 17th century lutes, vihuelas and similar instruments started losing popularity, and almost no music had been written for the instrument after 1750. The interest in lute music was revived only in the second half of the 20th century. Improvisation was apparently a highly important aspect of lute performance, and so much of the repertoire was probably never written down. Furthermore, it was only around 1500 that lute players started the transition from plectrum technique to that of the right hand: the latter allowed for complex polyphony, for which notation had to be developed. During the next hundred years three schools of tablature notation developed gradually: Italian (also employed in Spain), German and French. Only the latter survived into the late 17th century. The earliest known tablatures are designed for a six-stringed instrument, although evidence of earlier four- and five-stringed lutes exists. Apel 1949, 54. Tablature notation depends on the actual instrument for which the music is written, and to read it, it is necessary to know the tuning, the number of strings, etc. of the instrument. Renaissance and Baroque forms of lute music are more or less similar to those of keyboard music of the periods. Intabulations of vocal works were very common, as well as various dances, some of which disappeared during the 17th century, such as the piva and the saltarello. The advent of polyphony brought about fantasias: complex, intricate pieces with much use of imitative counterpoint. The improvisatory element, present to some degree in most lute pieces, is particularly evident in the early ricercares (not imitative as their later namesakes, but completely free), as well as in numerous preludial forms: preludes, tastar de corde ("testing the strings"), etc. During the 17th century keyboard and lute music went hand in hand, and by 1700 lutenists were writing suites of dances quite akin to those of keyboard composers. The lute was also used throughout its history as an ensemble instrument, most frequently in songs for voice and lute; these were particularly popular in Italy (see frottola) and England. The earliest surviving lute music is Italian, from a late 15th century manuscript. The early 16th century saw Petrucci's publications of lute music by Francesco Spinacino (fl. 1507) and Joan Ambrosio Dalza (fl. 1508); together with the so-called Capirola Lutebook, these represent the earliest stage of written lute music in Italy. The leader of the next generation of Italian lutenists, Francesco Canova da Milano (1497–1543), is now acknowledged as one of the most famous lute composers in history. The bigger part of his output consists of pieces called fantasias or ricercares, in which he makes extensive use of imitation and sequence, expanding the scope of lute polyphony. The second half of the century saw no composers equal in stature, but in the early 17th century Johannes Hieronymus Kapsberger (c.1580–1651) and Alessandro Piccinini (1566–1638) revolutionized the instrument's technique and Kapsberger, possibly, influenced the keyboard music of Frescobaldi. French written lute music began, as far as we know, with Pierre Attaingnant's (c.1494–c.1551) prints, which comprised preludes, dances and intabulations. Particularly important was the Italian composer Albert de Rippe (1500–1551), who worked in France and composed polyphonic fantasias of considerable complexity. His work was published posthumously by his pupil, Guillaume de Morlaye (born c.1510), who, however, did not pick up the complex polyphony of de Rippe. French lute music declined during the second part of the 16th century; however, various changes to the instrument (the increase of diapason strings, new tunings, etc.) prompted an important change in style that led, during the early Baroque, to the celebrated style brisé: broken, arpeggiated textures that influenced Johann Jakob Froberger's suites. The French Baroque school is exemplified by composers such as Ennemond Gaultier (1575–1651), Denis Gaultier (1597/1603–1672), François Dufaut (before 1604–before 1672) and many others. The last stage of French lute music is exemplified by Robert de Visée (c.1655–1732/3), whose suites exploit the instrument's possibilities to the fullest. The history of German written lute music started with Arnolt Schlick (c.1460–after 1521), who published in 1513 a collection of pieces that included 14 voice and lute songs and three solo lute pieces, alongside organ works. He was not, however, the first important German lutenist, because contemporaries credited Conrad Paumann (c. 1410–1473) with the invention of German lute tablature. However, this claim has yet to be proven, and no lute works by Paumann survive. After Schlick, a string of composers developed German lute music: Hans Judenkünig (c.1445–50–1526), the Neusidler family (particularly Hans Neusidler (c.1508/9–1563)) and others. During the second half of the 16th century, German tablature and German repertoire were gradually replaced by Italian and French tablature and international repertoire, respectively, and the Thirty Years War (1618–48) effectively stopped publications for half a century. German lute music was revived much later by composers such as Esaias Reusner (fl. 1670), however, a distinctly German style came only after 1700 in the works of Silvius Leopold Weiss (1686–1750), one of the greatest lute composers, some of whose works were transcribed for keyboard by none other than Johann Sebastian Bach (1685–1750), who composed a few pieces for the lute himself (although it is unclear whether they were really intended for the lute, rather than another plucked string instrument or the lautenwerk). Of other European countries, particularly important are England and Spain. English written lute music only began around 1540, however, the country produced numerous lutenists, of which John Dowland (1563–1626) is perhaps the most famous. His influence spread very far: variations on his themes were written by keyboard composers in Germany decades after his death. Dowland's predecessors and colleagues, such as Anthony Holborne (c. 1545–1602) and Daniel Bacheler (1572–1619), were less known. Spanish composers wrote mostly for the vihuela; their main genres were polyphonic fantasias and differencias (variations). Luys Milan (c.1500–after 1560) and Luys de Narváez (fl. 1526–49) were particularly important for their contributions to the development of lute polyphony in Spain. Finally, perhaps the most influential Eastern European lute composer was the Hungarian Bálint Bakfark (c.1526–30–1576), whose contrapuntal fantasias were much more difficult and tighter than those of his Western European contemporaries. Lute revival and Composers The revival of lute in the 20th century revitalized the interest of composers in the instruments of the lute family. One of the first such composers was Johann Nepomuk David in Germany. Composer Vladimir Vavilov was a pioneer of the lute revival, as well as the author of numerous musical hoaxes. Sandor Kallosz, Stefan Lundgren, Toyohiko Satoh applied modernist idiom to the lute, Jozef van Wissem and Alexandre Danilevsky minimalist and post-minimalist idiom, Roman Turovsky-Savchuk, Paulo Galvão, Robert MacKillop and Maxym Zvonaryov historicist idiom, and Ronn McFarlane New Age. Tuning conventions 6-course Early Renaissance lute tuning chart. 10-course Late Renaissance/Early Baroque lute tuning chart. 14-course Archlute tuning chart. 15-course Theorbo tuning chart. 13-course Baroque lute tuning chart. 13-course Baroque lute tuning chart. Lutes were made in a large variety of sizes, with varying numbers of strings/courses, and with no permanent standard for tuning. However, the following seems to have been generally true of the Renaissance lute: A 6-course Renaissance tenor lute would be tuned to the same intervals as a tenor viol, with intervals of a perfect fourth between all the courses except the 3rd and 4th, which differed only by a major third. The tenor lute was usually tuned nominally "in g" (there was no pitch standard before the 20th century), named after the pitch of the highest course, yielding the pattern [(G'G) (Cc) (FF) (AA) (dd) (g)] from the lowest course to the highest. (Much renaissance lute music can be played on a guitar by tuning the guitar's third string down by a half tone.) For lutes with more than six courses the extra courses would be added on the low end. Due to the large number of strings lutes have very wide necks, and it is difficult to stop strings beyond the sixth course, so additional courses were usually tuned to pitches useful as bass notes rather than continuing the regular pattern of fourths, and these lower courses are most often played without stopping. Thus an 8-course tenor Renaissance lute would be tuned to [(D'D) (F'F) (G'G) (Cc) (FF) (AA) (dd) (g)], and a 10-course to [(C'C) (D'D) (E♭'E♭) (F'F) (G'G) (Cc) (FF) (AA) (dd) (g)]. However, none of these patterns were de rigueur, and a modern lutenist will occasionally be seen to retune one or more courses between performance pieces. Manuscripts bear instructions for the player, e.g. 7e choeur en fa = "seventh course in fa" (= F in the standard C scale). The first part of the seventeenth century was a period of considerable diversity in the tuning of the lute, particularly in France. However, by around 1670 the scheme known today as the "Baroque" or "d-minor" tuning became the norm, at least in France and in northern and central Europe. In this case the first six courses outline a d-minor triad, and an additional five to seven courses are tuned generally scalewise below them. Thus the 13-course lute played by Weiss would have been tuned [(A"A') (B"B') (C'C) (D'D) (E'E) (F'F) (G'G) (A'A') (DD) (FF) (AA) (d) (f)], or with sharps or flats on the lower 7 courses appropriate to the key of the piece. Modern lutenists tune to a variety of pitch standards, ranging from A = 392 to 470 Hz, depending on the type of instrument they are playing, the repertory, the pitch of other instruments in an ensemble and other performing expediencies. No attempt at a universal pitch standard existed during the period of the lute's historical popularity. The standards varied over time and from place to place. References Bibliography The Lute in Europe by Andreas Schlegel, published by the The Lute Corner (2006). ISBN 978-3-9523232-0-5 A History of the Lute from Antiquity to the Renaissance by Douglas Alton Smith, published by the Lute Society of America (2002). ISBN 0-9714071-0-X ISBN 978-0971407107 The Lute in Britain: A History of the Instrument and its Music by Matthew Spring, published by Oxford University Press (2001). Historical Lute Construction by Robert Lundberg, published by the Guild of American Luthiers (2002). La musique de luth en France au XVIe siècle by Jean-Michel Vaccaro (1981). Articles in Journal of the Lute Society of America (1968-), The Lute (1958-), and other journals published by the various national lute societies. Eckhard Neubauer, "Der Bau der Laute und ihre Besaitung nach arabischen, persischen und türkischen Quellen des 9. bis 15. Jahrhunderts," Zeitschrift für Geschichte der arabisch-islamischen Wissenschaften, vol. 8 (1993): 279–378. Quotations The art of playing the lute formed a major part of instrumental music making in the Renaissance before keyboard instruments assumed central significance. It was a refined, soft, and at the same time colorful art, in sharp contrast to the agitated times in which it was practised.— Karl Schumann [1] This style knows nothing of the otherwise usual requirements and prohibitions of voice-leading; it can only be understood in relation to the fingering technique; it frequently applies the sound of open strings and in no way avoids the otherwise so despised parallel 5ths and octaves or unisons. The dissonances and other conflicting sounds which appear so often...strike me as exciting and revealing.— Carl Orff [1] [1] Quotation taken from the liner notes to the Wergo edition of Orff's Kleines Konzert, with English translations by John Patrick Thomas. External links Lute societies The Lute Society (UK) The Lute Society of America The German Lute Society The French Lute Society The Japanese Lute Society Lute music online and other useful resources ABC Classic FM presents: Lute Project videos Watch Tommie Andersson play the theorbo, 7-course & 10-course lutes. Wayne Cripps' lute pages The Lute Lieder Site, library of songs and lieder with baroque lute accompaniment. The Ukrainan Lute Page Torban, a Ukrainian variety of lute/theorbo. Lute History by István Kónya Joachim Tielke The website for the great Hamburg lutemaker Joachim Tielke Musick's Handmade Facsimiles/Scans (Dowland, etc.) and pdfs - by Alain Veylit Composers of lute music :Category:Composers for lute List of composers for lute Lute players see :Category:Lutenists Luthiers Joachim Tielke Cezar Mateus Andrew Rutherford Photos of historic lutes Photos of historic lutes at the Museum Cité de la Musique in Paris Instruments et oeuvres d'art - search-phrase: Mot-clé(s) : luth Facteurs d'instruments - search-phrase: Instrument fabriqué : luth Photothèque - search-phrase: Instrument de musique, ville ou pays : luth Lutes at the Metropolitan Museum of Art Articles and resources Pioneers of the Lute Revivial by Jo Van Herck (Belgian Lute Academy) Original: Over de pioniers van de luitrevival; Luthinerie / Geluit no. 15 (september 2001) and no. 16 (december 2001) Photos and Paintings French Lutenists and French Lute Music in Sweden La Rhétorique des Dieux See also European Lutes: String instruments Angélique (instrument) Archlute Cittern Cobza Gallichon Kobza Mandora Torban Theorbo Vihuela Tablature Early music Medieval music Renaissance music Baroque music Classical Music Greek Music Cretan Music African Lutes: Gonje Kouco Kountougi Asian Lutes: Barbat Biwa Dramnyen Kutiyapi Oud Pipa Setar Sitar Tanbur Dotar Tar Yueqin Stringed instrument tunings References | Lute |@lemmatized lute:155 refer:2 generally:4 plucked:2 string:47 instrument:53 neck:9 either:3 fret:6 unfretted:1 deep:2 round:1 back:4 specifically:1 family:3 european:8 modern:8 near:2 eastern:2 oud:4 descend:1 common:5 ancestor:1 via:1 diverge:1 evolutionary:1 path:1 use:16 great:6 variety:7 instrumental:3 music:45 early:21 renaissance:20 late:7 baroque:20 era:7 also:9 accompany:2 especially:3 vocal:2 work:10 often:9 realize:1 basso:2 continuo:3 play:12 write:12 accompaniment:5 player:7 call:11 lutenist:14 lutanist:1 lutist:1 maker:2 luthier:7 etymology:1 word:1 derive:1 arabic:1 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5,272 | Leyden_jar | Drawing of Leyden jar from 1914 physics book The Leyden jar, or Leiden jar, is a device that "stores" static electricity between two electrodes on the inside and outside of a jar. It was invented in 1745 by Pieter van Musschenbroek (1692–1761), in Leiden, The Netherlands. It was the original form of the capacitor. The Leyden jar was used to conduct many early experiments in electricity, and its discovery was of fundamental importance in the study of electricity. Previously, researchers had to resort to insulated conductors of large dimensions to store charge. The Leyden jar provided a much more compact alternative. Description A typical design consists of a glass jar with conducting metal foil coating the inner and outer surfaces. The foil coatings stop short of the mouth of the jar, to prevent the charge from arcing between the foils. A rod electrode projects through the mouth of the jar, electrically connected by some means (usually a chain) to the inner foil, to allow it to be charged. The jar is charged by an electrostatic generator, or other source of electric charge, connected to the inner electrode while the outer foil is grounded. The inner and outer surfaces of the jar store equal but opposite charges. Cross-section diagram from about 1900 showing construction. The original form of the device was just a glass bottle partially filled with water, with a metal wire passing through a cork closing it. The role of the outer plate was provided by the hand of the experimenter. Soon it was found that it was better to coat the exterior of the jar with metal foil (Watson, 1746), leaving the (accidentally) impure water inside acting as a conductor, connected by a chain or wire to an external terminal, a sphere to avoid losses by corona discharge. It was initially believed that the charge was stored in the water. Benjamin Franklin investigated the Leyden jar, and concluded that the charge was stored in the glass, not in the water, as others had assumed. In general the charge may be stored in the conductors, on the surface along the inward surfaces, or on the surface of the dielectric if these are separated by a thin air gap. The charge leaks to the surface of the dielectric if contact is imperfect and the electric field is intense enough. Because of this, the fluid inside can be replaced with a metal foil lining. Early experimenters found that the thinner the dielectric, the closer the plates, and the greater the surface, the greater the amount of charge that could be stored at a given voltage. Further developments in electrostatics revealed that the dielectric material was not essential, but increased the storage capability (capacitance) and prevented arcing between the plates. Two plates separated by a small distance also act as a capacitor, even in vacuum. Measuring Leyden jar. A "battery" of four Leyden jars, Museum Boerhaave, Leiden . Named by Benjamin Franklin , derived from a "battery of cannon". Originally, the amount of capacitance was measured in number of 'jars' of a given size, or through the total coated area, assuming reasonably standard thickness and composition of the glass. A typical Leyden jar of one pint size has a capacitance of about 1 nF. History The ancient Greeks already knew that pieces of amber could attract light particles after being rubbed. The amber becomes electrified by triboelectric effect, mechanical separation of charge in a dielectric. The Greek word for amber is ηλεκτρον ("elektron") and is at the origin of the word "electricity". Around 1650, Otto von Guericke built a crude friction generator — a sulphur ball that rotated on a shaft. When Guericke held his hand against the ball and turned the shaft quickly, a static electric charge built up. This experiment inspired the development of several forms of "friction machines", that greatly helped in the study of electricity. The Leyden jar was first invented by German scientist and jurist Ewald Georg von Kleist, who in 1745 found a method of storing large amounts of electric charge. He lined a glass jar with silver foil, and charged the foil with a friction machine. Kleist was convinced that a substantial charge could be collected when he received a significant shock from the device. The effects of this Kleistian jar were independently discovered about the same time by Dutch scientist Pieter van Musschenbroek at the University of Leiden. Musschenbroek communicated on it with the French scientific community where it was called the Leyden jar. Daniel Gralath was the first to combine several jars in parallel into a "battery" to increase the total possible stored charge. The Leyden Jar Discovered — World Wide School The term "battery" was coined by Benjamin Franklin, who likened it to a battery of cannon (cannons grouped in a common place). The term was later used for arrangements of multiple electrochemical cells, the modern meaning of battery. By the middle of the 19th century, the Leyden jar had become common enough for writers to assume their readers knew of and understood its basic operation. The Leyden Ball By the early 20th century, improved dielectrics and the need to reduce their size and inductance for use in the new technology of radio caused the Leyden jar to evolve into the modern compact form of capacitor. The "dissectible Leyden jar" myth A popular, but possibly misleading, demonstration with a Leyden jar involves taking one apart after it has been charged and showing that the energy is stored on the dielectric, not the plates. The first documented instance of this demonstration is in a 1749 letter by Benjamin Franklin. Letter IV: Benjamin Franklin to Peter Collinson, April 29, 1749 (Bigelow vol II p. 237-253) (PDF containing extracts) The jar in the demonstration is constructed out of a dielectric cup nested between two fairly snugly fitting metal cups. When the jar is charged with a high voltage and carefully dismantled, it is discovered that all the parts may be freely handled without discharging the jar. If the pieces are re-assembled, a large spark may still be obtained. When not properly explained, this promotes the myth that capacitors store their charge inside their dielectric. However this phenomenon is a special effect caused by the high voltage on the Leyden jar. In capacitors generally, the charge is not stored in the dielectric, but on the inside surfaces of the plates, as can be seen from the fact that capacitors can function with a vacuum between their plates. In the dissectible Leyden jar, charge is transferred to the surface of the dielectric cup by corona discharge when the jar is disassembled; this is the source of the residual charge after the jar is reassembled. Handling the cup while disassembled does not provide enough contact to remove all the surface charge. See also Jar (unit of capacitance) References External links Leyden Jar - Interactive Java Tutorial National High Magnetic Field Laboratory Dissectable Leyden Jar Capacitor | Leyden_jar |@lemmatized drawing:1 leyden:20 jar:37 physic:1 book:1 leiden:4 device:3 store:12 static:2 electricity:5 two:3 electrode:3 inside:5 outside:1 invent:2 pieter:2 van:2 musschenbroek:3 netherlands:1 original:2 form:4 capacitor:7 use:3 conduct:2 many:1 early:3 experiment:2 discovery:1 fundamental:1 importance:1 study:2 previously:1 researcher:1 resort:1 insulated:1 conductor:3 large:3 dimension:1 charge:24 provide:3 much:1 compact:2 alternative:1 description:1 typical:2 design:1 consist:1 glass:5 metal:5 foil:9 coat:2 inner:4 outer:4 surface:10 coating:1 stop:1 short:1 mouth:2 prevent:2 arc:2 rod:1 project:1 electrically:1 connect:3 mean:1 usually:1 chain:2 allow:1 electrostatic:1 generator:2 source:2 electric:4 ground:1 equal:1 opposite:1 cross:1 section:1 diagram:1 show:2 construction:1 bottle:1 partially:1 fill:1 water:4 wire:2 passing:1 cork:1 closing:1 role:1 plate:7 hand:2 experimenter:2 soon:1 find:3 well:1 exterior:1 watson:1 leave:1 accidentally:1 impure:1 act:2 external:2 terminal:1 sphere:1 avoid:1 loss:1 corona:2 discharge:3 initially:1 believe:1 benjamin:5 franklin:5 investigate:1 conclude:1 others:1 assume:3 general:1 may:3 along:1 inward:1 dielectric:11 separate:2 thin:1 air:1 gap:1 leak:1 contact:2 imperfect:1 field:2 intense:1 enough:3 fluid:1 replace:1 lining:1 thinner:1 close:1 great:2 amount:3 could:3 give:2 voltage:3 development:2 electrostatics:1 reveal:1 material:1 essential:1 increase:2 storage:1 capability:1 capacitance:4 small:1 distance:1 also:2 even:1 vacuum:2 measure:2 battery:6 four:1 museum:1 boerhaave:1 name:1 derive:1 cannon:3 originally:1 number:1 size:3 total:2 coated:1 area:1 reasonably:1 standard:1 thickness:1 composition:1 one:2 pint:1 nf:1 history:1 ancient:1 greek:2 already:1 know:2 piece:2 amber:3 attract:1 light:1 particle:1 rub:1 become:2 electrify:1 triboelectric:1 effect:3 mechanical:1 separation:1 word:2 ηλεκτρον:1 elektron:1 origin:1 around:1 otto:1 von:2 guericke:2 build:2 crude:1 friction:3 sulphur:1 ball:3 rotate:1 shaft:2 hold:1 turn:1 quickly:1 inspire:1 several:2 machine:2 greatly:1 help:1 first:3 german:1 scientist:2 jurist:1 ewald:1 georg:1 kleist:2 method:1 line:1 silver:1 convince:1 substantial:1 collect:1 receive:1 significant:1 shock:1 kleistian:1 independently:1 discover:3 time:1 dutch:1 university:1 communicate:1 french:1 scientific:1 community:1 call:1 daniel:1 gralath:1 combine:1 parallel:1 possible:1 world:1 wide:1 school:1 term:2 coin:1 liken:1 group:1 common:2 place:1 later:1 arrangement:1 multiple:1 electrochemical:1 cell:1 modern:2 meaning:1 middle:1 century:2 writer:1 reader:1 understand:1 basic:1 operation:1 improve:1 need:1 reduce:1 inductance:1 new:1 technology:1 radio:1 cause:2 evolve:1 dissectible:2 myth:2 popular:1 possibly:1 misleading:1 demonstration:3 involve:1 take:1 apart:1 energy:1 documented:1 instance:1 letter:2 iv:1 peter:1 collinson:1 april:1 bigelow:1 vol:1 ii:1 p:1 pdf:1 contain:1 extract:1 construct:1 cup:4 nest:1 fairly:1 snugly:1 fit:1 high:3 carefully:1 dismantle:1 part:1 freely:1 handle:2 without:1 assemble:1 spark:1 still:1 obtain:1 properly:1 explain:1 promote:1 however:1 phenomenon:1 special:1 generally:1 see:2 fact:1 function:1 transfer:1 disassemble:2 residual:1 reassemble:1 remove:1 unit:1 reference:1 link:1 interactive:1 java:1 tutorial:1 national:1 magnetic:1 laboratory:1 dissectable:1 |@bigram leyden_jar:19 static_electricity:1 leiden_netherlands:1 corona_discharge:2 benjamin_franklin:5 triboelectric_effect:1 von_guericke:1 von_kleist:1 electrochemical_cell:1 external_link:1 magnetic_field:1 |
5,273 | Chordate | Chordates (phylum Chordata) are a group of animals that includes the vertebrates, together with several closely related invertebrates. They are united by having, at some time in their life cycle, a notochord, a hollow dorsal nerve cord, pharyngeal slits, an endostyle, and a post-anal tail. The phylum Chordata consists of three subphyla: Urochordata, represented by tunicates; Cephalochordata, represented by lancelets;and Craniata, which includes Vertebrata. The Hemichordata have been presented as a fourth chordate subphylum, but they are now usually treated as a separate phylum. Urochordate larvae have a notochord and a nerve cord but these are lost in adulthood. Cephalochordates have a notochord and a nerve cord but no brain or specialist sense organs, and a very simple circulatory system. Craniates are the only sub-phylum whose members have skulls. In all craniates except for Hagfish, the dorsal hollow nerve cord has been surrounded with cartilaginous or bony vertebrae and the notochord generally reduced; hence hagfish are not regarded as vertebrates. The chordates and three sister phyla, the Hemichordata, the Echinodermata and the Xenoturbellida, make up the deuterostomes, one of the two superphyla that encompass all fairly complex animals. Attempts to work out the evolutionary relationships of the chordates have produced several hypotheses, but the current consensus is that chordates are monophyletic, in other words contain all and only the descendants of a single common ancestor which is itself a chordate, and that craniates' nearest relatives are cephalochordates. All of the earliest chordate fossils have been found in the Early Cambrian Chengjiang fauna, and include two species that are regarded as fish, which implies that these are vertebrates. Because the fossil record of chordates is poor, only molecular phylogenetics offers a reasonable prospect of dating their emergence. However the use of molecular phylogenetics for dating evolutionary transitions is controversial. It has also proved difficult to produce a detailed classification within the living chordates. Attempts to produce evolutionary "family trees" give results that differ from traditional classes because several of those classes are not monophyletic. As a result vertebrate classification is in a state of flux. Definition, sub-divisions and closest relatives Definition Chordates form a phylum — a grouping of animals with a shared bodyplan "Classifications of organisms in hierarchical systems were in use by the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Usually organisms were grouped according to their morphological similarities as perceived by those early workers, and those groups were then grouped according to their similarities, and so on, to form a hierarchy." — defined by having at some stage in their lives all of the following: a notochord, in other words a fairly stiff rod of cartilage that extends along the inside of the body. Among the vertebrate sub-group of chordates the notochord develops into the spine, and in wholly aquatic species this helps the animal to swim by flexing its tail. a dorsal neural tube. In fish and other vertebrates this develops into the spinal cord, the main commmunications trunk of the nervous system. pharyngeal slits. The pharynx is the part of the throat immediately behind the mouth. In fish the slits are modified to form gills, but in some other chordates they are part of a filter feeding system that extracts particles of food from the water in which the animals live. a muscular tail that extends backwards behind the anus. an endostyle. This is a groove in the ventral wall of the pharynx. In filter feeding species it produces mucus to gather food particles, which helps in transporting food to the esophagus. It also stores iodine, and may be a precursor of the vertebrate thyroid gland. Sub-divisions There are three major groupings within the chordates: Craniates have distinct skulls. Michael J. Benton comments that "craniates are characterized by their heads, just as chordates, or possibly all deuterostomes, are by their tails." Most are vertebrates, in which the notochord is replaced by the spinal column. This consists of a series of bony or cartilaginous cylindrical vertebrae, generally with neural arches that protect the spinal chord and with projections that link the vertebrae. Hagfish have incomplete braincases and no vertebrae, and are therefore not regarded as vertebrates, but as members of the craniates, the group from which vertebrates are thought to have evolved. The position of lampreys is ambiguous. They have complete braincases and rudimentary vertebrae, and therefore may be regarded as vertebrates and true fish. However molecular phylogenetics, which uses biochemical features to classify organisms, has produced both results that group them with vertebrates and others that group them with hagfish. thumb | left | 100px | Craniate: Hagfish Cephalochordates are small, "vaguely fish-shaped" animals that lack brains, clearly-defined heads and specialized sense organs. These burrowing filter-feeders may be either the closest living relatives of craniates or surviving members of the group from which all other chordates evolved. thumb | left | 100px | Cephalochordate: Lancelet Most tunicates appear as adults in two major forms, both of which are bags of jelly that lack the standard features of chordates: "sea squirts" are sessile and consist mainly of water pumps and filter feeding apparatus; salps float in mid-water, feeding on plankton, and have a two-generation cycle in which one generation is solitary and the next forms chain-like colonies. However all tunicate larvae have the standard chordate features, including long, tadpole-like tails; they also have rudimentary brains, light sensors and tilt sensors. The third main group of tunicates, Appendicularia (also known as Larvacea) retain tadpole-like shapes and active swimming all their lives, and were for a long time regarded as larvae of sea squirts or salps. Because of their larvae's long tails tunicates are also called urochordates ("tail chordates"). left | 100px | Tunicates: sea squirts thumb | right | 100px | Tunicates: floating colony of salps Closest non-chordate relatives Hemichordates ("half chordates") have some features similar to those of chordates: branchial openings that open into the pharynx and look rather like gill slits; stomochords, similar in composition to notochords but running in a circle round the "collar", which is ahead of the mouth; and a dorsal nerve cord — but also a smaller ventral nerve cord. There are two living groups of hemichordates. The solitary enteropneusts, commonly known as "acorn worms", have long probosces and worm-like bodies with up to 200 branchial slits, are up to long, and burrow though seafloor sediments. Pterobranchs are colonial animals, often less than long individually, whose dwellings are inter-connected. Each filter feeds by means of a pair of branched tentacles, and has a short, shield-shaped proboscis. The extinct graptolites, colonial animals whose fossils look tiny hacksaw blades, lived in tubes similar to those of pterobranchs. thumb | left | 100px | Enteropneust hemichordate: Balanoglossus thumb | right | 100px | Pterobranch hemichordate: Rhabdopleura Echinoderms differ from chordates' other relatives in three conspicuous ways: instead of having bilateral symmetry they have radial symmetry, like wheels; their bodies are supported by skeletons made of calcite, a material not used by chordates, and these skeleton enclose their bodies but are also covered by a thin skin; they have tube feet. The feet are powered by another unique feature of echinoderms, a water vascular system of canals that also function as a "lung" and are surrounded by muscles that act as pumps. Crinoids look rather like flowers, and use their feather-like arms to filter food particles out of the water; most live anchored to rocks, but a few can move very slowly. Other echinoderms are mobile and take a variety of body shapes, for example starfish, sea urchins and sea cucumbers. thumb | left | 100px | Echinoderm: starfish thumb | right | 100px | Echinoderm: crinoid Origins The majority of animals more complex than jellyfish and other Cnidarians are split into two groups, the protostomes and deuterostomes, and chordates are deuterostomes. It seems very likely that Kimberella was a member of the protostomes. If so, this means that the protostome and deuterostome lineages must have split some time before Kimberella appeared — at least , and hence well before the start of the Cambrian . The Ediacaran fossil Ernettia, from about , may represent a deuterostome animal. Ernettia is from the Kuibis formation, approximate date given by thumb | right | 200px | Haikouichthys, from about in China, may be the earliest known fish. Fossils of one major deuterostome group, the echinoderms (whose modern members include starfish, sea urchins and crinoids) are quite common from the start of the Cambrian, . The Mid Cambrian fossil Rhabdotubus johanssoni has been interpreted as a pterobranch hemichordate. Opinions differ about whether the Chengjiang fauna fossil Yunnanozoon, from the earlier Cambrian, was a hemichordate or chordate. Another Chenjiang fossil, Haikouella lanceolata, also from the Chengjiang fauna, is interpreted as a chordate and possibly a craniate, as it shows signs of a heart, arteries, gill filaments, a tail, a neural chord with a brain at the front end, and possibly eyes — although it also had short tentacles round its mouth. Haikouichthys and Myllokunmingia, also from the Chenjiang fauna, are regarded as fish. Pikaia, discovered much earlier but from the Mid Cambrian Burgess Shale, is also regarded as a primitive chordate. On the other hand fossils of early chordates are very rare, since non-vertebrate chordates have no bones or teeth, and only one has been reported for the rest of the Cambrian. A consensus family tree of the chordates The evolutionary relationships between the chordate groups and between chordates as a whole and their closest deuterostome relatives have been debated since 1890. Studies based on anatomical, embryological, and paleontological data have produced different "family trees". Some closely linked chordates and hemichordates, but that idea is now rejected. Combining such analyses with data from a small set of ribosome RNA genes eliminated some older ideas, but open the possibility that tunicates (urochordates) are "basal deuterostomes", in other words surviving members of the group from which echinoderms, hemichordates and chordates evolved. Most researchers agree that, within the chordates, craniates are most closely related to cephalochordates, but there also reasons for regarding tunicates (urochordates) as craniates' closest relatives. One other phylum, Xenoturbellida, appears to be basal within the deuterostomes, in other words closer to the original deuterostomes than to the chordates, echinoderms and hemichordates. Perseke M, Hankeln T, Weich B, Fritzsch G, Stadler PF, Israelsson O, Bernhard D, Schlegel M. (2007) "The mitochondrial DNA of Xenoturbella bocki: genomic architecture and phylogenetic analysis". Theory Biosci. 126(1):35–42. Available online at Since chordates have left a poor fossil record, attempts have been made to calculate the key dates in their evolution by molecular phylogenetics techniques, in other words by analysing biochemical differences, mainly in RNA. One such study suggested that deuterostomes arose before and the earliest chordates around . However molecular estimates of dates often disagree with each other and with the fossil record, and their assumption that the molecular clock runs at a known constant rate has been challenged. Classification Taxonomy The following schema is from the third edition of Vertebrate Palaeontology. Benton, M.J. (2004). Vertebrate Palaeontology, Third Edition. Blackwell Publishing, 472 pp. The classification scheme is available online While it is structured so as to reflect evolutionary relationships (similar to a cladogram), it also retains the traditional ranks used in Linnaean taxonomy. Phylum Chordata Subphylum Tunicata (Urochordata) — (tunicates, 3,000 species) Subphylum Cephalochordata (Acraniata) — (lancelets, 30 species) Subphylum Vertebrata (Craniata) (vertebrates — animals with backbones; 57,674 species) Class 'Agnatha'Paraphyletic (jawless vertebrates; 100+ species) Subclass Myxinoidea (hagfish; 65 species) Subclass Petromyzontida (Lampreys) Subclass Conodonta Subclass Pteraspidomorphi (Paleozoic jawless fish) Order Anaspida Order Thelodonti (Paleozoic jawless fish) Infraphylum Gnathostomata (jawed vertebrates) Class Placodermi (Paleozoic armoured forms) Class Chondrichthyes (cartilaginous fish; 900+ species) Class Acanthodii (Paleozoic "spiny sharks") Class Osteichthyes (bony fishes; 30,000+ species) Subclass Actinopterygii (ray-finned fish; about 30,000 species) Subclass Sarcopterygii (lobe-finned fish) Superclass Tetrapoda (four-legged vertebrates; 18,000+ species) Class Amphibia (amphibians; 6,000 species) Series Amniota (with amniotic egg) Class Reptilia — (reptiles; 8,225+ species) Subclass Anapsida (extinct "proto-reptiles" and possibly turtles) Subclass Synapsida (mammal-like "reptiles"; 4,500+ species, progenitors of mammals) Subclass Diapsida (majority of reptiles, progenitors of birds) Class Aves (birds; 8,800–10,000 species) Class Mammalia (mammals; 5,800 species) Phylogeny Notes: Lines show probable evolutionary relationships, including extinct taxa, which are denoted with a dagger, †. Some are invertebrates. Chordata is a phylum. The positions (relationships) of the Lancelet, Tunicate, and Craniata clades are as reported The amphioxus genome and the evolution of the chordate karyotype, Nicholas H. Putnam, et al. Nature vol 453 p. 1064–1071, June 19, 2000 in the scientific journal Nature. References External links Chordate on GlobalTwitcher.com Chordate node at Tree Of Life Chordate node at NCBI Taxonomy | Chordate |@lemmatized chordate:40 phylum:9 chordata:4 group:15 animal:11 include:6 vertebrate:19 together:1 several:3 closely:3 related:1 invertebrate:2 unite:1 time:3 life:4 cycle:2 notochord:8 hollow:2 dorsal:4 nerve:6 cord:7 pharyngeal:2 slit:5 endostyle:2 post:1 anal:1 tail:8 consist:3 three:4 subphylum:5 urochordata:2 represent:3 tunicate:10 cephalochordata:2 lancelet:4 craniata:3 vertebrata:2 hemichordata:2 present:1 fourth:1 usually:2 treat:1 separate:1 urochordate:4 larva:4 lose:1 adulthood:1 cephalochordate:5 brain:4 specialist:1 sense:2 organ:2 simple:1 circulatory:1 system:5 craniate:11 sub:4 whose:4 member:6 skull:2 except:1 hagfish:6 surround:2 cartilaginous:3 bony:3 vertebra:5 generally:2 reduce:1 hence:2 regard:8 sister:1 echinodermata:1 xenoturbellida:2 make:3 deuterostomes:8 one:6 two:6 superphyla:1 encompass:1 fairly:2 complex:2 attempt:3 work:1 evolutionary:6 relationship:5 produce:6 hypothesis:1 current:1 consensus:2 monophyletic:2 word:5 contain:1 descendant:1 single:1 common:2 ancestor:1 near:1 relative:7 early:8 fossil:11 find:1 cambrian:7 chengjiang:3 fauna:4 specie:17 fish:13 imply:1 record:3 poor:2 molecular:6 phylogenetics:4 offer:1 reasonable:1 prospect:1 date:5 emergence:1 however:4 use:6 transition:1 controversial:1 also:14 prove:1 difficult:1 detailed:1 classification:5 within:4 living:2 family:3 tree:4 give:2 result:3 differ:3 traditional:2 class:11 state:1 flux:1 definition:2 division:2 close:5 chordates:2 form:6 grouping:2 share:1 bodyplan:1 organism:2 hierarchical:1 seventeenth:1 eighteenth:1 century:1 organisms:1 accord:2 morphological:1 similarity:2 perceive:1 worker:1 hierarchy:1 define:2 stage:1 following:2 stiff:1 rod:1 cartilage:1 extend:2 along:1 inside:1 body:5 among:1 develop:2 spine:1 wholly:1 aquatic:1 help:2 swim:2 flex:1 neural:3 tube:3 spinal:3 main:2 commmunications:1 trunk:1 nervous:1 pharynx:3 part:2 throat:1 immediately:1 behind:2 mouth:3 modify:1 gill:3 filter:6 feed:3 extract:1 particle:3 food:4 water:5 live:4 muscular:1 backwards:1 anus:1 groove:1 ventral:2 wall:1 feeding:2 mucus:1 gather:1 transport:1 esophagus:1 store:1 iodine:1 may:5 precursor:1 thyroid:1 gland:1 major:3 distinct:1 michael:1 j:2 benton:2 comment:1 characterize:1 head:2 possibly:4 replace:1 column:1 series:2 cylindrical:1 arch:1 protect:1 chord:2 projection:1 link:3 incomplete:1 braincase:2 therefore:2 think:1 evolve:3 position:2 lamprey:2 ambiguous:1 complete:1 rudimentary:2 true:1 biochemical:2 feature:5 classify:1 others:1 thumb:8 leave:6 small:3 vaguely:1 shape:3 lack:2 clearly:1 specialized:1 burrow:2 feeder:1 either:1 survive:2 appear:3 adult:1 bag:1 jelly:1 standard:2 sea:6 squirt:3 sessile:1 mainly:2 pump:2 apparatus:1 salps:2 float:2 mid:3 plankton:1 generation:2 solitary:2 next:1 chain:1 like:9 colony:2 long:6 tadpole:2 light:1 sensor:2 tilt:1 third:3 appendicularia:1 know:3 larvacea:1 retain:2 active:1 salp:1 call:1 right:4 non:2 hemichordates:5 half:1 similar:4 branchial:2 opening:1 open:2 look:3 rather:2 stomochords:1 composition:1 run:2 circle:1 round:2 collar:1 ahead:1 enteropneusts:1 commonly:1 acorn:1 worm:2 probosces:1 though:1 seafloor:1 sediment:1 pterobranchs:2 colonial:2 often:2 less:1 individually:1 dwelling:1 inter:1 connect:1 mean:2 pair:1 branched:1 tentacle:2 short:2 shield:1 shaped:1 proboscis:1 extinct:3 graptolites:1 tiny:1 hacksaw:1 blade:1 enteropneust:1 hemichordate:4 balanoglossus:1 pterobranch:2 rhabdopleura:1 echinoderm:8 conspicuous:1 way:1 instead:1 bilateral:1 symmetry:2 radial:1 wheel:1 support:1 skeleton:2 calcite:1 material:1 enclose:1 cover:1 thin:1 skin:1 foot:2 power:1 another:2 unique:1 vascular:1 canal:1 function:1 lung:1 muscle:1 act:1 crinoid:3 flower:1 feather:1 arm:1 anchor:1 rock:1 move:1 slowly:1 mobile:1 take:1 variety:1 example:1 starfish:3 urchin:2 cucumber:1 origins:1 majority:2 jellyfish:1 cnidarian:1 split:2 protostomes:2 seem:1 likely:1 kimberella:2 protostome:1 deuterostome:4 lineage:1 must:1 least:1 well:1 start:2 ediacaran:1 ernettia:2 kuibis:1 formation:1 approximate:1 haikouichthys:2 china:1 known:1 modern:1 quite:1 rhabdotubus:1 johanssoni:1 interpret:2 opinion:1 whether:1 yunnanozoon:1 chenjiang:2 haikouella:1 lanceolata:1 show:2 sign:1 heart:1 artery:1 filament:1 front:1 end:1 eye:1 although:1 myllokunmingia:1 pikaia:1 discover:1 much:1 burgess:1 shale:1 primitive:1 hand:1 rare:1 since:3 bone:1 teeth:1 report:2 rest:1 whole:1 debate:1 study:2 base:1 anatomical:1 embryological:1 paleontological:1 data:2 different:1 idea:2 reject:1 combine:1 analysis:2 set:1 ribosome:1 rna:2 gene:1 eliminate:1 old:1 possibility:1 tunicates:1 basal:2 researcher:1 agree:1 relate:1 reason:1 closer:1 original:1 perseke:1 hankeln:1 weich:1 b:1 fritzsch:1 g:1 stadler:1 pf:1 israelsson:1 bernhard:1 schlegel:1 mitochondrial:1 dna:1 xenoturbella:1 bocki:1 genomic:1 architecture:1 phylogenetic:1 theory:1 biosci:1 available:2 online:2 calculate:1 key:1 evolution:2 technique:1 analyse:1 difference:1 suggest:1 arise:1 around:1 estimate:1 disagree:1 assumption:1 clock:1 constant:1 rate:1 challenge:1 taxonomy:3 schema:1 edition:2 palaeontology:2 blackwell:1 publishing:1 pp:1 scheme:1 structure:1 reflect:1 cladogram:1 rank:1 linnaean:1 tunicata:1 acraniata:1 backbone:1 agnatha:1 paraphyletic:1 jawless:3 subclass:9 myxinoidea:1 petromyzontida:1 conodonta:1 pteraspidomorphi:1 paleozoic:4 order:2 anaspida:1 thelodonti:1 infraphylum:1 gnathostomata:1 jawed:1 placodermi:1 armour:1 chondrichthyes:1 acanthodii:1 spiny:1 shark:1 osteichthyes:1 actinopterygii:1 ray:1 finned:2 sarcopterygii:1 lobe:1 superclass:1 tetrapoda:1 four:1 legged:1 amphibia:1 amphibian:1 amniota:1 amniotic:1 egg:1 reptilia:1 reptile:4 anapsida:1 proto:1 turtle:1 synapsida:1 mammal:3 progenitor:2 diapsida:1 bird:2 aves:1 mammalia:1 phylogeny:1 note:1 line:1 probable:1 taxon:1 denote:1 dagger:1 clade:1 amphioxus:1 genome:1 karyotype:1 nicholas:1 h:1 putnam:1 et:1 al:1 nature:2 vol:1 p:1 june:1 scientific:1 journal:1 reference:1 external:1 globaltwitcher:1 com:1 node:2 ncbi:1 |@bigram phylum_chordata:3 closely_related:1 nerve_cord:6 molecular_phylogenetics:4 seventeenth_eighteenth:1 morphological_similarity:1 spinal_cord:1 filter_feeding:2 thyroid_gland:1 sea_squirt:3 gill_slit:1 ventral_nerve:1 sea_urchin:2 cambrian_fossil:1 burgess_shale:1 closely_relate:1 mitochondrial_dna:1 blackwell_publishing:1 linnaean_taxonomy:1 jawless_fish:2 cartilaginous_fish:1 bony_fish:1 ray_finned:1 finned_fish:2 class_mammalia:1 et_al:1 external_link:1 globaltwitcher_com:1 ncbi_taxonomy:1 |
5,274 | Danish_language | {{Infobox Language |name=Danish |nativename=dansk |pronunciation=[d̥ænsɡ̊] |states=,,,, (Schleswig-Holstein) |speakers=c. 6 million |rank=102 |familycolor=Indo-European |fam2=Germanic |fam3=North Germanic |fam4=East Scandinavian |nation= (until June 2009) Nordic Council Minority language: European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages |agency=Dansk Sprognævn (“Danish Language Committee”) |iso1=da|iso2=dan|iso3=dan}}Danish' (; ) is one of the North Germanic languages (also called Scandinavian languages), a sub-group of the Germanic branch of the Indo-European languages. It is spoken by around 6 million people, mainly in Denmark; the language is also used by the 50,000 Danes in the northern parts of Schleswig-Holstein in Germany where it holds the status of minority language. The Federal Ministry of the Interior of Germany and Minorities in Germany Danish also holds official status and is a mandatory subject in school in the Danish territories of Greenland and the Faroe Islands, which now enjoy limited autonomy. In Iceland, Danish is also taught as a compulsory foreign language in schools. There are also Danish language communities in Argentina, the U.S. and Canada. Classification Danish, together with Swedish, derives from the East Norse dialect group, while Norwegian is classified as a West Norse language together with Faroese and Icelandic. A more recent classification based on mutual intelligibility separates modern spoken Danish, Norwegian and Swedish into a Mainland Scandinavian group while Icelandic and Faroese are placed in a separate category labeled Insular Scandinavian. Written Danish and Norwegian Bokmål are particularly close, though the phonology (that is, the system of relationships among the speech sounds that constitute the fundamental components of the language) and the prosody (the patterns of stress and intonation) differ somewhat. Proficient speakers of any of the three languages can understand the others, though studies have shown that speakers of Norwegian generally understand both Danish and Swedish far better than Swedes or Danes understand each other. Both Swedes and Danes also understand Norwegian better than they understand each other's languages. forskning.no > Nordmenn forstår nabospråkene best History In the 8th century, the common Germanic language of Scandinavia, Proto-Norse, had undergone some changes and evolved into Old Norse. This language began to undergo new changes that did not spread to all of Scandinavia, which resulted in the appearance of two similar dialects, Old West Norse (Norway and Iceland) and Old East Norse (Denmark and Sweden). Old East Norse is in Sweden called Runic Swedish and in east Denmark Runic Danish, but until the 12th century, the dialect was roughly the same in the two countries. The dialects are called runic due to the fact that the main body of text appears in the runic alphabet. Unlike Proto-Norse, which was written with the Elder Futhark alphabet, Old Norse was written with the Younger Futhark alphabet, which only had 16 letters. Due to the limited number of runes, some runes were used for a range of phonemes, such as the rune for the vowel u which was also used for the vowels o, ø and y, and the rune for i which was also used for e. A change that separated Old East Norse (Runic Swedish/Danish) from Old West Norse was the change of the diphthong æi (Old West Norse ei) to the monophthong e, as in stæin to sten. This is reflected in runic inscriptions where the older read stain and the later stin. There was also a change of au as in dauðr into ø as in døðr. This change is shown in runic inscriptions as a change from tauþr into tuþr. Moreover, the øy (Old West Norse ey) diphthong changed into ø as well, as in the Old Norse word for "island". Some famous authors of works in Danish are existential philosopher Søren Kierkegaard, prolific fairy tale author Hans Christian Andersen, and playwright Ludvig Holberg. Three 20th century Danish authors have become Nobel Prize laureates in Literature: Karl Adolph Gjellerup and Henrik Pontoppidan (joint recipients in 1917) and Johannes Vilhelm Jensen (awarded 1944). Danish was once widely spoken in the northeast counties of England. Many Danish derived words, such as "gate" (gade) for street, still survive in Yorkshire and other parts of eastern England colonized by Danish Vikings. The city of York was once the Danish settlement of Jorvik. The first printed book in Danish dates from 1495. The first complete translation of the Bible in Danish was published in 1550. Geographical distribution Danish is the national language of Denmark, one of two official languages of Greenland (alongside Greenlandic) and the Faroes (alongside Faroese). In addition, there is a small community of Danish speakers in Southern Schleswig, the portion of Germany bordering Denmark, where it is an officially recognized regional language, just as German is north of the border. Furthermore, Danish is one of the official languages of the European Union and one of the working languages of the Nordic Council. Under the Nordic Language Convention, citizens of the Nordic countries speaking Danish have the opportunity to use their native language when interacting with official bodies in other Nordic countries without being liable to any interpretation or translation costs. Konvention mellan Sverige, Danmark, Finland, Island och Norge om nordiska medborgares rätt att använda sitt eget språk i annat nordiskt land, Nordic Council website. Retrieved on April 25, 2007. 20th anniversary of the Nordic Language Convention, Nordic news, February 22, 2007. Retrieved on April 25, 2007. There is no law stipulating an official language for Denmark, making Danish the de facto language only. The Code of Civil Procedure does, however, lay down Danish as the language of the courts. Since 1997 public authorities have been obliged to observe the official spelling by way of the Orthography Law. Dialects Map of Danish dialects Standard Danish (rigsdansk) is the language based on dialects spoken in and around the capital of Copenhagen. Unlike Swedish and Norwegian, Danish does not have more than one regional speech norm. More than 25% of all Danish speakers live in the metropolitan area of the capital and most government agencies, institutions and major businesses keep their main offices in Copenhagen, something that has resulted in a very homogeneous national speech norm. In contrast, though Oslo (Norway) and Stockholm (Sweden) are quite dominant in terms of speech standards, cities like Bergen, Gothenburg and the Malmö-Lund region are large and influential enough to create secondary regional norms, making the standard language more varied than is the case with Danish. The general agreement is that Standard Danish is based on a form of Copenhagen dialect, but the specific norm is, as with most language norms, difficult to pinpoint for both laypeople and scholars. Historically Standard Danish emerged as a compromise between the dialect of Zealand and Scania. The first layers of it can be seen in east Danish provincial law texts such as Skånske Lov, just as we can recognize west Danish in laws from the same ages in Jyske Lov. Despite the relative cultural monopoly of the capital and the centralised government, the divided geography of the country allowed distinct rural dialects to flourish during the centuries. Such "genuine" dialects were formerly spoken by a vast majority of the population, but have declined much since the 1960s. They still exist in communities out on the countryside, but most speakers in these areas generally speak a regionalized form of Standard Danish, when speaking with one who speaks to them in that same standard. Usually an adaptation of the local dialect to rigsdansk is spoken, though code-switching between the standard-like norm and a distinct dialect is common. The distribution of one, two, and three grammatical genders in Danish dialects. In Zealand the transition from three to two genders has happened fairly recently. West of the red line the definite article goes before the word as in English or German; east of the line it takes the form of a suffix. Danish is divided into three distinct dialect groups: Eastern Danish (østdansk), including the Bornholm, Scanian and Halland dialects Island Danish (ømål or ødansk), including dialects of Zealand, Funen, Lolland, Falster, and Møn Jutlandic (jysk), further divided in North, East, West and South Jutlandic Historically, Eastern Danish includes what are occasionally considered Southern Swedish dialects. The background for this lies in the loss of the originally Danish provinces Blekinge, Halland and Scania to Sweden in 1658. The island Bornholm in the Baltic also belongs to this group, but remained Danish. A few generations ago, the classical dialects spoken in the southern Swedish provinces could still be argued to be more Eastern Danish than Swedish, being similar to the dialect of Bornholm. Today influx of Standard Swedish vocabulary has generally meant that Scanian and Bornholmish are closer to the modern national standards than to each other. The Bornholm dialect has also maintained to this day many ancient features, such as a distinction between three grammatical genders, which the central Island Danish dialects gave up during the 20th century. Standard Danish has two genders, and Western Jutlandic only one, similar to English. Today, Standard Danish is most similar to the Island Danish dialect group. Sound system The sound system of Danish is in many ways unique among the world's languages. It is quite prone to considerable reduction and assimilation of both consonants and vowels even in very formal standard language. A rare feature is the presence of a prosodic feature called stød in Danish (lit. "push; thrust"). This is a form of laryngealization or creaky voice, only occasionally realized as a full glottal stop (especially in emphatic pronunciation). It can be the only distinguishing feature between certain words, thus creating minimal pairs (e.g. bønder "peasants" with stød vs. bønner "beans" or "prayers" without). The distribution of stød in the lexicon is clearly related to the distribution of the common Scandinavian tonal word accents found in most dialects of Norwegian and Swedish, including the national standard languages. Most linguists today believe that stød is a development of the word accents, rather than the other way round. Some have theorized it emerged from the overwhelming influence of Low German in medieval times, having flattened the originally Nordic melodic accent, but stød is absent in most southern Danish dialects where Low German impact would have been the greatest. Stød generally occurs in words that have "accent 1" in Swedish and Norwegian and that were monosyllabic in Old Norse, while no-stød occurs in words that have "accent 2" in Swedish and Norwegian and that were polysyllabic in Old Norse. Unlike the neighboring Continental Scandinavian languages, the prosody of Danish does not have phonemic pitch. Stress is phonemic and distinguishes words such as billigst ['bilist] "cheapest" and bilist [bi'list] "car driver". Vowels Front Central BackunroundedroundedunroundedroundedClose(high) Close-mid Mid Open-mid Open(low)()() Modern Standard Danish has 20 vowel phonemes. All but two of these vowels may be either long and short, with the exceptions being schwa and . The long and short realizations often differ in quality and there are several allophones that differ if they occur together with an . For example, is lowered when it occurs either before or after and is pronounced when it is long. Consonants Bilabial Labio-dental Alveolar Alveolo-palatal Palatal Velar Uvu-pharyngeal GlottalPlosives Nasals Fricatives Approximants Lateralapproximant are devoiced in all contexts. often have slight frication, but are usually pronounced as approximants. The distinction between , and is only made in the beginning of a word or at the beginning of a stressed syllable. Hence lappe and labbe are rendered . The combination of is realized as an alveolo-palatal fricative, , making it possible to postulate a tentative -phoneme in Danish. can be described as "tautosyllabic", meaning that it takes the form of either a phonetic consonant or vowel. At the beginning of a word or after a consonant, it is pronounced as a uvular fricative, , but in most other positions it is either realised as a non-syllabic low central vowel, (which is almost identical to how /r/ is often pronounced in German) or simply coalesces with the preceding vowel. The phenomenon is also comparable to non-rhotic pronunciations of English. Grammar The infinitive forms of Danish verbs end in a vowel, which in almost all cases is the letter e. Verbs are conjugated according to tense, but otherwise do not vary according to person or number. For example the present tense form of the Danish infinitive verb spise ("to eat") is spiser; this form is the same regardless of whether the subject is in the first, second, or third person, or whether it is singular or plural. This extreme ease of conjugating verbs is made up for by the many irregular verbs in the language. Standard Danish nouns fall into only two grammatical genders: common and neuter, while some dialects still often have masculine, feminine and neuter. West Jutlandic has only one gender, but has developed a distinction between countable and uncountable material (den træ "the tree", det træ, "the wood"). This is sometimes observed in Standard Danish as well (usually det mælk although strictly grammatically it should be den mælk "that milk"). While the majority of Danish nouns (ca. 75%) have the common gender, and neuter is often used for inanimate objects, the genders of nouns are not generally predictable and must in most cases be memorized. A distinctive feature of the Scandinavian languages, including Danish, is an enclitic definite article. To demonstrate: The common gender word "a man" (indefinite) is en mand but "the man" (definite) is manden. The neuter equivalent would be "a house" (indefinite) et hus, "the house" (definite) huset. Even though the definite and indefinite articles have separate origins, they have become homographs in Danish. In the plural, the definite article is -(e)ne, as the plural endings are - / -e / -er. The enclitic article is not used when an adjective is added to the noun; here the demonstrative pronoun is used instead: den store mand "the big man", "the big house", det store hus. Like most Germanic languages, Danish joins compound nouns. The example kvindehåndboldlandsholdet, "the female handball national team", illustrates that it does so to a significantly higher degree than English. In some cases, nouns are joined with an extra s, like landsmand (from land, "country", and mand, "man", meaning "compatriot"), but landmand (from same roots, meaning "farmer"). Some words are joined with an extra e, like gæstebog (from gæst and bog, meaning "guest book"). Vocabulary Danish words are largely derived from the Old Norse language, with new words formed by compounding. A large percentage of Danish words, however, hail from Middle Low German (for example, betale = to pay, måske = maybe). Later on, standard German and French and now English have superseded Low German influence — although many old Nordic words remain, they fall out of favor when the new come in, such as can be seen with æde (to eat) which became less common when the Low German spise came into fashion. Because English and Danish are related languages, many common words are very similar in the two languages. For example, the following Danish words are easily recognizable in their written form to English speakers: have, over, under, for, give, flag, salt, kat. When pronounced, these words sound quite different from their English equivalents, due to the Great Vowel Shift of English. In addition, the word by, meaning "village" or "town", occurs in several English placenames, such as Whitby and Selby, as remnants of the Viking occupation. A lot of Danish words are directly derived from English, such as harddisk or skateboard. Numerals In Danish numerals, the tens and units digits of numbers above 20 are reversed when spoken or written, such that 21 is rendered enogtyve, i.e. one and twenty. This is similar to German, Dutch (and Afrikaans), some variants of Norwegian, Slovene and Arabic. The numeral halvanden means 1.5 (literally "half second"). The numerals halvtredje (2.5) and halvfjerde (3.5), likewise constructed by "overcounting", are now obsolete, but still implicitly used in the vigesimal system described below. Similarly, the time halv tre, literally "half three", is half past two. Danish numerals from 50 to 90 are (like the French numerals 80 and 90) based on a vigesimal system, not shared with the other Scandinavian languages. This means that the score is used as a base number: Tres (short for tre-sinds-tyve) means 3 times 20, that is 60. Similarly, halvtreds (short for halvtredje-sinds-tyve) means 2.5 times 20, that is 50. The ending sindstyve is archaic in cardinal numbers, but still used in ordinal numbers. Thus, "fifty-two" is usually rendered to-og-halvtreds, whereas "fifty-second" is to-og-halvtredsindstyvende. An exception is in cheque-writing, where traditionally the ten-base without reversal is used to write out the amount above twenty; thus, fireti (4 times 10 or 40), seksti-to (6 times 10 plus 2 or 62), niti-syv (9 times 10 plus 7 or 97). Likewise, the Danish fifty-kroner note is labeled "Femti" (but commonly named halvtreds kronor). For large numbers (one billion or larger), Danish uses the long scale, so that e.g. one U.S. billion (1,000,000,000) is called milliard, and one U.S. trillion (1,000,000,000,000) is called billion. Writing system The oldest preserved examples of written Danish (from the Iron and Viking Ages) are in the Runic alphabet. The introduction of Christianity also brought the Latin alphabet to Denmark, and at the end of the High Middle Ages the Runes had more or less been replaced by the Latin letters. As in Germany, the Fraktur types were still commonly used in the late 19th century (until 1875, Danish children were taught to read Fraktur letters in school), and most books were printed with Fraktur typesetting even in the beginning of the 20th century. Also as in German, nouns were capitalized until after World War II. The modern Danish alphabet is similar to the English one, with three additional letters: æ, ø, and å, which come at the end of the alphabet, in that order. A spelling reform in 1948 introduced the letter å, already in use in Norwegian and Swedish, into the Danish alphabet to replace the letter aa; the old usage still occurs in some personal and geographical names and old documents (for example, the name of the city of Aalborg is spelled with Aa following a decision from the City Council in the 1970s). When representing the å sound, aa is treated just like å in alphabetical sorting, even though it looks like two letters. When the letters are not available (e.g., in URLs), they are replaced by ae (Æ, æ), oe (Ø, ø) or o, and aa (Å, å), respectively. The same spelling reform changed the spelling of a few common words, such as the past tense vilde (would), kunde (could) and skulde (should), to their current forms of ville, kunne and skulle (making them identical to the infinitives in writing, as they are in speech), and did away with the practice of capitalising all nouns, which is still done in German. Modern Danish and Norwegian use the same alphabet, though spelling differs somewhat. See also Differences between Norwegian Bokmål and Standard Danish Jutlandic South Jutlandic Notes References Basbøll, Hans (2005) The Phonology of Danish'' ISBN 0-19-824268-9 External links Danish and Swedish with sound files including Japanese translation "GrammarExplorer Danish" an online Danish grammar "Speakdanish" a Danish course with audio be-x-old:Дацкая мова | Danish_language |@lemmatized infobox:1 language:42 name:4 danish:83 nativename:1 dansk:2 pronunciation:3 ænsɡ:1 state:1 schleswig:3 holstein:2 speaker:7 c:1 million:2 rank:1 familycolor:1 indo:2 european:4 germanic:6 north:4 east:9 scandinavian:8 nation:1 june:1 nordic:10 council:4 minority:4 charter:1 regional:4 agency:2 sprognævn:1 committee:1 da:1 dan:2 one:14 also:15 call:6 sub:1 group:6 branch:1 speak:11 around:2 people:1 mainly:1 denmark:7 use:16 dane:3 northern:1 part:2 germany:5 hold:2 status:2 federal:1 ministry:1 interior:1 official:6 mandatory:1 subject:2 school:3 territory:1 greenland:2 faroe:1 island:7 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5,275 | American_Football_Conference | American Football Conference logo. The American Football Conference (AFC) is one of the two conferences of the National Football League (NFL). The other is the National Football Conference (NFC). This conference, along with the NFC, contains 16 teams. These two conferences make up the 32 teams of the NFL. Current teams AFC North: Pittsburgh Steelers Baltimore Ravens Cleveland Browns Cincinnati Bengals AFC South: Tennessee Titans Jacksonville Jaguars Indianapolis Colts Houston Texans AFC East: New England Patriots Miami Dolphins New York Jets Buffalo Bills AFC West: Denver Broncos San Diego Chargers Kansas City Chiefs Oakland Raiders A sample scheduling grid, with a single team's (the Browns) schedule highlighted. Under this hypothetical schedule, the Browns would play the teams in blue twice and the teams in yellow once, for a total of 16 games. The current 16 teams are organized into four divisions (North, South, East, and West) of four teams each. Each team plays the other teams in their division twice (home and away) during the regular season in addition to 10 other games/teams assigned to their schedule by the NFL the previous May. Two of these games are assigned on the basis of the team's final division standing in the previous season. The remaining 8 games are split between the roster of two other NFL divisions. This assignment shifts each year. For instance, in the 2007 regular season, each team in the AFC West played one game against each team in both the AFC South and the NFC North. In this way division competition consists of common opponents, with the exception of the 2 games assigned on the strength of each team's prior division standing. (i.e. the division winner will face the other two division winners in the AFC divisions that they are not scheduled to play) The NFC operates according to the same system. History The AFC was created after the NFL merged with the American Football League (AFL) in early 1970. Since the merger, five expansion teams have joined the AFC and two have left, thus making the current total 16. When the Seattle Seahawks and the Tampa Bay Buccaneers joined the league in 1976, they were temporarily placed in the NFC and AFC respectively. This arrangement lasted for one season only before the two teams switched conferences. The Seahawks eventually returned to the NFC as a result of the 2002 realignment. The expansion Jacksonville Jaguars joined the AFC in 1995. Due to the relocation controversy of the Cleveland Browns, a new AFC franchise called the Baltimore Ravens was officially established in 1996 while the Browns were reactivated in 1999. When the Oilers left Houston in 1997, no arrangement similar to the Browns/Ravens was made to retain the franchise name. When Oilers owner Bud Adams changed the name of his team to the Tennessee Titans in 1999, he specifically precluded any NFL team from ever using the name "Oilers" again. As a result, when the league did eventually put a new AFC expansion team into Houston in 2002, it was named the Houston Texans. Playoffs At the end of each football season, there are playoff games involving the top six teams in the AFC (the four division champions by place standing and the top two remaining non-division-champion teams ("wild cards") by record). The last two teams remaining play in the AFC Championship game with the winner receiving the Lamar Hunt Trophy. The AFC champion plays the NFC champion in the Super Bowl. After Super Bowl XLIII the AFC has won 20 Super Bowls to the 20 won by the NFC. Since losing 13 consecutive Super Bowls in the 1980s and 1990s (XIX–XXXI), the AFC has won nine of the last twelve. The losing coach of the AFC Championship game is the coach of the Pro Bowl the week after the Super Bowl. Logo The original American Football Conference logo. AFL fans were originally upset with the merger because the AFL gave up its name and logo to become part of the NFL, their former hated rival. Instead, the merged league created a new logo for the AFC that took elements of the old AFL logo, specifically the "A" and the six stars surrounding it. The AFC logo has basically remained unchanged since it debuted in 1970, though the stars were changed from blue to the current red. 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5,276 | Loch_Ness_Monster | The Loch Ness Monster is a creature believed to inhabit Loch Ness in the Scottish Highlands. It is similar to other supposed lake monsters in Scotland and elsewhere, though its description varies from one account to the next. Popular interest and belief in the animal has fluctuated since it was brought to the world's attention in 1933. Evidence of its existence is largely anecdotal, with minimal and much disputed photographic material and sonar readings. The scientific community regards the Loch Ness Monster as a modern-day myth, and explains sightings as a mix of hoaxes and wishful thinking. Despite this, it remains one of the most famous examples of cryptozoology. The legendary monster has been affectionately referred to by the diminutive Nessie A familiar form of the girl's name Agnes, relatively common in Scotland, e.g. the Daily Mirror 4 August 1932 reports the wedding of "Miss Nessie Clark, a Banffshire schoolteacher" (). since the 1950s. Origins The term "monster" was reportedly coined on 2 May 1933 by Alex Campbell, the water bailiff for Loch Ness and a part-time journalist, in a report in the Inverness Courier. The Sun 27 November 1975: I'm the man who first coined the word "monster" for the creature. See also R. Binns (1983) The Loch Ness Mystery Solved pp 11-12 Inverness Courier 2 May 1933 "Loch Ness has for generations been credited with being the home of a fearsome-looking monster" On 4 August 1933, the Courier published as a full news item the claim of a London man, George Spicer, that a few weeks earlier while motoring around the Loch, he and his wife had seen "the nearest approach to a dragon or pre-historic animal that I have ever seen in my life", trundling across the road toward the Loch carrying "an animal" in its mouth. Inverness Courier 4 August 1933 IS THIS THE LOCH NESS MONSTER? Other letters began appearing in the Courier, often anonymously, with claims of land or water sightings, either on the writer's part or on the parts of family, acquaintances or stories they remembered being told. R. Binns (1983) The Loch Ness Mystery Solved pp19-27 These stories soon reached the national (and later the international) press, which talked of a "monster fish", "sea serpent", or "dragon", Daily Mirror, 11 August 1933 "Loch Ness, which is becoming famous as the supposed abode of a dragon,..." eventually settling on "Loch Ness Monster". The Oxford English Dictionary gives 9 June 1933 as the first usage of the exact phrase Loch Ness monster On 6 December 1933 the first purported photograph of the monster, taken by Hugh Gray, was published, R. P. Mackal (1983) The Monsters of Loch Ness page 94 and shortly after the creature received official notice when the Secretary of State for Scotland ordered the police to prevent any attacks on it. Daily Mirror 8 December 1933 "The Monster of Loch Ness - Official! Orders That Nobody is to Attack it" .... A Huge Eel?" In 1934, interest was further sparked by what is known as The Surgeon's Photograph. In the same year R. T. Gould published a book, the first of many which describe the author's personal investigation and collected record of additional reports pre-dating the summer of 1933. Other authors made claims that sightings of the monster went as far back as the 6th century (see below). History Saint Columba The earliest report of a monster associated with the vicinity of Loch Ness appears in the Life of St. Columba by Adomnán, written sometime during the 7th century. J. A Carruth Loch Ness and its Monster, (1950) Abbey Press, Fort Augustus, cited by Tim Dinsdale (1961) Loch Ness Monster ppp 33-35 According to Adomnán, writing about a century after the events he described, the Irish monk Saint Columba was staying in the land of the Picts with his companions when he came across the locals burying a man by the River Ness. They explained that the man had been swimming the river when he was attacked by a "water beast" that had mauled him and dragged him under. They tried to rescue him in a boat, but were able only to drag up his corpse. Hearing this, Columba stunned the Picts by sending his follower Luigne moccu Min to swim across the river. The beast came after him, but Columba made the sign of the cross and commanded: "Go no further. Do not touch the man. Go back at once." Adomnán, p. 176 (II:27). The beast immediately halted as if it had been "pulled back with ropes" and fled in terror, and both Columba's men and the pagan Picts praised God for the miracle. Believers in the Loch Ness Monster often point to this story, which notably takes place on the River Ness rather than the loch itself, as evidence for the creature's existence as early as the 6th century. Adomnán p. 330. However, skeptics question the narrative's reliability, noting that water-beast stories were extremely common in medieval saints' Lives; as such, Adomnán's tale is likely a recycling of a common motif attached to a local landmark. R. Binns The Loch Ness Mystery Solved, pp. 52-57 According to the skeptics, Adomnán's story may be independent of the modern Loch Ness Monster legend entirely, only becoming attached to it in retrospect by believers seeking to bolster their claims. Additionally, in an article for Cryptozoology, A. C. Thomas notes that even if there were some truth to the story, it could be explained rationally as an encounter with a walrus or similar creature that had gotten up the river. Spicers (1933) Modern interest in the monster was sparked by the 22 July 1933 sighting, when George Spicer and his wife saw 'a most extraordinary form of animal' cross the road in front of their car. They described the creature as having a large body (about high and long), and long, narrow neck, slightly thicker than an elephant's trunk and as long as the ten- to twelve-feet (3.0–3.7 m) width of the road; the neck had a number of undulations in it. They saw no limbs, possibly because of a dip in the road obscuring the animal's lower portion. T. Dinsdale (1961) Loch Ness Monster page 42. It lurched across the road towards the loch away, leaving only a trail of broken undergrowth in its wake. In August 1933 a motorcyclist named Arthur Grant claimed to have nearly hit the creature while approaching Abriachan on the north-eastern shore, at about 1 am on a moonlit night. Grant claimed that he saw a small head attached to a long neck, and that the creature saw him and crossed the road back into the loch. Grant said he dismounted and followed it to the loch, but only saw ripples. Tim Dinsdale Loch Ness Monster pp44-5 However some believe this story was intended as a humorous explanation of a motorcycle accident. "He had apparently fallen off his motor bike and told his mother that the damage to the bike was caused by the monster making him crash! Will all authors please stop treating this sighting as if it were genuine". in Loch-Ness.com: Land Sightings In another 1933 sighting, a young maidservant named Margaret Munro supposedly observed the creature for about 20 minutes. She claimed it was about 6:30 am on 5 June, when she spotted it on shore from about . She described it as having elephant-like skin, a long neck, a small head and two short forelegs or flippers. The sighting apparently ended when the creature re-entered the water. Sporadic land sightings continued until 1963, when a poor-quality film of the creature was made from a distance of several miles. C.B. Farrel (1943) In May 1943, C. B. Farrel of the Royal Observer Corps was supposedly distracted from his duties by a Nessie sighting. He claimed to have been about away from a large-eyed, 'finned' creature, which had a twenty- to thirty-foot (6–9 m) long body, and a neck that protruded about 4-5 feet (1.2-1.5 m) out of the water. Sonar contact (1954) In December 1954 a strange sonar contact was made by the fishing boat Rival III. The vessel's crew observed sonar readings of a large object keeping pace with the boat at a depth of . It was detected travelling for half a mile (800 m) in this manner, before contact was lost, but then found again later. Many sonar attempts had been made previously, but most were either inconclusive or negative. Photographs and films The 'Surgeon's Photograph' (1934) The Surgeon's Photograph One of the most iconic images of Nessie is known as the 'Surgeon's Photograph', which many formerly considered to be good evidence of the monster. Its importance lies in the fact that it was the only photographic evidence of a “head and neck” – all the others are humps or disturbances. R. P. Mackal (1976) The Monsters of Loch Ness page 208 The image was revealed as a hoax in 1994. Daily Mirror 14 March 1994 Loch Ness Fraudster Supposedly taken by Robert Kenneth Wilson, a London gynaecologist, it was published in the Daily Mail on 21 April 1934. Daily Mail 21 April 1934 Wilson's refusal to have his name associated with the photograph led to its being called "Surgeon's Photograph". The ripples on the photo fit the size and circular pattern of small ripples as opposed to large waves when photographed up close. Analyses of the original uncropped image have fostered further doubt. A year before the hoax was revealed, the makers of Discovery Communications's documentary Loch Ness Discovered did an analysis of the uncropped image and found a white object evident in every version of the photo, implying that it was on the negative. "It seems to be the source of ripples in the water, almost as if the object was towed by something", the narrator said. "But science cannot rule out it was just a blemish on the negative", he continued. Additionally, analysis of the full photograph revealed the object to be quite small, only about 60 to 90 centimetres (two to three ft) long. In 1979 it was claimed to be a picture of an elephant (see below). Other sceptics in the 1980s argued the photo was that of an otter or a diving bird, but after Christian Spurling's confession most agree it was what Spurling claimed - a toy submarine with a sculpted head attached. The details of how it was done have been given in a book. D. M. Martin & A. Boyd (1999) Nessie – the Surgeon’s Photograph Exposed ISBN 0953570800 Essentially, it was a toy submarine with a head and neck made of plastic wood, built by Christian Spurling, the son-in-law of Marmaduke Wetherell, a big game hunter who had been publicly ridiculed in the Daily Mail, the newspaper that employed him. Spurling claimed that to get revenge, Marmaduke Wetherell committed the hoax, with the help of Chris Spurling (a sculpture specialist), his son Ian Marmaduke, who bought the material for the fake Nessie, and Maurice Chambers (an insurance agent), who would call to ask surgeon Robert Kenneth Wilson to offer the pictures to the Daily Mail. The hoax story is disputed by Henry Bauer, H. H. Bauer (2001) Fatal Attractions: The Troubles with Science ISBN 1931044287 who claims this debunking is evidence of bias, and asks why the perpetrators did not reveal their plot earlier to embarrass the newspaper. He also claimed that plastic wood did not exist in 1934, although it was a popular DIY and modelling material in the early 1930s. The Oxford English Dictionary gives a 1921 quotation "This material… is named by the firm ‘Plastic Wood’." Hobbies weekly magazine issue 1 (October 1930) carried an article Plastic Wood and its many uses. The Daily Mirror, Wed 21 Feb 1934 page 025 recommends the use of Rawlplug Plastic Wood. Alastair Boyd, one of the researchers who uncovered the hoax, argues the Loch Ness Monster is real, and that the hoaxed Surgeon's Photo is not cause enough to dismiss eyewitness reports and other evidence. Taylor film (1938) In 1938, G.E. Taylor, a South African tourist, filmed something in the loch for three minutes on 16 mm colour film, which is now in the possession of Dr. Maurice Burton. However, Burton has refused to show the film to Loch Ness investigators (such as Peter Costello or the Loch Ness Investigation Bureau). A single frame was published in his book The Elusive Monster; before he retired. Dr. Roy P. Mackal, a biologist and cryptozoologist, declared the frame to be "positive evidence". Janet and Colin Bord, 'Alien Animals' (Granada 1986) p18 Later, it was shown also to the National Institute of Oceanography, now known as the Southampton Oceanographic Centre. It was agreed by the experts that the film clearly showed an ordinary inanimate object floating in the Loch. Dinsdale film (1960) In 1960, aeronautical engineer Tim Dinsdale filmed a hump crossing the water in a powerful wake unlike that of a boat. JARIC declared that the object was "probably animate". Others were sceptical, saying that the "hump" cannot be ruled out as being a boat, and claimed that when the contrast is increased a man can be clearly seen in a boat. In 1993 Discovery Communications made a documentary called Loch Ness Discovered that featured a digital enhancement of the Dinsdale film. A computer expert who enhanced the film noticed a shadow in the negative which was not very obvious in the positive. By enhancing and overlaying frames, he found what appeared to be the rear body, the rear flippers, and 1-2 additional humps of a plesiosaur-like body. He said that: "Before I saw the film, I thought the Loch Ness Monster was a load of rubbish. Having done the enhancement, I'm not so sure". Some have countered this finding by saying that the angle of the film from the horizontal along with sun's angle on that day made shadows underwater unlikely. Believers (and some nonbelievers) claim the shape could have been undisturbed water that was only coincidentally shaped like a plesiosaur's rear end. Bauer, Henry H., "Common Knowledge about the Loch Ness Monster", Journal of Scientific Exploration, 16(3): 455--477 (2002) But the same source also says that there might be a smaller object (hump or head) in front of the hump causing this. Nonetheless, the enhancement did show a smaller second hump and possibly a third hump. Holmes video (2007) On 26 May 2007, Gordon Holmes, a 55-year-old lab technician, captured video of what he said was "this jet black thing, about long, moving fairly fast in the water." Adrian Shine, a marine biologist at the Loch Ness 2000 centre in Drumnadrochit, has watched the video and plans to analyze it. Shine also described the footage as among "the best footage [he has] ever seen." BBC Scotland broadcast the video on 29 May 2007. Fabled monster caught on video STV News' North Tonight aired the footage on 28 May 2007 and interviewed Holmes. In this feature, Adrian Shine of the Loch Ness Centre was also interviewed and suggested that the footage in fact showed an otter, seal or water bird. Holmes's credibility has been doubted by an article on the Cryptomundo website, which states that he has a history of reporting sightings of cryptozoological creatures, and sells a self-published book and DVD claiming evidence for fairies. His video also has no other objects by which to discern size. The Monster Quest team investigated this video as well in their TV episode "Death of Loch Ness", where they examine evidence that Nessie has died, as well as other photos. Searches for the monster Sir Edward Mountain Expedition 1934 Having read the book by Gould, Edward Mountain decided to finance a proper watch in which 20 men with binoculars and cameras were positioned around the Loch from 9 a.m. to 6 p.m., starting 13 July 1934 and running for five weeks. Some 21 photographs were taken, though none was considered conclusive. Captain James Fraser was employed as a supervisor, and remained by the Loch afterwards, taking cine film (which is now lost) on 15 September 1934. R. Binns (1983) The Loch Ness Mystery Solved ISBN 0 7291 0139 8, pages 36-39 When viewed by zoologists and professors of natural history it was concluded that it showed a seal, possibly a grey seal. The Times 5 October 1934, page 12 Loch Ness "Monster" Film Loch Ness Phenomena Investigation Bureau (1962-1972) The Loch Ness Phenomena Investigation Bureau (LNPIB) was a UK-based society formed in 1962 "to study Loch Ness to identify the creature known as the Loch Ness Monster or determine the causes of reports of it." It later shortened the name to Loch Ness Investigation Bureau (LNIB). It closed in 1972. The society had an annual subscription which covered administration. Its main activity was for groups of self-funded volunteers to watch the loch from various vantage points, equipped with cine cameras with telescopic lenses. Its founders included MP David James and naturalist Peter Scott. From 1965 to 1972 it had a caravan camp and main watching platform at Achnahannet, and sent observers to other locations up and down the loch. Tim Dinsdale (1973) The Story of the Loch Ness Monster Target Books ISBN 0426 11340 3 According to the 1969 Annual Report of the Bureau, 1969 Annual Report: Loch Ness Investigation it had 1,030 members, of whom 588 were from the . Its directors were listed as Norman Collins (Chairman), Lord Craigmyle, Prof. Roy P. Mackal, R. S. R. Fitter, David James, MP, and Peter Scott. The LNPIB sonar study (1967-1968) Professor DG Tucker, chairman of the Department of Electronic and Electrical Engineering at the University of Birmingham, England, volunteered his services as a sonar developer and expert at Loch Ness in 1968. The gesture was part of a larger effort helmed by the LNPIB from 1967-1968 and involved collaboration between volunteers and professionals in various fields. Tucker had chosen Loch Ness as the test site for a prototype sonar transducer with a maximum range of 800 metres (2600 ft). The device was fixed underwater at Temple Pier in Urquhart Bay and directed towards the opposite shore, effectively drawing an acoustic 'net' across the width of Ness through which no moving object could pass undetected. During the two-week trial in August, multiple animate targets six metres (20 ft) in length were identified ascending from and diving to the loch bottom. Analysis of diving profiles ruled out air-breathers because the targets never surfaced or moved shallower than midwater. A brief press release by LNPIB and associates touched on the sonar data and drew to a close the 1968 effort: Andrew Carroll's sonar study (1969) In 1969 Andrew Carroll, field researcher for the New York Aquarium in New York City, proposed a mobile sonar scan operation at Loch Ness. The project was funded by the Griffis foundation (named for Nixon Griffis, then a director of the aquarium). This was the tail-end (and most successful portion) of the LNPIB's 1969 effort involving submersibles with biopsy harpoons. The trawling scan, in Carroll's research launch Rangitea, took place in October. One sweep of the loch made contact with a strong, animate echo for nearly three minutes just north of Foyers. The identity of the contact remains a mystery. Later analysis determined that the intensity of the returning echo was twice as great as that expected from a pilot whale. On returning to the University of Chicago, biologist Roy Mackal and colleagues subjected the sonar data to greater scrutiny and confirmed dimensions of . Submersible investigations Earlier submersible work had yielded dismal results. Under the sponsorship of World Book Encyclopedia, pilot Dan Taylor deployed the Viperfish at Loch Ness on 1 June 1969. His dives were plagued by technical problems and produced no new data. The Deep Star III built by General Dynamics and an unnamed two-man submersible built by Westinghouse were scheduled to sail but never did. It was only when the Pisces arrived at Ness that the LNPIB obtained new data. Owned by Vickers, Ltd., the submersible had been rented out to produce a Sherlock Holmes film featuring a dummy Loch Ness Monster. When the dummy monster broke loose from the Pisces during filming and sank to the bottom of the loch, Vickers executives capitalized on the loss and 'monster fever' by allowing the sub to do a bit of exploring. During one of these excursions, the Pisces picked up a large moving object on sonar 200 feet (60 m) ahead and above the bottom of the loch. Slowly the pilot closed to half that distance but the echo moved rapidly out of sonar range and disappeared. "Big Expedition" of 1970 During the so-called "Big Expedition" of 1970, Roy Mackal, a biologist who taught for 20 years at the University of Chicago, devised a system of hydrophones (underwater microphones) and deployed them at intervals throughout the loch. In early August a hydrophone assembly was lowered into Urquhart Bay and anchored in 700 feet (215 m) of water. Two hydrophones were secured at depths of 300 and . After two nights of recording, the tape (sealed inside a 44 imperial gallon (55 US gal/200 L) steel drum along with the system's other sensitive components) was retrieved and played before an excited LNPIB. "Bird-like chirps" had been recorded, and the intensity of the chirps on the deep hydrophone suggested they had been produced at greater depth. In October "knocks" and "clicks" were recorded by another hydrophone in Urquhart Bay, indicative of echolocation. These sounds were followed by a "turbulent swishing" suggestive of the tail locomotion of a large aquatic animal. The knocks, clicks and resultant swishing were believed to be the sounds of an animal echo-locating prey before moving in for the kill. The noises stopped whenever craft passed along the surface of the loch near the hydrophone -- and resumed once the craft reached a safe distance. In previous experiments, it was observed that call intensities were greatest at depths less than . Members of the LNPIB decided to attempt communication with the animals producing the calls by playing back previously recorded calls into the water and listening via hydrophone for results, which varied greatly. At times the calling patterns or intensities changed, but sometimes there was no change at all. Mackal noted that there was no similarity between the recordings and the hundreds of known sounds produced by aquatic animals. "More specifically," he said, "competent authorities state that none of the known forms of life in the loch has the anatomical capabilities of producing such calls." Robert Rines's studies (1972, 1975 and 2001) In the early 1970s, a group of people led by Robert H. Rines obtained some underwater photographs. Two were rather vague images, perhaps of a rhomboid flipper (though others have dismissed the image as air bubbles or a fish fin). The alleged flipper was photographed in different positions, indicating movement. On the basis of these photographs, British naturalist Peter Scott announced in 1975 that the scientific name of the monster would henceforth be Nessiteras rhombopteryx (Greek for "The Ness monster with diamond-shaped fin"). Scott intended that this would enable Nessie to be added to a British register of officially protected wildlife. Scottish politician Nicholas Fairbairn pointed out that the name was an anagram for "Monster hoax by Sir Peter S". Dinsdale, T. "Loch Ness Monster" (Routledge and Kegan paul 1976), p.171. Dinsdale, in the same paragraph, also says that Robert Rines, co-author of the Nature article, "soon came up with the antidote - 'Yes, both pix are monsters - R.'" "London, Dec. 18 (Reuters) - A Scottish member of Parliament has discovered an anagram for Nessiteras rhombopteryx... Nicholas Fairbairn, the MP, announced the anagram in a letter to The Times: 'Monster hoax by Sir Peter S.' ("Loch Ness Monster Shown a Hoax by Another Name." New York Times 19 December 1975. p. 78.) The underwater photos were reportedly obtained by painstakingly examining the loch depths with sonar for unusual underwater activity. A submersible camera with an affixed, high-powered light (necessary for penetrating Loch Ness' notorious murk) was deployed to record images below the surface. Several of the photographs, despite their obviously murky quality, did indeed seem to show an animal resembling a plesiosaur in various positions and lightings. One photograph appeared to show the head, neck and upper torso of a plesiosaur-like animal. A rarely publicized photograph depicted two plesiosaur-like bodies. Another photo seemed to depict a horned "gargoyle head", consistent to that of several sightings of the monster. Some believe the latter to be a tree stump found during Operation Deepscan. A few close-ups of what is to be the creature's supposed diamond-shaped fin were taken in different positions, as though the creature was moving. But the "flipper photograph" has been highly retouched from the original image. The Museum of Hoaxes shows the original unenhanced photo. Charlie Wyckoff claimed that someone retouched the photo to superimpose the flipper, and that the original enhancement showed a much smaller flipper. No one is exactly sure how the original came to be enhanced in this way. Loch Ness Monster: Search for the Truth, 2001 On August 8, 1972, Rines' Raytheon DE-725C sonar unit, operating at a frequency of 200KHz and anchored in Ness at a depth of 35 feet (11 m), identified a moving target (or targets) estimated by echo strength to be 20-30 feet (6-9 m) in length. Specialists from Raytheon, Simrad (now Kongsberg Maritime), and Hydroacoustics, Inc.; Marty Klein of MIT and Klein Associates (a producer of side scan sonar); and Dr. Ira Dyer of MIT's Department of Ocean Engineering were all on hand to examine the data and come to this conclusion. Further, P. Skitzki of Raytheon suggested that the data showed a protuberance, 10 feet in length, projecting from one of the echoes. Mackal proposed that the shape was a "highly flexible laterally flattened tail" or the misinterpreted return from two animals swimming together. Roy Mackal (1976) The Monsters of Loch Ness page 307, see also appendix E In 2001, the Robert Rines' Academy of Applied Science videoed a powerful V-shaped wake traversing the still water on a calm day. The AAS also videotaped an object on the floor of the loch resembling a carcass, found marine clam-shells and a fungus not normally found in fresh water lakes, which they suggest gives some connection to the sea and a possible entry for Nessie. Dr. Robert H. Rines. Loch Ness Findings. Academy of Applied Science. In 2008, Rines expressed his fear that the monster may have become extinct, citing the lack of significant sonar readings and a decline in eyewitness accounts. Rines plans on one last expedition to look for remains of the monster before he gets too old. Operation Deep Scan (1987) In 1987, Operation Deepscan took place - the biggest sonar exploration of Loch Ness. Twenty-four boats equipped with sonar were deployed across the whole width of the lake and they simultaneously sent out acoustic waves. BBC News reported that the scientists had made sonar contact with a large unidentified object of unusual size and strength. The researchers decided to return to the same spot and re-scan the area. After analysing the SONAR images, it seemed to point to debris at the bottom of the lake, although three of the pictures were of moving debris. Shine speculates that they could be seals that got into the lake, since they would be of about the same magnitude as the objects detected. Darrell Lowrance, sonar expert and founder of Lowrance Electronics, donated a number of sonar units used during Operation Deepscan. After examining the echogram data, specifically a sonar return revealing a large moving object near Urquhart Bay at a depth of 600 feet (183 m), Lowrance said: "There's something here that we don't understand, and there's something here that's larger than a fish, maybe some species that hasn't been detected before. I don't know." Mysterious Creatures (1988) By the Editors of Time-Life Books, page 90 Discovery Loch Ness (1993) In 1993 Discovery Communications began to research the ecology of the loch. The study did not focus entirely on the monster, but on the loch's nematodes (of which a new species was discovered) and fish. Expecting to find a small fish population, the researchers caught twenty fish in one catch, increasing previous estimates of the loch's fish population about ninefold. Using sonar, the team encountered a kind of underwater disturbance (called a seiche) due to stored energy (such as from a wind) causing an imbalance between the loch's warmer and colder layers (known as the thermocline). While reviewing printouts of the event the next day, they found what appeared to be three sonar contacts, each followed by a powerful wake. These events were later shown on a program called Loch Ness Discovered, in conjunction with analyses and enhancements of the 1960 Dinsdale Film, the Surgeon's Photo, and the Rines Flipper Photo. Explanations A variety of explanations have been postulated over the years to account for sightings of the Loch Ness Monster. These may be categorized as: misidentifications of common animals; misidentifications of inanimate objects or effects; reinterpretations of traditional Scottish folklore; hoaxes; and exotic species of large animals. Misidentification of common animals Bird wakes There are wake sightings that occur when the loch is dead calm with no boat nearby. A bartender named David Munro claims to have witnessed a wake which he believed to be a creature zigzagging, diving and reappearing. (There were 26 other witnesses from a nearby car park.) Some sightings describe the onset of a V-shaped wake, as if there were something underwater. Moreover, many wake sightings describe something not conforming to the shape of a boat. Discovery Communications, Loch Ness Discovered, 1993 Under dead calm conditions, a creature too small to be visible to the naked eye can leave a clear v-shaped wake. In particular, a group of swimming birds can give a wake and the appearance of an object. A group of birds can leave the water and then land again, giving a sequence of wakes like an object breaking the surface, which Dick Raynor says is a possible explanation for his film. Eel A giant eel was actually one of the first suggestions made. Eels are found in Loch Ness, and an unusually large eel would fit many sightings. This has been described as a conservative explanation. R. P. Mackal (1976) The Monsters of Loch Ness page 216, see also chapter 9 and appendix G Eels are not known to protrude swanlike from the water and thus would not account for the head and neck sightings. Dinsdale dismissed the proposal because eels move in a side-to-side undulation. Tim Dinsdale (1961) Loch Ness Monster page 229 On May 2, 2001: Two conger eels were found on the shore of the loch, but since conger eels are saltwater animals and Loch Ness is a freshwater body of water, it is believed that they were put there to be seen as "Mini-Nessies". Elephant In a 1979 article, California biologist Dennis Power and geographer Donald Johnson claimed that the Surgeon's Photograph was in fact the top of the head, extended trunk and flared nostrils of a swimming elephant, probably photographed elsewhere and claimed to be from Loch Ness. A Fresh Look At Nessie, New Scientist, v. 83, pp. 358-359 In 2006, palaeontologist and artist Neil Clark similarly suggested that travelling circuses might have allowed elephants to refresh themselves in the loch and that the trunk could therefore be the head and neck, with the elephant's head and back providing the humps. In support of this he provided a painting. Resident animals When viewed through a telescope or binoculars with no outside reference, it is difficult to judge the size of an object in the water. Loch Ness has resident otters and pictures of them are given by Binns, R. Binns (1983) The Loch Ness Mystery Solved plates 15(a)-(f) which could be misinterpreted. Likewise he gives pictures of deer swimming in Loch Ness, and birds which could be taken as a "head and neck" sighting. R. Binns (1983) The Loch Ness Mystery Solved plates 16-18 Seals A number of photographs and a video have now been taken which confirm that seals have been present in the loch, for up to months at a time. In 1934 the Sir Edward Mountain expedition analysed film taken the same year and concluded that the monster was a species of seal, which was reported in a national newspaper as "Loch Ness Riddle Solved - Official". Daily Mirror 5 October 1934 A long-necked seal was advocated by Peter Costello for Nessie and for other reputed lake monsters. R.T. Gould wrote "A grey seal has a long and surprisingly extensible neck; it swims with a paddling action; its colour fits the bill; and there is nothing surprising in its being seen on the shore of the loch, or crossing a road." This explanation would cover sightings of lake monsters on land, during which the creature supposedly waddled into the lake upon being startled, in the manner of seals. Seals could also account for sonar traces which act as animate objects. Against this, it has been argued that all known species of pinnipeds are usually visible on land during daylight hours to sunbathe, something that Nessie is not known to do. However seals have been observed and photographed in Loch Ness and the sightings are sufficiently infrequent to allow for occasional visiting animals rather than a permanent colony. Misidentifications of inanimate objects or effects Trees In 1933 the Daily Mirror showed a picture with the following caption 'This queerly-shaped tree-trunk, washed ashore at Foyers may, it is thought, be responsible for the reported appearance of a "Monster"'. Daily Mirror 17 Aug 1933 page 12 (Foyers is on Loch Ness.) In a 1982 series of articles for New Scientist, Dr Maurice Burton proposed that sightings of Nessie and similar creatures could actually be fermenting logs of Scots pine rising to the surface of the loch's cold waters. Initially, a rotting log could not release gases caused by decay, because of high levels of resin sealing in the gas. Eventually, the gas pressure would rupture a resin seal at one end of the log, propelling it through the water -- and sometimes to the surface. Burton claimed that the shape of tree logs with their attendant branch stumps closely resemble various descriptions of the monster. Four Scottish lochs are very deep, including Morar, Ness and Lomond. Only the lochs with pinewoods on their shores have monster legends; Loch Lomond — with no pinewoods — does not. Gaseous emissions and surfactants resulting from the decay of the logs can cause the foamy wake reported in some sightings. Indeed, beached pine logs showing evidence of deep-water fermentation have been found. On the other hand, there are believers who assert that some lakes do have reports of monsters, despite an absence of pinewoods; a notable example would be the Irish lough monsters. Seiches and wakes Loch Ness Loch Ness, because of its long, straight shape, is subject to some unusual occurrences affecting its surface. A seiche is a large, regular oscillation of a lake, caused by a water reverting to its natural level after being blown to one end of the lake. The impetus from this reversion continues to the lake's windward end and then reverts back. In Loch Ness, the process occurs every 31.5 minutes. Boat wakes can also produce strange effects in the loch. As a wake spreads and divides from a boat passing the centre of the loch, it hits both sides almost simultaneously and deflects back to meet again in the middle. The movements interact to produce standing waves that are much larger than the original wake, and can have a humped appearance. By the time this occurs, the boat has passed and the unusual waves are all that can be seen. Optical effects Wind conditions can give a slightly choppy and thus matt appearance to the water, with occasional calm patches appearing as dark ovals (reflecting the mountains) from the shore, which can appear as humps to visitors unfamiliar with the lake. In 1979, Lehn showed that atmospheric refraction could distort the shape and size of objects and animals, W. H. Lehn (1979) Science vol 205. No. 4402 pages 183 -185 "Atmospheric Refraction and Lake Monsters" and later showed a photograph of a rock mirage on Lake Winnipeg which could represent a head and neck. Seismic gas The Italian geologist Luigi Piccardi has proposed geological explanations for some ancient legends and myths. He pointed out that in the earliest recorded sighting of a creature, the Life of St. Columba, the creature's emergence was accompanied "cum ingenti fremitu" (with very loud roaring). The Loch Ness is located along the Great Glen Fault, and this could be a description of an earthquake. Furthermore, in many sightings, the report consists of nothing more than a large disturbance on the surface of the water. This could be caused by a release of gas from through the fault, although it could easily be mistaken for a large animal swimming just below the surface. Folklore Loch Ness Monster According to the Swedish naturalist and author Bengt Sjögren (1980), present day beliefs in lake monsters such as Nessie are associated with the old legends of kelpies. He claims that the accounts of loch monsters have changed over the ages, originally describing creatures with a horse-like appearance; they claimed that the "kelpie" would come out of the lake and turn into a horse. When a tired traveller would get on the back of the kelpie, it would gallop into the loch and devour its prey. This myth successfully kept children away from the loch, as was its purpose. Sjögren concludes that the kelpie legends have developed into current descriptions of lake monsters, reflecting modern awareness of plesiosaurs. In other words, the kelpie of folklore has been transformed into a more "realistic" and "contemporary" notion of the creature. Believers counter that long-dead witnesses could only compare the creature to that with which they were familiar, and they were not familiar with plesiosaurs. Specific mention of the kelpie as a water horse in Loch Ness was given in a Scottish newspaper in 1879, Aberdeen Weekly Journal, Wednesday, 11 June 1879 "This kelpie had been in the habit of appearing as a beautiful black horse… No sooner had the weary unsuspecting victim seated himself in the saddle than away darted the horse with more than the speed of the hurricane and plunged into the deepest part of Loch Ness, and the rider was never seen again." and was commemorated in the title of a book Project Water Horse by Tim Dinsdale. Tim Dinsdale (1975) Project Water Horse. The true story of the monster quest at Loch Ness (Routledge & Kegan Paul) ISBN 0710080301 Hoaxes The Loch Ness monster phenomenon has seen several attempts to hoax the public, some of which were very successful. Other hoaxes were revealed rather quickly by the perpetrators, or exposed after diligent research. A few examples are mentioned below.Urquhart Bay with the "Surgeon's photo" edited in as an example of a hoax. In the 1930s, a big game hunter named Marmaduke Wetherell went to Loch Ness to look for the Loch Ness Monster. He claimed to have found some footprints but when the footprints were sent to scientists for analysis, they turned out to be hippopotamus footprints. A prankster had used a hippopotamus foot umbrella stand to make the footprints. On July 2, 2003: Gerald McSorely found a fossil supposedly belonging to Nessie when he tripped and fell into the lake. After examination, it became clear that the fossil wasn't from Loch Ness and that it had been planted there. In 2004, a documentary team for television channel Five, using special effects experts from movies, tried to make people believe there was something in the loch. They constructed an animatronic model of a plesiosaur, and dubbed it "Lucy". Despite setbacks, such as Lucy falling to the bottom of the loch, about 600 sightings were reported in the places they conducted the hoaxes. In 2005, two students claimed to have found a huge tooth embedded in the body of a deer on the loch shore. They publicised the find widely, even setting up a website, but expert analysis soon revealed that the "tooth" was the antler of a muntjac. The Loch Ness tooth was a publicity stunt to promote a horror novel by Steve Alten titled, The Loch. In 2007, a video purported to show Nessie jumping high into the air showed up on YouTube. This was revealed by eSkeptic to be a viral ad promoting the then-upcoming Sony Pictures film The Water Horse. The release of the film confirmed the eSkeptic analysis: the viral video comprises footage from The Water Horse. Exotic species of large animals Plesiosaur Plesiosaurs, by Heinrich Harder, 1916. In 1933 the suggestion was made that the monster "bears a striking resemblance to the supposedly extinct plesiosaur", R. J. Binns (1983) The Loch Ness Mystery Solved, page 22 a long-necked aquatic reptile that went extinct during the Cretaceous–Tertiary extinction event. At the time this was a popular explanation. The following arguments have been put against it: Plesiosaurs were probably cold-blooded reptiles requiring warm tropical waters, while the average temperature of Loch Ness is only about 5.5 °C (42 °F). Even if the plesiosaurs were warm-blooded, they would require a food supply beyond that of Loch Ness to maintain the level of activity necessary for warm-blooded animals. In October 2006, the New Scientist headlined an article "Why the Loch Ness Monster is no plesiosaur" because Leslie Noè of the Sedgwick Museum in Cambridge reported, "The osteology of the neck makes it absolutely certain that the plesiosaur could not lift its head up swan-like out of the water". However, this does not rule out the reports where a head and neck was not seen. The loch is only about 10,000 years old, dating to the end of the last ice age. Prior to that date, the loch was frozen solid for about 20,000 years. If creatures similar to plesiosaurs lived in the waters of the Loch Ness, they would be seen very frequently as they would have to surface several times a day to breathe. In response to these criticisms, proponents such as Tim Dinsdale, Peter Scott and Roy Mackal postulate a marine creature which has become trapped and has evolved either from a plesiosaur or to the shape of a plesiosaur by convergent evolution. Roy P. Mackal (1976) The Monsters of Loch Ness, page 138 Amphibian R. T. Gould suggested something like a long-necked newt The Times 9 December 1933, page 14 and Roy Mackal discussed this possibility, giving it the highest score (88%) in his list of possible candidates. R. P. Mackal (1976) The Monsters of Loch Ness, pages 138-9, 211-213 Invertebrate In 1968 Frank Holiday proposed that Nessie and other lake monsters such as Morag could be explained by a giant invertebrate, and cited the extinct Tullimonstrum as an example of the shape. Holiday, F.T. The Great Orm of Loch Ness (Faber and Faber 1968) He says this provides an explanation for land sightings and for the variable back shape, and relates it to the medieval description of dragons as "worms". Mackal considered this, but found it less convincing than eel, amphibian or plesiosaur types of animal. R. P. Mackal (1976) The Monsters of Loch Ness pages 141-142, chapter XIV Popular culture See also Bear Lake Monster Bunyip Champ (cryptozoology) Chessie (sea monster) Gaasyendietha Lake monster Lake Tianchi Monster Lake Van Monster Leviathan Manipogo Mokele-mbembe Morag Nahuel Huapi Lake Monster Ogopogo Sea monster Lourdes effect Tulpa Notes and References Books Gould, R. T., The Loch Ness Monster and Others, London, Geoffrey Bles, 1934 and paperback, Lyle Stuart, 1976, ISBN 0806505559 Whyte, Constance, More Than a Legend: The Story of the Loch Ness Monster, London, Hamish Hamilton, 1957 Dinsdale, Tim, Loch Ness Monster, London, Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1961, SBN 7100 1279 9 Burton, Maurice, The Elusive Monster: An Analysis of the Evidence from Loch Ness, London, Rupert Hart-Davis, 1961 Holiday, F. W., The Great Orm of Loch Ness, London, Faber & Faber, 1968, SBN 571 08473 7 Mackal, Roy P., The Monsters of Loch Ness, London, Futura, 1976, ISBN 0 8600 7381 5 Binns, Ronald, The Loch Ness Mystery Solved'', Great Britain, Open Books, 1983, ISBN 0 7291 0139 8 and Star Books, 1984, ISBN 0-352-31487-7 External links Nova Documentary On Nessie Smithsonian Institution Skepdic entry on Nessie | Loch_Ness_Monster |@lemmatized loch:145 ness:107 monster:89 creature:28 believe:7 inhabit:1 scottish:6 highland:1 similar:4 suppose:2 lake:25 scotland:4 elsewhere:2 though:4 description:5 varies:1 one:14 account:6 next:2 popular:4 interest:3 belief:2 animal:24 fluctuate:1 since:4 bring:1 world:2 attention:1 evidence:11 existence:2 largely:1 anecdotal:1 minimal:1 much:3 dispute:2 photographic:2 material:4 sonar:28 reading:3 scientific:3 community:1 regard:1 modern:4 day:6 myth:3 explain:4 sighting:26 mix:1 hoax:16 wishful:1 thinking:1 despite:4 remain:3 famous:2 example:5 cryptozoology:3 legendary:1 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5,277 | Non-steroidal_anti-inflammatory_drug | Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, usually abbreviated to NSAIDs or NAIDs, are drugs with analgesic, antipyretic (lowering an elevated body temperature and relieving pain without impairing consciousness) and, in higher doses, with anti-inflammatory effects (reducing inflammation). The term "non-steroidal" is used to distinguish these drugs from steroids, which (among a broad range of other effects) have a similar eicosanoid-depressing, anti-inflammatory action. As analgesics, NSAIDs are unusual in that they are non-narcotic. NSAIDs are sometimes also referred to as non-steroidal anti-inflammatory agents/analgesics (NSAIAs) or non-steroidal anti-inflammatory medicines (NSAIMs). The most prominent members of this group of drugs are aspirin, ibuprofen, and naproxen partly because they are available over-the-counter in many areas. Mechanism of action Most NSAIDs act as non-selective inhibitors of the enzyme cyclooxygenase, inhibiting both the cyclooxygenase-1 (COX-1) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) isoenzymes. Cyclooxygenase catalyzes the formation of prostaglandins and thromboxane from arachidonic acid (itself derived from the cellular phospholipid bilayer by phospholipase A2). Prostaglandins act (among other things) as messenger molecules in the process of inflammation. This mechanism of action was elucidated by John Vane, who later received a Nobel Prize for his work (see Mechanism of action of aspirin). A newly discovered COX-3 may also have some role. Examples NSAIDs can be broadly classified based on their chemical structure. NSAIDs within a group will tend to have similar characteristics and tolerability. There is little difference in clinical efficacy among the NSAIDs when used at equivalent doses. Rather, differences among compounds tended to be with regards to dosing regimens (related to the compound's elimination half-life), route of administration, and tolerability profile. Some more common examples are given below. COX-2 inhibitors Celecoxib (FDA alert FDA Alert for Practitioners on Celebrex (celecoxib) ) Etoricoxib FDA withdrawn Lumiracoxib TGA cancelled registration Parecoxib FDA withdrawn Rofecoxib (withdrawn from market http://www.fda.gov/cder/drug/infopage/vioxx/PHA_vioxx.htm ) Valdecoxib (withdrawn from market Alert for Healthcare Professionals: Valdecoxib (marketed as Bextra) ) Sulphonanilides Nimesulide (banned by several countries for the potential risk of hepatotoxicity) Others Licofelone Omega-3 fatty acids Licofelone acts by inhibiting LOX (lipooxygenase) & COX (cyclooxygenase)and hence known as 5-LOX/COX inhibitor. Uses NSAIDs are usually indicated for the treatment of acute or chronic conditions where pain and inflammation are present. Research continues into their potential for prevention of colorectal cancer, and treatment of other conditions, such as cancer and cardiovascular disease. NSAIDs are generally indicated for the symptomatic relief of the following conditions: Rheumatoid arthritis Osteoarthritis Inflammatory arthropathies (e.g. ankylosing spondylitis, psoriatic arthritis, Reiter's syndrome) Acute gout Dysmenorrhoea (menstrual pain) Metastatic bone pain Headache and migraine Postoperative pain Mild-to-moderate pain due to inflammation and tissue injury Pyrexia (fever) Ileus Renal colic They are also given to neonate infants whose ductus arteriosus is not closed within 24 hours of birth Aspirin, the only NSAID able to irreversibly inhibit COX-1, is also indicated for inhibition of platelet aggregation. This is useful in the management of arterial thrombosis and prevention of adverse cardiovascular events. Aspirin inhibits platelet aggregation by inhibiting the action of thromboxane -A. In 2001 NSAIDs accounted for 70,000,000 prescriptions and 30 billion over-the-counter doses sold annually in the United States. One study has suggested that taking NSAIDs while smoking marijuana may prevent the death of brain cells resulting from THC intoxication. Hippocampal Neurotoxicity of Delta 9-Tetrahydrocannabinol - Chan et al. 18 (14): 5322 - Journal of Neuroscience However, neurotoxicity of marijuana is still a matter of dispute. Pharmacokinetics Most NSAIDs are weak acids, with a pKa of 3-5. They are absorbed well from the stomach and intestinal mucosa. They are highly protein-bound in plasma (typically >95%), usually to albumin, so that their volume of distribution typically approximates to plasma volume. Most NSAIDs are metabolised in the liver by oxidation and conjugation to inactive metabolites which are typically excreted in the urine, although some drugs are partially excreted in bile. Metabolism may be abnormal in certain disease states, and accumulation may occur even with normal dosage. Ibuprofen and diclofenac have short half-lives (2–3 hours). Some NSAIDs (typically oxicams) have very long half-lives (e.g. 20–60 hours). Adverse effects The widespread use of NSAIDs has meant that the adverse effects of these relatively safe drugs have become increasingly prevalent. The two main adverse drug reactions (ADRs) associated with NSAIDs relate to gastrointestinal (GI) effects and renal effects of the agents. These effects are dose-dependent, and in many cases severe enough to pose the risk of ulcer perforation, upper gastrointestinal bleeding, and death, limiting the use of NSAID therapy. An estimated 10-20% of NSAID patients experience dyspepsia, and NSAID-associated upper gastrointestinal adverse events are estimated to result in 103,000 hospitalizations and 16,500 deaths per year in the United States, and represent 43% of drug-related emergency visits. Many of these events are avoidable; a review of physician visits and prescriptions estimated that unnecessary prescriptions for NSAIDs were written in 42% of visits. Combinational risk If a COX-2 inhibitor is taken, one should not use a traditional NSAID (prescription or over-the-counter) concomitantly. In addition, patients on daily aspirin therapy (as for reducing cardiovascular risk or colon cancer risk) need to be careful if they also use other NSAIDs, as the latter may block the cardioprotective effects of aspirin. Cardiovascular A recent meta-analysis of all trials comparing NSAIDs found an 80% increase in the risk of myocardial infarction with both newer COX-2 antagonists and high dose traditional anti-inflammatories compared with placebo. (Kearney et al., BMJ 2006;332:1302–1308) NSAIDs aside from (low-dose) aspirin are associated with a doubled risk of symptomatic heart failure in patients without a history of cardiac disease. In patients with such a history, however, use of NSAIDs (aside from low-dose aspirin) was associated with more than 10-fold increase in heart failure. If this link is found to be causal, NSAIDs are estimated to be responsible for up to 20 percent of hospital admissions for congestive heart failure. Gastrointestinal The main ADRs (adverse drug reactions) associated with use of NSAIDs relate to direct and indirect irritation of the gastrointestinal tract (GIT). NSAIDs cause a dual insult on the GIT: the acidic molecules directly irritate the gastric mucosa, and inhibition of COX-1 reduces the levels of protective prostaglandins. Common gastrointestinal ADRs include: Nausea/Vomiting Dyspepsia Gastric ulceration/bleeding . Diarrhea Risk of ulceration increases with duration of therapy, and with higher doses. In attempting to minimise GI ADRs, it is prudent to use the lowest effective dose for the shortest period of time, a practice which studies show is not often followed. There are also some differences in the propensity of individual agents to cause gastrointestinal ADRs. Indomethacin, ketoprofen and piroxicam appear to have the highest prevalence of gastric ADRs, while ibuprofen (lower doses) and diclofenac appear to have lower rates. Certain NSAIDs, such as aspirin, have been marketed in enteric-coated formulations which are claimed to reduce the incidence of gastrointestinal ADRs. Similarly, there is a belief that rectal formulations may reduce gastrointestinal ADRs. However, in consideration of the mechanism of such ADRs and indeed in clinical practice, these formulations have not been shown to have a reduced risk of GI ulceration. Commonly, gastrointestinal adverse effects can be reduced through suppressing acid production, by concomitant use of a proton pump inhibitor, e.g. omeprazole; or the prostaglandin analogue misoprostol. Misoprostol is itself associated with a high incidence of gastrointestinal ADRs (diarrhoea). While these techniques may be effective, they prove to be expensive for maintenance therapy. Inflammatory bowel disease NSAIDs are never to be used in individuals with Inflammatory Bowel Disease (e.g., Crohn's Disease or Ulcerative Colitis) due to their tendency to cause gastric bleeding and form ulceration in the gastric lining. Pain relievers such as paracetamol or drugs containing codeine (which slows down bowel activity) are safer medications for pain relief in IBD. Renal NSAIDs are also associated with a relatively high incidence of renal adverse drug reactions (ADRs). The mechanism of these renal ADRs is due to changes in renal haemodynamics (blood flow), ordinarily mediated by prostaglandins, which are affected by NSAIDs. Prostaglandins normally cause vasodilation of the afferent arterioles of the glomeruli. This helps maintain normal glomerular perfusion and glomerular filtration rate (GFR), an indicator of renal function. This is particularly important in renal failure where the kidney is trying to maintain renal perfusion pressure by elevated angiotensin II levels. At these elevated levels, angiotensin II also constricts the afferent ateriole into the glomerulus in addition to the efferent arteriole one it normally constricts. Prostaglandins serve to dilate the afferent arteriole; by blocking this prostaglandin-mediated effect, particularly in renal failure, NSAIDs cause unopposed constriction of the afferent arteriole and decreased renal perfusion pressure. The kidney's response to this is to increase angiotensen II to essentially clamp down even tighter and further reduce perfusion. Horses are particularly prone to these adverse affects compared to other domestic animal species. Common ADRs associated with altered renal function include: Salt and fluid retention Hypertension (high blood pressure) These agents may also cause renal impairment, especially in combination with other nephrotoxic agents. Renal failure is especially a risk if the patient is also concomitantly taking an ACE inhibitor and a diuretic - the so-called "triple whammy" effect. In rarer instances NSAIDs may also cause more severe renal conditions: Interstitial nephritis Nephrotic syndrome Acute renal failure Acute tubular necrosis NSAIDs in combination with excessive use of phenacetin and/or paracetamol may lead to analgesic nephropathy. Photosensitivity Photosensitivity is a commonly overlooked adverse effect of many of the NSAIDs. It is somewhat ironic that these anti-inflammatory agents may themselves produce inflammation in combination with exposure to sunlight. The 2-arylpropionic acids have proven to be the most likely to produce photosensitivity reactions, but other NSAIDs have also been implicated including piroxicam, diclofenac and benzydamine. Benoxaprofen, since withdrawn due to its hepatotoxicity, was the most photoactive NSAID observed. The mechanism of photosensitivity, responsible for the high photoactivity of the 2-arylpropionic acids, is the ready decarboxylation of the carboxylic acid moiety. The specific absorbance characteristics of the different chromophoric 2-aryl substituents, affects the decarboxylation mechanism. While ibuprofen is somewhat of an exception, having weak absorption, it has been reported to be a weak photosensitising agent. During pregnancy NSAIDs are not recommended during pregnancy, particularly during the third trimester. While NSAIDs as a class are not direct teratogens, they may cause premature closure of the fetal ductus arteriosus and renal ADRs in the fetus. Additionally, they are linked with premature birth. Aspirin, however, is used together with heparin in pregnant women with antiphospholipid antibodies. In contrast, paracetamol (acetaminophen) is regarded as being safe and well-tolerated during pregnancy. Doses should be taken as prescribed, due to risk of hepatotoxicity with overdoses. In France, the country's health agency contra indicates the use of NSAIDs, including aspirin, after the sixth month of pregnancy. http://www.francesoir.fr/societe/2009/03/02/grossesse-mamans-attention.html Other Common ADRs, other than listed above, include: raised liver enzymes, headache, dizziness. Uncommon ADRs include: hyperkalaemia, confusion, bronchospasm, rash. Rapid and severe swelling of the face and/or body. Ibuprofen may also rarely cause irritable bowel syndrome symptoms. Most NSAIDs penetrate poorly into the central nervous system (CNS). However, the COX enzymes are expressed constitutively in some areas of the CNS, meaning that even limited penetration may cause adverse effects such as somnolence and dizziness. In very rare cases, ibuprofen can cause aseptic meningitis. As with other drugs, allergies to NSAIDs exist. While many allergies are specific to one NSAID, up to 1 in 5 people may have unpredictable cross-reactive allergic responses to other NSAIDs as well. Allergy Capital: Adverse and allergic reactions to aspirin and NSAIDS. Accessed 2009.03.23. Chirality Most NSAIDs are chiral molecules (diclofenac is a notable exception). However, the majority are prepared in a racemic mixture. Typically, only a single enantiomer is pharmacologically active. For some drugs (typically profens), an isomerase enzyme exists in vivo which converts the inactive enantiomer into the active form, although its activity varies widely in individuals. This phenomenon is likely to be responsible for the poor correlation between NSAID efficacy and plasma concentration observed in older studies, when specific analysis of the active enantiomer was not performed. Ibuprofen and ketoprofen are now available in single, active enantiomer preparations (dexibuprofen and dexketoprofen), which purport to offer quicker onset and an improved side-effect profile. Naproxen has always been marketed as the single active enantiomer. Selective COX inhibitors COX-2 inhibitors The discovery of COX-2 in 1991 by Daniel L. Simmons at Brigham Young University raised the hope of developing an effective NSAID without the gastric problems characteristic of these agents. It was thought that selective inhibition of COX-2 would result in anti-inflammatory action without disrupting gastroprotective prostaglandins. COX-1 is a constitutively expressed enzyme with a "house-keeping" role in regulating many normal physiological processes. One of these is in the stomach lining, where prostaglandins serve a protective role, preventing the stomach mucosa from being eroded by its own acid. When non-selective COX-1/COX-2 inhibitors (such as aspirin, ibuprofen, and naproxen) lower stomach prostaglandin levels, these protective effects are lost and ulcers of the stomach or duodenum and potentially internal bleeding can result. COX-2 is an enzyme facultatively expressed in inflammation, and it is inhibition of COX-2 that produces the desirable effects of NSAIDs. The relatively selective COX-2 inhibiting oxicam, meloxicam, was the first step towards developing a true COX-2 selective inhibitor. Coxibs, the newest class of NSAIDs, can be considered as true COX-2 selective inhibitors, and include celecoxib, rofecoxib, valdecoxib, parecoxib and etoricoxib. Controversies with COX-2 inhibitors While it was hoped that this COX-2 selectivity would reduce gastrointestinal adverse drug reactions (ADRs), there is little conclusive evidence that this is true. The original study touted by Searle (now part of Pfizer), showing a reduced rate of ADRs for celecoxib, was later revealed to be based on preliminary data - the final data showed no significant difference in ADRs when compared with diclofenac. Rofecoxib however, which has since been withdrawn, had been shown to produce significantly fewer gastrointestinal ADRs compared to naproxen. This study, the VIGOR trial, raised the issue of the cardiovascular safety of the coxibs - a statistically insignificant increase in the incidence of myocardial infarctions was observed in patients on rofecoxib. Further data, from the APPROVe trial, showed a relative risk of cardiovascular events of 1.97 versus placebo - a result which resulted in the worldwide withdrawal of rofecoxib in October 2004. COX-3 inhibitors Simmons also co-discovered COX-3 in 2002 and analyzed this new isozyme's relation to paracetamol (acetaminophen), arguably the most widely used analgesic drug in the world. The authors postulated that inhibition of COX-3 could represent a primary central mechanism by which these drugs decrease pain and possibly fever. The relevance of this research has been called into question as the putative COX-3 gene encodes proteins with completely different amino acid sequences than COX-1 or COX-2. The expressed proteins do not show COX activity and it is unlikely that they play a role in prostaglandin mediated physiological responses. Veterinary use Research supports the use of NSAIDs for the control of pain associated with veterinary procedures such as dehorning and castration of calves. The best effect is obtained by combining a short-term local anesthetic such as lidocaine with an NSAID acting as a longer term analgesic. However, most of the existing research data relates to ketoprofen while the only NSAID currently available for labelled use in the United States is flunixin meglumine, indicated for conditions other than post-operative pain. 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5,278 | Hannibal_Hamlin | Hannibal Hamlin (August 27, 1809 July 4, 1891) was the 15th Vice President of the United States, serving under President Abraham Lincoln from 1861-1865. He was the first Vice President from the Republican Party. Prior to his election in 1860, Hamlin served in the United States Senate, the House of Representatives, and, briefly, as Governor of Maine. His Early Life Hamlin was born to Cyrus Hamlin and Anna Livermore in Patten, Maine. He is a descendant of James Hamlin in the sixth generation, who had settled in the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1639. Hamlin was a great nephew of U.S. Senator Samuel Livermore II of New Hampshire, and a grandson of Stephen Emery, Maine's Attorney General in 1839-40. Hamlin attended the district schools and Hebron Academy there, and later managed his father's farm. For the next few years he worked at several jobs: schoolmaster, cook, woodcutter, surveyor, manager of a weekly newspaper in Paris, and a compositor at a printer's office. He studied law and was admitted to the bar in 1833. He began practicing in Hampden, a suburb of Bangor, where he lived until 1848. Hamlin in his younger years Political Beginnings Hamlin's political career began in 1836, when he began a term in the Maine House of Representatives after being elected the year before. He served in the bloodless Aroostook War, which took place in 1839. Hamlin unsuccessfully ran for the United States House of Representatives in 1840 and left the State House in 1841. He later served two terms in the United States House of Representatives, from 1843-1847. He was elected to fill a U.S. Senate vacancy in 1848, and to a full term in 1851. A Democrat at the beginning of his career, Hamlin supported the candidacy of Franklin Pierce in 1852. From the very beginning of his service in Congress he was prominent as an opponent of the extension of slavery; he was a conspicuous supporter of the Wilmot Proviso, and spoke against the Compromise Measures of 1850. In 1854 he strongly opposed the passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Act, which repealed the Missouri Compromise. After the Democratic Party endorsed that repeal at the 1856 Democratic National Convention, on June 12, 1856, he withdrew from the Democratic Party and joined the newly organized Republican Party, causing a national sensation. The Republicans nominated him for Governor of Maine in the same year, and having carried the election by a large majority he was inaugurated in this office on January 8, 1857. In the latter part of February, however, he resigned the governorship, and was again a member of the United States Senate from 1857 to January 1861. Vice Presidency In 1861, Hamlin became Vice President under Abraham Lincoln, whom he did not meet until after the election. Maine was the first state in the Northeast to be captured by the Republican Party, and the Lincoln-Hamlin ticket thus made sense in terms of regional balance. Hamlin was also a strong orator, and a known opponent of slavery. While serving as Vice President, Hamlin had little authority in the Lincoln administration, although he urged both the Emancipation Proclamation and the arming of African Americans. He strongly supported Joseph Hooker's appointment as commander of the Army of the Potomac, which was a dismal failure. In June 1864 the National Union Party Convention chose not to nominate Hamlin for a second term. They nominated Unionist Democrat Andrew Johnson of Tennessee as his replacement, in the apparent belief that Johnson would add more to the ticket for the fall election. Lincoln and Johnson were elected in November 1864, and Hamlin's term expired on March 4, 1865. Hamlin's vice presidency would usher in a half-century of sustained national influence for the Maine Republican Party. In the 50-year period 1861-1911, Maine Republicans would occupy the offices of Vice President, Secretary of the Treasury (twice), Secretary of State, President pro tempore of the United States Senate, Speaker of the United States House of Representatives (twice), and would field a national presidential candidate in James G. Blaine, a level of influence in national politics seldom matched by subsequent Maine political delegations. Later life After leaving Washington, Hamlin enlisted as a private in the Maine Coast Guard and served briefly at Fort McClary in 1864. He later served in the Senate from 1869 to 1881. In June 1881, President James Garfield nominated him for the post of ambassador to Spain, in which capacity he served from 1881 to 1882. After he completed the posting he retired from public life to his home in Bangor, Maine. He continued, however, to be a behind-the-scenes influence in the local and state Republican Party. Hamlin died while playing cards at the Tarratine Club in downtown Bangor. Family Hamlin in his elder years Hamlin had three sons who grew to adulthood: Charles Hamlin, Cyrus Hamlin, and Hannibal Emery Hamlin. Charles and Cyrus served in the Union forces during the Civil War, both becoming generals. Cyrus was among the first Union officers to argue for the enlistment of black troops, and himself commanded a brigade of freemen in the Mississippi River campaign. Charles and sister Sarah were present at Ford's Theater the night of Lincoln's assassination. Hannibal Emery Hamlin was Maine Attorney General from 1905 to 1908. Hannibal Hamlin's great-granddaughter Sally Hamlin was a child actor who made many spoken word recordings for the Victor Talking Machine Company in the early years of the 20th century. Hannibal's older brother, Elijah Livermore Hamlin, was president of the Mutual Fire Insurance Co. of Bangor, and the Bangor Institution for Savings. Augustus C. Smith, Bangor, Brewer, and Penobscot Co. Directory, 1859-60 (Bangor, 1859) He was twice an unsuccessful candidate for Governor of Maine in the late 1840s, though he did serve as Mayor of Bangor in 1851-52. The brothers were members of different political parties (Hannibal a Democrat, and Elijah a Whig) before both becoming Republican in the later 1850s. Obituary of Elijah L. Hamlin, New York Times, July 23, 1872 Hannibal's nephew (Elijah's son) Augustus Choate Hamlin was a physician, artist, mineralogist, author, and historian. He was also Mayor of Bangor in 1877-78, and a founding member of the Bangor Historical Society. Warren King Moorhead, A Report on the Archeology of Maine, p. 34 Augustus served as surgeon in the 2nd Maine Volunteer Infantry Regiment during the Civil War, eventually becoming a U.S. Army Medical Inspector, and later the Surgeon General of Maine. He wrote books about Andersonville Prison and the Battle of Chancellorsville. Augustus Choate Hamlin, The Battle of Chancellorsville (Bangor, Me., 1896) Hannibal's first cousin Cyrus Hamlin, who was a graduate of the Bangor Theological Seminary, became a missionary in Turkey, where he founded Robert College. He later became president of Middlebury College in Vermont. His son, A.D.F. Hamlin, Hannibal's second cousin, became a professor of architecture at Columbia University and a noted architectural historian. There are biographies of Hamlin by his grandson Charles E. Hamlin (published 1899, reprinted 1971) and by H. Draper Hunt (published 1969). Monuments and memorials Hamlin County, South Dakota, is named in his honor, as is Hamlin, New York, and Hamlin Lake, Mason Co., Michigan. There are statues in Hamlin's likeness in the United States Capitol and in a public park (Norumbega Mall) in Bangor. There is also a building on the University of Maine Campus, in Orono, named Hannibal Hamlin Hall. Hamlin's house in Bangor subsequently housed the Presidents of the adjacent Bangor Theological Seminary. It is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. References External links Biography at Mr. Lincoln's White House The life and times of Hannibal Hamlin by Charles Eugene Hamlin Bangor in Focus: Hannibal Hamlin | Hannibal_Hamlin |@lemmatized hannibal:12 hamlin:45 august:1 july:2 vice:7 president:11 united:8 state:12 serve:11 abraham:2 lincoln:7 first:4 republican:8 party:9 prior:1 election:4 senate:5 house:9 representative:5 briefly:2 governor:3 maine:17 early:2 life:4 bear:1 cyrus:5 anna:1 livermore:3 patten:1 descendant:1 james:3 sixth:1 generation:1 settle:1 massachusetts:1 bay:1 colony:1 great:2 nephew:2 u:3 senator:1 samuel:1 ii:1 new:3 hampshire:1 grandson:2 stephen:1 emery:3 attorney:2 general:4 attend:1 district:1 school:1 hebron:1 academy:1 later:6 manage:1 father:1 farm:1 next:1 year:7 work:1 several:1 job:1 schoolmaster:1 cook:1 woodcutter:1 surveyor:1 manager:1 weekly:1 newspaper:1 paris:1 compositor:1 printer:1 office:3 study:1 law:1 admit:1 bar:1 begin:3 practice:1 hampden:1 suburb:1 bangor:16 live:1 young:1 political:4 beginning:3 career:2 term:6 elect:3 bloodless:1 aroostook:1 war:3 take:1 place:2 unsuccessfully:1 ran:1 leave:2 two:1 fill:1 vacancy:1 full:1 democrat:3 support:2 candidacy:1 franklin:1 pierce:1 service:1 congress:1 prominent:1 opponent:2 extension:1 slavery:2 conspicuous:1 supporter:1 wilmot:1 proviso:1 speak:1 compromise:2 measure:1 strongly:2 oppose:1 passage:1 kansa:1 nebraska:1 act:1 repeal:2 missouri:1 democratic:3 endorse:1 national:7 convention:2 june:3 withdraw:1 join:1 newly:1 organize:1 cause:1 sensation:1 nominate:4 carry:1 large:1 majority:1 inaugurate:1 january:2 latter:1 part:1 february:1 however:2 resign:1 governorship:1 member:3 presidency:2 become:7 meet:1 northeast:1 capture:1 ticket:2 thus:1 make:2 sense:1 regional:1 balance:1 also:3 strong:1 orator:1 known:1 little:1 authority:1 administration:1 although:1 urge:1 emancipation:1 proclamation:1 arming:1 african:1 american:1 joseph:1 hooker:1 appointment:1 commander:1 army:2 potomac:1 dismal:1 failure:1 union:3 choose:1 second:2 unionist:1 andrew:1 johnson:3 tennessee:1 replacement:1 apparent:1 belief:1 would:4 add:1 fall:1 november:1 expire:1 march:1 usher:1 half:1 century:2 sustained:1 influence:3 period:1 occupy:1 secretary:2 treasury:1 twice:3 pro:1 tempore:1 speaker:1 field:1 presidential:1 candidate:2 g:1 blaine:1 level:1 politics:1 seldom:1 match:1 subsequent:1 delegation:1 washington:1 enlist:1 private:1 coast:1 guard:1 fort:1 mcclary:1 garfield:1 post:1 ambassador:1 spain:1 capacity:1 complete:1 posting:1 retire:1 public:2 home:1 continue:1 behind:1 scene:1 local:1 die:1 play:1 card:1 tarratine:1 club:1 downtown:1 family:1 elder:1 three:1 son:3 grow:1 adulthood:1 charles:5 force:1 civil:2 among:1 officer:1 argue:1 enlistment:1 black:1 troop:1 command:1 brigade:1 freeman:1 mississippi:1 river:1 campaign:1 sister:1 sarah:1 present:1 ford:1 theater:1 night:1 assassination:1 granddaughter:1 sally:1 child:1 actor:1 many:1 spoken:1 word:1 recording:1 victor:1 talk:1 machine:1 company:1 old:1 brother:2 elijah:4 mutual:1 fire:1 insurance:1 co:3 institution:1 saving:1 augustus:4 c:1 smith:1 brewer:1 penobscot:1 directory:1 unsuccessful:1 late:2 though:1 mayor:2 different:1 whig:1 obituary:1 l:1 york:2 time:2 choate:2 physician:1 artist:1 mineralogist:1 author:1 historian:2 founding:1 historical:1 society:1 warren:1 king:1 moorhead:1 report:1 archeology:1 p:1 surgeon:2 volunteer:1 infantry:1 regiment:1 eventually:1 medical:1 inspector:1 write:1 book:1 andersonville:1 prison:1 battle:2 chancellorsville:2 cousin:2 graduate:1 theological:2 seminary:2 missionary:1 turkey:1 found:1 robert:1 college:2 middlebury:1 vermont:1 f:1 professor:1 architecture:1 columbia:1 university:2 noted:1 architectural:1 biography:2 e:1 publish:2 reprint:1 h:1 draper:1 hunt:1 monument:1 memorial:1 county:1 south:1 dakota:1 name:2 honor:1 lake:1 mason:1 michigan:1 statue:1 likeness:1 capitol:1 park:1 norumbega:1 mall:1 building:1 campus:1 orono:1 hall:1 subsequently:1 adjacent:1 list:1 register:1 historic:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 mr:1 white:1 eugene:1 focus:1 |@bigram hannibal_hamlin:5 vice_president:5 abraham_lincoln:2 franklin_pierce:1 kansa_nebraska:1 missouri_compromise:1 emancipation_proclamation:1 dismal_failure:1 pro_tempore:1 presidential_candidate:1 infantry_regiment:1 battle_chancellorsville:2 theological_seminary:2 external_link:1 |
5,279 | Oliver_Heaviside | Oliver Heaviside (18 May 1850 – 3 February 1925) was a self-taught English electrical engineer, mathematician, and physicist who adapted complex numbers to the study of electrical circuits, invented mathematical techniques to the solution of differential equations (later found to be equivalent to Laplace transforms), reformulated Maxwell's field equations in terms of electric and magnetic forces and energy flux, and independently co-formulated vector analysis. Although at odds with the scientific establishment for most of his life, Heaviside changed the face of mathematics and science for years to come. Biography Early years Heaviside was born in London's Camden Town. He was short and red-headed, and suffered from scarlet fever when young, which left him with a hearing impairment. He was a good student (e.g. placed fifth out of five hundred students in 1865). Heaviside's uncle Sir Charles Wheatstone (1802-1875) was the original co-inventor of the telegraph in the mid 1830s. During the early decades of Heaviside's life his uncle was an internationally celebrated expert in telegraphy and electromagnetism. Wheatstone was married to Heaviside's mother's sister in London and took a strong interest in his nephew's education. See History of Wireless, a book by Tapan K Sarkar et al. Heaviside left school at age 16 to study at home in the subjects of telegraphy and electromagnetism. He continued fulltime study at home until age 18. Then – in the only paid employment he ever had – he took a job as a telegraph operator with the Great Northern Telegraph Company working first in Denmark and then in Newcastle-upon-Tyne, and was soon made a chief operator. It is likely that his uncle Sir Charles was instrumental in getting Heaviside the telegraph operator position. See Heaviside continued to study while working, and at age 21 and 22 he published some research related to electric circuits and telegraphy. In 1874 at age 24 he quit his job and returned to studying fulltime on his own at his parents' home in London. He remained single throughout his life. In 1873 Heaviside had encountered James Clerk Maxwell's newly published, and today famous, two-volume Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism. In his old age Heaviside recalled: I remember my first look at the great treatise of Maxwell's when I was a young man... I saw that it was great, greater and greatest, with prodigious possibilities in its power... I was determined to master the book and set to work. I was very ignorant. I had no knowledge of mathematical analysis (having learned only school algebra and trigonometry which I had largely forgotten) and thus my work was laid out for me. It took me several years before I could understand as much as I possibly could. Then I set Maxwell aside and followed my own course. And I progressed much more quickly... It will be understood that I preach the gospel according to my interpretation of Maxwell. History of Wireless, a book by Tapan K Sarkar Doing fulltime research from home, he helped develop transmission line theory (also known as the "telegrapher's equations"). Heaviside showed mathematically that uniformly distributed inductance in a telegraph line would diminish both attenuation and distortion, and that, if the inductance were great enough and the insulation resistance not too high, the circuit would be distortionless while currents of all frequencies would be equally attenuated. Heaviside's equations helped further the implementation of the telegraph. Middle years In 1880, Heaviside researched the skin effect in telegraph transmission lines. That same year he patented, in England, the co-axial cable. In 1884 he recast Maxwell's mathematical analysis from its original cumbersome form (they had already been recast as quaternions) to its modern vector terminology, thereby reducing the original twenty equations in twenty unknowns down to the four differential equations in two unknowns we now know as Maxwell's equations. The four re-formulated Maxwell's equations describe the nature of static and moving electric charges and magnetic dipoles, and the relationship between the two, namely electromagnetic induction. Between 1880 and 1887, Heaviside developed the operational calculus (involving the D notation for the differential operator, which he is credited with creating), a method of solving differential equations by transforming them into ordinary algebraic equations which caused a great deal of controversy when first introduced, owing to the lack of rigor in his derivation of it. He famously said, "Mathematics is an experimental science, and definitions do not come first, but later on." He was replying to criticism over his use of operators that were not clearly defined. On another occasion he stated somewhat more defensively, "I do not refuse my dinner simply because I do not understand the process of digestion." In 1887, Heaviside proposed that induction coils (inductors) should be added to telephone and telegraph lines to increase their self-induction and correct the distortion which they suffered. For political reasons, this was not done. The importance of Heaviside's work remained undiscovered for some time after publication in The Electrician, and so its rights lay in the public domain. AT&T later employed one of its own scientists, George A. Campbell, and an external investigator Michael I. Pupin to determine whether Heaviside's work was incomplete or incorrect. Campbell and Pupin extended Heaviside's work, and AT&T filed for patents covering not only their research, but also the technical method of constructing the coils previously invented by Heaviside. AT&T later offered Heaviside money in exchange for his rights; it is possible that the Bell engineers' respect for Heaviside influenced this offer. However, Heaviside refused the offer, declining to accept any money unless the company were to give him full recognition. Heaviside was chronically poor, making his refusal of the offer even more striking. In two papers of 1888 and 1889, Heaviside calculated the deformations of electric and magnetic fields surrounding a moving charge, as well as the effects of it entering a denser medium. This included a prediction of what is now known as Cherenkov radiation, and inspired Fitzgerald to suggest what now is known as the Lorentz-Fitzgerald contraction. In the late 1880s and early 1890s, Heaviside worked on the concept of electromagnetic mass. Heaviside treated this as material mass, capable of producing the same effects. Wilhelm Wien later verified Heaviside's expression (for low velocities). In 1891 the British Royal Society recognized Heaviside's contributions to the mathematical description of electromagnetic phenomena by naming him a Fellow of the Royal Society. In 1905 Heaviside was given an honorary doctorate by the University of Göttingen. Later years Heaviside's grave in Paignton cemetery In 1902, Heaviside proposed the existence of the Kennelly-Heaviside Layer of the ionosphere which bears his name. Heaviside's proposal included means by which radio signals are transmitted around the earth's curvature. The existence of the ionosphere was confirmed in 1923. The predictions by Heaviside, combined with Planck's radiation theory, probably discouraged further attempts to detect radio waves from the Sun and other astronomical objects. For whatever reason, there seem to have been no attempts for 30 years, until Jansky's development of radio astronomy in 1932. In later years his behavior became quite eccentric. Though he had been an active cyclist in his youth, his health seriously declined in his sixth decade. During this time Heaviside would sign letters with the initials "W.O.R.M." after his name though the letters did not stand for anything. Heaviside also reportedly started painting his fingernails pink and had granite blocks moved into his house for furniture. Heaviside died at Torquay in Devon, and is buried in Paignton cemetery. Most of his recognition was gained posthumously. Innovations and discoveries Heaviside advanced the idea that the Earth's uppermost atmosphere contained an ionized layer known as the ionosphere; in this regard, he predicted the existence of what later was dubbed the Kennelly-Heaviside Layer. He developed the transmission line theory (also known as the "telegrapher's equations"). He also independently co-discovered the Poynting vector. Heaviside simplified and made useful for the sciences the original Maxwell's equations of electromagnetism. This innovation from the reformulation of Maxwell's original equations gives the four vector equations known today. He developed the Heaviside step function, which he used to model the current in an electric circuit. He developed vectors (and vector calculus). He formed the operator method for solving linear differential equations. Thomas John I'Anson Bromwich (UK mathematician, 1875-1929) supplemented Heaviside's operator method by providing a rigorous mathematical basis. (Please see inverse Laplace transform, also known as the "Bromwich integral".) Heaviside's operator method is more or less similar to the modern approach of using Laplace transform. Electromagnetic terms Oliver Heaviside coined the following terms: "electret" for the electric analogue of a permanent magnet, or, in other words, any substance that exhibits a quasi-permanent electric polarization (e.g. ferroelectric). In September 1885, "conductance" and "permeability". In February 1886, "inductance". In July 1886, "impedance". In December 1887, "admittance". In May 1888, "reluctance". In June 1887, Heaviside used the term "permittance" which later became "susceptance". See also Physics: Kennelly-Heaviside Layer, Microwave, 1850 in science Mathematics: Analytical Society, Differential operator, Heaviside step function, Maxwell's equations, Quaternions, Vector calculus People: William Rowan Hamilton, James Clerk Maxwell, Willard Gibbs, Mihajlo Pupin, Nikola Tesla Other: Heaviside condition Publications Heaviside, Oliver, "Electromagnetic induction and its propagation". The Electrician, 1885, 1886, and 1887. Heaviside, Oliver, "Electrical Papers" 1887. Heaviside, Oliver, "Electromagnetic waves, the propagation of potential, and the electromagnetic effects of a moving charge". Electrician, 1888/1889. Heaviside, Oliver, "On the Electromagnetic Effects due to the Motion of Electrification through a Dielectric ". Phil.Mag.S.5 vol.27, 1889 p.324, 1889. Heaviside, Oliver, "On the Forces, Stresses, and Fluxes of Energy in the Electromagnetic Field". Philosopical Transaction of the Royal Society, London, 1893. Heaviside, Oliver, "A gravitational and electromagnetic analogy". The Electrician, 1893. Heaviside, Oliver, "Electromagnetic theory: The complete & unabridged edition". 1951. ISBN B0000CI0WA Heaviside, Oliver, "Electromagnetic Theory". American Mathematical Society, 1970. ISBN 0-8284-0237-X Heaviside, Oliver, "Electrical Papers". American Mathematical Society, 1999. ISBN 0-8284-0235-3 Heaviside, Oliver, "Electrical Papers". American Mathematical Society, 2003. ISBN 0-8218-2840-1 Further reading Sorted by date. Lee, G., "Oliver Heaviside". London, 1947. "The Heaviside Centenary Volume". The Institution of Electrical Engineers. London, 1950. Josephs, H, J., "Oliver Heaviside : a biography". London, 1963. Josephs, H, J., "The Heaviside Papers found at Paignton in 1957.". Electromagnetic Theory by Oliver Heaviside. New York, 1971. Moore, D. H., "Heaviside Operational Calculus". New York, 1971. ISBN 0-444-00090-9 Buchwald, J. Z., "From Maxwell to microphysics". Chicago, 1985. ISBN 0-226-07882-5 Searle, G. F. C., "Oliver Heaviside, the Man". St Albans, 1987. ISBN 0-906340-05-5 Nahin, P. J., "Oliver Heaviside, Sage in Solitude". IEEE Press, New York, 1988. ISBN 0-87942-238-6 Laithwaite, E. R., "Oliver Heaviside - establishment shaker". Electrical Review, November 12, 1982. Hunt, B. J., "The Maxwellians". Ithaca NY, 1991.ISBN 0-8014-8234-8 Lynch, A. C., "The Sources for a Biography of Oliver Heaviside". History of Technology, Vol. 13, ed. G. Hollister-Short, London & New York, 1991. Yavetz, I., "From Obscurity to Enigma: The Work of Oliver Heaviside, 1872-1889". Basel, 1995. ISBN 3-7643-5180-2 Pickover, Clifford A., "Strange Brains and Genius, The Secret Lives of Eccentric Scientists and Madmen". June 2, 1999. ISBN 0-688-16894-9 Nahin, Paul J., "Oliver Heaviside: The Life, Work, and Times of an Electrical Genius of the Victorian Age". November, 2002. ISBN 0-8018-6909-9 External links and references The MacTutor History of Mathematics archive, "Oliver Heaviside". School of Mathematics and Statistics. University of St Andrews, Scotland Heather, Alan, "Oliver Heaviside". Torbay Amateur Radio Society. "Mr. Oliver Heaviside". Obituary, The Times. (GIF File format) Katz, Eugenii, "Oliver Heaviside". Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Ghigo, F., "Pre-History of Radio Astronomy, Oliver Heaviside (1850-1925)". National Radio Astronomy Observatory, Green Bank, West Virginia. Wolfram, Stephen, "Heaviside, Oliver (1850-1925)". Wolfram Media, Inc. Naughton, Russell, "Oliver W. Heaviside: 1850 - 1925". Adventures in CyberSound. Bexte, Peter, "Kabel im Denkraum" (German) Tr. "Cable in the thinking area" McGinty, Phil, "Oliver Heaviside". Devon Life, Torbay Library Services. Gustafson, Grant, "Heaviside's Methods". math.utah.edu. (PDF) The Dibner Library Portrait Collection, "Oliver Heaviside". "Physical units". 1911 Encyclopdia Heaviside's Operational Calculus Heaviside's Operator Calculus Notes | Oliver_Heaviside |@lemmatized oliver:30 heaviside:83 may:2 february:2 self:2 taught:1 english:1 electrical:8 engineer:3 mathematician:2 physicist:1 adapt:1 complex:1 number:1 study:5 circuit:4 invented:1 mathematical:8 technique:1 solution:1 differential:6 equation:16 later:8 find:2 equivalent:1 laplace:3 transforms:1 reformulate:1 maxwell:13 field:3 term:4 electric:7 magnetic:3 force:2 energy:2 flux:2 independently:2 co:4 formulate:2 vector:7 analysis:3 although:1 odds:1 scientific:1 establishment:2 life:6 change:1 face:1 mathematics:5 science:4 year:8 come:2 biography:3 early:3 bear:2 london:8 camden:1 town:1 short:2 red:1 head:1 suffer:2 scarlet:1 fever:1 young:2 leave:2 hearing:1 impairment:1 good:1 student:2 e:3 g:5 place:1 fifth:1 five:1 hundred:1 uncle:3 sir:2 charles:2 wheatstone:2 original:5 inventor:1 telegraph:8 mid:1 decade:2 internationally:1 celebrate:1 expert:1 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5,280 | Igneous_rock | Igneous rock (etymology from Latin ignis, fire) is one of the three main rock types (the others being sedimentary and metamorphic rock). Igneous rock is formed by magma (molten rock) being cooled and becoming solid. They may form with or without crystallization, either below the surface as intrusive (plutonic) rocks or on the surface as extrusive (volcanic) rocks. This magma can be derived from partial melts of pre-existing rocks in either the Earth's mantle or crust. Typically, the melting is caused by one or more of three processes: an increase in temperature, a decrease in pressure, or a change in composition. Over 700 types of igneous rocks have been described, most of them formed beneath the surface of the Earth's crust. These have diverse properties, depending on their composition and how they were formed. Geologic significance Igneous rocks make up approximately 95% of the upper part of the Earth's crust, but their great abundance is hidden on the Earth's surface by a relatively thin but widespread layer of sedimentary and metamorphic rocks. Igneous rocks are geologically important because: their minerals and global chemistry give information about the composition of the mantle, from which some igneous rocks are extracted, and the temperature and pressure conditions that allowed this extraction, and/or of other pre-existing rock that melted; their absolute ages can be obtained from various forms of radiometric dating and thus can be compared to adjacent geological strata, allowing a time sequence of events; their features are usually characteristic of a specific tectonic environment, allowing tectonic reconstitutions (see plate tectonics); in some special circumstances they host important mineral deposits (ores): for example, tungsten, tin, and uranium are commonly associated with granites and diorites, whereas ores of chromium and platinum are commonly associated with gabbros. Morphology and setting In terms of modes of occurrence, igneous rocks can be either intrusive (plutonic), extrusive (volcanic) or hypabyssal. Intrusive igneous rocks Close-up of granite (an intrusive igneous rock) exposed in Chennai, India. Intrusive igneous rocks are formed from magma that cools and solidifies within the earth. Surrounded by pre-existing rock (called country rock), the magma cools slowly, and as a result these rocks are coarse grained. The mineral grains in such rocks can generally be identified with the naked eye. Intrusive rocks can also be classified according to the shape and size of the intrusive body and its relation to the other formations into which it intrudes. Typical intrusive formations are batholiths, stocks, laccoliths, sills and dikes. The central cores of major mountain ranges consist of intrusive igneous rocks, usually granite. When exposed by erosion, these cores (called batholiths) may occupy huge areas of the Earth's surface. Coarse grained intrusive igneous rocks which form at depth within the earth are termed as abyssal; intrusive igneous rocks which form near the surface are termed hypabyssal. Extrusive igneous rocks Basalt (an extrusive igneous rock in this case); light colored tracks show the direction of lava flow. Extrusive igneous rocks are formed at the Earth's surface as a result of the partial melting of rocks within the mantle and crust. The melt, with or without suspended crystals and gas bubbles, is called magma. Magma rises because it is less dense than the rock from which it was created. When it reaches the surface, magma extruded onto the surface either beneath water or air, is called lava. Eruptions of volcanoes into air are termed subaerial whereas those occurring underneath the ocean are termed submarine. Black smokers and mid-ocean ridge basalt are examples of submarine volcanic activity. The volume of extrusive rock erupted annually by volcanoes varies with plate tectonic setting. Extrusive rock is produced in the following proportions: Fisher, R. V. & Schmincke H.-U., (1984) Pyroclastic Rocks, Berlin, Springer-Verlag divergent boundary: 73% convergent boundary (subduction zone): 15% hotspot: 12% Magma which erupts from a volcano behaves according to its viscosity, determined by temperature, composition, and crystal content. High-temperature magma, most of which is basaltic in composition, behaves in a manner similar to thick oil and, as it cools, treacle. Long, thin basalt flows with pahoehoe surfaces are common. Intermediate composition magma such as andesite tends to form cinder cones of intermingled ash, tuff and lava, and may have viscosity similar to thick, cold molasses or even rubber when erupted. Felsic magma such as rhyolite is usually erupted at low temperature and is up to 10,000 times as viscous as basalt. Volcanoes with rhyolitic magma commonly erupt explosively, and rhyolitic lava flows typically are of limited extent and have steep margins, because the magma is so viscous. Felsic and intermediate magmas that erupt often do so violently, with explosions driven by release of dissolved gases — typically water but also carbon dioxide. Explosively erupted pyroclastic material is called tephra and includes tuff, agglomerate and ignimbrite. Fine volcanic ash is also erupted and forms ash tuff deposits which can often cover vast areas. Because lava cools and crystallizes rapidly, it is fine grained. If the cooling has been so rapid as to prevent the formation of even small crystals after extrusion, the resulting rock may be mostly glass (such as the rock obsidian). If the cooling of the lava happened slowly, the rocks would be coarse-grained. Because the minerals are mostly fine-grained, it is much more difficult to distinguish between the different types of extrusive igneous rocks than between different types of intrusive igneous rocks. Generally, the mineral constituents of fine-grained extrusive igneous rocks can only be determined by examination of thin sections of the rock under a microscope, so only an approximate classification can usually be made in the field. Hypabbysal igneous rocks Hypabbysal igneous rocks are formed at a depth in between the plutonic and volcanic rocks. Classification Igneous rocks are classified according to mode of occurrence, texture, mineralogy, chemical composition, and the geometry of the igneous body. The classification of the many types of different igneous rocks can provide us with important information about the conditions under which they formed. Two important variables used for the classification of igneous rocks are particle size, which largely depends upon the cooling history, and the mineral composition of the rock. Feldspars, quartz or feldspathoids, olivines, pyroxenes, amphiboles, and micas are all important minerals in the formation of almost all igneous rocks, and they are basic to the classification of these rocks. All other minerals present are regarded as nonessential in almost all igneous rocks and are called accessory minerals. Types of igneous rocks with other essential minerals are very rare, and these rare rocks include those with essential carbonates. In a simplified classification, igneous rock types are separated on the basis of the type of feldspar present, the presence or absence of quartz, and in rocks with no feldspar or quartz, the type of iron or magnesium minerals present. Rocks containing quartz (silica in composition) are silica-oversaturated. Rocks with feldspathoids are silica-undersaturated, because feldspathoids cannot coexist in a stable association with quartz. Igneous rocks which have crystals large enough to be seen by the naked eye are called phaneritic; those with crystals too small to be seen are called aphanitic. Generally speaking, phaneritic implies an intrusive origin; aphanitic an extrusive one. An igneous rock with larger, clearly discernible crystals embedded in a finer-grained matrix is termed porphyry. Porphyritic texture develops when some of the crystals grow to considerable size before the main mass of the magma crystallizes as finer-grained, uniform material. Texture Gabbro specimen showing phaneritic texture; Rock Creek Canyon, eastern Sierra Nevada, California; scale bar is 2.0 cm. Texture is an important criterion for the naming of volcanic rocks. The texture of volcanic rocks, including the size, shape, orientation, and distribution of mineral grains and the intergrain relationships, will determine whether the rock is termed a tuff, a pyroclastic lava or a simple lava. However, the texture is only a subordinate part of classifying volcanic rocks, as most often there needs to be chemical information gleaned from rocks with extremely fine-grained groundmass or from airfall tuffs, which may be formed from volcanic ash. Textural criteria are less critical in classifying intrusive rocks where the majority of minerals will be visible to the naked eye or at least using a hand lens, magnifying glass or microscope. Plutonic rocks tend also to be less texturally varied and less prone to gaining structural fabrics. Textural terms can be used to differentiate different intrusive phases of large plutons, for instance porphyritic margins to large intrusive bodies, porphyry stocks and subvolcanic dikes (apophyses). Mineralogical classification is used most often to classify plutonic rocks. Chemical classifications are preferred to classify volcanic rocks, with phenocryst species used as a prefix, e.g. "olivine-bearing picrite" or "orthoclase-phyric rhyolite". see also List of rock textures and Igneous textures Basic classification scheme for igneous rocks on their mineralogy. If the approximate volume fractions of minerals in the rock are known the rock name and silica content can be read off the diagram. This is not an exact method because the classification of igneous rocks also depends on other components than silica, yet in most cases it is a good first guess. Chemical classification Igneous rocks can be classified according to chemical or mineralogical parameters: Chemical: total alkali-silica content (TAS diagram) for volcanic rock classification used when modal or mineralogic data is unavailable: acid igneous rocks containing a high silica content, greater than 63% SiO2 (examples granite and rhyolite) intermediate igneous rocks containing between 52 - 63% SiO2 (example andesite and dacite) basic igneous rocks have low silica 45 - 52% and typically high iron - magnesium content (example gabbro and basalt) ultrabasic igneous rocks with less than 45% silica. (examples picrite and komatiite) alkalic igneous rocks with 5 - 15% alkali (K2O + Na2O) content or with a molar ratio of alkali to silica greater than 1:6. (examples phonolite and trachyte) Note: the acid-basic terminology is used more broadly in older (generally British) geological literature. In current literature felsic-mafic roughly substitutes for acid-basic. Chemical classification also extends to differentiating rocks which are chemically similar according to the TAS diagram, for instance; Ultrapotassic; rocks containing molar K2O/Na2O >3 Peralkaline; rocks containing molar (K2O + Na2O)/ Al2O3 >1 Peraluminous; rocks containing molar (K2O + Na2O)/ Al2O3 <1 An idealized mineralogy (the normative mineralogy) can be calculated from the chemical composition, and the calculation is useful for rocks too fine-grained or too altered for identification of minerals that crystallized from the melt. For instance, normative quartz classifies a rock as silica-oversaturated; an example is rhyolite. A normative feldspathoid classifies a rock as silica-undersaturated; an example is nephelinite. History of classification In 1902 a group of American petrographers proposed that all existing classifications of igneous rocks should be discarded and replaced by a "quantitative" classification based on chemical analysis. They showed how vague and often unscientific was much of the existing terminology and argued that as the chemical composition of an igneous rock was its most fundamental characteristic it should be elevated to prime position. Geological occurrence, structure, mineralogical constitution—the hitherto accepted criteria for the discrimination of rock species—were relegated to the background. The completed rock analysis is first to be interpreted in terms of the rock-forming minerals which might be expected to be formed when the magma crystallizes, e.g., quartz feldspars, olivine, akermannite, feldspathoids, magnetite, corundum and so on, and the rocks are divided into groups strictly according to the relative proportion of these minerals to one another. Cross, W. et al. (1903) Quantitative Classification of Igneous Rocks, Chicago, University of Chicago Press Mineralogical classification For volcanic rocks, mineralogy is important in classifying and naming lavas. The most important criterion is the phenocryst species, followed by the groundmass mineralogy. Often, where the groundmass is aphanitic, chemical classification must be used to properly identify a volcanic rock. Mineralogic contents - felsic versus mafic felsic rock, highest content of silicon, with predominance of quartz, alkali feldspar and/or feldspathoids: the felsic minerals; these rocks (e.g., granite, rhyolite) are usually light coloured, and have low density. mafic rock, lesser content of silicon relative to felsic rocks, with predominance of mafic minerals pyroxenes, olivines and calcic plagioclase; these rocks (example, basalt, gabbro) are usually dark coloured, and have a higher density than felsic rocks. ultramafic rock, lowest content of silicon, with more than 90% of mafic minerals (e.g., dunite). For intrusive, plutonic and usually phaneritic igneous rocks where all minerals are visible at least via microscope, the mineralogy is used to classify the rock. This usually occurs on ternary diagrams, where the relative proportions of three minerals are used to classify the rock. The following table is a simple subdivision of igneous rocks according both to their composition and mode of occurrence. Composition Mode of occurrence Felsic Intermediate Mafic Ultramafic Intrusive Granite Diorite Gabbro Peridotite Extrusive Rhyolite Andesite Basalt Komatiite Essential rock forming silicates Felsic Intermediate Mafic Ultramafic Coarse Grained Granite Diorite Gabbro Peridotite Medium Grained Diabase Fine Grained Rhyolite Andesite Basalt Komatiite For a more detailed classification see QAPF diagram. Example of classification Granite is an igneous intrusive rock (crystallized at depth), with felsic composition (rich in silica and predominately quartz plus potassium-rich feldspar plus sodium-rich plagioclase) and phaneritic, subeuhedral texture (minerals are visible to the unaided eye and commonly some of them retain original crystallographic shapes). Magma origination The Earth's crust averages about 35 kilometers thick under the continents, but averages only some 7-10 kilometers beneath the oceans. The continental crust is composed primarily of sedimentary rocks resting on crystalline basement formed of a great variety of metamorphic and igneous rocks including granulite and granite. Oceanic crust is composed primarily of basalt and gabbro. Both continental and oceanic crust rest on peridotite of the mantle. Rocks may melt in response to a decrease in pressure, to a change in composition such as an addition of water, to an increase in temperature, or to a combination of these processes. Other mechanisms, such as melting from impact of a meteorite, are less important today, but impacts during accretion of the Earth led to extensive melting, and the outer several hundred kilometers of our early Earth probably was an ocean of magma. Impacts of large meteorites in last few hundred million years have been proposed as one mechanism responsible for the extensive basalt magmatism of several large igneous provinces. Decompression Decompression melting which occurs because of a decrease in pressure. The solidus temperatures of most rocks (the temperatures below which they are completely solid) increase with increasing pressure in the absence of water. Peridotite at depth in the Earth's mantle may be hotter than its solidus temperature at some shallower level. If such rock rises during the convection of solid mantle, it will cool slightly as it expands in an adiabatic process, but the cooling is only about 0.3°C per kilometer. Experimental studies of appropriate peridotite samples document that the solidus temperatures increase by 3°C to 4°C per kilometer. If the rock rises far enough, it will begin to melt. Melt droplets can coalesce into larger volumes and be intruded upwards. This process of melting from upward movement of solid mantle is critical in the evolution of the earth. Decompression melting creates the ocean crust at mid-ocean ridges. Decompression melting caused by the rise of mantle plumes is responsible for creating ocean islands like the Hawaiian islands. Plume-related decompression melting also is the most common explanation for flood basalts and oceanic plateaus (two types of large igneous provinces), although other causes such as melting related to meteorite impact have been proposed for some of these huge volumes of igneous rock. Effects of water and carbon dioxide The change of rock composition most responsible for creation of magma is the addition of water. Water lowers the solidus temperature of rocks at a given pressure. For example, at a depth of about 100 kilometers, peridotite begins to melt near 800°C in the presence of excess water, but near or above about 1500°C in the absence of water. T. L. Grove, N. Chatterjee, S. W. Parman, and E. Medard, (2006)The influence of H2O on mantle wedge melting. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, v. 249, p. 74-89 Water is driven out of the oceanic lithosphere in subduction zones, and it causes melting in the overlying mantle. Hydrous magmas of basalt and andesite composition are produced directly and indirectly as results of dehydration during the subduction process. Such magmas and those derived from them build up island arcs such as those in the Pacific ring of fire. These magmas form rocks of the calc-alkaline series, an important part of continental crust. The addition of carbon dioxide is relatively a much less important cause of magma formation than addition of water, but genesis of some silica-undersaturated magmas has been attributed to the dominance of carbon dioxide over water in their mantle source regions. In the presence of carbon dioxide, experiments document that the peridotite solidus temperature decreases by about 200°C in a narrow pressure interval at pressures corresponding to a depth of about 70 km. At greater depths, carbon dioxide can have more effect: at depths to about 200 km, the temperatures of initial melting of a carbonated peridotite composition were determined to be 450°C to 600°C lower than for the same composition with no carbon dioxide. R. Dasgupta and M. M. Hirschmann (2007) Effect of variable carbonate concentration on the solidus of mantle peridotite. American Mineralogist, v. 92, p. 370-379 Magmas of rock types such as nephelinite, carbonatite, and kimberlite are among those that may be generated following an influx of carbon dioxide into mantle at depths greater than about 70 km. Temperature increase Increase of temperature is the most typical mechanism for formation of magma within continental crust. Such temperature increases can occur because of the upward intrusion of magma from the mantle. Temperatures can also exceed the solidus of a crustal rock in continental crust thickened by compression at a plate boundary. The plate boundary between the Indian and Asian continental masses provides a well-studied example, as the Tibetan Plateau just north of the boundary has crust about 80 kilometers thick, roughly twice the thickness of normal continental crust. Studies of electrical resistivity deduced from magnetotelluric data have detected a layer that appears to contain silicate melt and that stretches for at least 1000 kilometers within the middle crust along the southern margin of the Tibetan Plateau. M. J. Unsworth et al. (2005) Crustal rheology of the Himalaya and Southern Tibet inferred from magnetotelluric data. Nature, v. 438, p. 78-81 Granite and rhyolite are types of igneous rock commonly interpreted as products of melting of continental crust because of increases of temperature. Temperature increases also may contribute to the melting of lithosphere dragged down in a subduction zone. Magma evolution Most magmas are only entirely melt for small parts of their histories. More typically, they are mixes of melt and crystals, and sometimes also of gas bubbles. Melt, crystals, and bubbles usually have different densities, and so they can separate as magmas evolve. As magma cools, minerals typically crystallize from the melt at different temperatures (fractional crystallization). As minerals crystallize, the composition of the residual melt typically changes. If crystals separate from melt, then the residual melt will differ in composition from the parent magma. For instance, a magma of gabbroic composition can produce a residual melt of granitic composition if early formed crystals are separated from the magma. Gabbro may have a liquidus temperature near 1200°C, and derivative granite-composition melt may have a liquidus temperature as low as about 700°C. Incompatible elements are concentrated in the last residues of magma during fractional crystallization and in the first melts produced during partial melting: either process can form the magma that crystallizes to pegmatite, a rock type commonly enriched in incompatible elements. Bowen's reaction series is important for understanding the idealised sequence of fractional crystallisation of a magma. Magma composition can be determined by processes other than partial melting and fractional crystallization. For instance, magmas commonly interact with rocks they intrude, both by melting those rocks and by reacting with them. Magmas of different compositions can mix with one another. In rare cases, melts can separate into two immiscible melts of contrasting compositions. There are relatively few minerals that are important in the formation of common igneous rocks, because the magma from which the minerals crystallize is rich in only certain elements: silicon, oxygen, aluminium, sodium, potassium, calcium, iron, and magnesium. These are the elements which combine to form the silicate minerals, which account for over ninety percent of all igneous rocks. The chemistry of igneous rocks is expressed differently for major and minor elements and for trace elements. Contents of major and minor elements are conventionally expressed as weight percent oxides (e.g., 51% SiO2, and 1.50% TiO2). Abundances of trace elements are conventionally expressed as parts per million by weight (e.g., 420 ppm Ni, and 5.1 ppm Sm). The term "trace element" typically is used for elements present in most rocks at abundances less than 100 ppm or so, but some trace elements may be present in some rocks at abundances exceeding 1000 ppm. The diversity of rock compositions has been defined by a huge mass of analytical data -- over 230,000 rock analyses can be accessed on the web through a site sponsored by the U. S. National Science Foundation (see the External Link to EarthChem). Etymology The word "igneous" is derived from the Latin ignis, meaning "of fire". Volcanic rocks are named after Vulcan, the Roman name for the god of fire. Intrusive rocks are also called plutonic rocks, named after Pluto, the Roman god of the underworld. See also List of minerals List of rock types Large igneous province Petrology Footnotes References R. W. Le Maitre (editor) (2002) Igneous Rocks: A Classification and Glossary of Terms, Recommendations of the International Union of Geological Sciences, Subcommission of the Systematics of Igneous Rocks., Cambridge, Cambridge University Press ISBN 0-521-66215-X External links USGS Igneous Rocks Igneous rock classification flowchart EarthChem, a portal to rock chemistries | Igneous_rock |@lemmatized igneous:60 rock:142 etymology:2 latin:2 ignis:2 fire:4 one:6 three:3 main:2 type:14 others:1 sedimentary:3 metamorphic:3 form:21 magma:40 molten:1 cool:8 become:1 solid:4 may:12 without:2 crystallization:4 either:5 surface:10 intrusive:20 plutonic:7 extrusive:11 volcanic:14 derive:3 partial:4 melt:29 pre:3 exist:5 earth:14 mantle:14 crust:16 typically:8 melting:10 cause:5 process:7 increase:10 temperature:22 decrease:4 pressure:8 change:4 composition:28 describe:1 beneath:3 diverse:1 property:1 depend:3 geologic:1 significance:1 make:2 approximately:1 upper:1 part:5 great:6 abundance:4 hide:1 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5,281 | Wikipedia:Neutral_point_of_view%2FExamples | This is a stab at creating an example section to help distinguish neutral vs non-neutral writing. I created it because the actual "Neutral Point of View" page now has an awful lot of commentary on it and it is getting difficult to get much guidance. I have tried to glean my examples on the basis of the majority opinion on that page. Feel free to dissent. I (MB) am cutting the debate off this page and moving it here. Links have been provided where necessary. Facts vs Opinion In general, facts are items that are not known to be disputed at all by otherwise reasonable people. Easy ones - The following statements are legitimate statements of fact (or would be if I hadn't made them up): The U. S. Census Bureau reported the population of Springfield, MA as 152,082 in the year 2000 census. Dogs have the scientific name Canis familiaris L. 1758. In the 2nd century A.D., Ptolemy wrote a statement which can be translated into English as: "Now with this done, if one should next take up the question of the earth's position, the observed appearances with respect to it could only be understood if we put it in the middle of the heavens as the centre of the sphere." Subject to the influence of other bodies in the Solar System, the Earth and the Sun orbit their common center of mass. This means that, to a good approximation, the Earth goes around the Sun. (Hey this one is true... and no flat-earth discussions now, please) More difficult examples: Abortion is wrong - opinion, not a fact. The pro-life movement holds that abortion is wrong, or occasionally that it is only justified in certain special cases - fact, not an opinion. God/spiritual energy/ (insert your pet concept here) does/does not exist. - opinion, not a fact. Nietzsche spent much of his life arguing (among other things) that God does not exist - fact, not an opinion. Even more difficult example: Scientologists hold the belief that living cells have a memory. This is based on an erroneous interpretation of the work of Crick and Watson in 1955. - opinion, not a fact. Scientologists hold the belief that living cells have a memory. This is based on an interpretation of the work of Crick and Watson in 1955. This interpretation has been heavily criticised by notable cell-biologists such as (whoever) ... - fact, not an opinion. (Oh, and I have no idea if the thing about Scientologists and Crick and Watson is true or not, just go with it for now). Anti-Americanism exists in the world. This is due to a number of serious errors in American foreign policy, particularly with regard to Palestine. - obviously biased, but try this next one... Anti-Americanism exists in the world. This is due to a number of perceived serious errors in American foreign policy... - this is STILL biased. Rephrase it as "The Society of Pole Sitters attributes this to..." or list all of the other major possible cause(s). Anti-Americanism doesn't exist because we can't decide how to explain it... If you're stuck: Go with more detail rather than less. Do not present any viewpoint as "right". Your indecisiveness will be sorted out by the other editors, have no concerns about that. What to do if you believe something is "ABSOLUTELY RIGHT, dammit!" You'll be pleased to know there is a forum for your profound insights and wisdom. Test how you are doing... Darwin's theory of natural selection is the best available explanation of the diversity of life we see today. - acceptable or not? (For discussion, see Examples debate Topic 1) Darwin's theory of natural selection is the most widely accepted scientific explanation of the diversity of life we see today. - acceptable or not? (For discussion, see Examples debate Topic 2) Geographical bias Location: You are writing a universal encyclopedia to an international audience, so any assumption over location or "common sense" familiarity with geography should not be taken. For example: "Herbert George Wells (September 21 1866 - August 13 1946) Writer, The son of a professional cricketer, Wells was born in Bromley, Kent. In his youth he was ..." Now wait a minute.. What nationality was he? It may look obvious for Britons that "Kent" refers to a county in south-east England (and more obvious that Wells was English!), but not for the rest of the world. See also Kent (disambiguation) for other places named "Kent". Cultural: Avoid cultural assumptions. A previous version of the article on thanksgiving didn't explain what thanksgiving actually is: it assumed the reader was familiar with the term. Many nations have a holiday with that name. Measurements: Various cultures use differing standards of measurement. See Wikipedia:Manual of Style (dates and numbers), Wikipedia:Measurements Debate Symbols: The $ symbol is used by over 60 countries in the world. Generally $ means the United States dollar, but to always assume that irritates those people who feel equally entitled to use the symbol. Try to use US$, or USD (the ISO 4217 code). Although much less confusing, the same goes for the £ symbol: use GB£ or GBP (or UK£ or ... you get the idea). Dates: Wherever possible, use the long date format with Wiki-links (September 11, 2001). If you need to use a shorter data format, do not use the 10/4/01 format. To a British person, this means April 10, to an American this means October 4, to others it means April 1, 2010. Use the medium format (Oct 4 or Apr 10) Seasons:. "The summer of 1994-1995" makes perfect sense to residents of New Zealand but will confuse Americans. Try to use month names wherever possible. Some people argue that if an article is about a specific region then this should not be necessary. However I tested this on some people and frankly, "summer" has a specific meaning for most people. To many it means "Christmas." Try to say June to August, and in the worst case, say "Northern summer". Also Americans use the term "fall" to describe the season between summer and winter, most of the English-speaking world calls this season "autumn". Try to avoid using expressions which are unique to your country, region, hemisphere. An example: Australians use the symbol A$ all the time. To a non-Australian this could mean "Armenia", "Aruba"... use Aus$ (a clearer abbreviation for Australia) or, even better, AUD (the ISO 4217 code). Same goes for any other country. In the worst case, if you are going to use an easily mistaken symbol regularly but don't want to annotate it every time, put a footnote: "Please note: $ refers to the Zimbabwean dollar unless otherwise indicated." See also the section about Symbols above. Expressions: "Joe lucked out". To one person, this means Joe had some bad luck. To others it means Joe had some good luck. To some this might not mean anything. 'Nuff said. See also : Wikipedia:Neutral point of view | Wikipedia:Neutral_point_of_view%2FExamples |@lemmatized stab:1 create:2 example:6 section:2 help:1 distinguish:1 neutral:4 v:1 non:2 writing:1 actual:1 point:2 view:2 page:3 awful:1 lot:1 commentary:1 get:3 difficult:3 much:3 guidance:1 try:6 glean:1 basis:1 majority:1 opinion:8 feel:2 free:1 dissent:1 mb:1 cut:1 debate:4 move:1 link:2 provide:1 necessary:2 fact:9 vs:1 general:1 item:1 know:2 dispute:1 otherwise:2 reasonable:1 people:5 easy:1 one:5 following:1 statement:3 legitimate:1 would:1 make:2 u:2 census:2 bureau:1 report:1 population:1 springfield:1 year:1 dog:1 scientific:2 name:4 canis:1 familiaris:1 l:1 century:1 ptolemy:1 write:2 translate:1 english:3 next:2 take:2 question:1 earth:4 position:1 observed:1 appearance:1 respect:1 could:2 understood:1 put:2 middle:1 heaven:1 centre:1 sphere:1 subject:1 influence:1 body:1 solar:1 system:1 sun:2 orbit:1 common:2 center:1 mass:1 mean:10 good:2 approximation:1 go:6 around:1 hey:1 true:2 flat:1 discussion:3 please:3 abortion:2 wrong:2 pro:1 life:4 movement:1 hold:3 occasionally:1 justify:1 certain:1 special:1 case:3 god:2 spiritual:1 energy:1 insert:1 pet:1 concept:1 exist:5 nietzsche:1 spent:1 arguing:1 among:1 thing:2 even:2 scientologists:3 belief:2 live:2 cell:3 memory:2 base:2 erroneous:1 interpretation:3 work:2 crick:3 watson:3 heavily:1 criticise:1 notable:1 biologist:1 whoever:1 oh:1 idea:2 anti:3 americanism:3 world:5 due:2 number:3 serious:2 error:2 american:4 foreign:2 policy:2 particularly:1 regard:1 palestine:1 obviously:1 bias:3 perceived:1 still:1 rephrase:1 society:1 pole:1 sitter:1 attribute:1 list:1 major:1 possible:3 cause:1 decide:1 explain:2 stuck:1 detail:1 rather:1 less:2 present:1 viewpoint:1 right:2 indecisiveness:1 sort:1 editor:1 concern:1 believe:1 something:1 absolutely:1 dammit:1 forum:1 profound:1 insight:1 wisdom:1 test:2 darwin:2 theory:2 natural:2 selection:2 best:1 available:1 explanation:2 diversity:2 see:8 today:2 acceptable:2 examples:2 topic:2 widely:1 accept:1 geographical:1 location:2 universal:1 encyclopedia:1 international:1 audience:1 assumption:2 sense:2 familiarity:1 geography:1 herbert:1 george:1 well:4 september:2 august:2 writer:1 son:1 professional:1 cricketer:1 bear:1 bromley:1 kent:4 youth:1 wait:1 minute:1 nationality:1 may:1 look:1 obvious:2 briton:1 refers:2 county:1 south:1 east:1 england:1 rest:1 also:4 disambiguation:1 place:1 cultural:2 avoid:2 previous:1 version:1 article:2 thanksgiving:2 actually:1 assume:2 reader:1 familiar:1 term:2 many:2 nation:1 holiday:1 measurement:3 various:1 culture:1 use:15 differ:1 standard:1 wikipedia:3 manual:1 style:1 date:3 symbol:7 country:3 generally:1 united:1 state:1 dollar:2 always:1 irritate:1 equally:1 entitle:1 usd:1 iso:2 code:2 although:1 confusing:1 gb:1 gbp:1 uk:1 wherever:2 long:1 format:4 wiki:1 need:1 shorter:1 data:1 british:1 person:2 april:2 october:1 others:2 medium:1 oct:1 apr:1 season:3 summer:4 perfect:1 resident:1 new:1 zealand:1 confuse:1 month:1 argue:1 specific:2 region:2 however:1 frankly:1 meaning:1 christmas:1 say:3 june:1 bad:3 northern:1 americans:1 fall:1 describe:1 winter:1 speaking:1 call:1 autumn:1 expression:2 unique:1 hemisphere:1 australian:2 time:2 armenia:1 aruba:1 aus:1 clearer:1 abbreviation:1 australia:1 aud:1 easily:1 mistaken:1 regularly:1 want:1 annotate:1 every:1 footnote:1 note:1 zimbabwean:1 unless:1 indicate:1 joe:3 lucked:1 luck:2 might:1 anything:1 nuff:1 |@bigram census_bureau:1 crick_watson:3 anti_americanism:3 unless_otherwise:1 bad_luck:1 |
5,282 | Motorola_68030 | Motorola 68030 microprocessor The Motorola 68030 is a 32-bit microprocessor in Motorola's 68000 family. Released in 1987, the 68030 was the successor to the Motorola 68020, and was followed by the Motorola 68040. In keeping with general Motorola naming, this CPU is often referred to as the 030 (pronounced oh-thirty). The 68030 features an on-chip split instruction and data cache of 256 bytes each. It also has an on-chip memory management unit. The 68881 and the faster 68882 FPU (floating point unit) chips could be used with the 68030. A lower cost version of the 68030, the Motorola 68EC030, was also released, lacking the on-chip MMU. It was commonly available in both 132 pin QFP and 128 pin PGA packages, but the poorer thermal characteristics of the QFP package limited it to 33 MHz and below; the 40 MHz and 50 MHz only usually being available as PGA, though there was a small supply of QFP packaged EC variants. As a microarchitecture, the 68030 is basically a 68020 core with an additional data cache and a process shrink. Motorola used the process shrink to allow them to pack more hardware on the die; in this case it was the MMU, a 68851 compatible. The integration of the MMU made it more cost-effective than the 68020. Per clock, the 68030 did not differentiate itself in performance from the 68020 that it was derived from. The finer manufacturing process, however, allowed Motorola to scale the processor to 50 MHz. The EC variety topped out at 40 MHz. The 68030 was used in many models of the Apple Macintosh II and Commodore Amiga series of personal computers, NeXT Cube, Sun Microsystems Sun 3/80 desktop workstation, later Alpha Microsystems multiuser systems, and some descendants of the Atari ST line such as the Atari TT and the Atari Falcon. Other uses were Unix workstations and Laser printers. Cisco Systems' 2500 Series Router, a small-to-medium enterprise computer internetworking appliance, claims in software to utilize the 68030, although it is in fact an 68EC030 inside the router. Bibliography Notes and references External links 68030 images and descriptions at cpu-collection.de | Motorola_68030 |@lemmatized motorola:9 microprocessor:2 bit:1 family:1 release:2 successor:1 follow:1 keep:1 general:1 naming:1 cpu:2 often:1 refer:1 pronounce:1 oh:1 thirty:1 feature:1 chip:4 split:1 instruction:1 data:2 cache:2 byte:1 also:2 memory:1 management:1 unit:2 fast:1 fpu:1 float:1 point:1 could:1 use:3 low:1 cost:2 version:1 lack:1 mmu:3 commonly:1 available:2 pin:2 qfp:3 pga:2 package:3 poor:1 thermal:1 characteristic:1 limit:1 mhz:5 usually:1 though:1 small:2 supply:1 ec:2 variant:1 microarchitecture:1 basically:1 core:1 additional:1 process:3 shrink:2 allow:2 pack:1 hardware:1 die:1 case:1 compatible:1 integration:1 make:1 effective:1 per:1 clock:1 differentiate:1 performance:1 derive:1 finer:1 manufacturing:1 however:1 scale:1 processor:1 variety:1 top:1 many:1 model:1 apple:1 macintosh:1 ii:1 commodore:1 amiga:1 series:2 personal:1 computer:2 next:1 cube:1 sun:2 microsystems:2 desktop:1 workstation:2 later:1 alpha:1 multiuser:1 system:2 descendant:1 atari:3 st:1 line:1 tt:1 falcon:1 us:1 unix:1 laser:1 printer:1 cisco:1 router:2 medium:1 enterprise:1 internetworking:1 appliance:1 claim:1 software:1 utilize:1 although:1 fact:1 inside:1 bibliography:1 note:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 image:1 description:1 collection:1 de:1 |@bigram motorola_microprocessor:1 microprocessor_motorola:2 mhz_mhz:2 apple_macintosh:1 commodore_amiga:1 sun_microsystems:1 laser_printer:1 external_link:1 |
5,283 | Godzilla_vs._Megalon | is a 1973 Japanese tokusatsu kaiju film directed and co-written by Jun Fukuda with special effects by Teruyoshi Nakano. It was the thirteenth film to be released in the Godzilla franchise. Plot In the film, the undersea civilization Seatopia has been heavily affected by nuclear testing conducted by the surface nations of the world. Naturally upset by this, they unleash their civilization's god, Megalon, to the surface to destroy the world. Agents of Seatopia attempt to steal the newly-constructed human-sized robot Jet Jaguar, which they use to guide and direct Megalon. They also capture the robot's inventor, Goro Ibuki, his kid brother Rokuro and their friend Hiroshi Jinkawa. After Jet Jaguar is used by the Seatopians to lure Megalon to Tokyo and the Japan Self Defense Forces fail to defeat it, Goro manages to regain control, and sends Jet Jaguar to Monster Island to bring Godzilla to fight Megalon. An extended fight scene then takes place, with Godzilla and Jet Jaguar, the latter newly giant-sized and self-directed, fighting Megalon and Gigan in the hills outside Tokyo. The film ends with Megalon and Gigan defeated, Godzilla returning to Monster Island, and Jet Jaguar returning to his previous, human-sized state. Production Godzilla Vs. Megalon was originally planned as a non-Godzilla film, a solo vehicle for Jet Jaguar, which was the result of a contest Toho had for children in mid-to-late 1972. The winner of the contest was an elementary school student, who submitted the drawing of a robot called Red Arone, which superficially resembled both Ultraman and Mazinger Z. The robot was renamed Jet Jaguar and was set to star in Jet Jaguar vs. Megalon, which pitted him against Megalon. However, after doing some screen tests and storyboards, Toho figured Jet Jaguar would not be able to carry the film on his own, either in screen appearance or marketing value, so they shut the project down during pre-production. Nearly a month later, producer Tomoyuki Tanaka called in screenwriter Shinichi Sekizawa to revise the script to add Godzilla and Gigan. To make up for lost production time, the film was shot in a hasty three weeks. The production time totaled at nearly six months, from planning to finish. The Japanese Giant Monsters Festival American Cinematheque Critical reaction Godzilla vs. Megalon was released theatrically in America on May 9, 1976, though the San Francisco Chronicle indicates that it opened there in June, and The New York Times indicates that it opened in New York City on July 11. Oddly, New York Times film critic, Vincent Canby, who a decade before had given a negative review to Ghidorah, the Three-Headed Monster (one of the more respected entries in the Godzilla series) gave Godzilla vs. Megalon a generally positive review. In his review of July 12, 1976, Canby says "Godzilla vs. Megalon completes the canonization of Godzilla...It's been a remarkable transformation of character - the dragon has become St. George...It's wildly preposterous, imaginative and funny (often intentionally). It demonstrates the rewards of friendship, between humans as well as monsters, and it is gentle." Godzilla vs. Megalon was given a high-profile prime-time network premiere the next year, with an introduction and bumper segments by John Belushi in a Godzilla suit. Godzilla vs. Megalon has attracted the ire of many Godzilla and kaiju fans in the decades since its original release. The film is largely responsible for the reputation of Godzilla films in the United States as cheap children's entertainment that should not be taken seriously. It's been described as "incredibly, undeniably, mind-numbingly bad" and one of the "poorer moments" in the history of kaiju films. In particular, the special effects of the film have been heavily criticized. One review described the Godzilla costume as appearing to be "crossed with Kermit the Frog" and another stated that sneeringly compared it to Godzilla vs. Gigan, stating that it did "everything wrong that Gigan did, and then some." However, most of the criticism is of the lack of actual special effects work, as most of it consists of stock footage from previous films, including Godzilla vs. Gigan and Ghidorah, the Three-Headed Monster, and at least one piece of effects work has garnered praise, specifically a scene where Megalon breaks through a dam. The other aspects of the film have been similarly skewered. The acting is usually described as flat and generally poor, and as not improving, or sometimes, worsening, the already weak script. One part of the film, on the other hand, has garnered almost universal praise: Godzilla's final attack on Megalon, a flying kick. It has been called the saving grace of the film, and was made famous by the mock exclamations of shock and awe displayed on Godzilla vs. Megalon's appearance on Mystery Science Theater 3000 (Through the end of season three to the middle of season five, that clip would be shown at the opening of each show). Despite all this, the film is also one of the most widely seen Godzilla films in the United States — it was popular in its initial theatrical release, largely due to an aggressive marketing campaign, including elaborate posters of the two title monsters battling atop New York City's World Trade Center towers, presumably to capitalize on the hype surrounding the Dino De Laurentiis remake of King Kong, which used a similar image for its own poster. These posters in particular have been greeted with some embarrassment by fans. In the Japanese version, Robert Dunham's voice was dubbed over by voice actor Goro Naya, best known to Japanese audiences as the villainous voice of Shocker in the Kamen Rider TV series. There are, interestingly, no major female characters in the movie, making this the only Godzilla film without a female lead. Megalon Toho character Megalon Megalon Species Beetle God Height 55 meters Weight 40,000 tons Air speed 10,000 km/h Major enemies GodzillaJet Jaguar Allies Gigan Controlled by SeatopiansVortaak (in Destroy All Monsters Melee) First appearance Godzilla vs Megalon Created by Jun Fukuda? Portrayed by: Shōwa seriesHideto Odachi is a fictional kaiju (giant monster) featured in the 1973 Japanese tokusatsu film Godzilla vs. Megalon, the thirteenth Godzilla film produced by Toho. A beetle-like arthropod, Megalon is the primary antagonist of the film. Godzilla vs. Megalon is one of the most unpopular and frequently criticised of Godzilla films, and Megalon itself plays no small part in that (see below). Despite this, the character has remained a fixture of the popular imagination. Appearance Megalon's unique appearance has no doubt contributed to his cultural resonance. Superficially resembling a cross between a cockroach and a rhinoceros beetle, though standing upright, the costume is colourful, combining silver and grey with an orange-and-black carapace and wings. Megalon's forelimbs terminate with two sharp, drill-like appendages, which are never seen to be prehensile, always moving in tune with the monster's arms. These 'drills' are used to hack and stab in battles with other creatures, but are only 'engaged' as drills when Megalon tunnels through the earth. The character also has many abilities. For instance, it can emit a yellow beam from his horn-like appendage, and launch spherical, red napalm bombs from its mouth. In addition to being able to jump extremely high and take flight, he is able to burrow underground at incredible speeds. Oddly, Megalon rarely walks with normal strides, but rather uses a cumbersome 'crouch and leap' motion to 'hop' forward when he has great distances to cover. In Godzilla Save The Earth, his Rage attack is Magnetic Vortex, in which Megalon pulls his opponents towards him and when they touch him, he unleashes a pulse of magnetic energy that sends his foes flying. Character history Within the storyline of the film, Megalon was the guardian of an underwater kingdom called Seatopia. When nuclear testing and pollution disturbed the kingdom, the inhabitants of the kingdom summoned Megalon to invade Japan and make its citizens pay for their recklessness. Megalon answered and awoke. It began to wreak havoc and was nearly unstoppable until the gigantic humanoid robot Jet Jaguar appeared. It was a robot that the Seatopians stole so the robot would aid Megalon. Jet Jaguar was now freed by its owner and had grown nearly as large as Megalon. Jet Jaguar confronted and outmatched Megalon. The Seatopian king then called to the Nebulans to send the cyborg Gigan to aid Megalon. Gigan arrived and the two almost destroyed Jet Jaguar. However, this time, Godzilla himself appeared and he and Jet Jaguar successfully fought and drove both Megalon and Gigan away. Megalon burrowed underground back to Seatopia where it has stayed ever since. Criticism Godzilla vs. Megalon is frequently criticised for its poor special effects work and overuse of stock footage from previous Toho efforts. Megalon is no exception; the costume has been criticised by fans as poorly designed and cheap-looking, more befitting a televised Japanese tokusatsu superhero program than the relatively glamorous theatrical production. The costume's various features have been ridiculed, being likened to a Christmas tree when the film was featured on the comedy television series Mystery Science Theater 3000 (with Crow T. Robot referring to the drill hands being similar to the tops of the Chrysler building). All the footage featuring the Megalon costume itself is new, but many of the special effects associated with it are reused footage, such as the destruction of buildings and its battle against the JSDF (footage reused from Godzilla vs. Gigan and War of the Gargantuas, it also caused the scenes to turn from day to night and back in a matter of seconds). In addition, Megalon's horn beam is simply stock footage of King Ghidorah's gravity beams. Jet Jaguar Toho character Jet Jaguar Species Robot Humanoid Form(s) Humanoid FormGiant Form Height Humanoid form1.8 metersGiant form50 meters Jet Jaguar Toho Kingdom Weight Humanoid form150 kilogramsGiant form25,000 tons Major enemies MegalonGigan Allies Godzilla First appearance Godzilla vs. Megalon Created by Jun Fukuda Portrayed by Tsugutoshi Komada is a fictional robot that appears in the Godzilla film Godzilla vs. Megalon (1973). History In Godzilla vs. Megalon, Jet Jaguar is a robot created by the protagonist, Goro Ibuki. He is initially depicted as a mindless robot, and is controlled by the evil Seatopians for most of the film. He later gains sentience and helps Godzilla battle the evil Megalon and Gigan. He is depicted as a heroic character with the abilities to communicate with kaiju, fly, alter his own size, and use floodlights in his eyes. He was even given a brief theme song at the end of the film, performed by Masato Shimon. Origins Jet Jaguar was the result of a contest Toho had in mid-to-late 1972 for fans to come up with a new hero for them to use (to capitalize on the many tokusatsu and anime superhero and super robot shows that were all the rage at the time). The winner of the contest submitted the drawing of a robot called Red Arone. The robot resembled both Ultraman and Mazinger Z (both of which were very popular at the time). The robot was renamed Jet Jaguar and was set to star in a film vehicle for him, titled Jet Jaguar vs. Megalon, which pitted him against Megalon (a previously unused Godzilla villain). However, Toho figured Jet Jaguar would not be able to carry the film on his own, in screen appearance or marketing value, so during pre-production, even after doing some tests and storyboards, the project was shut down for several weeks, until screenwriter Shinichi Sekizawa was called in to rewrite the script to add Godzilla and Gigan to have more marquee value. The resulting film, Godzilla vs. Megalon, paired Godzilla with Jet Jaguar against both Megalon and Gigan. The Japanese Giant Monsters Festival American Cinematheque Other appearances Jet Jaguar appears in the video games Godzilla: Save the Earth (2004), Godzilla: Unleashed (2007), and Godzilla Unleashed: Double Smash (2007). Trivia According to Teruyoshi Nakano, the Godzilla suit made for this film (named Megaro-Goji) was made in a week, the fastest featured Godzilla suit ever made to date. Godzilla vs. Megalon was referenced during the Law & Order: Special Victims Unit episode "...Or Just Look Like One." While fighting Megalon, Godzilla can be seen doing the Muhammad Ali Shuffle. In the audio book for the Daily Show'''s "America : A Citizen's Guide to Inaction", Jon Stewart discusses Godzilla vs. Megalon as a US Supreme Court case, finding in favor of Megalon, deciding that the "emission of lighting from its horn-like appendage did not constitute a violation of Godzilla's civil rights." There are two notable deleted scenes: A scene towards the end of the film in which Antonio ponders aloud if sending Megalon to destroy the world above is really any different from what the people above are doing with atomic testing. Another is a roughly minute-long "conversation" between Gigan and Megalon that consists of quirky gestures and bodily movements. U.S. release The infamous American Godzilla vs. Megalon poster. In 1976, CinemaShares released a dubbed version of Godzilla vs. Megalon theatrically. Riding the coattails of Dino De Laurentiis' big-budget King Kong remake, poster art showed Godzilla and Megalon battling on top of the World Trade Center, despite the fact that no scenes were set in New York City. To obtain a G-rating from the MPAA, CinemaShares cut three minutes of footage, including: The opening credits Rokuro being abducted by Seatopian agents, who pull him into their car. Scenes in the container truck that showed pornographic material on the back wall (There was more dialogue in the scenes that added to the story, thus making these cut scenes somewhat confusing). A fight scene between Hiroshi and the lead Seatopian agent. A scene of the bearded Caucasian Seatopian agent being thrown down a cliff by the truck drivers. Some scenes of bloody violence, when he toy jet (which Rokuro borrowed from the hobby shop) flies into the lead Seatopian agent's face, there was a brief shot of blood dripping from his face and when Hiroshi says "Get him!!!", Rokuro swings on the chained picture boxes in Goro's lab, and strikes the agent above the chest. The Seatopian agent (pursuing our heroes) being crushed by a boulder hurled by Megalon. Dialogue: "What the hell was that?" and "Damn you !" With this being the second of the three CinemaShares Godzilla releases, the publicity factor was high. Along with the poster, buttons with one of the 4 kaiju's faces on them were released. A couple of weeks before the release of Godzilla vs. Megalon, CinemaShares did have a comic book released to promote the film, but in the comic there are numerous errors like monster's names and locations and events, but staying at least loose to the film. The theatrical trailer for the film also contain these errors. Such an error is Jet Jaguar being called Robotman. The press kit was poor also, with there being pics of Godzilla, Megalon, Gigan, and Jet Jaguar in cars. This is a reflection of the Aurora kits with Godzilla riding a race car. Along with the press kit was a vote Godzilla for president ad that if mailed in, you got a free ticket to the film. Box office In Japan, Godzilla vs. Megalon sold approximately 980,000 tickets. It was the first Godzilla film to sell less than one million admissions. Home Video and DVD releases As of April 2009, the only official English Language DVD release of the film is an R4 Australian release from Eastern Eye, which has both the US and Japanese edits of the film. Godzilla vs. Megalon has been released on home video in the United States several times, making them the only official English language home video releases of the film. The Mystery Science Theater 3000 episode featuring the film was released on DVD in the "Mystery Science Theater 3000 Vol. 10" DVD set. However, due to copyright reasons, Vol. 10 was recalled and was rereleased as "Vol. 10.2", which features the episode with The Giant Gila Monster instead of the "Godzilla vs. Megalon" episode. Footnotes References Canby, Vincent. (July 22, 1976). Another 'Godzilla' Movie; Monster Is Now a Good Guy (film review) at The New York Times. Stanley, John. "Godzilla - The Asian Beast Who Refuses to Die". San Francisco Chronicle (Sunday Datebook), June 20, 1976. (Review of Godzilla vs. Megalon - actually a history of the Godzilla films to date, mentions Megalon'' currently playing at 3 theaters & a drive-in, in passing.) 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5,284 | Knowledge_management | Knowledge Management (KM) comprises a range of practices used in an organisation to identify, create, represent, distribute and enable adoption of insights and experiences. Such insights and experiences comprise knowledge, either embodied in individuals or embedded in organisational processes or practice. An established discipline since 1991 (see Nonaka 1991), KM includes courses taught in the fields of business administration, information systems, management, and library and information sciences . More recently, other fields have started contributing to KM research; these include information and media, computer science, public health, and public policy. Many large companies and non-profit organisations have resources dedicated to internal KM efforts, often as a part of their 'Business Strategy', 'Information Technology', or 'Human Resource Management' departments . Several consulting companies also exist that provide strategy and advice regarding KM to these organisations. KM efforts typically focus on organisational objectives such as improved performance, competitive advantage, innovation, the sharing of lessons learned, and continuous improvement of the organisation. KM efforts overlap with Organisational Learning, and may be distinguished from that by a greater focus on the management of knowledge as a strategic asset and a focus on encouraging the sharing of knowledge. KM efforts can help individuals and groups to share valuable organisational insights, to reduce redundant work, to avoid reinventing the wheel per se, to reduce training time for new employees, to retain intellectual capital as employees turnover in an organisation, and to adapt to changing environments and markets . History KM efforts have a long history, to include on-the-job discussions, formal apprenticeship, discussion forums, corporate libraries, professional training and mentoring programs. More recently, with increased use of computers in the second half of the 20th century, specific adaptations of technologies such as knowledge bases, expert systems, knowledge repositories, group decision support systems, intranets and computer supported cooperative work have been introduced to further enhance such efforts http://www.unc.edu/~sunnyliu/inls258/Introduction_to_Knowledge_Management.html . In 1999, the term personal knowledge management was introduced which refers to the management of knowledge at the individual level . More recently with the advent of the Web 2.0, the concept of knowledge management has evolved towards a vision more based on people participation and emergence. This line of evolution is termed Enterprise 2.0 . However, there is still a debate (and discussions even in Wikipedia ) whether Enterprise 2.0 is just a fad, or if it brings something new, is the future of knowledge management and is here to stay. Research A broad range of thoughts on the KM discipline exists with no unanimous agreement; approaches vary by author and school. As the discipline matures, academic debates have increased regarding both the theory and practice of KM, to include the following perspectives: Techno-centric with a focus on technology, ideally those that enhance knowledge sharing and creation Organisational with a focus on how an organisation can be designed to facilitate knowledge processes best Ecological with a focus on the interaction of people, identity, knowledge, and environmental factors as a complex adaptive system akin to a natural ecosystem Regardless of the school of thought, core components of KM include People, Processes, Technology (or) Culture, Structure, Technology, depending on the specific perspective . Different KM schools of thought include various lenses through which KM can be viewed and explained, to include: community of practice http://www.crito.uci.edu/noah/HOIT/HOIT%20Papers/TeacherBridge.pdf social network analysis http://www.ischool.washington.edu/mcdonald/ecscw03/papers/groth-ecscw03-ws.pdf intellectual capital http://www.ndu.edu/sdcfp/reports/2007Reports/IBM07%20.doc information theory http://iakm.kent.edu/programs/information-use/iu-curriculum.html complexity science http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=984600 constructivism http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/wyssusek02sociopragmatic.html Dimensions Different frameworks for distinguishing between knowledge exist. One proposed framework for categorising the dimensions of knowledge distinguishes between tacit knowledge and explicit knowledge. Tacit knowledge represents internalised knowledge that an individual may not be consciously aware of how he or she accomplishes particular tasks. At the opposite end of the spectrum, explicit knowledge represents knowledge that the individual holds consciously in mental focus, in a form that can easily be communicated to others. http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=991169 . Early research suggested that a successful KM effort needs to convert internalised tacit knowledge into explicit knowledge in order to share it, but the same effort must also permit individuals to internalise and make personally meaningful any codified knowledge retrieved from the KM effort. Subsequent research into KM suggested that a distinction between tacit knowledge and explicit knowledge represented an oversimplification and that the notion of explicit knowledge is self-contradictory. Specifically, for knowledge to be made explicit, it must be translated into information (i.e., symbols outside of our heads) . A second proposed framework for categorising the dimensions of knowledge distinguishes between embedded knowledge of a system outside of a human individual (e.g., an information system may have knowledge embedded into its design) and embodied knowledge representing a learned capability of a human body’s nervous and endocrine systems . A third proposed framework for categorising the dimensions of knowledge distinguishes between the exploratory creation of "new knowledge" (i.e., innovation) vs. the transfer or exploitation of "established knowledge" within a group, organisation, or community. Collaborative environments such as communities of practice or the use of social computing tools can be used for both knowledge creation and transfer http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=961043 . Strategies Knowledge may be accessed at three stages: before, during, or after KM-related activities. Different organisations have tried various knowledge capture incentives, including making content submission mandatory and incorporating rewards into performance measurement plans. Considerable controversy exists over whether incentives work or not in this field and no consensus has emerged. One strategy to KM involves actively managing knowledge (push strategy). In such an instance, individuals strive to explicitly encode their knowledge into a shared knowledge repository, such as a database, as well as retrieving knowledge they need that other individuals have provided to the repository http://www.cs.fiu.edu/~chens/PDF/IRI00_Rathau.pdf . Another strategy to KM involves individuals making knowledge requests of experts associated with a particular subject on an ad hoc basis (pull strategy). In such an instance, expert individual(s) can provide their insights to the particular person or people needing this . Other knowledge management strategies for companies include: rewards (as a means of motivating for knowledge sharing) storytelling (as a means of transferring tacit knowledge) cross-project learning after action reviews knowledge mapping (a map of knowledge repositories within a company accessible by all) communities of practice best practice transfer competence management (systematic evaluation and planning of competences of individual organization members) proximity & architecture (the physical situation of employees can be either conducive or obstructive to knowledge sharing) master-apprentice relationship collaborative technologies (groupware, etc) knowledge repositories (databases, etc) measuring and reporting intellectual capital (a way of making explicit knowledge for companies) knowledge brokers (some organizational members take on responsibility for a specific "field" and act as first reference on whom to talk about a specific subject) social software (wikis, social bookmarking, blogs, etc) Motivations A number of claims exist as to the motivations leading organisations to undertake a KM effort http://tecom.cox.smu.edu/abasu/itom6032/kmlect.pdf . Typical considerations driving a KM effort include: Making available increased knowledge content in the development and provision of products and services Achieving shorter new product development cycles Facilitating and managing innovation and organisational learning Leveraging the expertise of people across the organisation Increasing network connectivity between internal and external individuals Managing business environments and allowing employees to obtain relevant insights and ideas appropriate to their work Solving intractable or wicked problems Managing intellectual capital and intellectual assets in the workforce (such as the expertise and know-how possessed by key individuals) Debate exists whether KM is more than a passing fad, though increasing amount of research in this field may hopefully help to answer this question, as well as create consensus on what elements of KM help determine the success or failure of such efforts http://myweb.whitman.syr.edu/yogesh/papers/WhyKMSFail.pdf . Technologies Early KM technologies included online corporate yellow pages as expertise locators and document management systems. Combined with the early development of collaborative technologies (in particular Lotus Notes), KM technologies expanded in the mid-1990s. Subsequent KM efforts leveraged semantic technologies for search and retrieval and the development of e-learning tools for communities of practice http://elvis.slis.indiana.edu/irpub/HT/2001/pdf53.pdf . More recently, development of social computing tools (such as blogs and wikis) have allowed more unstructured, self-governing or ecosystem approaches to the transfer, capture and creation of knowledge, including the development of new forms of communities, networks, or matrixed organisations. However such tools for the most part are still based on text and code, and thus represent explicit knowledge transfer. These tools face challenges in distilling meaningful re-usable knowledge and ensuring that their content is transmissible through diverse channels . See also Chief knowledge officer Community of practice Competitive intelligence Complexity theory and organizations Computer supported cooperative work Collective intelligence Collective unconscious Concept map Data mining DIKW Enterprise content management Enterprise 2.0 Enterprise bookmarking Enterprise social software Expert system Explicit Knowledge Human-computer interaction Knowledge Knowledge base Knowledge economy Knowledge ecosystems Knowledge engineering Knowledge management software Knowledge market Knowledge representation Knowledge transfer Knowledge worker Knowledge-based theory of the firm Management information system Metaknowledge Ontology Organisational memory Personal information management Personal knowledge management Sensemaking Semantic web Social network Tacit Knowledge Value network analysis References External links | Knowledge_management |@lemmatized knowledge:71 management:16 km:27 comprise:2 range:2 practice:9 use:5 organisation:11 identify:1 create:2 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5,285 | King_James_Version | The Authorized King James Version is an English translation of the Christian Bible conceived in 1604 and brought to fruition in 1611 by the Church of England. : "And now at last, ...it being brought unto such a conclusion, as that we have great hope that the Church of England (sic) shall reape good fruit thereby..." Printed by the King's Printer, Robert Barker, the first edition included schedules unique to the Church of England; for example, a lectionary for morning and evening prayer. The first "authorized version" was the Great Bible commissioned by the Church of England in the reign of King Henry VIII. In January 1604, King James I of England convened the Hampton Court Conference where a new English version was conceived in response to the perceived problems of the earlier translations as detected by the Puritans, a faction within the Church of England. The king gave the translators instructions designed to guarantee that the new version would conform to the ecclesiology and reflect the episcopal structure of the Church of England and its beliefs about an ordained clergy. The translation was by 47 scholars, all of whom were members of the Church of England. In common with most other translations of the period, the New Testament was translated from the Textus Receptus (Received Text) series of the Greek texts. The Old Testament was translated from the Masoretic Hebrew text, while the Apocrypha were translated from the Greek Septuagint (LXX), except for 2 Esdras, which was translated from the Latin Vulgate. While the Authorized Version was meant to replace the Bishops' Bible as the official version for readings in the Church of England, it was apparently (unlike the Great Bible) never specifically "authorized", although it is commonly known as the Authorized Version in the United Kingdom. However, the King's Printer issued no further editions of the Bishops' Bible; so necessarily the Authorized Version supplanted it as the standard lectern Bible in parish church use in England. In the Book of Common Prayer (1662), the text of the Authorized Version replaced the text of the Great Bible — the Epistle and Gospel readings — and as such was "authorized" by Act of Parliament. In the United States, the Authorized Version is known as the King James Version. The earliest appearance in print of the phrase "authorized version", to mean this particular version of the bible, was published in 1824. The phrase 'King James version' first appeared in print in 1884. By the first half of the 18th century, the Authorized Version was effectively unchallenged as the English translation used in Anglican and Protestant churches. Over the course of the 18th century, the Authorized Version supplanted the Latin Vulgate as the standard version of scripture for English speaking scholars. In most of the world the Authorized Version has passed out of copyright and is freely reproduced. In the United Kingdom, the British Crown restricts production of the Authorized Version per transitional exemptions from the Copyright Act 1775 (which implemented this clause) in the Copyright, Designs and patents Act 1988 (Schedule 1, section 13(1)), which expire in 2039. Cambridge University Press, Oxford University Press, HarperCollins and the Queen's Printers have the right to produce the Authorized Version. Earlier English translations Despite legal prohibitions against translating the Latin Bible into vernacular languages, the followers of John Wycliffe undertook the first complete English translations of the Christian scriptures in the 15th century. These translations, usually dated to 1409, were banned due to their association with the Lollards. The Wycliffe Bible pre-dated the printing press but was circulated widely in manuscript form. Often these manuscript Bibles were imprinted with a date from before 1409 so as to avoid the legal ban. In 1525, William Tyndale, an English contemporary of Luther, undertook a translation of the New Testament. Tyndale's translation was the first printed Bible in English. Over the next ten years, Tyndale revised his New Testament in the light of rapidly advancing biblical scholarship, and embarked on a translation of the Old Testament. Despite some controversial translation choices, the merits of Tyndale's work and prose style made his translation the ultimate basis for all subsequent renditions into Early Modern English. With these translations lightly edited and adapted by Myles Coverdale, in 1539, Tyndale's New Testament and his incomplete work on the Old Testament became the basis for the Great Bible. This was the first "authorized version" issued by the Church of England during the reign of King Henry VIII. When Mary I succeeded to the throne in 1553, she returned the Church of England to the communion of the Roman Catholic faith and many English religious reformers fled the country, some establishing an English-speaking colony at Geneva. Under the leadership of John Calvin, Geneva became the chief international centre of Reformed Protestantism and Latin biblical scholarship. William Tyndale translated the New Testament into English in 1525. These English expatriates undertook a translation that became known as the Geneva Bible. This translation, dated to 1560, was a revision of Tyndale's Bible and the Great Bible on the basis of the original languages. Soon after Elizabeth I took the throne in 1558, the flaws of both the Great Bible and the Geneva Bible became painfully apparent. In 1568, the Church of England responded with the Bishops' Bible - a revision of the Great Bible in the light of the Geneva version. While officially approved, this new version failed to displace the Geneva translation as the most popular English Bible of the age - in part because the full Bible was only printed in lectern editions of prodigious size and at a cost of several pounds. Accordingly, Elizabethan lay people overwhelmingly read the Bible in the Geneva Version - small editions were available at a relatively low cost. At the same time, there was a substantial clandestine importation of the rival Douay-Rheims New Testament of 1582, undertaken by exiled Roman Catholics. This translation, though still derived from Tyndale, claimed to represent the text of the Latin Vulgate. In May 1601, King James VI of Scotland attended the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland at St Columba's Church in Burntisland, Fife, at which proposals were put forward for a new translation of the Bible into English. Two years later, he acceded to the throne of England as King James I of England. New version The newly crowned King James convened the Hampton Court Conference in 1604. This gathering proposed a new English version in response to the perceived problems of earlier translations as detected by the Puritan faction of the Church of England. Three examples of problems the Puritans perceived with the Bishops and Great Bibles were: Instructions were given to the translators that were intended to limit the Puritan influence on this new translation. The Bishop of London added a qualification that the translators would add no marginal notes (which had been an issue in the Geneva Bible). King James cited two passages in the Geneva translation where he found the marginal notes offensive: Exodus 1:17, where the Geneva Bible had commended the example of civil disobedience showed by the Hebrew midwives; and also II Chronicles 15:16, where the Geneva Bible had criticized King Asa for not having executed his idolatrous grandmother, Queen Maachah. Further, the King gave the translators instructions designed to guarantee that the new version would conform to the ecclesiology of the Church of England. Certain Greek and Hebrew words were to be translated in a manner that reflected the traditional usage of the church. For example, old ecclesiastical words such as the word "church" were to be retained and not to be translated as "congregation". The new translation would reflect the episcopal structure of the Church of England and traditional beliefs about ordained clergy. The king's instructions included several requirements that kept the new translation familiar to its listeners and reader. The text of the Bishops' Bible would serve as the primary guide for the translators, and the familiar proper names of the biblical characters would all be retained. If the Bishops' Bible was deemed problematic in any situation, the translators were permitted to consult other translations from a pre-approved list: the Tyndale Bible, the Coverdale Bible, Matthew's Bible, the Great Bible, and the Geneva Bible. In addition, later scholars have detected an influence on the Authorized Version from the translations of Taverner's Bible and the New Testament of the Douai-Rheims Bible. It is for this reason that the flyleaf of most printings of the Authorized Version observes that the text had been "translated out of the original tongues, and with the former translations diligently compared and revised, by His Majesty's special command." The task of translation was undertaken by 47 scholars, although 54 were originally approved. All were members of the Church of England and all except Sir Henry Savile were clergy. The scholars worked in six committees, two based in each of the University of Oxford, the University of Cambridge, and Westminster. The committees included scholars with Puritan sympathies, as well as High Churchmen. Forty unbound copies of the 1602 edition of the Bishops' Bible were specially printed so that the agreed changes of each committee could be recorded in the margins. The committees worked on certain parts separately and the drafts produced by each committee were then compared and revised for harmony with each other. The scholars were not paid directly for their translation work, instead a circular letter was sent to bishops encouraging them to consider the translators for appointment to well paid livings as these fell vacant. Several were supported by the various colleges at Oxford and Cambridge, while others were promoted to bishoprics, deaneries and prebends through royal patronage. The committees started work towards the end of 1604. King James I of England, on 22 July 1604, sent a letter to Archbishop Bancroft asking him to contact all English churchmen requesting that they make donations to his project. "Right trusty and well beloved, we greet you well. Whereas we have appointed certain learned men, to the number of 4 and 50, for the translating of the Bible, and in this number, divers of them have either no ecclesiastical preferment at all, or else so very small, as the same is far unmeet for men of their deserts and yet we in ourself in any convenient time cannot well remedy it, therefor we do hereby require you, that presently you write in our name as well to the Archbishop of York, as to the rest of the bishops of the province of Cant.[erbury] signifying unto them, that we do well, and straitly charge everyone of them ... that (all excuses set apart) when we prebend or parsonage ... shall next upon any occasion happen to be void ... we may commend for the same some such of the learned men, as we shall think fit to be preferred unto it ... Given unto our signet at our palace of West.[minister] on the 2 and 20 July, in the 2nd year of our reign of England, France, and of Ireland, and of Scotland xxxvii." They all had completed their sections by 1608, the Apocrypha committee finishing first. From January 1609, a General Committee of Review met at Stationers' Hall, London to review the completed marked texts from each of the six committees. The General Committee included John Bois, Andrew Downes and John Harmar, and others known only by their initials, including "AL" (who may be Arthur Lake), and were paid for their attendance by the Stationers' Company. John Bois prepared a note of their deliberations (in Latin) - which has partly survived in two later transcripts. Also surviving is a bound-together set of marked-up corrections to one of the forty Bishops' Bibles - covering the Old Testament and Gospels, and also a manuscript translation of the text of the Epistles, excepting those verses where no change was being recommended to the readings in the Bishops' Bible. Archbishop Bancroft insisted on having a final say, making fourteen changes; of which one was the term "bishopricke" at Acts 1:20. Committees First Westminster Company, translating from Genesis to 2 Kings: Lancelot Andrewes, John Overall, Hadrian à Saravia, Richard Clarke, John Layfield, Robert Tighe, Francis Burleigh, Geoffrey King, Richard Thomson, William Bedwell;First Cambridge Company, translated from 1 Chronicles to the Song of Solomon: Edward Lively, John Richardson, Lawrence Chaderton, Francis Dillingham, Roger Andrewes, Thomas Harrison, Robert Spaulding, Andrew Bing;First Oxford Company, translated from Isaiah to Malachi: John Harding, John Rainolds (or Reynolds), Thomas Holland, Richard Kilby, Miles Smith, Richard Brett, Daniel Fairclough, William Thorne; *Matthew DeCoursey, "William Thorne," British Rhetoricians and Logicians, 1500-1660, Second Series, DLB 281, Detroit: Gale, 2003, pp. 326-333 at 331-332 Second Oxford Company, translated the Gospels, Acts of the Apostles, and the Book of Revelation: Thomas Ravis, George Abbot, Richard Eedes, Giles Tomson, Sir Henry Savile, John Peryn, Ralph Ravens, John Harmar;Second Westminster Company, translated the Epistles: William Barlow, John Spenser, Roger Fenton, Ralph Hutchinson, William Dakins, Michael Rabbet, Thomas Sanderson;Second Cambridge Company''', translated the Apocrypha: John Duport, William Branthwaite, Jeremiah Radcliffe, Samuel Ward, Andrew Downes, John Bois, John Ward, John Aglionby, Leonard Hutten, Thomas Bilson, Richard Bancroft. Archbishop Richard Bancroft was the "chief overseer" of the production of the Authorized Version. Apocrypha English-language Protestant Bibles in the 16th Century included the books of the Apocrypha – generally in a separate section between the Old and New Testaments; and there is evidence that these were widely read as popular literature, especially in Puritan circles. By the mid—17th Century, however, Puritan theologians were increasingly uneasy at the intermingling of biblical scripture with popular culture in general, and with the Apocrypha in particular. Further, these theologians were also inclined to reject books which owed their inclusion in the biblical canon to ecclesiastical authority. Starting in 1630, volumes of the Geneva Bible were occasionally bound with the pages of the Apocrypha section excluded. After the Restoration in 1660, Dissenters tended to discourage the reading of the Apocrypha in both public services and in private devotion. The Church of England in the Thirty-Nine Articles had included the Apocrypha within the canon of "Holy Scripture". Article VI Of the Sufficiency of the holy Scriptures for salvation asserts: The Authorized Version included the Apocrypha; all the books and sections of books present in the Latin Vulgate's Old Testament — the translation of Jerome (Hierome) — but missing in the Hebrew. Indeed, the Book of Common Prayer specifies lectionary readings from the Apocrypha to be read in Morning and Evening Prayer in October. The standardisation of the text of the Authorized Version after 1769 together with the technological development of Stereotype printing made it possible to produce Bibles in large print-runs at very low unit prices. For commercial publishers, editions of the Authorized Version without the Apocrypha reduced the cost, while having increased market appeal to non-Anglican Protestant readers. With the rise of the Bible societies in 1827, most editions have omitted the whole section of Apocryphal books. The Apocrypha were excluded from most Bibles following a withdrawal of subsidies by the British and Foreign Bible Society in 1824, which resolved The society revised its position in 1966. Authorized Version While the Authorized Version was meant to replace the Bishops' Bible as the official version for readings in the Church of England, it was apparently (unlike the Great Bible) never specifically "Authorized", although it is commonly known as the Authorized Version in the United Kingdom. However, the King's Printer issued no further editions of the Bishops' Bible; so necessarily the Authorized Version supplanted it as the standard lectern Bible in parish church use in England. In the 1662 Book Of Common Prayer, the text of the Authorized Version finally supplanted that of the Great Bible in the Epistle and Gospel readings - though the Prayer Book Psalter nevertheless continues to use the older version. The case was different in Scotland, where the Geneva Bible had long been the standard Church Bible. It was not till 1633 that a Scots edition of the Authorized Version was printed - in conjunction with the Scots coronation in that year of Charles I. The inclusion of illustrations in the edition raised accusations of Popery from opponents of the religious policies of Charles, and of William Laud, Archbishop of Canterbury. However, official policy favoured the Authorized Version, and this favour returned during the Commonwealth - as London printers succeeded in re-asserting their monopoly of Bible printing with support from Oliver Cromwell – and the "New Translation" was the only edition on the market. F.F. Bruce reports that the last recorded instance of a Scots parish continuing to use the "Old Translation" (i.e. Geneva) as being in 1674. The Authorized Version's acceptance by the general public took longer. The Geneva Bible continued to be popular, and large numbers were imported from Amsterdam, where printing continued up to 1644 in editions carrying a false London imprint. However, few if any genuine Geneva editions appear to have been printed in London after 1616, and in 1637 Archbishop Laud prohibited their printing or importation. In the period of the English Civil War, soldiers of the New Model Army were issued a book of Geneva selections called "The Soldiers' Bible" (1643, Herbert #577). In the first half of the 17th Century the Authorized Version is most commonly referred to as "The Bible without notes", thereby distinguishing it from the Geneva "Bible with notes". There were several printings of the Authorized Version in Amsterdam - one as late as 1715 (Herbert #936) - which combined the Authorized Version translation text with the Geneva marginal notes; and one such edition was printed in London in 1649. During the Commonwealth a commission was established by Parliament to recommend a revision of the Authorized Version with acceptably Protestant explanatory notes; but the project was abandoned when it became clear that these would be nearly double the bulk of the bible text. After the English Restoration, the Geneva Bible was held to be politically suspect and a reminder of the repudiated Puritan era. Furthermore, disputes over the lucrative rights to print the Authorized Version dragged on through the 17th Century, so none of the printers involved saw any commercial advantage in marketing a rival translation. The Authorized Version became the only current version circulating among English speaking people. Slowest of all was acceptance of the text by Biblical Scholars. Hugh Broughton, who was the most highly regarded English Hebraist of his time (but who had been excluded from the panel of translators because of his utterly uncongenial temperament), issued in 1611 a total condemnation of the new version; criticising especially the translators' rejection of word-for-word equivalence. Walton's London Polyglot of 1657 disregards the Authorized Version (and indeed the English Language) entirely. Walton's reference text throughout is the Vulgate. The Vulgate Latin is also found as the standard text of scripture in Thomas Hobbes Leviathan of 1651, indeed Hobbes gives Vulgate chapter and verse numbers (i.e. Job 41:24; not Job 41:33) for his head text. In Chapter 35: 'The Signification in Scripture of Kingdom of God' , Hobbes discusses Exodus 19:5, first in his own translation of the 'Vulgar Latin' , and then subsequently as found in the versions he terms "...the English translation made in the beginning of the reign of King James", and "The Geneva French" (i.e. Olivetan). Hobbes advances detailed critical arguments why the Vulgate rendering is to be preferred. For most of the 17th Century the assumption remained that, while it had been of vital importance to provide the scriptures in the vernacular for ordinary people, nevertheless for those with sufficient education to do so, Biblical study was best undertaken within the international common medium of Latin. It was only in 1700 that modern bilingual Bibles appeared in which the Authorized Version was compared with counterpart Dutch and French Protestant vernacular Bibles. In consequence of the continual disputes over printing privileges, successive printings of the Authorized Version were notably less careful than the 1611 edition had been – compositors freely varying spelling, capitalisation and punctuation; and also, over the years, introducing about 1,500 misprints (some of which, like the omission of "not" from the commandment "Thou shalt not commit adultery" in the "Wicked Bible" (1631, Herbert #444), became notorious). The two Cambridge editions of 1629 and 1638 attempted to restore the proper text – while introducing over 200 revisions of the original translators' work, chiefly by incorporating into the main text a more literal reading originally presented as a marginal note. A more thoroughly corrected edition was proposed following the Restoration, in conjunction with the revised 1662 Book of Common Prayer, but Parliament then decided against it. By the first half of the 18th Century, the Authorized Version was effectively unchallenged as the sole English translation in current use in Protestant churches; and was so dominant that the Roman Catholic church in England issued in 1752 a revision of the 1610 Douay-Rheims Bible by Richard Challoner that was very much closer to the Authorized Version than to the original. However, general standards of spelling, punctuation, typesetting, capitalisation and grammar had changed radically in the 100 years since the first edition of the Authorized Version, and all printers in the market were introducing continual piecemeal changes to their bible texts to bring them into line with current practice - and with public expectations of standardised spelling and grammatical construction. Over the course of the 18th Century, the Authorized Version supplanted the Latin Vulgate as the standard version of scripture for English speaking scholars and divines, and indeed came to be regarded by some as an inspired text in itself; so much so that any challenge to its readings or textual base came to be regarded by many as an assault on Holy Scripture. A key milestone in this process was the publication in 1737 of Alexander Cruden's Complete Concordance to the Holy Scriptures, in which the English words of the Authorized Version were analysed with no regard to the original tongues. Copyright status In most of the world the Authorized Version has passed out of copyright and is freely reproduced. This is not the case in the United Kingdom where the rights to the Authorized Version are held by the British Crown under perpetual Crown copyright. Publishers are licensed to reproduce the Authorized Version under letters patent. In England, Wales and Northern Ireland the letters patent are held by the Queen's Printer, and in Scotland by the Scottish Bible Board. The office of Queen's Printer has been associated with the right to reproduce the Bible for centuries, the earliest known reference coming in 1577. In the 18th century all surviving interests in the monopoly were bought out by John Baskett. The Baskett rights descended through a number of printers and, in England, Wales and Northern Ireland, the Queen's Printer is now Cambridge University Press, who inherited the right when they took over the firm of Eyre & Spottiswoode in 1990. Other royal charters of similar antiquity grant Cambridge University Press and Oxford University Press the right to produce the Authorized Version independently of the Queen's Printer. In Scotland the Authorized Version is published by Collins under licence from the Scottish Bible Board. The terms of the letters patent prohibit any other than the holders, or those authorized by the holders, from printing, publishing or importing the Authorized Version into the United Kingdom. The protection that the Authorized Version, and also the Book of Common Prayer, enjoy is the last remnant of the time when the Crown held a monopoly over all printing and publishing in the United Kingdom. Printing The original printing of the Authorized Version was published by Robert Barker, the King's Printer, in 1611 as a complete folio Bible. It was sold looseleaf for ten shillings, or bound for twelve. Robert Barker's father, Christopher, had, in 1589, been granted by Elizabeth I the title of royal Printer, with the perpetual Royal Privilege to print Bibles in England. The Royal Privilege was a virtual monopoly. Robert Barker invested very large sums in printing the new edition, and consequently ran into serious debt, such that he was compelled to sub-lease the privilege to two rival London printers, Bonham Norton and John Bill. It appears that it was initially intended that each printer would print a proportion of the text, share printed sheets with the others, and split the proceeds. Bitter financial disputes broke out, as Barker accused Norton and Bill of concealing their profits, while Norton and Bill accused Barker of selling sheets properly due to them as partial bibles for ready money. There followed decades of continual litigation, and consequent imprisonment for debt for members of the Barker and Norton printing dynasties, while each issued rival editions of the whole Bible. In 1629 the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge managed successfully to assert separate and prior royal licences for bible printing, for their own university presses – and Cambridge University took the opportunity to print revised editions of the Authorized Version in 1629, and 1638. The editors of these editions included John Bois and John Ward from the original translators. This did not, however, impede the commercial rivalries of the London printers, especially as the Barker family refused to allow any other printers access to the authoritative manuscript of the Authorized Version. The opening of the Epistle to the Hebrews of the 1611 edition of the Authorized Version shows the original typeface. Marginal notes reference variant translations and cross references to other Bible passages. Each chapter is headed by a precis of contents. There are decorative initial letters for each Chapter, and a decorated headpiece to each Biblical Book; but no illustrations in the text. Two editions of the whole bible are recognized as having been produced in 1611, which may be distinguished by their rendering of Ruth 3:15; the first edition reading "he went into the city", where the second reads "she went into the city." However, bibles in all the early editions were made up using sheets originating from several printers, and consequently there is very considerable variation within any one edition. It is only in 1613 that an edition is found, all of whose surviving representatives have substantially the same text. The original printing was made before English spelling was standardised; and when printers, as a matter of course, expanded and contracted the spelling of the same words in different places, so as to achieve an even column of text. They set "v" for initial "u" and "v", and "u" for "u" and "v" everywhere else. They used long "ſ" for non-final "s". The letter "j" occurs only after "i," as in the final letter in a Roman numeral. Punctuation was relatively heavy, and differed from current practice. When space needed to be saved, the printers sometimes used ye for the, (replacing the Middle English thorn with the continental y), set ã for an or am (in the style of scribe's shorthand), and set "&" for "and". On the contrary, on a few occasions, they appear to have inserted these words when they thought a line needed to be padded. Current printings remove most, but not all, of the variant spellings; the punctuation has also been changed, but still varies from current usage norms. The first printing used a black letter typeface instead of a Roman typeface, which itself made a political and a religious statement. Like the Great Bible and the Bishops' Bible, the Authorized Version was "appointed to be read in churches". It was a large folio volume meant for public use, not private devotion; the weight of the type mirrored the weight of establishment authority behind it. However, smaller editions and Roman-type editions followed rapidly; e.g. quarto Roman-type editions of the Bible in 1612 (Herbert #313/314). This contrasted with the Geneva Bible, which was the first English Bible printed in a Roman typeface (although black-letter editions, particularly in folio format, were issued later). In contrast to the Geneva Bible and the Bishops' Bible, which had both been extensively illustrated, there were no illustrations at all in the 1611 edition of the Authorized Version; the main form of decoration being the historiated initial letters provided for books and chapters - together with the decorative title pages to the Bible itself, and to the New Testament. The original printing of Authorized Version used Roman type instead of black letter to indicate text that had been supplied by the translators, or thought needful for English grammar but which was not present in the Greek or Hebrew. In the first printing, the device of having different type faces to show supplied words was used sparsely and inconsistently. This is perhaps the most significant difference between the original text and the current text. When, from the later 17th century onwards, the Authorized Version began to be printed in Roman Type, the typeface for supplied words was changed to Italics. The original printing contained two prefatory texts; the first was a rather fulsome Epistle Dedicatory to "the most high and mighty Prince" King James. Many British printings reproduce this, while a few cheaper or smaller American printings fail to include it. The second, and more interesting preface was called The Translators to the Reader, a long and learned essay that defends the undertaking of the new version. It observes that their goal was not to make a bad translation good, but a good translation better, and says that "we do not deny, nay we affirm and avow, that the very meanest translation of the Bible in English, set forth by men of our profession... containeth the word of God, nay, is the word of God". Few current editions include this text, but it is to be found in the Oxford World's Classics edition. The first printing contained a number of other apparatus, including a table for the reading of the Psalms at matins and evensong, and a calendar, an almanac, and a table of holy days and observances. Much of this material has become obsolete with the adoption of the Gregorian Calendar by the UK and its colonies in 1752 and thus modern editions invariably omit it. So as to make it easier to locate a particular passage, each chapter was headed by a brief precis of its contents with verse numbers. Later editors freely substituted their own chapter summaries, or omit such material entirely. Literary attributes Translation Like Tyndale's translation and the Geneva Bible, the Authorized Version was translated primarily from Greek, Hebrew and Aramaic texts, although with secondary reference both to the Latin Vulgate, and to more recent scholarly Latin versions; while two books of the Apocrypha were translated from a Latin source. Following the example of the Geneva Bible, words implied but not actually in the original source were distinguished by being printed in distinct type (albeit inconsistently); but otherwise the translators explicitly rejected word-for-word equivalence. F.F Bruce gives an example from Romans Chapter 5: 2 By whom also wee haue accesse by faith, into this grace wherein wee stand, and reioyce in hope of the glory of God. 3 And not onely so, but we glory in tribulations also, knowing that tribulation worketh patience: The English terms "rejoice" and "glory" stand for the same word in the Greek original. In Tyndale, Geneva and the Bishops' Bibles, both instances are translated "rejoice". In the Douay-Rheims New Testament, both are translated "glory". Only in the Authorized Version does the translation vary between the two verses. In obedience to their instructions, the translators provided no marginal interpretation of the text; but in some 8,500 places a marginal note offers an alternative English wording. The majority of these notes offer a more literal rendering of the original (introduced as "Heb", "Chal", "Gr" or "Lat"), but others indicate a variant reading of the source text (introduced by "or"). Some of the annotated variants derive from alternative editions in the original languages, or from variant forms quoted in the fathers; but more commonly they indicate a difference between the original language reading, and that in the translators' preferred recent Latin versions; Tremellius for the Old Testament, Junius for the Apocrypha, and Beza for the New Testament. A few more extensive notes clarify Biblical names, units of measurement or currency; and in a very few places (e.g. Luke 17:36) record that a verse is absent from most Greek manuscripts. Modern reprintings rarely reproduce these annotated variants - although they are to be found in the New Cambridge Paragraph Bible. In addition, there were originally some 9,000 scriptural cross-references, in which one text was related to another. Such cross-references had long been common in Latin bibles, and most of those in the Authorized Version were copied unaltered from this Latin tradition; and consequently the early editions of the KJV retain many Vulgate verse references - e.g. in the numbering of the Psalms. At the head of each chapter, the translators provided a short précis of its contents, with verse numbers; these are rarely included in complete form in modern editions. The translators render the Tetragrammaton YHWH or the name Yahweh by the use of small capitals as or occasionally JEHOVAH, or Lord (for Adonai YHWH, "Lord YHWH"), denoting the divine name. Jesus is referred to as Lord with a capital "L" and lower case "ord" as the example of the scripture in Psalm 110:1 "The said unto my Lord, sit thou at my right hand, until I make thine enemies thy footstool". For their Old Testament, the translators worked from editions of the Hebrew Rabbinic Bible by Daniel Bomberg (1524/5); but adjusted the text in a few places to conform to the Greek LXX or Latin Vulgate in passages to which Christian tradition had tended to attach a Christological interpretation; as, for example, the reading "they pierced my hands and my feet" in Psalm 22:16 (vs. the more direct translation "like lions [they maul] my hands and feet" The Jewish Publication Society Tanakh, copyright 1985 ). Otherwise, however, the Authorized Version is closer to the Hebrew tradition than any previous English translation – especially in making use of the rabbinic commentaries, such as Kimhi, in elucidating obscure passages in the Masoretic Text; by contrast with earlier versions, which had been more likely to adopt LXX or Vulgate readings in such places. For their New Testament, the translators chiefly used the 1598 and 1588/89 Greek editions of Theodore Beza; which also present Beza's Latin version of the Greek and Stephanus's edition of the Latin Vulgate; both of which versions were extensively referred to - as the translators conducted all discussions amongst themselves in Latin. F.H.A. Scrivener identifies 190 readings where the Authorized Version translators depart from Beza's Greek text, generally in maintaining the wording of the Bishop's Bible and other earlier English translations. In about half of these instances, the Authorized Version translators appear to follow the earlier 1550 Greek Textus Receptus of Stephanus. For the other half, Scrivener was usually able to find corresponding Greek readings in the editions of Erasmus, or in the Complutensian Polyglot; but in several dozen readings he notes that no printed Greek text corresponds to the English of the Authorized Version – which in these readings derives directly from the Vulgate. For example, at John 10:16, the Authorized Version reads "one fold" (as did the Bishops' Bible, and the 16th century vernacular versions produced in Geneva), following the Latin Vulgate "unum ovile"; whereas Tyndale had agreed more closely with the Greek, "one flocke" (μία ποίμνη). The Authorized Version New Testament owes much more to the Vulgate than does the Old Testament; but still, at least 80% of the text is unaltered from Tyndale's translation. Unlike the rest of the Bible, the translators of the Apocrypha identified their source texts in their marginal notes. From these it can determined that the books of the Apocrypha were translated from the Septuagint – primarily, from the Greek Old Testament column in the Antwerp Polyglot – but with extensive reference to the counterpart Latin Vulgate text, and to Junius's Latin translation. The translators record references to the Sixtine Septuagint of 1587, which is substantially a printing of the Old Testament text from the Codex Vaticanus; and also to the 1518 Greek Septuagint edition of Aldus Manutius. They had, however, no Greek texts for 2 Esdras, or for the Prayer of Manasses, and Scrivener found that they here used an unidentified Latin manuscript. The translators appear to have otherwise made no first-hand study of ancient manuscript sources, even those which – like the Codex Bezae – would have been readily available to them. In addition to all previous English versions - including the Douay-Rheims Bible, they also consulted contemporary vernacular translations in Spanish, French, Italian and German. They also made wide and eclectic use of all printed editions in the original languages then available, including the ancient Syriac New Testament printed with an interlinear Latin gloss in the Antwerp Polyglot of 1573. Style and criticism A primary concern of the translators was to produce a Bible that would be appropriate, dignified and resonant in public reading. Hence, in a period of rapid linguistic change, they avoided contemporary idioms; tending instead towards forms that were already slightly archaic, like verily and it came to pass. They also tended to enliven their text with stylistic variation, finding multiple English words or verbal forms, in places where the original language employed repetition. The Authorized Version is notably more Latinate than previous English versions, especially the Geneva Bible. This results in part from the academic stylistic preferences of a number of the translators – several of whom admitted to being more comfortable writing in Latin than in English – but was also, in part, a consequence of the royal proscription against explanatory notes. Hence, where the Geneva Bible might use a common English word - and gloss its particular application in a marginal note; the Authorized Version tends rather to prefer a technical term, frequently in Anglicised Latin. Consequently, although the King had instructed the translators to use the Bishops' Bible as a base text, the New Testament in particular, stylistically owes much to the Catholic Rheims New Testament, whose translators had also been concerned to find English equivalents for Latin terminology. In addition, the translators of the New Testament books habitually quote Old Testament names in the renderings familiar from the Vulgate Latin, rather than in their Hebrew forms (e.g. Elias, Jeremias; for Elijah, Jeremiah). While the Authorized Version remains among the most widely sold, modern critical New Testament translations differ substantially from the Authorized Version in a number of passages, primarily because they rely on source manuscripts not then accessible to (or not then highly regarded by) early 17th Century Biblical Scholarship. In the Old Testament, there are also many differences from modern translations that are based not on manuscript differences, but on a different understanding of Ancient Hebrew vocabulary or grammar by the translators. For example, in modern translations it is clear that Job 28: 1-11 is referring throughout to mining operations, which is not at all apparent from the text of the Authorized Version. Standard text of 1769 By the mid-18th Century the wide variation in the various modernized printed texts of the Authorized Version, combined with the notorious accumulation of misprints, had reached the proportion of a scandal; and the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge both sought to produce an updated standard text. First of the two was the Cambridge edition of 1762 (Herbert #1142), edited by F.S. Parris ; but this was effectively superseded by the 1769 Oxford edition, edited by Benjamin Blayney (Herbert #1196), which became the Oxford standard text, and is the text which is reproduced almost unchanged in most current printings . Parris and Blayney sought consistently to remove those elements of the 1611 and successive subsequent editions, that they believed were due to the vagaries of printers; while incorporating most of the revised readings of the Cambridge editions of 1629 and 1638, and each also introducing a few improved readings of their own. They undertook the mammoth task of standardizing the wide variation in punctuation and spelling of the original, making many thousands of minor changes to the text; although some of these updates do alter the ostensible sense - as when the original text of Genesis 2:21 "in stead" (in that place) was updated to read "instead" (as an alternative). In addition, Blayney and Parris thoroughly revised and greatly extended the italicization of "supplied" words not found in the original languages by cross-checking against the presumed source texts. Unfortunately, Blayney assumed that the translators of the 1611 New Testament had worked from the 1550 Stephanus edition of the Textus Receptus, rather than from the later editions of Beza; and accordingly the current standard text mistakenly "corrects" around a dozen readings where Beza and Stephanus differ . Like the 1611 edition, the 1769 Oxford edition included the Apocrypha; although Blayney consistently removed marginal cross-references to the Books of the Apocrypha, wherever these had been provided by the original translators. Altogether, Blayney's 1769 text differed from the 1611 text in around 24,000 places ; but since that date, only six further changes have been introduced to the standard text - although 30 of Blayney's proposed changes have subsequently been reverted . The Oxford University Press paperback edition of the "Authorized King James Version" provides the current standard text; and also includes the prefatory section "The Translators to the Reader". The 1611 and 1769 texts of the first three verses from I Corinthians 13 are given below. 1. Though I speake with the tongues of men & of Angels, and haue not charity, I am become as sounding brasse or a tinkling cymbal. 2 And though I haue the gift of prophesie, and vnderstand all mysteries and all knowledge: and though I haue all faith, so that I could remooue mountaines, and haue no charitie, I am nothing. 3 And though I bestowe all my goods to feede the poore, and though I giue my body to bee burned, and haue not charitie, it profiteth me nothing. 1. Though I speak with the tongues of men and of angels, and have not charity, I am become as sounding brass, or a tinkling cymbal. 2 And though I have the gift of prophecy, and understand all mysteries, and all knowledge; and though I have all faith, so that I could remove mountains, and have not charity, I am nothing. 3 And though I bestow all my goods to feed the poor, and though I give my body to be burned, and have not charity, it profiteth me nothing. In these three verses, there are eleven changes of spelling, nine changes of typesetting, three changes of punctuation, and one variant text - where "not charity" is substituted for "no charity" in verse two, in the erroneous belief that the original reading was a misprint. For a period, Cambridge continued to issue Bibles using the Parris text, but the market demand for absolute standardisation was now such that they eventually fell into line. Since the beginning of the 19th Century, almost all printings of the Authorized Version have derived from the 1769 Oxford text - generally without Blayney's variant notes and cross references, and commonly excluding the Apocrypha. One exception to this was a scrupulous original-spelling, page-for-page, and line-for-line reprint of the 1611 edition (including all chapter headings, marginalia, and original italicization, but with Roman type substituted for the black letter of the original), published by Oxford in 1833. The Holy Bible, an Exact Reprint Page for Page of the Authorized Version Published in the Year MDCXI. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1833 (reprints, ISBN 0840700415, ). According to J.R. Dore, Old Bibles: An Account of the Early Versions of the English Bible (2nd edition, Eyre and Spottiswoode, 1888), p. 363, the edition "so far as it goes, represents the edition of 1611 so completely that it may be consulted with as much confidence as an original. The spelling, punctuation, italics, capitals, and distribution into lines and pages are all followed with the most scrupulous care. It is, however, printed in Roman instead of black letter type." Another important exception to this was the 1873 Cambridge Paragraph Bible, thoroughly revised, modernised and re-edited by F. H. A. Scrivener, who for the first time, consistently identified the source texts underlying the 1611 translation and its marginal notes. Scrivener, however - as Blayney had done - did adopt revised readings where he considered the judgement of the 1611 translators had been faulty. In 2005, Cambridge University Press released its New Cambridge Paragraph Bible with Apocrypha, edited by David Norton, which modernized Scrivener's spelling again to present-day standards, and introduced quotation marks; while restoring the 1611 text, so far as possible, to the wording intended by its translators, especially in the light of the rediscovery of some of their working documents. This text has been issued in paperback by Penguin books. From 1769, the text of the Authorized Version remained unchanged - and since, due to advances in printing technology, it could now be produced in very large editions for mass sale, it established complete dominance in public and ecclesiastical use in the English-speaking Protestant world. Academic debate over the next hundred years, however, increasingly reflected concerns about the Authorized Version shared by some scholars that: (a) that subsequent study in oriental languages suggested a need to revise the translation of the Hebrew bible - both in terms of specific vocabulary, and also in distinguishing descriptive terms from proper names; (b) that the Authorized Version was unsatisfactory in translating the same Greek words and phrases into different English, especially where parallel passages are found in the synoptic gospels; and, (c) in the light of subsequent ancient manuscript discoveries, the New Testament translation base of the Greek Textus Receptus could no longer be considered to be the best representation of the original text The Authorized Version maintained its effective dominance throughout the first half of the 20th Century. New translations in the second half of the 20th Century appeared, which displaced its 250 years of dominance (roughly 1700 to 1950) Some groups do exist - sometimes termed the King-James-Only Movement - that mistrust all changes to the Authorized Version. See also 21st Century King James Version Bible errata List of books of the Authorized King James Version Pocket Canons New King James Version King-James-Only Movement Modern editions of the KJV text which provide aids for modern readers to understand the text: Defined King James Bible Dynamic and formal equivalence The King James Study Bible The Subject Bible Notes References Further reading Chronological order of publication (oldest first)US edition: UK'' edition: External links On-Line database of the 1611 text with Apocrypha. Also accesses the Geneva Bible, Bishops' Bible and other Reformation-era versions. On-line image of a page (beginning of St John's gospel) with a written description by the British Library. . On-line facsimile (page images) of the 1611 printing of the King James Bible. 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5,286 | Dwight_L._Moody | Dwight Lyman Moody (February 5, 1837 - December 22, 1899), also known as D.L. Moody, was an American evangelist and publisher who founded the Moody Church, Northfield School and Mount Hermon School in Massachusetts (now the Northfield Mount Hermon School), the Moody Bible Institute and Moody Publishers. Early life Dwight Moody was born in Northfield, Massachusetts to a large family. His father, a small farmer and stonemason, was an alcoholic and died at the age of 41 when Dwight was only four years old. He had five older brothers and a younger sister, with an additional twin brother and sister born one month after his father's death. His mother struggled to support the family, but even with her best effort, some of her children had to be sent off to work for their room and board. Dwight too was sent off, where he went he received cornmeal porridge and milk, three times a day. He complained to his mother, but when she found out that he had all that he wanted to eat, she sent him back. Even during this time, she continued to send them to church. Together with his eight siblings he was raised in the Unitarian church. His oldest brother ran away and was not heard from by the family until many years later. When Moody turned 17, he moved to Boston to work in his uncle's shoe store. One of his uncle's requirements was that Moody attend the Congregational Church of Mount Vernon where Dr. Edward Norris Kirk was pastor. In April 1855 Moody was then converted to evangelical Christianity when his teacher, Edward Kimball talked to him about how much God loved him. His conversion sparked the start of his career as an evangelist. However his first application for church membership, in May 1855, was rejected. He was not received as a church member until May 4, 1856. As his teacher, Mr. Edward Kimball, stated, Chicago and the Civil War Moody moved to Chicago, Illinois in September, 1856, where he joined the Plymouth Congregational Church, and began to take an active part in the prayer meetings. In the spring of 1857, he began to minister to the welfare of the sailors in Chicago's port, then gamblers and thieves in the saloons. A contemporary witness, William Ryenolds, recalled a few years later: His work led to the largest Sunday School of his time. As a result of his tireless labor, within a year the average attendance at his school was 650, while 60 volunteers from various churches served as teachers. It became so well known that the just-elected President Lincoln visited and spoke at a Sunday School meeting on November 25, 1860. After the Civil War started, he was involved with the U.S. Christian Commission of the YMCA, and paid nine visits to the battle-front, being present among the Union soldiers after the conflicts of Shiloh, Pittsburgh Landing, and Murfreesboro, and ultimately entered Richmond with the army of General Grant. He married Miss Emma C. Revell, on August 28, 1862, with whom he had a daughter, Emma Reynolds Moody, and two sons, William Revell And Paul Dwight Moody. The growing Sunday School congregation needed a permanent home, so Moody started a church in Chicago, the Illinois Street Church. In June 1871, Moody met Ira D. Sankey, the Gospel singer, with whom he soon partnered. In October the Great Chicago Fire destroyed his church, his home, and the dwellings of most of his members. His family had to flee for their lives, and, as Mr. Moody said, he saved nothing but his reputation and his Bible. His church was rebuilt within three months at a near-by location as the Chicago Avenue Church. His lay follower William Eugene Blackstone was a prominent American Zionist. In the years after the fire, Moody's wealthy Chicago supporter J.A. Farwell attempted to persuade him to make his permanent home in Chicago, offering to build Moody and his family a new house. But the now-famous Moody, also sought by supporters in New York, Philadelphia and elsewhere, chose the tranquil farm he had purchased next door to his birthplace in Northfield, MA. He felt he could better recover from his lengthy and exhausting preaching trips in a rural setting. Northfield became an important location in evangelical Christian history in the late 19th century as Moody organized summer conferences which were led and attended by prominent Christian preachers and evangelists from around the world. It was also in Northfield where Moody founded three schools which later merged into today's Northfield Mount Hermon School. England It was while on a trip to England in Spring of 1872 that he became well known as an evangelist. Some have claimed he was the greatest evangelist of the 19th century. He preached almost a hundred times and came into communion with the Plymouth Brethren. On several occasions he filled stadiums of 2,000 to 4,000 capacity. In the Botanic Gardens Palace, a meeting had between 15,000 to 30,000 people. This turnout continued throughout 1874 and 1875, with crowds of thousands at all of his meetings. During his visit to Scotland he was helped and encouraged by Andrew A. Bonar. The famous London Baptist preacher, Charles Spurgeon invited him to speak and promoted him as well. When he returned to the United States, crowds of 12,000 to 20,000 were just as common as in England. President Grant and some of his cabinet attended a meeting on January 19, 1876. His evangelistic meetings were held from Boston to New York, throughout New England and as far as San Francisco, and other West coast towns from Vancouver to San Diego. Moody aided in the work of cross-cultural evangelism by promoting "The Wordless Book", a teaching tool that had been invented by Charles Spurgeon in 1866. In 1875 he added a fourth color to the design of the three-color evangelistic device: gold - to "represent heaven". This "book" has been and is still used to teach uncounted thousands of illiterate people - young and old - around the globe about the Gospel message. Austin (2007), 1-10 Missionary preaching in China using Moody's version of The Wordless Book Dwight L. Moody visited Britain with Ira D. Sankey, with Moody acting as preacher and Sankey singing. Together they published books of Christian hymns. In 1883 they visited Edinburgh and raised £10,000 for the building of a new home for the Carrubbers Close Mission. Moody later preached at the laying of the foundation stone for what is one of the few buildings on the Royal Mile which continues to be used for its original purpose and is now called the Carrubbers Christian Centre. Moody greatly influenced the cause of cross-cultural Christian missions after he met the pioneer missionary to China, Hudson Taylor. He actively supported the China Inland Mission and encouraged many of his congregation to volunteer for service overseas. His influence was felt among Swedes despite the fact that he was of English heritage, never visited Sweden or any Scandinavian country, and never spoke a word of the Swedish language. Nevertheless, he became a hero revivalist among Swedish Mission Friends in Sweden and America. Gustafson (2008) News of Moody’s large revival campaigns in Great Britain from 1873–1875 traveled quickly to Sweden, making “Mr. Moody” a household name in homes of many Mission Friends. Moody’s sermons published in Sweden were distributed in books, newspapers, and colporteur tracts, and led to the spread of Sweden’s “Moody fever” from 1875–1880. He preached his last sermon on November 16, 1899 in Kansas City, KS. Becoming ill, he returned home by train to Northfield. During the preceding several months, friends had observed he had added some 30 pounds to his already ample frame. Although his illness was never diagnosed, it has been speculated that he suffered congestive heart failure. He died on December 22, surrounded by family. Already installed by Moody as leader of his Chicago Bible Institute, R. A. Torrey succeeded Moody as its president. Ten years after Moody's death, the Chicago Avenue Church was renamed The Moody Church in his honor, and the Chicago Bible Institute was likewise renamed Moody Bible Institute. Works Heaven Diggory Press ISBN 978-1846858123 Prevailing Prayer - What Hinders it? Diggory Press ISBN 978-1846858031 Secret Power Diggory Press ISBN 978-1846858024 The Ten Commandments References M. Laird Simons, Holding the Fort: comprising sermons and addresses at the Great Revival meetings conducted by Moody and Sankey, with the lives and labors of Dwight L. Moody, Ira D. Sankey, and P.P. Bliss, Norwich, Connecticut: Henry Bill Publishing Co., 1877. Christian Biography Resources Austin, Alvyn. China’s Millions: The China Inland Mission and Late Qing Society. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company (March 5, 2007) ISBN 978-0802829757 J.F. Findlay Jr, Dwight L. Moody: American Evangelist 1837-1899. 1969 S.N. Gundry, Love them in: The Proclamation Theology of D.L. Moody. 1976 Paul Dwight Moody, The Shorter Life of D.L. Moody. 1900 L W Dorsett, A Passion for Souls: The Life of D.L. Moody. 1997 B J Evensen, God's Man for Gilded Age: D L Moody and the Rise of Mass Evangelism. 2003 D.M. Gustafson, D.L. Moody and Swedes: Shaping Evangelical Identity among Swedish Missions Friends 1867-1899. (Linköping Studies in Arts and Sciences 419. / Linköping Studies in Identity and Pluralism 7.) 2008.Ph.D. Dissertation Notes External links Moody Bible Institute Moody Church Sample sermons by D. L. Moody "Shall I enter the Army?" Moody said, "No." Sermons by D. L. Moody Retrieved on 2009-03-23 See also Horatio Spafford - Spafford, a friend of Moody, wrote the words to the hymn "It Is Well With My Soul" | Dwight_L._Moody |@lemmatized dwight:9 lyman:1 moody:50 february:1 december:2 also:4 know:3 l:12 american:3 evangelist:6 publisher:2 found:2 church:16 northfield:8 school:9 mount:4 hermon:3 massachusetts:2 bible:6 institute:5 early:1 life:5 bear:2 large:3 family:6 father:2 small:1 farmer:1 stonemason:1 alcoholic:1 die:2 age:2 four:1 year:6 old:4 five:1 brother:4 young:2 sister:2 additional:1 twin:1 one:3 month:3 death:2 mother:2 struggle:1 support:2 even:2 best:1 effort:1 child:1 send:4 work:5 room:1 board:1 go:1 receive:2 cornmeal:1 porridge:1 milk:1 three:4 time:4 day:1 complain:1 find:1 want:1 eat:1 back:1 continue:3 together:2 eight:1 sibling:1 raise:2 unitarian:1 run:1 away:1 hear:1 many:3 later:4 turn:1 move:2 boston:2 uncle:2 shoe:1 store:1 requirement:1 attend:3 congregational:2 vernon:1 dr:1 edward:3 norris:1 kirk:1 pastor:1 april:1 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5,287 | Free_software | Free software or software libre is software that can be used, studied, and modified without restriction, and which can be copied and redistributed in modified or unmodified form either without restriction, or with minimal restrictions only to ensure that further recipients can also do these things and that manufacturers of consumer-facing hardware allow user modifications to their hardware. Free software is available gratis (free of charge) in most cases. In practice, for software to be distributed as free software, the human-readable form of the program (the source code) must be made available to the recipient along with a notice granting the above permissions. Such a notice either is a "free software license", or a notice that the source code is released into the public domain. The free software movement was conceived in 1983 by Richard Stallman to satisfy the need for and to give the benefit of "software freedom" to computer users. The Free Software Foundation was founded in 1985 to provide the organizational structure which Stallman correctly foresaw would be necessary to advance his Free Software ideas. From 1998 onward, alternative terms for free software came into use. The most common are "software libre", "free and open source software" ("FOSS") and "free, libre and open source software" ("FLOSS"). The "Software Freedom Law Center" was founded in 2005 to protect and advance FLOSS. The antonym of free software is "proprietary software" or "non-free software". Free software, which may or may not be distributed free of charge, is distinct from "freeware" which, by definition, does not require payment for use. The authors or copyright holders of freeware typically retain all other rights to the software; users of freeware, in general, cannot study, modify, or redistribute it. Since free software may be freely redistributed it is generally available at little or no cost. Free software business models are usually based on adding value such as applications, support, training, customization, integration, or certification. At the same time, some business models which work with proprietary software are not compatible with free software, such as those that depend on a user paying for a license in order to lawfully use a software product. History In the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s, it was normal for computer users to have the freedoms that are provided by free software. Software was commonly shared by individuals who used computers and by hardware manufacturers who were glad that people were making software that made their hardware useful. Organizations of users and suppliers were formed to facilitate the exchange of software, see, for example, SHARE. By the late 1960s change was inevitable: software costs were dramatically increasing, a growing software industry was competing with the hardware manufacturer's bundled software products (free in that the cost was included in the hardware cost), leased machines required software support while providing no revenue for software, and some customers able to better meet their own needs did not want the costs of "free" software bundled with hardware product costs. In United States vs. IBM, filed January 17, 1969, the government charged that bundled software was anticompetitive . While some software might always be free, there would be a growing amount of software that was for sale only. In the 1970s and early 1980s, the software industry began using technical measures (such as only distributing binary copies of computer programs) to prevent computer users from being able to study and modify software. In 1980 copyright law was extended to computer programs. Richard Stallman, the founder of the Free Software Movement. In 1983, Richard Stallman, longtime member of the hacker community at the MIT Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, announced the GNU project, saying that he had become frustrated with the effects of the change in culture of the computer industry and its users. Software development for the GNU operating system began in January 1984, and the Free Software Foundation (FSF) was founded in October 1985. He developed a free software definition and the concept of "copyleft", designed to ensure software freedom for all. The economic viability of free software has been recognised by large corporations such as IBM, Red Hat, and Sun Microsystems. Many companies whose core business is not in the IT sector choose free software for their Internet information and sales sites, due to the lower initial capital investment and ability to freely customize the application packages. Also, some non-software industries are beginning to use techniques similar to those used in free software development for their research and development process; scientists, for example, are looking towards more open development processes, and hardware such as microchips are beginning to be developed with specifications released under copyleft licenses (see the OpenCores project, for instance). Creative Commons and the free culture movement have also been largely influenced by the free software movement. Naming The FSF recommends using the term "free software" rather than "open source software" because the latter term and the associated marketing campaign focuses on the technical issues of software development, avoiding the issue of user freedoms. "Libre" is used to avoid the ambiguity of the word "free". Definition The first formal definition of free software was published by FSF in February 1986. That definition, written by Richard Stallman, is still maintained today and states that software is free software if people who receive a copy of the software have the following four freedoms: Freedom 0: The freedom to run the program for any purpose. Freedom 1: The freedom to study and modify the program. Freedom 2: The freedom to copy the program so you can help your neighbor. Freedom 3: The freedom to improve the program, and release your improvements to the public, so that the whole community benefits. Freedoms 1 and 3 require source code to be available because studying and modifying software without its source code is highly impractical. Thus, free software means that computer users have the freedom to cooperate with whom they choose, and to control the software they use. To summarize this into a remark distinguishing libre (freedom) software from gratis (zero price) software, Richard Stallman said: "Free software is a matter of liberty, not price. To understand the concept, you should think of 'free' as in 'free speech', not as in 'free beer'". In the late 90s, other groups published their own definitions which describe an almost identical set of software. The most notable are Debian Free Software Guidelines published in 1997, and the Open Source Definition, published in 1998. The BSD-based operating systems, such as FreeBSD, OpenBSD, and NetBSD, do not have their own formal definitions of free software. Users of these systems generally find the same set of software to be acceptable, but sometimes see copyleft as restrictive. They generally advocate permissive free software licenses, which allow others to make software based on their source code, and then release the modified result as proprietary software. Their view is that this permissive approach is more free. The Kerberos, X.org, and Apache software licenses are substantially similar in intent and implementation. All of these software packages originated in academic institutions interested in wide technology transfer (University of California, MIT, and UIUC). Examples of free software The Free Software Directory maintains a large database of free software packages. Some of the best-known examples include the BSD and Linux operating systems; the GNU Compiler Collection and C library; the MySQL relational database; the Apache web server; and the Sendmail mail transport agent. Other influential examples include the emacs text editor; the GIMP raster drawing and image editor; the X Window System graphical-display system; the OpenOffice.org office suite; and the TeX and LaTeX typesetting systems. Free software licenses All free software licenses must grant people all the freedoms discussed above. However, unless the applications' licenses are compatible, combining programs by mixing source code or directly linking binaries is problematic, because of license technicalities. Programs indirectly connected together may avoid this problem. The majority of free software uses a small set of licenses. The most popular of these licenses are: the GNU General Public License the GNU Lesser General Public License the BSD License the Mozilla Public License the MIT License the Apache License The Free Software Foundation and the Open Source Initiative both publish lists of licenses that they find to comply with their own definitions of free software and open-source software respectively. List of FSF approved software licenses List of OSI approved software licenses The FSF list is not prescriptive: free licensees can exist which the FSF has not heard about, or considered important enough to write about. So it's possible for a license to be free and not in the FSF list. However, the OSI list is prescriptive: they only list licenses that have been submitted, considered and approved. This formal process of approval is what defines a license as Open Source. Thus, it's not possible for a license to be Open Source and not on the OSI approved list. Apart from these two organizations, the Debian project is seen by some to provide useful advice on whether particular licenses comply with their Debian Free Software Guidelines. Debian doesn't publish a list of approved licenses, so its judgments have to be tracked by checking what software they have allowed into their software archives. That is summarized at the Debian web site. However, it is rare that a license is announced as being in-compliance by either FSF or OSI guidelines and not vice versa (the Netscape Public License used for early versions of Mozilla being an exception), so exact definitions of the terms have not become hot issues. Permissive and copyleft licenses The FSF categorizes licenses in the following ways: Public domain software - the copyright has expired, the work was not copyrighted or the author has released the software onto the public domain. Since public-domain software lacks copyright protection, it may be freely incorporated into any work, whether proprietary or free. Permissive licenses, also called BSD-style because they are applied to much of the software distributed with the BSD operating systems. The author retains copyright solely to disclaim warranty and require proper attribution of modified works, and permits redistribution and any modification, even proprietary ones. Copyleft licenses, the GNU General Public License being the most prominent. The author retains copyright and permits redistribution and modification provided all such redistribution is licensed under the same license. Additions and modifications by others must also be licensed under the same 'copyleft' license whenever they are distributed with part of the original licensed product. Security and reliability There is debate over the security of free software in comparison to proprietary software, with a major issue being security through obscurity. A popular quantitative test in computer security is to use relative counting of known unpatched security flaws. Generally, users of this method advise avoiding products which lack fixes for known security flaws, at least until a fix is available. Some claim that this method is biased by counting more vulnerabilities for the free software, since its source code is accessible and its community is more forthcoming about what problems exist. Free software advocates rebut that even if proprietary software does not have "published" flaws, flaws could still exist and possibly be known to malicious users. The ability of users to view and modify the source code allows many more people to potentially analyse the code and possibly to have a higher rate of finding bugs and flaws than an average sized corporation could manage. Users having access to the source code also makes creating and deploying spyware far more difficult. Adoption Free software played a part in the development of the Internet, the World Wide Web and the infrastructure of dot-com companies. Free software allows users to cooperate in enhancing and refining the programs they use; free software is a pure public good rather than a private good. Companies that contribute to free software can increase commercial innovation amidst the void of patent cross licensing lawsuits. (See mpeg2 patent holders) Under the free software business model, free software vendors may charge a fee for distribution and offer pay support and software customization services. Proprietary software uses a different business model, where a customer of the proprietary software pays a fee for a license to use the software. This license may grant the customer the ability to configure some or no parts of the software themselves. Often some level of support is included in the purchase of proprietary software, but additional support services (especially for enterprise applications) are usually available for an additional fee. Some proprietary software vendors will also customize software for a fee. Free software is generally available at no cost and can result in permanently lower costs compared to proprietary software. With free software, businesses can fit software to their specific needs by changing the software themselves or by hiring programmers to modify it for them. Free software often has no warranty, and more importantly, generally does not assign legal liability to anyone. However, warranties are permitted between any two parties upon the condition of the software and its usage. Such an agreement is made separately from the free software license. A report by Standish Group says that adoption of open source has caused a drop in revenue to the proprietary software industry by about $60 billion per year. http://standishgroup.com/newsroom/open_source.php Controversies Binary blobs In 2006, OpenBSD started the first campaign against the use of binary blobs, in kernels. Blobs are usually freely distributable device drivers for hardware from vendors that do not reveal driver source code to users or developers. This restricts the users' freedom to effectively modify the software and distribute modified versions. Also, since the blobs are undocumented and may have bugs, they pose a security risk to any operating system whose kernel includes them. The proclaimed aim of the campaign against blobs is to collect hardware documentation that allows developers to write free software drivers for that hardware, ultimately enabling all free operating systems to become or remain blob-free. The issue of binary blobs in the Linux kernel and other device drivers motivated some developers in Ireland to launch gNewSense, a GNU/Linux distribution with all the binary blobs removed. The project received support from the Free Software Foundation. GNU/Linux distributions we know of which consist entirely of free software, and whose main distribution sites distribute only free software. BitKeeper Larry McVoy invited high-profile free software projects to use his proprietary versioning system, BitKeeper, free of charge, in order to attract paying users. In 2002, Linux coordinator Linus Torvalds decided to use BitKeeper to develop the Linux kernel, a free software project, claiming no free software alternative met his needs. This controversial decision drew criticism from several sources, including the Free Software Foundation's founder Richard Stallman. Following the apparent reverse engineering of BitKeeper's protocols, McVoy withdrew permission for gratis use by free software projects, leading the Linux kernel community to develop a free software replacement in Git. Patent deals In November 2006, the Microsoft and Novell software corporations announced a controversial partnership involving, among other things, patent protection for some customers of Novell under certain conditions. See also Free content Free file format Free software community Free software licenses Gratis versus Libre Libre knowledge List of formerly proprietary software List of free software packages List of free software project directories References External links Software Freedom Law Center The Free Software Definition Transcripts about Free Software by FSFE Free Software Magazine Free cultural works definition Why Open Source Software / Free Software (OSS/FS)? Look at the Numbers!, analysis of the advantages of OSS/FS by David A. Wheeler. FLOSSWorld - Free/Libre/Open-Source Software: Worldwide impact study Software Freedom: An Introduction, by Robert J. Chassell Decoding Liberation: The Promise of Free and Open Source Software, by Samir Chopra and Scott Dexter Free Software Definition at The Linux Information Project Open Source Enters the Mainstream According to Findings from the Actuate Annual Open Source Survey for 2008 FSF/UNESCO Free Software Directory | Free_software |@lemmatized free:96 software:147 libre:8 use:21 study:6 modify:9 without:3 restriction:3 copy:4 redistribute:3 modified:3 unmodified:1 form:3 either:3 minimal:1 ensure:2 recipient:2 also:9 thing:2 manufacturer:3 consumer:1 facing:1 hardware:11 allow:6 user:19 modification:4 available:7 gratis:4 charge:5 case:1 practice:1 distribute:7 human:1 readable:1 program:10 source:25 code:11 must:3 make:6 along:1 notice:3 grant:3 permission:2 license:41 release:5 public:11 domain:4 movement:4 conceive:1 richard:6 stallman:7 satisfy:1 need:4 give:1 benefit:2 freedom:21 computer:9 foundation:5 found:3 provide:5 organizational:1 structure:1 correctly:1 foresee:1 would:2 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5,288 | Angus | Angus (Aonghas in Gaelic) is one of the 32 local government council areas of Scotland, and a lieutenancy area. The council area borders onto Aberdeenshire, Perth and Kinross and Dundee City. Main industries include agriculture and fishing. Angus was historically a county (known officially as Forfarshire until 1928) until 1975 when it became a district of the Tayside Region. In 1996 the region was abolished and Angus was established as a unitary authority. The former county had borders with Kincardineshire to the north-east, county of Aberdeenshire to the north and Perthshire to the west. Southwards, it faced Fife across the Firth of Tay. Areas similar to that of the council area are covered by the Angus Westminster constituency for the UK Parliament and the area is also represented at the Scottish Parliament by both the Angus and North Tayside Holyrood constituencies. Angus can be split into three geographic areas. To the north and west, the topography is mountainous; this is the area of the five Angus Glens, is sparsely populated and the main industry is hill-farming. To the south and east the topography consists of rolling hills bordering the sea. This area is well populated, with the larger towns and the city of Dundee on the coast. In between lies Strathmore, Gaelic for the Great Valley, which is a fertile agricultural area noted for the growing of potatoes, soft fruit and the raising of Angus cattle. Towns and villages Towns Arbroath -- largest town Brechin Carnoustie Forfar -- county town and administrative centre Kirriemuir Monifieth Montrose Villages Aberlemno Arbirlot Auchmithie Bridge of Craigisla Carmyllie Dunnichen Edzell Farnell Friockheim Glamis Guthrie Inverkeilor Kingsmuir Letham Newbigging Newtyle Memus Menmuir Monikie Murroes St Vigeans Tealing Tarfside Unthank Places of interest Aberlemno Sculptured Stones (Pictish symbols) Angus Folk Museum, Glamis Arbroath Abbey, place of signing of the Declaration of Arbroath Angus Council: Arbroath Abbey Brechin Cathedral Brechin Castle Brechin Round Tower Caledonian Railway (Brechin) Cairngorms National Park Carnlochan NNR - National Nature Reserve Eassie Stone C.Michael Hogan, Eassie Stone, The Megalithic Portal, ed. A. Burnham, Oct., 2007 Edzell Castle Undiscovered Scotland: Edzell Castle Glamis Castle Glamis Castle House of Dun Loch of Kinnordy Nature Reserve The Meffan Museum and Art Gallery (Forfar) Monboddo House Montrose Basin Nature Reserve Montrose Museum Council political composition PartyCouncillorsScottish National Party13Independent6Conservative5Liberal Democrat3Labour2 The council is currently controlled by the Angus Alliance which comprises a coalition of Independent/Conservative/Liberal Democrat & Labour councillors. Angus Council - Councillor Information See also Earl of Angus List of pre-1975 counties of Scotland References External links Angus Council Website showcasing the best of Angus | Angus |@lemmatized angus:15 aonghas:1 gaelic:2 one:1 local:1 government:1 council:8 area:10 scotland:3 lieutenancy:1 border:3 onto:1 aberdeenshire:2 perth:1 kinross:1 dundee:2 city:2 main:2 industry:2 include:1 agriculture:1 fishing:1 historically:1 county:5 know:1 officially:1 forfarshire:1 become:1 district:1 tayside:2 region:2 abolish:1 establish:1 unitary:1 authority:1 former:1 kincardineshire:1 north:4 east:2 perthshire:1 west:2 southward:1 face:1 fife:1 across:1 firth:1 tay:1 similar:1 cover:1 westminster:1 constituency:2 uk:1 parliament:2 also:2 represent:1 scottish:1 holyrood:1 split:1 three:1 geographic:1 topography:2 mountainous:1 five:1 glen:1 sparsely:1 populated:2 hill:2 farming:1 south:1 consist:1 roll:1 sea:1 well:1 large:2 town:4 coast:1 lie:1 strathmore:1 great:1 valley:1 fertile:1 agricultural:1 note:1 growing:1 potato:1 soft:1 fruit:1 raising:1 cattle:1 village:2 towns:1 arbroath:4 brechin:5 carnoustie:1 forfar:2 administrative:1 centre:1 kirriemuir:1 monifieth:1 montrose:3 aberlemno:2 arbirlot:1 auchmithie:1 bridge:1 craigisla:1 carmyllie:1 dunnichen:1 edzell:3 farnell:1 friockheim:1 glamis:4 guthrie:1 inverkeilor:1 kingsmuir:1 letham:1 newbigging:1 newtyle:1 memus:1 menmuir:1 monikie:1 murroes:1 st:1 vigeans:1 tealing:1 tarfside:1 unthank:1 place:2 interest:1 sculpture:1 stone:3 pictish:1 symbol:1 folk:1 museum:3 abbey:2 signing:1 declaration:1 cathedral:1 castle:5 round:1 tower:1 caledonian:1 railway:1 cairngorms:1 national:3 park:1 carnlochan:1 nnr:1 nature:3 reserve:3 eassie:2 c:1 michael:1 hogan:1 megalithic:1 portal:1 ed:1 burnham:1 oct:1 undiscovered:1 house:2 dun:1 loch:1 kinnordy:1 meffan:1 art:1 gallery:1 monboddo:1 basin:1 political:1 composition:1 partycouncillorsscottish:1 currently:1 control:1 alliance:1 comprise:1 coalition:1 independent:1 conservative:1 liberal:1 democrat:1 labour:1 councillor:2 information:1 see:1 earl:1 list:1 pre:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 website:1 showcasing:1 best:1 |@bigram perth_kinross:1 unitary_authority:1 firth_tay:1 sparsely_populated:1 arbroath_abbey:2 declaration_arbroath:1 michael_hogan:1 megalithic_portal:1 liberal_democrat:1 external_link:1 |
5,289 | GNU_nano | In computing, nano is a curses-based text editor for Unix and Unix-like systems. It is a clone of Pico, the editor of the Pine email client. nano aims to emulate the functionality and easy-to-use interface of Pico, but without the tight mailer integration of the Pine/Pico package. Released under the terms of the GNU General Public License, nano is free software. With the release of version 2.0.7 the license was changed from GPLv2 to GPLv3. History nano was first created in 1999 under the name TIP (TIP isn't Pico), by Chris Allegretta. His motivation was to create a free software replacement for Pico, since neither it nor Pine were distributed under a free software license. The name was officially changed to nano on January 10, 2000 to disambiguate it from the tip command. The name comes from the system of SI prefixes, where nano is 1000 times bigger than pico, though the backronym "nano's another editor" is sometimes used. In February 2001, nano became an official part of the GNU Project. More recently, nano has added some features that Pico lacks, including colored text, regular expression search and replace, smooth scrolling, and multiple buffers. On August 11, 2003, Chris Allegretta officially handed maintenance of nano's unstable branch to David Lawrence Ramsey. On December 20, 2007, David Lawrence Ramsey officially stepped down as nano's maintainer. Currently under development in the 2.1 development series are rebindable key support and undo functionality Control keys nano, like Pico, is keyboard-oriented, controlled with control keys. For example, Control-O saves the current file; Control-W goes to the search menu. nano puts a two-line "shortcut bar" at the bottom of the screen, listing many of the commands available in the current context. For a complete list, Control-G gets the help screen. Unlike Pico, nano uses meta keys to toggle its behavior. For example, Meta-S toggles smooth scrolling mode on and off. Almost all features that can be selected from the command line can be dynamically toggled. See also List of text editors Comparison of text editors List of Unix programs References External links Project home page | GNU_nano |@lemmatized compute:1 nano:14 curse:1 base:1 text:4 editor:5 unix:3 like:2 system:2 clone:1 pico:9 pine:3 email:1 client:1 aim:1 emulate:1 functionality:2 easy:1 use:2 interface:1 without:1 tight:1 mailer:1 integration:1 package:1 release:2 term:1 gnu:2 general:1 public:1 license:3 free:3 software:3 version:1 change:2 history:1 first:1 create:2 name:3 tip:3 chris:2 allegretta:2 motivation:1 replacement:1 since:1 neither:1 distribute:1 officially:3 january:1 disambiguate:1 command:3 come:1 si:1 prefix:1 time:1 big:1 though:1 backronym:1 another:1 sometimes:1 february:1 become:1 official:1 part:1 project:2 recently:1 add:1 feature:2 lack:1 include:1 color:1 regular:1 expression:1 search:2 replace:1 smooth:2 scrolling:1 multiple:1 buffer:1 august:1 handed:1 maintenance:1 unstable:1 branch:1 david:2 lawrence:2 ramsey:2 december:1 step:1 maintainer:1 currently:1 development:2 series:1 rebindable:1 key:4 support:1 undo:1 control:6 keyboard:1 orient:1 example:2 save:1 current:2 file:1 w:1 go:1 menu:1 put:1 two:1 line:2 shortcut:1 bar:1 bottom:1 screen:2 list:4 many:1 available:1 context:1 complete:1 g:1 get:1 help:1 unlike:1 us:1 meta:2 toggle:3 behavior:1 scroll:1 mode:1 almost:1 select:1 dynamically:1 see:1 also:1 comparison:1 program:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 home:1 page:1 |@bigram unix_unix:1 si_prefix:1 external_link:1 |
5,290 | Mythology | The term "mythology" sometimes refers to the study of myths and sometimes refers to a body of myths. Kirk, p. 8 "myth", Encyclopædia Britannica For example, comparative mythology is the study of connections between myths from different cultures, Littleton, p. 32 whereas Greek mythology is the body of myths from ancient Greece. The term "myth" is often used colloquially to refer to a false story; Armstrong, p. 7 Eliade, Myth and Reality, p. 1 however, the academic use of the term generally does not refer to truth or falsity. Dundes, Introduction, p. 1 In the field of folkloristics, a myth is conventionally defined as a sacred narrative explaining how the world and humankind came to be in their present form. Dundes, "Binary", p. 45 Dundes, "Madness", p. 147 Many scholars in other academic fields use the term "myth" in somewhat different ways. Doty, p. 11-12 Segal, p. 5 In a very broad sense, the term can refer to any traditional story. Kirk, "Defining", p. 57 Kirk, Myth, p. 74 Simpson, p. 3 Nature of myths Typical characteristics The main characters in myths are usually gods or supernatural heroes. Bascom, p. 9 "myths", A Dictionary of English Folklore O'Flaherty, p.19: "I think it can be well argued as a matter of principle that, just as 'biography is about chaps', so mythology is about gods." As sacred stories, myths are often endorsed by rulers and priests and closely linked to religion. In the society in which it is told, a myth is usually regarded as a true account of the remote past. Eliade, Myths, Dreams and Mysteries, p. 23 Pettazzoni, p. 102 In fact, many societies have two categories of traditional narrative—(1) "true stories", or myths, and (2) "false stories", or fables. Eliade, Myth and Reality, p. 10-11 Pettazzoni, p. 99-101 Myths generally take place in a primordial age, when the world had not yet achieved its current form. They explain how the world gained its current form Dundes, "Binary", p. 45 Dundes, Introduction, p. 1 Dundes, "Madness", p. 147 Eliade, Myth and Reality, p. 6 and how customs, institutions, and taboos were established. Related concepts Closely related to myth are legend and folktale. Myths, legends, and folktales are different types of traditional story. Bascom, p. 7 Unlike myths, folktales can take place at any time and any place, and they are not considered true or sacred even by the societies that tell them. Like myths, legends are stories that are traditionally considered true; however, they are set in a more recent time, when the world was much as it is today. Also, legends generally feature humans as their main characters, whereas myths generally focus on superhuman characters. The distinction between myth, legend, and folktale is meant simply as a useful tool for grouping traditional stories. Bascom, p. 10 In many cultures, it is hard to draw a sharp line between myths and legends. Kirk, Myth, p. 22, 32 Kirk, "Defining", p. 55 Instead of dividing their traditional stories into myths, legends, and folktales, some cultures divide them into two categories — one that roughly corresponds to folktales, and one that combines myths and legends. Bascom, p. 17 Even myths and folktales are not completely distinct: a story may be considered true — and therefore a myth — in one society, but considered fictional — and therefore a folktale — in another society. Bascom, p. 13 Doty, p. 114 In fact, when a myth loses its status as part of a religious system, it often takes on traits more typical of folktales, with its formerly divine characters reinterpreted as human heroes, giants, or fairies. Myth, legend, and folktale are only a few of the categories of traditional stories. Other categories include anecdotes and some kinds of jokes. Traditional stories, in turn, are only one category within folklore, which also includes items such as gestures, costumes, and music. Origins of myth Euhemerism One theory claims that myths are distorted accounts of real historical events. Bulfinch, p. 194 Honko, p. 45 According to this theory, storytellers repeatedly elaborated upon historical accounts until the figures in those accounts gained the status of gods. For example, one might argue that the myth of the wind-god Aeolus evolved from a historical account of a king who taught his people to use sails and interpret the winds. Herodotus and Prodicus made claims of this kind. This theory is named "euhemerism" after the novelist Euhemerus (c.320 BC), who suggested that the Greek gods developed from legends about human beings. "Euhemerism", The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions Allegory Some theories propose that myths began as allegories. According to one theory, myths began as allegories for natural phenomena: Apollo represents fire, Poseidon represents water, and so on. According to another theory, myths began as allegories for philosophical or spiritual concepts: Athena represents wise judgment, Aphrodite represents desire, etc. The 19th century Sanskritist Max Muller supported an allegorical theory of myth. He believed that myths began as allegorical descriptions of nature, but gradually came to be interpreted literally: for example, a poetic description of the sea as "raging" was eventually taken literally, and the sea was then thought of as a raging god. Segal, p. 20 Personification Some thinkers believe that myths resulted from the personification of inanimate objects and forces. According to these thinkers, the ancients worshipped natural phenomena such as fire and air, gradually coming to describe them as gods. Bulfinch, p. 195 For example, according to the theory of mythopoeic thought, the ancients tended to view things as persons, not as mere objects; Frankfort, p. 4 thus, they described natural events as acts of personal gods, thus giving rise to myths. Frankfort, p. 15 The myth-ritual theory According to the myth-ritual theory, the existence of myth is tied to ritual. Segal, p. 61 In its most extreme form, this theory claims that myths arose to explain rituals. Graf, p. 40 This claim was first put forward by the biblical scholar William Robertson Smith. Meletinsky pp.19-20 According to Smith, people begin performing rituals for some reason that is not related to myth; later, after they have forgotten the original reason for a ritual, they try to account for the ritual by inventing a myth and claiming that the ritual commemorates the events described in that myth. Segal, p. 63 The anthropologist James Frazer had a similar theory. Frazer believed that primitive man starts out with a belief in magical laws; later, when man begins to lose faith in magic, he invents myths about gods and claims that his formerly magical rituals are religious rituals intended to appease the gods. Frazer, p. 711 Functions of myth One of the foremost functions of myth is to establish models for behavior. Eliade, Myth and Reality, p. 8 Honko, p. 51 The figures described in myth are sacred and are therefore worthy role models for human beings. Thus, myths often function to uphold current social structures and institutions: they justify these customs by claiming that they were established by sacred beings. Eliade, Myth and Reality, pp. 6-7 Honko, p. 47 Another function is to provide people with a religious experience. By retelling myths, human beings detach themselves from the present and return to the mythical age, thereby bringing themselves closer to the divine. Eliade, Myth and Reality, p. 19 In fact, in some cases, a society will reenact a myth in an attempt to reproduce the conditions of the mythical age: for example, it will reenact the healing performed by a god at the beginning of time in order to heal someone in the present. Honko, p. 49 The study of mythology: a historical overview Historically, the important approaches to the study of mythology have been those of Vico, Schelling, Schiller, Jung, Freud, Lévy-Bruhl, Levi-Strauss, Frye, the Soviet school, and the Myth and Ritual School. Guy Lanoue, Foreword to Meletinsky, p.viii This section describes trends in the interpretation of mythology in general. For interpretations of specific similarities and parallels between the myths of different cultures, see Comparative mythology. Pre-modern theories The critical interpretation of myth goes back as far as the Presocratics. Segal, p. 1 Euhemerus was one of the most important pre-modern mythologists. He interpreted myths as accounts of actual historical events, distorted over many retellings. Varro distinguished three aspects of theology, besides political (social) and natural (physical) approaches to the divine allowing for a mythical theology. Interest in polytheistic mythology revived in the Renaissance, with early works on mythography appearing in the 16th century, such as the Theologia mythologica (1532). 19th-century theories The first scholarly theories of myth appeared during the second half of the 19th century. Segal, p. 1 In general, these 19th-century theories framed myth as a failed or obsolete mode of thought, often by interpreting myth as the primitive counterpart of modern science. Segal, pp. 3-4 For example, E. B. Tylor interpreted myth as an attempt at a literal explanation for natural phenomena: unable to conceive of impersonal natural laws, early man tried to explain natural phenomena by attributing souls to inanimate objects, giving rise to animism. Segal, p. 4 According to Tylor, human thought evolves through various stages, starting with mythological ideas and gradually progressing to scientific ideas. Not all scholars — not even all 19th century scholars — have agreed with this view. For example, Lucien Lévy-Bruhl claimed that "the primitive mentality is a condition of the human mind, and not a stage in its historical development." Max Muller called myth a "disease of language". He speculated that myths arose due to the lack of abstract nouns and neuter gender in ancient languages: anthropomorphic figures of speech, necessary in such languages, were eventually taken literally, leading to the idea that natural phenomena were conscious beings, gods. Segal, p.20 Bertolt Brecht, a theater practitioner stated from his works, Brecht in Theatre, where he speculated myths on wood and corks. It became apparent when a rumor foregrounded his city that immigrants sailed from Spain to the Canary Islands on cork made doors. Brecht on Theatre, p.64 The anthropologist James Frazer saw myths as a misinterpretation of magical rituals, which were themselves based on a mistaken idea of natural law. Segal, p.67-68 According to Frazer, man begins with an unfounded belief in impersonal magical laws. When he realizes that his applications of these laws don't work, he gives up his belief in natural law, in favor of a belief in personal gods controlling nature — thus giving rise to religious myths. Meanwhile, man continues practicing formerly magical rituals through force of habit, reinterpreting them as reenactments of mythical events. Finally, Frazer contends, man realizes that nature does follow natural laws, but now he discovers their true nature through science. Here, again, science makes myth obsolete: as Frazer puts it, man progresses "from magic through religion to science". Frazer, p. 711 By pitting mythical thought against modern scientific thought, such theories implied that modern man must abandon myth. Segal, p. 3 20th-century theories Many 20th-century theories of myth rejected the 19th-century theories' opposition of myth and science. In general, "twentieth-century theories have tended to see myth as almost anything but an outdated counterpart to science […] Consequently, moderns are not obliged to abandon myth for science." Segal, p. 3 Swiss psychologist Carl Jung (1873-1961) and his followers tried to understand the psychology behind world myths. Jung argued that all humans share certain innate unconscious psychological forces, which he called archetypes. These universal archetypes express themselves in the similarities between the myths of different cultures. Boeree Following Jung, Joseph Campbell believed that insights about one’s psychology, gained from reading myths, can be beneficially applied to one’s own life. Like Jung and Campbell, Claude Levi-Strauss believed that myths reflect patterns in the mind. However, he saw those patterns more as fixed mental structures — specifically, pairs of oppositions (for example raw vs cooked, nature vs culture) — than as unconscious feelings or urges. Segal, p. 113 In his appendix to Myths, Dreams and Mysteries, and in The Myth of the Eternal Return, Mircea Eliade attributed modern man’s anxieties to his rejection of myths and the sense of the sacred. Mythopoeia is a term coined by J. R. R. Tolkien for the conscious attempt to create fiction styled like myths. In the 1950s, Roland Barthes published a series of essays examining modern myths and the process of their creation in his book Mythologies. Comparative mythology Comparative mythology is the systematic comparison of myths from different cultures. Littleton, p. 32 It seeks to discover underlying themes that are common to the myths of multiple cultures. In some cases, comparative mythologists use the similarities between different mythologies to argue that those mythologies have a common source. This common source may be a common source of inspiration (e.g. a certain natural phenomenon that inspired similar myths in different cultures) or a common "protomythology" that diverged into the various mythologies we see today. Nineteenth-century interpretations of myth were often highly comparative, seeking a common origin for all myths. Leonard However, modern-day scholars tend to be more suspicious of comparative approaches, avoiding overly general or universal statements about mythology. Northup, p. 8 One exception to this modern trend is Joseph Campbell's book The Hero With a Thousand Faces, which claims that all hero myths follow the same underlying pattern. This theory of a "monomyth" is out of favor with the mainstream study of mythology. See also General Comparative mythology, Archetypal literary criticism, Folklore, National myth, Artificial mythology, Legendary creature, Mytheme, Monomyth, Mythical place, Creation myth, Wikipedia Books: Mythology Mythological archetypes Culture hero, Death deity, Earth Mother, First man or woman, Hero, Life-death-rebirth deity, Lunar deity, Psychopomp, Sky father, Solar deity, Trickster, Underworld Myth and religion Religion and mythology, Magic and mythology, Hindu mythology, Christian mythology (Jesus Christ as myth), Jewish mythology, Islamic mythology Lists List of mythologies, List of deities, List of mythical objects, List of species in folklore and mythology, List of species in folklore and mythology by type, List of women warriors in folklore Notes Sources Bascom, William. "The Forms of Folklore: Prose Narratives". 'Sacred Narrative: Readings in the Theory of Myth. Ed. Alan Dundes. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984. 5-29. Bulfinch, Thomas. Bulfinch's Mythology. Whitefish: Kessinger, 2004. Doty, William. Myth: A Handbook. Westport: Greenwood, 2004. Dundes, Alan. "Binary Opposition in Myth: The Propp/Levi-Strauss Debate in Retrospect". Western Folklore 56 (Winter, 1997): 39-50. Dundes, Alan. Introduction. Sacred Narrative: Readings in the Theory of Myth. Ed. Alan Dundes. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984. 1-3. Dunes, Alan. "Madness in Method Plus a Plea for Projective Inversion in Myth". Myth and Method. Ed. Laurie Patton and Wendy Doniger. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1996. Eliade, Mircea. Myth and Reality. Trans. Willard R. Trask. New York: Harper & Row, 1963. Eliade, Mircea. Myths, Dreams and Mysteries. Trans. Philip Mairet. New York: Harper & Row, 1967. "Euhemerism". The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions. Ed. John Bowker. Oxford University Press, 2000. Oxford Reference Online. Oxford University Press. UC - Berkeley Library. 20 March 2009 . Frankfort, Henri, et al. The Intellectual Adventure of Ancient Man: An Essay on Speculative Thought in the Ancient Near East. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1977. Frazer, James. The Golden Bough. New York: Macmillan, 1922. Graf, Fritz. Greek Mythology. Trans. Thomas Marier. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993. Honko, Lauri. "The Problem of Defining Myth". Sacred Narrative: Readings in the Theory of Myth. Ed. Alan Dundes. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984. 41-52. Kirk, G.S. Myth: Its Meaning and Functions in Ancient and Other Cultures. Berkeley: Cambridge University Press, 1973. Kirk, G.S. "On Defining Myths". Sacred Narrative: Readings in the Theory of Myth. Ed. Alan Dundes. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984. 53-61. Leonard, Scott. "The History of Mythology: Part I".Youngstown State University. Littleton, Covington. The New Comparative Mythology: An Anthropological Assessment of the Theories of Georges Dumezil. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1973. Meletinsky, Elea. The Poetics of Myth. Trans. Guy Lanoue and Alexandre Sadetsky. New York: Routledge, 2000. "myth." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 21 Mar. 2009 <http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9108748>. "myths". A Dictionary of English Folklore. Jacqueline Simpson and Steve Roud. Oxford University Press, 2000. Oxford Reference Online. Oxford University Press. UC - Berkeley Library. 20 March 2009 <http://www.oxfordreference.com/views/ENTRY.html?subview=Main&entry=t71.e725>. Northup, Lesley. "Myth-Placed Priorities: Religion and the Study of Myth". Religious Studies Review 32.1(2006): 5-10. O'Flaherty, Wendy. Hindu Myths: A Sourcebook. London: Penguin, 1975. Pettazzoni, Raffaele. "The Truth of Myth". Sacred Narrative: Readings in the Theory of Myth. Ed. Alan Dundes. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984. 98-109. Segal, Robert. Myth: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2004. Simpson, Michael. Introduction. Apollodorus. Gods and Heroes of the Greeks. Trans. Michael Simpson. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1976. 1-9. Further reading Barry B. Powell, Classical Myth, 5th edition, Prentice-Hall. Boeree, C. "Carl Jung". Personality Theories. 2006. Shippensburg University.2 February 2009 Buxton, Richard. The Complete World of Greek Mythology. London: Thames & Hudson, 2004. Charles H. Long, Alpha: The Myths of Creation. George Braziller, 1963. Edith Hamilton, Mythology (1998) Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von Schelling Introduction to the Philosophy of Mythology, 1856. Philosophy of Mythology, 1857. Philosophy of Revelation, 1858. Graves, Robert. "Introduction." New Larousse Encyclopedia of Mythology. Trans. Richard Aldington and Delano Ames. London: Hamlyn, 1968. v-viii. Joseph Campbell The Hero with a Thousand Faces. Princeton University Press, 1949. Flight of the Wild Gander: Explorations in the Mythological Dimension: Select Essays 1944-1968 New World Library, 3rd ed. (2002), ISBN 978-1-57731-210-9. Kees W. Bolle, The Freedom of Man in Myth. Vanderbilt University Press, 1968. Louis Herbert Gray [ed.], The Mythology of All Races, in 12 vols., 1916. Lucien Lévy-Bruhl Mental Functions in Primitive Societies (1910) Primitive Mentality (1922) The Soul of the Primitive (1928) The Supernatural and the Nature of the Primitive Mind (1931) Primitive Mythology (1935) The Mystic Experience and Primitive Symbolism (1938) Mircea Eliade Cosmos and History: The Myth of the Eternal Return. Princeton University Press, 1954. The Sacred and the Profane: The Nature of Religion. Trans. Willard R. Trask. NY: Harper & Row, 1961. O'Flaherty, Wendy. Hindu Myths: A Sourcebook. London: Penguin, 1975. Segura, E., Honegger, Th (eds.), Myth and Magic: Art according to the Inklings, Walking Tree Publishers (2007), ISBN 978-3-905703-08-5. Roland Barthes, Mythologies (1957) Santillana and Von Dechend (1969, 1992 re-issue). Hamlet's Mill: An Essay Investigating the Origins of Human Knowledge And Its Transmission Through Myth, Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-87923-215-3. Walker, Steven F. and Segal, Robert A., Jung and the Jungians on Myth: An Introduction, Theorists of Myth, Routledge (1996), ISBN 978-0-8153-2259-7. Watt, Ian. Myths of Modern Individualism. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1997. Zong, In-Sob. Folk Tales from Korea. 3rd ed. Elizabeth: Hollym, 1989. External links The New Student's Reference Work/Mythology, ed. Beach (1914), at wikisource. Leonard, Scott. "The History of Mythology: Part I". Youngstown State University. Myths and Myth-Makers Old Tales and Superstitions Interpreted by comparative mythology by John Fiske. 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5,291 | Abraham_Lincoln | Abraham Lincoln (February 12, 1809 – April 15, 1865) was the 16th President of the United States. He successfully led the country through its greatest internal crisis, the American Civil War, preserving the Union and ending slavery. As the war was drawing to a close, Lincoln became the first American president to be assassinated. Before his election in 1860 as the first Republican president, Lincoln had been a country lawyer, an Illinois state legislator, a member of the United States House of Representatives, and twice an unsuccessful candidate for election to the U.S. Senate. As an outspoken opponent of the expansion of slavery in the United States, Lincoln won the Republican Party nomination in 1860 and was elected president later that year. His tenure in office was occupied primarily with the defeat of the secessionist Confederate States of America in the American Civil War. He introduced measures that resulted in the abolition of slavery, issuing his Emancipation Proclamation in 1863 and promoting the passage of the Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution, which passed Congress before Lincoln's death and was ratified by the states later in 1865. Lincoln closely supervised the victorious war effort, especially the selection of top generals, including Ulysses S. Grant. Historians have concluded that he handled the factions of the Republican Party well, bringing leaders of each faction into his cabinet and forcing them to cooperate. Lincoln successfully defused the Trent affair, a war scare with Britain, in 1861. Under his leadership, the Union took control of the border slave states at the start of the war. Additionally, he managed his own reelection in the 1864 presidential election. Copperheads and other opponents of the war criticized Lincoln for refusing to compromise on the slavery issue. Conversely, the Radical Republicans, an abolitionist faction of the Republican Party, criticized him for moving too slowly in abolishing slavery. Even with these road blocks, Lincoln successfully rallied public opinion through his rhetoric and speeches; his Gettysburg Address is but one example of this. At the close of the war, Lincoln held a moderate view of Reconstruction, seeking to speedily reunite the nation through a policy of generous reconciliation. His successor in the White House, Andrew Johnson, also wanted reconciliation among white Americans, but failed to protect the rights of newly freed slaves. Lincoln's assassination in 1865 was the first presidential assassination in American history. He has since consistently been ranked by scholars as one of the greatest U.S. Presidents. Note especially Lincoln's ranking in the Scholar survey results section. Personal life Childhood and education Samuel Lincoln, first American ancestor of Abraham, worshipped at Old Ship Church, Hingham, Massachusetts Abraham Lincoln was born on February 12, 1809, to Thomas Lincoln and Nancy Hanks, two uneducated farmers, in a one-room log cabin on the Sinking Spring Farm, in southeast Hardin County, Kentucky (now part of LaRue County), making him the first president born west of the Appalachians. Lincoln's ancestor Samuel Lincoln In 1848 attorney and historian Solomon Lincoln of Hingham, Massachusetts, began a correspondence with Abraham Lincoln to determine whether the future President's ancestors originated in Massachusetts. Fortunately, Solomon Lincoln saved his correspondence with distant relation Abraham, which the Hingham lawyer published in 1865 in his book Notes on the Lincoln Families of Massachusetts with Some Account of the Family of Abraham Lincoln, Late President of the United States. had arrived in Hingham, Massachusetts from England in the 17th century, but his descendants had gradually moved west, from Pennsylvania to Virginia and then westward to the frontier. Symbolic log cabin at the Abraham Lincoln Birthplace National Historic Site For some time, Thomas Lincoln, Abraham's father, had been a respected citizen of the Kentucky backcountry. He had purchased the Sinking Spring Farm in December 1808 for $200 cash ($ today) and assumption of a debt. The family belonged to a Hardshell Baptist church, although Abraham himself never joined their church, or any other church for that matter. In 1816 the Lincoln family became impoverished, losing their land through court action, and was forced to make a new start in Perry County, Indiana. It is now in Spencer County), Indiana. Lincoln later noted that this move was "partly on account of slavery," and partly because of difficulties with land deeds in Kentucky. Unlike land in the Northwest Territory, Kentucky never had a proper U.S. survey, and farmers often had difficulties proving title to their property in lawsuits such as the one Thomas Lincoln lost. When Lincoln was nine, his mother, then 34 years old, died of milk sickness. Soon afterwards, his father remarried to Sarah Bush Johnston. Lincoln and his stepmother were close; he called her "Mother" for the rest of his life, but he was increasingly distant from his father. In 1830, after more economic and land-title difficulties in Indiana, the family settled on public land in Macon County, Illinois. The following winter was desolate and especially brutal, and the family considered moving back to Indiana. The following year, when his father relocated the family to a new homestead in Coles County, Illinois, 22-year-old Lincoln struck out on his own, canoeing down the Sangamon River to the village of New Salem in Sangamon County. Later that year, hired by New Salem businessman Denton Offutt and accompanied by friends, he took goods from New Salem to New Orleans via flatboat on the Sangamon, Illinois and Mississippi rivers. Lincoln's formal education consisted of about 18 months of schooling, but he was largely self-educated and an avid reader. He was also a talented local wrestler and skilled with an axe. Lincoln avoided hunting and fishing because he did not like killing animals, even for food. At 6 foot 4 inches (1.93 m), he was unusually tall, as well as strong. Lincoln's father, Thomas Lincoln, was uneducated and illiterate; however, he was extremely talented in the art of storytelling and entertaining friends. Thomas would regularly host friendly gatherings at his house, which would usually consist of Thomas telling stories all night causing a hilarious uproar from his audience. Stealthily, young Abraham would stay up and listen to his father telling stories, trying to memorize them himself. Occasionally, when Abraham could not understand a certain story or part of one, he would repeat it over and over again in his mind until he finally understood. He then would spend countless hours coming up with a way to put the stories into terms his friends could easily understand. The next day, Abraham would repeat these stories to his friends, mimicking his father. This early practice helped prepare Abraham for the many important speeches he would have to give late in his life. Goodwin, Doris Kearns. Team of Rivals. New York, NY. Simon & Schuster, Inc. 2005 Marriage and family On November 4, 1842 Lincoln married Mary Todd, daughter of a prominent slave-owning family from Kentucky. The couple had four sons. Robert Todd Lincoln was born in Springfield, Illinois on August 1, 1843. Their only child to survive into adulthood, young Robert attended Phillips Exeter Academy and Harvard College. The other Lincoln children were born in Springfield, Illinois, and died either during childhood or their teen years. Edward Baker Lincoln was born on March 10, 1846, and died on February 1, 1850, also in Springfield. William "Willie" Wallace Lincoln was born on December 21, 1850, and died on February 20, 1862 in Washington, D.C., during President Lincoln's first term. Thomas "Tad" Lincoln was born on April 4, 1853, and died on July 16, 1871 in Chicago. Lincoln's last undisputed lineal descendant, Robert Todd Lincoln Beckwith, died December 24, 1985. Lincoln was not lucky when it came to women. Having lost his first love, Ann Rutledge, to what could possibly have been typhoid fever, he courted Mary Owens, the sister of his friend Elizabeth Abell, with the promise of marriage. Lincoln finally proposed to Owens in May 1837, but the proposal was less than appealing to her. Eighteen months after that rejection, however, Lincoln became engaged to Mary Todd. Finally in November 1842, after an eighteen month break in their engagement, they were married in the parlor of the Edwards' mansion. Eventually after their marriage, they settled into a quaint house on Eighth and Jackson in Springfield, which was conveniently located within walking distance of his law office. Mary had a hard time adjusting to her new life because she was used to having slaves perform most of the chores all of her life. Also, because Mary was used to having money her entire life, she struggled with the adjustment to relative poverty. Even though Abraham and Mary struggled with the first couple of years of their marriage, the births of two sons within the first forty months of their marriage helped relieve some of that tension. The Lincolns did not believe in rules and boundaries when it came to their children. They were free and able to do anything they pleased. Goodwin, Doris Kearns. Team of Rivals. New York, NY. Simon & Schuster, Inc. 2005 Early political career and military service Sketch of a younger Abraham Lincoln Lincoln began his political career in 1832 at age 23 with an unsuccessful campaign for the Illinois General Assembly as a member of the Whig Party. The centerpiece of his platform was the undertaking of navigational improvements on the Sangamon River. Later that year he served as a captain in a company of the Illinois militia during the Black Hawk War, although he never saw combat. In 1834, he won an election to the state legislature and, after coming across the Commentaries on the Laws of England, began to teach himself law. Admitted to the bar in 1837, he moved to Springfield, Illinois that same year and began to practice law with John T. Stuart. With a reputation as a formidable adversary during cross-examinations and in his closing arguments, Lincoln became an able and successful lawyer. In 1841 Lincoln entered the law practice with William Herndon, a fellow Whig. He served four successive terms in the Illinois House of Representatives as a representative from Sangamon County, and became a leader of the Illinois Whig party. In 1837 he made his first protest against slavery in the Illinois House, stating that the institution was "founded on both injustice and bad policy." Illinois politics Lincoln in 1846 or 1847 In 1846 Lincoln was elected to one term in the U.S. House of Representatives. A staunch Whig, Lincoln often referred to party leader Henry Clay as his political idol. As a freshman House member, Lincoln was not a particularly powerful or influential figure in Congress. He used his office as an opportunity to speak out against the war with Mexico, which he attributed to President Polk's desire for "military glory — that attractive rainbow, that rises in showers of blood." Lincoln's most famous stand against Polk was in his Spot Resolutions: The war had begun with a violent confrontation on disputed territory (claimed by both Mexico and Texas), but Polk had insisted that Mexican soldiers had "invaded our territory shed the blood of our fellow-citizens on our own soil". http://www.sewanee.edu/faculty/Willis/Civil_War/documents/LincolnSpot.html Abraham Lincoln, "Spot Resolutions" Lincoln demanded that Polk show Congress the exact spot on which blood had been shed, and proof that that spot was on American soil. Congress never enacted the resolution or even debated it, and its introduction resulted in a loss of political support for Lincoln in his district; one Illinois newspaper derisively nicknamed him "spotty Lincoln." http://www.archives.gov/education/lessons/lincoln-resolutions/ National Archives: Lincoln's Spot Resolutions Lincoln was a key early supporter of Zachary Taylor's candidacy for the 1848 Whig Presidential nomination. When Lincoln's term ended, the incoming Taylor administration offered him the governorship of remote Oregon Territory. Acceptance would end his career in the fast-growing state of Illinois, so he declined. Returning instead to Springfield, Illinois, he turned most of his energies to making a living at the bar, which involved extensive travel on horseback from county to county. It was during this stage of his life, however, that Lincoln gave one of the most pivotal speeches http://www.lincolnatpeoria.com/ of his life - speaking not as a politician, but as a private citizen. Opposed to the 1854 Kansas-Nebraska Act, Lincoln spoke to a crowd in Peoria, Illinois, on October 16, 1854, outlining the moral, political and economic arguments against slavery http://www.mrlincolnandfreedom.org/inside.asp?ID=11&subjectID=2 that he would continue to uphold throughout his career. This speech marked his re-entry into public life. Prairie lawyer By the mid-1850s, Lincoln faced competing transportation interests — both the river barges and the railroads. Originally, Lincoln had favored riverboat interests. In 1849, he had received a patent for a "device to buoy vessels over shoals." Lincoln's goal had been to lessen the draft of a river craft by pushing horizontal floats into the water alongside the hull. The floats would have served as temporary ballast tanks. The concept was never commercialized. Lincoln was the only President of the United States to hold a patent. As the 1850s began, Lincoln moved closer towards the railroad industry. In 1851, he represented the Alton & Sangamon Railroad in a dispute with one of its shareholders, James A. Barret. Barret had refused to pay the balance on his pledge to that corporation on the grounds that it had changed its originally planned route. Lincoln argued that as a matter of law a corporation is not bound by its original charter when that charter can be amended in the public interest, that the newer proposed Alton & Sangamon route was superior and less expensive, and that accordingly the corporation had a right to sue Mr. Barret for his delinquent payment. He won this case, and the decision by the Illinois Supreme Court was eventually cited by several other courts throughout the United States. Lincoln's most notable criminal trial came in 1858 when he defended William "Duff" Armstrong, who was on trial for the murder of James Preston Metzker. The case is famous for Lincoln's use of judicial notice, a rare tactic at that time, to show an eyewitness had lied on the stand. After the witness testified to having seen the crime in the moonlight, Lincoln produced a Farmer's Almanac to show that the moon on that date was at such a low angle it could not have produced enough illumination to see anything clearly. Based upon this evidence, Armstrong was acquitted. Republican politics 1854–1860 Lincoln returned to politics in response to the Kansas-Nebraska Act (1854), which expressly repealed the limits on slavery's extent as established by the Missouri Compromise (1820). Illinois Democrat Stephen A. Douglas, the most powerful man in the Senate, proposed popular sovereignty as the solution to the slavery impasse, and incorporated it into the Kansas–Nebraska Act. Douglas argued that in a democracy the people should have the right to decide whether or not to allow slavery in their territory, rather than have such a decision imposed on them by the national Congress. In the October 16, 1854, "Peoria Speech", Lincoln first stood out among the other free soil orators of the day: Drawing on remnants of the old Whig party, and on disenchanted Free Soil, Liberty and Democratic party members, he was instrumental in forging the shape of the new Republican Party. In a stirring campaign, the Republicans carried Illinois in 1854 and elected a senator. Lincoln was the obvious choice, but to keep the new party balanced, he allowed the election to go to an ex-Democrat Lyman Trumbull. At the Republican convention in 1856, Lincoln placed second in the contest to become the party's candidate for Vice-President. In 1857-58, Douglas broke with President Buchanan, leading to a fight for control of the Democratic Party. Some eastern Republicans even favored the reelection of Douglas in 1858, since he had led the opposition to the Lecompton Constitution, which would have admitted Kansas as a slave state. Accepting the Republican nomination for Senate in 1858, Lincoln delivered his famous speech: "'A house divided against itself cannot stand.'(Mark 3:25) I believe this government cannot endure permanently half slave and half free. I do not expect the Union to be dissolved — I do not expect the house to fall — but I do expect it will cease to be divided. It will become all one thing, or all the other." The speech created an evocative image of the danger of disunion caused by the slavery debate, and rallied Republicans across the north. Lincoln-Douglas debates of 1858 The 1858 campaign featured the Lincoln-Douglas debates, a famous contest on slavery. Lincoln warned that "The Slave Power" was threatening the values of republicanism, while Stephen Douglas emphasized the supremacy of democracy, as set forth in his Freeport Doctrine, which said that local settlers should be free to choose whether to allow slavery or not and could overrule judicial rulings. Though the Republican legislative candidates won more popular votes, the Democrats won more seats, and the legislature reelected Douglas to the Senate. Nevertheless, Lincoln's speeches on the issue transformed him into a national political star. New York party leaders invited him to give a speech at Cooper Union in February 1860 to an elite audience that was startled by the poorly dressed, ugly man from the West. He stunned the audience with the most brilliant political speech they had ever heard. Lincoln was emerging as the intellectual leader of the Republican party, and its best speaker. Journalist Noah Brooks reported, "No man ever before made such an impression" on a New York audience; Richard Carwardine, Lincoln (2003), p. 98; Harold Holzer, Lincoln at Cooper Union: The Speech That Made Abraham Lincoln President (2006) 1860 Presidential election "The Rail Candidate" - Lincoln's 1860 candidacy is held up by the slavery issue (slave on left) and party organization (New York Tribune editor Horace Greeley) on right. Lincoln was chosen as the Republican candidate for the 1860 election for several reasons. His expressed views on slavery were seen as more moderate than those of rivals William H. Seward and Salmon P. Chase. His "Western" origins also appealed to the newer states: other contenders, especially those with more governmental experience, had acquired enemies within the party and were weak in the critical western states, while Lincoln was perceived as a moderate who could win the West. Most Republicans agreed with Lincoln that the North was the aggrieved party as the Slave Power tightened its grasp on the national government. Throughout the 1850s he denied that there would ever be a civil war, and his supporters repeatedly rejected claims that his election would incite secession. On May 9-10, 1860, the Illinois Republican State Convention was held in Decatur. At this convention, Lincoln received his first endorsement to run for the presidency. Lincoln did not campaign on the road. Despite this, he had gained the majority of the popular vote due to the work of the local Republican Party offices throughout the north. They produced tons of campaign posters and leaflets, and thousands of newspaper editorials. There were thousands of Republican speakers who focused first on the party platform, and second on Lincoln's life story, making an emphasis on his childhood poverty. The goal was to emphasize the superior power of "free labor," whereby a common farm boy could work his way to the top by his own efforts. In the South, Lincoln did not appear on a majority of the ballots come the time of the election. On November 6, 1860, Lincoln was elected as the 16th President of the United States, beating Democrat Stephen A. Douglas, John C. Breckinridge of the Southern Democrats, and John Bell of the new Constitutional Union Party. He was the first Republican president, winning entirely on the strength of his support in the North: he was not even on the ballot in nine states in the South, and won only 2 of 996 counties in all of the Southern states. There were fusion tickets in some states, but even if his opponents had combined in every state, Lincoln had a majority vote in all but two of the states in which he won the electoral votes and would still have won the electoral college and the election. Lincoln was the first U. S. President elected from Illinois. Presidency and the Civil War With the emergence of the Republicans as the nation's first major sectional party by the mid-1850s, politics became the stage on which sectional tensions were played out. Although much of the West the focal point of sectional tensions was unfit for cotton cultivation, Southern secessionists read the political fallout as a sign that their power in national politics was rapidly weakening. Before, the slave system had been buttressed to an extent by the Democratic Party, which was increasingly seen as representing a more pro-Southern position that unfairly permitted Southerners to prevail in the nation's territories and to dominate national policy before the Civil War. But they suffered a significant reverse in the electoral realignment of the mid-1850s. 1860 was a critical election that marked a stark change in existing patterns of party loyalties among groups of voters; Abraham Lincoln's election was a watershed in the balance of power of competing national and parochial interests and affiliations. Secession winter 1860–1861 As Lincoln's election became more likely, secessionists made it clear that their states would leave the Union. On December 20, 1860, South Carolina took the lead. By February 1, 1861, South Carolina was followed by six other cotton-growing states in the deep South. The seven states soon declared themselves to be a new nation, the Confederate States of America. The upper South (Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, Kentucky, Missouri, and Arkansas) listened to, but initially rejected, the secessionist appeal. President Buchanan and President-elect Lincoln refused to recognize the Confederacy. Attempts at compromise, such as the Crittenden Compromise which would have extended the Missouri line of 1820, were discussed. Despite support for the Crittenden Compromise among some Republicans, Lincoln denounced it in private letters, saying "either the Missouri line extended, or... Pop. Sov. would lose us everything we gained in the election; that filibustering for all South of us, and making slave states of it, would follow in spite of us, under either plan", - from private letter to Thurlow Weed, 1860-12-17 while other Republicans publicly stated it "would amount to a perpetual covenant of war against every people, tribe, and state owning a foot of land between here and Tierra del Fuego." President-elect Lincoln evaded possible assassins in Baltimore, and on February 23, 1861, arrived in disguise in Washington, D.C. A photograph of the March 4, 1861 inauguration of Abraham Lincoln in front of United States Capitol At his inauguration on March 4, 1861, the German American Turners formed Lincoln's bodyguard; and a sizable garrison of federal troops was also present, ready to protect the capital from Confederate invasion and local insurrection. In his First Inaugural Address, Lincoln declared, "I hold that in contemplation of universal law and of the Constitution the Union of these States is perpetual. Perpetuity is implied, if not expressed, in the fundamental law of all national governments," arguing further that the purpose of the United States Constitution was "to form a more perfect union" than the Articles of Confederation which were explicitly perpetual, thus the Constitution too was perpetual. He asked rhetorically that even were the Constitution a simple contract, would it not require the agreement of all parties to rescind it? Also in his inaugural address, in a final attempt to reunite the states and prevent the looming war, Lincoln supported the pending Corwin Amendment to the Constitution, which had already passed Congress. This amendment, which explicitly protected slavery in those states in which it already existed, had more appeal to the critical border states than to the states that had already declared their separation. By the time Lincoln took office, the Confederacy was an established fact, and no leaders of the insurrection proposed rejoining the Union on any terms. No compromise was found because a compromise was deemed virtually impossible. Buchanan might have allowed the southern states to secede, and some Republicans recommended that. However, conservative Democratic nationalists, such as Jeremiah S. Black, Joseph Holt, and Edwin M. Stanton had taken control of Buchanan's cabinet around January 1, 1861, and refused to accept secession. Lincoln and nearly every Republican leader adopted this position by March 1861: the Union could not be dismantled. Believing that a peaceful solution was still possible, Lincoln decided to not take any action against the South unless the Unionists themselves were attacked first. This finally happened in April 1861. Historian Allan Nevins argues that Lincoln made three miscalculations in believing that he could preserve the Union, hold government property, and still avoid war. He "temporarily underrated the gravity of the crisis", overestimated the strength of Unionist sentiment in the South and border states, and misunderstood the conditional support of Unionists in the border states. In connection with Nevins's conclusions, it is interesting to note an incident from this period reported in the memoirs of William Tecumseh Sherman. Then a civilian, Sherman visited Lincoln in the White House during inauguration week, with his brother, Ohio Republican John Sherman. This meeting left the future General Sherman "sadly disappointed" at Lincoln's seeming failure to realize that "the country was sleeping on a volcano" and the South was "preparing for war." WTS Memoirs 185-86 (Lib. of America ed., 1990). Fighting begins: 1861–1862 In April 1861, after Union troops at Fort Sumter were fired upon and forced to surrender, Lincoln called on the governors of every state to send detachments totaling 75,000 troops to recapture forts, protect the capital, and "preserve the Union," which in his view still existed intact despite the actions of the seceding states. Virginia, which had repeatedly warned Lincoln that it would not allow an invasion of its territory or join an attack on another state, responded by seceding, along with North Carolina, Tennessee, and Arkansas. The slave states of Missouri, Kentucky, Maryland, and Delaware did not secede. Lincoln urgently negotiated with state leaders there, promising not to interfere with slavery. After the fighting started, he had rebel leaders arrested in all the border areas and held in military prisons without trial. Over 18,000 were arrested, though none were executed. One, Clement Vallandigham, was exiled; but all of the remainder were released, usually after two or three months (see: Ex parte Merryman). Lincoln had to protect the nation's capital city. In May, angry secessionist mobs in Baltimore, a city to the north of Washington, fought with Union troops traveling south. George William Brown, the Mayor of Baltimore, and other suspect Maryland politicians were arrested and imprisoned at Fort McHenry. Emancipation Proclamation Lincoln maintained that the powers of his administration to end slavery were limited by the Constitution. He expected to bring about the eventual extinction of slavery by stopping its further expansion into any U.S. territory, and by convincing states to accept compensated emancipation if the state would outlaw slavery (an offer that took effect only in Washington, D.C.). Guelzo says Lincoln believed that shrinking slavery in this way would make it uneconomical, and place it back on the road to eventual extinction that the Founders had envisioned. Mackubin Thomas Owens, "The Liberator," National Review (March 8, 2004) reviewing Allen C. Guelzo, Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation: The End of Slavery in America, (2004) online In July 1862, Congress passed the Second Confiscation Act, which freed the slaves of anyone convicted of aiding the rebellion. It said that anyone aiding the rebellion would lose his slaves if convicted. "That if any person shall hereafter incite, set on foot, assist, or engage in any rebellion or insurrection against the authority of the United States, or the laws thereof, or shall give aid or comfort thereto, or shall engage in, or give aid and comfort to, any such existing rebellion or insurrection, and be convicted thereof, such person shall be punished by imprisonment for a period not exceeding ten years, or by a fine not exceeding ten thousand dollars, and by the liberation of all his slaves...." The goal was to weaken the rebellion, which was led and controlled by slave owners. While it did not abolish the legal institution of slavery (the Thirteenth Amendment did that), the Act showed that Lincoln had the support of Congress in liberating slaves owned by rebels. In that same month, Lincoln discussed a draft of the Emancipation Proclamation with his cabinet. In a shrewdly penned August reply to an editorial by Horace Greeley in the influential New York Tribune, with a draft of the Proclamation already on Lincoln's desk, the president subordinated the goal of ending slavery to the cause of preserving the Union, while, at the same time, preparing the public for emancipation being incomplete at first. Lincoln had decided at this point that he could not win the war without freeing the slaves, and so it was a necessity "to do more to help the cause": For analysis of the letter see Carwardine, Lincoln p 209 The Emancipation Proclamation, announced on September 22, 1862 and put into effect on January 1, 1863, freed slaves in territories not already under Union control. As Union armies advanced south, more slaves were liberated until all of them in Confederate territory (over three million) were freed. Lincoln later said: "I never, in my life, felt more certain that I was doing right, than I do in signing this paper." The proclamation made the abolition of slavery in the rebel states an official war goal. Lincoln then threw his energies into passage of the Thirteenth Amendment to permanently abolish slavery throughout the nation. In September 1862, thirteen northern governors met in Altoona, Pennsylvania, at the Loyal War Governors' Conference to discuss the Proclamation and Union war effort. In the end, the state executives fully supported the president's Proclamation and also suggested the removal of General George B. McClellan as commander of the Union's Army of the Potomac. For some time, Lincoln continued earlier plans to set up colonies for the newly freed slaves. He commented favorably on colonization in the Emancipation Proclamation, but all attempts at such a massive undertaking failed. As Frederick Douglass observed, Lincoln was, "The first great man that I talked with in the United States freely who in no single instance reminded me of the difference between himself and myself, of the difference of color." Gettysburg Address Although the Battle of Gettysburg was a Union victory, it was also the bloodiest battle of the war and dealt a blow to Lincoln's war effort. As the Union Army decreased in numbers due to casualties, more soldiers were needed to replace the ranks. Lincoln's 1863 military drafts were considered "odious" among many in the north, particularly immigrants. The New York Draft Riots of July, 1863 were the most notable manifestation of this discontent. Writing to Lincoln in September 1863, the Governor of Pennsylvania, Andrew Curtin, warned that political sentiments were turning against Lincoln and the war effort: The Gettysburg Address is one of the most quoted speeches in United States history. Historian James McPherson has called it "The most eloquent expression of the new birth of freedom brought forth by reform liberalism.", in McPherson, James M. Drawn with the Sword: Reflections on the American Civil War Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996. p. 185. Google Book Search. Retrieved on November 27, 2007. It was delivered at the dedication of the Soldiers' National Cemetery in Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, on the afternoon of Thursday, November 19, 1863, during the American Civil War, four and a half months after the Union armies defeated those of the Confederacy at the decisive Battle of Gettysburg. Abraham Lincoln's carefully crafted address, secondary to other presentations that day, came to be regarded as one of the greatest speeches in American history. In just over two minutes, Lincoln invoked the principles of human equality espoused by the Declaration of Independence and redefined the Civil War as a struggle not merely for the Union, but as "a new birth of freedom" that would bring true equality to all of its citizens, and that would also create a unified nation in which states' rights were no longer dominant. Beginning with the now-iconic phrase "Four score and seven years ago...", Lincoln referred to the events of the Civil War and described the ceremony at Gettysburg as an opportunity not only to consecrate the grounds of a cemetery, but also to dedicate the living to the struggle to ensure that "government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth". Despite the speech's prominent place in the history and popular culture of the United States, the exact wording of the speech is disputed. The five known manuscripts of the Gettysburg Address differ in a number of details and also differ from contemporary newspaper reprints of the speech. 1864 election and second inauguration After Union victories at Gettysburg, Vicksburg and Chattanooga in 1863, overall victory seemed at hand, and Lincoln promoted Ulysses S. Grant General-in-Chief on March 12, 1864. When the spring campaigns turned into bloody stalemates, Lincoln supported Grant's strategy of wearing down Lee's Confederate army at the cost of heavy Union casualties. With an election looming, he easily defeated efforts to deny his renomination. At the Convention, the Republican Party selected Andrew Johnson, a War Democrat from the Southern state of Tennessee, as his running mate in order to form a broader coalition. They ran on the new Union Party ticket uniting Republicans and War Democrats. The only known photographs of Lincoln giving a speech were taken as he delivered his second inaugural address. Here, he stands in the center, with papers in his hand. Nevertheless, Republicans across the country feared that Lincoln would be defeated. Acknowledging this fear, Lincoln wrote and signed a pledge that, if he should lose the election, he would still defeat the Confederacy before turning over the White House: Lincoln did not show the pledge to his cabinet, but asked them to sign the sealed envelope. While the Democratic platform followed the Peace wing of the party and called the war a "failure," their candidate, General George B. McClellan, supported the war and repudiated the platform. Lincoln provided Grant with new replacements and mobilized his party to support Grant and win local support for the war effort. Sherman's capture of Atlanta in September ended defeatist jitters; the Democratic Party was deeply split, with some leaders and most soldiers openly for Lincoln; the Union party was united and energized, and Lincoln was easily reelected in a landslide. He won all but three states. There is a good discussion of Lincoln's 1864 election anxieties and the effect of Sherman's victory at Atlanta in James M. McPherson, Tried by War: Abraham Lincoln as Commander in Chief (New York: Penguin Press, 2008), 231-50. On March 4, 1865, Lincoln delivered his second inaugural address, his favorite of all his speeches. At this time, a victory over the rebels was at hand, slavery was dead, and Lincoln was looking to the future. Conducting the war effort "Running the 'Machine'": An 1864 political cartoon featuring Lincoln; William Fessenden, Edwin Stanton, William Seward and Gideon Welles take a swing at the Lincoln administration The war was a source of constant frustration for the president, and occupied nearly all of his time. He had a contentious relationship with General McClellan, who became general-in-chief of all the Union armies in the wake of the embarrassing Union defeat at the First Battle of Bull Run and after the retirement of Winfield Scott in late 1861. Despite his inexperience in military affairs, Lincoln wanted to take an active part in determining war strategy. His priorities were twofold: to ensure that Washington, D.C. was well defended; and to conduct an aggressive war effort in the hope of ending the war quickly and appeasing the Northern public and press. McClellan, a youthful West Point graduate and railroad executive called back to active military service, took a more cautious approach. He took several months to plan and execute his Peninsula Campaign, with the objective of capturing Richmond by moving the Army of the Potomac by boat to the peninsula between the James and York Rivers. McClellan's delay irritated Lincoln, as did his insistence that no troops were needed to defend Washington, D.C. Lincoln insisted on holding some of McClellan's troops to defend the capital, a decision McClellan blamed for the ultimate failure of the Peninsula Campaign. McClellan, a lifelong Democrat who was temperamentally conservative, was relieved as general-in-chief after releasing his Harrison's Landing Letter, where he offered unsolicited political advice to Lincoln urging caution in the war effort. McClellan's letter incensed Radical Republicans, who successfully pressured Lincoln to appoint John Pope, a Republican, as head of the new Army of Virginia. Pope complied with Lincoln's strategic desire to move toward Richmond from the north, thus protecting the capital from attack. But Pope was soundly defeated at the Second Battle of Bull Run in the summer of 1862, forcing the Army of the Potomac to defend Washington for a second time. In response to his failure, Pope was sent to Minnesota to fight the Sioux. Thomas, "Abraham Lincoln: A Biography (1952) pp 335-8, 346.</ref> An 1864 Mathew Brady photo depicts President Lincoln reading a book with his youngest son, Tad Panicked by Lee's invasion of Maryland, Lincoln restored McClellan to command of all forces around Washington in time for the Battle of Antietam (September 1862). The ensuing Union victory enabled Lincoln to release his Emancipation Proclamation, but he relieved McClellan of his command shortly after the 1862 midterm elections and appointed Republican Ambrose Burnside to head the Army of the Potomac. Burnside had promised to follow through on Lincoln's strategic vision for a strong offensive against Lee and Richmond. After Burnside was stunningly defeated at Fredericksburg, Joseph Hooker was given the command, despite his idle talk about the necessity for a military dictator to win the war and a past history of criticizing his commanders. Hooker was routed by Lee at the Battle of Chancellorsville (May 1863), and relieved of command early in the subsequent Gettysburg Campaign replaced by George Meade. After the Union victory at Gettysburg, Meade's failure to pursue Lee and months of inactivity for the Army of the Potomac persuaded Lincoln to bring in a western general, Ulysses S. Grant. Grant already had a solid string of victories in the Western Theater, including the battles of Vicksburg and Chattanooga. Responding to criticism of Grant, Lincoln replied, "I can't spare this man. He fights."<ref>Thomas, "Abraham Lincoln: A Biography (1952) p. 315. Grant waged his bloody Overland Campaign in 1864 with a strategy of a war of attrition, characterized by high Union losses at battles such as the Wilderness and Cold Harbor, but by proportionately higher Confederate losses. The high casualty figures alarmed the nation and after Grant lost a third of his army Lincoln asked what Grant's plans were. "I propose to fight it out on this line if it takes all summer," replied Grant. Lincoln and the Republican party mobilized support throughout the North, backed Grant to the hilt, and replaced his losses. Thomas, "Abraham Lincoln: A Biography (1952) pp 422-24.</ref> The Confederacy was out of replacements so Lee's army shrank with every battle, forcing it back to trenches outside Petersburg. In April 1865 Lee's army finally crumbled under Grant's pounding, and Richmond fell. Lincoln, in a top hat, with Allan Pinkerton and Major General John Alexander McClernand at Antietam Lincoln authorized Grant to target the Confederate infrastructure — such as plantations, railroads, and bridges — hoping to destroy the South's morale and weaken its economic ability to continue fighting. This allowed Generals Sherman and Sheridan to destroy plantations and towns in the Shenandoah Valley, Georgia, and South Carolina. The damage caused by Sherman's March to the Sea through Georgia totaled in excess of $100 million by Sherman's own estimate. Lincoln possessed a keen understanding of strategic points (such as the Mississippi River and the fortress city of Vicksburg) and understood the importance of defeating the enemy's army, rather than simply capturing cities. He had, however, limited success in motivating his commanders to adopt his strategies until late 1863, when he found a man who shared his vision of the war in Ulysses S. Grant. Only then could he insist on using African American troops and relentlessly pursue a series of coordinated offensives in multiple theaters. Throughout the war, Lincoln showed a keen curiosity with the military campaigns. He spent hours at the War Department telegraph office, reading dispatches from his generals. He visited battle sites frequently, and seemed fascinated by scenes of war. During Jubal Anderson Early's raid on Washington, D.C. in 1864, Lincoln was watching the combat from an exposed position; a captain shouted at him, "Get down, you damn fool, before you get shot!"<ref> The Captain was Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr.; Thomas, "Abraham Lincoln: A Biography (1952) p. 434. Reconstruction Reconstruction began during the war as Lincoln and his associates pondered questions of how to reintegrate the Southern states and what to do with Confederate leaders and the freed slaves. Lincoln led the "moderates" regarding Reconstruction policy, and was usually opposed by the Radical Republicans, under Thaddeus Stevens in the House and Charles Sumner and Benjamin Wade in the Senate (though he cooperated with these men on most other issues). Determined to find a course that would reunite the nation and not alienate the South, Lincoln urged that speedy elections under generous terms be held throughout the war in areas behind Union lines. His Amnesty Proclamation of December 8, 1863, offered pardons to those who had not held a Confederate civil office, had not mistreated Union prisoners, and would sign an oath of allegiance. Critical decisions had to be made as state after state was reconquered. Of special importance were Tennessee, where Lincoln appointed Andrew Johnson as governor, and Louisiana, where Lincoln attempted a plan that would restore statehood when 10% of the voters agreed to it. The Radicals thought this policy too lenient, and passed their own plan, the Wade-Davis Bill, in 1864. When Lincoln pocket-vetoed the bill, the Radicals retaliated by refusing to seat representatives elected from Louisiana, Arkansas, and Tennessee. Near the end of the war, Lincoln made an extended visit to Grant's headquarters at City Point, Virginia. This allowed the president to confer in person with Grant and Sherman about ending hostilities (as Sherman managed a hasty visit to Grant from his forces in North Carolina at the same time); This meeting was memorialized in G.P.A. Healy's famous painting "The Peacemakers." Lincoln also was able to visit Richmond after it was taken by the Union forces and to make a public gesture of sitting at Jefferson Davis's own desk, symbolically saying to the nation that the President of the United States held authority over the entire land. He was greeted at the city as a conquering hero by freed slaves, whose sentiments were epitomized by one admirer's quote, "I know I am free for I have seen the face of Father Abraham and have felt him." When a general asked Lincoln how the defeated Confederates should be treated, Lincoln replied, "Let 'em up easy." ; Lincoln arrived back in Washington on the evening of April 9, 1865, the day Lee surrendered at Appomattox Court House in Virginia. The war was effectively over. The other rebel armies surrendered soon after, and there was no subsequent guerrilla warfare. Home front Redefining Republicanism The last known high-quality photograph of Lincoln, taken March 1865 Lincoln's rhetoric defined the issues of the war for the nation, the world, and posterity. The Gettysburg Address defied Lincoln's own prediction that "the world will little note, nor long remember what we say here." His second inaugural address is also greatly admired and often quoted. In recent years, historians have stressed Lincoln's use of and redefinition of republican values. As early as the 1850s, a time when most political rhetoric focused on the sanctity of the Constitution, Lincoln shifted emphasis to the Declaration of Independence as the foundation of American political values — what he called the "sheet anchor" of republicanism. The Declaration's emphasis on freedom and equality for all, rather than the Constitution's tolerance of slavers, shifted the debate. As Diggins concludes regarding the highly influential Cooper Union speech, "Lincoln presented Americans a theory of history that offers a profound contribution to the theory and destiny of republicanism itself." His position gained strength because he highlighted the moral basis of republicanism, rather than its legalisms. Nevertheless, in 1861 Lincoln justified the war in terms of legalisms (the Constitution was a contract, and for one party to get out of a contract all the other parties had to agree), and then in terms of the national duty to guarantee a "republican form of government" in every state. That duty was also the principle underlying federal intervention in Reconstruction. In his Gettysburg Address Lincoln redefined the American nation, arguing that it was born not in 1789 but in 1776, "conceived in Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal." He declared that the sacrifices of battle had rededicated the nation to the propositions of democracy and equality, "that this nation shall have a new birth of freedom — and that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth." By emphasizing the centrality of the nation, he rebuffed the claims of state sovereignty. While some critics say Lincoln moved too far and too fast, they agree that he dedicated the nation to values that marked "a new founding of the nation." Civil liberties suspended During the Civil War, Lincoln appropriated powers no previous President had wielded: he used his war powers to proclaim a blockade, suspended the writ of habeas corpus, spent money before Congress appropriated it, and imprisoned 18,000 suspected Confederate sympathizers without trial. Neely (1992) Domestic measures Lincoln believed in the Whig theory of the presidency, which left Congress to write the laws while he signed them, vetoing only those bills that threatened his war powers. Thus, he signed the Homestead Act in 1862, making millions of acres of government-held land in the West available for purchase at very low cost. The Morrill Land-Grant Colleges Act, also signed in 1862, provided government grants for agricultural universities in each state. The Pacific Railway Acts of 1862 and 1864 granted federal support for the construction of the United States' First Transcontinental Railroad, which was completed in 1869. Other important legislation involved two measures to raise revenues for the Federal government: tariffs (a policy with long precedent), and a Federal income tax (which was new). In 1861, Lincoln signed the second and third Morrill Tariff (the first had become law under James Buchanan). In 1862, Lincoln signed legislation creating the first U.S. income tax. Marginal rates were 3% on incomes between $600 and $10,000 and 5% on income above $10,000. (Adjusted for inflation, $600 was the equivalent of $12,325 in 2007 US dollars). In 1864, income-tax rates were raised to 5% on incomes between $600 and $5,000, 7.5% on income between $5,000 and $10,000, and 10% tax on income above that. Lincoln also presided over the creation of the system of national banks by the National Banking Acts of 1863, 1864, and 1865, which allowed the creation of a strong national financial system. Congress created and Lincoln approved the Department of Agriculture in 1862, although that institution would not become a Cabinet-level department until 1889. The Legal Tender Act of 1862 established the United States Note, the first paper currency in United States history since the Continentals that were issued during the Revolution. This was done to increase the money supply to pay for fighting the war. During the war, Lincoln's Treasury Department effectively controlled all cotton trade in the occupied South — the most dramatic incursion of federal controls on the economy. In 1862, Lincoln sent a senior general, John Pope, to put down the "Sioux Uprising" in Minnesota. Presented with 303 death warrants for convicted Santee Dakota who were accused of killing innocent farmers; Lincoln affirmed 39 of these for execution (one was later reprieved). Abraham Lincoln is largely responsible for the institution of the Thanksgiving holiday in the United States. Prior to Lincoln's presidency, Thanksgiving, while a regional holiday in New England since the 17th century, had only been proclaimed by the federal government sporadically, and on irregular dates. The last such proclamation was during James Madison's presidency fifty years before. In 1863, Lincoln declared the final Thursday in November to be a day of Thanksgiving, and the holiday has been celebrated annually at that time ever since. 1863 Thanksgiving proclamation from National Park Service Assassination The assassination of Abraham Lincoln. From left to right: Henry Rathbone, Clara Harris, Mary Todd Lincoln, Abraham Lincoln and John Wilkes Booth Originally, John Wilkes Booth, a well-known actor and a Confederate spy from Maryland, had formulated a plan to kidnap Lincoln in exchange for the release of Confederate prisoners. After attending an April 11 speech in which Lincoln promoted voting rights for blacks, an incensed Booth changed his plans and determined to assassinate the president. Learning that the President and First Lady would be attending Ford's Theatre, he laid his plans, assigning his co-conspirators to assassinate Vice President Andrew Johnson and Secretary of State William H. Seward. Without his main bodyguard Ward Hill Lamon, to whom he related his famous dream regarding his own assassination, Lincoln left to attend the play Our American Cousin on April 14, 1865. As a lone bodyguard wandered, and Lincoln sat in his state box (Box 7) in the balcony, Booth crept up behind the President and waited for what he thought would be the funniest line of the play ("You sock-dologizing old man-trap"), hoping the laughter would muffle the noise of the gunshot. When the laughter began, Booth jumped into the box and aimed a single-shot, round-slug 0.44 caliber Derringer at his head, firing at point-blank range. Major Henry Rathbone momentarily grappled with Booth but was cut by Booth's knife. Booth then leaped to the stage and shouted "Sic semper tyrannis!" () and escaped, despite a broken leg suffered in the leap. A twelve-day manhunt ensued, in which Booth was chased by Federal agents (under the direction of Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton). He was eventually cornered in a Virginia barn house and shot, dying of his wounds soon after. Lincoln's funeral train carried his remains, as well as 300 mourners and the casket of his son, William, to Illinois An army surgeon, Doctor Charles Leale, initially assessed Lincoln's wound as mortal. The President was taken across the street from the theater to the Petersen House, where he lay in a coma for nine hours before dying. Several physicians attended Lincoln, including U.S. Army Surgeon General Joseph K. Barnes of the Army Medical Museum. Using a probe, Barnes located some fragments of Lincoln's skull and the ball lodged inside his brain. Lincoln never regained consciousness and was pronounced dead at 7:22:10 a.m. April 15, 1865. He was the first president to be assassinated or to lie in state. Lincoln's body was carried by train in a grand funeral procession through several states on its way back to Illinois. While much of the nation mourned him as the savior of the United States, Copperheads celebrated the death of a man they considered a tyrant. The Lincoln Tomb in Oak Ridge Cemetery in Springfield, is tall and, by 1874, was surmounted with several bronze statues of Lincoln. To prevent repeated attempts to steal Lincoln's body and hold it for ransom, Robert Todd Lincoln had it exhumed and reinterred in concrete several feet thick in 1901. Administration, Cabinet and Supreme Court appointments 1861-1865 The Lincoln CabinetOFFICENAMETERMPresident Abraham Lincoln 1861–1865Vice President Hannibal Hamlin 1861–1865 Andrew Johnson 1865State William H. Seward 1861–1865War Simon Cameron 1861–1862 Edwin M. Stanton 1862–1865Treasury Salmon P. Chase 1861–1864 William P. Fessenden 1864–1865 Hugh McCulloch 1865Justice Edward Bates 1861–1864 James Speed 1864–1865Post Montgomery Blair 1861–1864 William Dennison 1864–1865Navy Gideon Welles 1861–1865Interior Caleb B. Smith 1861–1862 John P. Usher 1864–1865 Official White House portrait of Abraham Lincoln by George Peter Alexander Healy Lincoln appointed the following Justices to the Supreme Court of the United States: Noah Haynes Swayne – 1862 Samuel Freeman Miller – 1862 David Davis – 1862 Stephen Johnson Field – 1863 Salmon P. Chase – Chief Justice – 1864 Religious and philosophical beliefs In March 1860 in a speech in New Haven, Connecticut, Lincoln said, with respect to slavery, “Whenever this question shall be settled, it must be settled on some philosophical basis. No policy that does not rest upon some philosophical public opinion can be permanently maintained." The philosophical basis for Lincoln’s beliefs regarding slavery and other issues of the day require that Lincoln be examined "seriously as a man of ideas." Lincoln was a strong supporter of the American Whig version of liberal capitalism who, more than most politicians of the time, was able to express his ideas within the context of Nineteenth Century religious beliefs. There were few people who strongly or directly influenced Lincoln’s moral and intellectual development and perspectives. There was no teacher, mentor, church leader, community leader, or peer that Lincoln would credit in later years as a strong influence on his intellectual development. Lacking a formal education, Lincoln’s personal philosophy was shaped by "an amazingly retentive memory and a passion for reading and learning." It was Lincoln’s reading, rather than his relationships, that were most influential in shaping his personal beliefs. Lincoln did, even as a boy, largely reject organized religion, but the Calvinistic "doctrine of necessity" would remain a factor throughout his life. In 1846 Lincoln described the effect of this doctrine as "that the human mind is impelled to action, or held in rest by some power, over which the mind itself has no control." In April 1864, in justifying his actions in regard to Emancipation, Lincoln wrote, "I claim not to have controlled events, but confess plainly that events have controlled me. Now, at the end of three years struggle the nation's condition is not what either party, or any man devised, or expected. God alone can claim it." As Lincoln matured, and especially during his term as president, the idea of a divine will somehow interacting with human affairs more and more influenced his public expressions. On a personal level, the death of his son Willie in February 1862 may have caused Lincoln to look towards religion for answers and solace. After Willie’s death, in the summer or early fall of 1862, Lincoln attempted to put on paper his private musings on why, from a divine standpoint, the severity of the war was necessary: Lincoln’s religious skepticism was fueled by his exposure to the ideas of the Lockean Enlightenment and classical liberalism, especially economic liberalism. Consistent with the common practice of the Whig party, Lincoln would often use the Declaration of Independence as the philosophical and moral expression of these two philosophies. In a February 22, 1861 speech at Independence Hall in Philadelphia Lincoln said, He found in the Declaration justification for Whig economic policy and opposition to territorial expansion and the nativist platform of the Know Nothings. In claiming that all men were created free, Lincoln and the Whigs argued that this freedom required economic advancement, expanded education, territory to grow, and the ability of the nation to absorb the growing immigrant population. It was the Declaration of Independence, rather than the Bible, that Lincoln most relied on in order to oppose any further territorial expansion of slavery. He saw the Declaration as more than a political document. To him, as well as to many abolitionists and other antislavery leaders, it was, foremost, a moral document that had forever determined valuable criteria in shaping the future of the nation. Medical history and "Melancholy" Illnesses included: frostbitten feet, malaria, physical trauma and smallpox. Claims that Lincoln had syphilis about 1835 have been controversial, but a recent analysis finds them credible. See also: and Despite having multiple illnesses in his life, his health up until middle age was not particularly poor for his day. http://www.doctorzebra.com/prez/g16.htm As a child, Lincoln was tall for his age. He reached his adult height of no later than age 21. Friends noticed his arms, legs, hands, and feet were long. Although well muscled as a young adult, he was always thin. Fragmentary evidence says he weighed over 200 pounds in his mid-20s, but his official weight upon his taking office as president was 180 pounds and he is believed to have weighed even less further along in his presidency. Based on Lincoln's unusual physical appearance, Dr. Abraham Gordon proposed in 1962 that Lincoln had Marfan syndrome. Lincoln's unremarkable cardiovascular history and his normal visual acuity have been the chief objections to the theory, and today the diagnosis is considered unlikely. See also: Testing Lincoln's DNA for Marfan syndrome was contemplated in the 1990s, but such a test was not performed. In 2007, Dr. John Sotos proposed that Lincoln had multiple endocrine neoplasia, type 2B (MEN2B). This theory suggests Lincoln had all the major features of the disease: a marfan-like body shape, large, bumpy lips, constipation, hypotonia, a history compatible with cancer and a family history of the disorder - his sons Eddie, Willie, and Tad, and probably his mother. The "mole" on Lincoln's right cheek, the asymmetry of his face, his large jaw, his drooping eyelid, and "pseudo-depression" are also suggested as manifestations of MEN2B. Lincoln's longevity is the principal challenge to the MEN2B theory, which could be proven by DNA testing. Sotos and medical historian Jacob Appel have recently campaigned to have such testing conducted on a pillowcase stained with Lincoln's blood that is owned by the Grand Army of the Republic Civil War Museum and Library in Philadelphia, an effort that has generated considerable debate among privacy advocates. Abe's DNA: Public or Private? Orlando Sentinel, May 4, 2009; Scientist Wants to Test Abraham Lincoln’s Bloodstained Pillow for Cancer Discover Magazine April 20, 2009; Lincoln'd Shroud of Turin, Philadelphila Inquirer, April 13, 2009. Another genetic condition ascribed to Lincoln by some researchers is ataxia. Descendants of his immediate family have been tested and some of them have various forms of it. Lincoln was regularly reported to suffer from "melancholy". Some biographers have controversially diagnosed him with clinical depression and bipolar disorder, but these theories have generally been dismissed. http://www.doctorzebra.com/prez/g16.htm#15 Mainly, his reported "melancholy" affected at times of great political stress or warfare and after losing a loved one, neither of which are unusual. He lost the two women (his mother and his sister) he loved very much when he was extremely young. This "melancholy" was also reinforced later in his life by the losses of his stepmother and his very first love, Ann Rutledge. Mary Lincoln felt her husband to be too trusting and his "melancholy" also struck at times he was betrayed or unsupported by those he put faith in. http://books.google.com/books?id=Ja16KVw5CqEC&pg=PA154&lpg=PA154&dq=Lincoln+too+trusting&source=bl&ots=NLODGE8vPr&sig=tLGTwsu0Gt2ZLgx-2u--ZO5nVpk&hl=en&ei=NwawSYyUEuH8tgf_-ZCBBg&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=3&ct=result Other people have suggested that he was simply a private person who took solace in solitude. They argue that this can be seen in some of his actions as both a young boy and adult. Some of these actions included withdrawing himself from a crowd to read when he was a little boy, and even retreating to his privacy to find a solution to a problem. As an adult, Lincoln would often slip into depression, and emerge a short time later full of humor and happiness. Some people suggest that Lincoln's humor was actually a healthy way to cope with his depression. Goodwin, Doris Kearns. Team of Rivals. New York, NY. Simon & Schuster, Inc. 2005 Unlike the quiet, deep voice later used by impersonators and actors, Lincoln reportedly had a strikingly high-pitched speaking voice which aided him at times when he needed to be heard by crowds of thousands before the existence of microphones. Despite his legendary talent as orator, he was said to have been shy and awkward in intimate social situations, especially in his youth. Legacy and memorials The Apotheosis of Abraham Lincoln, greeted by George Washington in heaven (an 1860s work) Lincoln's death made the President a martyr to many. Repeated polls of historians have ranked Lincoln as among the greatest presidents in U.S. history, often appearing in the first position. Among contemporary admirers, Lincoln is usually seen as personifying classical values of honesty and integrity, as well as respect for individual and minority rights, and human freedom in general. Many American organizations of all purposes and agendas continue to cite his name and image, with interests ranging from the gay rights-supporting Log Cabin Republicans to the insurance corporation Lincoln National Corporation. The Lincoln automobile brand is also named after him. detnews.com | Michigan History The ballistic missile submarine Abraham Lincoln (SSBN-602) and the aircraft carrier Abraham Lincoln (CVN-72) were named in his honor. Also, the Liberty ship SS Nancy Hanks was named for his mother. During the Spanish Civil War, the American faction of the International Brigades named themselves the Abraham Lincoln Brigade. Lincoln has been memorialized in many city names, notably the capital of Nebraska. Lincoln, Illinois, is the only city to be named for Abraham Lincoln before he became President. Lincoln's name and image appear in numerous places. These include the Lincoln Memorial in Washington, D.C., the U.S. Lincoln $5 bill and the Lincoln cent, Lincoln's sculpture on the Mount Rushmore, and the Lincoln Home National Historic Site in Springfield, Illinois. In addition, New Salem, Illinois (a reconstruction of Lincoln's early adult hometown), Ford's Theatre, and Petersen House (where he died) are all preserved as museums. The Lincoln Shrine in Redlands, California, is located behind the A.K. Smiley Public Library. The state nickname for Illinois is Land of Lincoln; the slogan has appeared continuously on nearly all Illinois license plates issued since 1954. Counties in 18 U.S. states (Arkansas, Colorado, Idaho, Kansas, Maine, Minnesota, Mississippi, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, New Mexico, Oklahoma, Oregon, West Virginia, Washington, Wisconsin, and Wyoming) are named after Lincoln. Abraham Lincoln's birthday, February 12, was formerly a national holiday, now commemorated as Presidents Day. However, it is still observed in Illinois and many other states as a separate legal holiday, Lincoln's Birthday. A dozen states have legal holidays celebrating the third Monday in February as Presidents Day as a combination Washington-Lincoln Day. To commemorate his upcoming 200th birthday in February 2009, Congress established the Abraham Lincoln Bicentennial Commission (ALBC) in 2000. Dedicated to renewing American appreciation of Lincoln's legacy, the 15-member commission is made up of lawmakers and scholars and also features an advisory board of over 130 various Lincoln historians and enthusiasts. Located at Library of Congress in Washington, D.C., the ALBC is the organizing force behind numerous tributes, programs and cultural events highlighting a two-year celebration scheduled to begin in February 2008 at Lincoln's birthplace: Hodgenville, Kentucky. Lincoln's birthplace and family home are national historic memorials: the Abraham Lincoln Birthplace National Historic Site in Hodgenville, and the Lincoln Home National Historic Site in Springfield, Illinois. The Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum opened in Springfield in 2005; it is a major tourist attraction, with state-of-the-art exhibits. The Abraham Lincoln National Cemetery is located in Elwood, Illinois. The Abraham Lincoln Library and Museum is located in Harrogate, Tennessee. On Wednesday 11 March 2009 the National Museum of American History found a message engraved inside Lincoln's watch by a watchmaker named Jonathan Dillon who was repairing it at the outbreak of the American Civil War. The engraving reads (in part): "Fort Sumpter was attacked by the rebels" and "thank God we have a government." Images of Lincoln See also American School, Lincoln's economic views. Abraham Lincoln's burial and exhumation Electoral history of Abraham Lincoln Lincoln Boyhood National Memorial Lincoln Memorial University References Books referenced Neely, Mark E. The Fate of Liberty: Abraham Lincoln and Civil Liberties (1992). Pulitzer Prize winner. online version Further reading Biographies Isaac N. Arnold, The Life of Abraham Lincoln (1885), written by Lincoln's friend and political ally William H Herndon, Lincoln Beveridge, Albert J. Abraham Lincoln: 1809-1858 (1928). 2 vol. to 1858; notable for strong, unbiased political coverage online edition Richard Carwardine. Lincoln: A Life of Purpose and Power ISBN 1400044561 (2003), winner of the 2004 Lincoln Prize from Gettysburg College David Herbert Donald. Lincoln (1995), major scholarly biography by winner of two Pulitzer prizes William E. Gienapp. Abraham Lincoln and Civil War America: A Biography by ISBN 0-19-515099-6 (2002), short online edition John Hay & John George Nicolay. Abraham Lincoln: a History (1890); Vol 1 and Vol 2 10 vols in all; detailed narrative of era by Lincoln's aides Reinhard H Luthin The Real Abraham Lincoln (1960), emphasis on politics Mark E. Neely. The Abraham Lincoln Encyclopedia (1984), detailed articles on many men and movements associated with AL Mark E. Neely. The Last Best Hope of Earth: Abraham Lincoln and the Promise of America (1993), Pulitzer prize winning author Stephen B. Oates. With Malice Toward None: The Life of Abraham Lincoln (1994) James G. Randall. Lincoln the President (4 vol., 1945–55; reprint 2000.) by prize winning scholar. Mr. Lincoln excerpts ed. by Richard N. Current (1957) Ingri and Edgar Parin d'Aulaire, Abraham Lincoln (1939), for children Carl Sandburg. Abraham Lincoln: The Prairie Years (two volumes) and The War Years (four volumes) (1926 and many editions), beautifully written tribue by famous poet Benjamin P. Thomas. Abraham Lincoln: A Biography (1952); online edition John C. Waugh. One Man Great Enough: Abraham Lincoln’s Road to Civil War ISBN 978-0-15-101071-4 (2007), Harcourt John C. Waugh. Reelecting Lincoln: The Battle for the 1864 Presidency ISBN 0-517-59766-7 (1997), Crown Publishers Specialty topics Angle, Paul M., Here I Have Lived: A History of Lincoln's Springfield, 1821-1865, (1935) online edition Baker, Jean H. Mary Todd Lincoln: A Biography (1987) online edition Belz, Herman. Abraham Lincoln, Constitutionalism, and Equal Rights in the Civil War Era (1998) Boritt, Gabor S. Lincoln and the Economics of the American Dream (1994). Lincoln's economic theory and policies Boritt, Gabor S. ed. Lincoln the War President (1994) Boritt, Gabor S., ed. The Historian's Lincoln U. of Illinois Press, 1988, historiography Bruce, Robert V. Lincoln and the Tools of War (1956) on weapons development during the war online edition Bush, Bryan S. Lincoln and the Speeds: The Untold Story of a Devoted and Enduring Friendship (2008) ISBN 978-0-9798802-6-1 Chittenden, Lucius E., Recollections of President Lincoln and His Administration, (1891). – Google Books Donald, David Herbert. Lincoln Reconsidered: Essays on the Civil War Era (1960) Donald, David Herbert. We Are Lincoln Men: Abraham Lincoln and His Friends Simon & Schuster, (2003). Guelzo, Allen C., Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation: The End of Slavery in America, Simon & Schuster (2004). ISBN 0743221826 Guelzo, Allen C., Lincoln and Douglas: The Debates that Defined America, Simon & Schuster (2008). ISBN 978-0743273206 Harris, William C. With Charity for All: Lincoln and the Restoration of the Union (1997). AL's plans for Reconstruction Hendrick, Burton J. Lincoln's War Cabinet (1946) online edition Hofstadter, Richard. The American Political Tradition: And the Men Who Made It (1948) ch 5: "Abraham Lincoln and the Self-Made Myth" Howe, Daniel Walker, Why Abraham Lincoln Was a Whig. Journal of the Abraham Lincoln Association 16.1 (1995) Kunhardt Jr., Phillip B., Kunhardt III, Phillip, and Kunhardt, Peter W. Lincoln: An Illustrated Biography. Gramercy Books, New York, 1992. ISBN 0-517-20715-X Marshall, John A., " American Bastille" (1870) Fifth edition: A History of the Illegal Arrests and Imprisonment of American Citizens in the Northern and Border States on Account of Their political opinions during the late Civil War. Part 1 McPherson, James M. Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era (1988). Pulitzer Prize winner surveys all aspects of the war Morgenthau, Hans J., and David Hein. Essays on Lincoln's Faith and Politics. White Burkett Miller Center of Public Affairs at the U of Virginia, 1983. Neely, Mark E. The Fate of Liberty: Abraham Lincoln and Civil Liberties (1992). Pulitzer Prize winner. online version Oakes, James. The Radical and the Republican: Frederick Douglass, Abraham Lincoln, and the Triumph of Antislavery Politics. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, Inc. 2007. ISBN 0-39306194-9 Ostendorf, Lloyd, and Hamilton, Charles, Lincoln in Photographs: An Album of Every Known Pose, Morningside House Inc., 1963, ISBN 089029-087-3. Paludan, Philip S. The Presidency of Abraham Lincoln (1994), thorough treatment of Lincoln's administration Peterson, Merrill D. Lincoln in American Memory (1994). how Lincoln was remembered after 1865 Polsky, Andrew J. "'Mr. Lincoln's Army' Revisited: Partisanship, Institutional Position, and Union Army Command, 1861–1865." Studies in American Political Development (2002), 16: 176-207 Randall, James G. Lincoln the Liberal Statesman (1947) Richardson, Heather Cox. The Greatest Nation of the Earth: Republican Economic Policies during the Civil War (1997) Shenk, Joshua Wolf. Lincoln's Melancholy: How Depression Challenged a President and Fueled His Greatness (2005) Kenneth P. Williams. Lincoln Finds a General: A Military Study of the Civil War (1959) 5 volumes on Lincoln's control of the war Williams, T. Harry. Lincoln and His Generals (1967). Wilson, Douglas L. Lincoln's Sword: The Presidency and the Power of Words(2006) ISBN 1-4000-4039-6. Lincoln in art and popular culture Primary sources Fehrenbacher, Don E., ed. Abraham Lincoln: Speeches and Writings 1832-1858 (Library of America, ed. 1989) ISBN 978-0-94045043-1 Fehrenbacher, Don E., ed. Abraham Lincoln: Speeches and Writings 1859-1865 (Library of America, ed. 1989) ISBN 978-0-94045063-9 External links – Speeches and writings The Life of Lincoln by Henry Ketcham — Free full-length recording Lincoln and the Moral Imagination, City Journal online, 2-11-09 Lincoln Studies Center at Knox College Photographs of Abraham Lincoln The Lincoln Institute Mr. Lincoln's Virtual Library Poetry written by Abraham Lincoln Lincoln quotes collected by Roger Norton The Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum Springfield, Illinois The Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln President Lincoln’s Cottage — Manner of Buoying Vessels — A. Lincoln — 1849 Lincoln's Patent National Park Service Abraham Lincoln birthplace (includes good early history) National Endowment for the Humanities Spotlight – Abraham Lincoln Research Center provides finding aid to article subject from the Special Collections, Washington State Historical Society (WSHS) The Abraham Lincoln Bicentennial Commission Lincoln Memorial Washington, DC Digitized books about Abraham Lincoln from the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign Library Lincoln/Net: Abraham Lincoln Historical Digitization Project, Northern Illinois University Libraries Lincoln Home National Historic Site:A Place of Growth and Memory, lesson plan Lincoln Boyhood National Memorial: Forging Greatness during Lincoln's Youth, lesson plan Abraham Lincoln: A Resource Guide from the Library of Congress Essay on Abraham Lincoln and shorter essays on each member of his cabinet and First Lady from the Miller Center of Public Affairs Project Gutenberg eTexts List of includes major (and minor) state papers, but not speeches or letters to 1856; coverage of national politics. (1832 to 1901) ; covers 1856 to early 1861; coverage of national politics; part of 10 volume "life and times" by Lincoln's aides (1866 to 1954) ; popular ; a solid scholarly biography ; popular ; popular | Abraham_Lincoln |@lemmatized abraham:80 lincoln:396 february:13 april:12 president:46 united:21 state:81 successfully:4 lead:6 country:4 great:8 internal:1 crisis:2 american:29 civil:25 war:78 preserve:5 union:39 end:13 slavery:32 draw:1 close:3 become:13 first:30 assassinate:4 election:20 republican:37 lawyer:4 illinois:36 legislator:1 member:6 house:19 representative:5 twice:1 unsuccessful:2 candidate:6 u:17 senate:5 outspoken:1 opponent:3 expansion:4 win:16 party:35 nomination:3 elect:8 later:10 year:18 tenure:1 office:8 occupy:2 primarily:1 defeat:9 secessionist:5 confederate:13 america:10 introduce:1 measure:3 result:4 abolition:2 issue:9 emancipation:11 proclamation:15 promote:3 passage:2 thirteenth:3 amendment:5 constitution:11 pass:4 congress:14 death:6 ratify:1 closely:1 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5,292 | Chris_Cunningham | Chris Cunningham is an acclaimed English music video film director and video artist. He was born in Reading, Berkshire in 1970 and grew up in Lakenheath, Suffolk. The video collection The Work of Director Chris Cunningham was released in November 2004 as part of the Directors Label set. This DVD includes selected highlights from 1995–2000. Music Videos Cunningham has had close ties to Warp Records since his first production for Autechre. His infamous videos for Aphex Twin's "Come to Daddy" and "Windowlicker" are perhaps his most well known. His video for Björk's "All Is Full of Love" won multiple awards, including an MTV music video award for Breakthrough Video and was nominated for a Grammy for Best Short Form Music Video. It was also the first ever music video to win a Gold Pencil at the D&AD Awards. It can still be seen at the Museum of Modern Art in New York. His video for Aphex Twin's "Windowlicker" was nominated for the "Best Video" award at the Brit Awards 2000. He also directed Madonna's "Frozen" video. Video Art His video installation flex was first shown in 2000 at the Royal Academy of Arts, and subsequently at the Anthony d'Offay Gallery and other art galleries. flex was commissioned by the Anthony d'Offay Gallery for the Apocalpse: Beauty & Horror in Contemporary Art exhibition curated by Norman Rosenthal and Max Wigram at the Royal Academy of Arts in 2000. Monkey Drummer is a 2 1/2 minute accompanying piece to flex, also commissiond by the Anthony d'Offay Gallery which was meant to be exhibited with flex at the 2000 Apocalypse exhibition at the Royal Academy of Arts but it was not finished in time. In it a mechanical automata monkey with multiple appendages plays the drums to Aphex Twin's dense Mt Saint Michel + Saint Michaels Mount, the 10th track on his 2001 album druqks. Monkey Drummer was debuted at the 49th International Exhibition of Art at the 2001 Venice Bienalle . Chris' installation consisted of a loop of Monkey Drummer, flex, and his video for Bjork's All Is Full of Love. In 2008 an excerpt from flex was shown in the Barbican's exhibition Seduced: Art and Sex from Antiquity to Now curated by Martin Kemp, Marina Wallace and Joanne Bernstein. alongside other pieces by Bacon, Klimt, Rembrandt, Rodin and Picasso. http://www.artandpopularculture.com/Seduced,_Art_and_Sex_from_Antiquity_to_Now}} } Short Films In 2005 Cunningham released the short film Rubber Johnny as a DVD accompanied by a book of photographs and drawings. Rubber Johnny, a six-minute experimental short film cut to a soundtrack by Aphex Twin, remixed by Cunningham was shot between 2001 and 2004. Shot on DV night-vision, it was made in Cunningham's own time as a home movie of sorts, and took three and half years of weekends to complete. The Telegraph called it "like a Looney Tunes short for a generation raised on video nasties and rave music". http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/film/3642759/Cheap-but-never-cheerful.}} } During this period Cunningham also made another short film for Warp Films, Spectral Musicians, which remains unreleased. The short film was edited to music by Squarepusher, My Fucking Sound, from the album Go Plastic and a piece called Mutilation Colony, http://www.no-future.com/erutufon/showthread.php?t=7237}} } which was written especially for the short and was released on the EP Do You Know Squarepusher. Commercials Cunningham has directed a handful of commercials for various companies including Gucci, PlayStation, Levis, Telecom Italia, Nissan and Orange. Music Production In 2004/2005 Cunningham took a sabbatical from filmmaking to learn about music production and recording and develop his own music projects. In December 2007 Cunningham produced two tracks, Three Decades and Primary Colours, for the new Horrors album Primary Colours http://drownedinsound.com/news/3050246}} } . In the summer of 2008, due to scheduling conflicts with his feature film script writing he couldn't work on the rest of the album which was subsequently recorded by Geoff Barrow from Portishead. In 2008 he produced and arranged a new version of 'I Feel Love' for the Gucci commercial that he also directed. He travelled to Nashville to work with Donna Summer to record a brand new vocal for it http://www.dazeddigital.com/Fashion/article/2978/1/Chris_Cunningham_Feels_Love_for_Guccis_Flora_}} } . Chris Cunningham Live In 2005 Cunningham played a 45 minute audio visual piece performed live in Tokyo and Osaka in front of 30,000+ Japanese fans over the two nights at Japan’s premier electronic music event Electraglide. These performances have recently evolved into Chris Cunningham Live, a 55 minute long performance piece combining original and remixed music and film. It features remixed, unreleased and brand new videos and music dynamically edited together into a new live piece spread over 3 screens. The sound accompanying these images includes Cunningham’s first publicly preformed compositions interspersed with his remixes of other artist’s work. Chris Cunningham Live debuted as one of the headline attractions at Warp 20 in Paris on May 8, 2009 with other performances scheduled at festivals in UK, and a number of European cities later in the year. Photography Cunningham has created photography and cover artwork for various people including Bjork's All Is Full Of Love, Aphex Twin's Windowlicker and Come to Daddy. In 2008, Cunningham produced a fashion shoot for Dazed & Confused using Grace Jones as a model to create "Nubian versions" of Rubber Johnny. Grace Jones photoshoot for Dazed and Confused In an interview for BBC's "The Culture Show", it was suggested that the collaboration may expand into a video project. Grace Jones Culture Show interview which covers the D&C shoot In November 2008, Cunningham followed on with another photoshoot for Vice Magazine. Chris Cunningham Photoshoot for Vice Magazine Films NeuromancerIn 2000 Cunningham and William Gibson began work on the script for Gibson's novel Neuromancer. However because Neuromancer was due to be a big budget Studio film it is rumoured that Cunningham pulled out due to being a first time director without final cut approval. He also felt that too much of the original book's ideas had been cannibalised by other recent films. On November 18, 2004, in the FAQ on the William Gibson Board, Gibson was asked: Q: Is it true there's a movie of Neuromancer in the works? A: Perpetually, it seems, and going on a quarter of a century now. The most recently rumoured version, to have been directed by Chris Cunningham, is now definitely not happening. In an August 1999 Spike Magazine interview, Gibson stated "He (Chris) was brought to my attention by someone else. We were told, third-hand, that he was extremely chary of the Hollywood process, and wouldn't return calls. But someone else told us that Neuromancer had been his Wind In The Willows, that he'd read it when he was a kid. I went to London and we met." Gibson is also quoted in the article as saying "Chris is my own 100 per cent personal choice...My only choice. The only person I've met who I thought might have a hope in hell of doing it right. I went back to see him in London just after he'd finished the Bjork video, and I sat on a couch beside this dead sex little Bjork robot, except it was wearing Aphex Twin's head. We talked." It is rumoured that in Gibson's 2003 novel Pattern Recognition that the character Damien Pease was based on Chris Cunningham with the character's apartment featuring a female robot which had appeared in one of his videos.Feature Films and Production Company'Development funding was in place for Cunningham to direct and co-write his first feature film for Warp Films, with whom Chris was at the time committed to "for all future full-length film projects." He has since left Warp Films to set up his own production company 'CC Co' to produce his films independently. Early Work In 1989, Cunningham worked at Spitting Image, building animatronic robot arms and sculpting caricatures for the TV series. In 1990 he worked on sculpture and animatronics for the film Alien³. After seeing Cunningham's work on the 1994 film version Judge Dredd, Stanley Kubrick head hunted Cunningham Dazed & Confused - Interview with Chris Cunningham to design and supervise animatronic tests of the central robot child character in his version of the film A.I. Cunningham worked for over a year on the film A.I., before leaving to pursue a career as a director. Earlier work in film included model making, prosthetic make-up and concept illustrations for Hardware and Dust Devil with director Richard Stanley, as well as Nightbreed. In 1990–1992 he contributed the occasional cover painting and strip for Judge Dredd Megazine, working under the pseudonym Chris Halls, the surname of his stepfather. 2000AD Online - droid zone Director Filmography "Second Bad Vilbel" (1996) video for Autechre "Back With The Killer Again" (1996) video for The Auteurs "Light Aircraft on Fire" (1996) video for The Auteurs "36 Degrees" (1996) video for Placebo "The Next Big Thing" (1997) video for Jesus Jones "Come To Daddy" (1997) video for Aphex Twin "Only You" (1998) video for Portishead "Frozen" (1998) video for Madonna "Come On My Selector" (1998) video for Squarepusher "All Is Full of Love" (1999) video for Björk "Windowlicker" (1999) video for Aphex Twin "Afrika Shox" (1999) video for Leftfield and Afrika Bambaataa "Mental Wealth" (1999) commercial for PlayStation "Flex" (2000), using sounds created by Aphex Twin "Monkey Drummer" (2001), using "Mt Saint Michel + Saint Michaels mount" from Aphex Twin's album Drukqs "Rubber Johnny" (2005), using "Afx237 V7" from Aphex Twin's album Drukqs'' "Sheena Is A Parasite" (2006), video for The Horrors "Gucci Flora" (2009) commercial for Gucci Perfume References External links Music Video Database entry Director File - Chris Cunningham documents all of Chris' work DirectorsLabel.com - co-founded with Spike Jonze and Michel Gondry 2000 AD profile 2005 interview Gucci Flora film | Chris_Cunningham |@lemmatized chris:16 cunningham:30 acclaimed:1 english:1 music:14 video:35 film:25 director:8 artist:2 bear:1 reading:1 berkshire:1 grow:1 lakenheath:1 suffolk:1 collection:1 work:14 release:3 november:3 part:1 label:1 set:2 dvd:2 include:6 select:1 highlight:1 close:1 tie:1 warp:5 record:3 since:2 first:6 production:5 autechre:2 infamous:1 aphex:11 twin:11 come:4 daddy:3 windowlicker:4 perhaps:1 well:2 know:2 björk:2 full:5 love:5 win:2 multiple:2 award:5 mtv:1 breakthrough:1 nominate:2 grammy:1 best:2 short:8 form:1 also:7 ever:1 gold:1 pencil:1 ad:2 still:1 see:3 museum:1 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5,293 | Johannes_Kepler | Johannes Kepler () (December 27, 1571 – November 15, 1630) was a German mathematician, astronomer and astrologer, and key figure in the 17th century scientific revolution. He is best known for his eponymous laws of planetary motion, codified by later astronomers based on his works Astronomia nova, Harmonices Mundi, and Epitome of Copernican Astrononomy. They also provided one of the foundations for Isaac Newton's theory of universal gravitation. During his career, Kepler was a mathematics teacher at a seminary school in Graz, Austria, an assistant to astronomer Tycho Brahe, the court mathematician to Emperor Rudolf II, a mathematics teacher in Linz, Austria, and an adviser to General Wallenstein. He also did fundamental work in the field of optics, invented an improved version of the refracting telescope (the Keplerian Telescope), and helped to legitimize the telescopic discoveries of his contemporary Galileo Galilei. Kepler lived in an era when there was no clear distinction between astronomy and astrology, but there was a strong division between astronomy (a branch of mathematics within the liberal arts) and physics (a branch of natural philosophy). Kepler also incorporated religious arguments and reasoning into his work, motivated by the religious conviction that God had created the world according to an intelligible plan that is accessible through the natural light of reason. Barker and Goldstein, "Theological Foundations of Kepler's Astronomy", pp. 112–13. Kepler described his new astronomy as "celestial physics", Kepler, New Astronomy, title page, tr. Donohue, pp. 26–7 as "an excursion into Aristotle's Metaphysics", Kepler, New Astronomy, p. 48 and as "a supplement to Aristotle's On the Heavens", Epitome of Copernican Astronomy in Great Books of the Western World, Vol 16, p. 845 transforming the ancient tradition of physical cosmology by treating astronomy as part of a universal mathematical physics. Stephenson, Kepler's Physical Astronomy, pp. 1–2; Dear, Revolutionizing the Sciences, pp. 74–78 Early years The Great Comet of 1577, which Kepler witnessed as a child, attracted the attention of astronomers across Europe. Kepler was born on December 27, 1571, at the Free Imperial City of Weil der Stadt (now part of the Stuttgart Region in the German state of Baden-Württemberg, 30 km west of Stuttgart's center). His grandfather, Sebald Kepler, had been Lord Mayor of that town, but by the time Johannes was born, the Kepler family fortune was on the decline. His father, Heinrich Kepler, earned a precarious living as a mercenary, and he left the family when Johannes was five years old. He was believed to have died in the Eighty Years' War in the Netherlands. His mother Katharina Guldenmann, an inn-keeper's daughter, was a healer and herbalist who was later tried for witchcraft. Born prematurely, Johannes claimed to have been a weak and sickly child. He was, however, a brilliant child; he often impressed travelers at his grandfather's inn with his phenomenal mathematical faculty. Caspar, Kepler, pp 29–36; see also: Connor, Kepler's Witch, pp 23–46 He was introduced to astronomy at an early age, and developed a love for it that would span his entire life. At age six, he observed the Great Comet of 1577, writing that he "was taken by [his] mother to a high place to look at it." At age nine, he observed another astronomical event, the Lunar eclipse of 1580, recording that he remembered being "called outdoors" to see it and that the moon "appeared quite red". Quotation from Koestler, The Sleepwalkers, p 234, translated from Kepler's family horoscope However, childhood smallpox left him with weak vision and crippled hands, limiting his ability in the observational aspects of astronomy. Caspar, Kepler, pp 36–38; Connor, Kepler's Witch, pp 25–27. In 1589, after moving through grammar school, Latin school, and lower and higher seminary in the Württemberg state-run Protestant education system, Kepler began attending the University of Tübingen as a theology student, and studied philosophy under Vitus Müller James A. Connor, Kepler's Witch (2004), p. 58. . He proved himself to be a superb mathematician and earned a reputation as a skillful astrologer, casting horoscopes for fellow students. Under the instruction of Michael Maestlin, he learned both the Ptolemaic system and the Copernican system of planetary motion. He became a Copernican at that time. In a student disputation, he defended heliocentrism from both a theoretical and theological perspective, maintaining that the Sun was the principal source of motive power in the universe. Robert S. Westman, "Kepler's Early Physico-Astrological Problematic," Journal for the History of Astronomy, 32 (2001): pp 227–36. Despite his desire to become a minister, near the end of his studies Kepler was recommended for a position as teacher of mathematics and astronomy at the Protestant school in Graz, Austria (later the University of Graz). He accepted the position in April 1594, at the age of 23. Caspar, Kepler, pp 38–52; Connor, Kepler's Witch, pp 49–69. Graz (1594–1600) Mysterium Cosmographicum Kepler's Platonic solid model of the Solar system from Mysterium Cosmographicum (1600) Johannes Kepler's first major astronomical work, Mysterium Cosmographicum (The Cosmographic Mystery), was the first published defense of the Copernican system. Kepler claimed to have had an epiphany on July 19, 1595, while teaching in Graz, demonstrating the periodic conjunction of Saturn and Jupiter in the zodiac; he realized that regular polygons bound one inscribed and one circumscribed circle at definite ratios, which, he reasoned, might be the geometrical basis of the universe. After failing to find a unique arrangement of polygons that fit known astronomical observations (even with extra planets added to the system), Kepler began experimenting with 3-dimensional polyhedra. He found that each of the five Platonic solids could be uniquely inscribed and circumscribed by spherical orbs; nesting these solids, each encased in a sphere, within one another would produce six layers, corresponding to the six known planets—Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn. By ordering the solids correctly—octahedron, icosahedron, dodecahedron, tetrahedron, cube—Kepler found that the spheres could be placed at intervals corresponding (within the accuracy limits of available astronomical observations) to the relative sizes of each planet’s path, assuming the planets circle the Sun. Kepler also found a formula relating the size of each planet’s orb to the length of its orbital period: from inner to outer planets, the ratio of increase in orbital period is twice the difference in orb radius. However, Kepler later rejected this formula, because it was not precise enough. Caspar, Kepler, pp 60–65; see also: Barker and Goldstein, "Theological Foundations of Kepler's Astronomy." Closeup of inner section of the model As he indicated in the title, Kepler thought he had revealed God’s geometrical plan for the universe. Much of Kepler’s enthusiasm for the Copernican system stemmed from his theological convictions about the connection between the physical and the spiritual; the universe itself was an image of God, with the Sun corresponding to the Father, the stellar sphere to the Son, and the intervening space between to the Holy Spirit. His first manuscript of Mysterium contained an extensive chapter reconciling heliocentrism with biblical passages that seemed to support geocentrism. Barker and Goldstein, "Theological Foundations of Kepler's Astronomy," pp 99–103, 112–113 With the support of his mentor Michael Maestlin, Kepler received permission from the Tübingen university senate to publish his manuscript, pending removal of the Bible exegesis and the addition of a simpler, more understandable description of the Copernican system as well as Kepler’s new ideas. Mysterium was published late in 1596, and Kepler received his copies and began sending them to prominent astronomers and patrons early in 1597; it was not widely read, but it established Kepler’s reputation as a highly skilled astronomer. The effusive dedication, to powerful patrons as well as to the men who controlled his position in Graz, also provided a crucial doorway into the patronage system. Caspar, Kepler, pp 65–71 Though the details would be modified in light of his later work, Kepler never relinquished the Platonist polyhedral-spherist cosmology of Mysterium Cosmographicum. His subsequent main astronomical works were in some sense only further developments of it, concerned with finding more precise inner and outer dimensions for the spheres by calculating the eccentricities of the planetary orbits within it. In 1621 Kepler published an expanded second edition of Mysterium, half as long again as the first, detailing in footnotes the corrections and improvements he had achieved in the 25 years since its first publication. Field, Kepler's Geometrical Cosmology, Chapter IV p 73ff Marriage to Barbara Müller Portraits of Kepler and his wife in oval medallions In December 1595, Kepler was introduced to Barbara Müller, a 23-year-old widow (twice over) with a young daughter, and he began courting her. Müller, heir to the estates of her late husbands, was also the daughter of a successful mill owner. Her father Jobst initially opposed a marriage despite Kepler's nobility; though he had inherited his grandfather's nobility, Kepler's poverty made him an unacceptable match. Jobst relented after Kepler completed work on Mysterium, but the engagement nearly fell apart while Kepler was away tending to the details of publication. However, church officials—who had helped set up the match—pressured the Müllers to honor their agreement. Barbara and Johannes were married on April 27, 1597. Caspar, Kepler, pp 71–75 In the first years of their marriage, the Keplers had two children (Heinrich and Susanna), both of whom died in infancy. In 1602, they had a daughter (Susanna); in 1604, a son (Friedrich); and in 1607, another son (Ludwig). Connor, Kepler's Witch, pp 89–100, 114–116; Caspar, Kepler, pp 75–77 Other research Following the publication of Mysterium and with the blessing of the Graz school inspectors, Kepler began an ambitious program to extend and elaborate his work. He planned four additional books: one on the stationary aspects of the universe (the Sun and the fixed stars); one on the planets and their motions; one on the physical nature of planets and the formation of geographical features (focused especially on Earth); and one on the effects of the heavens on the Earth, to include atmospheric optics, meteorology and astrology. Caspar, Kepler, pp 85–86 He also sought the opinions of many of the astronomers to whom he had sent Mysterium, among them Reimarus Ursus (Nicolaus Reimers Bär)—the imperial mathematician to Rudolph II and a bitter rival of Tycho Brahe. Ursus did not reply directly, but republished Kepler's flattering letter to pursue his priority dispute over (what is now called) the Tychonic system with Tycho. Despite this black mark, Tycho also began corresponding with Kepler, starting with a harsh but legitimate critique of Kepler's system; among a host of objections, Tycho took issue with the use of inaccurate numerical data taken from Copernicus. Through their letters, Tycho and Kepler discussed a broad range of astronomical problems, dwelling on lunar phenomena and Copernican theory (particularly its theological viability). But without the significantly more accurate data of Tycho's observatory, Kepler had no way to address many of these issues. Caspar, Kepler, pp 86–89 Instead, he turned his attention to chronology and "harmony," the numerological relationships among music, mathematics and the physical world, and their astrological consequences. By assuming the Earth to possess a soul (a property he would later invoke to explain how the sun causes the motion of planets), he established a speculative system connecting astrological aspects and astronomical distances to weather and other earthly phenomena. By 1599, however, he again felt his work limited by the inaccuracy of available data—just as growing religious tension was also threatening his continued employment in Graz. In December of that year, Tycho invited Kepler to visit him in Prague; on January 1, 1600 (before he even received the invitation), Kepler set off in the hopes that Tycho's patronage could solve his philosophical problems as well as his social and financial ones. Caspar, Kepler, pp 89–100 Prague (1600–1612) Work for Tycho Brahe Tycho Brahe On February 4, 1600, Kepler met Tycho Brahe and his assistants Franz Tengnagel and Longomontanus at Benátky nad Jizerou (35 km from Prague), the site where Tycho's new observatory was being constructed. Over the next two months he stayed as a guest, analyzing some of Tycho's observations of Mars; Tycho guarded his data closely, but was impressed by Kepler's theoretical ideas and soon allowed him more access. Kepler planned to test his theory from Mysterium Cosmographicum based on the Mars data, but he estimated that the work would take up to two years (since he was not allowed to simply copy the data for his own use). With the help of Johannes Jessenius, Kepler attempted to negotiate a more formal employment arrangement with Tycho, but negotiations broke down in an angry argument and Kepler left for Prague on April 6. Kepler and Tycho soon reconciled and eventually reached an agreement on salary and living arrangements, and in June, Kepler returned home to Graz to collect his family. Caspar, Kepler, pp 100–108 Political and religious difficulties in Graz dashed his hopes of returning immediately to Tycho; in hopes of continuing his astronomical studies, Kepler sought an appointment as mathematician to Archduke Ferdinand. To that end, Kepler composed an essay—dedicated to Ferdinand—in which he proposed a force-based theory of lunar motion (In Terra inest virtus, quae Lunam ciet—"There is a force in the earth which causes the moon to move"). Translation from Caspar, Kepler, p 110 Though the essay did not earn him a place in Ferdinand's court, it did detail a new method for measuring lunar eclipses, which he applied during the July 10 eclipse in Graz. These observations formed the basis of his explorations of the laws of optics that would culminate in Astronomiae Pars Optica. Caspar, Kepler, pp 108–111 On August 2, 1600, after refusing to convert to Catholicism, Kepler and his family were banished from Graz; several months later, Kepler returned, now with the rest of his household, to Prague. Through most of 1601, he was supported directly by Tycho, who assigned him to analyzing planetary observations and writing a tract against Tycho's (now deceased) rival Ursus. In September, Tycho secured him a commission as a collaborator on the new project he had proposed to the emperor: the Rudolphine Tables that should replace the Prussian Tables of Erasmus Reinhold. Two days after Tycho's unexpected death on October 24, 1601, Kepler was appointed his successor as imperial mathematician with the responsibility to complete his unfinished work. He illegally appropriated Tycho's observations, the property of his heirs, which subsequently led to four year delays each to the publications of two of his works whilst he negotiated copyright permissions for the use of Tycho's data. The next 11 years as imperial mathematician would be the most productive of his life. Caspar, Kepler, pp 111–122 Advisor to Emperor Rudolph II Kepler's primary obligation as imperial mathematician was to provide astrological advice to the emperor. Though Kepler took a dim view of the attempts of contemporary astrologers to precisely predict the future or divine specific events, he had been casting detailed horoscopes for friends, family and patrons since his time as a student in Tübingen. In addition to horoscopes for allies and foreign leaders, the emperor sought Kepler's advice in times of political trouble (though Kepler's recommendations were based more on common sense than the stars). Rudolph was actively interested in the work of many of his court scholars (including numerous alchemists) and kept up with Kepler's work in physical astronomy as well. Caspar, Kepler, pp 149–153 Officially, the only acceptable religious doctrines in Prague were Catholic and Utraquist, but Kepler's position in the imperial court allowed him to practice his Lutheran faith unhindered. The emperor nominally provided an ample income for his family, but the difficulties of the over-extended imperial treasury meant that actually getting hold of enough money to meet financial obligations was a continual struggle. Partly because of financial troubles, his life at home with Barbara was unpleasant, marred with bickering and bouts of sickness. Court life, however, brought Kepler into contact with other prominent scholars (Johannes Matthäus Wackher von Wackhenfels, Jost Bürgi, David Fabricius, Martin Bachazek, and Johannes Brengger, among others) and astronomical work proceeded rapidly. Caspar, Kepler, pp 146–148, 159–177 Astronomiae Pars Optica A plate from Astronomiae Pars Optica, illustrating the structure of eyes As he continued analyzing Tycho's Mars observations—now available to him in their entirety—and began the slow process of tabulating the Rudolphine Tables, Kepler also picked up the investigation of the laws of optics from his lunar essay of 1600. Both lunar and solar eclipses presented unexplained phenomena, such as unexpected shadow sizes, the red color of a total lunar eclipse, and the reportedly unusual light surrounding a total solar eclipse. Related issues of atmospheric refraction applied to all astronomical observations. Through most of 1603, Kepler paused his other work to focus on optical theory; the resulting manuscript, presented to the emperor on January 1, 1604, was published as Astronomiae Pars Optica (The Optical Part of Astronomy). In it, Kepler described the inverse-square law governing the intensity of light, reflection by flat and curved mirrors, and principles of pinhole cameras, as well as the astronomical implications of optics such as parallax and the apparent sizes of heavenly bodies. He also extended his study of optics to the human eye, and is generally considered by neuroscientists to be the first to recognize that images are projected inverted and reversed by the eye's lens onto the retina. The solution to this dilemma was not of particular importance to Kepler as he did not see it as pertaining to optics, although he did suggest that the image was later corrected "in the hollows of the brain" due to the "activity of the Soul." Finger, "Origins of Neuroscience," p 74. Oxford University Press, 2001. Today, Astronomiae Pars Optica is generally recognized as the foundation of modern optics (though the law of refraction is conspicuously absent). Caspar, Kepler, pp 142–146 The Supernova of 1604 Remnant of Kepler's Supernova SN 1604 In October 1604, a bright new evening star (SN 1604) appeared, but Kepler did not believe the rumors until he saw it himself. Kepler began systematically observing the star. Astrologically, the end of 1603 marked the beginning of a fiery trigon, the start of the ca. 800-year cycle of great conjunctions; astrologers associated the two previous such periods with the rise of Charlemagne (ca. 800 years earlier) and the birth of Christ (ca. 1600 years earlier), and thus expected events of great portent, especially regarding the emperor. It was in this context, as the imperial mathematician and astrologer to the emperor, that Kepler described the new star two years later in his De Stella Nova. In it, Kepler addressed the star's astronomical properties while taking a skeptical approach to the many astrological interpretations then circulating. He noted its fading luminosity, speculated about its origin, and used the lack of observed parallax to argue that it was in the sphere of fixed stars, further undermining the doctrine of the immutability of the heavens (the idea accepted since Aristotle that the celestial spheres were perfect and unchanging). The birth of a new star implied the variability of the heavens. In an appendix, Kepler also discussed the recent chronology work of Laurentius Suslyga; he calculated that, if Suslyga was correct that accepted timelines were four years behind, then the Star of Bethlehem—analogous to the present new star—would have coincided with the first great conjunction of the earlier 800-year cycle. Caspar, Kepler, pp 153–157 The location of the stella nova, in the foot of Ophiuchus, is marked with an N (8 grid squares down, 4 over from the left). Astronomia nova The extended line of research that culminated in Astronomia nova (A New Astronomy)—including the first two laws of planetary motion—began with the analysis, under Tycho's direction, of Mars' orbit. Kepler calculated and recalculated various approximations of Mars' orbit using an equant (the mathematical tool that Copernicus had eliminated with his system), eventually creating a model that generally agreed with Tycho's observations to within two arcminutes (the average measurement error). But he was not satisfied with the complex and still slightly inaccurate result; at certain points the model differed from the data by up to eight arcminutes. The wide array of traditional mathematical astronomy methods having failed him, Kepler set about trying to fit an ovoid orbit to the data. Caspar, Kepler, pp 123–128 Within Kepler's religious view of the cosmos, the Sun (a symbol of God the Father) was the source of motive force in the solar system. As a physical basis, Kepler drew by analogy on William Gilbert's theory of the magnetic soul of the Earth from De Magnete (1600) and on his own work on optics. Kepler supposed that the motive power (or motive species) On motive species, see: Lindberg, "The Genesis of Kepler's Theory of Light," pp 38–40 radiated by the Sun weakens with distance, causing faster or slower motion as planets move closer or farther from it. "Kepler's decision to base his causal explanation of planetary motion on a distance-velocity law, rather than on uniform circular motions of compounded spheres, marks a major shift from ancient to modern conceptions of science.... [Kepler] had begun with physical principles and had then derived a trajectory from it, rather than simply constructing new models. In other words, even before discovering the area law, Kepler had abandoned uniform circular motion as a physical principle." Peter Barker and Bernard R. Goldstein, "Distance and Velocity in Kepler's Astronomy", Annals of Science, 51 (1994): 59-73, at p. 60. Koyré, The Astronomical Revolution, pp 199–202 Perhaps this assumption entailed a mathematical relationship that would restore astronomical order. Based on measurements of the aphelion and perihelion of the Earth and Mars, he created a formula in which a planet's rate of motion is inversely proportional to its distance from the Sun. Verifying this relationship throughout the orbital cycle, however, required very extensive calculation; to simplify this task, by late 1602 Kepler reformulated the proportion in terms of geometry: planets sweep out equal areas in equal times—the second law of planetary motion. Caspar, Kepler, pp 129–132 Diagram of the geocentric trajectory of Mars through several periods of retrograde motion. Astronomia nova, Chapter 1, (1609). He then set about calculating the entire orbit of Mars, using the geometrical rate law and assuming an egg-shaped ovoid orbit. After approximately 40 failed attempts, in early 1605 he at last hit upon the idea of an ellipse, which he had previously assumed to be too simple a solution for earlier astronomers to have overlooked. Finding that an elliptical orbit fit the Mars data, he immediately concluded that all planets move in ellipses, with the sun at one focus—the first law of planetary motion. Because he employed no calculating assistants, however, he did not extend the mathematical analysis beyond Mars. By the end of the year, he completed the manuscript for Astronomia nova, though it would not be published until 1609 due to legal disputes over the use of Tycho's observations, the property of his heirs. Caspar, Kepler, pp 131–140; Koyré, The Astronomical Revolution, pp 277–279 Dioptrice, Somnium manuscript and other work In the years following the completion of Astronomia Nova, most of Kepler's research was focused on preparations for the Rudolphine Tables and a comprehensive set of ephemerides (specific predictions of planet and star positions) based on the table (though neither would be completed for many years). He also attempted (unsuccessfully) to begin a collaboration with Italian astronomer Giovanni Antonio Magini. Some of his other work dealt with chronology, especially the dating of events in the life of Jesus, and with astrology, especially criticism of dramatic predictions of catastrophe such as those of Helisaeus Roeslin. Caspar, Kepler, pp 178–181 Kepler and Roeslin engaged in series of published attacks and counter-attacks, while physician Philip Feselius published a work dismissing astrology altogether (and Roeslin's work in particular). In response to what Kepler saw as the excesses of astrology on the one hand and overzealous rejection of it on the other, Kepler prepared Tertius Interveniens (Third-party Interventions). Nominally this work—presented to the common patron of Roeslin and Feselius—was a neutral mediation between the feuding scholars, but it also set out Kepler's general views on the value of astrology, including some hypothesized mechanisms of interaction between planets and individual souls. While Kepler considered most traditional rules and methods of astrology to be the "evil-smelling dung" in which "an industrious hen" scrapes, there was "also perhaps a good little grain" to be found by the conscientious scientific astrologer. Caspar, Kepler, pp 181–185. The full title is Tertius Interveniens, das ist Warnung an etliche Theologos, Medicos vnd Philosophos, sonderlich D. Philippum Feselium, dass sie bey billicher Verwerffung der Sternguckerischen Aberglauben nict das Kindt mit dem Badt aussschütten vnd hiermit jhrer Profession vnwissendt zuwider handlen, translated by C. Doris Hellman as "Tertius Interveniens, that is warning to some theologians, medics and philosophers, especially D. Philip Feselius, that they in cheap condemnation of the star-gazer's superstition do not throw out the child with the bath and hereby unknowingly act contrary to their profession." In the first months of 1610, Galileo Galilei—using his powerful new telescope—discovered four satellites orbiting Jupiter. Upon publishing his account as Sidereus Nuncius (Starry Messenger), Galileo sought the opinion of Kepler, in part to bolster the credibility of his observations. Kepler responded enthusiastically with a short published reply, Dissertatio cum Nuncio Sidereo (Conversation with the Starry Messenger). He endorsed Galileo's observations and offered a range of speculations about the meaning and implications of Galileo's discoveries and telescopic methods, for astronomy and optics as well as cosmology and astrology. Later that year, Kepler published his own telescopic observations of the moons in Narratio de Jovis Satellitibus, providing further support of Galileo. To Kepler's disappointment, however, Galileo never published his reactions (if any) to Astronomia Nova. Caspar, Kepler, pp 192–197 After hearing of Galileo's telescopic discoveries, Kepler also started a theoretical and experimental investigation of telescopic optics using a telescope borrowed from Duke Ernest of Cologne. Koestler, The Sleepwalkers p 384 The resulting manuscript was completed in September of 1610 and published as Dioptrice in 1611. In it, Kepler set out the theoretical basis of double-convex converging lenses and double-concave diverging lenses—and how they are combined to produce a Galilean telescope—as well as the concepts of real vs. virtual images, upright vs. inverted images, and the effects of focal length on magnification and reduction. He also described an improved telescope—now known as the astronomical or Keplerian telescope—in which two convex lenses can produce higher magnification than Galileo's combination of convex and concave lenses. Caspar, Kepler, pp 198–202 One of the diagrams from Strena Seu de Nive Sexangula, illustrating the Kepler conjecture Around 1611, Kepler circulated a manuscript of what would eventually be published (posthumously) as Somnium (The Dream). Part of the purpose of Somnium was to describe what practicing astronomy would be like from the perspective of another planet, to show the feasibility of a non-geocentric system. The manuscript, which disappeared after changing hands several times, described a fantastic trip to the moon; it was part allegory, part autobiography, and part treatise on interplanetary travel (and is sometimes described as the first work of science fiction). Years later, a distorted version of the story may have instigated the witchcraft trial against his mother, as the mother of the narrator consults a demon to learn the means of space travel. Following her eventual acquittal, Kepler composed 223 footnotes to the story—several times longer than the actual text—which explained the allegorical aspects as well as the considerable scientific content (particularly regarding lunar geography) hidden within the text. Lear, Kepler's Dream, pp 1–78 As a New Year's gift that year, he also composed for his friend and some-time patron Baron Wackher von Wackhenfels a short pamphlet entitled Strena Seu de Nive Sexangula (A New Year's Gift of Hexagonal Snow). In this treatise, he investigated the hexagonal symmetry of snowflakes and, extending the discussion into a hypothetical atomistic physical basis for the symmetry, posed what later became known as the Kepler conjecture, a statement about the most efficient arrangement for packing spheres. Schneer, "Kepler's New Year's Gift of a Snowflake," pp 531–545 Personal and political troubles In 1611, the growing political-religious tension in Prague came to a head. Emperor Rudolph—whose health was failing—was forced to abdicate as King of Bohemia by his brother Matthias. Both sides sought Kepler's astrological advice, an opportunity he used to deliver conciliatory political advice (with little reference to the stars, except in general statements to discourage drastic action). However, it was clear that Kepler's future prospects in the court of Matthias were dim. Caspar, Kepler, pp 202–204 Also in that year, Barbara Kepler contracted Hungarian spotted fever, then began having seizures. As Barbara was recovering, Kepler's three children all fell sick with smallpox; Friedrich, 6, died. Following his son's death, Kepler sent letters to potential patrons in Württemberg and Padua. At the University of Tübingen in Württemberg, concerns over Kepler's perceived Calvinist heresies in violation of the Augsburg Confession and the Formula of Concord prevented his return. The University of Padua—on the recommendation of the departing Galileo—sought Kepler to fill the mathematics professorship, but Kepler, preferring to keep his family in German territory, instead travelled to Austria to arrange a position as teacher and district mathematician in Linz. However, Barbara relapsed into illness and died shortly after Kepler's return. Connor, Kepler's Witch, pp 222–226; Caspar, Kepler, pp 204–207 Kepler postponed the move to Linz and remained in Prague until Rudolph's death in early 1612, though between political upheaval, religious tension, and family tragedy (along with the legal dispute over his wife's estate), Kepler could do no research. Instead, he pieced together a chronology manuscript, Eclogae Chronicae, from correspondence and earlier work. Upon succession as Holy Roman Emperor, Matthias re-affirmed Kepler's position (and salary) as imperial mathematician but allowed him to move to Linz. Caspar, Kepler, pp 208–211 Linz and elsewhere (1612–1630) A statue of Kepler in Linz In Linz, Kepler's primary responsibilities (beyond completing the Rudolphine Tables) were teaching at the district school and providing astrological and astronomical services. In his first years there, he enjoyed financial security and religious freedom relative to his life in Prague—though he was excluded from Eucharist by his Lutheran church over his theological scruples. His first publication in Linz was De vero Anno (1613), an expanded treatise on the year of Christ's birth; he also participated in deliberations on whether to introduce Pope Gregory's reformed calendar to Protestant German lands; that year he also wrote the influential mathematical treatise Nova stereometria doliorum vinariorum, on measuring the volume of containers such as wine barrels (though it would not be published until 1615). Caspar, Kepler, pp 209–220, 227–240 Second marriage On October 30, 1613, Kepler married the 24-year-old Susanna Reuttinger. Following Barbara's death, Kepler had considered 11 different matches. He eventually returned to Reuttinger (the fifth match) who, he wrote, "won me over with love, humble loyalty, economy of household, diligence, and the love she gave the stepchildren." Quotation from Connor, Kepler's Witch, p 252, translated from an October 23, 1613 letter from Kepler to an anonymous nobleman The first three children of this marriage (Margareta Regina, Katharina, and Sebald) died in childhood. Three more survived into adulthood: Cordula (b. 1621); Fridmar (b. 1623); and Hildebert (b. 1625). According to Kepler's biographers, this was a much happier marriage than his first. Caspar, Kepler, pp 220–223; Connor, Kepler's Witch, pp 251–254. Epitome of Copernican Astronomy, calendars and the witch trial of his mother Since completing the Astronomia nova, Kepler had intended to compose an astronomy textbook. Caspar, Kepler, pp 239–240, 293–300 In 1615, he completed the first of three volumes of Epitome astronomia Copernicanae (Epitome of Copernican Astronomy); the first volume (books I-III) was printed in 1617, the second (book IV) in 1620, and the third (books V-VII) in 1621. Despite the title, which referred simply to heliocentrism, Kepler's textbook culminated in his own ellipse-based system. Epitome became Kepler's most influential work. It contained all three laws of planetary motion and attempted to explain heavenly motions through physical causes. Gingerich, "Kepler, Johannes" from Dictionary of Scientific Biography, pp 302–304 Though it explicitly extended the first two laws of planetary motion (applied to Mars in Astronomia nova) to all the planets as well as the Moon and the Medicean satellites of Jupiter, it did not explain how elliptical orbits could be derived from observational data. Wolf, A History of Science, Technology and Philosophy, pp 140–141; Pannekoek, A History of Astronomy, p 252 As a spin-off from the Rudolphine Tables and the related Ephemerides, Kepler published astrological calendars, which were very popular and helped offset the costs of producing his other work—especially when support from the Imperial treasury was withheld. In his calendars—six between 1617 and 1624—Kepler forecast planetary positions and weather as well as political events; the latter were often cannily accurate, thanks to his keen grasp of contemporary political and theological tensions. By 1624, however, the escalation of those tensions and the ambiguity of the prophecies meant political trouble for Kepler himself; his final calendar was publicly burned in Graz. Caspar, Kepler, pp 239, 300–301, 307–308 Geometrical harmonies in the perfect solids from Harmonices Mundi (1619) In 1615, Ursula Reingold, a woman in a financial dispute with Kepler's brother Cristoph, claimed Kepler's mother Katharina had made her sick with an evil brew. The dispute escalated, and in 1617, Katharina was accused of witchcraft; witchcraft trials were relatively common in central Europe at this time. Beginning in August 1620 she was imprisoned for fourteen months. She was released in October 1621, thanks in part to the extensive legal defense drawn up by Kepler. The accusers had no stronger evidence than rumors, along with a distorted, second-hand version of Kepler's Somnium, in which a woman mixes potions and enlists the aid of a demon. Katharina was subjected to territio verbalis, a graphic description of the torture awaiting her as a witch, in a final attempt to make her confess. Throughout the trial, Kepler postponed his other work to focus on his "harmonic theory". The result, published in 1619, was Harmonices Mundi ("Harmony of the Worlds"). Caspar, Kepler, pp 240–264; Connor, Kepler's Witch, chapters I, XI-XIII; Lear, Kepler's Dream, pp 21–39 Harmonices Mundi Kepler was convinced "that the geometrical things have provided the Creator with the model for decorating the whole world." Quotation from Caspar, Kepler, pp 265–266, translated from Harmonices Mundi In Harmony, he attempted to explain the proportions of the natural world—particularly the astronomical and astrological aspects—in terms of music. The central set of "harmonies" was the musica universalis or "music of the spheres," which had been studied by Pythagoras, Ptolemy and many others before Kepler; in fact, soon after publishing Harmonices Mundi, Kepler was embroiled in a priority dispute with Robert Fludd, who had recently published his own harmonic theory. Caspar, Kepler, pp 264–266, 290–293 Kepler began by exploring regular polygons and regular solids, including the figures that would come to be known as Kepler's solids. From there, he extended his harmonic analysis to music, meteorology and astrology; harmony resulted from the tones made by the souls of heavenly bodies—and in the case of astrology, the interaction between those tones and human souls. In the final portion of the work (Book V), Kepler dealt with planetary motions, especially relationships between orbital velocity and orbital distance from the Sun. Similar relationships had been used by other astronomers, but Kepler—with Tycho's data and his own astronomical theories—treated them much more precisely and attached new physical significance to them. Caspar, Kepler, pp 266–290 Among many other harmonies, Kepler articulated what came to be known as the third law of planetary motion. He then tried many combinations until he discovered that (approximately) "The square of the periodic times are to each other as the cubes of the mean distances." However, the wider significance for planetary dynamics of this purely kinematical law was not realized until the 1660s. For when conjoined with Christian Huygens' newly discovered law of centrifugal force it enabled Isaac Newton, Edmund Halley and perhaps Christopher Wren and Robert Hooke to demonstrate independently that the presumed gravitational attraction between the Sun and its planets decreased with the square of the distance between them. Westfall, Never at Rest, pp 143, 152, 402–3; Toulmin and Goodfield, The Fabric of the Heavens, p 248; De Gandt, 'Force and Geometry in Newton's Principia', chapter 2; Wolf, History of Science, Technology and Philosophy, p 150; Westfall, The Construction of Modern Science, chapters 7 and 8 This refuted the traditional assumption of scholastic physics that the power of gravitational attraction remained constant with distance whenever it applied between two bodies, such as was assumed by Kepler and also by Galileo in his mistaken universal law that gravitational fall is uniformly accelerated, and also by Galileo's student Borrelli in his 1666 celestial mechanics. Koyré, The Astronomical Revolution, p 502 Rudolphine Tables and his last years Kepler's horoscope for General Wallenstein In 1623, Kepler at last completed the Rudolphine Tables, which at the time was considered his major work. However, due to the publishing requirements of the emperor and negotiations with Tycho Brahe's heir, it would not be printed until 1627. In the meantime religious tension—the root of the ongoing Thirty Years' War—once again put Kepler and his family in jeopardy. In 1625, agents of the Catholic Counter-Reformation placed most of Kepler's library under seal, and in 1626 the city of Linz was besieged. Kepler moved to Ulm, where he arranged for the printing of the Tables at his own expense. Caspar, Kepler, pp 308–328 In 1628, following the military successes of the Emperor Ferdinand's armies under General Wallenstein, Kepler became an official adviser to Wallenstein. Though not the general's court astrologer per se, Kepler provided astronomical calculations for Wallenstein's astrologers and occasionally wrote horoscopes himself. In his final years, Kepler spent much of his time traveling, from court in Prague to Linz and Ulm to a temporary home in Sagan, and finally to Regensburg. Soon after arriving in Regensburg, Kepler fell ill. He died on November 15, 1630, and was buried there; his burial site was lost after the army of Gustavus Adolphus destroyed the churchyard. Caspar, Kepler, pp 332–351, 355–361 Reception of his astronomy Kepler's laws were not immediately accepted. Several major figures such as Galileo and René Descartes completely ignored Kepler's Astronomia nova. Many astronomers, including Kepler's teacher, Michael Maestlin, objected to Kepler's introduction of physics into his astronomy. Some adopted compromise positions. Ismael Boulliau accepted elliptical orbits but replaced Kepler's area law with uniform motion in respect to the empty focus of the ellipse while Seth Ward used an elliptical orbit with motions defined by an equant. For a detailed study of the reception of Kepler's astronomy see Wilbur Applebaum, "Keplerian Astronomy after Kepler: Researches and Problems," History of Science, 34(1996): 451-504. Koyré, The Astronomical Revolution, pp 362–364 North, History of Astronomy and Cosmology, pp. 355–360 Several astronomers tested Kepler's theory, and its various modifications, against astronomical observations. Two transits of Venus and Mercury across the face of the sun provided sensitive tests of the theory, under circumstances when these planets could not normally be observed. In the case of the transit of Mercury in 1631, Kepler had been extremely uncertain of the parameters for Mercury, and advised observers to look for the transit the day before and after the predicted date. Pierre Gassendi observed the transit on the date predicted, a confirmation of Kepler's prediction. Albert van Helden, "The Importance of the Transit of Mercury of 1631," Journal for the History of Astronomy, 7 (1976): 1–10. This was the first observation of a transit of Mercury. However, his attempt to observe the transit of Venus just one month later, was unsuccessful due to inaccuracies in the Rudolphine Tables. Gassendi did not realize that it was not visible from most of Europe, including Paris. Jeremiah Horrocks, who observed the 1639 Venus transit, had used his own observations to adjust the parameters of the Keplerian model, predicted the transit, and then built apparatus to observe the transit. He remained a firm advocate of the Keplerian model. Allan Chapman, "Jeremiah Horrocks, the transit of Venus, and the 'New Astronomy' in early 17th-century England," Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society, 31 (1990): 333–357. North, History of Astronomy and Cosmology, pp. 348–349 Wilbur Applebaum and Robert Hatch, "Boulliau, Mercator, and Horrock's Venus in sole visa: Three Unpublished Letters," Journal for the History of Astronomy, 14(1983): 166–179 Epitome of Copernican Astronomy was read by astronomers throughout Europe, and following Kepler's death it was the main vehicle for spreading Kepler's ideas. Between 1630 and 1650, it was the most widely used astronomy textbook, winning many converts to ellipse-based astronomy. Gingerich, "Kepler, Johannes" from Dictionary of Scientific Biography, pp 302–304 However, few adopted his ideas on the physical basis for celestial motions. In the late 17th century, a number of physical astronomy theories drawing from Kepler's work—notably those of Giovanni Alfonso Borelli and Robert Hooke—began to incorporate attractive forces (though not the quasi-spiritual motive species postulated by Kepler) and the Cartesian concept of inertia. This culminated in Isaac Newton's Principia Mathematica (1687), in which Newton derived Kepler's laws of planetary motion from a force-based theory of universal gravitation. Kuhn, The Copernican Revolution, pp 238, 246–252 Historical and cultural legacy Monument to Tycho Brahe and Johannes Kepler in Prague, Czech Republic The GDR stamp featuring Johannes Kepler Beyond his role in the historical development of astronomy and natural philosophy, Kepler has loomed large in the philosophy and historiography of science. Kepler and his laws of motion were central to early histories of astronomy such as Jean Etienne Montucla’s 1758 Histoire des mathématiques and Jean-Baptiste Delambre's 1821 Histoire de l’astronomie moderne. These and other histories written from an Enlightenment perspective treated Kepler's metaphysical and religious arguments with skepticism and disapproval, but later Romantic-era natural philosophers viewed these elements as central to his success. William Whewell, in his influential History of the Inductive Sciences of 1837, found Kepler to be the archetype of the inductive scientific genius; in his Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences of 1840, Whewell held Kepler up as the embodiment of the most advanced forms of scientific method. Similarly, Ernst Friedrich Apelt—the first to extensively study Kepler's manuscripts, after their purchase by Catherine the Great—identified Kepler as a key to the "Revolution of the sciences". Apelt, who saw Kepler's mathematics, aesthetic sensibility, physical ideas, and theology as part of a unified system of thought, produced the first extended analysis of Kepler's life and work. Jardine, "Koyré’s Kepler/Kepler's Koyré," pp 363–367 Modern translations of a number of Kepler's books appeared in the late-nineteenth and early-twentieth centuries, the systematic publication of his collected works began in 1937 (and is nearing completion in the early 21st century), and Max Caspar's seminal Kepler biography was published in 1948. Gingerich, introduction to Caspar's Kepler, pp 3–4 However, Alexandre Koyré's work on Kepler was, after Apelt, the first major milestone in historical interpretations of Kepler's cosmology and its influence. In the 1930s and 1940s Koyré, and a number of others in the first generation of professional historians of science, described the "Scientific Revolution" as the central event in the history of science, and Kepler as a (perhaps the) central figure in the revolution. Koyré placed Kepler's theorization, rather than his empirical work, at the center of the intellectual transformation from ancient to modern world-views. Since the 1960s, the volume of historical Kepler scholarship has expanded greatly, including studies of his astrology and meteorology, his geometrical methods, the role of his religious views in his work, his literary and rhetorical methods, his interaction with the broader cultural and philosophical currents of his time, and even his role as an historian of science. Jardine, "Koyré’s Kepler/Kepler's Koyré," pp 367–372; Shapin, The Scientific Revolution, pp 1–2 10 euro Johannes Kepler silver coin The debate over Kepler's place in the Scientific Revolution has also produced a wide variety of philosophical and popular treatments. One of the most influential is Arthur Koestler's 1959 The Sleepwalkers, in which Kepler is unambiguously the hero (morally and theologically as well as intellectually) of the revolution. Stephen Toulmin, Review of The Sleepwalkers in The Journal of Philosophy, Vol. 59, no. 18 (1962), pp 500–503 Influential philosophers of science—such as Charles Sanders Peirce, Norwood Russell Hanson, Stephen Toulmin, and Karl Popper—have repeatedly turned to Kepler: examples of incommensurability, analogical reasoning, falsification, and many other philosophical concepts have been found in Kepler's work. Physicist Wolfgang Pauli even used Kepler's priority dispute with Robert Fludd to explore the implications of analytical psychology on scientific investigation. Pauli, "The Influence of Archetypical Ideas" A well-received, if fanciful, historical novel by John Banville, Kepler (1981), explored many of the themes developed in Koestler's non-fiction narrative and in the philosophy of science. William Donahue, "A Novelist's Kepler," Journal for the History of Astronomy, Vol. 13 (1982), pp 135–136; "Dancing the grave dance: Science, art and religion in John Banville's Kepler," English Studies, Vol. 86, no. 5 (October 2005), pp 424–438 Somewhat more fanciful is a recent work of nonfiction, Heavenly Intrigue (2004), suggesting that Kepler murdered Tycho Brahe to gain access to his data. Marcelo Gleiser, "Kepler in the Dock", review of Gilder and Gilder's Heavenly Intrigue, Journal for the History of Astronomy, Vol. 35, pt. 4 (2004), pp 487–489 Kepler has acquired a popular image as an icon of scientific modernity and a man before his time; science popularizer Carl Sagan described him as "the first astrophysicist and the last scientific astrologer." Quote from Carl Sagan, Cosmos: A Personal Voyage, episode III: "The Harmony of the Worlds". Kepler was hardly the first to combine physics and astronomy; however, according to the traditional (though disputed) interpretation of the Scientific Revolution, he would be the first astrophysicist in the era of modern science. In Austria, Johannes Kepler has left behind such a historical legacy that he was one of the motifs of a silver collector's coin: the 10-euro Johannes Kepler silver coin, minted in September 10, 2002. The reverse side of the coin has a portrait of Kepler, who spent some time teaching in Graz and the surrounding areas. Kepler was acquainted with Hans Ulrich von Eggenberg personally, and he probably influenced the construction of Eggenberg Castle (the motif of the obverse of the coin). In front of him on the coin is the model of nested spheres and polyhedra from Mysterium Cosmographicum. In 2009, NASA named the Kepler Mission for Kepler's contributions to the field of astronomy. Works Mysterium cosmographicum (The Sacred Mystery of the Cosmos) (1596) Astronomiae Pars Optica (The Optical Part of Astronomy) (1604) De Stella nova in pede Serpentarii (On the New Star in Ophiuchus's Foot) (1604) Astronomia nova (New Astronomy) (1609) Tertius Interveniens (Third-party Interventions) (1610) Dissertatio cum Nuncio Sidereo (Conversation with the Starry Messenger) (1610) Dioptrice (1611) The lunar crater Kepler De nive sexangula (On the Six-Cornered Snowflake) (1611) De vero Anno, quo aeternus Dei Filius humanam naturam in Utero benedictae Virginis Mariae assumpsit (1613) Eclogae Chronicae (1615, published with Dissertatio cum Nuncio Sidereo) Nova stereometria doliorum vinariorum (New Stereometry of Wine Barrels) (1615) Epitome astronomiae Copernicanae (Epitome of Copernican Astronomy) (published in three parts from 1618–1621) Harmonice Mundi (Harmony of the Worlds) (1619) Mysterium cosmographicum (The Sacred Mystery of the Cosmos) 2nd Edition (1621) Tabulae Rudolphinae (Rudolphine Tables) (1627) Somnium (The Dream) (1634) See also Heliocentrism History of astronomy History of physics Kepler conjecture Kepler triangle Kepler-Poinsot polyhedra Kepler's laws of planetary motion Keplerian problem Scientific Revolution Named in his honor Kepler's laws of planetary motion for astronomical calculations The Kepler Mission, a space photometer designed to search for Earth-like planets launched by NASA on March 6, 2009 The Johannes Kepler ATV the second European ATV to resupply the ISS. Due to launch in July 2010. The Kepler Solids, a set of geometrical constructions, two of which were described by him Kepler's Star, Supernova 1604, which he observed and described Kepler, a crater on the moon Kepler, a crater on Mars 1134 Kepler, an asteroid In 1975, nine years after its founding, the College for Social and Economic Sciences Linz (Austria) was renamed Johannes Kepler University Linz in honor of Johannes Kepler, since he wrote his magnum opus Harmonice Mundi in Linz. Kepler College, Seattle, Washington Numerous schools, streets, observatories and others named after him, e.g.: Kepler Gymnasium (high school), Tübingen Keplerstraße in Hanau near Frankfurt am Main Keplerstraße and Keplerbrücke in Graz, Austria Keplerplatz, a station on the U1 line of the Vienna U-Bahn rapid transit (Metro) system Johannes Kepler Grammar School , Prague, Czech Republic near the place Kepler lived while in Prague. Kepler Launch Site In popular culture Kepler is the main character in Paul Hindemith's opera Die Harmonie der Welt (The Harmony of the World) (1956–57) Albert Guinovart's string quartet Kepler, based on the Harmonices Mundi theories, was premiered at Barcelona in 2007 Kepler appears in Leo Perutz' historical novel Nachts unter der steinernen Brücke (By Night Under the Stone Bridge) (1953) John Banville's novel Kepler: a novel (1981) Johannes Kepler (1974), German film directed by Frank Vogel První sekunda (1989), Czech TV film by Michael Havas, about Kepler and Rudolph II. Unseen forces (2004), short film (40 min.) directed by Ryan Junell Kepler's work and life feature prominently in Episode 3 of Carl Sagan's Cosmos Experimental rock band The Receiving End of Sirens' album 'The Earth Sings Mi Fa Mi' is a direct reference to Johannes Kepler's work. The album also features a song called 'Music of the spheres' Kepler is the subject and title of a Philip Glass - Martina Winkel opera about Kepler's scientific work and intellectual impact premiering in September 2009, at the Landestheater in Linz, Austria as part of that city's Capital of Culture celebrations. Notes and references The most complete biography of Kepler remains Max Caspar's Kepler, while many later studies have focused on particular elements of his life and work. Though there are a number of more recent biographies, most are based on Caspar's work with minimal original research; much of the information cited from Caspar can also be found in the books by Arthur Koestler, Kitty Ferguson, and James A. Connor. Owen Gingerich's The Eye of Heaven builds on Caspar's work to place Kepler in the broader intellectual context of early-modern astronomy. Kepler's mathematics, cosmological, philosophical and historical views have been extensively analyzed in books and journal articles, though his astrological work—and its relationship to his astronomy—remains understudied. Sources Andersen, Hanne; Peter Barker; and Xiang Chen: The Cognitive Structure of Scientific Revolutions, chapter 6: "The Copernican Revolution." New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006 ISBN 0521855756 Armitage, Angus: John Kepler, Faber, 1966 Banville, John: Kepler, Martin, Secker and Warburg, London, 1981 (fictionalised biography) Barker, Peter and Bernard R. Goldstein: "Theological Foundations of Kepler's Astronomy". Osiris, Volume 16: Science in Theistic Contexts. University of Chicago Press, 2001, pp 88–113 Caspar, Max: Kepler; transl. and ed. by C. Doris Hellman; with a new introduction and references by Owen Gingerich; bibliographic citations by Owen Gingerich and Alain Segonds. New York: Dover, 1993 ISBN 0486676056 Connor, James A.: Kepler's Witch: An Astronomer's Discovery of Cosmic Order Amid Religious War, Political Intrigue, and the Heresy Trial of His Mother. HarperSanFrancisco, 2004 ISBN 0060522550 De Gandt, Francois: Force and Geometry in Newton's Principia, Translated by Curtis Wilson, Princeton University Press 1995 ISBN 0691033676 Dreyer, J. L. E.: A History of Astronomy from Thales to Kepler. Dover Publications Inc, 1967 ISBN 0486600793 Ferguson, Kitty: The nobleman and his housedog: Tycho Brahe and Johannes Kepler: the strange partnership that revolutionized science. London: Review, 2002 ISBN 0747270228 - published in the US as: Tycho & Kepler: the unlikely partnership that forever changed our understanding of the heavens. New York: Walker, 2002 ISBN 0802713904 Field, J. V.: Kepler's geometrical cosmology. Chicago University Press, 1988 ISBN 0226248232 Gilder, Joshua and Anne-Lee Gilder: Heavenly Intrigue: Johannes Kepler, Tycho Brahe, and the Murder Behind One of History's Greatest Scientific Discoveries, Doubleday (May 18, 2004), ISBN 0385508441 Reviews Gingerich, Owen: The Eye of Heaven: Ptolemy, Copernicus, Kepler. American Institute of Physics, 1993 ISBN 0883188635 (Masters of modern physics; v. 7) Gingerich, Owen: "Kepler, Johannes" in Dictionary of Scientific Biography, Volume VII. Charles Coulston Gillispie, editor. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1973 Jardine, Nick: "Koyré’s Kepler/Kepler's Koyré," History of Science, Vol. 38 (2000), pp 363–376 Kepler, Johannes: Johannes Kepler New Astronomy trans. W. Donahue, forward by O. Gingerich, Cambridge University Press 1993 ISBN 0521301319 Kepler, Johannes and Christian Frisch: Joannis Kepleri Astronomi Opera Omnia (John Kepler, Astronomer; Complete Works), 8 vols.(1858–1871). vol. 1, 1858, vol. 2, 1859, vol. 3,1860, vol. 6, 1866, vol. 7, 1868, Francofurti a.M. et Erlangae, Heyder & Zimmer, - Google Books Kepler, Johannes, et al.: Great Books of the Western World. Volume 16: Ptolemy, Copernicus, Kepler , Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 1952. (Contains English translations by of Kepler's Epitome, Books IV & V and Harmonices Book 5.) Koestler, Arthur: The Sleepwalkers: A History of Man's Changing Vision of the Universe. (1959). ISBN 0140192468 Koyré, Alexandre: Galilean Studies Harvester Press 1977 ISBN 0855273542 Koyré, Alexandre: The Astronomical Revolution: Copernicus-Kepler-Borelli Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1973 ISBN 0801405041; Methuen, 1973 ISBN 0416769802; Hermann, 1973 ISBN 2705656480 Kuhn, Thomas S.: The Copernican Revolution: Planetary Astronomy in the Development of Western Thought. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1957. ISBN 0674171039 Lindberg, David C.: "The Genesis of Kepler's Theory of Light: Light Metaphysics from Plotinus to Kepler." Osiris, N.S. 2. University of Chicago Press, 1986, pp 5–42. Lear, John: Kepler's Dream. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1965 North, John: The Fontana History of Astronomy and Cosmology, Fontana Press, 1994. ISBN 0006861776 Pannekoek, Anton: A History of Astronomy, Dover Publications Inc 1989. ISBN 0486659941 Pauli, Wolfgang: Wolfgang Pauli — Writings on physics and philosophy, translated by Robert Schlapp and edited by P. Enz and Karl von Meyenn (Springer Verlag, Berlin, 1994). See section 21, The influence of archetypical ideas on the scientific theories of Kepler, concerning Johannes Kepler and Robert Fludd (1574–1637). ISBN 354056859X Schneer, Cecil: "Kepler's New Year's Gift of a Snowflake." Isis, Volume 51, No. 4. University of Chicago Press, 1960, pp 531–545. Shapin, Steven: The Scientific Revolution. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996. ISBN 0226750205 Stephenson, Bruce: Kepler's physical astronomy. New York: Springer, 1987 ISBN 0-387-96541-6 (Studies in the history of mathematics and physical sciences; 13); reprinted Princeton:Princeton Univ. Pr., 1994 ISBN 0691036527 Stephenson, Bruce: The Music of the Heavens: Kepler's Harmonic Astronomy, Princeton University Press, 1994. ISBN 0691034397 Toulmin, Stephen and June Goodfield: The Fabric of the Heavens: The Development of Astronomy and Dynamics. Pelican, 1963. Voelkel, James R.: The Composition of Kepler's Astronomia nova, Princeton University Press, 2001. ISBN 0691007381 Westfall, Richard S.: The Construction of Modern Science: Mechanism and Mechanics. John Wiley and Sons, 1971. ISBN 047193531X; reprinted Cambridge University Press, 1978. ISBN 0521292956 Westfall, Richard S.: Never at Rest: A Biography of Isaac Newton. Cambridge University Press, 1981. ISBN 0521231434 Wolf, A.: A History of Science, Technology and Philosophy in the 16th and 17th centuries. George Allen & Unwin, 1950. External links Cardboard kit of Kepler's Mysterium Cosmographicum planetary model Harmonies of the World, Charles Glenn Wallis tr., etext at sacred-texts.com Harmonices mundi ("The Harmony of the Worlds") in fulltext facsimile; Carnegie-Mellon University De Stella Nova in Pede Serpentarii ("On the new star in Ophiuchus's foot") in full text facsimile at Linda Hall Library Electronic facsimile-editions of the rare book collection at the Vienna Institute of Astronomy Christianson, Gale E., Kepler's Somnium: Science Fiction and the Renaissance Scientist Kollerstrom, Nicholas, Kepler's Belief in Astrology References for Johannes Kepler Plant, David, Kepler and the "Music of the Spheres" Kepler, Napier, and the Third Law at MathPages Calderón Urreiztieta, Carlos. 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5,294 | Monoid | In abstract algebra, a branch of mathematics, a monoid is an algebraic structure with a single associative binary operation and an identity element. Monoids occur in a number of branches of mathematics and capture the idea of function composition; indeed, this notion is abstracted in category theory, where the monoid is a category with one object. Monoids are also commonly used to provide an algebraic foundation for computer science; in this case, the transition monoid and syntactic monoid are used in describing a finite state machine, whereas trace monoids and history monoids provide a foundation for process calculi and concurrent computing. Some of the more important results in the study of monoids are the Krohn-Rhodes theorem and the star height problem. The history of monoids, as well as a discussion of additional general properties, are found in the article on semigroups. Definition A monoid is a set, M, together with an operation "•" that combines any two elements a and b to form another element denoted . The symbol "•" is a general placeholder for a concretely given operation. To qualify as a monoid, the set and operation, , must satisfy three requirements known as the monoid axioms: Closure For all a, b in M, the result of the operation a • b is also in M. Associativity For all a, b and c in M, the equation (a • b) • c = a • (b • c) holds. Identity element There exists an element e in M, such that for all elements a in M, the equation e • a = a • e = a holds. More compactly, a monoid is a semigroup with an identity element. Monoid Structures Generators and submonoids A submonoid of a monoid M is a subset N of M containing the unit element, and such that, if x,y∈N then x*y∈N. It is then clear that N is itself a monoid, under the binary operation induced by that of M. Equivalently, a submonoid is a subset N such that N=N∗, where the superscript * is the Kleene star. For any subset N of M, the monoid N* is the smallest monoid that contains N. A subset N is said to be a generator of M if and only if M=N*. If there is a finite generator of M, then M is said to be finitely generated. Commutative monoid A monoid whose operation is commutative is called a commutative monoid (or, less commonly, an abelian monoid). Commutative monoids are often written additively. Any commutative monoid is endowed with its algebraic preordering ≤, defined by x ≤ y if and only if there exists z such that x + z = y. An order-unit of a commutative monoid M is an element u of M such that for any element x of M, there exists a positive integer n such that x ≤ nu. This is often used in case M is the positive cone of a partially ordered abelian group G, in which case we say that u is an order-unit of G. Partially commutative monoid A monoid for which the operation is commutative for some, but not all elements is a trace monoid; trace monoids commonly occur in the theory of concurrent computation. Examples Every singleton set {x} gives rise to a one-element (trivial) monoid. For fixed x this monoid is unique, since the monoid axioms require that x*x = x in this case. Every group is a monoid and every abelian group a commutative monoid. Every bounded semilattice is an idempotent commutative monoid. Any semigroup S may be turned into a monoid simply by adjoining an element e not in S and defining e*e = e and e*s = s = s*e for all s ∈ S. The natural numbers, N, form a commutative monoid under addition (identity element zero), or multiplication (identity element one). A submonoid of N under addition is called a numerical monoid. The elements of any unital ring, with addition or multiplication as the operation. The integers, rational numbers, real numbers or complex numbers, with addition or multiplication as operation. The set of all n by n matrices over a given ring, with matrix addition or matrix multiplication as the operation. The set of all finite strings over some fixed alphabet Σ forms a monoid with string concatenation as the operation. The empty string serves as the identity element. This monoid is denoted Σ∗ and is called the free monoid over Σ. Fix a monoid M, and consider its power set P(M) consisting of all subsets of M. A binary operation for such subsets can be defined by S * T = {s * t : s in S and t in T}. This turns P(M) into a monoid with identity element {e}. In the same way the power set of a group G is a monoid under the product of group subsets. Let S be a set. The set of all functions S → S forms a monoid under function composition. The identity is just the identity function. If S is finite with n elements, the monoid of functions on S is finite with nn elements. Generalizing the previous example, let C be a category and X an object in C. The set of all endomorphisms of X, denoted EndC(X), forms a monoid under composition of morphisms. For more on the relationship between category theory and monoids see below. The set of homeomorphism classes of compact surfaces with the connected sum. Its unit element is the class of the ordinary 2-sphere. Furthermore, if a denotes the class of the torus, and b denotes the class of the projective plane, then every element c of the monoid has a unique expression the form c=na+mb where n is the integer ≥ 0 and m=0,1, or 2. We have 3b=a+b. Let be a cyclic monoid of order n, that is, . Then for some . In fact, each such k gives a distinct monoid of order n, and every cyclic monoid is isomorphic to one of these. Moreover, f can be considered as a function on the points given by or, equivalently Multiplication of elements in is then given by function composition. Note also that when then the function f is a permutation of and gives the unique cyclic group of order n. Properties In a monoid, one can define positive integer powers of an element x : x1=x, and xn=x*...*x (n times) for n>1 . The rule of powers xn+p=xn * xp is obvious. Directly from the definition, one can show that the identity element e is unique. Then, for any x , one can set x0=e and the rule of powers is still true with nonnegative exponents. It is possible to define invertible elements: an element x is called invertible if there exists an element y such that x*y = e and y*x = e. The element y is called the inverse of x . If y and z are inverses of x, then by associativity y = (zx)y = z(xy) = z. Thus inverses, if they exist, are unique. Jacobson, I.5. p. 22 If y is the inverse of x , one can define negative powers of x by setting x−1=y and x−n=y*...*y (n times) for n>1 . And the rule of exponents is still verified for all n,p rational integers. This is why the inverse of x is usually written x−1. The set of all invertible elements in a monoid M, together with the operation *, forms a group. In that sense, every monoid contains a group (if only the trivial one consisting of the identity alone). However, not every monoid sits inside a group. For instance, it is perfectly possible to have a monoid in which two elements a and b exist such that a*b = a holds even though b is not the identity element. Such a monoid cannot be embedded in a group, because in the group we could multiply both sides with the inverse of a and would get that b = e, which isn't true. A monoid (M,*) has the cancellation property (or is cancellative) if for all a, b and c in M, a*b = a*c always implies b = c and b*a = c*a always implies b = c. A commutative monoid with the cancellation property can always be embedded in a group via the Grothendieck construction. That's how the additive group of the integers (a group with operation +) is constructed from the additive monoid of natural numbers (a commutative monoid with operation + and cancellation property). However, a non-commutative cancellative monoid need not be embeddable in a group. If a monoid has the cancellation property and is finite, then it is in fact a group. Proof: Fix an element x in the monoid. Since the monoid is finite, xn = xm for some m > n > 0. But then, by cancellation we have that xm-n = e where e is the identity. Therefore x * xm-n-1 = e, so x has an inverse. The right- and left-cancellative elements of a monoid each in turn form a submonoid (i.e. obviously include the identity and not so obviously are closed under the operation). This means that the cancellative elements of any commutative monoid can be extended to a group. An inverse monoid, is a monoid where for every a in M, there exists a unique a-1 in M such that a=a*a-1*a and a-1=a-1*a*a-1. If an inverse monoid is cancellative, then it is a group. Acts and operator monoids Let M be a monoid. Then a (left) M-act (or left act over M) is a set X together with an operation • : M × X → X which is compatible with the monoid structure as follows: for all x in X: e • x = x; for all a, b in M and x in X: a • (b • x) = (a * b) • x. This is the analogue in monoid theory of a (left) group action. Right M-acts are defined in a similar way. A monoid with an act is also known as an operator monoid. Important examples include transition systems of semiautomata. A transformation semigroup can be made into an operator monoid by adjoining the identity transformation. Monoid homomorphisms A homomorphism between two monoids (M,*) and (M′,•) is a function f : M → M′ such that f(x*y) = f(x)•f(y) for all x, y in M f(e) = e′ where e and e′ are the identities on M and M′ respectively. Monoid homomorphisms are sometimes simply called monoid morphisms. Not every semigroup homomorphism is a monoid homomorphism since it may not preserve the identity. Contrast this with the case of group homomorphisms: the axioms of group theory ensure that every semigroup homomorphism between groups preserves the identity. For monoids this isn't always true and it is necessary to state it as a separate requirement. A bijective monoid homomorphism is called a monoid isomorphism. Two monoids are said to be isomorphic if there is an isomorphism between them. Monoid congruence and the quotient monoid A monoid congruence is an equivalence relation that is compatible with the monoid product. That is, it is a subset such that it is reflexive, symmetric and transitive (just as every equivalence relation must be), and also has the property that if and for every and in M, then one has that . A monoid congruence induces congruence classes and the monoid operation * induces a binary operation on the congruence classes: which is a monoid homomorphism. It is also clearly associative, and so the set of all congruence classes are a monoid as well. This monoid is called the quotient monoid, and may be written as Several additional notations are common. Give a subset , one writes for the set of congruence classes induced by L. In this notation, clearly . In general, however, is not a monoid. Going in the opposite direction, if is a subset of the quotient monoid, one writes This is, of course, just the set-theoretic union of the members of X. In general, is not a monoid. Clearly, one has and . Equational presentation Monoids may be given a presentation, much in the same way that groups can be specified by means of a group presentation. One does this by specifying a set of generators Σ, and a set of relations on the free monoid Σ∗. One does this by extending (finite) binary relations on Σ∗ to monoid congruences, and then constructing the quotient monoid, as above. Given a binary relation R ⊂ Σ∗ × Σ∗, one defines its symmetric closure as R ∪ R−1. This can be extended to a symmetric relation E ⊂ Σ∗ × Σ∗ by defining x ~E y if and only if x = sut and y = svt for some strings u, v, s, t ∈ Σ∗ with (u,v) ∈ R ∪ R−1. Finally, one takes the reflexive and transitive closure of E, which is then a monoid congruence. In the typical situation, the relation R is simply given as a set of equations, so that . Thus, for example, is the equational presentation for the bicyclic monoid, and is the plactic monoid of degree 2 (it has infinite order). Elements of this plactic monoid may be written as for integers i, j, k, as the relations show that ba commutes with both a and b. Relation to category theory Monoids can be viewed as a special class of categories. Indeed, the axioms required of a monoid operation are exactly those required of morphism composition when restricted to the set of all morphisms whose source and target is a given object. That is, A monoid is, essentially, the same thing as a category with a single object. More precisely, given a monoid (M,*), one can construct a small category with only one object and whose morphisms are the elements of M. The composition of morphisms is given by the monoid operation *. Likewise, monoid homomorphisms are just functors between single object categories. In this sense, category theory can be thought of as an extension of the concept of a monoid. Many definitions and theorems about monoids can be generalised to small categories with more than one object. Monoids, just like other algebraic structures, also form their own category, Mon, whose objects are monoids and whose morphisms are monoid homomorphisms. There is also a notion of monoid object which is an abstract definition of what is a monoid in a category. See also Star height problem Kleene algebra References John M. Howie, Fundamentals of Semigroup Theory (1995), Clarendon Press, Oxford ISBN 0-19-851194-9 M. Kilp, U. Knauer, A.V. Mikhalev, Monoids, Acts and Categories with Applications to Wreath Products and Graphs, De Gruyter Expositions in Mathematics vol. 29, Walter de Gruyter, 2000, ISBN 3110152487. | Monoid |@lemmatized abstract:3 algebra:2 branch:2 mathematics:3 monoid:104 algebraic:4 structure:4 single:3 associative:2 binary:6 operation:22 identity:18 element:37 monoids:19 occur:2 number:6 capture:1 idea:1 function:9 composition:6 indeed:2 notion:2 category:14 theory:8 one:20 object:9 also:9 commonly:3 use:3 provide:2 foundation:2 computer:1 science:1 case:5 transition:2 syntactic:1 describe:1 finite:8 state:2 machine:1 whereas:1 trace:3 history:2 process:1 calculus:1 concurrent:2 computing:1 important:2 result:2 study:1 krohn:1 rhodes:1 theorem:2 star:3 height:2 problem:2 well:2 discussion:1 additional:2 general:4 property:7 find:1 article:1 semigroups:1 definition:4 set:22 together:3 combine:1 two:4 b:21 form:9 another:1 denote:5 symbol:1 placeholder:1 concretely:1 give:14 qualify:1 must:2 satisfy:1 three:1 requirement:2 know:2 axiom:4 closure:3 associativity:2 c:12 equation:3 hold:3 exist:7 e:27 compactly:1 semigroup:6 generator:4 submonoids:1 submonoid:4 subset:10 n:31 contain:3 unit:4 x:50 clear:1 induce:3 equivalently:2 superscript:1 kleene:2 small:3 say:4 finitely:1 generate:1 commutative:15 whose:5 call:8 less:1 abelian:3 often:2 write:6 additively:1 endow:1 preordering:1 define:9 z:5 order:6 u:5 positive:3 integer:7 nu:1 cone:1 partially:2 ordered:1 group:24 g:3 computation:1 example:4 every:13 singleton:1 rise:1 trivial:2 fixed:2 unique:6 since:3 require:3 bounded:1 semilattice:1 idempotent:1 may:5 turn:3 simply:3 adjoin:2 natural:2 addition:5 zero:1 multiplication:5 numerical:1 unital:1 ring:2 rational:2 real:1 complex:1 matrix:3 string:4 alphabet:1 σ:11 concatenation:1 empty:1 serf:1 free:2 fix:2 consider:2 power:6 p:5 consisting:2 way:3 product:3 let:4 nn:1 generalize:1 previous:1 endomorphisms:1 endc:1 morphisms:6 relationship:1 see:2 homeomorphism:1 class:9 compact:1 surface:1 connect:1 sum:1 ordinary:1 sphere:1 furthermore:1 torus:1 projective:1 plane:1 expression:1 na:1 mb:1 cyclic:3 fact:2 k:2 distinct:1 isomorphic:2 moreover:1 f:7 point:1 note:1 permutation:1 xn:4 time:2 rule:3 xp:1 obvious:1 directly:1 show:2 still:2 true:3 nonnegative:1 exponent:2 possible:2 invertible:3 inverse:9 zx:1 xy:1 thus:2 jacobson:1 negative:1 verify:1 usually:1 sense:2 alone:1 however:3 sit:1 inside:1 instance:1 perfectly:1 even:1 though:1 cannot:1 embed:2 could:1 multiply:1 side:1 would:1 get:1 cancellation:5 cancellative:5 always:4 imply:2 via:1 grothendieck:1 construction:1 additive:2 construct:3 non:1 need:1 embeddable:1 proof:1 xm:3 therefore:1 right:2 leave:3 obviously:2 include:2 close:1 mean:2 extend:3 act:6 operator:3 compatible:2 follow:1 analogue:1 left:1 action:1 similar:1 system:1 semiautomata:1 transformation:2 make:1 homomorphisms:1 homomorphism:10 respectively:1 sometimes:1 preserve:2 contrast:1 ensure:1 necessary:1 separate:1 bijective:1 isomorphism:2 congruence:9 quotient:4 equivalence:2 relation:9 reflexive:2 symmetric:3 transitive:2 induces:1 clearly:3 several:1 notation:2 common:1 l:1 go:1 opposite:1 direction:1 course:1 theoretic:1 union:1 member:1 equational:2 presentation:4 much:1 specify:2 r:6 sut:1 svt:1 v:3 finally:1 take:1 typical:1 situation:1 bicyclic:1 plactic:2 degree:1 infinite:1 j:1 ba:1 commute:1 view:1 special:1 exactly:1 morphism:1 restrict:1 source:1 target:1 essentially:1 thing:1 precisely:1 likewise:1 functors:1 think:1 extension:1 concept:1 many:1 generalise:1 like:1 mon:1 reference:1 john:1 howie:1 fundamental:1 clarendon:1 press:1 oxford:1 isbn:2 kilp:1 knauer:1 mikhalev:1 application:1 wreath:1 graph:1 de:2 gruyter:2 exposition:1 vol:1 walter:1 |@bigram abstract_algebra:1 finitely_generate:1 commutative_monoid:11 string_concatenation:1 composition_morphisms:2 projective_plane:1 monoid_homomorphism:6 isomorphic_isomorphism:1 monoid_congruence:5 equivalence_relation:2 reflexive_symmetric:1 symmetric_transitive:1 reflexive_transitive:1 transitive_closure:1 clarendon_press:1 de_gruyter:2 |
5,295 | Biotechnology | Insulin crystals. Biotechnology is technology based on biology, especially when used in agriculture, food science, and medicine. United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity defines biotechnology as: "The Convention on Biological Diversity (Article 2. Use of Terms)." United Nations. 1992. Retrieved on February 6, 2008. Biotechnology is often used to refer to genetic engineering technology of the 21st century, however the term encompasses a wider range and history of procedures for modifying biological organisms according to the needs of humanity, going back to the initial modifications of native plants into improved food crops through artificial selection and hybridization. Bioengineering is the science upon which all biotechnological applications are based. With the development of new approaches and modern techniques, traditional biotechnology industries are also acquiring new horizons enabling them to improve the quality of their products and increase the productivity of their systems. Before 1971, the term, biotechnology, was primarily used in the agriculture and agriculture industries. Since the 1970s, it began to be used by the Western scientific establishment to refer to laboratory-based techniques being developed in biological research, such as recombinant DNA or tissue culture-based processes, or horizontal gene transfer in living plants, using vectors such as the Agrobacterium bacteria to transfer DNA into a host organism. In fact, the term should be used in a much broader sense to describe the whole range of methods, both ancient and modern, used to manipulate organic materials to reach the demands of food production. So the term could be defined as, "The application of indigenous and/or scientific knowledge to the management of (parts of) microorganisms, or of cells and tissues of higher organisms, so that these supply goods and services of use to the food industry and its consumers. Bunders, J.; Haverkort, W.; Hiemstra, W. "Biotechnology: Building on Farmer's Knowledge." 1996, Macmillan Education, Ltd. ISBN 0333670825 Biotechnology combines disciplines like genetics, molecular biology, biochemistry, embryology, and cell biology, which are in turn linked to practical disciplines like chemical engineering, information technology, and biorobotics. Patho-biotechnology describes the exploitation of pathogens or pathogen derived compounds for beneficial effect. History Brewing was an early application of biotechnology Although not normally thought of as biotechnology, agriculture clearly fits the broad definition of "using a biological system to make products" such that the cultivation of plants may be viewed as the earliest biotechnological enterprise. Agriculture has been theorized to have become the dominant way of producing food since the Neolithic Revolution. The processes and methods of agriculture have been refined by other mechanical and biological sciences since its inception. Through early biotechnology, farmers were able to select the best suited and highest-yield crops to produce enough food to support a growing population. Other uses of biotechnology were required as crops and fields became increasingly large and difficult to maintain. Specific organisms and organism by-products were used to fertilize, restore nitrogen, and control pests. Throughout the use of agriculture, farmers have inadvertently altered the genetics of their crops through introducing them to new environments and breeding them with other plants—one of the first forms of biotechnology. Cultures such as those in Mesopotamia, Egypt, and India developed the process of brewing beer. It is still done by the same basic method of using malted grains (containing enzymes) to convert starch from grains into sugar and then adding specific yeasts to produce beer. In this process the carbohydrates in the grains were broken down into alcohols such as ethanol. Ancient Indians also used the juices of the plant Ephedra vulgaris and used to call it Soma. Later other cultures produced the process of Lactic acid fermentation which allowed the fermentation and preservation of other forms of food. Fermentation was also used in this time period to produce leavened bread. Although the process of fermentation was not fully understood until Louis Pasteur’s work in 1857, it is still the first use of biotechnology to convert a food source into another form. Combinations of plants and other organisms were used as medications in many early civilizations. Since as early as 200 BC, people began to use disabled or minute amounts of infectious agents to immunize themselves against infections. These and similar processes have been refined in modern medicine and have led to many developments such as antibiotics, vaccines, and other methods of fighting sickness. In the early twentieth century scientists gained a greater understanding of microbiology and explored ways of manufacturing specific products. In 1917, Chaim Weizmann first used a pure microbiological culture in an industrial process, that of manufacturing corn starch using Clostridium acetobutylicum, to produce acetone, which the United Kingdom desperately needed to manufacture explosives during World War I. Springham, D.; Springham, G.; Moses, V.; Cape, R.E. "Biotechnology: The Science and the Business." Published 1999, Taylor & Francis. p. 1. ISBN 9057024071 The field of modern biotechnology is thought to have largely begun on June 16, 1980, when the United States Supreme Court ruled that a genetically-modified microorganism could be patented in the case of Diamond v. Chakrabarty. "Diamond v. Chakrabarty, 447 U.S. 303 (1980). No. 79-139." United States Supreme Court. June 16, 1980. Retrieved on May 4, 2007. Indian-born Ananda Chakrabarty, working for General Electric, had developed a bacterium (derived from the Pseudomonas genus) capable of breaking down crude oil, which he proposed to use in treating oil spills. Revenue in the industry is expected to grow by 12.9% in 2008. Another factor influencing the biotechnology sector's success is improved intellectual property rights legislation—and enforcement—worldwide, as well as strengthened demand for medical and pharmaceutical products to cope with an ageing, and ailing, U.S. population. IBISWorld Rising demand for biofuels is expected to be good news for the biotechnology sector, with the Department of Energy estimating ethanol usage could reduce U.S. petroleum-derived fuel consumption by up to 30% by 2030. The biotechnology sector has allowed the U.S. farming industry to rapidly increase its supply of corn and soybeans—the main inputs into biofuels—by developing genetically-modified seeds which are resistant to pests and drought. By boosting farm productivity, biotechnology plays a crucial role in ensuring that biofuel production targets are met. The Recession List - Top 10 Industries to Fly and Fl... (ith anincreasing share accounted for by ...) Applications A rose plant that began as cells grown in a tissue culture Biotechnology has applications in four major industrial areas, including health care (medical), crop production and agriculture, non food (industrial) uses of crops and other products (e.g. biodegradable plastics, vegetable oil, biofuels), and environmental uses. For example, one application of biotechnology is the directed use of organisms for the manufacture of organic products (examples include beer and milk products). Another example is using naturally present bacteria by the mining industry in bioleaching. Biotechnology is also used to recycle, treat waste, clean up sites contaminated by industrial activities (bioremediation), and also to produce biological weapons. A series of derived terms have been coined to identify several branches of biotechnology, for example: Bioinformatics is an interdisciplinary field which addresses biological problems using computational techniques, and makes the rapid organization and analysis of biological data possible. The field may also be referred to as computational biology, and can be defined as, "conceptualizing biology in terms of molecules and then applying informatics techniques to understand and organize the information associated with these molecules, on a large scale." Gerstein, M. "Bioinformatics Introduction." Yale University. Retrieved on May 8, 2007. Bioinformatics plays a key role in various areas, such as functional genomics, structural genomics, and proteomics, and forms a key component in the biotechnology and pharmaceutical sector. Blue biotechnology is a term that has been used to describe the marine and aquatic applications of biotechnology, but its use is relatively rare. Green biotechnology is biotechnology applied to agricultural processes. An example would be the selection and domestication of plants via micropropagation. Another example is the designing of transgenic plants to grow under specific environmental conditions or in the presence (or absence) of certain agricultural chemicals. One hope is that green biotechnology might produce more environmentally friendly solutions than traditional industrial agriculture. An example of this is the engineering of a plant to express a pesticide, thereby eliminating the need for external application of pesticides. An example of this would be Bt corn. Whether or not green biotechnology products such as this are ultimately more environmentally friendly is a topic of considerable debate. Red biotechnology is applied to medical processes. Some examples are the designing of organisms to produce antibiotics, and the engineering of genetic cures through genomic manipulation. White biotechnology, also known as industrial biotechnology, is biotechnology applied to industrial processes. An example is the designing of an organism to produce a useful chemical. Another example is the using of enzymes as industrial catalysts to either produce valuable chemicals or destroy hazardous/polluting chemicals. White biotechnology tends to consume less in resources than traditional processes used to produce industrial goods. The investments and economic output of all of these types of applied biotechnologies form what has been described as the bioeconomy. Medicine In medicine, modern biotechnology finds promising applications in such areas as drug production; pharmacogenomics; gene therapy; and genetic testing; Pharmacogenomics DNA Microarray chip -- Some can do as many as a million blood tests at once Pharmacogenomics is the study of how the genetic inheritance of an individual affects his/her body’s response to drugs. It is a coined word derived from the words “pharmacology” and “genomics”. It is hence the study of the relationship between pharmaceuticals and genetics. The vision of pharmacogenomics is to be able to design and produce drugs that are adapted to each person’s genetic makeup. U.S. Department of Energy Human Genome Program, supra note 6. Pharmacogenomics results in the following benefits: Development of tailor-made medicines. Using pharmacogenomics, pharmaceutical companies can create drugs based on the proteins, enzymes and RNA molecules that are associated with specific genes and diseases. These tailor-made drugs promise not only to maximize therapeutic effects but also to decrease damage to nearby healthy cells. More accurate methods of determining appropriate drug dosages. Knowing a patient’s genetics will enable doctors to determine how well his/ her body can process and metabolize a medicine. This will maximize the value of the medicine and decrease the likelihood of overdose. Improvements in the drug discovery and approval process. The discovery of potential therapies will be made easier using genome targets. Genes have been associated with numerous diseases and disorders. With modern biotechnology, these genes can be used as targets for the development of effective new therapies, which could significantly shorten the drug discovery process. Better vaccines. Safer vaccines can be designed and produced by organisms transformed by means of genetic engineering. These vaccines will elicit the immune response without the attendant risks of infection. They will be inexpensive, stable, easy to store, and capable of being engineered to carry several strains of pathogen at once. Pharmaceutical products Computer-generated image of insulin hexamers highlighting the threefold symmetry, the zinc ions holding it together, and the histidine residues involved in zinc binding. Most traditional pharmaceutical drugs are relatively simple molecules that have been found primarily through trial and error to treat the symptoms of a disease or illness. Biopharmaceuticals are large biological molecules known as proteins and these usually target the underlying mechanisms and pathways of a malady (but not always, as is the case with using insulin to treat type 1 diabetes mellitus, as that treatment merely addresses the symptoms of the disease, not the underlying cause which is autoimmunity); it is a relatively young industry. They can deal with targets in humans that may not be accessible with traditional medicines. A patient typically is dosed with a small molecule via a tablet while a large molecule is typically injected. Small molecules are manufactured by chemistry but larger molecules are created by living cells such as those found in the human body: for example, bacteria cells, yeast cells, animal or plant cells. Modern biotechnology is often associated with the use of genetically altered microorganisms such as E. coli or yeast for the production of substances like synthetic insulin or antibiotics. It can also refer to transgenic animals or transgenic plants, such as Bt corn. Genetically altered mammalian cells, such as Chinese Hamster Ovary (CHO) cells, are also used to manufacture certain pharmaceuticals. Another promising new biotechnology application is the development of plant-made pharmaceuticals. Biotechnology is also commonly associated with landmark breakthroughs in new medical therapies to treat hepatitis B, hepatitis C, cancers, arthritis, haemophilia, bone fractures, multiple sclerosis, and cardiovascular disorders. The biotechnology industry has also been instrumental in developing molecular diagnostic devices that can be used to define the target patient population for a given biopharmaceutical. Herceptin, for example, was the first drug approved for use with a matching diagnostic test and is used to treat breast cancer in women whose cancer cells express the protein HER2. Modern biotechnology can be used to manufacture existing medicines relatively easily and cheaply. The first genetically engineered products were medicines designed to treat human diseases. To cite one example, in 1978 Genentech developed synthetic humanized insulin by joining its gene with a plasmid vector inserted into the bacterium Escherichia coli. Insulin, widely used for the treatment of diabetes, was previously extracted from the pancreas of abattoir animals (cattle and/or pigs). The resulting genetically engineered bacterium enabled the production of vast quantities of synthetic human insulin at relatively low cost W. Bains, Genetic Engineering For Almost Everybody: What Does It Do? What Will It Do? (London: Penguin Books, 1987), 99. , although the cost savings was used to increase profits for manufacturers, not passed on to consumers or their healthcare providers. According to a 2003 study undertaken by the International Diabetes Federation (IDF) on the access to and availability of insulin in its member countries, synthetic 'human' insulin is considerably more expensive in most countries where both synthetic 'human' and animal insulin are commercially available: e.g. within European countries the average price of synthetic 'human' insulin was twice as high as the price of pork insulin IDF 2003; "Diabetes Atlas,: 2nd ed."; International Diabetes Federation, Brussels. . Yet in its position statement, the IDF writes that "there is no overwhelming evidence to prefer one species of insulin over another" and "[modern, highly-purified] animal insulins remain a perfectly acceptable alternative IDF March 2005; "Position Statement." International Diabetes Federation, Brussels. . Modern biotechnology has evolved, making it possible to produce more easily and relatively cheaply human growth hormone, clotting factors for hemophiliacs, fertility drugs, erythropoietin and other drugs. U.S. Department of State International Information Programs, “Frequently Asked Questions About Biotechnology”, USIS Online; available from http://usinfo.state.gov/ei/economic_issues/biotechnology/biotech_faq.html, accessed 13 Sept 2007. Cf. C. Feldbaum, “Some History Should Be Repeated”, 295 Science, 8 February 2002, 975. Most drugs today are based on about 500 molecular targets. Genomic knowledge of the genes involved in diseases, disease pathways, and drug-response sites are expected to lead to the discovery of thousands more new targets. Genetic testing Gel electrophoresis Genetic testing involves the direct examination of the DNA molecule itself. A scientist scans a patient’s DNA sample for mutated sequences. There are two major types of gene tests. In the first type, a researcher may design short pieces of DNA (“probes”) whose sequences are complementary to the mutated sequences. These probes will seek their complement among the base pairs of an individual’s genome. If the mutated sequence is present in the patient’s genome, the probe will bind to it and flag the mutation. In the second type, a researcher may conduct the gene test by comparing the sequence of DNA bases in a patient’s gene to disease in healthy individuals or their progeny. Genetic testing is now used for: Carrier screening, or the identification of unaffected individuals who carry one copy of a gene for a disease that requires two copies for the disease to manifest; Confirmational diagnosis of symptomatic individuals; Determining sex; Forensic/identity testing; Newborn screening; Prenatal diagnostic screening; Presymptomatic testing for estimating the risk of developing adult-onset cancers; Presymptomatic testing for predicting adult-onset disorders. Some genetic tests are already available, although most of them are used in developed countries. The tests currently available can detect mutations associated with rare genetic disorders like cystic fibrosis, sickle cell anemia, and Huntington’s disease. Recently, tests have been developed to detect mutation for a handful of more complex conditions such as breast, ovarian, and colon cancers. However, gene tests may not detect every mutation associated with a particular condition because many are as yet undiscovered, and the ones they do detect may present different risks to different people and populations. Controversial questions The bacterium C Villos lada is routinely genetically engineered. Several issues have been raised regarding the use of genetic testing: Absence of cure. There is still a lack of effective treatment or preventive measures for many diseases and conditions now being diagnosed or predicted using gene tests. Thus, revealing information about risk of a future disease that has no existing cure presents an ethical dilemma for medical practitioners. Ownership and control of genetic information. Who will own and control genetic information, or information about genes, gene products, or inherited characteristics derived from an individual or a group of people like indigenous communities? At the macro level, there is a possibility of a genetic divide, with developing countries that do not have access to medical applications of biotechnology being deprived of benefits accruing from products derived from genes obtained from their own people. Moreover, genetic information can pose a risk for minority population groups as it can lead to group stigmatization. At At the individual level, the absence of privacy and anti-discrimination legal protections in most countries can lead to discrimination in employment or insurance or other misuse of personal genetic information. This raises questions such as whether genetic privacy is different from medical privacy. The National Action Plan on Breast Cancer and U.S. National Institutes of Health-Department of Energy Working Group on the Ethical, Legal and Social Implications (ELSI) have issued several recommendations to prevent workplace and insurance discrimination. The highlights of these recommendations, which may be taken into account in developing legislation to prevent genetic discrimination, may be found at http://www.ornl.gov/hgmis/ elsi/legislat.html. Reproductive issues. These include the use of genetic information in reproductive decision-making and the possibility of genetically altering reproductive cells that may be passed on to future generations. For example, germline therapy forever changes the genetic make-up of an individual’s descendants. Thus, any error in technology or judgment may have far-reaching consequences. Ethical issues like designer babies and human cloning have also given rise to controversies between and among scientists and bioethicists, especially in the light of past abuses with eugenics. Clinical issues. These center on the capabilities and limitations of doctors and other health-service providers, people identified with genetic conditions, and the general public in dealing with genetic information. Effects on social institutions. Genetic tests reveal information about individuals and their families. Thus, test results can affect the dynamics within social institutions, particularly the family. Conceptual and philosophical implications regarding human responsibility, free will vis-à-vis genetic determinism, and the concepts of health and disease. Gene therapy Gene therapy using an Adenovirus vector. A new gene is inserted into an adenovirus vector, which is used to introduce the modified DNA into a human cell. If the treatment is successful, the new gene will make a functional protein. Gene therapy may be used for treating, or even curing, genetic and acquired diseases like cancer and AIDS by using normal genes to supplement or replace defective genes or to bolster a normal function such as immunity. It can be used to target somatic (i.e., body) or gametes (i.e., egg and sperm) cells. In somatic gene therapy, the genome of the recipient is changed, but this change is not passed along to the next generation. In contrast, in germline gene therapy, the egg and sperm cells of the parents are changed for the purpose of passing on the changes to their offspring. There are basically two ways of implementing a gene therapy treatment: Ex vivo, which means “outside the body” – Cells from the patient’s blood or bone marrow are removed and grown in the laboratory. They are then exposed to a virus carrying the desired gene. The virus enters the cells, and the desired gene becomes part of the DNA of the cells. The cells are allowed to grow in the laboratory before being returned to the patient by injection into a vein. In vivo, which means “inside the body” – No cells are removed from the patient’s body. Instead, vectors are used to deliver the desired gene to cells in the patient’s body. Currently, the use of gene therapy is limited. Somatic gene therapy is primarily at the experimental stage. Germline therapy is the subject of much discussion but it is not being actively investigated in larger animals and human beings. As of June 2001, more than 500 clinical gene-therapy trials involving about 3,500 patients have been identified worldwide. Around 78% of these are in the United States, with Europe having 18%. These trials focus on various types of cancer, although other multigenic diseases are being studied as well. Recently, two children born with severe combined immunodeficiency disorder (“SCID”) were reported to have been cured after being given genetically engineered cells. Gene therapy faces many obstacles before it can become a practical approach for treating disease. Ibid At least four of these obstacles are as follows: Gene delivery tools. Genes are inserted into the body using gene carriers called vectors. The most common vectors now are viruses, which have evolved a way of encapsulating and delivering their genes to human cells in a pathogenic manner. Scientists manipulate the genome of the virus by removing the disease-causing genes and inserting the therapeutic genes. However, while viruses are effective, they can introduce problems like toxicity, immune and inflammatory responses, and gene control and targeting issues. In addition, in order for gene therapy to provide permanent therapeutic effects, the introduced gene needs to be integrated within the host cell's genome. Some viral vectors effect this in a random fashion, which can introduce other problems such as disruption of an endogenous host gene. High costs. Since gene therapy is relatively new and at an experimental stage, it is an expensive treatment to undertake. This explains why current studies are focused on illnesses commonly found in developed countries, where more people can afford to pay for treatment. It may take decades before developing countries can take advantage of this technology. Limited knowledge of the functions of genes. Scientists currently know the functions of only a few genes. Hence, gene therapy can address only some genes that cause a particular disease. Worse, it is not known exactly whether genes have more than one function, which creates uncertainty as to whether replacing such genes is indeed desirable. Multigene disorders and effect of environment. Most genetic disorders involve more than one gene. Moreover, most diseases involve the interaction of several genes and the environment. For example, many people with cancer not only inherit the disease gene for the disorder, but may have also failed to inherit specific tumor suppressor genes. Diet, exercise, smoking and other environmental factors may have also contributed to their disease. Human Genome Project DNA Replication image from the Human Genome Project (HGP) The Human Genome Project is an initiative of the U.S. Department of Energy (“DOE”) that aims to generate a high-quality reference sequence for the entire human genome and identify all the human genes. The DOE and its predecessor agencies were assigned by the U.S. Congress to develop new energy resources and technologies and to pursue a deeper understanding of potential health and environmental risks posed by their production and use. In 1986, the DOE announced its Human Genome Initiative. Shortly thereafter, the DOE and National Institutes of Health developed a plan for a joint Human Genome Project (“HGP”), which officially began in 1990. The HGP was originally planned to last 15 years. However, rapid technological advances and worldwide participation accelerated the completion date to 2003 (making it a 13 year project). Already it has enabled gene hunters to pinpoint genes associated with more than 30 disorders. U.S. Department of Energy Human Genome Program, supra note 6 Cloning Cloning involves the removal of the nucleus from one cell and its placement in an unfertilized egg cell whose nucleus has either been deactivated or removed. There are two types of cloning: Reproductive cloning. After a few divisions, the egg cell is placed into a uterus where it is allowed to develop into a fetus that is genetically identical to the donor of the original nucleus. Therapeutic cloning. A number of scientists have called for the use the term “nuclear transplantation,” instead of “therapeutic cloning,” to help reduce public confusion. The term “cloning” has become synonymous with “somatic cell nuclear transfer,” a procedure that can be used for a variety of purposes, only one of which involves an intention to create a clone of an organism. They believe that the term “cloning” is best associated with the ultimate outcome or objective of the research and not the mechanism or technique used to achieve that objective. They argue that the goal of creating a nearly identical genetic copy of a human being is consistent with the term “human reproductive cloning,” but the goal of creating stem cells for regenerative medicine is not consistent with the term “therapeutic cloning.” The objective of the latter is to make tissue that is genetically compatible with that of the recipient, not to create a copy of the potential tissue recipient. Hence, “therapeutic cloning” is conceptually inaccurate. B. Vogelstein, B. Alberts, and K. Shine, “Please Don’t Call It Cloning!”, Science (15 February 2002), 1237 The egg is placed into a Petri dish where it develops into embryonic stem cells, which have shown potentials for treating several ailments. D. Cameron, “Stop the Cloning”, Technology Review, 23 May 2002’. Also available from http://www.techreview.com. [hereafter “Cameron”] In February 1997, cloning became the focus of media attention when Ian Wilmut and his colleagues at the Roslin Institute announced the successful cloning of a sheep, named Dolly, from the mammary glands of an adult female. The cloning of Dolly made it apparent to many that the techniques used to produce her could someday be used to clone human beings. M.C. Nussbaum and C.R. Sunstein, Clones And Clones: Facts And Fantasies About Human Cloning (New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 1998), 11. However, there is wide disagreement within scientific circles whether human cloning can be successfully carried out. For instance, Dr. Rudolf Jaenisch of Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research believes that reproductive cloning shortcuts basic biological processes, thus making normal offspring impossible to produce. In normal fertilization, the egg and sperm go through a long process of maturation. Cloning shortcuts this process by trying to reprogram the nucleus of one whole genome in minutes or hours. This results in gross physical malformations to subtle neurological disturbances. Cameron, supra note 30 This stirred a lot of controversy because of its ethical implications. Agriculture Improve Yield from Crops Using the techniques of modern biotechnology, one or two genes may be transferred to a highly developed crop variety to impart a new character that would increase its yield. Asian Development Bank, Agricultural Biotechnology, Poverty Reduction and Food Security (Manila: Asian Development Bank, 2001). Also available from http://www.adb.org However, while increases in crop yield are the most obvious applications of modern biotechnology in agriculture, it is also the most difficult one. Current genetic engineering techniques work best for effects that are controlled by a single gene. Many of the genetic characteristics associated with yield (e.g., enhanced growth) are controlled by a large number of genes, each of which has a minimal effect on the overall yield. D. Bruce and A. Bruce, Engineering Genesis: The Ethics of Genetic Engineering, London: Earthscan Publications, 1999 There is, therefore, much scientific work to be done in this area. Reduced vulnerability of crops to environmental stresses Crops containing genes that will enable them to withstand biotic and abiotic stresses may be developed. For example, drought and excessively salty soil are two important limiting factors in crop productivity. Biotechnologists are studying plants that can cope with these extreme conditions in the hope of finding the genes that enable them to do so and eventually transferring these genes to the more desirable crops. One of the latest developments is the identification of a plant gene, At-DBF2, from thale cress, a tiny weed that is often used for plant research because it is very easy to grow and its genetic code is well mapped out. When this gene was inserted into tomato and tobacco cells (see RNA interference), the cells were able to withstand environmental stresses like salt, drought, cold and heat, far more than ordinary cells. If these preliminary results prove successful in larger trials, then At-DBF2 genes can help in engineering crops that can better withstand harsh environments. S. Abdulla. “Drought Stress” Nature: Science Update; available from http://www.nature.com/ nsu; accessed 3 May 2002. Researchers have also created transgenic rice plants that are resistant to rice yellow mottle virus (RYMV). In Africa, this virus destroys majority of the rice crops and makes the surviving plants more susceptible to fungal infections. National Academy of Sciences. Transgenic Plants and World Agriculture (Washington: National Academy Press, 2001) Increased nutritional qualities &quantity of food crops Proteins in foods may be modified to increase their nutritional qualities. Proteins in legumes and cereals may be transformed to provide the amino acids needed by human beings for a balanced diet. A good example is the work of Professors Ingo Potrykus and Peter Beyer on the so-called Golden rice (discussed below). Improved taste, texture or appearance of food Modern biotechnology can be used to slow down the process of spoilage so that fruit can ripen longer on the plant and then be transported to the consumer with a still reasonable shelf life. This alters the taste, texture and appearance of the fruit. More importantly, it could expand the market for farmers in developing countries due to the reduction in spoilage. However, there is sometimes a lack of understanding by researchers in developed countries about the actual needs of prospective beneficiaries in developing countries. For example, engineering soybeans to resist spoilage makes them less suitable for producing tempeh which is a significant source of protein that depends on fermentation. The use of modified soybeans results in a lumpy texture that is less palatable and less convenient when cooking. The first genetically modified food product was a tomato which was transformed to delay its ripening. For an account of the research and development of Flavr Savr® tomato, see B. Martineau, First Fruit: The Creation of the Flavr Savr Tomato and the Birth of Biotech Food (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2001) Researchers in Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, Philippines and Vietnam are currently working on delayed-ripening papaya in collaboration with the University of Nottingham and Zeneca. A.F. Krattiger, An Overview of ISAAA from 1992 to 2000, ISAAA Brief No. 19-2000, 9 Biotechnology in cheese production: EuropaBio - An animal friendly alternative for cheeze makers enzymes produced by micro-organisms provide an alternative to animal rennet – a cheese coagulant - and an alternative supply for cheese makers. This also eliminates possible public concerns with animal-derived material, although there are currently no plans to develop synthetic milk, thus making this argument less compelling. Enzymes offer an animal-friendly alternative to animal rennet. While providing comparable quality, they are theoretically also less expensive. About 85 million tons of wheat flour is used every year to bake bread. EuropaBio - Biologically better bread By adding an enzyme called maltogenic amylase to the flour, bread stays fresher longer. Assuming that 10-15% of bread is thrown away as stale, if it could be made to stay fresh another 5–7 days then perhaps 2 million tons of flour per year would be saved. Other enzymes can cause bread to expand to make a lighter loaf, or alter the loaf in a range of ways. Reduced dependence on fertilizers, pesticides and other agrochemicals Most of the current commercial applications of modern biotechnology in agriculture are on reducing the dependence of farmers on agrochemicals. For example, Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) is a soil bacterium that produces a protein with insecticidal qualities. Traditionally, a fermentation process has been used to produce an insecticidal spray from these bacteria. In this form, the Bt toxin occurs as an inactive protoxin, which requires digestion by an insect to be effective. There are several Bt toxins and each one is specific to certain target insects. Crop plants have now been engineered to contain and express the genes for Bt toxin, which they produce in its active form. When a susceptible insect ingests the transgenic crop cultivar expressing the Bt protein, it stops feeding and soon thereafter dies as a result of the Bt toxin binding to its gut wall. Bt corn is now commercially available in a number of countries to control corn borer (a lepidopteran insect), which is otherwise controlled by spraying (a more difficult process). Crops have also been genetically engineered to acquire tolerance to broad-spectrum herbicide. The lack of cost-effective herbicides with broad-spectrum activity and no crop injury was a consistent limitation in crop weed management. Multiple applications of numerous herbicides were routinely used to control a wide range of weed species detrimental to agronomic crops. Weed management tended to rely on preemergence — that is, herbicide applications were sprayed in response to expected weed infestations rather than in response to actual weeds present. Mechanical cultivation and hand weeding were often necessary to control weeds not controlled by herbicide applications. The introduction of herbicide tolerant crops has the potential of reducing the number of herbicide active ingredients used for weed management, reducing the number of herbicide applications made during a season, and increasing yield due to improved weed management and less crop injury. Transgenic crops that express tolerance to glyphosate, glufosinate and bromoxynil have been developed. These herbicides can now be sprayed on transgenic crops without inflicting damage on the crops while killing nearby weeds. L. P. Gianessi, C. S. Silvers, S. Sankula and J. E. Carpenter. Plant Biotechnology: Current and Potential Impact for Improving Pest management in US Agriculture, An Analysis of 40 Case Studies (Washington, D.C.: National Center for Food and Agricultural Policy, 2002), 5-6 From 1996 to 2001, herbicide tolerance was the most dominant trait introduced to commercially available transgenic crops, followed by insect resistance. In 2001, herbicide tolerance deployed in soybean, corn and cotton accounted for 77% of the 626,000 square kilometres planted to transgenic crops; Bt crops accounted for 15%; and "stacked genes" for herbicide tolerance and insect resistance used in both cotton and corn accounted for 8%. C. James, “Global Review of Commercialized Transgenic Crops: 2002”, ISAAA Brief No. 27-2002, at 11-12. Also available from http://www.isaaa.org Production of novel substances in crop plants Biotechnology is being applied for novel uses other than food. For example, oilseed can be modified to produce fatty acids for detergents, substitute fuels and petrochemicals. Potatoes, tomatoes, ricererere tobacco, lettuce, safflowers, and other plants have been genetically-engineered to produce insulin and certain vaccines. If future clinical trials prove successful, the advantages of edible vaccines would be enormous, especially for developing countries. The transgenic plants may be grown locally and cheaply. Homegrown vaccines would also avoid logistical and economic problems posed by having to transport traditional preparations over long distances and keeping them cold while in transit. And since they are edible, they will not need syringes, which are not only an additional expense in the traditional vaccine preparations but also a source of infections if contaminated. In the case of insulin grown in transgenic plants, it is well-established that the gastrointestinal system breaks the protein down therefore this could not currently be administered as an edible protein. However, it might be produced at significantly lower cost than insulin produced in costly, bioreactors. For example, Calgary, Canada-based SemBioSys Genetics, Inc. reports that its safflower-produced insulin will reduce unit costs by over 25% or more and approximates a reduction in the capital costs associated with building a commercial-scale insulin manufacturing facility of over $100 million, compared to traditional biomanufacturing facilities SemBioSys . Criticism There is another side to the agricultural biotechnology issue. It includes increased herbicide usage and resultant herbicide resistance, "super weeds," residues on and in food crops, genetic contamination of non-GM crops which hurt organic and conventional farmers, damage to wildlife from glyphosate, etc. Monsanto and the Roundup Ready Controversy - SourceWatch Monsanto - SourceWatch Biological engineering Biotechnological engineering or biological engineering is a branch of engineering that focuses on biotechnologies and biological science. It includes different disciplines such as biochemical engineering, biomedical engineering, bio-process engineering, biosystem engineering and so on. Because of the novelty of the field, the definition of a bioengineer is still undefined. However, in general it is an integrated approach of fundamental biological sciences and traditional engineering principles. Bioengineers are often employed to scale up bio processes from the laboratory scale to the manufacturing scale. Moreover, as with most engineers, they often deal with management, economic and legal issues. Since patents and regulation (e.g., U.S. Food and Drug Administration regulation in the U.S.) are very important issues for biotech enterprises, bioengineers are often required to have knowledge related to these issues. The increasing number of biotech enterprises is likely to create a need for bioengineers in the years to come. Many universities throughout the world are now providing programs in bioengineering and biotechnology (as independent programs or specialty programs within more established engineering fields). Bioremediation and Biodegradation Biotechnology is being used to engineer and adapt organisms especially microorganisms in an effort to find sustainable ways to clean up contaminated environments. The elimination of a wide range of pollutants and wastes from the environment is an absolute requirement to promote a sustainable development of our society with low environmental impact. Biological processes play a major role in the removal of contaminants and biotechnology is taking advantage of the astonishing catabolic versatility of microorganisms to degrade/convert such compounds. New methodological breakthroughs in sequencing, genomics, proteomics, bioinformatics and imaging are producing vast amounts of information. In the field of Environmental Microbiology, genome-based global studies open a new era providing unprecedented in silico views of metabolic and regulatory networks, as well as clues to the evolution of degradation pathways and to the molecular adaptation strategies to changing environmental conditions. Functional genomic and metagenomic approaches are increasing our understanding of the relative importance of different pathways and regulatory networks to carbon flux in particular environments and for particular compounds and they will certainly accelerate the development of bioremediation technologies and biotransformation processes. Marine environments are especially vulnerable since oil spills of coastal regions and the open sea are poorly containable and mitigation is difficult. In addition to pollution through human activities, millions of tons of petroleum enter the marine environment every year from natural seepages. Despite its toxicity, a considerable fraction of petroleum oil entering marine systems is eliminated by the hydrocarbon-degrading activities of microbial communities, in particular by a remarkable recently discovered group of specialists, the so-called hydrocarbonoclastic bacteria (HCCB). Education In 1988, after prompting from the United States Congress, the National Institute of General Medical Sciences (National Institutes of Health) instituted a funding mechanism for biotechnology training. Universities nationwide compete for these funds to establish Biotechnology Training Programs (BTPs). Each successful application is generally funded for five years then must be competitively renewed. Graduate students in turn compete for acceptance into a BTP. If accepted, stipend, tuition and health insurance support is provided for two or three years during the course of their PhD thesis work. One example is the Biotechnology Training Program - University of Virginia. Eighteen other institutions offer NIGMS supported BTPs. Biotechnology training is also offered at the undergraduate level and in community colleges. Examples include the Biotechnology Major at [James Madison University] and the Biotechnology Career Studies Certificate at [Piedmont Virginia Community College]. Notable researchers and individuals Canada : Frederick Banting, Lap-Chee Tsui, Tak Wah Mak, Lorne Babiuk Europe : Francis Crick, Jacques Monod, Paul Nurse, Ingo Potrykus, Ralf Reski, Arpad Pusztai, Werner Arber Finland : Leena Palotie Iceland : Kari Stefansson India : Kiran Mazumdar-Shaw (Biocon) Ireland : Timothy O'Brien, Dermot P Kelleher Mexico : Francisco Bolívar Zapata, Luis Herrera-Estrella U.S. : Roger Beachy, David Botstein, Herbert Boyer, Sydney Brenner, James J. Collins, Leroy Hood, Eric Lander, Robert Langer, Thomas Okarma, Craig Venter, James D. Watson, Michael West Zimbabwe: Christopher Chetsanga See also Bioeconomics Biomimetics Biotechnology industrial park Bionic architecture Competitions and prizes in biotechnology Green Revolution Genetic Engineering International Assessment of Agricultural Science and Technology for Development International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-biotech Applications List of biotechnology articles List of biotechnology companies List of emerging technologies NASDAQ Biotechnology Index SWORD-financing References Further reading Friedman, Y. Building Biotechnology: Starting, Managing, and Understanding Biotechnology Companies. ISBN 978-0973467635. Oliver, Richard W. The Coming Biotech Age. ISBN 0-07-135020-9. Powell, Walter W., Douglas R. White, Kenneth W. Koput, and Jason Owen-Smith. 2005. Network Dynamics and Field Evolution: The Growth of Interorganizational Collaboration in the Life Sciences. American Journal of Sociology'' 110(4):901-975. Viviana Zelizer Best Paper in Economic Sociology Award (2005-2006), American Sociological Association. Agricultural Biotechnology: An Economic Perspective by the USDA Economic Research Service. A 1994 publication from the Agricultural Economic Report. External links A report on Agricultural Biotechnology focusing on the impacts of "Green" Biotechnology with a special emphasis on economic aspects US Economic Benefits of Biotechnology to Business and Society NOAA Economics Database of the Safety and Benefits of Biotechnology - a database of peer-reviewed scientific papers and the safety and benefits of biotechnology | Biotechnology |@lemmatized insulin:19 crystal:1 biotechnology:80 technology:10 base:10 biology:5 especially:5 use:71 agriculture:14 food:19 science:13 medicine:11 united:7 nation:2 convention:2 biological:16 diversity:2 defines:1 article:2 term:13 retrieve:3 february:4 often:7 refer:4 genetic:35 engineering:22 century:2 however:9 encompass:1 wider:1 range:5 history:3 procedure:2 modify:6 organism:13 accord:2 need:8 humanity:1 go:2 back:1 initial:1 modification:1 native:1 plant:27 improve:7 crop:34 artificial:1 selection:2 hybridization:1 bioengineering:2 upon:1 biotechnological:3 application:19 development:12 new:16 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5,296 | God_Emperor_of_Dune | See God Emperor for the general concept, for the Warhammer 40,000 personality c.f. Emperor of Mankind (Warhammer 40,000). God Emperor of Dune is a science fiction novel by Frank Herbert published in 1981, the fourth in the Dune series. Plot introduction Thirty-five hundred years have passed since Paul Atreides had become the messiah of the Fremen and the Emperor of the known universe at the end of the novel Dune. His son, Leto Atreides II, sees the path that his father Muad'Dib had also seen, a future that secures the continuation of human life throughout the universe. That future, however, requires an aberrant act of selflessness: becoming a hybrid of man and sandworm. At the end of Children of Dune, Leto II accepts this mantle of godhead from the Fremen and transforms himself into a monster of the desert, a sandworm, that will dominate the ecology of the planet Arrakis (known as Dune) for millennia. This is an act his father had been unwilling to do. Leto essentially accepts the terrible price of saving humanity which his father had rejected. God Emperor of Dune chronicles Leto's attempts to consummate the Golden Path, which delivers the volition of humanity by scattering it beyond the perceived safety of Imperium's known universe, and also by destroying the possibility of the Imperium's control by any single entity, including himself. Plot summary The seemingly immortal God Emperor Leto II has ruled his Empire for more than 3,500 years, his lifespan lengthened due to his decision in Children of Dune to merge his human body with sandtrout, the haploid phase of the giant sandworms of Arrakis. His continued evolution has slowly transformed him, altering his human form into what he calls a 'pre-worm'. His body has come to resemble a small version of the ancient sandworms of Arrakis, ribbed, elongated, and covered in scaly sandtrout; his face remains, as do his hands and arms, but his legs and feet have atrophied to be of no use. He moves from place to place on a large cart of Ixian manufacture, and it is later revealed that his brain has gradually diffused into the rest of his body, becoming a series of nodes throughout his whole form. The sandtrout skin makes him virtually impervious to harm, even allowing him to survive lasgun fire. During his long reign, Leto has enforced a state of peace throughout his multigalactic empire, both through tight control of his enormous hoard of the spice melange and the military might of his Fish Speaker army. The old Imperium is basically non-existent; the Landsraad has ceased to exist and only a few remnants of the Great Houses survive. The Bene Gesserit and Spacing Guild have endured, although both have been forced to adapt to Leto's absolute control over melange and his powerful prescience, and CHOAM has been reduced to a shadow of its former self. His reign is considered by many to be depraved and despotic, but he is confident that his actions will ensure the survival of the human race. Leto has employed a series of gholas grown from the cells of Duncan Idaho, the faithful Swordmaster of House Atreides. Duncan functions both as the captain of Leto's guard and as a familiar face to calm Leto in his moments of distress. They remind Leto of his family, and he feels that he owes Duncan for his service and devotion to House Atreides. Over the centuries, a significant number of the gholas have attempted to assassinate Leto through various means after struggling with the conflict between their intense loyalty to House Atreides and the moral disgust triggered by the repression and stagnation Leto has forced upon the Empire. These feelings, compounded with the uneasy doubt caused by being millennia out of their time, drives some of the Duncan Idaho gholas insane. Leto's "Golden Path," as he calls it, is a millennia-spanning attempt to produce a human who is invisible to a watcher gifted with prescience. This breeding plan, begun with the marriage of Leto's twin sister Ghanima to Farad'n Corrino, has resulted in Leto's majordomo Moneo Atreides and his daughter Siona. Moneo has served Leto faithfully for the majority of his life, having been a rebel until he was shown the Golden Path in a test by Leto. Siona is the leader of a group of rebels seeking to overthrow the God Emperor and locate his hidden hoard of melange. Unbeknownst to Siona, Nayla — her close friend and de facto bodyguard — worships Leto, and is under orders to protect and obey Siona in all things while reporting of her rebellious activities. During a raid on his Citadel, Siona and her friends steal, among other things, a series of excerpts from Leto's private journal. Unknown to them, Leto is aware of their activities and allows them to continue. In perusing some of the items and documents stolen from the Citadel, Siona learns that Leto remains capable of love, and plots to use this as a weapon against him. At the same time, the new Ixian ambassador, Hwi Noree, is sent to the court of the God Emperor. Immediately entranced by her beauty, grace, and purity, Leto begins to be tortured by the knowledge that he and Hwi are separated by his continued transformation. For her part, Hwi desires nothing more than to serve the God Emperor, and she quickly becomes a confidante, finally expressing her love of Leto. The latest incarnation of Duncan is also captivated by Hwi's beauty, but is rebuffed by Leto, who warns that Hwi is his alone. Because of his intense feelings for Hwi and the fact that she had never appeared in his prescient visions, Leto realizes that she is a trap, trained and sent by the Ixians to weaken him. However, he is unable to send her away, and she gladly accepts his offer to remain. It is revealed that Hwi had been grown inside an Ixian no-room — a device that shields its occupants from prescient view — from cells of a former Ixian ambassador, Malky, who had been a cynical and roguish friend of the God Emperor. Through discussions with Moneo and Leto, Duncan learns about Leto's transformation, the Fish Speakers, and the oppressive measures Leto takes to maintain his absolute control over the Empire. He begins to grow more agitated and restless, though he continues in his duties, defending the God Emperor from an attack by Tleilaxu Face Dancers. Duncan struggles with feelings of inadequacy and the confusion and disorientation that result from existing in a time alien to him. Duncan meets Siona, and though the two of them are coldly formal to one another, they eventually unite to kill Leto and end his tyrannical rule over mankind. Leto and Hwi decide to marry, and lead a wedding procession from Leto's Little Citadel to Tuono Village, where Duncan and Siona have been sent. While crossing the Idaho River, Siona orders Nayla to cut the supports of the bridge with a lasgun, spilling Moneo, Hwi, Leto, and a number of couriers into the jagged rocks in the canyon below. Nayla obeys despite her fanaticism toward the God Emperor, believing that the instructions are a test of her loyalty. Leto survives the fall, but is immersed in water, and his body begins to dissolve, just as the sandworms of ancient Dune. In a final conversation with Siona and Duncan, Leto reveals that Siona is the embodiment of the Golden Path, a human completely shielded from prescient view. He explains that humanity is now free from the domination of oracles, free to scatter throughout the universe, never again to face complete domination. After revealing the location of his secret spice hoard, Leto dies, leaving Duncan and Siona to face the task of managing the empire. The major themes explored in God Emperor of Dune are the cyclical patterns of human society. Using his ancestral memories Leto II can recall the tyrannical fashions from Babylon through to the Jesuits and thus builds a empire existing as a complete nexus of all these methods. The empire differs from the historical tyrants in that it is deliberately designed to end in destruction, with the hope that humanity will never succumb to such patterns again. Leto II personally explores the emergent effects of civilisation, noting that most hierarchical structures are remnants of evolutionary urges toward safety. Thus by forming a perfectly safe and stable empire, Leto II delivers a message to be felt throughout history. Style Stylistically, the novel is permeated by quotations from, and speeches by its main character, Leto, to a degree unseen in any of the other Dune novels. In part, this stylistic shift is an artifact of how Herbert wrote it: the first draft was written almost entirely in the First-person narrative voice, only being revised in later drafts to insert more third-person narration of events. "God Emperor of Dune is unique in the series, however, because almost all of the quotations are from The Stolen Journals (and not from the complete journals found at Dar-es-Balat). They were written by Leto to personalize himself to distant readers in the future....Written in the first person (the early drafts of God Emperor show that Herbert wrote most of the novel in the first person and left notes for himself to transcribe into the third person; material that he did not transcribe resulted in the journal quotations), they range informally and thought-provokingly over a broad range of subjects from government to prophecy to the nature of language...I believe this is their primary function, for Leto so dominates the book that the other characters seem to exist at times only to bring out differences in him. Even in their most private thoughts they are all obsessed with the God Emperor." pg 87, Touponce 1988 Footnotes References See also God Emperor External links | God_Emperor_of_Dune |@lemmatized see:4 god:15 emperor:17 general:1 concept:1 warhammer:2 personality:1 c:1 f:1 mankind:2 dune:11 science:1 fiction:1 novel:5 frank:1 herbert:3 publish:1 fourth:1 series:5 plot:3 introduction:1 thirty:1 five:1 hundred:1 year:2 pass:1 since:1 paul:1 atreides:6 become:4 messiah:1 fremen:2 known:1 universe:4 end:4 son:1 leto:42 ii:6 path:5 father:3 muad:1 dib:1 also:4 future:3 secure:1 continuation:1 human:7 life:2 throughout:5 however:3 require:1 aberrant:1 act:2 selflessness:1 hybrid:1 man:1 sandworm:2 child:2 accept:3 mantle:1 godhead:1 transforms:1 monster:1 desert:1 dominate:2 ecology:1 planet:1 arrakis:3 know:2 millennium:1 unwilling:1 essentially:1 terrible:1 price:1 save:1 humanity:4 reject:1 chronicle:1 attempt:3 consummate:1 golden:4 deliver:2 volition:1 scatter:2 beyond:1 perceived:1 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personalize:1 distant:1 reader:1 early:1 left:1 transcribe:2 material:1 range:2 informally:1 think:1 provokingly:1 broad:1 subject:1 government:1 prophecy:1 nature:1 language:1 primary:1 book:1 seem:1 bring:1 difference:1 thought:1 obsess:1 pg:1 touponce:1 footnote:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram science_fiction:1 frank_herbert:1 paul_atreides:1 leto_atreides:1 muad_dib:1 non_existent:1 bene_gesserit:1 duncan_idaho:2 de_facto:1 prescient_vision:1 cyclical_pattern:1 external_link:1 |
5,297 | Military_of_Costa_Rica | On December 1, 1948, President José Figueres Ferrer of Costa Rica abolished the country's army after victory in the civil war in that year. (Spanish) In a ceremony in the Cuartel Bellavista, Figueres broke a wall with a mallet symbolizing the end of Costa Rica's military spirit. In 1949, the abolition of the military was introduced in Article 12 of the Costa Rican Constitution. José Figueres Ferrer breaking a wall of the Cuartel Bellavista symbolizing the abolition of the Military. The budget previously dedicated to the military now is dedicated to security, education and culture; the country maintains Police Guard forces. The museum Museo Nacional de Costa Rica was placed in the Cuartel Bellavista as a symbol of commitment to culture. In 1986, President Oscar Arias Sánchez declared December 1 as the Día de la Abolición del Ejército (Military abolition day) with Law #8115. Unlike its neighbors, Costa Rica has not endured a civil war since 1948. Ministry of Public Security's Public Force During 1996, the Ministry of Public Security established the Fuerza Pública or Public Force which reorganized and eliminated the Civil Guard, Rural Assistance Guard, and Frontier Guards as separate entities; they are now under the Ministry and operate on a geographic command basis performing ground security, law enforcement, counter-narcotics, and border patrol functions. Outside the Fuerza Publica, there is a small Special Forces Unit, the Unidad Especial de Intervencion (UEI) or Special Intervention Unit, which trains with special forces of Israel, and its namesake in Spain and other democratic nations, but is not part of the main police forces, instead it is part of the Intelligence and Security Directorate (DIS) which reports directly to the Minister of the Presidency. Weapons and equipment Weapons include M16s, M4A1s, UZIs, MP5s and other weapons such as the M1911 .45ACP and Beretta M9 semiautomatic pistol. Aircraft inventory There are 11 aircraft on government support, law enforcement, and civil duties. ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Aircraft ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Origin ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Type ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Versions ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|In service "World Military Aircraft Inventory", Aerospace Source Book 2007, Aviation Week & Space Technology, January 15 2007. ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Notes |----- | Aero Commander || || utility transport || 695 || 1 || |----- | Cessna 206 || || utility || 206G || 2 || |----- | Cessna 207 || || utility || || 1 || |----- | de Havilland Canada DHC-4 Caribou || || tactical transport || || 1 || |----- | MD Helicopters MD 500 || || utility helicopter || MD 500E || 2 || |----- | Piper PA-31 || || utility || || 3 || |----- | Piper PA-34 || || utility || PA-34-200T || 1 || |} See also List of countries without armed forces References External links Ministerio de Seguridad Pública. El Espíritu del 48: Abolición del Ejército A brief history of the abolition of the military in Costa Rica. | Military_of_Costa_Rica |@lemmatized december:2 president:2 josé:2 figueres:3 ferrer:2 costa:6 rica:5 abolish:1 country:3 army:1 victory:1 civil:4 war:2 year:1 spanish:1 ceremony:1 cuartel:3 bellavista:3 break:2 wall:2 mallet:1 symbolize:2 end:1 military:7 spirit:1 abolition:4 introduce:1 article:1 rican:1 constitution:1 budget:1 previously:1 dedicate:2 security:5 education:1 culture:2 maintain:1 police:2 guard:4 force:7 museum:1 museo:1 nacional:1 de:5 place:1 symbol:1 commitment:1 oscar:1 aria:1 sánchez:1 declare:1 día:1 la:1 abolición:2 del:3 ejército:2 day:1 law:3 unlike:1 neighbor:1 endure:1 since:1 ministry:3 public:4 establish:1 fuerza:2 pública:2 reorganize:1 eliminate:1 rural:1 assistance:1 frontier:1 separate:1 entity:1 operate:1 geographic:1 command:1 basis:1 perform:1 ground:1 enforcement:2 counter:1 narcotic:1 border:1 patrol:1 function:1 outside:1 publica:1 small:1 special:3 unit:2 unidad:1 especial:1 intervencion:1 uei:1 intervention:1 train:1 israel:1 namesake:1 spain:1 democratic:1 nation:1 part:2 main:1 instead:1 intelligence:1 directorate:1 dis:1 report:1 directly:1 minister:1 presidency:1 weapon:3 equipment:1 include:1 uzis:1 beretta:1 semiautomatic:1 pistol:1 aircraft:4 inventory:2 government:1 support:1 duty:1 style:6 text:6 align:6 left:6 background:6 aacccc:6 origin:1 type:1 version:1 service:1 world:1 aerospace:1 source:1 book:1 aviation:1 week:1 space:1 technology:1 january:1 note:1 aero:1 commander:1 utility:6 transport:2 cessna:2 havilland:1 canada:1 dhc:1 caribou:1 tactical:1 md:3 helicopter:2 piper:2 pa:3 see:1 also:1 list:1 without:1 armed:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 ministerio:1 seguridad:1 el:1 espíritu:1 brief:1 history:1 |@bigram costa_rica:5 costa_rican:1 museo_nacional:1 día_de:1 del_ejército:2 align_left:6 background_aacccc:6 inventory_aerospace:1 cessna_utility:2 utility_cessna:1 de_havilland:1 utility_helicopter:1 piper_pa:2 external_link:1 ministerio_de:1 de_seguridad:1 |
5,298 | Heapsort | Heapsort (method) is a comparison-based sorting algorithm, and is part of the selection sort family. Although somewhat slower in practice on most machines than a good implementation of quicksort, it has the advantage of a worst-case Θ(n log n) runtime. Heapsort is an in-place algorithm, but is not a stable sort. Overview The heap sort works as its name suggests - it begins by building a heap out of the data set, and then removing the largest item and placing it at the end of the sorted array. After removing the largest item, it reconstructs the heap and removes the largest remaining item and places it in the next open position from the end of the sorted array. This is repeated until there are no items left in the heap and the sorted array is full. Elementary implementations require two arrays - one to hold the heap and the other to hold the sorted elements. http://linux.wku.edu/~lamonml/algor/sort/heap.html Heapsort inserts the input list elements into a heap data structure. The largest value (in a max-heap) or the smallest value (in a min-heap) are extracted until none remain, the values having been extracted in sorted order. The heap's invariant is preserved after each extraction, so the only cost is that of extraction. During extraction, the only space required is that needed to store the heap. In order to achieve constant space overhead, the heap is stored in the part of the input array that has not yet been sorted. (The structure of this heap is described at Binary heap: Heap implementation.) Heapsort uses two heap operations: insertion and root deletion. Each extraction places an element in the last empty location of the array. The remaining prefix of the array stores the unsorted elements. Variations The most important variation to the simple variant is an improvement by R. W. Floyd which gives in practice about 25% speed improvement by using only one comparison in each siftup run which then needs to be followed by a siftdown for the original child; moreover it is more elegant to formulate. Heapsort's natural way of indexing works on indices from 1 up to the number of items. Therefore the start address of the data should be shifted such that this logic can be implemented avoiding unnecessary +/- 1 offsets in the coded algorithm. Ternary heapsort "Data Structures Using Pascal", Tenenbaum & Augenstein, 1991, page 405, gives Ternary Heapsort as an exercise for the student. "Write a sorting routine similar to the heapsort except that it uses a ternary heap." uses a ternary heap instead of a binary heap; that is, each element in the heap has three children. It is more complicated to program, but does a constant number of times fewer swap and comparison operations. This is because each step in the shift operation of a ternary heap requires three comparisons and one swap, whereas in a binary heap two comparisons and one swap are required. The ternary heap does two steps in less time than the binary heap requires for three steps, which multiplies the index by a factor of 9 instead of the factor 8 of three binary steps. Ternary heapsort is about 12% faster than the simple variant of binary heapsort. The smoothsort algorithm http://www.cs.utexas.edu/users/EWD/ewd07xx/EWD796a.PDF http://www.cs.utexas.edu/~EWD/transcriptions/EWD07xx/EWD796a.html is a variation of heapsort developed by Edsger Dijkstra in 1981. Like heapsort, smoothsort's upper bound is O(n log n). The advantage of smoothsort is that it comes closer to O(n) time if the input is already sorted to some degree, whereas heapsort averages O(n log n) regardless of the initial sorted state. Due to its complexity, smoothsort is rarely used. Levcopoulos and Petersson . describe a variation of heapsort based on a Cartesian tree that does not add an element to the heap until smaller values on both sides of it have already been included in the sorted output. As they show, this modification can allow the algorithm to sort more quickly than O(n log n) for inputs that are already nearly sorted. Comparison with other sorts Heapsort primarily competes with quicksort, another very efficient general purpose nearly-in-place comparison-based sort algorithm. Quicksort is typically somewhat faster, due to better cache behavior and other factors, but the worst-case running time for quicksort is O(n2), which is unacceptable for large data sets and can be deliberately triggered given enough knowledge of the implementation, creating a security risk. See quicksort for a detailed discussion of this problem, and possible solutions. Thus, because of the O(n log n) upper bound on heapsort's running time and constant upper bound on its auxiliary storage, embedded systems with real-time constraints or systems concerned with security often use heapsort. Heapsort also competes with merge sort, which has the same time bounds, but requires Ω(n) auxiliary space, whereas heapsort requires only a constant amount. Heapsort also typically runs more quickly in practice on machines with small or slow data caches. On the other hand, merge sort has several advantages over heapsort: Like quicksort, merge sort on arrays has considerably better data cache performance, often outperforming heapsort on a modern desktop PC, because it accesses the elements in order. Merge sort is a stable sort. Merge sort parallelizes better; the most trivial way of parallelizing merge sort achieves close to linear speedup, while there is no obvious way to parallelize heapsort at all. Merge sort can be easily adapted to operate on linked lists and very large lists stored on slow-to-access media such as disk storage or network attached storage. Heapsort relies strongly on random access, and its poor locality of reference makes it very slow on media with long access times. An interesting alternative to Heapsort is Introsort which combines quicksort and heapsort to retain advantages of both: worst case speed of heapsort and average speed of quicksort. Pseudocode The following is the "simple" way to implement the algorithm in pseudocode. Arrays are zero based and swap is used to exchange two elements of the array. Movement 'down' means from the root towards the leaves, or from lower indices to higher. Note that during the sort, the largest elements will be at the root of the heap at a[0], while at the end of the sort, the least element will be in a[0]. function heapSort(a, count) is input: an unordered array a of length count (first place a in max-heap order) heapify(a, count) end := count - 1 while end > 0 do (swap the root(maximum value) of the heap with the last element of the heap) swap(a[end], a[0]) (decrease the size of the heap by one so that the previous max value will stay in its proper placement) end := end - 1 (put the heap back in max-heap order) siftDown(a, 0, end) function heapify(a,count) is (start is assigned the index in a of the last parent node) start := (count - 2) / 2 while start ≥ 0 do (sift down the node at index start to the proper place such that all nodes below the start index are in heap order) siftDown(a, start, count-1) start := start - 1 (after sifting down the root all nodes/elements are in heap order) function siftDown(a, start, end) is input: end represents the limit of how far down the heap to sift. root := start while root * 2 + 1 ≤ end do (While the root has at least one child) child := root * 2 + 1 (root*2+1 points to the left child) (If the child has a sibling and the child's value is less than its sibling's...) if child + 1 ≤ end and a[child] < a[child + 1] then child := child + 1 (... then point to the right child instead) if a[root] < a[child] then (out of max-heap order) swap(a[root], a[child]) root := child (repeat to continue sifting down the child now) else return The heapify function can be thought of as building a heap from the bottom up, successively shifting downward to establish the heap property. An alternative version (shown below) that builds the heap top-down and shifts upward is conceptually simpler to grasp. This "siftUp" version can be visualized as starting with an empty heap and successively inserting elements. However, it is asymptotically slower: the "siftDown" version is O(n), and the "siftUp" version is O(n log n) in the worst case. The heapsort algorithm is O(n log n) overall using either version of heapify. function heapify(a,count) is (end is assigned the index of the first (left) child of the root) end := 1 while end < count (sift up the node at index end to the proper place such that all nodes above the end index are in heap order) siftUp(a, 0, end) end := end + 1 (after sifting up the last node all nodes are in heap order) function siftUp(a, start, end) is input: start represents the limit of how far up the heap to sift. end is the node to sift up. child := end while child > start parent := floor((child - 1) ÷ 2) if a[parent] < a[child] then (out of max-heap order) swap(a[parent], a[child]) child := parent (repeat to continue sifting up the parent now) else return Notes References J. W. J. Williams. Algorithm 232 - Heapsort, 1964, Communications of the ACM 7(6): 347–348. Robert W. Floyd. Algorithm 245 - Treesort 3, 1964, Communications of the ACM 7(12): 701. Svante Carlsson, Average-case results on heapsort, 1987, BIT 27(1): 2-17. Donald Knuth. The Art of Computer Programming, Volume 3: Sorting and Searching, Third Edition. Addison-Wesley, 1997. ISBN 0-201-89685-0. Pages 144–155 of section 5.2.3: Sorting by Selection. Thomas H. Cormen, Charles E. Leiserson, Ronald L. Rivest, and Clifford Stein. Introduction to Algorithms, Second Edition. MIT Press and McGraw-Hill, 2001. ISBN 0-262-03293-7. Chapters 6 and 7 Respectively: Heapsort and Priority Queues A PDF of Dijkstra's original paper on Smoothsort Heaps and Heapsort Tutorial by David Carlson, St. Vincent College Heaps of Knowledge External links Animated Sorting Algorithms: Heap Sort – graphical demonstration and discussion of heap sort Analyze Heapsort in an online Javascript IDE Heapsort Heapsort animated NIST's Dictionary of Algorithms and Data Structures: Heapsort Sorting revisited Java-based demonstration of Heapsort A colored graphical Java applet which allows experimentation with initial state and shows statistics | Heapsort |@lemmatized heapsort:38 method:1 comparison:7 base:5 sort:25 algorithm:12 part:2 selection:2 family:1 although:1 somewhat:2 slow:5 practice:3 machine:2 good:1 implementation:4 quicksort:8 advantage:4 bad:4 case:5 θ:1 n:17 log:7 runtime:1 place:8 stable:2 overview:1 heap:48 work:2 name:1 suggest:1 begin:1 build:3 data:8 set:2 remove:3 large:7 item:5 end:24 sorted:7 array:11 reconstruct:1 remain:3 next:1 open:1 position:1 repeat:3 leave:2 full:1 elementary:1 require:7 two:5 one:6 hold:2 element:13 http:3 linux:1 wku:1 edu:3 lamonml:1 algor:1 html:2 insert:1 input:7 list:3 structure:4 value:7 max:6 small:3 min:1 extract:2 none:1 order:11 invariant:1 preserve:1 extraction:4 cost:1 space:3 need:2 store:4 achieve:1 constant:4 overhead:1 yet:1 describe:2 binary:6 use:9 operation:3 insertion:1 root:14 deletion:1 last:4 empty:2 location:1 prefix:1 unsorted:1 variation:4 important:1 simple:4 variant:2 improvement:2 r:1 w:3 floyd:2 give:3 speed:3 siftup:5 run:2 follow:1 siftdown:5 original:2 child:24 moreover:1 elegant:1 formulate:1 natural:1 way:4 index:10 number:2 therefore:1 start:15 address:1 shift:3 logic:1 implement:2 avoid:1 unnecessary:1 offset:1 coded:1 ternary:7 pascal:1 tenenbaum:1 augenstein:1 page:2 exercise:1 student:1 write:1 sorting:3 routine:1 similar:1 except:1 instead:3 three:4 complicated:1 program:1 time:8 swap:8 step:4 whereas:3 less:2 multiply:1 factor:3 fast:1 smoothsort:5 www:2 c:2 utexas:2 user:1 ewd:2 pdf:2 transcription:1 develop:1 edsger:1 dijkstra:2 like:2 upper:3 bound:4 come:1 closer:1 already:3 degree:1 average:3 regardless:1 initial:2 state:2 due:2 complexity:1 rarely:1 levcopoulos:1 petersson:1 cartesian:1 tree:1 add:1 side:1 include:1 output:1 show:3 modification:1 allow:2 quickly:2 nearly:2 primarily:1 competes:1 another:1 efficient:1 general:1 purpose:1 typically:2 faster:1 well:3 cache:3 behavior:1 running:2 unacceptable:1 deliberately:1 trigger:1 enough:1 knowledge:2 create:1 security:2 risk:1 see:1 detailed:1 discussion:2 problem:1 possible:1 solution:1 thus:1 auxiliary:2 storage:3 embed:1 system:2 real:1 constraint:1 concern:1 often:2 also:2 compete:1 merge:7 ω:1 amount:1 hand:1 several:1 considerably:1 performance:1 outperform:1 modern:1 desktop:1 pc:1 access:4 parallelize:3 trivial:1 achieves:1 close:1 linear:1 speedup:1 obvious:1 easily:1 adapt:1 operate:1 linked:1 medium:2 disk:1 network:1 attach:1 rely:1 strongly:1 random:1 poor:1 locality:1 reference:2 make:1 long:1 interesting:1 alternative:2 introsort:1 combine:1 retain:1 pseudocode:2 following:1 zero:1 exchange:1 movement:1 mean:1 towards:1 leaf:1 low:1 high:1 note:2 least:2 function:6 count:9 unordered:1 length:1 first:2 heapify:5 maximum:1 decrease:1 size:1 previous:1 stay:1 proper:3 placement:1 put:1 back:1 assign:2 parent:6 node:9 sift:9 represent:2 limit:2 far:2 point:2 left:1 sibling:2 right:1 continue:2 else:2 return:2 think:1 bottom:1 successively:2 downward:1 establish:1 property:1 version:5 top:1 shifts:1 upward:1 conceptually:1 grasp:1 visualize:1 inserting:1 however:1 asymptotically:1 overall:1 either:1 floor:1 j:2 williams:1 communication:2 acm:2 robert:1 treesort:1 svante:1 carlsson:1 result:1 bit:1 donald:1 knuth:1 art:1 computer:1 programming:1 volume:1 searching:1 third:1 edition:2 addison:1 wesley:1 isbn:2 section:1 thomas:1 h:1 cormen:1 charles:1 e:1 leiserson:1 ronald:1 l:1 rivest:1 clifford:1 stein:1 introduction:1 algorithms:1 second:1 mit:1 press:1 mcgraw:1 hill:1 chapter:1 respectively:1 priority:1 queue:1 paper:1 tutorial:1 david:1 carlson:1 st:1 vincent:1 college:1 external:1 link:1 animate:2 graphical:2 demonstration:2 analyze:1 online:1 javascript:1 ide:1 nist:1 dictionary:1 revisit:1 java:2 colored:1 applet:1 experimentation:1 statistic:1 |@bigram sorted_array:3 wku_edu:1 min_heap:1 heap_heap:1 ternary_heap:4 http_www:2 utexas_edu:2 edsger_dijkstra:1 algorithm_quicksort:1 merge_sort:7 linked_list:1 communication_acm:2 donald_knuth:1 volume_sorting:1 sorting_searching:1 addison_wesley:1 h_cormen:1 cormen_charles:1 e_leiserson:1 leiserson_ronald:1 l_rivest:1 rivest_clifford:1 clifford_stein:1 introduction_algorithms:1 mcgraw_hill:1 priority_queue:1 external_link:1 java_applet:1 |
5,299 | Llama | The llama (Lama glama) is a South American camelid, widely used as a pack animal by the Incas and other natives of the Andes mountains. In South America llamas are still used as beasts of burden, as well as for the production of fiber and meat. The height of a full-grown, full-size llama is between to tall at the top of the head. They can weigh between approximately and . At birth, a baby llama (called a cria) can weigh between to . Llamas are very social animals and like to live with other llamas as a herd. Overall, the fiber produced by a llama is very soft and is naturally lanolin free. Llamas are intelligent and can learn simple tasks after a few repetitions. When using a pack, llamas can carry about 25% to 30% of their body weight for several miles. Llamas appear to have originated from the central plains of North America about 40 million years ago. They migrated to South America and Asia about 3 million years ago. By the end of the last ice age (10,000–12,000 years ago) camelids were extinct in North America. As of 2007, there were over 7 million llamas and alpacas in South America and, due to importation from South America in the late 20th century, there are now over 100,000 llamas and 6,500–7,000 alpacas in the US and Canada. Classification Although early writers compared llamas to sheep, their similarity to the camel was soon recognized. They were included in the genus Camelus along with alpaca in the Systema Naturae (1758) of Linnaeus. Fowler, page 1. They were, however, separated by Cuvier in 1800 under the name of llama along with the guanaco. Alpacas and vicuñas are in genus Vicugna. The genera Lama and Vicugna are, with the two species of true camels, the sole existing representatives of a very distinct section of the Artiodactyla or even-toed ungulates, called Tylopoda, or "bump-footed," from the peculiar bumps on the soles of their feet. The Tylopoda consists of a single family, the Camelidae, and shares the order Artiodactyla with the Suina (pigs), the Tragulina (chevrotains), the Pecora (ruminants), and the Cetancodonta (hippos and cetaceans, which belong to Artiodactyla from a cladistic if not traditional standpoint). The Tylopoda have more or less affinity to each of the sister taxa, standing in some respects in a middle position between them, sharing some characteristics from each, but in others showing special modifications not found in any of the other taxa. The 19th century discoveries of a vast and previously unexpected extinct Tertiary fauna of North America, as interpreted by palaeontologists Leidy, Cope, and Marsh, aided understanding of the early history of this family. Llamas were not always confined to South America; abundant llama-like remains were found in Pleistocene deposits in the Rocky Mountains and in Central America. Some of the fossil llamas were much larger than current forms. Some species remained in North America during the last ice ages. North American llamas are categorized as a single extinct genus, Hemiauchenia. Llama-like animals would have been a common sight in 25,000 years ago, in modern-day California, Texas, New Mexico, Utah, Missouri, and Florida. The camelid lineage has a good fossil record. Camel-like animals have been traced from the thoroughly differentiated modern species back through early Miocene forms. Their characteristics became more general, and they lost those that distinguished them as camelids; hence they were classified as ancestral artiodactyls. No fossils of these earlier forms have been found in the Old World, indicating that North America was the original home of camelids, and that Old World camels crossed over via the Bering land bridge. The formation of the Isthmus of Panama three million years ago allowed camelids to spread to South America as part of the Great American Interchange, where they evolved further. Meanwhile, North American camelids died out at the end of the Pleistocene. Characteristics The following characteristics apply especially to llamas. Dentition of adults:-incisors 1/3 canines 1/1, premolars 2/2, molars 3/2; total 32. In the upper jaw there is a compressed, sharp, pointed laniariform incisor near the hinder edge of the premaxilla, followed in the male at least by a moderate-sized, pointed, curved spank canine in the anterior part of the maxilla. The isolated canine-like premolar which follows in the camels is not present. The teeth of the molar series which are in contact with each other consist of two very small premolars (the first almost rudimentary) and three broad molars, constructed generally like those of Camelus. In the lower jaw, the three incisors are long, spatulate, and procumbent; the outer ones are the smallest. Next to these is a curved, suberect canine, followed after an interval by an isolated minute and often deciduous simple conical premolar; then a contiguous series of one premolar and three molars, which differ from those of Camelus in having a small accessory column at the anterior outer edge. The skull generally resembles that of Camelus, the relatively larger brain-cavity and orbits and less developed cranial ridges being due to its smaller size. The nasal bones are shorter and broader, and are joined by the premaxilla. Vertebrae: cervical 7, dorsal 12, lumbar 7, sacral 4, caudal 15 to 20. The ears are rather long and slightly curved inward, characteristically known as "banana" shaped. There is no dorsal hump. Feet are narrow, the toes being more separated than in the camels, each having a distinct plantar pad. The tail is short, and fibre is long, woolly and soft. In essential structural characteristics, as well as in general appearance and habits, all the animals of this genus very closely resemble each other, so that whether they should be considered as belonging to one, two, or more species is a matter of controversy among naturalists. The question is complicated by the circumstance of the great majority of individuals which have come under observation being either in a completely or partially domesticated state. Many are also descended from ancestors which have previously been domesticated; a state which tends to produce a certain amount of variation from the original type. The four forms commonly distinguished by the inhabitants of South America are recognized as distinct species, though with difficulties in defining their distinctive characteristics. These are: the llama, Lama glama (Linnaeus); the alpaca, Vicugna pacos (Linnaeus); the guanaco (from the Quechua "huanaco"), Lama guanicoe (Müller); and the vicuña, Vicugna vicugna (Molina) The llama and alpaca are only known in the domestic state, and are variable in size and of many colors, being often white, brown, or piebald. Some are grey or black. The guanaco and vicuña are wild, the former being endangered, and of a nearly uniform light-brown color, passing into white below. They certainly differ from each other, the vicuña being smaller, more slender in its proportions, and having a shorter head than the guanaco. The vicuña lives in herds on the bleak and elevated parts of the mountain range bordering the region of perpetual snow, amidst rocks and precipices, occurring in various suitable localities throughout Peru, in the southern part of Ecuador, and as far south as the middle of Bolivia. Its manners very much resemble those of the chamois of the European Alps; it is as vigilant, wild, and timid. The fiber is extremely delicate and soft, and highly valued for the purposes of weaving, but the quantity which each animal produces is minimal. Alpaca are descended from a wild vicuna ancestor while the domesticated llama is descended from a wild guanaco ancestor, though at this point there has been a considerable amount of hybridization between the two species. Differentiating characteristics between llamas and alpacas include the llama's larger size and longer head. Alpaca fiber is generally more expensive but not always more valuable. Alpacas tend to have a more consistent color throughout the body. The most apparent visual difference between llamas and camels is that camels have a hump or humps and llamas do not. Commonly unknown, llamas do not have eyelashes. However, their cousin the alpaca does. Reproduction Llamas have an unusual reproductive cycle for a large animal. Female llamas are induced ovulators. Through the act of mating, the female releases an egg and is often fertilized on the first attempt. Female llamas do not go into "heat" or have an estrus cycle. Like humans, llama males and females mature sexually at different rates. Females reach puberty at approximately 12 months. However, males do not become sexually mature until approximately 3 years. Mating Llamas mate with the female in a kush (lying down) position, which is fairly unusual in a large animal. They mate for an extended period of time (20–45 minutes), also unusual in a large animal. Gestation The gestation period of a llama is 11 1/2 months (350 days). Dams (female llamas) do not lick off their babies, as they have an attached tongue which does not reach outside of the mouth more than half an inch. Rather, they will nuzzle and hum to their newborns. Crias A cria (pronounced cree-ah) is the name for a baby llama (also alpaca, vicuña, or guanaco). Crias are typically born with the whole herd gathering around (just the females are present, the males are considered a threat) in an attempt to protect against potential predators. Llamas give birth standing. Birth is usually relatively quick and problem free, over in less than 30 minutes. Most births take place between 8 a.m. and noon, during the relatively warmer daylight hours. This may increase cria survival by reducing fatalities due to hypothermia during cold Andean nights. While unproven, it is speculated that this birthing pattern is a continuation of the birthing patterns observed in the wild. Crias are up and standing, walking and attempting to nurse within the first hour after birth. Crias are partially fed with llama milk that is lower in fat and salt and higher in phosphorous and calcium than cow or goat milk. A female llama will only produce about of milk at a time when she gives milk. For this reason, the cria must suckle frequently to receive the nutrients it requires. Breeding situations Harem breeding Male is left with females most of the year. Field breeding A female is turned out into a field with a male llama and left there for some period of time. This is the easiest method in terms of labor, but the least useful in terms of prediction of a likely birth date. An ultrasound test can be performed and together with the exposure dates a better idea when the cria is expected can be determined. Hand breeding This is the most efficient method, but requires the most work on the part of the human involved. A male and female llama are put into the same pen and breeding is monitored. They are then separated and rebred every other day until one or the other refuses the breeding. Usually one can get in two breedings using this method, though some studs have routinely refused to breed a female more than once. The separation presumably helps to keep the sperm count high for each breeding and also helps to keep the condition of the female llama's reproductive tract more sound. If the breeding is not successful within two to three weeks, the female is rebred once again. Pregnancy Testing for pregnancy Llamas should be tested for pregnancy after breeding at 2–3 weeks, 6 weeks, and at least 12 weeks. "Spit testing". Bring the potentially pregnant dam to an intact male. If the stud attempts to breed her and she lies down for him within a fairly short period of time, she is not pregnant. If she remains on her feet, spits, attacks him, or otherwise prevents his being able to mate, it is assumed that she is probably pregnant. This test gets its name due to the dam spitting at the male if she is pregnant. Progesterone testing. A veterinarian can take a blood sample test for progesterone. A high level can indicate a pregnancy. Palpation. In this test, the veterinarian or breeder manually feels inside the llama to detect a pregnancy. There are some risks to the llama, but it can be an accurate method for pregnancy detection. Ultrasound is the most accurate method in the hands of an experienced veterinarian. A veterinarian experienced with ultrasound can do an exterior exam and detect a fetus as early as 45 days. Pros and cons of pregnancy testing Spit testing with an intact male is generally free and is usually accurate. However, some hormonal conditions in females can make them reject a male when they are in fact not pregnant, and, more rarely, accept a male when they are pregnant. Progesterone tests can give a high reading in some females with a hormonal problem who are in fact not pregnant. Neither of the previous methods, nor palpation, can give you a reasonably accurate idea of the age of the fetus, while an ultrasound procedure can. In addition, an ultrasound procedure can distinguish between pregnancy and misleading physical conditions, or between a live and dead fetus. The big disadvantage of an ultrasound procedure is that some training in the use of ultrasound equipment is required, and not all veterinarians have the equipment needed to perform the examination. Nutrition Options for feeding llamas are quite wide. The llama owner has a wide variety of commercial and farm based food products to choose from for llamas. The major determining factors which enter into the decision of what to feed include feed cost, availability of feed, nutrient balance and energy density required. Young llamas, which are still actively growing, require a greater concentration of nutrients than mature animals because of their relatively smaller digestive tract capacity. + Estimated daily requirements of bromgrass hay, alfalfa hay and corn silage on an as fed and 100% dry matter basis for llamas from 22 to 550 pounds. Body Weight (lbs) Bromgrass Alfalfa Corn Silage (as fed) (dry matter) (as fed) (dry matter) (as fed) (dry matter) 22 0.8 0.7 0.5 0.5 1.5 0.4 44 1.3 1.1 0.9 0.8 2.6 0.7 88 2.1 1.9 1.5 1.3 4.3 1.2 110 2.6 2.3 1.7 1.6 5.2 1.4 165 3.4 3.1 2.3 2.1 6.9 1.9 275 5.0 4.5 3.4 3.1 10.1 2.8 385 6.4 5.7 4.3 3.9 12.9 3.6 495 7.8 7.0 5.3 4.8 15.8 4.4 550 8.5 7.6 5.7 5.2 17.0 4.8 Behavior Llamas which are well-socialized and trained to halter and lead after weaning are very friendly and pleasant to be around. They are extremely curious and most will approach people easily. However, llamas that are bottle-fed or over-socialised and over-handled as youngsters will become extremely difficult to handle when mature, when they will begin to treat humans as they treat each other, which is characterized by bouts of spitting, kicking and neck wrestling. Anyone having to bottle-feed a cria should keep contact to a minimum and stop as soon as possible. When correctly reared spitting at a human is a rare thing. Llamas are very social herd animals, however, and do sometimes spit at each other as a way of disciplining lower-ranked llamas in the herd. A llama's social rank in a herd is never static. They can always move up or down in the social ladder by picking small fights. This is usually done between males to see who becomes alpha. Their fights are visually dramatic with spitting, ramming each other with their chests, neck wrestling and kicking, mainly to knock the other off balance. The females are usually only seen spitting as a means of controlling other herd members. While the social structure might always be changing, they live as a family and they do take care of each other. If one notices a strange noise or feels threatened, a warning bray is sent out and all others come to alert. They will often hum to each other as a form of communication. The sound of the llama making groaning noises or going "mwa" is often a sign of fear or anger. If a llama is agitated, it will lay its ears back. One may determine how agitated the llama is by the materials in the spit. The more irritated the llama is, the further back into each of the three stomach compartments it will try to draw materials from for its spit. An "orgle" is the mating sound of a llama or alpaca, made by the sexually aroused male. The sound is reminiscent of gargling, but with a more forceful, buzzing edge. Males begin the sound when they become aroused and continue throughout the act of procreation—from 15 minutes to more than an hour. Guard Behavior Using llamas as livestock guards in North America began in the early 1980s and some sheep producers have used llamas successfully for that entire time. The use of guard llamas has greatly increased since a magazine article in 1990, when national attention was drawn to the potential use of llamas for guarding sheep. The ideal guard animal should protect sheep against predation while requiring minimal training, care, and maintenance. It should stay with and not disrupt the flock, and live long enough to be cost effective. A variety of guard animals currently in use include dogs, donkeys, kangaroos, ostriches, and llamas. Of these, guard dogs are still the most common; guard llamas number only in the hundreds. Studies have proven that llamas are successfully being used as guard animals for herds of sheep, goats, alpacas and other livestock throughout the North America. Protection of the herd and easy maintenance are the two most commonly cited advantages. Llamas are introduced to a herd and are pastured with them; they do not require separate shelters. Ideally, a llama should be introduced to the sheep while they are in a corral or small pasture rather than on open range or large pasture. The llama should remain in a small area until the sheep and llama seem well-adjusted and attached to each other. This encourages bonding between the sheep and llama. A llama introduced in this manner will be more effective as a guard against predators. Research supports the use of multiple guard llamas is not as effective as one llama. Multiple male llamas tend to bond with one another, rather than with the livestock, and may ignore the flock. A gelded male of two years of age bonds closely with its new charges and is instinctively very effective in preventing predation. Some llamas appear to bond more quickly to sheep or goats if they are introduced just prior to lambing. Many sheep and goat producers indicate a special bond quickly develops between lambs and their guard llama and that the llama is particularly protective of the lambs. Using llamas as guards has eliminated the losses to predators for many producers. The value of the livestock saved each year more than exceeds the purchase cost and annual maintenance of a llama. Although not every llama is suited to the job, most llamas are a viable, non-lethal alternative for reducing predation, requiring no training and little care. Walker, Cameron. "Guard Llamas Keep Sheep Safe From Coyotes." National Geographic, 10 June 2003. History One of the main uses for llamas at the time of the Spanish conquest was to bring down ore from the mines in the mountains. Gregory de Bolivar estimated that in his day, as many as three hundred thousand were employed in the transport of produce from the Potosí mines alone, but since the introduction of horses, mules, and donkeys, the importance of the llama as a beast of burden has greatly diminished. The Inca deity Urcuchillay was depicted in the form of a multicolored llama. The Moche people frequently placed llamas and llama parts in the burials of important people, as offerings or provisions for the afterlife. Berrin, Katherine & Larco Museum. The Spirit of Ancient Peru:Treasures from the Museo Arqueológico Rafael Larco Herrera. New York: Thames and Hudson, 1997. The Moche culture of pre-Columbian Peru depicted llamas quite realistically in their ceramics. Fiber Llamas also have a fine undercoat which can be used for handicrafts and garments. The coarser outer guard hair is used for rugs, wall-hangings and lead ropes. The fiber comes in many different colors ranging from white, grey, redish brown, brown, dark brown and black. The individual shafts of the wool can be measured in micrometres. 1 micrometre = 1/1000 millimetre. + A table of the average diameter of some of the finest, natural fibers. Animal Fiber diameter (micrometres) Vicuña 6 – 10 Alpaca (Suri) 10 - 15 Muskox (Qivlut) 11 - 13 Merino 12 - 20 Angora Rabbit 13 Cashmere 15 - 19 Yak Down 15 - 19 Camel Down 16 - 25 Guanaco 16 - 18 Llama (Tapada) 20 - 30 Chinchilla 21 Mohair 25 - 45 Alpaca (Huacaya) 27.7 Llama (Ccara) 30 - 40 Technically the fiber is not wool as it is hollow with a structure of diagonal 'walls' which makes it strong, light and good insulation. Wool as a word by itself refers to sheep fiber. However, llama fiber is commonly referred to as llama wool or llama fiber. In popular culture The name "llama" has been used for a wide variety of descriptions for people and items alike within general computing and gaming industries. Within some computing environments, the label "llama" has been derogatory indicating a person with little knowledge and new to the environment. Acronyms have been spelled similarly to llama and thus pronounced as llama. The llama has proved to be quite popular among some simulation games. Also the llama has been made popular in many movies, such as Napoleon Dynamite and the Disney film The Emperor's New Groove, as well as in several Monty Python sketches and the opening credits of Monty Python and The Holy Grail. The label "llama" is also used in game shows as a term for a contestant who leaves the game show with nothing. See also Cama (animal), a crossbreed between a llama and a Camel Guard llama, llamas used as livestock guardians. Lamoid References Bibliography External links Llamas: From the Andes to the Rockies - Llama information page Queso Cabeza Farm Llama Info - Llama information page. 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