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5,300 | Chrono_Cross | is a console role-playing game developed and published by Square (now Square Enix) for the Sony PlayStation video game console. It is the sequel to Chrono Trigger, which was released in 1995 for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System. Unlike its predecessor's "Dream Team", Chrono Cross was developed primarily by scenarist and director Masato Kato and other programmers from Chrono Trigger, including art director Yasuyuki Honne and sound planner Minoru Akao. Composer Yasunori Mitsuda scored Chrono Cross and Nobuteru Yūki designed its characters. The story of Chrono Cross focuses on a teenage boy named Serge and a theme of parallel worlds. Faced with an alternate reality in which he died as a child, Serge endeavors to discover the truth of the two worlds' divergence. The flashy thief Kid and many other characters assist him in his travels around the tropical archipelago El Nido. Struggling to uncover his past and find the mysterious Frozen Flame, Serge is chiefly challenged by Lynx, a shadowy antagonist working to apprehend him. Upon its release in Japan in 1999 and in the United States in 2000, Chrono Cross received high ratings and critical acclaim, earning a rare perfect 10.0 score from GameSpot. However, many gamers regarded Chrono Cross as a somewhat disappointing sequel to Chrono Trigger, given the lack of plot continuity between the two games, the complete overhaul of the combat system and the addition of dozens of new playable characters, most of whom were shallow caricatures. Nevertheless, the game's 1.5 million copies shipped worldwide led to a Greatest Hits re-release and continued life in Japan as part of the Ultimate Hits series. A "Millennium Edition" featuring a calendar, clock, and music sampler disc was also released. Gameplay Chrono Cross features standard RPG gameplay with some differences. Players advance the game by controlling Serge through the game's world, primarily by foot and boat. Navigation between areas is conducted via an overworld map, depicting the landscape from a scaled down overhead view. Around the island world are villages, outdoor areas, and dungeons, through which the player moves in three dimensions. Locations such as cities and forests are represented by more realistically scaled field maps, in which players can converse with locals to procure items and services, solve puzzles and challenges, or encounter enemies. Like Chrono Trigger, the game features no random encounters; enemies are openly visible on field maps or lie in wait to ambush the party. Touching the monster switches perspectives to a battle screen, in which players can physically attack, use "Elements", defend, or run away from the enemy. Battles are turn-based, allowing the player infinite time to select an action from the available menu. For both the playable characters and the CPU-controlled enemies, each attack reduces their number of hit points (a numerically based life bar), which can be restored through Elements. When a playable character loses all hit points, he or she faints. If all the player's characters fall in battle, the game ends and must be restored from a previously saved chapter—except for specific storyline-related battles that allow the player to lose. Chrono Cross's developers aimed to break new ground in the genre, and the game features several innovations. For example, players can run away from all conflicts, including boss fights and the final battle. Elements In battle, players can attack, use Elements, defend, or run away The game's Element system handles all magic, consumable items and character-specific abilities. Elements unleash magic effects upon the enemy or party and must be equipped for use, much like the materia of 1997's Final Fantasy VII. Elements can be purchased from shops or found in treasure chests littered throughout areas. Once acquired, they are allocated to a grid whose size and shape are unique to each character. They are ranked according to eight tiers; certain high level Elements can only be assigned on equivalent tiers in a character's grid. As the game progresses, the grid expands, allowing more Elements to be equipped and higher tiers to be accessed. Elements are divided into six paired oppositional types, or "colors," each with a natural effect. Red (fire/magma) opposes Blue (water/ice), Green (wind/flora) opposes Yellow (earth/lightning), and White (light/cosmos) opposes Black (darkness/gravity). Each character and enemy has an innate color, enhancing the power of using same-color Elements while also making them weak against elements of the opposite color. Chrono Cross also features a "field effect", which keeps track of Element color used in the upper corner of the battle screen. If the field is purely one color, the power of Elements of that color will be enhanced, while Elements of the opposite color will be weakened. Characters also innately learn some special techniques ("Techs") that are unique to each character but otherwise act like Elements. Like Chrono Trigger, characters can combine certain Techs to make more powerful Double or Triple Techs. Consumable Elements may be used to restore hit points or heal status ailments after battle. The presence of six elements is a departure from Chrono Trigger's limit at four, and Chrono Cross'''s plot does provide an explanation for the change—that Chrono Trigger's magic involved manipulating four basic universal properties, and that Chrono Cross's magic employs manufactured tools to affect changes in nature. Spekkio: Not just magic, but EVERYTHING is based on the balance of these 4 powers. / Ghost: The development of Elements, using the energy of the natural world... (Chrono Cross). Square Co., 1999. Stamina Another innovative aspect of Chrono Cross is its stamina bar. At the beginning of a battle, each character has seven points of stamina. When a character attacks or uses an Element, stamina is decreased according to the potency of the attack. Stamina slowly recovers when the character defends or when other characters and enemies perform actions in battle. Characters with stamina below one point must wait to take action. Use of an Element reduces the user's stamina bar by seven stamina points; this often means that the user's stamina gauge falls into the negative and the character must wait longer than usual to recover. Battle experience With each battle, players can enhance statistics such as strength and defense. However, no system of experience points exists; after four or five upgrades, statistics remain static until players defeat a boss. This adds a star to a running count shown on the status screen, which allows for another few rounds of statistical increases. Equipment Players can equip characters with weapons, armor, helmets, and accessories. Certain accessories can be equipped to provide special effects in combat; for example, the "Power Seal" upgrades attack power. Items and equipment may be purchased or found on field maps, often in treasure chests. Unlike Elements, weapons and armor cannot merely be purchased with money; instead, the player must obtain base materials—such as copper, bronze, or bone—for a blacksmith to forge for a fee. The items can later be disassembled into their original components at no cost. Dimensional travel Players navigate the game's tropical setting by boat The existence of two major parallel dimensions, like time periods in Chrono Trigger, plays a significant role in the game. Players must go back and forth between the worlds to recruit party members, obtain items, and advance the plot. Much of the population of either world have counterparts in the other; some party members can even visit their other versions. The player must often search for items or places found exclusively in one world. Events in one dimension sometimes have an impact in another—for instance, cooling scorched ground on an island in one world allows vegetation to grow in the other world. This system assists the presentation of certain themes, including the questioning of the importance of one's past decisions and humanity's role in destroying the environment. New Game+ and Endings Rounding out the notable facets of Chrono Cross's gameplay are the New Game+ option and multiple endings. As in Chrono Trigger, players who have completed the game may choose to start the game over using data from the previous session. Character levels, learned techniques, equipment, and items gathered copy over, while acquired money and some story-related items are discarded. On a New Game+, players can access twelve endings. Scenes viewed depend on players' progress in the game before the final battle, which can be fought at any time in a New Game+ file. Plot CharactersChrono Cross features a diverse cast of 45 party members. To create characters, developers brainstormed traits and archetypes, originally planning 64 characters. Each character is outfitted with an innate Element affinity and three unique special abilities that are learned over time. If taken to the world opposite their own, characters react to their counterparts (if available). Many characters tie in to crucial plot events. Several characters speak with unique accents. Done manually in the Japanese release, implementing accents the same way in the English version would have been impossible due to size restraints. As a result, developers coded a system for the North American release that produces accents by modifying basic text. The system changes the text template based on the character's accent. Since it is impossible to obtain all 45 characters in one playthrough, players must replay the game to witness everything. Through use of the New Game+ feature, players can ultimately obtain all characters on one save file. Serge, the game's protagonist, is a 17-year-old boy with blue hair who lives in the fishing village of Arni. One day, he slips into an alternate world in which he drowned ten years before. Determined to find the truth behind the incident, he follows a predestined course that leads him to save the world. He is assisted by Kid, a feisty, skilled thief who seeks the mythical Frozen Flame. Portrayed as willful and tomboyish due to her rough, thieving past, she helps Serge sneak into Viper Manor. Raised by Lucca as a child, she vows to find and defeat Lynx, an anthropomorphic panther who burned down Lucca's orphanage. A sadistic and cruel agent of FATE, he is bent on finding Serge, and succeeds in taking his body. He travels with Harle, a mysterious, playful girl dressed like a harlequin. Sent by the Dragon God to shadow Lynx and one day steal the Frozen Flame from Chronopolis, she painfully fulfills her duty though smitten with Serge. To this end, she helps Lynx manipulate the Acacia Dragoons, the powerful militia governing the islands of El Nido. As the Dragoons maintain order, they contend with Fargo, a former Dragoon turned pirate captain who holds a grudge against their leader, General Viper. Their home base, Viper Manor, is also infiltrated by Serge, Kid, and one of three characters—Nikki, a musician, Pierre, a hero-in-training, or Guile, a mysterious magician. Though tussling with Serge initially, the Acacia Dragoons—whose ranks include the fierce warriors Karsh, Zoah, Marcy, and Glenn—later assist him when the militaristic nation of Porre invades the archipelago. The invasion brings Norris and Grobyc to the islands, a heartful commander of an elite force and a prototype cyborg soldier, respectively. As they too seek the Frozen Flame, the plot unfolds amidst tons of other characters. StoryChrono Cross begins with Serge located in El Nido, a tropical archipelago inhabited by ancient natives, mainland colonists, and beings called Demi-humans. Serge slips into an alternate dimension in which he drowned on the beach ten years prior, and meets the thief, "Kid". It is eventually revealed that ten years before the present, the universe split into two dimensions—one in which Serge lived, and one in which he perished. Prophet: In your home world, you survived to live a happy and prosperous life. That is how you made it to the present point in time. However, here in this '"alternate"' world, you are, in fact, very dead and buried. You died 10 years ago, but this world's time line has flowed on regardless. The antagonist Lynx poisons Kid at this point, but she recuperates eventually. Serge gains the ability to travel between the dimensions, and then leaves for Fort Dragonia by boat, but is interrupted by the pirate Fargo. Initially imprisoned, Serge is freed when the ship comes under attack from ghosts. After earning Fargo's respect, Serge enters the fort and ascends to its highest floor. Through the use of a Dragonian artifact called the Dragon Tear, Lynx switches bodies with Serge. Unknowing of the switch, Kid confides in Lynx; he stabs her as the real Serge helplessly watches. Lynx boasts of his victory and banishes Serge to a strange realm called the Temporal Vortex. He takes Kid under his wing, brainwashing her to believe the real Serge (in Lynx's body) is her enemy. Entrance to the Dead Sea Serge escapes with help from Harle. Discovering that his new body prevents him from traveling across the dimensions, he is marooned in Home world. He sets out to regain his former body and learn more of the universal split that occurred ten years earlier. He speaks with his mother and recruits new members to his cause. Hearing that a Demi-human sage confined on a cruise ship may be able to help him, he journeys to the S.S. Zelbess. He gains the sage's favor, and is given an artifact that allows access to the Dead Sea, a mysterious body of water. While attempting to enter, he discovers the evil sword Masamune and must counter it with the holy sword Einlanzer. Once inside the Dead Sea, he finds a wasteland frozen in time, dotted with futuristic ruins. Member: The waves are at a standstill...And...What is that dark shadow in the distance...? At the center, he locates a man named Miguel and presumably Home world's Frozen Flame. Charged with guarding the Dead Sea by an entity named FATE, Miguel: Yes... I've been here in this very place...For 14 years... Miguel unsuccessfully battles Serge. To prevent Serge from obtaining the Frozen Flame, FATE destroys the Dead Sea. Still in Lynx's body, Serge is rescued by a Dragon, one of six mythical entities that inhabit El Nido. Able to return to Another world, Serge finds the Acacia Dragoons in dire straits from Porre's invasion and rescues General Viper's daughter. After collecting six relics from the Dragons, he locates that dimension's Dragon Tear and travels to Fort Dragonia to initiate a ceremony to recreate his body. He succeeds after staving off Lynx at the base of the fortress. With the Dragon relics in tow, he enters the Sea of Eden, Another world's physical equivalent of the Dead Sea. He finds a temporal research facility called Chronopolis; inside are Lynx, Kid, and the Frozen Flame. Confronted by Serge, Lynx bonds with the entity FATE, the main computer of the facility, to defeat the boy in battle. He is unsuccessful, and with FATE's capitulation, the defense systems of Chronopolis fall. After uniting in air, the six Dragons fly over the facility and scoop up the Frozen Flame. Kid falls into a coma, and Harle bids the party goodbye to fly with the Dragons. The new villains soar to Terra Tower, a massive structure raised from the sea floor. Serge regroups his party and tends to Kid, who remains comatose. Continuing his adventure, he obtains and cleanses the Masamune. He then uses the Dragon relics and shards of the Dragon Tears to create the mythic Element Chrono Cross. The spiritual power of the Masamune later allows him to lift Kid from her coma and prepare to assault Terra Tower. He outfits his boat with an anti-gravity device and travels to battle the Dragons. At Terra Tower, the prophet of time, revealed to be Belthasar from Chrono Trigger, visits him and imparts the boy's history. This information is later expatiated by accompanied apparitions. Serge learns that the time research facility Chronopolis created El Nido thousands of years ago after a catastrophic experimental failure drew it to the past. Ghost: Originally, El Nido was nothing but ocean. The El Nido Archipelago is purely artificial, created by FATE. It was a remodeling plan that took place 10,000 years ago. The introduction of a temporally foreign object in history caused the planet to pull in a counterbalance from a different dimension. Kid: Perhaps our planet beckoned Dinopolis into the past...maybe as a measure against Chronopolis and humanity. This was Dinopolis, a city of Dragonians—parallel universe descendants of Chrono Trigger's Reptites. The institutions warred and Chronopolis subjugated the Dragonians. Humans captured their chief creation—the Dragon God, an entity capable of controlling nature. Chronopolis divided this entity into six pieces and created an Elements system, which individuals could use for combat or trade. FATE terraformed an archipelago, erased the memories of most Chronopolis's staff, and sent them to inhabit and populate its new paradise. Ghost: The research center staff, who had their memories of the future erased, left the center, and began a life outside amidst nature. This is how FATE's paradise came into existence. Chronopolis remained obscured from view by clouds and surrounded by poisonous reef. Thousands of years later, a panther demon attacked a three-year old Serge. His father took him to find assistance at Marbule, but Serge's boat blew off course due to a raging magnetic storm caused by Schala. Schala, the princess of the Kingdom of Zeal, had long ago accidentally fallen to a place known as the Darkness Beyond Time and began merging with Lavos, the chief villain of Chrono Trigger. Elranzer's "Japanese to English Changes Guide" affirms this was simply called "The Tesseract" in the original game. Given that Chrono Cross' driving theme is Spatiality and Alternate Dimensions, a Tesseract indeed fits the content. Lucca: Princess Schala was sucked into a dimensional vortex with the Lavos Mammon Machine. Schala and Lavos became unified into one even more powerful entity that would evolve into the Devourer of Time. Schala's storm nullified Chronopolis's defenses and allowed Serge to contact the Frozen Flame. Approaching it healed Serge but corrupted his father. Lucca: Led by the pitiful crying the young Serge made as the panther demon's poison took hold of him...Princess Schala traveled ten thousand years in time to try and make contact with this dimension! This caused a raging magnetic storm that resulted in FATE's system malfunction, which led Serge to the Frozen Flame. By touching the Flame, Serge was designated its Arbiter by a circuit in Chronopolis, simultaneously preventing FATE from using the artifact by extension. The Dragons were aware of this situation, creating a seventh Dragon under the storm's cover. This Dragon was Harle, who manipulated Lynx by serving as his accomplice. Crono: In the meantime, the six Dragons had sent Harle forth to try and gain possession of the Flame. Harle made contact with FATE's biological incarnation, Lynx, and tricked him into temporarily joining forces. Serge and the Chrono Trigger team at Opassa Beach before the final battle After Serge returned home, FATE manipulated his father to try and kill the boy, which would release the lock on the Frozen Flame. His father drowned Serge and became Lynx. However, ten years after the event, the thief Kid—presumably on Belthasar's orders—went back in time to save Serge and split the dimensions. FATE, locked out of the Frozen Flame again, knew that Serge would one day cross to Another world and prepared to apprehend him. Crono: You see, FATE calculated that you would one day cross the dimensions and try to make contact with the Flame. Lynx switched bodies with Serge to dupe the biological check of Chronopolis on the Frozen Flame. When Serge defeated FATE, the freed Dragons snatched the Frozen Flame and raised Terra Tower. Belthasar then reveals that these events were part of a plan he had orchestrated named Project Kid–and that its final purpose would soon be revealed. Serge continues to the top of Terra Tower and defeats the Dragon God. Continuing to the beach where the split in dimensions had occurred, Serge finds three apparitions resembling the original team from Chrono Trigger. More of the game's history is revealed, such as the revelation that Belthasar planned the entire plot to empower Serge and free Schala from melding with Lavos. Lucca: And now, about '"Project Kid"'...the time control project Belthasar planned out. The whole project existed to lead you to this one, special point in time! The founding of Chronopolis, the Time Crash, and the battle between FATE and the Dragon Gods...It was all coordinated so that you would get your hands on the Chrono Cross and come to this place! The resulting fused being—called the Time Devourer—would consume and destroy spacetime. Lucca explains that Kid is Schala's clone, sent to the modern age to take part in Project Kid. Lucca: Before the destructive mind-set could become dominant, she cloned herself and sent her copy into this dimension...That's right...Kid is Schala's daughter-clone! Crono entreats Serge to use the Chrono Cross to free Schala. Crono: The Chrono Cross...It alone can combine the sounds of the planet that the six types of Elements produce! The melody and harmony that brim within all life-forms... Use the '"song of life"' to heal her enmity and suffering...We entreat you, Serge! Please save Schala... Serge uses a Time Egg—given to him by Belthasar—to enter the Darkness Beyond Time and vanquish the Time Devourer. He separates Schala from Lavos and restores the dimensions to one. Thankful, Schala muses on evolution and the struggle of life and returns Serge to his home, noting that he will forget the entire adventure. She then seemingly records the experience in her diary, set upon a desk on which a wedding photo of Kid and Serge appears. The meaning of the scenes shown during the credits, depicting "Kid" seemingly searching for someone in modern times, is confirmed as a means to make the players think of their own reality, and the possibility that a version of "Kid" exists in it and would one day meet them. The ambiguous ending leaves the events of the characters' lives following the game up to interpretation. Relation to Radical DreamersChrono Cross employs story arcs, characters, and themes from Radical Dreamers, a Satellaview side story to Chrono Trigger released in Japan. An illustrated text adventure, it was created to wrap up an unresolved plot line of Chrono Trigger. Though it borrows from Radical Dreamers in its exposition, Chrono Cross is not a remake of Radical Dreamers, but a larger effort to fulfill that game's purpose. The plots of the games are irreconcilable. To resolve continuity issues and acknowledge Radical Dreamers, the developers of Chrono Cross suggested the game happened in a parallel dimension. Kid: Kid: Radical Dreamers...!? And me name's on here, too! What the bloody hell is goin' on?Kid: ......This seems to be an archive from a different time than our own. Kid: Aside from the two worlds we already know about...there may be other worlds and times which exist... Chrono Cross. Square Co., 1999. A notable difference between the two games is that Magus—present in Radical Dreamers as Gil—is absent from Chrono Cross. Director Masato Kato originally planned for Magus to appear in disguise as Guile, but scrapped the idea due to plot difficulties. As Richard Honeywood translated the game for its US release, he worked with Kato to rewrite certain dialogue for ease of comprehension in English. Development Before 1999, Chrono Trigger's scenario director Masato Kato was asked to develop a new Chrono game in the style of Radical Dreamers. At the time, he had also been considering a direct sequel to Chrono Trigger intended to wrap up certain unfinished plot threads. Kato and the game's producer, Hiromichi Tanaka, decided to pursue a different course as Chrono Trigger would soon be ported to Final Fantasy Chronicles to create a sense of continuity. Kato remarked that setting the story of Chrono Cross differently with a new cast would allow those who had forgotten or never played Chrono Trigger to take up the game without feeling confused. Developers decided against integrating heavy use of time travel into the game, as they felt it would be "rehashing and cranking up the volume of the last game". Kato confirmed that aside from parallel worlds, the central theme of Chrono Cross was the fate of Schala, which he was previously unable to expound upon in Chrono Trigger. He intended to make the player realize that alternate futures and possibilities may exist with the ending sequence, desiring to have the realization "not...stop with the game". MusicChrono Cross was scored by freelance video game music composer Yasunori Mitsuda, who previously worked on Chrono Trigger. After being contacted to compose the score by Kato, Mitsuda decided to center his work around old world cultural influences, including Mediterranean, Fado, Celtic, and percussive African music. To complement the theme of parallel worlds, he gave Another and Home respectively dark and bright moods. Xenogears contributor Tomohiko Kira played guitar on the beginning and ending themes. Noriko Mitose, as selected by Masato Kato, sang the ending song—"Radical Dreamers - The Unstolen Jewel". Ryo Yamazaki, a synthesizer programmer for Square Enix, helped Mitsuda transfer his ideas to the PlayStation's sound capabilities. Mitsuda was happy to accomplish even half of what he envisioned. Certain songs were ported from the score of Radical Dreamers, such as Gale, Frozen Flame, and Viper Mansion. Other entries in the soundtrack contain leitmotifs from Chrono Trigger and Radical Dreamers. The melody of Far Promise ~ Dream Shore features prominently in The Dream That Time Dreams and Voyage ~ Another World.Once production concluded, Mitsuda played Chrono Cross to record his impressions and observe how the tracks intermingled with scenes. Players who preordered the game received a sampler disc of five songs. In 1999, a three-CD official soundtrack was released in Japan. The soundtrack won the Gold Prize for the PlayStation Awards of 2000. In 2005, Square Enix reissued the soundtrack due to popular demand. Earlier that year Mitsuda announced a new arranged album of music was scheduled for release in July 2005. It did not materialize, though at a Play! A Video Game Symphony concert in May 2006, he revealed it would be out "within the year" and would feature acoustic music. Later in 2006, Mitsuda alleged that the album would actually be released in 2007. Recently, Yasunori Mitsuda has posted a streaming sample of a track from the upcoming Chrono Cross arranged album. Though no official release date has been announced, Mitsuda has more than once stated that the album is now planned to coincide with the 10th anniversary of the game's original release in 2009. ReceptionChrono Cross shipped 850,000 and 650,000 units in Japan and abroad respectively. It was re-released once in the United States as a Greatest Hits title and again as part of the Japanese Ultimate Hits PlayStation series. Critics praised the game's complex plot, innovative battle system, varied characters, moving score, vibrant graphics, and success in breaking convention with its predecessor. Electronic Gaming Monthly gave Chrono Cross a Gold Award, scoring it 10/10/9.5 in their three reviewer format. GameSpot awarded the game a perfect 10, one of only six games in the 40,000 games listed on Gamespot to have been given the score, and its Console Game of the Year Award for 2000. IGN gave the game a score of 9.7, and Cross appeared 89th in its 2008 Top 100 games list. Famitsu rated the game 36 out of 40 from four reviewers. As of July 2007, Rotten Tomatoes and Game Rankings rate Chrono Cross at 92 and 93 percent. In terms of negative criticism, reviewers claimed that the game's flaws were its vague ending, confusing plot elements, and narrative pacing problems. Fan reaction was largely positive, though certain fans complained that the game was too far a departure from its predecessor (Chrono Cross broke convention in featuring a new cast—with more characters and fewer double and triple techs—and not allowing access to most old locations), and/or that it possessed a multitude of problems, including a lagging battle system and a lack of character development. It should be noted that Producer Hiromichi Tanaka and director Masato Kato were aware of the changes in development, specifically intending to provide an experience different from Chrono Trigger. Sequels Currently, there is no planned continuation of the Chrono series. In 2001, Hironobu Sakaguchi revealed that the company's staff wanted to develop a new game and were discussing script ideas. Though Kato was interested in a new title, the project had not been greenlighted. Square then registered a trademark for Chrono Break in Japan and the United States, causing speculation concerning a new sequel. Nothing materialized, and the trademark was dropped in the US on November 13, 2003, though it still stands in Japan. To find the Chrono Brake patent, search "Japanese Trademark Database" for "chronobrake". Click Index to find the result, and click the link. Hope continues for a new game, as Kato recently returned to work on Children of Mana and Dawn of Mana. Mitsuda also expressed interest in scoring a new Chrono series'' game. 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5,301 | F | . F is the sixth letter in the Latin alphabet. Its name in English () is spelled ef or eff. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language. 1976. "F" Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd edition (1989); "ef", "eff", "bee" (under bee eff) op. cit. History Proto-Semitic W Phoenician W Etruscan W Greek Digamma (W) Roman FImage:Proto-semiticW-01.pngImage:PhoenicianW-01.pngImage:GreekDigamma-01.pngRoman F The origin of F is the Semitic letter vâv that represented the sound /v/, and originally probably represented either a "hook" or a "club". It may have been based on a comparable Egyptian hieroglyph, such as that for "mace": T3 The Phoenician form of the letter was adopted into Greek as a vowel, upsilon (which resembled its descendant, Y, but was also ancestor to Roman letters U, V, and W); and with another form, as a consonant, digamma, which resembled our letter F, but was pronounced /w/, as in Phoenician. (Later on, this /w/ phoneme disappeared from Greek, resulting in digamma being used as a numeral only.) In Etruscan, F also stood for /w/; however, they came up with the innovation of using the digraph FH to represent the sound /f/, and the letter acquired this sound on its own when the Romans picked it up (since they had already borrowed U independently from Greek upsilon to stand for /w/). The letter phi (Φ φ) came to approximate the sound of /f/ in Greek. The lower case f is not to be confused with , the archaic long s (or medial s). For example, "sinfulness" is rendered as "" using the long s. The use of the long s died out by the end of the 19th century, largely to prevent confusion with f. Codes for computing In Unicode the capital F is codepoint U+0046 and the lower case f is U+0066. The ASCII code for capital F is 70 and for lower case f is 102; or in binary 01000110 and 01100110, respectively. The EBCDIC code for capital F is 198 and for lowercase f is 134. The numeric character references in HTML and XML are "F" and "f" for upper and lower case, respectively. In British Sign Language (BSL), the letter 'f' is represented as the extended index and middle finger of right hand on top of extended index and middle finger of left hand. It should look like a cross. Ligatures Common f ligatures. In formal typography, particularly for serifed fonts, minuscule f is one of the most commonly ligated letters. Unicode encodes the following ligatures beginning with lowercase f: ff, fi, fl, ffi, and ffl (U+FB00 through U+FB04). However, those characters are encoded only for compatibility with some old character code sets, and should not be used . No more typographic ligatures will be encoded . Instead, ligatures should be formed automatically from font data (see Apple Advanced Typography, OpenType, Graphite (SIL)). Regarding ligatures starting with lowercase f, and if the style of the font requires it, ligatures for fb, ff, ffb, ffh, ffi, ffj, ffk, ffl, ffr, fft, fh, fi, fj, fk, fl, fr, and ft are among those offered in fonts . Ligatures starting with uppercase F are sometimes also offered. There are also arguments for having ligatures where lowercase f (especially in italic style) is to form a ligature with a following letter with diaeresis (like fö, ffü and similar) . Variants of F The F with hook or script F (Unicode U+0191 and U+0192, Ƒ and ƒ) is used in the transcription of Kabye and other West African languages for the voiceless bilabial fricative. Lowercase ƒ is the currency sign for the Dutch gulden (which no longer exists as of the introduction of the euro) F with dot above (Unicode U+1E1E and U+1E1F, Ḟ and ḟ) is used in the old orthography of Irish The French Franc can be indicated by FF or ₣ (Unicode U+20A3) In mathematics, the script capital F (Unicode U+2131, ℱ) often represents the Fourier transform There also exist: The turned F (Unicode U+2132 and U+214E, Ⅎ and ⅎ), a letter that the Roman Emperor Claudius attempted to add to the Latin alphabet The parenthesized small F (Unicode U+24A1, ⒡) The circled F (Unicode U+24BB and U+24D5, Ⓕ and ⓕ) F is the symbol for element 9 in the Periodic Table of Elements, Fluorine See also Ф, ф - Ef (Cyrillic) Φ, φ or - Phi (Greek) Voiceless labiodental fricative, a consonant sound that is the usual pronunciation of the letter F in English, and which is represented by "f" in the International Phonetic Alphabet and X-SAMPA Welsh alphabet, in which the F is pronounced as a V, or voiced labiodental fricative. References | F |@lemmatized f:37 sixth:1 letter:12 latin:2 alphabet:4 name:1 english:4 spell:1 ef:3 eff:3 american:1 heritage:1 dictionary:2 language:3 oxford:1 edition:1 bee:2 op:1 cit:1 history:1 proto:2 semitic:2 w:9 phoenician:3 etruscan:2 greek:6 digamma:3 roman:4 fimage:1 semiticw:1 pngimage:2 phoenicianw:1 greekdigamma:1 pngroman:1 origin:1 vâv:1 represent:6 sound:5 v:3 originally:1 probably:1 either:1 hook:2 club:1 may:1 base:1 comparable:1 egyptian:1 hieroglyph:1 mace:1 form:4 adopt:1 vowel:1 upsilon:2 resemble:2 descendant:1 also:6 ancestor:1 u:17 another:1 consonant:2 pronounce:2 later:1 phoneme:1 disappear:1 result:1 use:7 numeral:1 stand:2 however:2 come:2 innovation:1 digraph:1 fh:2 acquire:1 pick:1 since:1 already:1 borrow:1 independently:1 phi:2 φ:4 approximate:1 low:4 case:4 confuse:1 archaic:1 long:4 medial:1 example:1 sinfulness:1 render:1 die:1 end:1 century:1 largely:1 prevent:1 confusion:1 code:4 compute:1 unicode:9 capital:4 codepoint:1 ascii:1 binary:1 respectively:2 ebcdic:1 lowercase:5 numeric:1 character:3 reference:2 html:1 xml:1 upper:1 british:1 sign:2 bsl:1 extended:2 index:2 middle:2 finger:2 right:1 hand:2 top:1 left:1 look:1 like:2 cross:1 ligatures:2 common:1 ligature:8 formal:1 typography:2 particularly:1 serifed:1 font:4 minuscule:1 one:1 commonly:1 ligate:1 encodes:1 following:2 begin:1 ff:1 fi:1 fl:1 ffi:1 ffl:1 encode:2 compatibility:1 old:2 set:1 typographic:1 instead:1 automatically:1 data:1 see:2 apple:1 advanced:1 opentype:1 graphite:1 sil:1 regard:1 start:2 style:2 require:1 fb:1 ff:2 ffb:1 ffh:1 ffi:1 ffj:1 ffk:1 ffl:1 ffr:1 fft:1 fi:1 fj:1 fk:1 fl:1 fr:1 ft:1 among:1 offer:2 uppercase:1 sometimes:1 argument:1 especially:1 italic:1 diaeresis:1 fö:1 ffü:1 similar:1 variant:1 script:2 ƒ:3 transcription:1 kabye:1 west:1 african:1 voiceless:2 bilabial:1 fricative:3 currency:1 dutch:1 gulden:1 exist:2 introduction:1 euro:1 dot:1 ḟ:2 orthography:1 irish:1 french:1 franc:1 indicate:1 mathematics:1 ℱ:1 often:1 fourier:1 transform:1 turned:1 ⅎ:2 emperor:1 claudius:1 attempt:1 add:1 parenthesized:1 small:1 circle:1 symbol:1 element:2 periodic:1 table:1 fluorine:1 ф:2 cyrillic:1 labiodental:2 usual:1 pronunciation:1 international:1 phonetic:1 x:1 sampa:1 welsh:1 voice:1 |@bigram op_cit:1 proto_semitic:1 egyptian_hieroglyph:1 phi_φ:1 φ_φ:2 ƒ_ƒ:1 bilabial_fricative:1 fourier_transform:1 periodic_table:1 φ_phi:1 labiodental_fricative:2 phonetic_alphabet:1 x_sampa:1 |
5,302 | Cyril_of_Jerusalem | Cyril of Jerusalem (Greek Κύριλλος Α΄ Ἱεροσολύμων) was a distinguished theologian of the early Church (ca. 315 Walsh, Michael, ed. Butler's Lives of the Saints. (HarperCollins Publishers: New York, 1991), pp 83. – 386). He is venerated as a saint by the Roman Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, and the Anglican Communion. In 1883, Cyril was declared a Doctor of the Church by Pope Leo XIII. Life and character Little is known of his life before he became bishop but some is known ; the assignment of the year "315" for his birth rests on mere conjecture. It seems with, more assurance, closer to 313. St. Cyril was ordained deacon by Bishop St. Macarius of Jerusalem about 335, and priest some eight years later by Bishop St. Maximus. About the end of the year 350, he succeeded St. Maximus in the See of Jerusalem. *"Lives of the Saints, For Every Day of the Year" edited by Rev. Hugo Hoever, S.O.Cist., Ph.D., New York: Catholic Book Publishing Co., 1955, p. 112 Naturally inclined to peace and conciliation, St. Cyril took at first a rather moderate position, distinctly averse from Arianism, but (like not a few of his undoubtedly orthodox contemporaries) by no means eager to accept the uncompromising term homooussios (ὁμοούσιος). Separating from his metropolitan, Acacius of Caesarea, a partisan of Arius, St. Cyril took the side of the Eusebians, the "right wing" of the post-Nicene conciliation party, and thus got into difficulties with his superior, which were increased by Acacius's jealousy of the importance assigned to St. Cyril's See by the Council of Nicaea. A council held under Acacius's influence in 358 deposed St. Cyril and forced him to retire to Tarsus. At that time he was officially charged with selling church property to help the poor, although the actual motivation appears to be that St. Cyril was teaching Nicene and not Arian doctrine in his catechism. On the other hand, the conciliatory Council of Seleucia in the following year, at which St. Cyril was present, deposed Acacius. In 360 the process was reversed through the metropolitan's court influence, and Cyril suffered another year's exile from Jerusalem, until Emperor Julian's accession allowed him to return. The Arian Emperor Valens banished him once more in 367. St. Cyril was able to return, once more, at the accession of Emperor Gratian, after which he remained undisturbed until his death in 386. St. Cyril's jurisdiction over Jerusalem was expressly confirmed by the First Council of Constantinople (381), at which he was present. At that council, he voted for acceptance of the term homooussios, having been finally convinced that there was no better alternative. Theological position Though his theology was at first somewhat indefinite in phraseology, he undoubtedly gave a thorough adhesion to the Nicene orthodoxy. Even if he does avoid the debatable term homooussios, he expresses its sense in many passages, which exclude equally Patripassianism, Sabellianism, and the formula "there was a time when the Son was not" attributed to Arius. In other points he takes the ordinary ground of the Eastern Fathers, as in the emphasis he lays on the freedom of the will, the autexousion (αὐτεξούσιον), and his imperfect realization of the factor so much more strongly brought out in the West--sin. To him sin is the consequence of freedom, not a natural condition. The body is not the cause, but the instrument of sin. The remedy for it is repentance, on which he insists. Like many of the Eastern Fathers, he has an essentially moralistic conception of Christianity. His doctrine of the Resurrection is not quite so realistic as that of other Fathers; but his conception of the Church is decidedly empirical-- the existing catholic Church form is the true one, intended by Christ, the completion of the Church of the Old Testament. His doctrine on the Eucharist is noteworthy. If he sometimes seems to approach the symbolical view, at other times he comes very close to a strong realistic doctrine. The bread and wine are not mere elements, but the body and blood of Christ. Catechetical lectures His famous twenty-three catechetical lectures (Greek Κατηχήσεις), which he delivered while still a presbyter in 347 or 348, contain instructions on the principal topics of Christian faith and practise, in rather a popular than a scientific manner, full of a warm pastoral love and care for the catechumens to whom they were delivered. Each lecture is based upon a text of Scripture, and there is an abundance of Scriptural quotation throughout. After a general introduction, eighteen lectures follow for the competentes, and the remaining five are addressed to the newly baptized, in preparation for the reception of Holy Communion. These last instructional addresses are called mystagogic (μυσταγωγικαί), because they deal with the mysteries (μυστήρια) i.e. Sacraments of Baptism, Confirmation and the Eucharist. *"The Penguin Dictionary of Saints, 3rd Edition", Donald Attwater and Catherine Rachel John, New York: Peguin Putnam Inc., 1995, p. 101 Parallel with the exposition of the Creed as it was then received in the Church of Jerusalem are vigorous polemics against pagan, Jewish, and heretical errors. They are of great importance for the light which they throw upon the method of instruction usual of that age, as well as upon the liturgical practises of the period, of which they give the fullest account extant. St. Cyril's feast day is commemorated on March 18. References "The Penguin Dictionary of Saints, 3rd Edition", Donald Attwater and Catherine Rachel John, New York: Peguin Putnam Inc., 1995, ISBN 0-14-051312-4 "Lives of the Saints, For Every Day of the Year" edited by Rev. Hugo Hoever, S.O.Cist., Ph.D., New York: Catholic Book Publishing Co., 1955 Omer Englebert, "Lives of the Saints" New York: Barnes & Noble Books, 1994, ISBN 1-5661-9516-0 External links Catholic Encyclopedia: St. Cyril of Jerusalem EWTN Library: St. Cyril, Confessor, Archbishop of Jerusalem Tradition In Action - Saint of the Day: St. Cyril of Jerusalem - March 18 | Cyril_of_Jerusalem |@lemmatized cyril:16 jerusalem:9 greek:2 κύριλλος:1 α:1 ἱεροσολύμων:1 distinguished:1 theologian:1 early:1 church:9 ca:1 walsh:1 michael:1 ed:1 butler:1 life:5 saint:8 harpercollins:1 publisher:1 new:6 york:6 pp:1 venerate:1 roman:1 catholic:5 eastern:3 orthodox:2 anglican:1 communion:2 declare:1 doctor:1 pope:1 leo:1 xiii:1 character:1 little:1 know:2 become:1 bishop:3 assignment:1 year:7 birth:1 rest:1 mere:2 conjecture:1 seem:2 assurance:1 close:2 st:16 ordain:1 deacon:1 macarius:1 priest:1 eight:1 later:1 maximus:2 end:1 succeed:1 see:2 every:2 day:4 edit:2 rev:2 hugo:2 hoever:2 cist:2 ph:2 book:3 publish:2 co:2 p:2 naturally:1 incline:1 peace:1 conciliation:2 take:3 first:3 rather:2 moderate:1 position:2 distinctly:1 averse:1 arianism:1 like:2 undoubtedly:2 contemporary:1 mean:1 eager:1 accept:1 uncompromising:1 term:3 homooussios:3 ὁμοούσιος:1 separate:1 metropolitan:2 acacius:4 caesarea:1 partisan:1 arius:2 side:1 eusebians:1 right:1 wing:1 post:1 nicene:3 party:1 thus:1 get:1 difficulty:1 superior:1 increase:1 jealousy:1 importance:2 assign:1 council:5 nicaea:1 hold:1 influence:2 deposed:2 force:1 retire:1 tarsus:1 time:3 officially:1 charge:1 sell:1 property:1 help:1 poor:1 although:1 actual:1 motivation:1 appear:1 teach:1 arian:2 doctrine:4 catechism:1 hand:1 conciliatory:1 seleucia:1 following:1 present:2 process:1 reverse:1 court:1 suffer:1 another:1 exile:1 emperor:3 julian:1 accession:2 allow:1 return:2 valens:1 banish:1 able:1 gratian:1 remain:2 undisturbed:1 death:1 jurisdiction:1 expressly:1 confirm:1 constantinople:1 vote:1 acceptance:1 finally:1 convince:1 good:1 alternative:1 theological:1 though:1 theology:1 somewhat:1 indefinite:1 phraseology:1 give:2 thorough:1 adhesion:1 orthodoxy:1 even:1 avoid:1 debatable:1 express:1 sense:1 many:2 passage:1 exclude:1 equally:1 patripassianism:1 sabellianism:1 formula:1 son:1 attribute:1 point:1 ordinary:1 ground:1 father:3 emphasis:1 lay:1 freedom:2 autexousion:1 αὐτεξούσιον:1 imperfect:1 realization:1 factor:1 much:1 strongly:1 bring:1 west:1 sin:3 consequence:1 natural:1 condition:1 body:2 cause:1 instrument:1 remedy:1 repentance:1 insist:1 essentially:1 moralistic:1 conception:2 christianity:1 resurrection:1 quite:1 realistic:2 decidedly:1 empirical:1 exist:1 form:1 true:1 one:1 intend:1 christ:2 completion:1 old:1 testament:1 eucharist:2 noteworthy:1 sometimes:1 approach:1 symbolical:1 view:1 come:1 strong:1 bread:1 wine:1 element:1 blood:1 catechetical:2 lecture:4 famous:1 twenty:1 three:1 κατηχήσεις:1 deliver:2 still:1 presbyter:1 contain:1 instruction:2 principal:1 topic:1 christian:1 faith:1 practise:1 popular:1 scientific:1 manner:1 full:2 warm:1 pastoral:1 love:1 care:1 catechumen:1 base:1 upon:3 text:1 scripture:1 abundance:1 scriptural:1 quotation:1 throughout:1 general:1 introduction:1 eighteen:1 follow:1 competentes:1 five:1 address:2 newly:1 baptize:1 preparation:1 reception:1 holy:1 last:1 instructional:1 call:1 mystagogic:1 μυσταγωγικαί:1 deal:1 mystery:1 μυστήρια:1 e:1 sacrament:1 baptism:1 confirmation:1 penguin:2 dictionary:2 edition:2 donald:2 attwater:2 catherine:2 rachel:2 john:2 peguin:2 putnam:2 inc:2 parallel:1 exposition:1 creed:1 receive:1 vigorous:1 polemic:1 pagan:1 jewish:1 heretical:1 error:1 great:1 light:1 throw:1 method:1 usual:1 age:1 well:1 liturgical:1 practises:1 period:1 account:1 extant:1 feast:1 commemorate:1 march:2 reference:1 isbn:2 omer:1 englebert:1 live:1 barnes:1 noble:1 external:1 link:1 encyclopedia:1 ewtn:1 library:1 confessor:1 archbishop:1 tradition:1 action:1 |@bigram harpercollins_publisher:1 eastern_orthodox:1 anglican_communion:1 pope_leo:1 leo_xiii:1 ordain_deacon:1 council_nicaea:1 emperor_valens:1 bread_wine:1 sacrament_baptism:1 baptism_confirmation:1 catherine_rachel:2 barnes_noble:1 external_link:1 |
5,303 | Nightclub_two_step | Nightclub Two Step (Nightclub Two-step, NC2S) was initially developed by Buddy Schwimmer in the mid-1960s. The dance is also known as "Two Step" and was "one of the most popular forms of contemporary social dance" as a Disco Couples Dance in 1978. Skippy Blair on Contemporary Dance" Skippy Blair 1978 pages 55, 184 ISBN 0-932980-015 It is frequently danced to mid-tempo ballads in 4/4 time that have a characteristic Quick-Quick-Slow beat. A classic example is the song Lady In Red. Description The Nightclub Two Step basic step can be counted as One & Two - Three & Four -. Skippy Blair on Contemporary Dance". Skippy Blair. 1978. page 69. ISBN 0-932980-015 The dance position for Nightclub Two Step is with a more relaxed hold than typical ballroom dances, or "what people tend to do without lessons". The leader rocks back on his left foot, the follower on her right, for one beat. "The toe is to the heel, but not further. Don't twist your hip. If your hip opens up, you have gone too far." A gentle but noticeable resistance is maintained during the rock step. Skippy Blair on Contemporary Dance". Skippy Blair. 1978. page 69. ISBN 0-932980-015 Then both partners replace weight on the second part of the first beat. On the next beat, the leader takes a step to the left and the follower to the right. Then both partners repeat, but on opposite feet (the man rocks back on his right foot and moves to the right). The quick rock steps should be matched with the quick drum beats in the music. The "slow" drum beat and slow step can occur on either the second and fourth, or the first and third beats of a measure. Although other rhythmic interpretations of the music are possible, including the use of "breaks" in the music, they are beyond the scope of this article. Side-cross-side. Another pattern in NC2S is the side-cross-side move. Typically, the lead starts this move by stepping side with his left foot and then crosses in front with his right foot. This is followed by another step to the side with the left foot. The rhythm, here, is Quick, Quick, Slow. The follower does the same thing, but starts with her right foot. Both partners cross in front. In an interview with Phil Seyer Nightclub Two Step, an Interview with Buddy Schwimmer, Philip Seyer and Buddy Schwimmer,Dancing USA Magazine., 1995. Buddy said he created this move by modifying something that was popular in the 60's called the "Surfer Stomp." The surfer stomp was simply, side, together, side, touch. References External links Nightclub Two Step, An Interview with Buddy Schwimmer, creator of Nightclub Two Step, 1996 Nightclub Two Step StepList | Nightclub_two_step |@lemmatized nightclub:8 two:10 step:16 initially:1 develop:1 buddy:5 schwimmer:4 mid:2 dance:10 also:1 know:1 one:3 popular:2 form:1 contemporary:4 social:1 disco:1 couple:1 skippy:6 blair:6 page:3 isbn:3 frequently:1 tempo:1 ballad:1 time:1 characteristic:1 quick:6 slow:4 beat:7 classic:1 example:1 song:1 lady:1 red:1 description:1 basic:1 count:1 three:1 four:1 position:1 relaxed:1 hold:1 typical:1 ballroom:1 people:1 tend:1 without:1 lesson:1 leader:2 rock:4 back:2 left:4 foot:7 follower:3 right:6 toe:1 heel:1 far:2 twist:1 hip:2 open:1 go:1 gentle:1 noticeable:1 resistance:1 maintain:1 partner:3 replace:1 weight:1 second:2 part:1 first:2 next:1 take:1 repeat:1 opposite:1 man:1 move:4 match:1 drum:2 music:3 occur:1 either:1 fourth:1 third:1 measure:1 although:1 rhythmic:1 interpretation:1 possible:1 include:1 use:1 break:1 beyond:1 scope:1 article:1 side:8 cross:4 another:2 pattern:1 typically:1 lead:1 start:2 front:2 follow:1 rhythm:1 thing:1 interview:3 phil:1 seyer:2 philip:1 usa:1 magazine:1 say:1 create:1 modify:1 something:1 call:1 surfer:2 stomp:2 simply:1 together:1 touch:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 creator:1 steplist:1 |@bigram skippy_blair:6 ballroom_dance:1 external_link:1 |
5,304 | Barter | A 19th-century example of barter: A sample labor for labor note for the Cincinnati Time Store. Scanned from Equitable Commerce by Josiah Warren (1846) Bartering is a medium in which goods or services are directly exchanged for other goods and/or services, without the use of money. It can be bilateral or multilateral, and usually exists parallel to monetary systems in most developed countries, though to a very limited extent. Barter usually replaces money as the method of exchange in times of monetary crisis, when the currency is unstable and devalued by hyperinflation. Bartering is still common in the present, usually used within the Internet on sites like Craigslist. http://www.huffingtonpost.com/tag/craigslist-bartering History An 1874 newspaper illustration from Harper's Weekly, showing a man engaging in barter: offering chickens in exchange for his yearly newspaper subscription. Contrary to popular conception, there is no evidence of a society or economy that relied primarily on barter. Mauss, Marcel. 'The Gift: The Form and Reason for Exchange in Archaic Societies.' pp. 36-37. Instead, non-monetary societies operated largely along the principles of gift economics. When barter did in fact occur, it was usually between either complete strangers or would-be enemies. Graeber, David. 'Toward an Anthropological Theory of Value'. pp. 153-154. While one-to-one bartering is practised between individuals and businesses on an informal basis, organized barter exchanges have developed to conduct third party bartering. The barter exchange operates as a broker and bank and each participating member has an account which is debited when purchases are made, and credited when sales are made. With the removal of one-to-one bartering, concerns over unequal exchanges are reduced. Modern trade and barter has developed into a sophisticated tool to help businesses increase their efficiencies by monetizing their unused capacities and excess inventories. The worldwide organized barter exchange and trade industry has grown to an $8 billion a year industry and is used by thousands of businesses and individuals. The advent of the Internet and sophisticated relational database software programs has further advanced the barter industry's growth. Organized barter has grown throughout the world to the point now where virtually every country has a formalized barter and trade network of some kind. Complex business models based on the concept of barter are today possible since the advent of Web 2.0 technologies. Bartering benefits companies and countries that see a mutual benefit in exchanging goods and services rather than cash, and it also enables those who are lacking hard currency to obtain goods and services. To make up for a lack of hard currency, Thailand's township, Amphoe Kut Chum, once issued its own local scrip called Bia Kut Chum: Bia is Thai for cowry shell, was once Baht, and is still current in metaphorical expressions. Running afoul of national currency laws, the community changed to barter coupons called Boon Kut Chum that bear a fixed value in baht, which they swap for goods and services within the community. A Boon to Kut Chum archive Trade exchanges A trade or barter exchange is a commercial organization that provides a trading platform and bookkeeping system for its members or clients. The member companies buy and sell products and services to each other using an internal currency known as barter or trade dollars. Modern barter and trade has evolved considerably to become an effective method of increasing sales, conserving cash, moving inventory, and making use of excess production capacity for businesses around the world. Businesses in a barter earn trade credits (instead of cash) that are deposited into their account. They then have the ability to purchase goods and services from other members utilizing their trade credits – they are not obligated to purchase from who they sold to, and vice versa. The exchange plays an important role because they provide the record-keeping, brokering expertise and monthly statements to each member. Commercial exchanges make money by charging a commission on each transaction either all on the buy side, all on the sell side, or a combination of both. Transaction fees typically run between 8 and 15%. It is estimated that over 350,000 businesses in the United States are involved in barter exchange activities. There are approximately 400 commercial and corporate barter companies serving all parts of the world. There are many opportunities for entrepreneurs to start a barter exchange. Several major cities in the U.S. and Canada do not currently have a local barter exchange. There are two industry groups, the National Association of Trade Exchanges (NATE) and the International Reciprocal Trade Association (IRTA). Both offer training and promote high ethical standards among their members. Moreover, each has created it own currency through which its member barter companies can trade. NATE's currency is the known as the BANC and IRTA's currency is called Universal Currency (UC). Exchange systems provide new sales and higher volumes of business, conserving cash for essential expenditures, exchange of unproductive assets for valuable products or services, reduction of unit costs, and opening new outlets for excess inventory and unused capacity. Reciprocal trade finance enables a firm to buy using its incremental cost of production. So long as incremental revenue exceeds incremental cost, it is worth it for a firm to trade using a barter exchange. There are many reasons to use a good barter exchange: Increased purchasing power Increased revenue Preserving cash More clients (both from the barter exchange and from cash-business referrals from barter clients) Better cash flow Greater marketing opportunities Improved efficiency Organized barter companies also have many more benefits over conventional advertising methods since they are much more proactive. Barter members call into the exchange brokerage with things they need and the brokers match those needs with other members that can fill them. The first exchange system was the Swiss WIR Bank. It was founded in 1934 as a result of currency shortages after the stock market crash of 1929. "WIR" is both an abbreviation of Wirtschaftsring and the word for "we" in German, reminding participants that the economic circle is also a community. Only SME can join WIR. Its purpose is to encourage participating members to put their buying power at each others disposal and keep it circulating within their ranks, thereby providing members with additional sales volume. WIR has grown to 62,000 members, trading approximately the value of 3 billion Swiss Franc. The offering of goods and services for WIR is promoted by the fact that every official participant is obligated to accept payment in WIR for at least 30% of the first 2000 francs of the selling price, and every loan holder must amortize his/her debt by selling goods/services for WIR. Corporate barter Corporate barter focuses on larger transactions, which is different from a traditional, retail oriented barter exchange. Corporate barter exchanges typically use media and advertising as leverage for their larger transactions. It entails the use of a currency unit called a "trade-credit". The trade-credit must be known and guaranteed (contract to eliminate ambiguity and risk). Swapping Swapping is the increasingly prevalent informal bartering system in which participants in Internet communities trade items of comparable value on a trust basis. While swapping is an excellent way to find and obtain items that are inexpensive, it relies upon honesty. A dishonest participant might arrange a swap, and then never complete their end of the transaction, thus getting something for nothing. This practice is called swaplifting, a pun on shoplifting. The victim's recourse is often limited to shunning the swaplifter, or taking him to small claims court. One way that swaplifting may be combated is by arranging the deal through a third party web service such as FavorTree.net (for services) which has become a favorite among established business men and women, www.bookmooch.com (for books), or one of the other major bartering websites (BarterQuest.com, BarterBart.com, U-Exchange.com). Typically, these websites do not take on the risk of forcing the other party to follow through on its end of the deal, but they will provide recourse in the form of removing the violator from the site or allowing the wronged party to provide negative feedback (much like eBay or Amazon). Notwithstanding the risk of dishonesty, bartering sites are becoming increasingly popular during tight economic times. Tax implications In the United States, the sales a barter exchange makes are considered taxable revenue by the IRS and the gross amount of a barter exchange member's sales are reported to the IRS by the barter exchange via a 1099-B form. The requirement for barter exchanges to report members sales was enacted in the Tax Equity & Fair Responsibility Act of 1982. According to the IRS, "The fair market value of goods and services exchanged must be included in the income of both parties." Other countries do not have the reporting requirement that the U.S. does concerning proceeds from barter transactions. However, if you barter for goods and/or services, you are taxed not more or less than if it were a cash transaction. In other words, it is handled the same way as a cash transaction regarding taxation. If you bartered for a profit, you pay the appropriate tax, if you generated a loss in the transaction, you have a loss. Bartering for business is also taxed accordingly as business income or business expense. See also Gift economy Hyperinflation International trade List of international trade topics Local currency Local Exchange Trading System Natural economy Private currency Reciprocity (cultural anthropology) Simple living Trading cards References | Barter |@lemmatized century:1 example:1 barter:42 sample:1 labor:2 note:1 cincinnati:1 time:3 store:1 scan:1 equitable:1 commerce:1 josiah:1 warren:1 bartering:9 medium:2 good:12 service:14 directly:1 exchange:33 without:1 use:10 money:3 bilateral:1 multilateral:1 usually:4 exist:1 parallel:1 monetary:3 system:6 developed:1 country:4 though:1 limited:2 extent:1 replace:1 method:3 crisis:1 currency:13 unstable:1 devalue:1 hyperinflation:2 still:2 common:1 present:1 within:3 internet:3 site:3 like:2 craigslist:2 http:1 www:2 huffingtonpost:1 com:5 tag:1 history:1 newspaper:2 illustration:1 harper:1 weekly:1 show:1 man:1 engage:1 offering:2 chicken:1 yearly:1 subscription:1 contrary:1 popular:2 conception:1 evidence:1 society:3 economy:3 rely:2 primarily:1 mauss:1 marcel:1 gift:3 form:3 reason:2 archaic:1 pp:2 instead:2 non:1 operate:2 largely:1 along:1 principle:1 economics:1 fact:2 occur:1 either:2 complete:2 stranger:1 would:1 enemy:1 graeber:1 david:1 toward:1 anthropological:1 theory:1 value:5 one:6 practise:1 individual:2 business:13 informal:2 basis:2 organize:4 develop:2 conduct:1 third:2 party:5 broker:3 bank:2 participate:2 member:14 account:2 debit:1 purchase:4 make:6 credit:5 sale:7 removal:1 concern:2 unequal:1 reduce:1 modern:2 trade:20 sophisticated:2 tool:1 help:1 increase:4 efficiency:2 monetize:1 unused:2 capacity:3 excess:3 inventory:3 worldwide:1 industry:4 grow:3 billion:2 year:1 thousand:1 advent:2 relational:1 database:1 software:1 program:1 far:1 advance:1 growth:1 throughout:1 world:3 point:1 virtually:1 every:3 formalize:1 network:1 kind:1 complex:1 model:1 base:1 concept:1 today:1 possible:1 since:2 web:2 technology:1 benefit:3 company:5 see:2 mutual:1 rather:1 cash:9 also:5 enable:2 lack:2 hard:2 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standard:1 among:2 moreover:1 create:1 banc:1 universal:1 uc:1 new:2 volume:2 essential:1 expenditure:1 unproductive:1 asset:1 valuable:1 reduction:1 unit:2 cost:3 open:1 outlet:1 finance:1 firm:2 incremental:3 long:1 revenue:3 exceed:1 worth:1 power:2 preserve:1 referral:1 flow:1 great:1 marketing:1 improve:1 conventional:1 advertising:2 much:2 proactive:1 brokerage:1 thing:1 need:2 match:1 fill:1 first:2 swiss:2 wir:7 found:1 result:1 shortage:1 stock:1 market:2 crash:1 abbreviation:1 wirtschaftsring:1 word:2 german:1 remind:1 participant:4 economic:2 circle:1 sme:1 join:1 purpose:1 encourage:1 put:1 buying:1 others:1 disposal:1 circulate:1 rank:1 thereby:1 additional:1 franc:2 official:1 accept:1 payment:1 least:1 selling:1 price:1 loan:1 holder:1 must:3 amortize:1 debt:1 focus:1 large:2 different:1 traditional:1 retail:1 orient:1 leverage:1 entail:1 guarantee:1 contract:1 eliminate:1 ambiguity:1 risk:3 swapping:1 increasingly:2 prevalent:1 item:2 comparable:1 trust:1 excellent:1 way:3 find:1 inexpensive:1 upon:1 honesty:1 dishonest:1 might:1 arrange:2 never:1 end:2 thus:1 get:1 something:1 nothing:1 practice:1 swaplifting:2 pun:1 shoplifting:1 victim:1 recourse:2 often:1 shun:1 swaplifter:1 take:2 small:1 claim:1 court:1 may:1 combat:1 deal:2 favortree:1 net:1 favorite:1 establish:1 men:1 woman:1 bookmooch:1 book:1 website:2 barterquest:1 barterbart:1 force:1 follow:1 remove:1 violator:1 allow:1 wrong:1 negative:1 feedback:1 ebay:1 amazon:1 notwithstanding:1 dishonesty:1 tight:1 tax:4 implication:1 consider:1 taxable:1 irs:3 gross:1 amount:1 report:2 via:1 b:1 requirement:2 enact:1 equity:1 fair:2 responsibility:1 act:1 accord:1 include:1 income:2 reporting:1 proceeds:1 however:1 less:1 handle:1 regard:1 taxation:1 profit:1 pay:1 appropriate:1 generate:1 loss:2 taxed:1 accordingly:1 expense:1 list:1 topic:1 natural:1 private:1 reciprocity:1 cultural:1 anthropology:1 simple:1 live:1 card:1 reference:1 |@bigram josiah_warren:1 bilateral_multilateral:1 http_www:1 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5,305 | Italo_Calvino | Italo Calvino (15 October 1923 – 19 September 1985) () was an Italian journalist and writer of short stories and novels. His best known works include the Our Ancestors trilogy (1952-1959), the Cosmicomics collection of short stories (1965), and the novels Invisible Cities (1972) and If on a winter's night a traveler (1979). Lionised in Britain and America, he was the most-translated contemporary Italian writer at the time of his death, and a noted contender for the Nobel Prize for Literature. McLaughlin, Italo Calvino, xii. Biography Cuba Italo Calvino was born in Santiago de Las Vegas, a suburb of Havana, Cuba in 1923. His father, Mario, was a tropical agronomist and botanist who also taught agriculture and floriculture. Calvino, ‘Objective Biographical Notice’, Hermit in Paris, 160. Born 47 years earlier in San Remo, Italy, Mario had emigrated to Mexico in 1909 where he took up an important position with the Ministry of Agriculture. In an autobiographical essay, Calvino explained that his father "had been in his youth an anarchist, a follower of Kropotkin and then a Socialist Reformist". Calvino, 'Political Autobiography of a Young Man', Hermit in Paris, 132. In 1917, Mario left for Cuba to conduct scientific experiments, after living through the Mexican Revolution. Calvino's mother, Eva Mameli, was a botanist and university professor. A native of Sardinia and 11 years younger than her husband, she married while still a junior lecturer at Pavia University. Born into a secular family, Eva was a pacifist educated in the "religion of civic duty and science". Calvino, 'Political Autobiography of a Young Man', Hermit in Paris, 132. Calvino described his parents as being "very different in personality from one another", Calvino, 'Political Autobiography of a Young Man', Hermit in Paris, 132. suggesting perhaps deeper tensions behind a comfortable, albeit strict, middle-class upbringing devoid of conflict. As an adolescent, he found it hard relating to poverty and the working-class, and was "ill at ease" with his parents’ openness to the laborers who filed into his father's study on Saturdays to receive their weekly paycheck. Calvino, 'Political Autobiography of a Young Man', Hermit in Paris, 135. Early life and education In 1925, less than two years after Calvino's birth, the family returned to Italy and settled definitively in San Remo on the Ligurian coast. Floriano, Calvino's brother who became a distinguished geologist, was born in 1927. The family divided their time between the Villa Meridiana, an experimental floriculture station which also served as their home, and Mario's ancestral land at San Giovanni Battista. On this small working farm set in the hills behind San Remo, Mario pioneered in the cultivation of then exotic fruits such as avocado and grapefruit, eventually obtaining an entry in the Dizionario biografico degli italiani for his achievements. The vast forests and luxuriant fauna omnipresent in Calvino's early fiction such as The Baron in the Trees derives from this "legacy". In an interview, Calvino stated that "San Remo continues to pop out in my books, in the most diverse pieces of writing." Corti, Autografo 2 (October 1985): 51. He and Floriano would climb the tree-rich estate and perch for hours on the branches reading their favorite adventure stories. Weiss, Understanding Italo Calvino, 2. Less salubrious aspects of this "paternal legacy" are described in The Road to San Giovanni, Calvino's memoir of his father in which he exposes their inability to communicate: "Talking to each other was difficult. Both verbose by nature, possessed of an ocean of words, in each other's presence we became mute, would walk in silence side by side along the road to San Giovanni." Calvino, The Road to San Giovanni, 10. Due to his early interest in stories, having devoured Rudyard Kipling's The Jungle Book as a child, Calvino felt he was the "black sheep" of a family that held literature in less esteem than the sciences. Fascinated by American movies and cartoons, he was equally attracted to drawing, poetry, and theatre. On a darker note, Calvino recalled that his earliest memory was of a socialist professor brutalized by Fascist lynch-squads. "I remember clearly that we were at dinner when the old professor came in with his face beaten up and bleeding, his bowtie all torn, asking for help." Calvino, 'Political Autobiography of a Young Man', Hermit in Paris, 130. Other legacies include the parents’ masonic republicanism which occasionally developed into anarchic socialism. McLaughlin, xii. Calvino defined his family's traditions as "a humanitarian Socialism, and before that Mazzinianism". Cf. Calvino, 'Behind the Success' in Hermit in Paris, 223. Austere, anti-Fascist freethinkers, Eva and Mario refused giving their sons any religious education. Weiss, Understanding Italo Calvino, 3. Italo attended the English nursery school, St George's College, followed by a Protestant elementary private school run by Waldensians. His secondary schooling was completed at the state-run Liceo Gian Domenico Cassini where, at his parents’ request, he was exempted from religious instruction but forced to justify his anticonformist stance. In his mature years, Calvino described the experience as a salutary one as it made him "tolerant of others’ opinions, particularly in the field of religion, remembering how irksome it was to hear myself mocked because I did not follow the majority's beliefs”. Calvino, 'Political Autobiography of a Young Man', Hermit in Paris, 134. During this time, he met a brilliant student from Rome, Eugenio Scalfari, who went on to found the weekly magazine L'Espresso and La Repubblica, Italy's major newspaper. The two teenagers formed a lasting friendship, Calvino attributing his political awakening to their university discussions. Seated together "on a huge flat stone in the middle of a stream near our land", Calvino, 'Political Autobiography of a Young Man', Hermit in Paris, 130. he and Scalfari founded the MUL (University Liberal Movement). Eva managed to delay her son's enrolment in the Fascist armed scouts, the Balilla Moschettieri, and then arranged that he be excused, as a non-Catholic, from performing devotional acts in church. Calvino, "Political Autobiography of a Young Man", Hermit in Paris, 134. But later on, as a compulsory member, he could not avoid the assemblies and parades of the Avanguardisti, Calvino, 'The Duce's Portraits', Hermit in Paris, 210. and was forced to participate in the Italian occupation of the French Riviera in June 1940. Weiss, Understanding Italo Calvino, 3. World War II In 1941, Calvino dutifully enrolled at the University of Turin, choosing the Agriculture Faculty where his father had previously taught courses in agronomy. Concealing his literary ambitions to please his family, he passed four exams in his first year while reading anti-Fascist works by Elio Vittorini, Eugenio Montale, Cesare Pavese, Huizinga, and Pisacane, and works by Max Planck, Heisenberg, and Einstein on physics. Calvino, 'Political Autobiography of a Young Man', Hermit in Paris, 140. Disdainful of Turin students, Calvino saw himself as enclosed in a "provincial shell" Calvino, 'Political Autobiography of a Young Man', Hermit in Paris, 138. that offered the illusion of immunity from the Fascist nightmare: "We were ‘hard guys’ from the provinces, hunters, snooker-players, show-offs, proud of our lack of intellectual sophistication, contemptuous of any patriotic or military rhetoric, coarse in our speech, regulars in the brothels, dismissive of any romantic sentiment and desperately devoid of women." Calvino, 'Political Autobiography of a Young Man', Hermit in Paris, 138. Calvino transferred to the University of Florence in 1943 and reluctantly passed three more exams in agriculture. By the end of the year, the Germans had succeeded in occupying Liguria and setting up Benito Mussolini's puppet Republic of Salò in northern Italy. Now twenty years old, Calvino refused military service and went into hiding. Reading intensely in a wide array of subjects, he also reasoned politically that, of all the partisan groupings, the communists were the best organized with "the most convincing political line". Calvino recalled this sudden, forced transformation of a dreamy adolescent into a partisan soldier as one bounded by logic since "the logic of the Resistance was the very logic of our urge towards life". Calvino, 'Political Autobiography of a Young Man', Hermit in Paris, 146. In spring 1944, Eva encouraged her sons to enter the Italian Resistance in the name of "natural justice and family virtues". Calvino, 'Political Autobiography of a Young Man', Hermit in Paris, 142. Using the battlename of "Santiago", Calvino joined the Garibaldi Brigades, a clandestine Communist group and, for twenty months, endured the fighting in the Maritime Alps until 1945 and the Liberation. As a result of his refusal to be a conscript, his parents were held hostage by the Nazis for an extended period at the Villa Meridiana. Calvino wrote of his mother's ordeal that "she was an example of tenacity and courage… behaving with dignity and firmness before the and the Fascist militia, and in her long detention as a hostage, not least when the blackshirts three times pretended to shoot my father in front of her eyes. The historical events which mothers take part in acquire the greatness and invincibility of natural phenomena." Calvino, 'Political Autobiography of a Young Man', Hermit in Paris, 142. Turin and communism Calvino settled in Turin in 1945, after a long hesitation over living there or in Milan. The decision was influenced by the firmly anti-Fascist stance of Turin during Mussolini's years in power. Cf. Calvino, 'Behind the Success' in Hermit in Paris, 225. He often humorously belittled this choice, describing Turin as a "city that is serious but sad". Returning to university, he abandoned Agriculture for the Arts Faculty. A year later, he was initiated into the literary world by Elio Vittorini who published his short story Andato al commando (1945; Gone to Headquarters) in Il Politecnico, a Turin-based weekly magazine associated with the university. Il Politecnico was founded by Elio Vittorini, a novelist and the leading leftist intellectual of postwar Italy, who saw it as a means to restore Italy's diminished standing within the European cultural mainstream. Cf. Weiss, Understanding Italo Calvino, 3. The horror of the war had not only provided the raw material for his literary ambitions but deepened his commitment to the Communist cause. Viewing civilian life as a continuation of the partisan struggle, he confirmed his membership of the Italian Communist Party. On reading Lenin's State and Revolution, he plunged into post-war political life, associating himself chiefly with the worker's movement in Turin. Calvino, 'Political Autobiography of a Young Man', Hermit in Paris, 143. In 1947, he graduated with a Master's thesis on Joseph Conrad, wrote short stories in his spare time, and landed a job in the publicity department at the Einaudi publishing house run by Giulio Einaudi. Although brief, his stint put him in regular contact with Cesare Pavese, Natalia Ginzburg, Norberto Bobbio, and many other left-wing intellectuals and writers. He then left Einaudi to work as a journalist for the official Communist daily, L'Unità, and the newborn Communist political magazine, Rinascita. During this period, Pavese and poet Alfonso Gatto were Calvino's closest friends and mentors. Calvino, 'Behind the Success' in Hermit in Paris, 224. His first novel, Il sentiero dei nidi di ragno (The Path to the Nest of Spiders) written with valuable editorial advice from Pavese, won the Premio Riccione on publication in 1947. Critic Martin McLaughlin points out that the novel failed to win the more prestigious Premio Mondadori. McLaughlin, xiii. With sales topping 5000 copies, a surprise success in postwar Italy, the novel inaugurated Calvino's neorealist period. In a clairvoyant essay, Pavese praised the young writer as a "squirrel of the pen" who "climbed into the trees, more for fun than fear, to observe partisan life as a fable of the forest". Pavese's review first published in l'Unità on 26 September 1947. Quoted in Weiss, Understanding Italo Calvino, 39. In 1948, he interviewed one of his literary idols, Ernest Hemingway, traveling with Natalia Ginzberg to his home in Stresa. Ultimo viene il corvo (The Crow Comes Last), a collection of stories based on his wartime experiences, was published to acclaim in 1949. Despite the triumph, Calvino grew increasingly worried by his inability to compose a worthy second novel. He returned to Einaudi in 1950, responsible this time for the literary volumes. He eventually became a consulting editor, a position that allowed him to hone his writing talent, discover new writers, and develop into "a reader of texts". Weiss, Understanding Italo Calvino, 4. In late 1951, presumably to advance in the Communist party, he spent two months in the Soviet Union as correspondent for l'Unità. While in Moscow, he learned of his father's death on 25 October. The articles and correspondence he produced from this visit were published in 1952, winning the Saint-Vincent Prize for journalism. Over a seven-year period, Calvino wrote three realist novels, The White Schooner (1947-49), Youth in Turin (1950-51), and The Queen's Necklace (1952-54), but all were deemed defective. Of the three manuscripts, only Youth in Turin was published in the review Officina in 1957. During the eighteen months it took to complete I giovanni del Po (Youth in Turin), he made an important self-discovery: "I began doing what came most naturally to me - that is, following the memory of the things I had loved best since boyhood. Instead of making myself write the book I ought to write, the novel that was expected of me, I conjured up the book I myself would have liked to read, the sort by an unknown writer, from another age and another country, discovered in an attic." Calvino, 'Introduction by the author', Our Ancestors, vii. The result was Il visconte dimezzato (1952; The Cloven Viscount) composed in 30 days between July and September 1951. The protagonist, a seventeenth century viscount sundered in two by a cannonball, incarnated Calvino's growing political doubts and the divisive turbulence of the Cold War. Calvino, ‘Introduction by the author’, Our Ancestors, x. Skillfully interweaving elements of the fable and the fantasy genres, the allegorical novel launched him as a modern "fabulist". Calvino, ‘Objective Biographical Notice’, Hermit in Paris, 163. In 1954, Giulio Einaudi commissioned his Fiabe Italiane (1956; Italian Folktales) on the basis of the question, "Is there an Italian equivalent of the Brothers Grimm?" Calvino, 'Objective Biographical Notice', Hermit in Paris, 164. For two years, Calvino collated tales found in 19th century collections across Italy then translated 200 of the finest from various dialects into Italian. Key works he read at this time were Vladimir Propp's Morphology of the Folktale and Historical Roots of Russian Fairy Tales, stimulating his own ideas on the origin, shape and function of the story. Calvino, 'Introduction', Italian Folktales, xxvii. In 1952 Calvino wrote with Giorgio Bassani for Botteghe Oscure, a magazine named after the popular name of the party's head-offices. He also worked for Il Contemporaneo, a Marxist weekly. From 1955 to 1958 Calvino had an affair with the actress Elsa de' Giorgi, an older and married woman. Calvino wrote hundreds of love letters to her. Excerpts were published by Corriere della Sera in 2004, causing some controversy. Italian novelist's love letters turn political, International Herald Tribune, 20 August 2004 After communism In 1957, disillusioned by the 1956 Soviet invasion of Hungary, Calvino left the Italian Communist party. His letter of resignation was published in L'Unità and soon became famous. He found new outlets for his periodic writings in the magazines Passato e Presente and Italia Domani. Together with Vittorini he became a co-editor of Il Menabò di letteratura, a position which Calvino held for many years. Despite severe restrictions in the US against foreigners holding communist views, Calvino was allowed to visit the United States, where he stayed six months from 1959 to 1960 (four of which he spent in New York), after an invitation by the Ford Foundation. Calvino was particularly impressed by the "New World": "Naturally I visited the South and also California, but I always felt a New Yorker. My city is New York." The letters he wrote to Einaudi describing this visit to the United States were first published as "American Diary 1959-1960" in the book Hermit in Paris in 2003. In 1962 Calvino met the Argentinian translator Esther Judith Singer (Chichita) and married her in 1964 in Havana, during a trip in which he visited his birthplace and met Ernesto Che Guevara. This encounter later led him to contribute an article on 15 October 1967, a few days after the death of Guevara, describing the lasting impression Guevara made on him. Back in Italy, and once again working for Einaudi, Calvino started publishing some of his cosmicomics in Il Caffè, a literary magazine. Later life and work Vittorini's death in 1966 influenced Calvino greatly. He went through what he called an "intellectual depression", which the writer himself described as an important passage in his life: "...I ceased to be young. Perhaps it's a metabolic process, something that comes with age, I'd been young for a long time, perhaps too long, suddenly I felt that I had to begin my old age, yes, old age, perhaps with the hope of prolonging it by beginning it early." In the fermenting atmosphere that evolved into 1968's cultural revolution (the French May), he moved with his family to Paris in 1967 where he was nicknamed L'ironique amusé. Invited by Raymond Queneau to join the Oulipo (Ouvroir de littérature potentielle) group of experimental writers, he met Roland Barthes, Georges Perec, and Claude Lévi-Strauss, all of whom influenced his later production. McLaughlin, Italo Calvino, xv. Calvino had more intense contacts with the academic world, with notable experiences at the Sorbonne (with Barthes) and at Urbino's university. His interests included classical studies: Honoré de Balzac, Ludovico Ariosto, Dante, Ignacio de Loyola, Cervantes, Shakespeare, Cyrano de Bergerac, and Giacomo Leopardi. At the same time, not without surprising Italian intellectual circles, Calvino wrote novels for Playboy'''s Italian edition (1973). He became a regular contributor to the important Italian newspaper Corriere della Sera. In 1975 Calvino was made Honorary Member of the American Academy, and the following year he was awarded the Austrian State Prize for European Literature. He visited Japan and Mexico and gave lectures in several American towns. In 1981 he was awarded the French Légion d'honneur. During the summer of 1985, Calvino prepared some notes for a series of lectures to be delivered at Harvard University in the fall. However, on 6 September, he was admitted to the ancient hospital of Santa Maria della Scala in Siena, where he died during the night between the 18 and 19 September of a cerebral hemorrhage. His lecture notes were published posthumously in Italian in 1988 and in English as Six Memos for the Next Millennium in 1993. Style His style is not easily classified; much of his writing has an air of the fantastic reminiscent of fairy tales (Our Ancestors, Cosmicomics), although sometimes his writing is more "realistic" and in the scenic mode of observation (Difficult Loves, for example). Some of his writing has been called postmodern, reflecting on literature and the act of reading, while some has been labeled magical realist, others fables, others simply "modern". He wrote: "My working method has more often than not involved the subtraction of weight. I have tried to remove weight, sometimes from people, sometimes from heavenly bodies, sometimes from cities; above all I have tried to remove weight from the structure of stories and from language." Authors he helped publish Mario Rigoni Stern Gianni Celati Andrea De Carlo Daniele Del Giudice Leonardo Sciascia Selected bibliography Fiction Il sentiero dei nidi di ragno, 1947 / The Path to the Nest of Spiders, 1957 Ultimo viene il corvo / The Crow Comes Last, 1949 Il visconte dimezzato, 1952 / The Cloven Viscount, 1962 La formica argentina, 1952 Fiabe Italiane, 1956 / Italian Folktales, 1961, 1975, 1980 Il barone rampante, 1957 / The Baron in the Trees, 1959 La speculazione edilizia, 1957 / A Plunge into Real Estate, 1984 (in Difficult Loves) I racconti, 1958 Il cavaliere inesistente, 1959 / The Nonexistent Knight, 1962 I nostri antenati, 1960 / Our Ancestors, 1962 La giornata d'uno scrutatore, 1963 / The Watcher and Other Stories, 1971 Marcovaldo ovvero le stagioni in città, 1963 / Marcovaldo or the Seasons in the City, 1983 La nuvola di smog e La formica argentina, 1965 / Smog and The Argentine Ant, 1971 (in the Watcher and Other Stories) Cosmicomiche, 1965 / Cosmicomics, 1968 Ti con zero, 1967 / t zero, 1969 (also published as Time and the Hunter, 1970) Il castello dei destini incrociati, 1969 / The Castle of Crossed Destinies, 1979 Gli amori difficili, 1970 / Difficult Loves, 1984 Le città invisibili, 1972 / Invisible Cities, 1974 Se una notte d'inverno un viaggiatore, 1979 / If on a winter's night a traveler, 1981 Palomar, 1983 / Mr. Palomar, 1985 Cosmicomiche vecchie e nuove, 1984 Sotto il sole giaguaro, 1986 / Under the Jaguar Sun, 1988 Prima che tu dica 'Pronto', 1993 / Numbers in the Dark and Other Stories, 1996 Essays and other writings Orlando furioso di Ludovico Ariosto, 1970 (interpretation of the epic poem and selections) Autobiografia di uno spettatore / Autobiography of a Spectator, 1974 (preface to Fellini's Quattro film) Introduction to Faits divers de la terre et du ciel by Silvina Ocampo (preface by Jorge Luis Borges), Gallimard, 1974 Una pietra sopra: Discorsi di letteratura e società, 1980 / The Uses of Literature, 1986 (published in Britain as The Literature Machine, 1987) Racconti fantastici dell'ottocento, 1983 / Fantastic Tales, 1997 (anthology of classic supernatural stories) Science et métaphore chez Galilée / (Science and Metaphor in Galileo Galilei), 1983 (lectures given at the Ecole des Hautes Etudes de la Sorbonne in Paris) The Written and the Unwritten Word, 1983 (first published in the New York Review of Books) Collezione di sabbia / Collection of Sand, 1984 (journalistic essays from 1974-84) Lezioni americane: Sei proposte per il prossimo millennio, 1988 / Six Memos for the Next Millennium, 1993 Sulla fiaba, 1988 I libri degli altri. Lettere 1947-1981, 1991 (letters to writers) Perché leggere i classici, 1991 / Why Read the Classics?, 1993 Autobiographical works L'entrata in guerra, 1954 La strada di San Giovanni, 1990 / The Road to San Giovanni, 1993 Ermita a Parigi. Pagine autobiografiche, 1994 / Hermit in Paris, 2003 Album Calvino, 1995 Libretti La panchina. Opera in un atto (The Bench: One-Act Opera), 1956 (libretto for the opera by Sergio Liberovici) La vera storia, 1982 (libretto for the opera by Luciano Berio) Un re in ascolto (A King Listens), 1984 (libretto for the opera by Luciano Berio) Translations I fiori blu, 1967 (The Blue Flowers by Raymond Queneau) La canzone del polistirene, 1985 (Styrène's Song by Raymond Queneau) Selected filmography Boccaccio '70, 1962 (co-wrote screenplay of Renzo e Luciano segment directed by Mario Monicelli) L'Amore difficile, 1963 (wrote L'avventura di un soldato segment directed by Nino Manfredi) Tiko and the Shark, 1964 (co-wrote screenplay directed by Folco Quilici) Film and television adaptations The Nonexistent Knight by Pino Zac, 1969 (Italian animated film based on the novel) Amores dificiles by Ana Luisa Ligouri, 1983 (13' Mexican short) L'Aventure d'une baigneuse by Philippe Donzelot, 1991 (14' French short based on The Adventure of a Bather in Difficult Loves ) Fantaghirò by Lamberto Bava, 1991 (TV adaptation based on Fanta-Ghirò the Beautiful in Italian Folktales) Solidarity by Nancy Kiang, 2006 (10' American short) Awards 1946 - L'Unità Prize (shared with Marcello Venturi) for the short story, Minefield (Campo di mine) 1947 - Riccione Prize for The Path to the Nest of Spiders 1952 - Saint-Vincent Prize 1959 - Bagutta Prize 1960 - Salento Prize for Our Ancestors 1963 - Veillon Prize 1973 - Feltrinelli Prize for Invisible Cities 1976 - Austrian State Prize for European Literature 1981 - Legion of Honour 1982 - Nice Festival Prize Films on Calvino Damian Pettigrew, Calvino Cosmorama (ARTE France, National Film Board of Canada, 2009). At his home in Piazza Campo Marzio (Rome) in 1983, Calvino granted a series of filmed interviews on his work to Canadian director Damian Pettigrew. The transcripts were published in The Paris Review in 1992, in La Repubblica in 1995, and in book form in Italy under the title, Uno scrittore pomeridiano in 2003. The videos now serve as the basis of a major documentary which features rare archival footage, unpublished documents and photographs, and a unique recording of Calvino reading from his last novel, Mr. Palomar. Sources Print Primary sources Calvino, Italo. Adam, One Afternoon (trans. Archibald Colquhoun, Peggy Wright). London: Minerva, 1992. —. The Castle of Crossed Destinies (trans. William Weaver). London: Secker & Warburg, 1977 —. Cosmicomics (trans. William Weaver). London: Picador, 1993. —. The Crow Comes Last (Ultimo viene il corvo). Turin: Einaudi, 1949. —. Difficult Loves. Smog. A Plunge into Real Estate (trans. William Weaver, Donald Selwyn Carne-Ross). London: Picador, 1985. —. Hermit in Paris (trans. Martin McLaughlin). London: Jonathan Cape, 2003. —. If on a winter's night a traveller (trans. William Weaver). London: Vintage, 1998. ISBN 0-919630-23-5 —. Invisible Cities (trans. William Weaver). London: Secker & Warburg, 1974. —. Italian Fables (trans. Louis Brigante). New York: Collier, 1961. (50 tales) —. Italian Folk Tales (trans. Sylvia Mulcahy). London: J.M. Dent & Sons, 1975. (24 tales) —. Italian Folktales (trans. George Martin). Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1980. (complete 200 tales) —. Marcovaldo or the Seasons in the City (trans. William Weaver). London: Minerva, 1993. —. Mr. Palomar (trans. William Weaver). London: Vintage, 1999. —. Our Ancestors (trans. A. Colquhoun). London: Vintage, 1998. —. The Path to the Nest of Spiders (trans. Archibald Colquhoun). Boston: Beacon, 1957. —. The Path to the Spiders' Nests (trans. A. Colquhoun, revised by Martin McLaughlin). London: Jonathan Cape, 1993. —. t zero (trans. William Weaver). New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1969. —. The Road to San Giovanni (trans. Tim Parks). New York: Vintage International, 1993. —. Six Memos for the Next Millennium (trans. Patrick Creagh). New York: Vintage International, 1993. —. The Watcher and Other Stories (trans. William Weaver). New York: Harcourt, Brace & Company, 1971. Secondary sources Bernardini Napoletano, Francesca. I segni nuovi di Italo Calvino. Rome: Bulzoni, 1977. Bonura, Giuseppe. Invito alla lettura di Calvino. Milan: U. Mursia, 1972. Calvino, Italo. Uno scrittore pomeridiano: Intervista sull'arte della narrativa a cura di William Weaver e Damian Pettigrew con un ricordo di Pietro Citati. Rome: minimum fax, 2003 Corti, Maria. 'Intervista: Italo Calvino' in Autografo 2 (October 1985): 51. Di Carlo, Franco. Come leggere I nostri antenati. Milan: U. Mursia, 1958. McLaughlin, Martin. Italo Calvino. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1998. Weiss, Beno. Understanding Italo Calvino. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1993. Online Italo Calvino at Emory University Online Resources and Links Outside the Town of Malbork A Site for Italo Calvino Calvino on Che Guevara References External links Italo Calvino at Emory University On-Line Resources and Links Outside the Town of Malbork A Site for Italo Calvino Excerpts and essays If on a winter's night a traveler First chapter excerpts How Much Shall We Bet? 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5,306 | Conventional_warfare | Conventional warfare is a form of fare conducted by using conventional military weapons and battlefield tactics between two or more states in open confrontation. The forces on each side are well-defined, and fight using weapons that primarily target the opposing army. It is normally fought using conventional weapons, not chemical, biological, or nuclear weapons. The general purpose of conventional warfare is to weaken or destroy the opponent's military force, thereby negating its ability to engage in conventional warfare. In forcing capitulation, however, one or both sides may eventually resort to unconventional warfare tactics. History Formation of the state The state was first advocated by Plato, then found more acceptance in the consolidation of power under the Roman Catholic Church. European monarchs then gained power as the Catholic Church was stripped of temporal power and was replaced by the divine right of kings. In 1648, the powers of Europe signed the Treaty of Westphalia which ended the religious violence for purely political governance and outlook, signifying the birth of the modern 'state'. Within this statist paradigm, only the state and its appointed representatives were allowed to bear arms and enter into war. In fact, war was only understood as a conflict between sovereign states. Kings strengthened this idea and gave it the force of law. Whereas previously any noble could start a war, the monarchs of Europe of necessity consolidated military power in response to the Napoleonic war. The Clausewitzian paradigm Prussia was one country attempting to amass military power. Carl von Clausewitz, one of Prussia's officers, wrote On War, a work rooted solely in the world of the state. All other forms of intrastate conflict, such as rebellion, are not accounted for because, in theoretical terms, Clausewitz could not account for warfare before the state (However, near the end of his life, Clausewitz grew increasingly aware of the importance of non-state military actors. This is revealed in his conceptions of "the people in arms" which he noted arose from the same social and political sources as traditional inter-state warfare Smith, M.L.R. "Guerrillas in the mist: reassessing strategy and low intensity warfare". Review of International Studies. Vol. 29, 19–37. 2003 ).Practices such as raiding or blood feuds were then labeled criminal activities and stripped of legitimacy. This war paradigm reflected the view of most of the modernized world at the beginning of the 21st century, as verified by examination of the conventional armies of the time: large, high maintenance, technologically advanced armies designed to compete against similarly designed forces. Clausewitz also forwarded the issue of casus belli. While previous wars were fought for social, religious, even cultural reasons, Clausewitz taught that war is merely "a continuation of politics by other means." It is a rational calculation where states fight for their interests (whether they are economic, security related, or otherwise) once normal discourse has broken down. Prevalence The majority of modern wars have been conducted using the means of conventional warfare. Confirmed use of biological warfare by a nation state has not occurred since 1945, and chemical warfare has been used only a few times (notably in the Iran-Iraq War). Nuclear warfare has only occurred once with the United States bombing the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945. Decline The state and Clausewitzian principles peaked in the World Wars of the 20th century, but also laid the groundwork for their dilapidation due to nuclear proliferation and the manifestation of culturally aligned conflict. The nuclear bomb was the result of the state perfecting its quest to overthrow its competitive duplicates. Ironically, this development seems to have pushed conventional conflict waged by the state to the sidelines. Were two conventional armies to fight, the loser would have redress in its nuclear arsenal. Thus, no two nuclear powers have yet fought a conventional war directly, albeit brief skirmishes like that between China and Russia in 1969 & between India and Pakistan in 1999. Though bordering on an allout war and an extended battlezone, it almost saw Pakistan deploying its nuclear arsenal in case of loss. Replacement Conventional warfare, waged by the state, has become something not worthy of a declaration of war. Instead, those capable of fighting underneath the nuclear umbrella (supranational terrorists, corporate mercenaries, ethnic militias, etc.) have now come to dominate the majority of conflict in the post-modern era. These conflicts cannot be explained under the statist system. Samuel Huntington has posited that the world in the early 21st century exists as a system of nine distinct "civilizations," instead of many sovereign states. These civilizations are delineated along cultural lines, e.g. Western, Islamic, Sinic, Hindu etc. In this way, cultures that have long been dominated by the West are reasserting themselves and looking to challenge the status quo. Thus, culture has replaced the state as the locus of war. This kind of civilizational war, in our time as in times long past, occurs where these cultures buffet up against one another. Some high-profile examples are the Pakistan/India conflict or the battles in the Sudan. This sort of war has defined the field since World War II. These cultural forces will not contend with state-based armies in the traditional way. When faced with battalions of tanks, jets, and missiles, the cultural opponent dissolves away into the population. They benefit from the territorially constrained states, being able to move freely from one country to the next, while states must negotiate with other sovereign states. The state's spy networks are also severely limited by cultural factors. See also Asymmetric warfare Low-intensity operations Viet Cong and PAVN strategy and tactics Psychological warfare Footnotes External links | Conventional_warfare |@lemmatized conventional:11 warfare:14 form:2 fare:1 conduct:2 use:6 military:5 weapon:4 battlefield:1 tactic:3 two:3 state:24 open:1 confrontation:1 force:6 side:2 well:1 define:2 fight:6 primarily:1 target:1 oppose:1 army:5 normally:1 fought:1 chemical:2 biological:2 nuclear:8 general:1 purpose:1 weaken:1 destroy:1 opponent:2 thereby:1 negate:1 ability:1 engage:1 capitulation:1 however:2 one:5 may:1 eventually:1 resort:1 unconventional:1 history:1 formation:1 first:1 advocate:1 plato:1 find:1 acceptance:1 consolidation:1 power:7 roman:1 catholic:2 church:2 european:1 monarch:2 gain:1 strip:2 temporal:1 replace:2 divine:1 right:1 king:2 europe:2 sign:1 treaty:1 westphalia:1 end:2 religious:2 violence:1 purely:1 political:2 governance:1 outlook:1 signify:1 birth:1 modern:3 within:1 statist:2 paradigm:3 appoint:1 representative:1 allow:1 bear:1 arm:2 enter:1 war:18 fact:1 understood:1 conflict:7 sovereign:3 strengthen:1 idea:1 give:1 law:1 whereas:1 previously:1 noble:1 could:2 start:1 necessity:1 consolidate:1 response:1 napoleonic:1 clausewitzian:2 prussia:2 country:2 attempt:1 amass:1 carl:1 von:1 clausewitz:5 officer:1 write:1 work:1 root:1 solely:1 world:5 intrastate:1 rebellion:1 account:2 theoretical:1 term:1 near:1 life:1 grow:1 increasingly:1 aware:1 importance:1 non:1 actor:1 reveal:1 conception:1 people:1 note:1 arose:1 social:2 source:1 traditional:2 inter:1 smith:1 l:1 r:1 guerrilla:1 mist:1 reassessing:1 strategy:2 low:2 intensity:2 review:1 international:1 study:1 vol:1 practice:1 raid:1 blood:1 feud:1 label:1 criminal:1 activity:1 legitimacy:1 reflect:1 view:1 modernized:1 beginning:1 century:3 verify:1 examination:1 time:4 large:1 high:2 maintenance:1 technologically:1 advanced:1 design:2 compete:1 similarly:1 also:4 forward:1 issue:1 casus:1 belli:1 previous:1 even:1 cultural:5 reason:1 teach:1 merely:1 continuation:1 politics:1 mean:2 rational:1 calculation:1 interest:1 whether:1 economic:1 security:1 relate:1 otherwise:1 normal:1 discourse:1 break:1 prevalence:1 majority:2 confirm:1 nation:1 occur:3 since:2 notably:1 iran:1 iraq:1 united:1 bomb:2 japanese:1 city:1 hiroshima:1 nagasaki:1 august:1 decline:1 principle:1 peak:1 lay:1 groundwork:1 dilapidation:1 due:1 proliferation:1 manifestation:1 culturally:1 align:1 result:1 perfect:1 quest:1 overthrow:1 competitive:1 duplicate:1 ironically:1 development:1 seem:1 push:1 wag:2 sideline:1 loser:1 would:1 redress:1 arsenal:2 thus:2 yet:1 directly:1 albeit:1 brief:1 skirmish:1 like:1 china:1 russia:1 india:2 pakistan:3 though:1 border:1 allout:1 extended:1 battlezone:1 almost:1 saw:1 deploy:1 case:1 loss:1 replacement:1 become:1 something:1 worthy:1 declaration:1 instead:2 capable:1 underneath:1 umbrella:1 supranational:1 terrorist:1 corporate:1 mercenary:1 ethnic:1 militia:1 etc:2 come:1 dominate:2 post:1 era:1 cannot:1 explain:1 system:2 samuel:1 huntington:1 posit:1 early:1 exists:1 nine:1 distinct:1 civilization:2 many:1 delineate:1 along:1 line:1 e:1 g:1 western:1 islamic:1 sinic:1 hindu:1 way:2 culture:3 long:2 west:1 reassert:1 look:1 challenge:1 status:1 quo:1 locus:1 kind:1 civilizational:1 past:1 buffet:1 another:1 profile:1 example:1 battle:1 sudan:1 sort:1 field:1 ii:1 contend:1 base:1 face:1 battalion:1 tank:1 jet:1 missile:1 dissolve:1 away:1 population:1 benefit:1 territorially:1 constrain:1 able:1 move:1 freely:1 next:1 must:1 negotiate:1 spy:1 network:1 severely:1 limit:1 factor:1 see:1 asymmetric:1 operation:1 viet:1 cong:1 pavn:1 psychological:1 footnote:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram nuclear_weapon:1 von_clausewitz:1 technologically_advanced:1 casus_belli:1 hiroshima_nagasaki:1 lay_groundwork:1 status_quo:1 asymmetric_warfare:1 viet_cong:1 external_link:1 |
5,307 | Luke_the_Evangelist | Luke the Evangelist ( Loukas) was an early Christian leader who the Church Fathers such as Jerome and Eusebius said was the author of the Gospel of Luke and the Acts of the Apostles. The Roman Catholic Church venerates him as Saint Luke, patron saint of physicians, surgeons, students, butchers, and artists; his feast day is 18 October. Life Saint Luke was born of Greek origin in the city of Antioch. The New Testament Documents: Their Origin and Early History, George Milligan, 1913, Macmillan and Co. limited, p. 149 Saint Luke Catholic Online article Saints: A Visual Guide, Edward Mornin, Lorna Mornin, 2006, Eerdmans Books, p. 74 Saint Luke Catholic Encyclopedia article New Outlook, Alfred Emanuel Smith, 1935, Outlook Pub. Co., p. 792 New Testament Studies. I. Luke the Physician: The Author of the Third Gospel, Adolf von Harnack, 1907, Williams & Norgate; G.P. Putnam's Sons, p. 5 His earliest notice is in Paul's Epistle to Philemon, verse 24. He is also mentioned in Colossians 4:14 and 2 Timothy 4:11, two works commonly ascribed to Paul. The next earliest account of Luke is in the Anti-Marcionite Prologue to the Gospel of Luke, a document once thought to date to the 2nd century, but which has more recently been dated to the later 4th century. Helmut Koester, however, claims that the following part – the only part preserved in the original Greek – may have been composed in the late 2nd century: Epiphanius states that Luke was one of the Seventy (Panarion 51.11), and John Chrysostom indicates at one point that the "brother" Paul mentions in 2 Corinthians 8:18 is either Luke or Barnabas. J. Wenham asserts that Luke was "one of the Seventy, the Emmaus disciple, Lucius of Cyrene and Paul's kinsman." Not all scholars are as confident of all of these attributes as Wenham is, not least because Luke's own statement at the beginning of the Gospel of Luke (1:1-4) freely admits that he was not an eyewitness to the events of the Gospel. If we accept that Luke was in fact the author of the Gospel bearing his name and also the Acts of the Apostles, certain details of his personal life can be reasonably assumed. While he does exclude himself from those who were eyewitnesses to Jesus' ministry, he repeatedly uses the word "we" in describing the Pauline missions in Acts of the Apostles, indicating that he was personally there at those times. Encyclopedia Britannica, Micropedia vol. 7, p. 554-555. Chicago: Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc, 1998. ISBN 0-85229-633-0. There is similar evidence that Luke resided in Troas, the province which included the ruins of ancient Troy, in that he writes in Acts in the third person about Paul and his travels until they get to Troas, where he switches to the first person plural. The "we" section of Acts continues until the group leaves Philippi, when his writing goes back to the third person. This change happens again when the group returns to Philippi. There are three "we sections" in Acts, all following this rule. Luke never stated, however, that he lived in Troas, and this is the only evidence that he did. The composition of the writings, as well as the range of vocabulary used, indicate that the author was an educated man. The quote in the Letter of Paul to the Colossians differentiating between Luke and other colleagues "of the circumcision" Colossians 4:10 and 11, compared with 14 has caused many to speculate that this indicates Luke was a Gentile. If this were true, it would make Luke the only writer of the New Testament who can clearly be identified as not being Jewish. However, that is not the only possibility. The phrase could just as easily be used to differentiate between those Christians who strictly observed the rituals of Judaism and those who did not. Luke died at age 84 in Boeotia, according to a "fairly early and widespread tradition". Michael Walsh, ed. "Butler's Lives of the Saints." (HarperCollins Publishers: New York, 1991), pp. 342. According to Nikiphoros-Kallistos Xanthopoulos (Eccles. History XIVth c. AD., Migne P.G. 145, 876) and others, Luke's Tomb was located in Thebes (Greece), from whence his relics were transferred to Constantinople in the year 357. Luke as an historian A medieval Armenian illumination, by Toros Roslin. The two documents most widely attributed to Luke, The Gospel According to Luke and The Acts of the Apostles, are held in high regard by Biblical scholars and archaeologists for their historical accuracy and trustworthiness. MacDowell, The New Evidence that Demands a Verdict, 64 Archaeologist Sir William Ramsay wrote that "Luke is a historian of the first rank; not merely are his statements of fact trustworthy...[he] should be placed along with the very greatest of historians." Ramsay, BRDTNT, 222 Professor of classics at Auckland University, E.M. Blaiklock, wrote: "For accuracy of detail, and for evocation of atmosphere, Luke stands, in fact, with Thucydides. The Acts of the Apostles is not shoddy product of pious imagining, but a trustworthy record...it was the spadework of archaeology which first revealed the truth." Blaiklock, The Archaeology of the New Testament, page 96, Zondervan Publishing Houst, Grand Rapids, Michigan, 1970 Dr. Norman L. Geisler observed, "In all, Luke names thirty-two countries, fifty-four cities and nine islands without a [factual or historical] error." Geisler, BECA, 47 Christian apologist Josh MacDowell notes that in specific instances where Luke's texts have been found to disagree with common scholarly knowledge, where archaeology has been able to resolve the difference, the disagreement has consistently been resolved in favor of Luke. Additionally, Luke has brought to light previously unknown details which have later been verified by historians or archaeologists. MacDowell, The New Evidence that Demands a Verdict, 64-68 Examples of such details include the names and titles of local officials as well as dates that those individuals served, locations and descriptions of ancient cities, and religious, civic, and governmental idiosyncracies of various locales. Roman historian Colin Hemer made note of the following attributes of Luke's writing: Specialized details, which would not have been widely known except to a contemporary researcher such as Luke who traveled widely. These details include exact titles of officials, identification of army units, and information about major routes. Details archaeologists know are accurate but cannot verify as to the precise time period. Some of these are unlikely to have been known except to a writer who had visited the districts. Correlation of dates of known kings and governors with the chronology of the narrative. Facts appropriate to the date of Paul or his immediate contemporary in the church but not to a date earlier or later. "Undesigned coincidents" between Acts and the Pauline Epistles. Internal correlations within Acts. Off-hand geographical references that bespeak familiarity with common knowledge. Differences in formulation within Acts that indicate the different categories of sources he used. Peculiarities in the selection of detail, as in theology, that are explainable in the context of what is now known of first-century church life. Materials the "immediacy" of which suggests that the author was recounting a recent experience, rather than shaping or editing a text long after it had been written. Cultural or idiomatic items now known to be peculiar to the first-century atmosphere. Hemer, BASHH, 104-107, as summarized by MacDowell Iconography Luke the Evangelist painting the first icon of the Virgin Mary. Another Christian tradition states that he was the first iconographer, and painted pictures of the Virgin Mary (The Black Madonna of Częstochowa) and of Peter and Paul. Thus late medieval guilds of St Luke in the cities of Flanders, or the Accademia di San Luca ("Academy of St Luke") in Rome, imitated in many other European cities during the 16th century, gathered together and protected painters. There is no scientific evidence to support the tradition that Luke painted icons of Mary and Jesus, though it was widely believed in earlier centuries, particularly in Eastern Orthodoxy. The tradition also has support from the Saint Thomas Christians of India who claim to still have one of the Theotokos icons that St Luke painted and Thomas brought to India. Father H. Hosten in his book Antiquities notes the following "The picture at the mount is one of the oldest, and, therefore, one of the most venerable Christian paintings to be had in India. Other traditions hold that St. Luke painted two icons which currently reside in Greece: the Theotokos Mega Spileotissa (Our Lady of the Great Cave, where supposedly St. Luke lived for a period of time in asceticism) and Panagia Soumela, and Panagia Kykkou which resides in Cyprus." New Testament books See also Gospel of Luke: Author and Acts of the Apostles: Authorship Conservative Christian scholars attribute Luke as being author of the third Gospel and the Acts of the Apostles, which is clearly meant to be read as a sequel to the Gospel account. However, other scholars are more skeptical about Luke's authorship of these books. Despite this controversy, many secular scholars give credit to Luke's abilities as an historian. Both books are dedicated to one Theophilus and no scholar seriously doubts that the same person wrote both works, though neither work contains the name of its author. Many argue that the author of the book must have been a companion of the Apostle Paul, due to several passages in Acts written in the first person plural (known as the We Sections). These verses (see Acts 16:10-17, 20:5-15, 21:1-18, etc) seem to indicate the author was travelling with Paul during parts of his journeys. Some scholars report that, of the colleagues that Paul mentions in his epistles, the process of elimination leaves Luke as the only person who fits everything known about the author of Luke/Acts. Additionally, the earliest manuscript of the Gospel (Papyrus Bodmer XIV/XV = P75), dated circa AD 200, ascribes the work to Luke; as did Irenaeus, writing circa AD 180; and the Muratorian fragment from AD 170. Brown, Raymond E. An Introduction to the New Testament, p. 267. Anchor Bible; 1st edition (October 13, 1997). ISBN 978-0385247672. Scholars defending Luke's authorship point out that there is no reason for early Christians to attribute these works to such a minor figure if he did not in fact write them, nor is there any tradition attributing this work to any other author. Luke and the Madonna, Altar of the Guild of St. Luke, Hermen Rode, Lübeck 1484 The Relics of St. Luke the Evangelist After the fall of Constantinople, the remains of St. Luke eventually made their way to Padua, Italy, according to tradition. In 1992, the then Greek Orthodox Metropolitan Ieronymos of Thebes and Levathia (currently the Archbishop of Greece) requested from Bishop Antonio Mattiazzo of Padua the return of a "a significant fragment of the relics of St. Luke to be placed on the site where the holy tomb of the Evangelist is located and venerated today". This prompted a scientific investigation of the relics in Padua, and by numerous lines of empirical evidence (archeological analyses of the Tomb in Thebes and the Reliquary of Padua, anatomical analyses of the remains, Carbon-14 dating, comparison with the purported skull of the Evangelist located in Prague) confirmed that these were the remains of an individual of Syrian descent who died between 130 and 400 A.D. The Bishop of Padua then delivered to Metropolitan Ieronymos the rib of St. Luke that was closest to his heart to be kept at his tomb in Thebes, Greece. , See also Gospel of Luke Acts of the Apostles Order of St. Luke St. Luke's Icon of the Hodegetria Woes of the Pharisees References Helmut Koester. Ancient Christian Gospels. Harrisburg, Pennsylvania: Trinity Press International, 1999. Burton L. Mack. Who Wrote the New Testament?: The Making of the Christian Myth. San Francisco, California: HarperCollins, 1996. J. Wenham, "The Identification of Luke", Evangelical Quarterly 63 (1991), 3-44 Notes External links Saint Luke Orthodox site Gospel of Saint Luke ( English And Arabic) Acts of Saint Luke ( English And Arabic) About Saint Luke( English And Arabic) Saint Luke Coptic Orthodox Church in Egypt Saint Luke Forums Saint Luke Orthodox christian Radio in English and Arabic Biblical Interpretation of Texts of Saint Luke Early Christian Writings: Gospel of Luke e-texts, introductions Gospel of Saint Luke Audio in Arabic National Academy of Sciences on Luke the Evangelist Gospel of Saint Luke Patron Saint Luke Photo of the grave of Luke in Padua (in German) DNA testing of the Saint Luke corpse | Luke_the_Evangelist |@lemmatized luke:73 evangelist:6 loukas:1 early:8 christian:12 leader:1 church:5 father:2 jerome:1 eusebius:1 say:1 author:12 gospel:17 act:18 apostle:9 roman:2 catholic:3 venerate:2 saint:20 patron:2 physician:2 surgeon:1 student:1 butcher:1 artist:1 feast:1 day:1 october:2 life:4 bear:2 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5,308 | Kurtis_Blow | Curtis Walker (born 9 August 1959), signed with Uncle Louie Music Group is better known by his stage name Kurtis Blow, is one of the first commercially successful rappers and the first to sign with a major label. "The Breaks", a single from his 1980 debut album, is an early hip hop classic. History Born in Harlem, New York, next to a spaghetti factory, Curtis Walker got his public start in 1976 as a breakdancer and a block party DJ known by the name of Kool DJ Kurt. That same year he enrolled at the City College of New York and became a program director for the college radio station. Kurtis Blow biography at VH1.com Also in 1976, he joined a group called “The Force.” Russell Simmons was a lead member of that group. The Force sponsored parties around Harlem until 1977, when Simmons moved the group to Queens, New York. OldSchoolHipHop.Com - Kurtis Blow Biography After becoming an MC on his own, Kool DJ Kurt changed his name, with the persuasion of his manager Russell Simmons, to Kurtis Blow (as in body blow). Kurtis began trying to sell himself as “the number one rapper in Queens,” with Russell’s help. For a short time Blow’s regular DJ was Simmons’ younger brother Joseph, who at the time was known as “DJ Run, the Son of Kurtis Blow.” He later changed his name and went on to become the first third of Run-D.M.C. In the late '70s, a Billboard reporter named Robert Ford made contact with Blow and Simmons and gave them magazine press. Russell convinced Ford that Blow was ready to hit the studio, and a music industry insider named J.B. Moore put the cash up for the recording. Blow put out his first song co-written by Ford and Moore called “Christmas Rappin” or “Rappin’ Blow.” Even though the song was a success, no major label wanted anything to do with “Christmas Rappin” because they assumed that rap was going to be a one hit wonder. Eventually an A&R (Artist and Repertoire) man from Mercury Records heard the song and signed Blow. It was the first major label hip hop release. His second single, "The Breaks," broke into the top five of Billboard's R&B chart, and soon after went gold. "The Breaks" was voted the best single of 1980 in the Village Voice's influential Pazz & Jop music critics' poll. Robert Christgau: Pazz & Jop 1980: Critics Poll In 1980 he opened for reggae legend Bob Marley at the Madison Square Garden where he performed for an audience of 20,000. In the early 1980s, Kurtis found it hard to follow up after his hit song even though he released an album almost every year during the decade, but his persistence paid off. As further evidence of Blow's ability to crossover to non-hip hop audiences, he opened for English punk rock band the Clash at their outdoor concerts on Pier 84 in New York City in 1982. On his 1986 Polygram album, Kingdom Blow, Bob Dylan contributed vocals to the cut "Street Rock". The Dylan-Blow collaboration was conceived by veteran songwriter/producer, Wayne K. Garfield who, with former Dylan back-up singer Debra Byrd, is credited for making arrangements for the overdub session held at Dylan's studio in Topanga Valley, California. Around this time Blow became a record producer, helping new groups such as the Fat Boys sign on for record deals. Blow released a few more songs in the mid to late 1980s and made an appearance in the hip-hop film Krush Groove, where he performed “If I Ruled the World,” which was Blow’s biggest hit since his 1980 smash "The Breaks". “If I Ruled the World” was the last of Blow’s hit songs. His mainstream reputation decreased as newer hip hop made his rap style seem old-school and outdated. He went on to record a song with Dexter King (son of Martin Luther King Jr.) titled “King Holiday” in observance of the civil rights leader’s holiday. Blow finally gave up his fast fading recording career, but in the early '90s, he contributed rap material to the soap opera One Life to Live. He also spent several years hosting as a DJ for the Los Angeles based hip hop FM radio station, Power 106, every Sunday night on the Kurtis Blow Old School Show. Although no longer recording music, Blow starred in the 1997 rap documentary, Rhyme & Reason. A theology major at Nyack College (Class of 2009), http://sunetesubsol.net/v4/10-01-2007:kurtis-blow Blow's recent focus has been on spirituality, evidenced by Kurtis Blow Presents: Hip Hop Ministry (2007, EMI Gospel), a compilation of Christian rap. In 2004, Kurtis collaborated with Bomfunk MC's on the track "Hey Everybody" from their album Reverse Psychology. Blow was also a judge for the 8th annual Independent Music Awards. His contributions helped assist upcoming independent artists' careers. PRLog Independent Music Awards - 8th Annual IMA Judges References in popular culture The They Might Be Giants song "Where Your Eyes Don't Go" on their second album, Lincoln, features the lines "You're free to come and go / Or talk like Kurtis Blow." The Tom Tom Club song "Genius of Love" features the lines "Steppin' to the rhythm of a Kurtis Blow/ Who needs to think when your feet just go." Bruce Haack's 1982 single "Party Machine" prominently features the lyric, "Low low low like Kurtis Blow/ Down down down like James Brown." "The Breaks" was featured in the video game Grand Theft Auto Vice City on the Wildstyle Pirate Radio station. "The Breaks" was used in the video games True Crime: New York City and Scarface: The World Is Yours. "The Breaks" was sampled in the song "Macarron Chacarron" which has become an internet phenomenon. The song "Music Matters" by Faithless mentions Kurtis Blow: "From Bamma Lamma to Tamla Mo, Curtis Mayfield to Kurtis Blow". The Jurassic 5 song "Quality Control" features the line "We can rule the world without Kurtis and still Blow". "The Breaks" was used in the TV series Everybody Hates Chris in the episode "Everybody Hates the Class President". The Snoop Dogg song "Ups and Downs" features the lines "But what none of them would believe though (What?)/ That I would be bigger than Curtis Blow/ I guess he was right, these are the breaks/ Despite my mistakes and aches, I'm gettin' cake". Blow was mentioned in the movie Notorious when The Notorious B.I.G. was a child, it states that he liked Kurtis Blow's music. Nas's popular song with Lauryn Hill If I Ruled The World was a song originally by Kurtis Blow. It was performed at the end of the film Krush Groovin. The Timbaland song "Boardmeeting" featuring Magoo starts off with Timbaland using the first two lyrics from the song, replacing the "Kurtis Blow" with "Timbo." Discography Albums Kurtis Blow (1980, Mercury) Deuce (1981, Mercury) Tough (1982, Mercury) The Best Rapper on the Scene (1983, Mercury) Ego Trip (1984, Mercury) America (1985, Mercury) Kingdom Blow (1986, Mercury) Back by Popular Demand (1988, Mercury) Kurtis Blow Presents: Hip Hop Ministry (2007, EMI Gospel) Singles and EPs "'Christmas Rappin'" (1979, Mercury) "The Breaks" (1980, Mercury) Tough EP (1982, Mercury) Party Time? EP (1983, Mercury) References See also List of honorific titles in popular music External links Allmusic entry Kurtis Blow Live in Europe Old school hip hop Westhoff, Ben. Breaking Bread With Kurtis Blow for The Village Voice, 6 January 2009 | Kurtis_Blow |@lemmatized curtis:4 walker:2 born:1 august:1 sign:4 uncle:1 louie:1 music:9 group:5 well:1 know:3 stage:1 name:6 kurtis:24 blow:42 one:4 first:6 commercially:1 successful:1 rapper:3 major:4 label:3 break:12 single:5 debut:1 album:6 early:3 hip:9 hop:9 classic:1 history:1 bear:1 harlem:2 new:7 york:5 next:1 spaghetti:1 factory:1 get:1 public:1 start:2 breakdancer:1 block:1 party:4 dj:6 kool:2 kurt:2 year:3 enrol:1 city:4 college:3 become:5 program:1 director:1 radio:3 station:3 biography:2 com:2 also:4 join:1 call:2 force:2 russell:4 simmons:5 lead:1 member:1 sponsor:1 around:2 move:1 queen:2 oldschoolhiphop:1 mc:2 change:2 persuasion:1 manager:1 body:1 begin:1 try:1 sell:1 number:1 help:3 short:1 time:4 regular:1 young:1 brother:1 joseph:1 run:2 son:2 later:1 go:7 third:1 c:1 late:2 billboard:2 reporter:1 robert:2 ford:3 make:4 contact:1 give:2 magazine:1 press:1 convince:1 ready:1 hit:5 studio:2 industry:1 insider:1 j:1 b:3 moore:2 put:2 cash:1 recording:1 song:17 co:1 write:1 christmas:3 rappin:4 even:2 though:3 success:1 want:1 anything:1 assume:1 rap:5 wonder:1 eventually:1 r:2 artist:2 repertoire:1 man:1 mercury:13 record:6 hear:1 release:3 second:2 top:1 five:1 chart:1 soon:1 gold:1 vote:1 best:2 village:2 voice:2 influential:1 pazz:2 jop:2 critic:2 poll:2 christgau:1 open:2 reggae:1 legend:1 bob:2 marley:1 madison:1 square:1 garden:1 perform:3 audience:2 find:1 hard:1 follow:1 almost:1 every:2 decade:1 persistence:1 pay:1 evidence:2 ability:1 crossover:1 non:1 english:1 punk:1 rock:2 band:1 clash:1 outdoor:1 concert:1 pier:1 polygram:1 kingdom:2 dylan:4 contribute:2 vocal:1 cut:1 street:1 collaboration:1 conceive:1 veteran:1 songwriter:1 producer:2 wayne:1 k:1 garfield:1 former:1 back:2 singer:1 debra:1 byrd:1 credit:1 arrangement:1 overdub:1 session:1 hold:1 topanga:1 valley:1 california:1 fat:1 boy:1 deal:1 mid:1 appearance:1 film:2 krush:2 groove:1 rule:4 world:5 big:2 since:1 smash:1 last:1 mainstream:1 reputation:1 decrease:1 style:1 seem:1 old:3 school:3 outdated:1 dexter:1 king:3 martin:1 luther:1 jr:1 title:2 holiday:2 observance:1 civil:1 right:2 leader:1 finally:1 fast:1 fading:1 career:2 material:1 soap:1 opera:1 life:1 live:2 spend:1 several:1 host:1 los:1 angeles:1 base:1 fm:1 power:1 sunday:1 night:1 show:1 although:1 longer:1 star:1 documentary:1 rhyme:1 reason:1 theology:1 nyack:1 class:2 http:1 sunetesubsol:1 net:1 recent:1 focus:1 spirituality:1 present:2 ministry:2 emi:2 gospel:2 compilation:1 christian:1 collaborate:1 bomfunk:1 track:1 hey:1 everybody:3 reverse:1 psychology:1 judge:2 annual:2 independent:3 award:2 contribution:1 assist:1 upcoming:1 prlog:1 ima:1 reference:2 popular:4 culture:1 might:1 giant:1 eye:1 lincoln:1 feature:7 line:4 free:1 come:1 talk:1 like:4 tom:2 club:1 genius:1 love:1 steppin:1 rhythm:1 need:1 think:1 foot:1 bruce:1 haack:1 machine:1 prominently:1 lyric:2 low:3 james:1 brown:1 video:2 game:2 grand:1 theft:1 auto:1 vice:1 wildstyle:1 pirate:1 use:3 true:1 crime:1 scarface:1 sample:1 macarron:1 chacarron:1 internet:1 phenomenon:1 matter:1 faithless:1 mention:2 bamma:1 lamma:1 tamla:1 mo:1 mayfield:1 jurassic:1 quality:1 control:1 without:1 still:1 tv:1 series:1 hat:2 chris:1 episode:1 president:1 snoop:1 dogg:1 ups:1 none:1 would:2 believe:1 guess:1 despite:1 mistake:1 ache:1 gettin:1 cake:1 movie:1 notorious:2 g:1 child:1 state:1 na:1 lauryn:1 hill:1 originally:1 end:1 groovin:1 timbaland:2 boardmeeting:1 magoo:1 two:1 replace:1 timbo:1 discography:1 deuce:1 tough:2 scene:1 ego:1 trip:1 america:1 demand:1 eps:1 ep:2 see:1 list:1 honorific:1 external:1 link:1 allmusic:1 entry:1 europe:1 westhoff:1 ben:1 bread:1 january:1 |@bigram kurtis_blow:20 commercially_successful:1 hip_hop:9 kool_dj:2 robert_christgau:1 bob_marley:1 punk_rock:1 bob_dylan:1 martin_luther:1 holiday_observance:1 soap_opera:1 los_angeles:1 grand_theft:1 theft_auto:1 everybody_hat:2 snoop_dogg:1 external_link:1 |
5,309 | Osmium | Osmium () is a chemical element that has the symbol Os and atomic number 76. Osmium is a hard, brittle, blue-gray or blue-black transition metal in the platinum family, and is the densest natural element. The density of osmium is 22610 kg⁄m³ (22.61 g⁄cm³), slightly greater than the density of iridium, the second densest element. Osmium is used in alloys with platinum, iridium and other platinum group metals. Osmium is found in nature as an alloy in platinum ore. Alloys of osmium are employed in fountain pen tips, electrical contacts and in other applications where extreme durability and hardness are needed. History Osmium (Greek osme meaning "smell") was discovered in 1803 by Smithson Tennant and William Hyde Wollaston in London, England. The discovery of osmium is intertwined with that of platinum and the other metals of the platinum group. Platinum reached Europe as platina ("small silver"), first encountered in the late 17th century in silver mines around the Chocó Department, in Colombia. The discovery that this metal was not an alloy, but a distinct new element, was published in 1748. Chemists who studied platinum dissolved it in aqua regia (a mixture of hydrochloric and nitric acids) to create soluble salts. They always observed a small amount of a dark, insoluble residue. Joseph Louis Proust thought that the residue was graphite. The French chemists Victor Collet-Descotils, Antoine François, comte de Fourcroy, and Louis Nicolas Vauquelin also observed the black residue in 1803, but did not obtain enough for further experiments. In 1803, British scientist Smithson Tennant analyzed the insoluble residue and concluded that it must contain a new metal. Vauquelin treated the powder alternately with alkali and acids and obtained a volatile new oxide, which he believed to be of this new metal—which he named ptene, from the Greek word (ptènos) for winged. However, Tennant, who had the advantage of a much greater amount of residue, continued his research and identified two previously undiscovered elements in the black residue, iridium and osmium. He obtained a yellow solution (probably of cis–[Os(OH)2O4]2−) by reactions with sodium hydroxide at red heat. After acidification he was able to distill the formed OsO4. He named osmium after Greek osme meaning "a smell", because of the smell of the volatile osmium tetroxide. Discovery of the new elements was documented in a letter to the Royal Society on June 21, 1804. Uranium and osmium were early successful catalysts in the Haber process, the nitrogen fixation reaction of nitrogen and hydrogen to produce ammonia, giving enough yield to make the process economically successful. However, in 1908 cheaper catalysts based on iron and iron oxides were introduced for the first pilot plants. Nowadays, osmium is primarily obtained from the processing of platinum and nickel ores. Characteristics Physical Osmium is an extremely dense, blue-gray, hard but brittle metal that remains lustrous even at high temperatures. It proves to be extremely difficult to make. Powdered osmium is easier to make, but when exposed to air leads to the formation of osmium tetroxide (OsO4), which is very toxic. Osmium powder has a characteristic smell of osmium tetroxide. The tetroxide is a very volatile, water-soluble, pale yellow, crystalline solid with a strong smell that boils at 130 °C, and is a powerful oxidizing agent. By contrast osmium dioxide (OsO2) is black, non-volatile and much less reactive and toxic. Osmium is generally considered to be the densest known element, narrowly defeating iridium. Calculations of density from the space lattice may produce the most reliable data for these elements, giving a density of 22562 ± 0.009 kg/m3 for iridium versus 22587 ± 0.009 kg/m³ for osmium. If one distinguishes different isotopes, then the highest density ordinary substance would be 192Os. The extraordinary density of osmium is a consequence of the lanthanide contraction. Osmium has a very low compressibility. Correspondingly, its bulk modulus is extremely high, reported between 395 and 462 GPa, which rivals that of diamond (443 GPa). However, the hardness of osmium is low, only 4 GPa. Osmium metal has the highest melting point and the lowest vapor pressure of the platinum family. Chemical Oxidation states of osmium 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7 +8 Common oxidation states of osmium are +4 and +3, but oxidation states from +1 to +8 are observed. Osmium forms compounds in the oxidation states range from 0 to +8; the most common oxidation states are +2, +3 and +4 as well as +8. The most common compound is osmium tetroxide with osmium in oxidation state +8. Red osmates [OsO4(OH)2]2− are formed if osmium tetroxide reacts with a base. With ammonia the nitrido-osmates [OsO3N]− are formed. Only two compounds have major applications, osmium tetroxide for staining tissue for electron microscopy and the non-volatile osmates for organic oxidation reactions. Osmium heptafluoride (OsF7) and osmium pentafluoride (OsF5) are known, while osmium trifluoride (OsF3) has not yet been synthesized. The lower oxidation states are stabilized by the larger halogens. Therefore the trichloride, tribromide and triiodide and even an osmium diiodide is known. The oxidation state +1 is only known for the osmium iodide (OsI), while several carbonyl complexes of osmium are known representing the oxidation state 0. Chemical nameChemical formulaOsmium(III) chloride OsCl3Osmium(IV) oxide OsO2Osmium(VIII) oxide OsO4Osmium carbonylOs3(CO)12 Isotopes Osmium has seven naturally occurring isotopes, 6 of which are stable: 184Os, 187Os, 188Os, 189Os, 190Os, and (most abundant) 192Os. 186Os undergoes alpha decay with enormously long half-life of (2.0±1.1)×1015 yr and for many practical purposes can be considered to be stable as well. Alpha decay is predicted for all 7 naturally occurring isotopes, but due to very long half-lives, it was observed only for 186Os. It is predicted also that 184Os and 192Os can undergo double beta decay but this radioactivity is not yet observed. 187Os is the daughter of 187Re (half-life 4.56×1010 years) and is used extensively in dating terrestrial as well as meteoric rocks (see Rhenium-osmium dating). It has also been used to measure the intensity of continental weathering over geologic time and to fix minimum ages for stabilization of the mantle roots of continental cratons. This decay is a reason why rhenium-rich minerals contain an abnormally high isotopic abundance of 187Os. However, the most notable application of Os in dating has been in conjunction with iridium, to analyze the layer of shocked quartz along the K-T boundary that marks the extinction of the dinosaurs 65 million years ago. Occurrence Osmium is found in nature as an uncombined element or in natural alloys; especially the iridium–osmium alloys, osmiridium (osmium rich), and iridiosmium (iridium rich). In the nickel and copper deposits the platinum group metals occur as sulfides (i.e. (Pt,Pd)S)), tellurides (i.e. PtBiTe), antimonides (PdSb), and arsenides (i.e. PtAs2), in all of these compounds platinum is exchanged by a small amount of iridium and osmium. As with all of the platinum group metals, osmium can be found naturally in alloys with nickel or copper. Within the Earth's crust, osmium, like iridium, is found at highest concentrations in three types of geologic structure: igneous deposits (crustal intrusions from below), impact craters, and deposits reworked from one of the former structures. The largest known primary reserves are in the Bushveld igneous complex in South Africa, though the large copper–nickel deposits near Norilsk in Russia, and the Sudbury Basin in Canada are also significant sources of osmium. Smaller reserves can be found in the United States. The alluvial deposits used by pre-Columbian people in the Chocó Department, Colombia are still a source for platinum group metals. The second large alluvial deposit was found in the Ural mountains, Russia, which is still mined. Production Osmium is obtained commercially as a by-product from nickel and copper mining and processing. During electrorefining of copper and nickel, noble metals such as silver, gold and the platinum group metals including selenium and tellurium settle to the bottom of the cell as anode mud, which forms the starting point for their extraction. In order to separate the metals, they must first be brought into solution. Several methods are available depending on the separation process and the composition of the mixture; two representative methods are fusion with sodium peroxide followed by dissolution in aqua regia, and dissolution in a mixture of chlorine with hydrochloric acid. Osmium, ruthenium, rhodium and iridium can be separated from platinum and gold and base metals by their insolubility in aqua regia, leaving a solid residue. Rhodium can be separated from the residue by treatment with molten sodium bisulphate. The insoluble residue, containing Ru, Os and Ir is treated with sodium oxide, in which Ir is insoluble, producing water-soluble Ru and Os salts. After oxidation to the volatile oxides, is separated from by precipitation of (NH4)3RuCl6 with ammonium chloride. After it is dissolved, osmium is separated from the other platinum group metals by distillation or extraction with organic solvents of the volatile osmium tetroxide. The first method is similar to the procedure Tennant and Wollastone used for their separation. Both methods are suitable for industrial scale production. In either case, the product is reduced using hydrogen, yielding the metal as a powder or sponge that can be treated using powder metallurgy techniques. Neither the producers nor the United States Geological Survey published any production amounts for osmium. Estimations of the United States consumption date published from 1971, which gives a consumption in the United States of 2000 troy ounces (62 kg), would suggest that the production is still less than 1 t per year. Applications Because of the volatility and extreme toxicity of its oxide, osmium is rarely used in its pure state, and is instead often alloyed with other metals that are used in high-wear applications. Osmium alloys such as osmiridium are very hard and, along with other platinum group metals, are almost exclusively used in alloys employed in the tips of fountain pens, instrument pivots, and electrical contacts, as they can resist wear from frequent use. The stylus (needle) in early phonograph designs was also made of osmium, especially for 78-rpm records, until sapphire and industrial diamond replaced the metal in later designs for 45-rpm and 33-rpm long-playing records. Osmium tetroxide has been used in fingerprint detection and in staining fatty tissue for microscope slides. As a strong oxidant, it cross-links lipids mainly by reacting with unsaturated carbon-carbon bonds, and thereby both fixes biological membranes in place in tissue samples and simultaneously stains them, since osmium atoms are extremely electron dense, making OsO4 an important stain for transmission electron microscopy (TEM) studies of many biological materials. An alloy of 90% platinum and 10% osmium (90/10) is used in surgical implants such as pacemakers and replacement of pulmonary valves. The Sharpless dihydroxylation. RL = Largest substituent; RM = Medium-sized substituent; RS = Smallest substituent The tetroxide (and a related compound, potassium osmate) are important oxidants for chemical synthesis, despite being very poisonous. For the Sharpless asymmetric dihydroxylation which uses osmate for the conversion of a double bond into a vicinal diol Karl Barry Sharpless won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 2001. In 1898 an Austrian chemist, Auer von Welsbach, developed the Oslamp with a filament made of osmium, which he introduced commercially in 1902. After only a few years, osmium was replaced by the more stable metal tungsten (also known as wolfram). Tungsten has the highest melting point of any metal, and using it in light bulbs increases the luminous efficacy and life of incandescent lamps. The light bulb manufacturer OSRAM (founded in 1906 when three German companies; Auer-Gesellschaft, AEG and Siemens & Halske combined their lamp production facilities), derived its name from the elements of OSmium and wolfRAM. Like palladium, powdered osmium will densely absorb hydrogen atoms, perhaps making it a potential candidate as a metal hydride battery electrode substance, but it will react with potassium hydroxide, the most common battery electrolyte. Precautions Finely divided metallic osmium is pyrophoric. Osmium reacts with oxygen at room temperature forming volatile osmium tetroxide. Some osmium compounds are also converted to the tetroxide if oxygen is present. This makes osmium tetroxide the main source for the contact to the environment. Osmium tetroxide is highly volatile and penetrates skin readily, and is very toxic by inhalation, ingestion, and skin contact. Airborne low concentrations of osmium tetroxide vapor can cause lung congestion and skin or eye damage, and should therefore be used in a fume hood. Osmium tetroxide is rapidly reduced to relatively inert compounds by polyunsaturated vegetable oils, such as corn oil. References External links Los Alamos National Laboratory: Osmium WebElements.com: Osmium | Osmium |@lemmatized osmium:72 chemical:4 element:10 symbol:1 atomic:1 number:1 hard:3 brittle:2 blue:3 gray:2 black:4 transition:1 metal:23 platinum:19 family:2 dense:4 natural:2 density:6 kg:4 g:1 slightly:1 great:2 iridium:11 second:2 densest:1 use:16 alloys:2 group:8 find:6 nature:2 alloy:9 ore:2 employ:2 fountain:2 pen:2 tip:2 electrical:2 contact:4 application:5 extreme:2 durability:1 hardness:2 need:1 history:1 greek:3 osme:2 meaning:2 smell:5 discover:1 smithson:2 tennant:4 william:1 hyde:1 wollaston:1 london:1 england:1 discovery:3 intertwine:1 reach:1 europe:1 platina:1 small:5 silver:3 first:4 encounter:1 late:1 century:1 mine:2 around:1 chocó:2 department:2 colombia:2 distinct:1 new:5 publish:3 chemist:3 study:2 dissolve:2 aqua:3 regia:3 mixture:3 hydrochloric:2 nitric:1 acid:3 create:1 soluble:3 salt:2 always:1 observe:5 amount:4 dark:1 insoluble:4 residue:9 joseph:1 louis:2 proust:1 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stable:3 abundant:1 undergoes:1 alpha:2 decay:4 enormously:1 long:3 half:3 life:4 yr:1 many:2 practical:1 purpose:1 predict:2 due:1 undergo:1 double:2 beta:1 radioactivity:1 daughter:1 year:4 extensively:1 date:3 terrestrial:1 meteoric:1 rock:1 see:1 rhenium:2 measure:1 intensity:1 continental:2 weathering:1 geologic:2 time:1 fix:2 minimum:1 age:1 stabilization:1 mantle:1 root:1 craton:1 reason:1 rich:3 mineral:1 abnormally:1 isotopic:1 abundance:1 notable:1 dating:1 conjunction:1 layer:1 shocked:1 quartz:1 along:2 k:1 boundary:1 mark:1 extinction:1 dinosaur:1 million:1 ago:1 occurrence:1 uncombined:1 especially:2 osmiridium:2 iridiosmium:1 copper:5 deposit:6 sulfide:1 e:3 pt:1 pd:1 telluride:1 ptbite:1 antimonides:1 pdsb:1 arsenide:1 exchange:1 within:1 earth:1 crust:1 like:2 concentration:2 three:2 type:1 structure:2 igneous:2 crustal:1 intrusion:1 impact:1 crater:1 rework:1 former:1 primary:1 reserve:2 bushveld:1 south:1 africa:1 though:1 near:1 norilsk:1 russia:2 sudbury:1 basin:1 canada:1 significant:1 source:3 united:4 alluvial:2 pre:1 columbian:1 people:1 still:3 ural:1 mountain:1 production:5 commercially:2 product:2 mining:1 electrorefining:1 noble:1 gold:2 include:1 selenium:1 tellurium:1 settle:1 bottom:1 cell:1 anode:1 mud:1 starting:1 extraction:2 order:1 separate:5 bring:1 method:4 available:1 depend:1 separation:2 composition:1 representative:1 fusion:1 peroxide:1 follow:1 dissolution:2 chlorine:1 ruthenium:1 rhodium:2 insolubility:1 leave:1 treatment:1 molten:1 bisulphate:1 ru:2 ir:2 precipitation:1 ammonium:1 distillation:1 solvent:1 similar:1 procedure:1 wollastone:1 suitable:1 industrial:2 scale:1 either:1 case:1 reduce:2 sponge:1 metallurgy:1 technique:1 neither:1 producer:1 geological:1 survey:1 estimation:1 consumption:2 troy:1 ounce:1 suggest:1 per:1 volatility:1 toxicity:1 rarely:1 pure:1 instead:1 often:1 wear:2 almost:1 exclusively:1 instrument:1 pivot:1 resist:1 frequent:1 stylus:1 needle:1 phonograph:1 design:2 rpm:3 record:2 sapphire:1 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5,310 | International_Civil_Aviation_Organization | The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), an agency of the United Nations, codifies the principles and techniques of international air navigation and fosters the planning and development of international air transport to ensure safe and orderly growth. Its headquarters are located in the Quartier International of Montreal, Canada. The ICAO Council adopts standards and recommended practices concerning air navigation, prevention of unlawful interference, and facilitation of border-crossing procedures for international civil aviation. In addition, the ICAO defines the protocols for air accident investigation followed by transport safety authorities in countries signatory to the Convention on International Civil Aviation, commonly known as the Chicago Convention. See NTSB, TSB, AAIB, BFU, and BEA. The ICAO should not be confused with the International Air Transport Association (IATA), a trade organization for airlines also headquartered in Montreal, or with the Civil Air Navigation Services Organisation (CANSO), an organization for Air Navigation Service Providers (ANSP's) with its headquarters at Schiphol airport in the Netherlands. ICAO statute The 9th edition of the Convention on International Civil Aviation includes modifications from 1948 up to year 2006 . The ICAO refers to its current edition of the Convention as the statute, and designates it as ICAO Doc 7300/9. The Convention has 18 Annexes. These Annexes are listed by title in the article Convention on International Civil Aviation. ICAO standards ICAO logo.Top: ICAO acronym in English, French/Spanish and Russian.Bottom: ICAO acronym in Chinese and Arabic The ICAO also standardizes certain functions for use in the airline industry, such as the Aeronautical Message Handling System AMHS; this probably makes it a standards organization. The ICAO defines an International Standard Atmosphere (also known as ICAO Standard Atmosphere), a model of the standard variation of pressure, temperature, density, and viscosity with altitude in the Earth's atmosphere. This is useful in calibrating instruments and designing aircraft. ICAO, Manual of the ICAO Standard Atmosphere (extended to 80 kilometres (262 500 feet)), Doc 7488-CD, Third Edition, 1993, ISBN 92-9194-004-6 The ICAO standardizes machine-readable passports worldwide. This website aggregates a number of ICAO documents and conference announcements related to MRTDs. Such passports have an area where some of the information otherwise written in textual form is written as strings of alphanumeric characters, printed in a manner suitable for optical character recognition. This enables border controllers and other law enforcement agents to process such passports quickly, without having to input the information manually into a computer. ICAO publishes Doc 9303, Machine Readable Travel Documents, the technical standard for machine-readable passports. A more recent standard is for biometric passports. These contain biometrics to authenticate the identity of travellers. The passport's critical information is stored on a tiny RFID computer chip, much like information stored on smartcards. Like some smartcards, the passport book design calls for an embedded contactless chip that is able to hold digital signature data to ensure the integrity of the passport and the biometric data. Codes registered with ICAO Both ICAO and IATA have their own airport and airline code systems. ICAO uses 4-letter airport codes and 3-letter airline codes. In the continental United States, the ICAO codes are usually the same as the IATA code, with a prefix of "K" — LAX is KLAX. Canada follows a similar pattern, where a prefix of "C" is usually added to an IATA code to find the ICAO code — YEG is CYEG. In the rest of the world, the codes are unrelated, as the IATA code is phonic and the ICAO code is location-based; for example, Charles de Gaulle International Airport has an ICAO code of LFPG, and an IATA code of CDG. ICAO is also responsible for issuing alphanumeric aircraft type codes that contain 2-4 characters. These codes provide the identification that is typically used in flight plans. An example of this is the Boeing 747 that would use (depending on the variant) B741, B742, B743, etc. ICAO provides telephony designators to aircraft operators worldwide. These consist of the three-letter airline identifier and a one- or two-word designator. They are usually, but not always, similar to the aircraft operator name. For example, the identifier for Aer Lingus is EIN and the designator is Shamrock, while Japan Airlines International is JAL and Japan Air . Thus, a flight by Aer Lingus numbered 111 would be written as "EIN111" and pronounced "Shamrock One Eleven" on the radio, while a similarly numbered Japan Airlines flight would be written as "JAL111" and pronounced "Japan Air One Eleven". ICAO maintains the standards for aircraft registration ("tail numbers"), including the alphanumeric codes that identify the country of registration. Regions and regional offices ICAO World Headquarters, Montreal, Canada The ICAO has seven regional offices serving nine regions: 1. Asia and Pacific, Bangkok, Thailand 2. Middle East, Cairo, Egypt 3. Western and Central Africa, Dakar, Senegal 4. South America, Lima, Peru 5. North America, Central America and Caribbean, Mexico City, Mexico 6. Eastern and Southern Africa, Nairobi, Kenya 7. Europe and North Atlantic, Paris, France ICAO Leadership List of Secretaries General Albert Roper (France) (1944-1951) Carl Ljungberg (Sweden) (1952-1959) Ronald MacAllister Macdonnell (Canada) (1959-1964) Bernardus Tielman Twigt (Netherlands) (1964-1970) Assad Kotaite (Lebanon) (1970-1976) Yves Lambert (France) (1976-1988) Shivinder Singh Sidhu (India) (1988-1991) Philippe Rochat (Switzerland) (1991-1997) Renato Claudio Costa Pereira (Brazil) (1997-2003) Taïeb Chérif (Algeria) (2003-Present) List of Council Presidents Edward Pearson Warner(United States) (1947-1957) Walter Binaghi (Argentina)(1957-1976), Assad Kotaite (Lebanon) (1976-2006) Roberto Kobeh Gonzalez (Mexico) (2006-Present) ICAO and Climate Change Emissions from international aviation are specifically excluded from the targets agreed under the Kyoto Protocol. Instead, the Protocol invites developed countries to pursue the limitation or reduction of emissions through the International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO). ICAO’s environmental committee continues to consider the potential for using market-based measures such as trading and charging, but this work is unlikely to lead to global action. It is currently developing guidance for states who wish to include aviation in an emissions trading scheme (ETS) to meet their Kyoto commitments, and for airlines who wish to participate voluntarily in a trading scheme. It is also looking at guidance on how charges can be applied to aircraft greenhouse gas emissions, although a recent ICAO Resolution prevents states from introducing a scheme for international aviation before 2007. Emissions from domestic aviation are included within the Kyoto targets agreed by countries. This has led to some national policies such as fuel and emission taxes for domestic air travel in the Netherlands and Norway respectively. Although some countries tax the fuel used by domestic aviation, there is no duty on kerosene used on international flights. (Aviation Environment Federation ) ICAO investigations of air disasters ICAO has conducted just two investigations involving air disasters. Both incidents involved passenger airliners shot down while in international flight over hostile territory. The first incident occurred on February 21, 1973, during a period of tension which would lead to the Israeli-Arab "October war", when a Libyan Arab Airlines Flight 114 was shot down by Israeli F-4 jets over the Sinai Peninsula. The second incident occurred on Sept. 1, 1983, during a period of heightened Cold War tension, when a Soviet Su-15 interceptor shot down a straying Korean Air Lines Flight 007 just west of Sakhalin Island. KAL 007 was carrying 269 people. . See also Air safety Aircraft registration Airline codes (includes ICAO codes) Flight planning ICAO airport code ICAO phonetic alphabet Kenneth Beaumont References External links Convention on International Civil Aviation (Doc 7300) International Civil Aviation Organization website ICAO airport codes worldwide, by country ICAO aircraft manufacturer codes List of ICAO contracting states ICAO brief memo be-x-old:Міжнародная арганізацыя грамадзянскай авіяцыі | International_Civil_Aviation_Organization |@lemmatized international:19 civil:9 aviation:14 organization:5 icao:45 agency:1 united:3 nation:1 codify:1 principle:1 technique:1 air:14 navigation:4 foster:1 planning:1 development:1 transport:3 ensure:2 safe:1 orderly:1 growth:1 headquarters:3 locate:1 quartier:1 montreal:3 canada:4 council:2 adopts:1 standard:10 recommend:1 practice:1 concern:1 prevention:1 unlawful:1 interference:1 facilitation:1 border:2 crossing:1 procedure:1 addition:1 define:2 protocol:3 accident:1 investigation:3 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5,311 | Ammonia | Ammonia is a compound of nitrogen and hydrogen with the formula NH3. It is normally encountered as a gas with a characteristic pungent odor. Ammonia contributes significantly to the nutritional needs of terrestrial organisms by serving as a precursor to foodstuffs and fertilizers. Ammonia, either directly or indirectly, is also a building block for the synthesis of many pharmaceuticals. Although in wide use, ammonia is both caustic and hazardous. In 2006, worldwide production was estimated at 146.5 million tonnes. Max Appl "Ammonia" in Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, 2006, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim. Article Online Posting Date: December 15, 2006 It is used in commercial cleaning products. Ammonia, as used commercially, is often called anhydrous ammonia. This term emphasizes the absence of water in the material. Because NH3 boils at −33.34 °C, the liquid must be stored under high pressure or at low temperature. Its heat of vaporization is, however, sufficiently great that NH3 can be readily handled in ordinary beakers in a fume hood. "Household ammonia" or "ammonium hydroxide" is a solution of NH3 in water. The strength of such solutions is measured in units of baume (density), with 26 degrees baume (about 30 weight percent ammonia at 15.5 °C) being the typical high concentration commercial product. Ammonium hydroxide physical properties Household ammonia ranges in concentration from 5 to 10 weight percent ammonia. Structure and basic chemical properties The ammonia molecule has a trigonal pyramidal shape, as predicted by VSEPR theory. The nitrogen atom in the molecule has a lone electron pair, and ammonia acts as a base, a proton acceptor. This shape gives the molecule a dipole moment and makes it polar so that ammonia readily dissolves in water. The degree to which ammonia forms the ammonium ion increases upon lowering the pH of the solution— at "physiological" pH (~7), about 67% of the ammonia molecules are protonated. Temperature and salinity also affect the proportion of NH4+. NH4+ has the shape of a regular tetrahedron. The main use of ammonia is for production of fertilizer (83% in 2003). Another major application is its conversion to explosives, because nitric acid is made via oxidation of ammonia. The entire nitrogen content of all manufactured organic compounds is derived from ammonia. Natural occurrence Ammonia is found in small quantities in the atmosphere, being produced from the putrefaction of nitrogenous animal and vegetable matter. Ammonia and ammonium salts are also found in small quantities in rainwater, whereas ammonium chloride (sal-ammoniac), and ammonium sulfate are found in volcanic districts; crystals of ammonium bicarbonate have been found in Patagonian guano. The kidneys secrete NH3 to neutralize excess acid. ammonia is a purple gas.electrolytes and the urine anion and osmolar gaps. Ammonium salts also are found distributed through all fertile soil and in seawater. Substances containing ammonia, or those that are similar to it, are called ammoniacal. History The Romans called the ammonium chloride deposits they collected from near the Temple of Jupiter Amun (Greek Ἄμμων Ammon) in ancient Libya 'sal ammoniacus' (salt of Amun) because of proximity to the nearby temple. Salts of ammonia have been known from very early times; thus the term Hammoniacus sal Webmineral website URL last accessed August 27 2006 appears in the writings of Pliny, although it is not known whether the term is identical with the more modern sal-ammoniac. In the form of sal-ammoniac, ammonia was known to the Arabic alchemists as early as the 8th century, first mentioned by Geber (Jabir ibn Hayyan), Ahmad Y Hassan, Transfer Of Islamic Technology To The West, Part II: Transmission Of Islamic Engineering, History of Science and Technology in Islam. and to the European alchemists since the 13th century, being mentioned by Albertus Magnus. Absolouteastronomy.com URL last accessed April 24 2006 It was also used by dyers in the Middle Ages in the form of fermented urine to alter the colour of vegetable dyes. In the 15th century, Basilius Valentinus showed that ammonia could be obtained by the action of alkalis on sal-ammoniac. At a later period, when sal-ammoniac was obtained by distilling the hoofs and horns of oxen and neutralizing the resulting carbonate with hydrochloric acid, the name "spirit of hartshorn" was applied to ammonia. Gaseous ammonia was first isolated by Joseph Priestley in 1774 and was termed by him alkaline air; however it was acquired by the alchemist Basil Valentine. Abraham, Lyndy. Marvell and alchemy. Aldershot Scolar 1990. Eleven years later in 1785, Claude Louis Berthollet ascertained its composition. The Haber process to produce ammonia from the nitrogen in the air was developed by Fritz Haber and Carl Bosch in 1909 and patented in 1910. It was first used on an industrial scale by the Germans during World War I, following the allied blockade that cut off the supply of nitrates from Chile. The ammonia was used to produce explosives to sustain their war effort. Smith, Roland. Conquering Chemistry 2001 Prior to the advent of cheap natural gas, hydrogen as a precursor to ammonia production was produced via the electrolysis of water. The Vemork 60 MW hydroelectric plant in Norway constructed in 1911 was used purely for this purpose and up until the second world war provided the majority of Europe's ammonia. Synthesis and production See also: Haber Process Because of its many uses, ammonia is one of the most highly produced inorganic chemicals. Dozens of chemical plants worldwide produce ammonia. The worldwide ammonia production in 2004 was 109 million metric tonnes. United States Geological Survey publication The People's Republic of China produced 28.4% of the worldwide production (increasingly from coal as part of urea synthesis) followed by India with 8.6%, Russia with 8.4%, and the United States with 8.2%. About 80% or more of the ammonia produced is used for fertilizing agricultural crops. Before the start of World War I, most ammonia was obtained by the dry distillation Nobel Prize in Chemistry (1918) - Haber process. URL last accessed April 24 2006 of nitrogenous vegetable and animal waste products, including camel dung, where it was distilled by the reduction of nitrous acid and nitrites with hydrogen; in addition, it was produced by the distillation of coal, and also by the decomposition of ammonium salts by alkaline hydroxides BBC.co.uk URL last accessed April 24 2006 such as quicklime, the salt most generally used being the chloride (sal-ammoniac) thus: 2 NH4Cl + 2 CaO → CaCl2 + Ca(OH)2 + 2 NH3 (Two molecules of ammonium chloride plus two calcium oxide yields calcium chloride and calcium hydroxide and two molecules of ammonia) Today, the typical modern ammonia-producing plant first converts natural gas (i.e., methane) or liquified petroleum gas (such gases are propane and butane) or petroleum naphtha into gaseous hydrogen. The process used in producing the hydrogen begins with removal of sulfur compounds from the natural gas (because sulfur deactivates the catalysts used in subsequent steps). Catalytic hydrogenation converts organosulfur compounds into gaseous hydrogen sulfide: H2 + RSH → RH + H2S(g) The hydrogen sulfide is then removed by passing the gas through beds of zinc oxide where it is absorbed and converted to solid zinc sulfide: H2S + ZnO → ZnS + H2O Catalytic steam reforming of the sulfur-free feedstock is then used to form hydrogen plus carbon monoxide: CH4 + H2O → CO + 3 H2 In the next step, the water gas shift reaction is used to convert the carbon monoxide into carbon dioxide and more hydrogen: CO + H2O → CO2 + H2 The carbon dioxide is then removed either by absorption in aqueous ethanolamine solutions or by adsorption in pressure swing adsorbers (PSA) using proprietary solid adsorption media. The final step in producing the hydrogen is to use catalytic methanation to remove any small residual amounts of carbon monoxide or carbon dioxide from the hydrogen: CO + 3 H2 → CH4 + H2O CO2 + 4 H2 → CH4 + 2 H2O To produce the desired end-product ammonia, the hydrogen is then catalytically reacted with nitrogen (derived from process air) to form anhydrous liquid ammonia. This step is known as the ammonia synthesis loop (also referred to as the Haber-Bosch process): 3 H2 + N2 → 2 NH3 Hydrogen required for ammonia synthesis could also be produced economically using other sources like coal or coke gasification, less economically from the electrolysis of water into oxygen + hydrogen and other alternatives which are presently impractical for large scale. At one time, most of Europe's ammonia was produced from the Hydro plant at Vemork, via the electrolysis route. Various renewable energy electricity sources are also potentially applicable. Biosynthesis In certain organisms, ammonia is produced from atmospheric N2 by enzymes called nitrogenases. The overall process is called nitrogen fixation. Although it is unlikely that biomimetic methods will be developed that are competitive with the Haber process, intense effort has been directed toward understanding the mechanism of biological nitrogen fixation. The scientific interest in this problem is motivated by the unusual structure of the active site of the enzyme, which consists of an Fe7MoS9 ensemble. Ammonia is also a metabolic product of amino acid deamination. Ammonia excretion is common in aquatic animals. In humans, it is quickly converted to urea, which is much less toxic. This urea is a major component of the dry weight of urine. Most reptiles, birds, as well as insects and snails solely excrete uric acid as nitrogenous waste. Properties Ammonia is a colorless gas with a characteristic pungent smell. It is lighter than air, its density being 0.589 times that of air. It is easily liquefied due to the strong hydrogen bonding between molecules; the liquid boils at −33.3 °C, and solidifies at −77.7 °C to white crystals. Liquid ammonia possesses strong ionizing powers reflecting its high ε of 22. Liquid ammonia has a very high standard enthalpy change of vaporization (23.35 kJ/mol, cf. water 40.65 kJ/mol, methane 8.19 kJ/mol, phosphine 14.6 kJ/mol) and can therefore be used in laboratories in non-insulated vessels without additional refrigeration. It is miscible with water. Ammonia in an aqueous solution can be expelled by boiling. The aqueous solution of ammonia is basic. The maximum concentration of ammonia in water (a saturated solution) has a density of 0.880 g /cm³ and is often known as '.880 Ammonia'. Ammonia does not burn readily or sustain combustion, except under narrow fuel-to-air mixtures of 15-25% air. When mixed with oxygen, it burns with a pale yellowish-green flame. At high temperature and in the presence of a suitable catalyst, ammonia is decomposed into its constituent elements. Ignition occurs when chlorine is passed into ammonia, forming nitrogen and hydrogen chloride; if ammonia is present in excess, then the highly explosive nitrogen trichloride (NCl3) is also formed. The ammonia molecule readily undergoes nitrogen inversion at room temperature; a useful analogy is an umbrella turning itself inside out in a strong wind. The energy barrier to this inversion is 24.7 kJ/mol, and the resonance frequency is 23.79 GHz, corresponding to microwave radiation of a wavelength of 1.260 cm. The absorption at this frequency was the first microwave spectrum to be observed. C. E. Cleeton & N. H. Williams, 1934 - Online version; archive. URL last accessed 8 May 2006 Basicity One of the most characteristic properties of ammonia is its basicity. It combines with acids to form salts; thus with hydrochloric acid it forms ammonium chloride (sal-ammoniac); with nitric acid, ammonium nitrate, etc. However, perfectly dry ammonia will not combine with perfectly dry hydrogen chloride: moisture is necessary to bring about the reaction. Baker, H. B. (1894). J. Chem. Soc. volume 65: p. 612. NH3 + HCl → NH4Cl The salts produced by the action of ammonia on acids are known as the ammonium salts and all contain the ammonium ion (NH4+). Anhydrous ammonia is often used for the production of methamphetamine. Aqueous ammonia can be applied on the skin to lessen the effects of acidic animal poisons, such as from insect and jellyfish. Acidity Although ammonia is well-known as a base, it can also act as an extremely weak acid. It is a protic substance and is capable of formation of amides (which contain the NH2− ion), for example lithium and ammonia react to give a solution of lithium amide: 2 Li + 2 NH3 → 2 LiNH2 + H2 Combustion The combustion of ammonia to nitrogen and water is exothermic: 4 NH3 + 3 O2 → 2 N2 + 6 H2O (g) (ΔHºr = –1267.20 kJ/mol) The standard enthalpy change of combustion, ΔHºc, expressed per mole of ammonia and with condensation of the water formed, is –382.81 kJ/mol. Dinitrogen is the thermodynamic product of combustion: all nitrogen oxides are unstable with respect to nitrogen and oxygen, which is the principle behind the catalytic converter. However, nitrogen oxides can be formed as kinetic products in the presence of appropriate catalysts, a reaction of great industrial importance in the production of nitric acid. 4 NH3 + 5 O2 → 4 NO + 6 H2O The combustion of ammonia in air is very difficult in the absence of a catalyst (such as platinum gauze), as the temperature of the flame is usually lower than the ignition temperature of the ammonia-air mixture. The flammable range of ammonia in air is 16–25%. Formation of other compounds In organic chemistry, ammonia can act as a nucleophile in substitution reactions. Amines can be formed by the reaction of ammonia with alkyl halides, although the resulting –NH2 group is also nucleophilic and secondary and tertiary amines are often formed as by-products. An excess of ammonia helps minimise multiple substitution, and neutralises the hydrogen halide formed. Methylamine is prepared commercially by the reaction of ammonia with chloromethane, and the reaction of ammonia with 2-bromopropanoic acid has been used to prepare racemic alanine in 70% yield. Ethanolamine is prepared by a ring-opening reaction with ethylene oxide: the reaction is sometimes allowed to go further to produce diethanolamine and triethanolamine. Amides can be prepared by the reaction of ammonia with a number of carboxylic acid derivatives. Acyl chlorides are the most reactive, but the ammonia must be present in at least a twofold excess to neutralise the hydrogen chloride formed. Esters and anhydrides also react with ammonia to form amides. Ammonium salts of carboxylic acids can be dehydrated to amides so long as there are no thermally sensitive groups present: temperatures of 150–200 °C are required. The hydrogen in ammonia is capable of replacement by metals, thus magnesium burns in the gas with the formation of magnesium nitride Mg3N2, and when the gas is passed over heated sodium or potassium, sodamide, NaNH2, and potassamide, KNH2, are formed. Where necessary in substitutive nomenclature, IUPAC recommendations prefer the name azane to ammonia: hence chloramine would be named chloroazane in substitutive nomenclature, not chloroammonia. Ammonia as a ligand Ball-and-stick model of the tetraamminediaquacopper(II) cation, [Cu(NH3)4(H2O)2]2+ Ball-and-stick model of the diamminesilver(I) cation, [Ag(NH3)2]+ Ammonia can act as a ligand in transition metal complexes. It is a pure σ-donor, in the middle of the spectrochemical series, and shows intermediate hard-soft behaviour. For historical reasons, ammonia is named ammine in the nomenclature of coordination compounds. Some notable ammine complexes include: Tetraamminediaquacopper(II), [Cu(NH3)4(H2O)2]2+, a characteristic dark blue complex formed by adding ammonia to solution of copper(II) salts. Known as Schweizer's reagent. Diamminesilver(I), [Ag(NH3)2]+, the active species in Tollens' reagent. Formation of this complex can also help to distinguish between precipitates of the different silver halides: AgCl is soluble in dilute (2M) ammonia solution, AgBr is only soluble in concentrated ammonia solution while AgI is insoluble in aqueous solution of ammonia. Ammine complexes of chromium(III) were known in the late 19th century, and formed the basis of Alfred Werner's theory of coordination compounds. Werner noted that only two isomers (fac- and mer-) of the complex [CrCl3(NH3)3] could be formed, and concluded that the ligands must be arranged around the metal ion at the vertices of an octahedron. This proposal has since been confirmed by X-ray crystallography. An ammine ligand bound to a metal ion is markedly more acidic than a free ammonia molecule, although deprotonation in aqueous solution is still rare. One example is the Calomel reaction, where the resulting amidomercury(II) compound is highly insoluble. Hg2Cl2 + 2 NH3 → Hg + HgCl(NH2) + NH4+ + Cl− Rotational spectrum The energy level diagram depicting levels below 350 cm−1 for ammonia is in the figure to the right. Energies for J=0 to J=5 are included. Note the decreasing value of the energy with increasing value of K along a single value of J. This is due to the fact that ammonia is an oblate symmetric top, meaning A=B<C where A, B, and C are inversely related to the angular momenta along each molecular axis. The quantum numbers of each level are provided to the right of the level and the percentage of the molecule in each state assuming LTE at 30K is given above each level when statistically significant. A spectral simulation is provided below for ammonia at 30K. Transitions of the lines are indicated as follows: (J1,K1) - (J2,K2). The J1=2,3,4 lines are too close together to distinguish individually. For clarity, the J1=4 lines have been expanded. A spectral line list of this simulation is below for J1<6. Frequencies are given in units of cm−1. Frequency (cm−1) J1 K1 J2 K219.89634259 1 0 0 039.81313621 2 0 1 039.8067724 2 1 1 159.73269224 3 2 2 259.7614132 3 1 2 159.7710093 3 0 2 079.67548414 4 3 3 379.67548414 4 3 3 379.7394795 4 2 3 279.77805626 4 1 3 179.7909451 4 0 3 099.63650816 5 4 4 499.74877258 5 3 4 399.74877258 5 3 4 399.82952252 5 2 4 299.8781969 5 1 4 199.8944591 5 0 4 0 A spectrum is also provided of ammonia a T=300K for comparison. The frequencies of the simulation have been compared to and match Poynter & Kakar (1975) "" These spectra and energy level diagrams were produced using the molecular spectrum simulator package PGopher. The constants used are taken from Table 4 of Poynter et al. (1975) Poynter & Kakar (1975) "" . Interstellar formation and destruction Formation mechanisms The interstellar abundance for ammonia has been measured for a variety of environments. The [NH3]/[H2] ratio has been estimated to range from 10−7 in small dark clouds (cf. Ungerechts et al. 1980) up to 10−5 in the dense core of the Orion Molecular Cloud (Genzel et al. 1982). Although a total of 18 total production routes have been proposed, "" the principal formation mechanism for interstellar NH3 is the reaction: NH4+ + e− → NH3 + H The rate constant, k, of this reaction depends on the temperature of the environment, with a value of 5.2×10−6 at 10K (see Vikor, Al-Khalili, Danared et al., 1999, A&A, 344, 1027). The rate constant was calculated from the formula . For the primary formation reaction, a = 1.05×10−6 and B = −0.47. Assuming an NH4+ abundance of 3×10−7 (van Dishoeck & Black 1986) and an electron abundance of 10−7 typical of molecular clouds, the formation will proceed at a rate of 1.6×10−9 cm−3s−1 in a molecular cloud of total density 105 cm−3. All other proposed formation reactions have rate constants of between 2 and 13 orders of magnitude smaller, making their contribution to the abundance of ammonia relatively insignificant. "" As an example of the minor contribution other formation reactions play, the reaction: H2 + NH2 → NH3 + H has a rate constant of 2.2×10−15. Assuming H2 densities of 105 and NH2/H2 ratio of 10−7, this reaction proceeds at a rate of 2.2×10−12, more than 3 orders of magnitude slower that the primary reaction above. Some of the other possible formation reactions are: H− + NH4+ → NH3 + H2 PNH3+ + e− → P + NH3 Destruction mechanisms According to the online database UDFA.net, there are 113 total proposed reactions leading to the destruction of NH3. Of these, 39 were tabulated by [Prasad & Huntress (1980) "" who compiled extensive tables of the chemistry among C, N, and O compounds. A review of interstellar ammonia by Ho & Townes (1983) cites the following reactions as the principal dissociation mechanisms: (5) NH3 + H3+ → NH4+ + H2 (6) NH3 + HCO+ → NH4+ + CO with rate constants a of 4.39×10−9 (Lininger et al. 1975) and 2.2×10−9 (Smith & Adams 1977), respectively. For both reactions, B and gamma are 0, therefore k = a. Equation (5) and (6) run at a rate of 8.8×10−9 and 4.4×10−13, respectively. These calculations assumed the given rate constants and abundances of [NH3]/[H2] = 10−5, [H3+]/[H2] = 2×10−5 (Lepp et al. 1986), [HCO+]/[H2] = 2×10−9 (Wooten et al. 1980), and total densities of n = 105, typical of cold, dense, molecular clouds. Clearly, between these two primary reactions, equation (5) is the dominant destruction reaction, with a rate ~10,000 times faster than equation (6). This is due to the relatively high abundance of H3+. Uses Fertilizer Approximately 83% (as of 2003) of ammonia is used as fertilizers either as its salts or as solutions. Consuming more than 1% of all man-made power, the production of ammonia is a significant component of the world energy budget. Cleaner Household ammonia is a general purpose cleaner that can be used on many surfaces. Because ammonia results in a relatively streak-free shine, one of its most common uses is to clean glass, porcelain and stainless steel. It is also frequently used for cleaning ovens and soaking items to loosen baked-on or caked-on grime. Precursor to nitrogenous compounds Ammonia is directly or indirectly the precursor to most nitrogen-containing compounds. Practically all synthetic and all inorganic nitrogen compounds are prepared from ammonia. An important derivative is nitric acid. This key material is generated via the Ostwald process by oxidisation of ammonia with air over a platinum catalyst at 700 - 850 °C, ~9 atm. Nitric oxide is an intermediate: Holleman, A. F.; Wiberg, E. "Inorganic Chemistry" Academic Press: San Diego, 2001. ISBN 0-12-352651-5. NH3 + 2 O2 → HNO3 + H2O Nitric acid is used for the production of fertilizers, explosives, and natural organonitrogen other chemical compounds. Minor and emerging uses Refrigeration - R717 Ammonia's thermodynamic properties made it one of the refrigerants commonly used prior to the discovery of dichlorodifluoromethane, normally known as Freon. Dichlorodifluoromethane by Aaron Vorderstrasse, Western Oregon University. Ammonia's toxicity complicates this application. Anhydrous ammonia is widely used in industrial refrigeration applications because of its high energy efficiency and low cost. Ammonia is used less frequently in commercial applications, such as in grocery store freezer cases and refrigerated displays due to its earlier mentioned toxicity. For remediation of gaseous emissions Ammonia used to scrub SO2 from the burning of fossil fuels, the resulting product is converted to ammonium sulfate for use as fertilizer. Ammonia neutralizes the nitrogen oxides (NOx) pollutants emitted by diesel engines. This technology, called SCR (selective catalytic reduction), relies on a vanadia-based catalyst. Diesel: Greener Than You Think As a fuel Ammonia was used during World War II to power buses in Belgium, and in engine and solar energy applications prior to 1900. Liquid ammonia was used as the fuel of the rocket airplane, the X-15. Although not as powerful as other fuels, it left no soot in the reusable rocket engine and its density approximately matches that for the oxidizer, liquid oxygen, which simplified the aircraft's design. As a vehicle fuel Ammonia has been proposed as a practical alternative to fossil fuel for internal combustion engines [http://www.claverton-energy.com/energy-experts-library/downloads/transportation Ammonia NH3 pdf Ammonia as a Transportation Fuel IV] San Francisco October 15-16 , 2007 Norm Olson –Iowa Energy Center www.energy.iastate.edu . The calorific value of ammonia is 22.5 MJ/kg (9690 BTU/lb) which is about half that of diesel. In a normal engine, in which the water vapor is not condensed, the calorific value of ammonia will be about 21% less than this figure. It can be used in existing engines with only minor modifications to carburetors/injectors. To meet these demands, significant capital would be required to increase present production levels. Although the second most produced chemical, the scale of ammonia production is a small fraction of world petroleum usage. It could be manufactured from renewable energy sources, as well as coal or nuclear power. It is however significantly less efficient than batteries. The 60 MW Rjukan dam in Telemark Norway, produced ammonia via electrolysis of water for many years from 1913 producing fertilizer for much of Europe. If produced from coal, the CO2 can be readily sequestrated. Ammonia as a Transportation Fuel IV San Francisco October 15-16, 2007 Norm Olson –Iowa Energy Center. www.energy.iastate.edu Iowa Energy Center, Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency; Research, Education and Demonstration - Related Renewable Energy - Ammonia 2007 (the combustion products are nitrogen and water). In 1981 a Canadian company converted a 1981 Chevrolet Impala to operate using ammonia as fuel. YouTube - Ammonia Powered Car Greg Vezina Textile Liquid ammonia is used for treatment of cotton materials, give a properties like mercerisation using alkalies. And also used for pre-washing of wool. Ammonia's role in biological systems and human disease Ammonia is an important source of nitrogen for living systems. Although atmospheric nitrogen abounds, few living creatures are capable of utilizing this nitrogen. Nitrogen is required for the synthesis of amino acids, which are the building blocks of protein. Some plants rely on ammonia and other nitrogenous wastes incorporated into the soil by decaying matter. Others, such as nitrogen-fixing legumes, benefit from symbiotic relationships with rhizobia which create ammonia from atmospheric nitrogen. M.B. Adjei, K.H. Quesenberry and C.G. Chamblis. Nitrogen Fixation and Inoculation of Forage Legumes University of Florida IFAS Extension June 2002. Ammonia also plays a role in both normal and abnormal animal physiology. Ammonia is biosynthesized through normal amino acid metabolism and is toxic in high concentrations. PubChem Substance Summary, last accessed 7 May 2007 The liver converts ammonia to urea through a series of reactions known as the urea cycle. Liver dysfunction, such as that seen in cirrhosis, may lead to elevated amounts of ammonia in the blood (hyperammonemia). Likewise, defects in the enzymes responsible for the urea cycle, such as ornithine transcarbamylase, lead to hyperammonemia. Hyperammonemia contributes to the confusion and coma of hepatic encephalopathy as well as the neurologic disease common in people with urea cycle defects and organic acidurias. Zschocke, Johannes, and Georg Hoffman. Vademecum Metabolism. Friedrichsdorf, Germany: Milupa GmbH, 2004. Reference ranges for blood tests, comparing blood content of ammonia (shown in yellow near middle) with other constituents. Ammonia is important for normal animal acid/base balance. After formation of ammonium from glutamine, α-ketoglutarate may be degraded to produce two molecules of bicarbonate which are then available as buffers for dietary acids. Ammonium is excreted in the urine resulting in net acid loss. Ammonia may itself diffuse across the renal tubules, combine with a hydrogen ion, and thus allow for further acid excretion. Rose, Burton, and Helmut Rennke. Renal Pathophysiology. Baltimore, Maryland: Williams & Wilkins, 1994. Excretion Ammonium ions are a toxic waste product of the metabolism in animals. In fishes and aquatic invertebrates, it is excreted directly into the water. In mammals, sharks, and amphibians, it is converted in the urea cycle to urea, because it is less toxic and can be stored more efficiently. In birds, reptiles, and terrestrial snails, metabolic ammonium is converted into uric acid, which is solid, and can therefore be excreted with minimal water loss. Theoretical role in alternative biochemistry Ammonia has been proposed as a possible replacement for water as a bodily solvent in the theoretical alternative biochemistries of life-forms that do not use carbon for cellular structure and water as a solvent to dissolve bodily solutes and allow essential parts of metabolic processes to occur. It has been suggested that ammonia would be most favorable for life-forms that live in temperatures below the freezing point of water. Liquid ammonia as a solvent See also: Inorganic nonaqueous solvent Liquid ammonia is the best-known and most widely studied non-aqueous ionizing solvent. Its most conspicuous property is its ability to dissolve alkali metals to form highly coloured, electrically conducting solutions containing solvated electrons. Apart from these remarkable solutions, much of the chemistry in liquid ammonia can be classified by analogy with related reactions in aqueous solutions. Comparison of the physical properties of NH3 with those of water shows that NH3 has the lower melting point, boiling point, density, viscosity, dielectric constant and electrical conductivity; this is due at least in part to the weaker H bonding in NH3 and the fact that such bonding cannot form cross-linked networks since each NH3 molecule has only 1 lone-pair of electrons compared with 2 for each H2O molecule. The ionic self-dissociation constant of liquid NH3 at −50 °C is approx. 10−33 mol2·l−2. Solubility of salts Solubility (g of salt per 100 g liquid NH3) Ammonium acetate 253.2 Ammonium nitrate 389.6 Lithium nitrate 243.7 Sodium nitrate 97.6 Potassium nitrate 10.4 Sodium fluoride 0.35 Sodium chloride 3.0 Sodium bromide 138.0 Sodium iodide 161.9 Sodium thiocyanate 205.5 Liquid ammonia is an ionizing solvent, although less so than water, and dissolves a range of ionic compounds including many nitrates, nitrites, cyanides and thiocyanates. Most ammonium salts are soluble, and these salts act as acids in liquid ammonia solutions. The solubility of halide salts increases from fluoride to iodide. A saturated solution of ammonium nitrate contains 0.83 mol solute per mole of ammonia, and has a vapour pressure of less than 1 bar even at 25 °C. Solutions of metals See also: Solvated electron, metallic solution Liquid ammonia will dissolve the alkali metals and other electropositive metals such as calcium, strontium, barium, europium and ytterbium. At low concentrations (<0.06 mol/L), deep blue solutions are formed: these contain metal cations and solvated electrons, free electrons which are surrounded by a cage of ammonia molecules. These solutions are very useful as strong reducing agents. At higher concentrations, the solutions are metallic in appearance and in electrical conductivity. At low temperatures, the two types of solution can coexist as immiscible phases. Redox properties of liquid ammonia See also: Redox. E° (V, ammonia) E° (V, water) Li+ + e− Li −2.24 −3.04 K+ + e− K −1.98 −2.93 Na+ + e− Na −1.85 −2.71 Zn2+ + 2e− Zn −0.53 −0.76 NH4+ + e− ½ H2 + NH3 0.00 – Cu2+ + 2e− Cu +0.43 +0.34 Ag+ + e− Ag +0.83 +0.80 The range of thermodynamic stability of liquid ammonia solutions is very narrow, as the potential for oxidation to dinitrogen, E° (N2 + 6NH4+ + 6e− 8NH3), is only +0.04 V. In practice, both oxidation to dinitrogen and reduction to dihydrogen are slow. This is particularly true of reducing solutions: the solutions of the alkali metals mentioned above are stable for several days, slowly decomposing to the metal amide and dihydrogen. Most studies involving liquid ammonia solutions are done in reducing conditions: although oxidation of liquid ammonia is usually slow, there is still a risk of explosion, particularly if transition metal ions are present as possible catalysts. Detection and determination Ammonia and ammonium salts can be readily detected, in very minute traces, by the addition of Nessler's solution, which gives a distinct yellow coloration in the presence of the least trace of ammonia or ammonium salts. Sulfur sticks are burnt to detect small leaks in industrial ammonia refrigeration systems. Larger quantities can be detected by warming the salts with a caustic alkali or with quicklime, when the characteristic smell of ammonia will be at once apparent. The amount of ammonia in ammonium salts can be estimated quantitatively by distillation of the salts with sodium or potassium hydroxide, the ammonia evolved being absorbed in a known volume of standard sulfuric acid and the excess of acid then determined volumetrically; or the ammonia may be absorbed in hydrochloric acid and the ammonium chloride so formed precipitated as ammonium hexachloroplatinate, (NH4)2PtCl6. Interstellar space Ammonia was first detected in interstellar space in 1968, based on microwave emissions from the direction of the galactic core. A.C. Cheung, D.M. Rank, C.H. Townes, D.D. Thornton, and W.J. Welch, 1968, "Detection of NH3 molecules in the interstellar medium by their microwave emission," Phys. Rev. Lett. 21, 1701. This was the first polyatomic molecule to be so detected. The sensitivity of the molecule to a broad range of excitations and the ease with which it can be observed in a number of regions has made ammonia one of the most important molecules for studies of molecular clouds. P. T. P. Ho and C.H. Townes, 1983, "Interstellar ammonia, Ann. Rev. Astron. Astrophys., vol. 21, pp. 239-70. The relative intensity of the ammonia lines can be used to measure the temperature of the emitting medium. The following isotopic species of ammonia have been detected: NH3, 15NH3, NH2D, NHD2, and ND3 The detection of triply-deuterated ammonia was considered a surprise as deuterium is relatively scarce. It is thought that the low-temperature conditions allow this molecule to survive and accumulate. T. J. Millar, "Deuterium Fractionation in Interstellar Clouds", Space Science Reviews, Vol. 106, Issue 1, pp 73-86. The ammonia molecule has also been detected in the atmospheres of the gas giant planets, including Jupiter, along with other gases like methane, hydrogen, and helium. The interior of Saturn may include frozen crystals of ammonia. Edited by Kirk Munsell. Image page credit Lunar and Planetary Institute. NASA. "NASA's Solar Exploration: Multimedia: Gallery: Gas Giant Interiors". URL accessed April 26, 2006. Since its interstellar discovery, NH3 has proved to be an invaluable spectroscopic tool in the study of the interstellar medium. With a large number of transitions sensitive to a wide range of excitation conditions, NH3 has been widely astronomically detected - its detection has been reported in hundreds of journal articles. Listed below is a sample of journal articles that highlights the range of detectors that have been used to identify ammonia. Single Antenna Detections Wilson et al. 1979 Edited by Jonathan Seale. Wilson, T.L., Downes, D., & Bieging, J. 1979, AAp, 71, 275 "" Radio observations of NH3 from the 100 m Effelsberg Telescope are reported. The ammonia line is separated into two components - a background ridge and an unresolved core. The background corresponds well with the locations previously-detected CO. MacDonald et al. 1981 MacDonald, G.H., Little, L.T., Brown, A.T., Riley, P.W., Matheson, D.N., & Felli, M. 1981, MNRAS, 195, 387 "" Radio observations of NH3 from the 25 m Chilbolton telescope in England are presented. Among the observations are 35 new detections of ammonia in HII regions, HNH2O MASERS, H-H objects, and other objects associated with star formation. A comparison of emission line widths indicates that turbulent or systematic velocities do not increase in the central cores of molecular clouds. Morris et al. 1973 Morris, M., Zuckerman, B., Palmer, P., & Turner, B.E. 1973, APJ, 186, 501 "" Microwave radiation from ammonia was observed in several galactic objects including W3(OH), Orion A, W43, W51, and five sources in the galactic center. The high detection rate indicates that this is a common molecule in the interstellar medium and that high density regions are common in the galaxy. Interferometric studies Torrelles et al. 1985 Torrelles, J.M., Ho, P.T.P., Rodriguez, L.F., & Canto, J. 1985, APJ, 288, 595 "" VLA observations of NH3 in seven regions with high-velocity gaseous outflows is presented. Condensations of less than 0.1 pc were detected in L1551, S140, and Cepheus A. Three individual condensations were detected in Cepheus A, one of them with a highly elongated shape. These condensations may play an important role in creating the bipolar outflow in the region. Ho et al. 1990 Ho, P.T.P., Martin, R.N.,Turner, J.L., & Jackson, J.~M. 1990, APJL, 355, L19 "" Extragalactic ammonia is imaged using the VLA in IC 342. The hot gas has temperatures above 70K inferred from ammonia line ratios and appears to be closely associated with the innermost portions of the nuclear bar seen in CO. Cesaroni et al. 1994 Cesaroni, R., Churchwell, E., Hofner, P., Walmsley, C.~M., & Kurtz, S. 1994, AAP, 288, 903 "" The authors present VLA measurements of NH3 towards a sample of four galactic ultracompact HII regions: G9.62+0.19, G10.47+0.03, G29.96-0.02, and G31.41+0.31. Based upon temperature and density diagnostics, it is concluded that in general such clumps are likely to be the sites of massive star formation in an early evolutionary phase prior to the development of an ultracompact HII region. Infrared detections Knacke et al. 1982 Knacke, R.F., Mc Corkle, S., Puetter, R.C., Erickson, E.F., & Kraetschmer, W. 1982, APJ, 260, 141 "" The authors report the detection of absorption at 2.97 micrometres due to solid ammonia on interstellar grains in the Becklin-Neugebauer object and probably in NGC 2264-IR as well. This detection helps explain the physical shape of previously poorly-understood related ice absorption lines. Orton et al. 1982 Orton, G.S., Aumann, H.H., Martonchik, J.V., & Appleby, J.F. 1982, Icarus, 52, 81 "" A spectrum of the disk of Jupiter was obtained from the Kuiper Airborne Observatory, covering the 100 to 300 cm^−1 spectral range. Analysis of the spectrum provides information on global mean properties of ammonia gas and an ammonia ice haze. Benson & Meyers 1989 Benson, P.J., & Myers, P. 1989, APJS, 71, 89 "" A total of 149 dark cloud positions were surveyed for evidence of 'dense cores' by using the (J,K) = (1,1) rotating inversion line of NH3. The cores are not generally spherically shaped, with aspect ratios ranging from 1.1 to 4 4. It is also found that cores with stars have broader lines than cores without stars. Mebold et al. 1987 Mebold, U., Heithausen, A., & Reif, K. 1987, AAP, 180, 213 "" NH3 has been detected in the Draco Nebula and in one or possibly two molecular clouds which are associated with the high latitude galactic infrared cirrus. The finding is significant because they may represent the birth places for the Population I metallicity B-type stars in the galactic halo which could have been borne in the galactic disk. Astronomical observations and research applications The study of interstellar ammonia has been important to a number of areas of research in the last few decades. Some of these are delineated below and primarily involve using ammonia as an interstellar thermometer. Observations of nearby dark clouds By balancing and stimulated emission with spontaneous emission, it is possible to construct a relation between excitation temperature and density. Moreover, since the transitional levels of ammonia can be approximated by a 2-level system at low temperatures, this calculation is fairly simple. This premise can be applied to dark clouds, regions suspected of having extremely low temperatures and possible sites for future star formation. Detections of ammonia in dark clouds show very narrow lines – indicative not only of low temperatures, but also of a low level of inner-cloud turbulence. Line ratio calculations provide a measurement of cloud temperature that is independent of previously-done CO observations. The ammonia observations were consistent with CO measurements of rotation temperatures of ~10 K. With this, densities can be determined, and have been calculated to range between 104 and 105 cm−3 in dark clouds. Mapping of NH3 gives typical clouds sizes of 0.1 pc and masses near 1 solar mass. These cold, dense cores are the sites of future star formation. UC HII regions Ultra-compact HII regions are among the best tracers of high-mass star formation. The dense material surrounding UCHII regions is likely primarily molecular. Since a complete study of massive star formation necessarily involves the cloud from which the star formed, ammonia is an invaluable tool in understanding this surrounding molecular material. Since this molecular material can be spatially resolved, it is possible to constrain the heating/ionizing sources, temperatures, masses, and sizes of the regions. Doppler-shifted velocity components allow for the separation of distinct regions of molecular gas which can trace outflows and hot cores originating from forming stars. Extragalactic detection NH3 has been detected in external galaxies, and by simultaneously measuring several lines, it is possible to directly measure the gas temperature in these galaxies. Line ratios imply that gas temperatures are warm (~50 K), originating from dense clouds with sizes of tens of pc. This picture is consistent with the picture within our Milky Way galaxy – hot dense molecular cores form around newly-forming stars embedded in larger clouds of molecular material on the scale of several hundred pc (giant molecular clouds; GMCs). Safety precautions Toxicity and storage information Hydrochloric acid sample releasing HCl fumes which are reacting with ammonia fumes to produce a white smoke of ammonium chloride. The toxicity of ammonia solutions does not usually cause problems for humans and other mammals, as a specific mechanism exists to prevent its build-up in the bloodstream. Ammonia is converted to carbamoyl phosphate by the enzyme carbamoyl phosphate synthetase, and then enters the urea cycle to be either incorporated into amino acids or excreted in the urine. However fish and amphibians lack this mechanism, as they can usually eliminate ammonia from their bodies by direct excretion. Ammonia even at dilute concentrations is highly toxic to aquatic animals, and for this reason it is classified as dangerous for the environment. Ammonium compounds should never be allowed to come in contact with bases (unless in an intended and contained reaction), as dangerous quantities of ammonia gas could be released. Household use Solutions of ammonia (5–10% by weight) are used as household cleaners, particularly for glass. These solutions are irritating to the eyes and mucous membranes (respiratory and digestive tracts), and to a lesser extent the skin. Caution should be used that the chemical is never mixed into any liquid containing bleach, or a poisonous gas may result. Mixing with chlorine-containing products or strong oxidants, for example household bleach can lead to hazardous compounds such as chloramines. Laboratory use of ammonia solutions The hazards of ammonia solutions depend on the concentration: "dilute" ammonia solutions are usually 5–10% by weight (<5.62 mol/L); "concentrated" solutions are usually prepared at >25% by weight. A 25% (by weight) solution has a density of 0.907 g/cm³, and a solution which has a lower density will be more concentrated. The European Union classification of ammonia solutions is given in the table. Concentrationby weight (w/w) Molarity ConcentrationMass/Volume (w/v) Classification R-Phrases 5–10% 2.87–5.62 mol/L 48.9–95.7 g/L Irritant (Xi) 10–25% 5.62–13.29 mol/L 95.7–226.3 g/L Corrosive (C) >25% >13.29 mol/L >226.3 g/L Corrosive (C)Dangerous forthe environment (N) , S-Phrases: , , , , . The ammonia vapour from concentrated ammonia solutions is severely irritating to the eyes and the respiratory tract, and these solutions should only be handled in a fume hood. Saturated ("0.880") solutions can develop a significant pressure inside a closed bottle in warm weather, and the bottle should be opened with care: this is not usually a problem for 25% ("0.900") solutions. Ammonia solutions should not be mixed with halogens, as toxic and/or explosive products are formed. Prolonged contact of ammonia solutions with silver, mercury or iodide salts can also lead to explosive products: such mixtures are often formed in qualitative chemical analysis, and should be lightly acidified but not concentrated (<6%w/v) before disposal once the test is completed. Laboratory use of anhydrous ammonia (gas or liquid) Anhydrous ammonia is classified as toxic (T) and dangerous for the environment (N). The gas is flammable (autoignition temperature: 651 °C) and can form explosive mixtures with air (16–25%). The permissible exposure limit (PEL) in the United States is 50 ppm (35 mg/m³), while the IDLH concentration is estimated at 300 ppm. Repeated exposure to ammonia lowers the sensitivity to the smell of the gas: normally the odour is detectable at concentrations of less than 50 ppm, but desensitized individuals may not detect it even at concentrations of 100 ppm. Anhydrous ammonia corrodes copper- and zinc-containing alloys, and so brass fittings should not be used for handling the gas. Liquid ammonia can also attack rubber and certain plastics. Ammonia reacts violently with the halogens. Nitrogen triiodide, a primary high explosive, is formed when ammonia comes in contact with iodine. It causes the explosive polymerization of ethylene oxide. It also forms explosive fulminating compounds with compounds of gold, silver, mercury, germanium or tellurium, and with stibine. Violent reactions have also been reported with acetaldehyde, hypochlorite solutions, potassium ferricyanide and peroxides. Safety The U. S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set a 15-minute exposure limit for gaseous ammonia of 35 ppm by volume in the environmental air and an 8-hour exposure limit of 25 ppm by volume. Toxic FAQ Sheet for Ammonia published by the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR), September 2004 Exposure to very high concentrations of gaseous ammonia can result in lung damage and death. Although ammonia is regulated in the United States as a non-flammable gas, it still meets the definition of a material that is toxic by inhalation and requires a hazardous safety permit when transported in quantities greater than 13,248 L (3,500 gallons). Hazardous Materials (HM) Safety Permits from the website of the United States Department of Transportation (DOT) See also Ammonia (data page) Ammonia production Chlorination Water purification Forming gas References Bibliography External links International Chemical Safety Card 0414 (anhydrous ammonia) International Chemical Safety Card 0215 (aqueous solutions) National Pollutant Inventory - Ammonia Emergency Response to Ammonia Fertilizer Releases (Spills) for the Minnesota Department of Agriculture National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health - Ammonia Page | Ammonia |@lemmatized ammonia:211 compound:18 nitrogen:26 hydrogen:22 formula:2 normally:3 encounter:1 gas:28 characteristic:5 pungent:2 odor:1 contribute:2 significantly:2 nutritional:1 need:1 terrestrial:2 organism:2 serve:1 precursor:4 foodstuff:1 fertilizer:8 either:4 directly:4 indirectly:2 also:31 building:2 block:2 synthesis:6 many:5 pharmaceutical:1 although:13 wide:2 use:51 caustic:2 hazardous:4 worldwide:4 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5,312 | Livonia | Europe in 9th century Livonia (, Latvian and ; ; ; German and Swedish: Livland; , Liwlandia; ) was once the land of the Finnic Livonians inhabiting the principal ancient Livonian County Metsepole with its center at Turaida. The most prominent ruler of the ancient Livonia was Caupo of Turaida. During the Livonian Crusade, ancient Livonia was colonized by the Livonian Brothers of the Sword, later called Livonian Order and the name Livonia came to designate a much broader territory: Terra Mariana on the eastern coasts of the Baltic Sea, in present-day Latvia and Estonia. Its frontiers are the Gulf of Riga and the Gulf of Finland in the north-west, Lake Peipus and Russia to the east, and Lithuania to the south. Livonia was inhabited by various Baltic and Finnic peoples, ruled by an upper class of Baltic Germans. Over the course of time, some nobles were polonized into the Polish-Lithuanian nobility (Szlachta) or russified into the Russian nobility (Dvoryanstvo). History Livonia in Europe, 1190 CE Beginning in the 12th century, Livonia was an area of economic and political expansion by Danes and Germans, particularly by the Hanseatic League and the Cistercian Order. Around 1160, Hanseatic traders from Lübeck established a trading post at the future site of Riga, which Albrecht von Buxthoeven founded in 1201. He ordered the construction of a cathedral and became the first Prince-Bishop of Livonia. Livonian Brothers of the Sword 1204-1237 Baltic Tribes, ca 1200. Bishop Albert of Riga (Albert of Buxhoeveden) founded the military order of the Livonian Brothers of the Sword (, ) in 1202; Pope Innocent III sanctioned the establishment in 1204. The membership of the order comprised German "warrior monks". Alternative names of the order include the Christ Knights, Sword Brethren, and The Militia of Christ of Livonia. Following their defeat by Lithuania in the Battle of Saule in 1236, the surviving Brothers merged into the Teutonic Order as an autonomous branch and became known as the Livonian Order Livonian Brothers Albert, bishop of Riga (or Prince-Bishop of Livonia), founded the Brotherhood to aid the Bishopric of Riga in the conversion of the pagan Curonians, Livonians, Semigallians, and Latgalians living on the shores of the Gulf of Riga. From its foundation, the undisciplined Order tended to ignore its supposed vassalage to the bishops. In 1218, Albert asked King Valdemar II of Denmark for assistance, but Valdemar instead arranged a deal with the Brotherhood and conquered the north of Estonia for Denmark. The Brotherhood had its headquarters at Fellin (Viljandi) in present-day Estonia, where the walls of the Master's castle stand. Other strongholds included Wenden (Cēsis), Segewold (Sigulda) and Ascheraden (Aizkraukle). The commanders of Fellin, Goldingen (Kuldīga), Marienburg (Alūksne), Reval (Tallinn), and the bailiff of Weißenstein (Paide) belonged to the five-member entourage of the Order's Master. Seal of the Livonian Brothers Pope Gregory IX asked the Brothers to defend Finland from the Novgorodian attacks in his letter of November 24, 1232; Letter by Pope Gregory IX. In Latin. Hosted by the National Archive of Finland. See http://www.narc.fi/Arkistolaitos/sahkoiset/ and Diplomatarium Fennicum from the menu. however, no known information regarding the knights' possible activities in Finland has survived. (Sweden eventually took over Finland after the Second Swedish Crusade in 1249.) In the Battle of Saule in 1236 the Lithuanians and Semigallians decimated the Order. This disaster led the surviving Brothers to become incorporated into the Order of Teutonic Knights in the following year, and from that point on they became known as the Livonian Order. They continued, however, to function in all respects (rule, clothing and policy) as an autonomous branch of the Teutonic Order, headed by their own Master (himself de jure subject to the Teutonic Order's Grand Master). Livonian Crusade 1206-1227 Ancient Estonia until September 21, 1217. The Chronicle of Henry of Livonia from the 1220s gives a firsthand account of the Christianization of Livonia, granted as a fief by the Hohenstaufen King of Germany, Philip of Swabia, to Bishop Albert of Buxthoeven, nephew of the Hartwig II, Archbishop of Bremen, who sailed with a convoy of ships filled with armed crusaders to carve out a Catholic territory in the east during the Livonian Crusade. Monastic state of the Teutonic Knights 1224-1237 Monastic State of the Teutonic Knights. From 1236, Livonia consisted of the following subdivisions: a state ruled by the Livonian Order founded by Albert in 1202, which was assimilated into the Teutonic Knights in 1237; the Bishopric of Riga (an archbishopric since 1255); the Bishoprics of Courland, Ösel-Wiek, and Dorpat, where Albert's brother Hermann established himself as the prince-bishop (Terra Mariana). The conquest of Livonia by the Germans is described in the Livonian Rhymed Chronicle. Livonian Order 1237-1561 Europe, 1328. The Livonian Order was a largely autonomous branch of the Teutonic Knights (or Teutonic Order) and a member of the Livonian Confederation from 1418–1561. After being defeated by Lithuania in the 1236 Battle of Saule, the remnants of the Livonian Brothers of the Sword were incorporated into the Teutonic Knights as the Livonian Order in 1237. Between 1237 and 1290, the Livonian Order conquered all of Courland, Livonia, and Semigallia, but their attack on northern Russia was repelled in the Battle of Wesenberg (Rakovor) (1268). In 1346, the Order bought the rest of Estonia from King Valdemar IV of Denmark. Life within the Order's territory is described in the Chronicle of Henry of Livonia and the Livonian Rhymed Chronicle. The Teutonic Order fell into decline following its defeat in the Battle of Grunwald in 1410 and the secularization of its Prussian territories by Albert of Brandenburg in 1525, but the Livonian Order managed to maintain an independent existence. During many years of Livonian War (1558-1582), however, they suffered a decisive defeat by troops of Muscovite Russia in the Battle of Ergeme in 1560 and continued living under great threat. Letters to the Emperor arrived from many European countries, warning, that Moscow has its eyes on much more than only a few harbors or the province of Liefland... the East Sea (Ostsee-Baltic Sea and the West Sea (Atlantic) are equally in danger. Duke Barnim the Elder, 50 years duke of Pomerania, warned, that never before did he experience the fear than now, where even in his land, where people send by Moscow are everywhere. At stake was the Narwa-Trade-Route and practially all trade of all Northern and with that all of Europe. Due to religious upheavals of the Reformation the empire could not send troops, which it could not afford and which were too far away anyway. Prussia was not able to help for much of the same reason and Duke Albrecht was under continous ban by the emperor. The Hanseatic League was greatly weakened by this and the city state of Luebeck fought its last great war. The emperor Maximilian II diffused the greatest threat by remaining on friendly terms with the czar, but not sending him troops as requested, in his struggles with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Czar Ivan of Moscow installed Duke Magnus as King of Livonia. This was opposed be the other forces. The Livonian Order saw no other way than to seek protection from Sigismund II Augustus, the King of Poland and the Grand Duke of Lithuania, who had intervened in a war between Bishop William of Riga and the Brothers in 1557. After coming to an agreement with Sigismund II Augustus and his representatives (especially Mikołaj "the Black" Radziwiłł), the last Livonian Master, Gotthard Kettler, secularized the Order and converted to Lutheranism. In the southern part of the Brothers' lands he created the Duchy of Courland and Semigallia for his family. Most of the remaining lands were seized by the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The north of Estonia was taken back by Denmark and Sweden. Livonian Confederation 1418-1561 Medieval Livonia ca. 1260. The 5 Ecclesiastical states of the Holy Roman Empire in Medieval Livonia were organized into the Livonian Confederation in 1418 The History of the Baltic States By Kevin O'Connor; ISBN 0313323550; p. 23 A diet or Landtag was formed in 1419. The city of Walk was chosen as the site of the diet. Livonian War 1558-1582 Europe, 1550. Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor once again asked for help of Gustav I of Sweden, and The Kingdom of Poland (1385–1569) also began direct negotiations with Gustavus, but nothing resulted because on September 29, 1560, Gustavus I Vasa died. The chances for success of Magnus and his supporters looked particularly good in 1560 (and 1570). In the former case, he had been recognised as their sovereign by The Bishopric of Ösel-Wiek and The Bishopric of Courland, and as their prospective ruler by the authorities of The Bishopric of Dorpat; The Bishopric of Reval with the Harrien-Wierland gentry were on his side; Livonian Order conditionally recognised his right of ownership of Estonia (Principality of Estonia). Then along with Archbishop Wilhelm von Brandenburg of The Archbishopric of Riga and his Coadjutor Christoph von Mecklenburg, Kettler gave to Magnus the portions of The Kingdom of Livonia, which he had taken possession of, but they refused to give him any more land. Once Eric XIV of Sweden became king he took quick actions to get involved in the war. He negotiated a continued peace with Muscovy and spoke to the burghers of Reval city. He offered them goods to submit to him as well as threatening them. By June 6, 1561 they submitted to him contrary to the persuasions of Kettler to the burghers. The King's brother Johan married the Polish princess Catherine Jagiellon. Wanting to obtain his own land in Livonia, he loaned Poland money and then claimed the castles they had pawned as his own instead of using them to pressure Poland. After Johan returned to Finland, Erik XIV forbade him to deal with any foreign countries without his consent. Shortly after that Erik XIV started acting quickly lost any allies he was about to obtain, either from Magnus or the Archbishop of Riga. Magnus was upset he had been tricked out of his inheritance of Holstein. After Sweden occupied Reval, Frederick II of Denmark made a treaty with Erik XIV of Sweden in August 1561. The brothers were in great disagreement and Frederick II negotiated a treaty with Ivan IV on August 7, 1562 in order to help his brother obtain more land and stall further Swedish advance. Erik XIV did not like this and The Northern Seven Years' War between The Free City of Lübeck, Denmark, Poland, and Sweden broke out. While only losing land and trade, Frederick II and Magnus were not faring well. But in 1568 Erik XIV became insane and his brother Johan III took his place. Johan III ascended to the throne of Sweden and due to his friendship with Poland he began a policy against Muscovy. He would try to obtain more land in Livonia and exercise strength over Denmark. After all parties had been financially drained, Frederick II let his ally, King Sigismund II Augustus of Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, know that he was ready for peace. On December 15, 1570, the Treaty of Stettin was concluded. It is, however, more difficult to estimate the scope and magnitude of the support Magnus received in Livonian cities. Compared to the Harrien-Wierland gentry, the Reval city council, and hence probably the majority of citizens, demonstrated a much more reserved attitude towards Denmark and King Magnus of Livonia. Nevertheless, there is no reason to speak about any strong pro-Swedish sentiments among the residents of Reval. The citizens who had fled to The Bishopric of Dorpat or had been deported to Muscovy hailed Magnus as their saviour until 1571. The analysis indicates that during the Livonian War a pro-independence wing emerged among the Livonian gentry and townspeople, forming the so-called "Peace Party". Dismissing hostilities, these forces perceived an agreement with Muscovy as a chance to escape the atrocities of war and avoid the division of Livonia. That is why Magnus, who represented Denmark and later struck a deal with Ivan the Terrible, proved a suitable figurehead for this faction. The Peace Party, however, had its own armed forces – scattered bands of household troops (Hofleute) under diverse command, which only united in action in 1565 (Battle of Pärnu, 1565 and Siege of Reval, 1565), in 1570 – 1571 (Siege of Reval, 1570-1571; 30 weeks), and in 1574 – 1576 (first on Sweden’s side, then came the sale of Wiek to the Danish Crown, and the loss of the territory to Muscovites). In 1575 after Muscovy attacked Danish claims in Livonia, Frederick II dropped out of the competition as well as the Holy Roman Emperor. After this Johan III held off on his pursuit for more land due to Muscovy obtaining lands that Sweden controlled. He used the next two years of truce to get in a better position. In 1578, he resumed the fight for not only Livonia, but also everywhere due to an understanding he made with Rzeczpospolita. In 1578 Magnus retired to Rzeczpospolita and his brother all but gave up the land in Livonia. Duchy of Livonia 1561-1621 In 1561, during the Livonian War, Livonia fell to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania with vassal dependency from Lithuania. Eight years later, in 1569, when the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Kingdom of Poland formed Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Livonia became a joint domain administered directly by the king and grand duke. Having rejected peace proposals from its enemies, Ivan the Terrible found himself in a difficult position by 1579, when Crimean Khanate devastated Muscovian territories and burnt down Moscow (see Russo-Crimean Wars), the drought and epidemics have fatally affected the economy, Oprichnina had thoroughly disrupted the government, while The Grand Principality of Lithuania had united with The Kingdom of Poland (1385–1569) and acquired an energetic leader, Stefan Batory, supported by Ottoman Empire (1576). Stefan Batory replied with a series of three offensives against Muscovy, trying to cut The Kingdom of Livonia from Muscovian territories. During his first offensive in 1579, with 22,000 men, he retook Polotsk; during the second, in 1580, with 29,000-strong army, he took Velikie Luki, and in 1581 with a 100,000-strong army he started the Siege of Pskov. Frederick II of Denmark and Norway had trouble continuing the fight against Muscovy unlike Sweden and Poland. He came to an agreement with John III in 1580 giving him the titles in Livonia. That war would last from 1577 to 1582. Muscovy recognized Polish-Lithuanian control of Ducatus Ultradunensis only in 1582. After Magnus von Lyffland died in 1583, Poland invaded his territories in The Duchy of Courland and Frederick II decided to sell his rights of inheritance. Except for the island of Œsel, Denmark was out of the Baltic by 1585. As of 1598 Inflanty Voivodeship was divided onto: Wenden Voivodeship (województwo wendeńskie, Kieś) Dorpat Voivodeship (województwo dorpackie, Dorpat) Parnawa Voivodeship (województwo parnawskie, Parnawa) Kingdom of Livonia 1570-1578 The armies of Ivan the Terrible were initially successful, taking Polock (1563) and Parnawa (1575) and overrunning much of Grand Duchy of Lithuania up to Vilnius. Eventually, Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Kingdom of Poland formed Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1569 under the Union of Lublin. Eric XIV of Sweden did not like this and The Northern Seven Years' War between Free City of Lübeck, Denmark, Poland, and Sweden broke out. While only losing land and trade, Frederick II of Denmark and Magnus von Lyffland of Œsel-Wiek were not faring well. But in 1569, Erik XIV became insane and his brother John III of Sweden took his place. After all parties had been financially drained, Frederick II let his ally, King Zygmunt II August, know that he was ready for peace. On December 15, 1570, the Treaty of Stettin was concluded. Livonia, as shown in the map of 1573 of Joann Portantius. In the next phase of the conflict, in 1577 Ivan IV took opportunity of the Commonwealth internal strife (called the war against Gdańsk in Polish historiography), and during the reign of Stefan Batory in Poland invaded Livonia, quickly taking almost the entire territory, with the exception of Riga and Rewel. In 1578, Magnus of Livonia recognized the sovereignty of Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (not ratified by the Sejm of Poland-Lithuania, or recognized by Denmark). The Kingdom of Livonia was beaten back by Muscovy on all fronts. In 1578, Magnus of Livonia retired to The Bishopric of Courland and his brother all but gave up the land in Livonia. Swedish Livonia 1629-1721 Europe, 1648. Sweden was given roughly the same area as the former Duchy of Livonia after the 1626-1629 Polish-Swedish War. The area, usually known as Swedish Livonia, became a very important Swedish dominion, with Riga being the second largest Swedish city and Livonia paying for one third of the Swedish war costs. Sweden lost Swedish Livonia, Swedish Estonia and Ingria to Russia almost 100 years later, at the Treaty of Nystad in 1721. Livonian Voivodeship 1620s-1772 Inflanty Voivodeship, 1620s-1772. The Livonian Voivodeship (; ) was a unit of administrative division and local government in the Duchy of Livonia, part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, since it was formed in the 1620s out of the Wenden Voivodeship till the First Partition of Poland in 1772. Inflanty 1660-1772 Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, 1686. The portion of Livonia remaining in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth after the Treaty of Oliva in 1660 was known as Polish Livonia, or Inflanty Voivodeship. It consisted mainly of the southern Latvian region Latgale within the Inflanty Voivodeship with the capital of Daugavpils, or Dyneburg. This division of Livonia was codified in the Treaty of Oliva in 1660. Riga Governorate 1721-1796 Europe, 1740. The Russian Empire conquered Swedish Livonia during the course of the Great Northern War and acquired the province at the Treaty of Nystad in 1721. Russia then added Polish Livonia in 1772 during the Partitions of Poland. Governorate of Livonia 1796-1918 Europe, 1815. In 1796 the Riga Governorate was renamed as the Governorate of Livonia (, , ). Livonia remained within the Russian Empire until the end of World War I, when it was split between the newly independent states of Latvia and Estonia. In 1918–1920, both Soviet troops and German Freikorps fought against Latvian and Estonian troops for control over Livonia, but their attempts were defeated. Governors-General of Estonia, Livonia, and Courland 1845-1876 Livonia, 1898. From 1845 to 1876, the Baltic governorates of Estonia, Livonia, and Courland—an area roughly corresponding to the historical medieval Livonia —were administratively subordinated to a common Governor-General. The Baltic Amongst the holders of this post were Count Alexander Arkadyevich Suvorov Suvorov A.A. governor-general in 1861-66 :: ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF SAINT PETERSBURG and Count Pyotr Andreyevich Shuvalov. United Baltic Duchy 1918-1919 United Baltic Duchy (light brown). The United Baltic Duchy () was a short-lived state constructed in 1918. The duchy's creation was made possible through the German Empire's occupation of the territory covering what are now Latvia and Estonia before the end of World War I. On March 8 and April 12 1918 the local Baltic German-dominated Kurländische Landesrat and the Vereinigter Landesrat of Livland, Estland, Riga, and Ösel had declared themselves independent states, known as the Duchy of Courland (Herzogtum Kurland) and Baltic State (Baltischer Staat), respectively. Both states proclaimed themselves to be in personal union with the Kingdom of Prussia, although the German government never responded to acknowledge that claim. These Baltic lands were nominally recognized as a sovereign state by Kaiser William II only on September 22, 1918, half a year after Soviet Russia had formally relinquished all authority over its former Imperial Baltic provinces to Germany in the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. On November 5, 1918, a temporary Regency Council (Regentschaftsrat) for the new state led by Baron Adolf Pilar von Pilchau was formed on a joint basis from the two local Land Councils. Vidzeme in Independent Latvia 1918-1940 Latvia around Riga, Estonia around Tallinn in 1920. In independent Latvia between the World Wars, southern Livonia became an administrative region under the traditional Latvian name Vidzeme, encompassing the then much larger counties of Riga, Cēsis, Valmiera, and Valka. Ostland 1941-1944 Nazi German advances 22 June to 25 August 1941. Ostland was one of the Reichskommissariats established, by a Decree of the Führer dated 17 July 1941, as administrative units of the "Großdeutsches Reich" (Greater Germany). They were subject to Reichsleiter Alfred Rosenberg, Minister für die besetzten Ostgebiete (Reich Ministry for the Occupied Eastern Territories). The structure of the Reichskommissariats was defined by the same decree. Local administration in the Reichskommissariats was to be organized under a "National Director" (Reichskomissar) in Estonia, a "General Director" in Latvia and a "General Adviser" in Lithuania. The local administration of the Reichskommissariat Ostland was under Reichskomissar Hinrich Lohse. Below him there was an administrative hierarchy: a Generalkomissar led each Generalbezirke, Gebietskomissars and Hauptkommissars administered Kreigsbietes and Hauptgenbietes, respectively. Rosenberg's ministerial authority was, in practice, severely limited. The first reason was that many of the practicalities were commanded elsewhere: the Wehrmacht and the SS managed the military and security aspects, Fritz Saukel (Reich Director of Labour) had control over manpower and working areas, Hermann Göring and Albert Speer had total management of economic aspects in the territories and the Reich postal service administered the East territories' postal services. These German central government interventions in the affairs of Ostland, overriding the appropriate ministries was known as "Sonderverwaltungen" (special administration). Later, from September, the civil administration that had been decreed in the previous July was actually set up. Lohse and, for that matter, Koch would not bow to his authority seeking to administer their territories with the independence and authority of gauleiters. on 1 April 1942 an arbeitsbereich (lit. "working sphere", a name for the party cadre organisation outside the reich proper) was established in the civil administration part of the occupied Soviet territories, whereupon Koch and Lohse gradually ceased communication with him preferring to deal directly with Hitler through Martin Bormann and the party chancellery. In the process they also displaced all other actors including notably the SS, except in central Belarus where HSSPF 'Erich von dem Bach-Zelewsky had a special command encompassing both military and civil administration territories and engaged in "anti-partisan" atrocities. Baltic countries since 1990 Baltic countries today. The historical land of Livonia has been split between Latvia and Estonia ever since. The native Livonian language is still spoken by some individuals (far less than 100), but is understood to be fast approaching extinction. The anthem (unofficial) of Livonians is Min izāmō, min sindimō sharing the melody of Finnish and Estonian anthems. See also Bishopric of Reval Courland Livonian Coast Duchy of CourlandHistory of Estonia History of Latvia History of Lithuania History of Poland External links Deutsch-Baltische Ritterschaften in Livland, Kurland, Estland, Oesel Die Geschichte der Deutschen im Baltikum Die Livländische Ritterschaft Joann Portantiuse Liivimaa kaart 1573. aastast Karten LETTLAND: GESCHICHTEЛИФЛЯНДИЯ Liivimaa kaart Livland Livonian History by Uldis Balodis Estonian Manors Portal the English version includes the description of 438 well-preserved historical manors of nowadays Estonia (historically - northern part of Old-Livonia/Alt-Livland) Notes and references In-line: | Livonia |@lemmatized europe:8 century:2 livonia:61 latvian:4 german:11 swedish:13 livland:5 liwlandia:1 land:17 finnic:2 livonian:41 inhabit:2 principal:1 ancient:4 county:2 metsepole:1 center:1 turaida:2 prominent:1 ruler:2 caupo:1 crusade:4 colonize:1 brother:20 sword:5 later:5 call:3 order:29 name:4 come:4 designate:1 much:6 broad:1 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firsthand:1 account:1 christianization:1 grant:1 fief:1 hohenstaufen:1 germany:3 philip:1 swabia:1 nephew:1 hartwig:1 archbishop:3 bremen:1 sail:1 convoy:1 ship:1 fill:1 armed:2 crusader:1 carve:1 catholic:1 monastic:2 state:13 consist:2 subdivision:1 assimilate:1 archbishopric:2 since:4 courland:10 ösel:3 wiek:4 dorpat:5 hermann:2 conquest:1 describe:2 rhymed:2 largely:1 confederation:3 remnant:1 incorporate:1 semigallia:2 northern:6 repel:1 wesenberg:1 rakovor:1 buy:1 rest:1 iv:3 life:1 within:3 fell:2 decline:1 grunwald:1 secularization:1 prussian:1 brandenburg:2 manage:2 maintain:1 independent:5 existence:1 many:3 war:19 suffer:1 decisive:1 troop:6 muscovite:2 ergeme:1 great:6 threat:2 emperor:5 arrive:1 european:1 country:4 warning:1 moscow:4 eye:1 harbor:1 province:3 liefland:1 ostsee:1 atlantic:1 equally:1 danger:1 duke:6 barnim:1 elder:1 pomerania:1 warn:1 never:2 experience:1 fear:1 even:1 send:3 everywhere:2 stake:1 narwa:1 trade:4 route:1 practially:1 due:4 religious:1 upheaval:1 reformation:1 empire:6 could:2 afford:1 far:2 away:1 anyway:1 prussia:2 able:1 help:3 reason:3 continous:1 ban:1 greatly:1 weaken:1 city:8 luebeck:1 fight:4 last:3 maximilian:1 diffuse:1 remain:4 friendly:1 term:1 czar:2 request:1 struggle:1 commonwealth:9 ivan:6 instal:1 magnus:15 oppose:1 force:3 saw:1 way:1 seek:2 protection:1 sigismund:3 augustus:3 poland:17 intervene:1 william:2 agreement:3 representative:1 especially:1 mikołaj:1 black:1 radziwiłł:1 gotthard:1 kettler:3 secularize:1 convert:1 lutheranism:1 southern:3 part:4 create:1 duchy:16 family:1 seize:1 back:2 medieval:3 ecclesiastical:1 holy:3 roman:3 organize:2 kevin:1 connor:1 isbn:1 p:1 diet:2 landtag:1 form:6 walk:1 choose:1 ferdinand:1 gustav:1 kingdom:9 also:4 direct:1 negotiation:1 gustavus:2 nothing:1 result:1 vasa:1 die:5 chance:2 success:1 supporter:1 look:1 good:3 former:3 case:1 recognise:2 sovereign:2 prospective:1 authority:5 harrien:2 wierland:2 gentry:3 side:2 conditionally:1 right:2 ownership:1 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5,313 | Oberkommando_des_Heeres | The Oberkommando des Heeres (OKH) was Germany's Army High Command from 1936 to 1945. In theory the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht (OKW) commanded the OKH. However, the de facto situation after 1941 was that the OKW directly commanded operations on the Western front while the OKH commanded the Eastern front. There also existed the Oberkommando der Marine (OKM) and the Oberkommando der Luftwaffe (OKL) for the navy and the air force respectively. These were theoretically subordinate to the OKW, but in actuality acted quite independently. The Army commanders (Oberbefehlshaber des Heeres, or OBdH for short) of the Wehrmacht were, from 1935 to 1938, Generaloberst Werner von Fritsch; from 1938 to 19 December 1941, Generalfeldmarschall Walther von Brauchitsch; from 19 December 1941 to 30 April 1945, Führer and Reichskanzler Adolf Hitler; and from 30 April 1945 to 8 May 1945, Generalfeldmarschall Ferdinand Schörner. Following German tradition the OBdH did not plan operations. This task was left to the General Staff, so actually the most important man in the Army (and the Navy, but less so in the Luftwaffe, which was commanded by Hermann Göring) was the chief of the general staff (Chef des Generalstabs des Heeres, or Chef GenStdH for short). It should be noted that the Heer (army) always has been the leading factor in planning campaigns. Thus there was no such thing as combined planning of the different services. The position of Oberkommando der Wehrmacht, which was by definition superior to the OKH, was not intended for that, nor did it have the resources to do so. Later in the war, the OKH became responsible for fewer and fewer tasks, with Adolf Hitler, assisted by the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht (OKW), taking an increasing role in the planning and running of operations. For example, the invasion of Norway was entirely planned outside the OKH. During the April 1945 allied campaign towards Berlin, the disputes between the OKH and the OKW involving strategic priorities were commonplace. Stemming from the fact that the eastern front was the responsibility of the OKH, Field Marshal Wilhelm Keitel displayed callous disregard for German failures against the Russians. General Heinz Guderian, then chief of the army high command was more than apathetic towards Keitel for his lack of support in convincing Hitler to emphasize troop increases to counter Russian advances east of the Oder. The executive capabilities of the army general staff were deliberately reduced following the July 20 assassination attempt on Hitler after which he himself assumed more expanded roles for military planning and operations. Although both the OKW and the OKH were headquartered in Zossen during the Third Reich, the functional and operational independence of both establishments were not lost on the respective staff during their tenure. Personnel at the sprawling Zossen compound remarked that even if the OKW (designated Maybach 2) complex was completely destroyed the employees of Maybach 1 would scarcely notice. Both the camouflaged facilities separated physically by a fence also maintained structurally different mindsets towards their objectives. On 28 April 1945 (2 days before his suicide) Hitler placed OKH under OKW giving OKW command of forces on the Eastern Front. Howard D. Grier. Hitler, Dönitz, and the Baltic Sea, Naval Institute Press, 2007, ISBN 1591143454. p. 121 During the Third Reich, the Chiefs of General Staff were, from 1 October 1933 - 27 August 1938, General Ludwig Beck from 1 September 1938 to 24 September 1942, Generaloberst Franz Halder; from 24 September 1942 to 10 June 1944, Generaloberst Kurt Zeitzler; from 10 June 1944 to 21 July 1944, Generalleutnant Adolf Heusinger; from 21 July 1944 to 28 March 1945, Generaloberst Heinz Guderian; and from 1 April 1945 to 30 April 1945, General der Infanterie Hans Krebs. When Hitler took command of the army on 19 December 1941, the importance of the GenStdH decreased, and Hitler continued to become more and more responsible for operational planning. The flag for the Commander-In-Chief of the German Army The design of this command flag was very simple. It only displayed the basic German nationalist colors of red, white and a black Iron Cross. For display on a motor vehicle the 30 cm square flag was encased in a metal frame and held in place by a double-sided, clear perspex cover. As the Commander-In-Chief of the German Army inevitably held the rank of a generalfeldmarschall, the vehicle flag for this rank usually was displayed in conjunction with the command flag on the same vehicle. The flag for the Chief of the German Army General Staff This special flag was introduced only on 1 September 1944. At this time the office was held by Generaloberst Heinz Guderian. Because of some violent disputes with Hitler he was sent on leave on 28 March 1945, only 38 days before the end of the war. So it came that this flag was closely associated with Guderian. The flag was similar in certain aspects to the flag used by the Commander-In-Chief of the German Army. The differences were that four golden eagles had been added to the corners of the flag. Moreover a white swastika was placed on the Iron Cross in the center of the flag. See also Glossary of WWII German military terms References | Oberkommando_des_Heeres |@lemmatized oberkommando:6 des:2 heeres:3 okh:10 germany:1 army:11 high:2 command:10 theory:1 der:6 wehrmacht:4 okw:9 however:1 de:3 facto:1 situation:1 directly:1 operation:4 western:1 front:4 eastern:3 also:3 exist:1 marine:1 okm:1 luftwaffe:2 okl:1 navy:2 air:1 force:2 respectively:1 theoretically:1 subordinate:1 actuality:1 act:1 quite:1 independently:1 commander:4 oberbefehlshaber:1 obdh:2 short:2 generaloberst:5 werner:1 von:2 fritsch:1 december:3 generalfeldmarschall:3 walther:1 brauchitsch:1 april:6 führer:1 reichskanzler:1 adolf:3 hitler:9 may:1 ferdinand:1 schörner:1 following:1 german:8 tradition:1 plan:2 task:2 leave:2 general:8 staff:6 actually:1 important:1 man:1 less:1 hermann:1 göring:1 chief:7 chef:2 generalstabs:1 genstdh:2 note:1 heer:1 always:1 lead:1 factor:1 planning:5 campaign:2 thus:1 thing:1 combined:1 different:2 service:1 position:1 definition:1 superior:1 intend:1 resource:1 later:1 war:2 become:2 responsible:2 assist:1 take:2 increase:2 role:2 running:1 example:1 invasion:1 norway:1 entirely:1 outside:1 ally:1 towards:3 berlin:1 dispute:2 involve:1 strategic:1 priority:1 commonplace:1 stem:1 fact:1 responsibility:1 field:1 marshal:1 wilhelm:1 keitel:2 display:4 callous:1 disregard:1 failure:1 russian:2 heinz:3 guderian:4 apathetic:1 lack:1 support:1 convince:1 emphasize:1 troop:1 counter:1 advance:1 east:1 oder:1 executive:1 capability:1 deliberately:1 reduce:1 follow:1 july:3 assassination:1 attempt:1 assume:1 expanded:1 military:2 although:1 headquarter:1 zossen:2 third:2 reich:2 functional:1 operational:2 independence:1 establishment:1 lose:1 respective:1 tenure:1 personnel:1 sprawl:1 compound:1 remark:1 even:1 designate:1 maybach:2 complex:1 completely:1 destroy:1 employee:1 would:1 scarcely:1 notice:1 camouflaged:1 facility:1 separate:1 physically:1 fence:1 maintain:1 structurally:1 mindset:1 objective:1 day:2 suicide:1 place:3 give:1 howard:1 grier:1 dönitz:1 baltic:1 sea:1 naval:1 institute:1 press:1 isbn:1 p:1 october:1 august:1 ludwig:1 beck:1 september:4 franz:1 halder:1 june:2 kurt:1 zeitzler:1 generalleutnant:1 heusinger:1 march:2 infanterie:1 hans:1 krebs:1 importance:1 decrease:1 continue:1 flag:12 design:1 simple:1 basic:1 nationalist:1 color:1 red:1 white:2 black:1 iron:2 cross:2 motor:1 vehicle:3 cm:1 square:1 encase:1 metal:1 frame:1 hold:3 double:1 side:1 clear:1 perspex:1 cover:1 inevitably:1 rank:2 usually:1 conjunction:1 special:1 introduce:1 time:1 office:1 violent:1 send:1 end:1 come:1 closely:1 associate:1 similar:1 certain:1 aspect:1 use:1 difference:1 four:1 golden:1 eagle:1 add:1 corner:1 moreover:1 swastika:1 center:1 see:1 glossary:1 wwii:1 term:1 reference:1 |@bigram oberkommando_der:5 de_facto:1 walther_von:1 adolf_hitler:2 hermann_göring:1 heinz_guderian:3 third_reich:2 baltic_sea:1 franz_halder:1 commander_chief:3 |
5,314 | Noah | The Deluge, Gustave Doré, 1832-1883. From the Dore Illustrated Bible, 1865. Noah (or Noe, Noach; ; ;Arabic: نوح ; "Rest" http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Noah Meaning of Noah ) was, according to the Bible, the tenth and last of the antediluvian Patriarchs; and a prophet according to the Qur'an. The biblical story of Noah is contained in the book of Genesis, chapters 6-9 he is also found in the passage 'Noah's sons", while the Qur'an has a whole sura named after and devoted to his story, with other references elsewhere. In the Genesis account, Noah saves his family and representatives of all animals in groups of two or seven from the flood. In the Islamic account, a group of 72 others are also saved (although none reproduce after the flood). Noah's Ark - Jewish Encyclopedia He receives a covenant from God, and his sons repopulate the earth. While the Deluge and Noah's Ark are the best-known elements of the Noah tradition, Noah is also mentioned in Genesis as the "first husbandman" and possibly the inventor of wine, as noted in an episode of his drunkenness and the subsequent Curse of Ham. The account of Noah is the subject of much elaboration in the later Abrahamic traditions, and was immensely influential in Western culture. Jewish thinkers have debated the extent of Noah's righteousness. Christians have likened the Christian Church to Noah's ark (). Tradition The following section is a summary of the Book of Genesis, chapters 6–9. Noah was the son of Lamech, who had named him Noah (Hebrew "rest") because he would bring rest from toil on the land which God had cursed (a reference to the curse God places on the earth following the expulsion from Eden). see Rashi's comment at In his five hundredth year Noah had three sons, Shem, Ham, and Japheth. When Noah was six hundred years old, God, saddened at the wickedness of mankind, decided to send a great deluge to destroy all life. But he saw that Noah was a righteous man, and instructed him to build an ark and gather himself and his family with every type of animal, male and female. And so the Flood came, and all life was extinguished, except for those who were with Noah, "and the waters prevailed upon the earth for one-hundred and fifty days" until the Ark came to rest on the mountains of Ararat. There Noah built an altar to God (the first altar mentioned in the Bible) and made an offering. "And when the Lord smelled the pleasing odour, the Lord said in his heart, 'I will never again curse the ground because of man, for the inclination of man's heart is evil from his youth; neither will I ever again destroy every living creature as I have done. While the earth remains, seed-time and harvest, cold and heat, summer and winter, day and night, shall not cease'." Then God made a covenant: Noah and his descendants would henceforth be free to eat meat ("every moving thing that lives shall be food for you, and as I gave you the green plants, I give you everything"), and the animals would fear man; and in return, man was forbidden to eat "flesh with its life, that is, its blood." And God forbade murder, and gave a commandment: "Be fruitful and multiply, bring forth abundantly on the earth and multiply in it." And as a sign of His covenant, He set the rainbow in the sky, "the sign of the covenant which I have established between me and all flesh that is upon the earth." After the Flood, "Noah was the first tiller of the soil. He planted a vineyard; and he drank of the wine, and became drunk, and lay uncovered in his tent." Noah's son Ham saw his father naked and informed his brothers, who covered Noah while averting their eyes. Noah awoke and cursed Ham's son Canaan with eternal slavery, while giving his blessing to Shem and Japheth: ""Blessed be the LORD, the God of Shem! May Canaan be the slave of Shem. May God extend the territory of Japheth, may Japheth live in the tents of Shem, and may Canaan be his slave." Noah died 350 years after the Flood, at the age of 950, the last of the immensely long-lived antediluvian Patriarchs. The maximum human lifespan, as depicted by the Bible, diminishes rapidly thereafter, from as much as 900 years to the 120 years of Moses within just a few generations. Another few generations later, lifespans were reported to be less than 100 years on average. Jewish perspectives The Sacrifice of Noah, Jacopo Bassano (c.1515-1592), Staatliche Schlösser und Gärten, Potsdam-Sanssouci, c. 1574. The righteousness of Noah is the subject of much discussion among the rabbis. The description of Noah as "righteous in his generation" implied to some that his perfection was only relative: In his generation of wicked people, he could be considered righteous, but in the generation of a tzadik like Abraham, he would not be considered so righteous. They point out that Noah did not pray to God on behalf of those about to be destroyed, as Abraham prayed for the wicked of Sodom and Gomorrah. In fact, Noah is never seen to speak; he simply listens to God and acts on his orders. This led such commentators to offer the figure of Noah as "the man in a fur coat," who ensured his own comfort while ignoring his neighbour. Others, such as the medieval commentator Rashi, held on the contrary that the building of the Ark was stretched over 120 years, deliberately in order to give sinners time to repent. Rashi interprets his father's statement of the naming of Noah (in Hebrew נֹחַ) “This one will comfort (in Hebrew– yeNaHamainu יְנַחֲמֵנו) from our work and our hands sore from the land that the Lord had cursed”,(Genesis 5:28), by saying Noah heralded a new era of prosperity, when(1) there was easing (in Hebrew – nahah - נחה) from the curse from the time of Adam when the Earth produced thorns and thistles even where men sowed wheat and (2) that Noah introduced the plow. Christian perspectives The Gospel of Luke, (Luke17:26), equates Noah's Flood with the coming Day of Judgement: “Just as it was in the days of Noah, so too it will be in the days of the Son of Man.” Noah is called a "preacher of righteousness" in 2 Peter 2:5, and the First Epistle of Peter equates the saving power of baptism with the Ark saving those who were in it. In later Christian thought, the Ark came to be equated with the Church: salvation was to be found only within Christ and his Lordship, as in Noah's time it had been found only within the Ark. St Augustine of Hippo (354-430), demonstrated in The City of God that the dimensions of the Ark corresponded to the dimensions of the human body, which corresponds to the body of Christ; the equation of Ark and Church is still found in the Anglican rite of baptism, which asks God, "who of thy great mercy didst save Noah," to receive into the Church the infant about to be baptised. Noah's three sons were generally interpreted in medieval Christianity as the founders of the populations of the three known continents, Japheth/Europe, Shem/Asia, and Ham/Africa, although a rarer variation held that they represented the three classes of medieval society - the priests (Shem), the warriors (Japheth), and the peasants (Ham). In the 18th and 19th centuries the view that Ham's sons in general had been literally "blackened" by sin came to provide a religious justification for slavery. Latter-day Saint perspectives In Latter-day Saint theology, the archangel Gabriel lived in his mortal life as the patriarch Noah. Gabriel and Noah are regarded as the same individual; Noah being his mortal name and Gabriel being his heavenly name. Joseph Smith, Jr., address at Commerce (later Nauvoo), Illinois, June 2, 1839 See also: Michael (archangel) ~ Adam Gnostic perspectives Gnosticism was an important development of (and departure from) early Christianity, blending Jewish scriptures and Christian teachings with traditional pagan religion and esoteric Greek philosophical concepts. An important Gnostic text, the Apocryphon of John, reports that the chief archon caused the flood because he desired to destroy the world he had made, but the First Thought informed Noah of the chief archon's plans, and Noah informed the remainder of humanity. Unlike the account of Genesis, not only are Noah's family saved, but many others also heed Noah's call. There is no ark in this account; instead Noah and the others hide in a "luminous cloud". Islamic perspectives The Quran contains 43 references to Noah (نوح, Nūḥ) in 28 suras (chapters), notably Sura Nuh and Sura Hud. Sura 11 (Hud) is largely an account of the Flood. Sura 71 (i.e., Sura Nuh), of 28 verses, consists of a divine injunction to Noah to preach, a short sermon of Noah’s to his idolatrous contemporaries on the monotheism of Allah (God), and Noah’s complaint to God about the hardness of the people’s hearts when his preaching is met by ridicule. Genesis's Noah lives for a total of 950 years, with the Flood coming in his six hundredth year; the Quran's Noah is already 950 at the time of the Flood, and has spent this time preaching the singleness of God. (In later tradition, only 83 people are willing to submit, i.e., become Muslim, "those who seek peace" with God; these 83 are saved with Noah). It is mankind's obduracy which eventually brings the wrath of God on the unbelievers. The theme of the Quranic story is the unity of Allah and the need to seek peace with Him. The narrative does not include the Genesis account of Noah's drunkenness, and the possibility of the Curse of Ham narrative is in fact implicitly excluded: Qur'an doesn’t mention the number of Noah’s sons. Nevertheless the traditions of Prophet Mohammed clearly mention that Noah had three sons Tirmidhi, Ibn Abi Hatim, and ibn Jarir , and that all the population descended from them., and a fourth son who does not join his father despite Noah's final plea to be saved ("O my son! Come ride with us, and be not with the disbelievers!"); instead he flees to the mountains, and God tells Noah that this is because he is an evildoer. This section is based on Mark Hillmer, "The Book of Genesis in the Qur’an", Word & World 14/2 (1994) (In later Islamic tradition the son is given the name Kenan, "Canaan"). Shi'ah Muslims believe that Noah is buried next to Ali within Imam Ali Mosque, in Najaf, Iraq. Contemporary academic perspectives Textual criticism According to the documentary hypothesis, the first five books of the Bible, including Genesis, were collated during the 5th century BC from four main sources, which themselves date from no earlier than the 10th century BC. Two of these, the Jahwist, composed in the 10th century BC, and the Priestly source, from the late 7th century BC, make up the chapters of Genesis which concern Noah. The attempt by the 5th century editor to accommodate two independent and sometimes conflicting sources accounts for the confusion over such matters as how many pairs of animals Noah took, and how long the flood lasted. More broadly, Genesis seems to contain two accounts concerning Noah, the first making him the hero of the Flood, the second representing him as a husbandman who planted a vineyard. This has led some scholars to believe that Noah was believed by the ancients to be the inventor of wine, in keeping with the statement at that Lamech "called his name Noah, saying, 'Out of the ground which the Lord has cursed this one shall bring us relief from our work and from the toil of our hands.'" Connections to other lore Noah's first burnt offering after the Flood - relief in Holy Trinity Column in Olomouc. Noah's great grandfather Enoch is the beginning of a web of similarities between the story of Noah and older Mesopotamian myths. According to , at the end of his 365 years Enoch "walked with God, and was not, for God took him" - the only of the ten pre-Flood Patriarchs not reported to have died. It is not explicitly stated where he is taken. In a late Apocryphal tradition, Methuselah is reported to have visited Enoch at the end of the Earth, where he dwelt with the angels, immortal. The details bring to mind Utnapishtim, a figure from the Mesopotamian Epic of Gilgamesh - the hero Gilgamesh, after long and arduous travel, finds Utnapishtim living in the paradise of Dilmun at the end of the Earth, where he has been granted eternal life by the gods. (Gilgamesh's reason for seeking out Utnapishtim, incidentally, to learn the secret of immortality - like Methuselah, he comes close to the gift but fails to achieve it). Utnapishtim then tells how he survived a great flood, and how he was afterwards granted immortality by the gods. It has been suggested that the Flood story may originally have belonged to Enoch. Lamech's statement that Noah will be named "rest" because "out of the ground which the Lord has cursed this one shall bring us relief from our work and from the toil of our hands," has another faint parallel in Babylonian mythology: the gods grew tired of working, digging the channels of the rivers, and so the god Enki created man from clay and blood and spit to do the work for them. Enki fell in love with his creation, and later warned Utnapishtim that the other gods planned to send a flood to destroy all life, and advised him on how to construct his ark. Noah is also often compared to Deucalion, the son of Prometheus and Pronoia in Greek mythology. Like Noah, Deucalion is a wine maker or wine seller; he is forewarned of the flood (this time by Zeus); he builds an ark and staffs it with creatures - and when he completes his voyage, gives thanks and takes advice from the gods on how to repopulate the Earth. This and some other examples of apparent comparison between Greek myths and the "key characters" in the Old Testament/Torah have led recent Biblical scholars to suggest a Hellenistic influence in the composition of the earlier portions of the Hebrew Bible. See also Patriarchal Age Flood myth Gilgamesh flood myth Noahide Laws Sons of Noah References Further reading External links Jewish Encyclopedia: Noah from the 1901-1906 Jewish Encyclopedia Catholic Encyclopedia article Noah genealogy tree | Noah |@lemmatized deluge:3 gustave:1 doré:1 dore:1 illustrate:1 bible:6 noah:76 noe:1 noach:1 arabic:1 نوح:2 rest:5 http:1 www:1 etymonline:1 com:1 index:1 php:1 term:1 meaning:1 accord:4 tenth:1 last:3 antediluvian:2 patriarch:4 prophet:2 qur:4 biblical:2 story:5 contain:3 book:4 genesis:12 chapter:4 also:7 find:5 passage:1 son:16 whole:1 sura:7 name:7 devote:1 reference:4 elsewhere:1 account:9 save:8 family:3 representative:1 animal:4 group:2 two:4 seven:1 flood:20 islamic:3 others:4 although:2 none:1 reproduce:1 ark:14 jewish:6 encyclopedia:4 receive:2 covenant:4 god:27 repopulate:2 earth:10 best:1 know:2 element:1 tradition:7 mention:4 first:8 husbandman:2 possibly:1 inventor:2 wine:5 note:1 episode:1 drunkenness:2 subsequent:1 curse:10 ham:8 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5,315 | IBM_Personal_Computer | Don Estridge the Development Director The IBM Personal Computer, commonly known as the IBM PC, is the original version and progenitor of the IBM PC compatible hardware platform. It is IBM model number 5150, and was introduced on August 12, 1981. It was created by a team of engineers and designers under the direction of Don Estridge of the IBM Entry Systems Division in Boca Raton, Florida. Alongside "microcomputer" and "home computer", the term "personal computer" was already in use before 1981. It was used as early as 1972 to characterize Xerox PARC's Alto. However, because of the success of the IBM Personal Computer, the term came to mean more specifically a microcomputer compatible with IBM's PC products. Concepts The original line of PCs were part of an IBM strategy to get into the small computer market then dominated by the Commodore PET, Atari 8-bit family, Apple II and Tandy Corporation's TRS-80s, and various CP/M machines. "Total share: 30 years of personal computer market share figures", Jeremy Reimer December14, 2005 http://arstechnica.com/articles/culture/total-share.ars/4 IBM's first desktop microcomputer was the IBM 5100, introduced in 1975. It was a complete system - with a built-in monitor, keyboard, and data storage. It was also very expensive - up to US$20,000. It was specifically designed for professional and scientific problem-solvers, not business users or hobbyists. When the PC was introduced in 1981, it was originally designated as the IBM 5150, putting it in the "5100" series, though its architecture wasn't directly descended from the IBM 5100. Rather than going through the usual IBM design process, a special team was assembled with authorization to bypass normal company restrictions and get something to market rapidly. This project was given the code name Project Chess at the IBM Entry Systems Division in Boca Raton, Florida. The team consisted of twelve people directed by Don Estridge with Chief Scientist Larry Potter and Chief Systems Architect Lewis Eggebrecht http://www.thocp.net/biographies/estridge_don.html . They developed the PC in about a year. To achieve this they first decided to build the machine with "off-the-shelf" parts from a variety of different original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) and countries. Previously IBM had always developed their own components. Secondly for scheduling and cost reasons, rather than developing unique IBM PC monitor and printer designs, project management decided to utilize an existing "off-the-shelf" IBM monitor developed earlier in IBM Japan as well as an existing Epson printer model. Consequently, the unique IBM PC industrial design elements were relegated to the system unit and keyboard. ″28th Annual Design Review″, I.D. Magazine, Designers' Choice: IBM Personal Computer, Tom Hardy: Industrial Designer,1982. They also decided on an open architecture, so that other manufacturers could produce and sell peripheral components and compatible software without purchasing licenses. IBM also sold an IBM PC Technical Reference Manual which included a listing of the ROM BIOS source code.<ref>. Personal website with an image of the technical manual. "The official documentation came in cool three-ring binders, complete with slip covers. Completely typeset... This book wasn't free, either—I think it cost $60. Supposedly, no Compaq BIOS programmer ever saw one of these. Yeah, right." Jargon File, TechRef: /tek'ref/ [MS-DOS] n. The original "IBM PC Technical Reference Manual", including the BIOS listing and complete schematics for the PC. The only PC documentation in the issue package that's considered serious by real hackers."</ref> At the time, Don Estridge and his team considered using the IBM 801 processor and its operating system that had been developed at the Thomas J. Watson Research Center in Yorktown Heights, New York (The 801 is an early RISC microprocessor designed by John Cocke and his team at Yorktown Heights.) The 801 was at least an order of magnitude more powerful than the Intel 8088, and the operating system many years more advanced than the DOS operating system from Microsoft, that was finally selected. Ruling out an in-house solution made the team’s job much easier and may have avoided a delay in the schedule, but the ultimate consequences of this decision for IBM were far-reaching. IBM had recently developed the Datamaster business microcomputer which used an Intel processor and peripheral ICs; familiarity with these chips and the availability of the Intel 8088 processor was a deciding factor in the choice of processor for the new product. Even the 62-pin expansion bus slots were designed to be similar to the Datamaster slots. Delays due to in-house development of the Datamaster software also influenced the design team to a fast track development process for the PC, with publicly-available technical information to encourage third-party developers. David J. Bradley, The Creation of the IBM PC, BYTE Magazine Volume 15 No. 9 September 1990 pages 414-420 Other manufacturers soon reverse engineered the BIOS to produce their own non-infringing functional copies. Columbia Data Products introduced the first IBM-PC compatible computer in June 1982. In November 1982, Compaq Computer Corporation announced the Compaq Portable, the first portable IBM PC compatible. The first models were shipped in March 1983. Once the IBM PC became a commercial success, the product came back under the more usual tight IBM management control. IBM's tradition of "rationalizing" their product lines, deliberately restricting the performance of lower-priced models in order to prevent them from "cannibalizing" profits from higher-priced models, worked against them. Third-party distribution ComputerLand and Sears Roebuck partnered with IBM from the beginning of development. IBM's head of sales and marketing, H.L. ('Sparky') Sparks, relied on these retail partners for important knowledge of the marketplace. As a natural progression, Computerland and Sears became the main outlets for the new product. More than 190 Computerland stores already existed, while Sears was in the process of creating a handful of in-store computer centers for sale of the new product. This guaranteed IBM widespread distribution across the United States. Targeting the new PC at the home market, Sears Roebuck sales failed to live up to expectations. This unfavourable outcome revealed that the original strategy - targeting the office market - was the key to higher sales. Models The IBM PC range Model name Model # Introduced CPU Features PC 5150 August 1981 8088 Floppy disk or cassette IBM did not offer own brand cassette recorders, but the 5150 had a cassette player jack, and IBM anticipated that entry level home users would connect their own cassette recorders for data storage instead of using the more expensive floppy drives (and use their existing TV sets as monitors); to this end, IBM initially offered the 5150 in a basic configuration without any floppy drives or monitor at the price of $1,565, whereas they offered a system with a monitor and single floppy drive for an initial $3,005. Few if any users however bought IBM 5150 PCs without floppy drives. system (external hard drive an optional extra One or two 10 MB hard drives could be installed into an optionally available expansion unit that had a separate 130 Watt power supply; a hard drive could not normally be installed into the main system unit, because its 63.5 Watt power supply was not sufficient for that (cf. ). Few of these expansion units were ever sold, but users found out that they could replace the 63.5 Watt power supply in the system unit with a 130 Watt power supply, thus allowing them to retrofit internal hard drives into their IBM 5150 PCs.) ) XT 5160 March 1983 8088 First IBM PC to come with an internal hard drive as standard. XT/370 5160/588 October 1983 8088 5160 with XT/370 Option Kit and 3278/79 Emulation Adapter 3270 PC 5271 October 1983 8088 With 3270 terminal emulation PCjr4860November 19838088 Floppy-based home computer PC Portable5155February 1984 8088Floppy-based portable AT5170August 1984 80286Medium-speed hard disk AT/370 5170/599 October 1984 80286 5170 with AT/370 Option Kit and 3278/79 Emulation Adapter 3270 AT 5281 ? 80286 With 3270 terminal emulation Convertible5140April 1986 8088Microfloppy laptop portable XT 2865162September 198680286 Slow hard disk, but zero wait state memory on the motherboard. This 6 MHz machine was actually faster than the 8 MHz ATs (when using planar memory) because of the zero wait states All IBM personal computers are software compatible with each other in general, but not every program will work in every machine. Some programs are time sensitive to a particular speed class. Older programs will not take advantage of newer higher-resolution display standards. PC The original PC had a version of Microsoft BASIC — IBM Cassette BASIC — in ROM. The CGA (Color Graphics Adapter) video card could use a standard television set or an RGBI monitor for display; IBM's RGBI monitor was their display model 5153. The other option that was offered by IBM was an MDA (Monochrome Display Adapter) and their monochrome display model 5151. It was possible to install both an MDA and a CGA card and use both monitors concurrently, Dual-Head operation on vintage PCs if supported by the application program. For example, AutoCAD allowed use of a CGA card for graphics and a separate monochrome board for text menus. Some model 5150 PCs with CGA monitors and a printer port also included the MDA adapter by default, because IBM provided the MDA port and printer port on the same adapter card; it was in fact an MDA/printer port combo card. The most commonly used storage medium was the floppy disk, though cassette tape was originally envisoned by IBM as a low-budget alternative. Accordingly, the IBM 5150 PC was available with one or two floppy drives or without any drives or storage medium; in the latter case IBM intended that users connect their own existing cassette recorders via the 5150's cassette jack. The cassette tape port was mechanically identical to, and located next to, the keyboard port on the 5150's mainboard. A hard disk could not be installed into the 5150's system unit without retrofitting a stronger power supply, but an "Expansion Unit", aka the "IBM 5161 Expansion Chassis" was available, which came with one 10MB hard disk and also allowed the installation of a second hard disk. The system unit had five expansion slots; the expansion unit had eight; however, one of the system unit's slots and one of the expansion unit's slots had to be occupied by the Extender Card and Receiver Card, respectively, which were needed to connect the expansion unit to the system unit and make the expansion unit's other slots available, for a total of 11 slots, some of which however had to already be occupied by display, disk, and I/O adapters, etc. as none of these were available on-board with the 5150; the only on-board connectors were the keyboard and cassette ports. The original PC's maximum memory using IBM parts was 256 kB, 64 kB on the main board and three 64 kB expansion cards. The processor was an Intel 8088 (early 1978 version, later were 1978/81/2 versions of intel chip; second-sourced AMDs were used after 1983) running at 4.77 MHz (4/3 the standard NTSC color burst frequency of 3.579545 MHz), which could be replaced with a NEC V20 for a slight increase in processing speed. An Intel 8087 co-processor could also be added for hardware floating-point arithmetic. IBM sold it in configurations with 16 kB or 64 kB of RAM preinstalled using either nine or thirty-six 16-kbit DRAM chips. (As was common at the time, an extra bit was used for parity checking of memory.) Although the TV-compatible video board, cassette port and FCC Class B certification were all aimed at making it a home computer David J. Bradley The Creation of the IBM PC, BYTE,ISSN 0360-5280/09,Volume 15, Number 9, September 1990 pp. 414-420 the original PC proved too expensive for the home market. At introduction a PC with 64 kB of RAM and a single 5 1/4 inch floppy drive and monitor sold for US $3,005, while the cheapest configuration ($1,565) that had no floppy drives, only 16KB RAM, and no monitor (again, the expectation was that users would connect their existing TV sets and cassette recorders) proved too unattractive and low-spec, even for its time (cf. footnotes to the above IBM PC range table). http://www.tmworld.com/article/CA187350.html Whence Came the IBM PC Test and Measurement World retrieved 2008 03 02 Gene Smart and Andrew Reinhardt, 15 years of Bits, Bytes and Other Great Moments, BYTE Magazine, September 1990 pg. 382 While the 5150 did not become a top selling home computer, its floppy-based configuration became an unexpectedly large success with businesses. XT The "IBM Personal Computer XT", IBM's model 5160, was an enhanced machine that was designed for business use. It had 8 expansion slots and a 10 megabyte hard disk (later versions 20MB). Unlike the model 5150 PC, the model 5160 XT no longer had a cassette jack. The XT could take 256 kB of memory on the main board (using 64 kbit DRAM); later models were expandable to 640 kB. (The 384 kB of BIOS ROM, video RAM, and adapter ROM space filled the rest of the one megabyte address space of the 8088 CPU.) It was usually sold with a Monochrome Display Adapter (MDA) video card. The processor was a 4.77 MHz Intel 8088 and the expansion bus 8-bit Industry Standard Architecture (ISA) with XT bus architecture. The XT's expansion slots were placed closer together http://www.howard81.co.uk/upload/vcf/xt/newxt/xt_mainboard2.JPG than with the original PC http://www.howard81.co.uk/upload/vcf/5150/5150_mainboard(highres).JPG ; this rendered the XT's case and mainboard incompatible with the model 5150's case and mainboard. The slots themselves and the peripheral cards however were compatible. The XT's expansion slot spacing was identical to the one that is still used as of 2008, though with different actual slots and bus standards. AT The "IBM Personal Computer/AT", announced August 1984, uses an Intel 80286 processor, originally at 6 MHz. It has a 16-bit ISA bus and 20 MB (20 million bytes) hard drive. A faster model, running at 8 MHz, was introduced in 1986. IBM made some attempt at marketing it as a multi-user machine, but it sold mainly as a faster PC for power users. Early PC/ATs were plagued with reliability problems, in part because of some software and hardware incompatibilities, but mostly related to the internal 20 MB hard disk. While some people blamed IBM's hard disk controller card and others blamed the hard disk manufacturer Computer Memories Inc. (CMI), the IBM controller card worked fine with other drives, including CMI's 33-megabyte model. The problems introduced doubt about the computer and, for a while, even about the 286 architecture in general, but after IBM replaced the 20 MB CMI drives, the PC/AT proved reliable and became a lasting industry standard. Convertible Portable PC Jr Technology Electronics The main circuit board in an IBM PC is called the motherboard (IBM terminology calls it a planar). This carries the CPU and memory, and has a bus with slots for expansion cards. The bus used in the original PC became very popular, and was subsequently named ISA. It is in use to this day in computers for industrial use. Later, requirements for higher speed and more capacity forced the development of new versions. IBM introduced the MCA bus with the PS/2 line. The VESA Local Bus allowed for up to three, much faster 32-bit cards, and the EISA architecture was developed as a backward compatible standard including 32-bit card slots, but it only sold well in high-end server systems. The lower-cost and more general PCI bus was introduced in 1994 and has now become ubiquitous. The motherboard is connected by cables to internal storage devices such as hard disks, floppy disks and CD-ROM drives. These tend to be made in standard sizes, such as 3.5" (90 mm) and 5.25" (133.4 mm) widths, with standard fixing holes. The case also contains a standard power supply unit (PSU) which is either an AT or ATX standard size. Intel 8086 and 8088-based PCs require expanded memory (EMS) boards to work with more than one megabyte of memory. The original IBM PC AT used an Intel 80286 processor which can access up to 16 megabytes of memory (though standard DOS applications cannot use more than one megabyte without using additional APIs.) Intel 80286-based computers running under OS/2 can work with the maximum memory. Keyboard The original 1981 IBM PC's keyboard at the time was an extremely reliable and high quality electronic keyboard originally developed in North Carolina for the Datamaster system David Bradley, BYTE September 1990 . Each key was rated to be reliable to over 100 million keystrokes. For the IBM PC, a separate keyboard housing was designed with a novel usability feature that allowed users to adjust the keyboard angle for personal comfort. Compared with the keyboards of other small computers at the time, the IBM PC keyboard was far superior and played a significant role in establishing a high quality impression. For example, the industrial design of the keyboard, together with the system unit, was recognized with a major design award. Byte magazine in the fall of 1981 went so far as to state that the keyboard was 50 percent of the reason to buy an IBM PC. The importance of the keyboard was definitely established when the 1983 IBM PCjr flopped, in very large part for having a much different and mediocre Chiclet keyboard that made a poor impression on customers. Oddly enough, the same thing almost happened to the original IBM PC when in early 1981 management seriously considered substituting a cheaper but lower quality keyboard. This mistake was narrowly avoided by the advice of one of the original development engineers. However, the original 1981 IBM PC's keyboard was severely criticized by typists for its non-standard placement of the Return and left Shift keys. In 1984, IBM corrected this on its AT keyboard, but shortened the 'backspace' key, making it harder to reach. In 1987, it introduced the enhanced keyboard, which relocated all the function keys and the Ctrl keys. The Esc key was also relocated to the opposite side of the keyboard. Another criticism of the original keyboard was the relatively loud "clack" sound each key made when pressed. Since typewriter users were accustomed to keeping their eyes on the hardcopy they were typing from and had come to rely on the mechanical sound that was made as each character was typed onto the paper to ensure that they had pressed the key hard enough (and only once), the PC keyboard electronic "clack" feature was intended to provide that same reassurance. However, it proved to be very noisy and annoying, especially if many PCs were in use in the same room, and later keyboards were significantly quieter. An "IBM PC compatible" may have a keyboard that does not recognize every key combination a true IBM PC does, such as shifted cursor keys. In addition, the "compatible" vendors sometimes used proprietary keyboard interfaces, preventing the keyboard from being replaced. Although the PC/XT and AT used the same style of keyboard connector, the low-level protocol for reading the keyboard was different between these two series. An AT keyboard could not be used in an XT, nor the reverse. Third-party keyboard manufacturers provided a switch to select either AT-style or XT-style protocol for the keyboard. Serial port addresses and interrupts The serial port is an 8250 or a derivative (such as the 16450 or 16550), mapped to eight consecutive IO addresses and one interrupt request line. COM Port IRQ Base Port Address COM1 IRQ4 3F8H COM2 IRQ3 2F8H COM3 IRQ4 3E8H COM4 IRQ3 2E8H Only COM1: and COM2: addresses were defined by the original PC. Attempts to share IRQ 3 and IRQ4 to use additional ports require special measures in hardware and software, since shared IRQs were not defined in the original PC design. Character set The original IBM PC used the 7-bit ASCII alphabet as its basis, but extended it to 8 bits with nonstandard character codes. This character set was not suitable for some international applications, and soon a veritable cottage industry emerged providing variants of the original character set in various national variants. In IBM tradition, these variants were called code pages. These codings are now obsolete, having been replaced by more systematic and standardized forms of character coding, such as ISO 8859-1, Windows-1251 and Unicode. The original character set is known as code page 437. Storage media |Tandon 5 1/4 inch Diskette Drive with a partially inserted double-density diskette containing DOS 1.1. Cassette tape As mentioned above, IBM equipped the model 5150 with a cassette port for connecting a cassette drive, and originally intended compact cassettes to become the 5150's most common storage medium. However, adoption of the floppy- and monitor-less configuration was low; few (if any) IBM PCs left the factory without a floppy disk drive installed. Also, DOS was not available on cassette tape, only on floppy disks (hence "Disk Operating System"). 5150s with just external cassette recorders for storage could only use the built-in ROM BASIC as their operating system. As DOS saw increasing adoption, the incompatibility of DOS programs with PCs that used only cassettes for storage made this configuration even less attractive. Floppy diskettes Most or all 5150 PCs had one or two 5¼ inch floppy disk drives. These floppy drives were either single-sided double-density drives (SS/DD, aka SSDD), or double-sided double-density drives (DS/DD, aka DSDD). The IBM PC never used single density floppy drives. The drives and disks were commonly referred to by capacity, e.g. "160KB floppy disk" or "360KB floppy drive", but because this is not entirely unambiguous, they are here referred to using the less commonly used but more accurate SSDD and DSDD terminology. DSDD drives were backwards compatible; they could read and write SSDD floppies. The same type of physical diskette could be used for both drives, Even if SSDD disks were not advertised as/rated for DSDD use, they usually could be DSDD formatted all the same. DSDD-rated floppy disks could always be used as SSDD floppies. This just meant that one side was not written on. however to convert a 5¼" SSDD disk to a DSDD disk, it needed to be reformatted, at which point SSDD drives could no longer read it. The disks were Modified Frequency Modulation (MFM) coded in 512-byte sectors, and were soft-sectored. They contained 40 tracks per side at the 48 track per inch (TPI) density, Sometimes the tracks were also referred as cylinders, which is technically correct and analogous to hard drive cylinders. One floppy disk track equaled one cylinder, however with double-sided floppies, only the first side's cylinder numbers were identical to the track numbers; on the second side, the cylinders 1-40 corresponded to tracks 41-80 of the formatted floppy. and initially were formatted to contain 8 sectors per track. This meant that SSDD disks initially had a formatted capacity of 160 KB, 163,840 bytes, i.e. 512 bytes x 8 sectors x 40 tracks on the one side used while DSDD disks had a capacity of 320 KB. 327,680 bytes, i.e. 512 bytes x 8 sectors x 40 tracks x 2 sides However, the DOS operating system was later updated to allow formatting the disks with 9 sectors per track. This yielded a formatted capacity of 180 KB with SSDD disks/drives, 184,320 bytes, i.e. 512 bytes x 9 sectors x 40 tracks on the one side used and 360 KB with DSDD disks/drives. 368,640 bytes, i.e. 512 bytes x 9 sectors x 40 tracks x 2 sides The unformatted capacity of the floppy disks was advertised as 250KB (SSDD) and 500KB (DSDD), however these "raw" 250/500KB were not the same thing as the usable formatted capacity; under DOS, the maximum capacity for SSDD and DSDD disks was 180KB and 360KB, respectively. Regardless of type, the file system of all floppy disks was FAT12. While the SSDD drives initially were the only floppy drives available for the model 5150 PC, IBM later switched to DSDD drives, and the majority of 5150 PCs sold eventually shipped with one or two DSDD drives. The 5150's successor, the model 5160 IBM XT, never shipped with SSDD drives; it generally had one double-sided 360 kB drive (next to its internal hard disk). While it was technically possible to retrofit more advanced floppy drives such as the high-density drive (released in 1984) into the original IBM PC, this was not an option offered by IBM for the 5150 model, and the move to high-density 5.25" floppies in particular was notoriously fraught with compatibility problems. IBM's original floppy disk controller card also included an external 37-pin D-shell connector. This allowed users to connect additional external floppy drives by third party vendors. IBM themselves did not offer external floppy drives. However, IBM later offered the 5161 Expansion Unit, which could allow the installation of additional floppies, though this was not a typical configuration as the Expansion Unit shipped with one or two hard drives occupying the available drive bays. Fixed disks The 5150 could not itself power hard drives without retrofitting a stronger power supply, but IBM later offered the 5161 Expansion Unit, which not only provided more expansion slots, but also included a 10MB (later 20MB) hard drive powered by the 5161's own separate 130-watt power supply. The first IBM PC that shipped with an internal, fixed, non-removable hard disk was IBM's model 5160, the XT. However, as other IBM-compatible PCs started to appear, hard disks with larger storage capacities than the 5160's and 5161's initial 10MB (later 20MB) also became available, and could — space permitting — be installed into either the IBM PC's Expansion Unit or into PSU-upgraded model 5150 IBM PCs (or into XTs). Adding a third-party hard disk sometimes required plugging in a new controller board, because some of these hard drives were not compatible with the existing disk controller. Some third party hard disks for IBM PCs even sold as kits including a controller card and replacement power supply. Finally, some hard disks were integrated with their controller in a single expansion board, commonly called a "Hard Card". OS support The IBM PC's ROM BASIC supported cassette tape storage. DOS itself did not support cassette tape storage. PC-DOS version 1.00 supported only 160KB SSDD floppies, but version 1.1, which was released 9 months after the PC's introduction, supported 160KB SSDD and 320KB DSDD floppies. Support for the slightly larger 9 sector per track 180KB and 360KB formats arrived 10 further months later in March 1983. Original software All IBM PCs include a relatively small piece of software stored in ROM. The original IBM PC 40 KB ROM included 8 KB for power-on self-test (POST) and basic input/output system (BIOS) functions plus 32 KB BASIC in ROM (Cassette BASIC). The ROM BASIC interpreter was the default user interface if no DOS boot disk was present. BASICA was distributed on floppy disk and provided a way to run the ROM BASIC under PC-DOS control. In addition to PC-DOS, buyers could choose either CP/M-86 or UCSD p-System as operating systems. Due to their higher prices, they never became very popular and PC-DOS or MS-DOS came to be the dominant operating system. Longevity While the IBM PC technology is largely obsolete by today's standards, many are still in service. As of June 2006, IBM PC and XT models were still in use at the majority of U.S. National Weather Service upper-air observing sites. The computers were used to process data as it is returned from the ascending radiosonde, attached to a weather balloon. They were phased out over a several year period, replaced by the Radiosonde Replacement System . See also Influence of the IBM-PC on the PC market Conventional memory IBM token ring networks Aptiva List of IBM products ThinkPad ThinkCentre 8088 Corruption Input/Output Base Address IBM 5120 IBM 5160 IBM 5155 IBM 4860 Notes References Norton, Peter (1986). Inside the IBM PC. Revised and enlarged. New York. Brady. ISBN 0-89303-583-1. August 12, 1981 press release announcing the IBM PC (PDF format). Mueller, Scott (1992). Upgrading and Repairing PCs, Second Edition, Que Books, ISBN 0-88022-856-3 IBM (1983). Personal Computer Hardware Reference Library: Guide to Operations, Personal Computer XT. IBM Part Number 6936831. IBM (1984). Personal Computer Hardware Reference Library: Guide to Operations, Portable Personal Computer. IBM Part Numbers 6936571 and 1502332. IBM (1986). Personal Computer Hardware Reference Library: Guide to Operations, Personal Computer XT Model 286''. IBM Part Number 68X2523. External links Dedicated to the preservation and restoration of the IBM 5150 personal computer IBM PC from IT Dictionary IBM PC history and technical information What a legacy! The IBM PC's 25 year legacy CNN.com - IBM PC turns 25 IBM-5150 and collection of old digital and analog computers at oldcomputermuseum.com IBM PC images and information A brochure from November, 1982 advertising the IBM PC | IBM_Personal_Computer |@lemmatized estridge:4 development:6 director:1 ibm:124 personal:17 computer:30 commonly:5 know:2 pc:93 original:25 version:8 progenitor:1 compatible:14 hardware:7 platform:1 model:26 number:7 introduce:10 august:4 create:2 team:7 engineer:3 designer:3 direction:1 entry:3 system:28 division:2 boca:2 raton:2 florida:2 alongside:1 microcomputer:4 home:7 term:2 already:3 use:42 early:5 characterize:1 xerox:1 parc:1 alto:1 however:14 success:3 come:8 mean:1 specifically:2 product:8 concepts:1 line:4 part:8 strategy:2 get:2 small:3 market:8 dominate:1 commodore:1 pet:1 atari:1 bit:9 family:1 apple:1 ii:1 tandy:1 corporation:2 trs:1 various:2 cp:2 machine:6 total:3 share:5 year:6 figure:1 jeremy:1 reimer:1 http:5 arstechnica:1 com:5 article:2 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5,316 | Great_Pyramid_of_Giza | The Great Pyramid of Giza, in 2005. Built c. 2560 B.C., it is the oldest and largest of the three pyramids in the Giza Necropolis. The Great Pyramid of Giza (also called the Khufu's Pyramid, Pyramid of Khufu, and Pyramid of Cheops) is the oldest and largest of the three pyramids in the Giza Necropolis bordering what is now Cairo, Egypt, and is the only one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World that survives substantially intact. It is believed the pyramid was built as a tomb for Fourth dynasty Egyptian King Khufu (Cheops in Greek) and constructed over a 20 year period concluding around 2560 BC. The Great Pyramid was the tallest man-made structure in the world for over 3,800 years. Originally the Great Pyramid was covered by casing stones that formed a smooth outer surface, and what is seen today is the underlying core structure. Some of the casing stones that once covered the structure can still be seen around the base. There have been varying scientific and alternative theories regarding the Great Pyramid's construction techniques. Most accepted construction theories are based on the idea that it was built by moving huge stones from a quarry and dragging and lifting them into place. There are three known chambers inside the Great Pyramid. The lowest chamber is cut into the bedrock upon which the pyramid was built and was unfinished. The so-called John Romer, in his The Great Pyramid: Ancient Egypt Revisited notes "By themselves, of course, none of these modern labels define the ancient purposes of the architecture they describe." p. 8 Queen's Chamber and King's Chamber are higher up within the pyramid structure. The Great Pyramid of Giza is the main part of a complex setting of buildings that included two mortuary temples in honor of Khufu (one close to the pyramid and one near the Nile), three smaller pyramids for Khufu's wives, an even smaller "satellite" pyramid, a raised causeway connecting the two temples, and small mastaba tombs surrounding the pyramid for nobles. Building the pyramid It is believed the pyramid was built as a tomb for Fourth dynasty Egyptian pharaoh Khufu and constructed over a 14 John Romer, basing his calculations on the known time scale for the Red pyramid, calculates 14 years — pp.74, schedule on pp 456-560. to 20 year period concluding around 2560 BC. Khufu's vizier, Hemon, or Hemiunu, is believed by some to be the architect of the Great Pyramid. Shaw (2003) p.89. It is thought that, at construction, the Great Pyramid was 280 Egyptian royal cubits tall, 146.6 meters, (480.97 feet, or about 50 stories) but with erosion and the loss of its pyramidion, its current height is 138.8 m (455 feet). Each base side was 440 royal cubits, 230.5 meters, (756.2 feet). A royal cubit measures 0.524 meters. Dilke (1987) pp.9,23. The total mass of the pyramid is estimated at 5.9 million tonnes. The volume, including an internal hillock, is believed to be roughly 2,500,000 cubic meters. Levy (2005) p.17. Based on these estimates building this in 20 years would involve installing approximately 800 tonnes of stone every day. Manetho gives Khufu a reign of 65 years on his kings list, this would enable him to build the pyramid by moving only 250 tonnes of stone per day. The first precision measurements of the pyramid were done by Egyptologist Sir Flinders Petrie in 1880–82 and published as The Pyramids and Temples of Gizeh. http://www.ronaldbirdsall.com/gizeh/petrie/index.htm Almost all reports are based on his measurements. Petrie found the pyramid is oriented 4' west of North and the second pyramid is similarly oriented. Petrie (1883). Many of the casing stones and interior chamber blocks of the great pyramid were fit together with extremely high precision. Based on measurements taken on the north eastern casing stones, the mean opening of the joints are only 1/50th of an inch wide. Dr. I.E.S. Edwards: "The Pyramids of Egypt" 1986/1947 p. 285 Great Pyramid of Giza from a 19th century stereopticon card photo The pyramid remained the tallest man-made structure in the world for over 3,800 years, Collins (2001) p.234. unsurpassed until the 160 meter tall spire of Lincoln Cathedral was completed c. 1300. The accuracy of the pyramid's workmanship is such that the four sides of the base have a mean error of only 58 millimeter in length, and 1 minute in angle from a perfect square. The base is horizontal and flat to within 15 mm. The sides of the square are closely aligned to the four cardinal compass points (within 3 minutes of arc based on true north not magnetic north). The completed design dimensions, as suggested by Petrie's survey and later studies, are estimated to have originally been 280 cubits in height by 440 cubits in length at each of the four sides of its base. These proportions equate to /2 to an accuracy of better than 0.05% (corresponding to the approximation of π as roughly 22/7). Some Egyptologists consider this to have been the result of deliberate design proportion Lightbody (2008) p.24. . Verner wrote, "We can conclude that although the ancient Egyptians could not precisely define the value of π, in practise they used it". Verner (2003) p.70. Petrie, author of ‘The Pyramids and Temples of Gizeh', who was the first accurate surveyor of Giza and the excavator and surveyor of the Pyramid of Meidum, concluded: "but these relations of areas and of circular ratio are so systematic that we should grant that they were in the builders design" Petrie Wisdom of the Egyptians 1940: 30 Earlier in the chapter he wrote more specifically, that: “We conclude therefore that the approximation of 7 to 22 as the ratio of diameter to circumference was recognised” Petrie Wisdom of the Egyptians 1940: 27 Materials The Great Pyramid consists of more than 2.3 million limestone blocks. The Egyptians shipped the limestone blocks from quarries all along the Nile River. The stone was cut by hammering wedges into the stone. Then, the wedges were soaked with water. The wedges expanded, causing the rock to crack. Once they were cut, they were carried by boat either up or down the Nile River to the pyramid. Casing stones At completion, the Great Pyramid was surfaced by white 'casing stones' – slant-faced, but flat-topped, blocks of highly polished white limestone. Visibly all that remains is the underlying step-pyramid core structure seen today. In AD 1301, a massive earthquake loosened many of the outer casing stones, which were then carted away by Bahri Sultan An-Nasir Nasir-ad-Din al-Hasan in 1356 in order to build mosques and fortresses in nearby Cairo. The stones can still be seen as parts of these structures to this day. Later explorers reported massive piles of rubble at the base of the pyramids left over from the continuing collapse of the casing stones, which were subsequently cleared away during continuing excavations of the site. Nevertheless, many of the casing stones can be seen to this day in situ around the base of the Great Pyramid, and display the same workmanship and precision as has been reported for centuries. Petrie also found a different orientation in the core and in the casing measuring 193 centimeters ± 25 centimeters. He suggested a redetermination of north was made after the construction of the core, but a mistake was made, and the casing was built with a different orientation. Petrie (1883). Construction theories Many alternative, often contradictory, theories have been proposed regarding the Pyramid's construction techniques. Not all even agree that the blocks were quarried, they might conceivably have been cast. However, most accept it was built by moving huge stones from a quarry, being only unable to agree whether they were dragged, lifted or even rolled into place. The Greeks believed that slave labour was used but modern Egyptologists accept that it was built by many tens of thousands of skilled workers. They camped near the pyramids and worked for a salary or as a form of paying taxes until the construction was completed. Their cemeteries were discovered in 1990 by archaeologists Zahi Hawass and Mark Lehner. Verner posited that the labor was organized into a hierarchy, consisting of two gangs of 100,000 men, divided into five zaa or phyle of 20,000 men each, which may have been further divided according to the skills of the workers. Verner (2001) pp.75-82. One of the mysteries of the pyramid's construction is how they planned its construction. John Romer suggests that they used the same method that had been used for earlier and later constructions, laying out parts of the plan on the ground at a 1 to 1 scale. He writes that "such a working diagram would also serve to generate the architecture of the pyramid with a precision unmatched by any other means." He devotes a chapter of his book to the physical evidence that there was such a plan. Romer, John, The Great Pyramid: Ancient Egypt Revisited, p. 327, pp. 329-337 Interior The Great Pyramid is the only pyramid known to contain both ascending and descending passages. There are three known chambers inside the Great Pyramid. These are arranged centrally, on the vertical axis of the pyramid. From the entrance, an 18 meter corridor leads down and splits in two directions. One way leads to the lowest and unfinished chamber. This chamber is cut into the bedrock upon which the pyramid was built. It is the largest of the three, but totally unfinished, only rough-cut into the rock. The other passage leads to the Grand Gallery (49 m x 3 m x 11 m), where it splits again. One tunnel leads to the Queen's Chamber, a misnomer, while the other winds to intersect with the descending corridor. The Grand Gallery itself features a corbel haloed design and several cut "sockets" spaced at regular intervals along the length of each side of its raised base with a "trench" running along its center length at floor level. What purpose these sockets served is unknown. An antechamber leads from the Grand Gallery to the King's Chamber. Oakes & Gahlin (2002) p.66. Diagram of the interior structures of the great pyramid. The inner line indicates the pyramid's present profile, the outer line indicates the original profile. King's Chamber At the end of the lengthy series of entrance ways leading into the interior is the structure's main chamber, the King's Chamber. This chamber was originally 10 × 20 × 11.2 cubits, or about 5.25 m × 10.5 m × 6 m, comprising a double 10 × 10 cubit square, and a height equal to half the double square's diagonal. Some believe that this is consistent with the geometric methods for determining the Golden Ratio φ (phi), which can be derived from other dimensions of the pyramid, such that if φ had been the design objective, then π automatically follows to 'square the circle'. Calter (2008) pp. 156-171, 548-551. The sarcophagus of the King's Chamber was hollowed out of a single piece of Red Aswan granite and has been found to be too large to fit through the passageway leading to the chamber. Whether the sarcophagus was ever intended to house a body is unknown. It is too short to accommodate a medium height individual without the bending of the knees, a technique not practiced in Egyptian burial, and no lid was ever found. The King's Chamber contains two small shafts that ascend out of the pyramid. These shafts were once thought to have been used for ventilation, but this idea was eventually abandoned, which left Egyptologists to conclude they were instead used for ceremonial purposes. It is now thought that they were to allow the Pharaoh's spirit to rise up and out to heaven. Oakes & Gahlin (2002) p.67. The King's Chamber is lined with red granite brought from Aswan 935 km (580 miles) to the south. There are 5 relieving chambers above the kings chamber. The first one is reached through a breach in the wall at the upper end of the Grand Gallery, this was named the Davidson chamber. Howard Vyse suspected there was another chamber above this when he found that he was able to thrust a long reed through a crack in the ceiling. He blasted through to find 4 more relieving chambers. These chambers were named the Wellington, Nelson, Lady Arbuthnot and Cambell's chambers. The kings chamber and the first 4 relieving chambers have roofs made out granite. Each roof includes 8 or 9 granite slabs weighing 25 to 80 tonnes each. Cambell's chamber has a pented roof made of large limestone slabs. Lehner (1997)p. 44,51-53,108-115 Scarre (1999) Egyptologists believe they were transported on barges down the Nile river. Romer (2007) pp.187-195 Queen's Chamber The Queen's Chamber is the middle and the smallest, measuring approximately 5.74 by 5.23 meters, and 4.57 meters in height. The chamber is lined with fine limestone blocks and the pented roof is made of large limestone slabs. Lehner (1997)p. 112 Its eastern wall has a large angular doorway or niche. Egyptologist Mark Lehner believes that the Queen's chamber was intended as a serdab, a structure found in several other Egyptian pyramids, and that the niche would have contained a statue of the interred. The Ancient Egyptians believed that the statue would serve as a "back up" vessel for the Ka of the Pharaoh, should the original mummified body be destroyed. The true purpose of the chamber, however, remains uncertain. The Queens Chamber has a pair of shafts similar to those in the King's Chamber, which were explored using a robot, Upuaut 2, created by the German engineer Rudolf Gantenbrink. In 1992, Upuaut 2 discovered that these shafts were blocked by limestone "doors" with two eroded copper handles. The National Geographic Society filmed the drilling of a small hole in the southern door, only to find another larger door behind it. The northern passage, which was harder to navigate due to twists and turns, was also found to be blocked by a door. Unfinished chamber The "unfinished chamber" lies 27.5 meters below ground level and is rough-hewn, lacking the precision of the other chambers. Egyptologists suggest the chamber was intended to be the original burial chamber, but that King Khufu later changed his mind and wanted it to be higher up in the pyramid. Egyptologist Bob Brier believes it was an insurance policy in case Khufu died early. When he was still alive and healthy after about 5 years of construction, the second (Queen's) chamber was begun. Sometime around the fifteenth year this chamber was abandoned unfinished and the last or King's Chamber was built high up in the center of the pyramid. Hidden ramps may solve the mystery of the Great Pyramid's construction Archaeological Institute of America, Volume 60 Number 3, May/June 2007. Pyramid complex Map of Giza pyramid complex The Great Pyramid of Giza is the main part of a complex setting of buildings that included two mortuary temples in honor of Khufu (one close to the pyramid and one near the Nile), three smaller pyramids for Khufu's wives, an even smaller "satellite" pyramid, a raised causeway connecting the two temples, and small mastaba tombs surrounding the pyramid for nobles. One of the small pyramids contains the tomb of queen Hetepheres (discovered in 1925), sister and wife of Sneferu and the mother of Khufu. There was a town for the workers of Giza, which included a cemetery, bakeries, a beer factory and a copper smelting complex. A few hundred meters south-west of the Great Pyramid lies the slightly smaller Pyramid of Khafre, one of Khufu's successors who is also commonly considered the builder of the Great Sphinx, and a few hundred meters further south-west is the Pyramid of Menkaure, Khafre's successor, which is about half as tall. In May 1954, 41 blocking stones were uncovered close to the south side of the Great Pyramid. They covered a 30.8 meter long rock-cut pit that contained the remains of a 43 meter long ship of cedar wood. In antiquity, it had been dismantled into 650 parts comprising 1224 pieces. This funeral boat of Khufu has been reconstructed and is now housed in a museum on the site of its discovery. A second boat pit was later discovered nearby. Clayton (1994) pp.48-49. Thieves, tourists and excavators Although succeeding pyramids were smaller, pyramid building continued until the end of the Middle Kingdom. However, as authors Briar and Hobbs claim, "all the pyramids were robbed" by the New Kingdom, when the construction of royal tombs in a desert valley, now known as the Valley of the Kings, began. Brier 1999, p. 164 Cremin 2007 p.96. Joyce Tyldesley states that the Great Pyramid itself "is known to have been opened and emptied by the Middle Kingdom", before the Arab caliph Abdullah Al Mamun entered the pyramid around 820 A.D. Tyldesley, 2007 p.38 See also List of Egypt-related topics World's tallest free standing structure on land Pyramid inch List of Egyptian pyramids List of megalithic sites includes section on calculating weight of megaliths List of archaeoastronomical sites sorted by country Notes Group photo of Australian 11th Battalion soldiers on the Great Pyramid in 1915. Aerial photography, taken from Eduard Spelterini's balloon on November 21, 1904 References External links Pyramids—The Inside Story from PBS' Nova (TV series) Building the Khufu Pyramid | Great_Pyramid_of_Giza |@lemmatized great:26 pyramid:84 giza:10 build:15 c:3 b:1 old:2 large:8 three:7 necropolis:2 also:6 call:2 khufu:16 cheops:2 border:1 cairo:2 egypt:5 one:11 seven:1 wonder:1 ancient:6 world:4 survive:1 substantially:1 intact:1 believe:10 tomb:6 fourth:2 dynasty:2 egyptian:11 king:15 greek:2 construct:2 year:9 period:2 conclude:6 around:6 bc:2 tall:6 man:2 make:7 structure:11 originally:3 cover:3 case:6 stone:17 form:2 smooth:1 outer:3 surface:2 see:6 today:2 underlie:1 core:4 casing:6 still:3 base:14 vary:1 scientific:1 alternative:2 theory:4 regard:2 construction:13 technique:3 accepted:1 idea:2 move:3 huge:2 quarry:4 dragging:1 lift:2 place:2 know:5 chamber:43 inside:3 low:2 cut:7 bedrock:2 upon:2 unfinished:6 john:4 romer:5 revisit:2 note:2 course:1 none:1 modern:2 label:1 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5,317 | Hypoxia_(medical) | Hypoxia is a pathological condition in which the body as a whole (generalized hypoxia) or a region of the body (tissue hypoxia) is deprived of adequate oxygen supply. Variations in arterial oxygen concentrations can be part of the normal physiology, for example, during strenuous physical exercise. A mismatch between oxygen supply and its demand at the cellular level may result in a hypoxic condition. Hypoxia in which there is complete deprivation of oxygen supply is referred to as anoxia. Hypoxia differs from hypoxemia. In the latter, the oxygen concentration within the arterial blood is abnormally low. . It is possible to experience hypoxemia and have a low oxygen content (e.g., due to anemia) but maintain high oxygen partial pressure (pO2). Incorrect use of these terms can lead to confusion, especially as hypoxemia is among the causes of hypoxia (in hypoxemic hypoxia). Generalized hypoxia occurs in healthy people when they ascend to high altitude, where it causes altitude sickness leading to potentially fatal complications: high altitude pulmonary edema (HAPE) and high altitude cerebral edema (HACE). Hypoxia also occurs in healthy individuals when breathing mixtures of gases with a low oxygen content, e.g. while diving underwater especially when using closed-circuit rebreather systems that control the amount of oxygen in the supplied air. A mild and non-damaging intermittent hypoxia is used intentionally during altitude trainings to develop an athletic performance adaptation at both the systemic and cellular level. *Nonhematological mechanisms of improved sea-level ... - PubMed Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2007 Sep;39(9):1600-9. Symptoms Symptoms of generalized hypoxia depend on its severity and acceleration of onset. In the case of altitude sickness, where hypoxia develops gradually, the symptoms include headaches, fatigue, shortness of breath, a feeling of euphoria and nausea. In severe hypoxia, or hypoxia of very rapid onset, changes in levels of consciousness, seizures, coma, priapism, and death occur. Severe hypoxia induces a blue discolouration of the skin, called cyanosis. Because hemoglobin is a darker red when it is not bound to oxygen (deoxyhemoglobin), as opposed to the rich red colour that it has when bound to oxygen (oxyhemoglobin), when seen through the skin it has an increased tendency to reflect blue light back to the eye. In cases where the oxygen is displaced by another molecule, such as carbon monoxide, the skin may appear 'cherry red' instead of cyanotic. Types of hypoxia Hypoxemic hypoxia is a generalized hypoxia, an inadequate supply of oxygen to the body as a whole. The term "hypoxemic hypoxia" specifies hypoxia caused by low partial pressure of oxygen in arterial blood. In the other causes of hypoxia that follow, the partial pressure of oxygen in arterial blood is normal. Hypoxemic hypoxia may be due to: Low partial pressure of atmospheric oxygen such as found at high altitude - Online interactive oxygen delivery calculator or by replacement of oxygen in the breathing mix either accidentally as in the modified atmosphere of a sewer or intentionally as in the recreational use of nitrous oxide. A decrease in oxygen saturation of the blood caused by sleep apnea or hypopnea Inadequate pulmonary ventilation (e.g., in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease or respiratory arrest). Shunts in the pulmonary circulation or a right-to-left shunt in the heart. Shunts can be caused by collapsed alveoli that are still perfused or a block in ventilation to an area of the lung. Whatever the mechanism, blood meant for the pulmonary system is not ventilated and so no gas exchange occurs (the ventilation/perfusion ratio is zero). Normal anatomical shunt occurs in everyone, because of the Thebesian vessels which empty into the left ventricle and the bronchial circulation which supplies the bronchi with oxygen. Anemic hypoxia in which arterial oxygen pressure is normal, but total oxygen content of the blood is reduced. - A demonstration of the effect of anaemia on oxygen content Hypoxia when the blood fails to deliver oxygen to target tissues. Carbon monoxide poisoning which inhibits the ability of hemoglobin to release the oxygen bound to it. Methaemoglobinaemia in which an abnormal version of haemoglobin accumulates in the blood Histotoxic hypoxia in which quantity of oxygen reaching the cells is normal, but the cells are unable to effectively use the oxygen due to disabled oxidative phosphorylation enzymes. The effects of drinking alcoholic beverages is a common example. Ischemic, or stagnant hypoxia in which there is a local restriction in the flow of otherwise well-oxygenated blood. The oxygen supplied to the region of the body is then insufficient for its needs. Examples are cerebral ischemia, ischemic heart disease and Intrauterine hypoxia, which is an unchallenged cause of perinatal death. Pathophysiology After mixing with water vapour and expired CO2 in the lungs, oxygen diffuses down a pressure gradient to enter arterial blood around where its partial pressure is 100mmHg (13.3kPa). Arterial blood flow delivers oxygen to the peripheral tissues, where it again diffuses down a pressure gradient into the cells and into their mitochondria. These bacteria-like cytoplasmic structures strip hydrogen from fuels (glucose, fats and some amino acids) to burn with oxygen to form water. The fuel's carbon is oxidized to CO2, which diffuses down its partial pressure gradient out of the cells into venous blood to finally be exhaled by the lungs. Experimentally, oxygen diffusion becomes rate limiting (and lethal) when arterial oxygen partial pressure falls to 40mmHg or below. If oxygen delivery to cells is insufficient for the demand (hypoxia), hydrogen will be shifted to pyruvic acid converting it to lactic acid. This temporary measure (anaerobic metabolism) allows small amounts of energy to be produced. Lactic acid build up in tissues and blood is a sign of inadequate mitochondrial oxygenation, which may be due to hypoxemia, poor blood flow (e.g., shock) or a combination of both. If severe or prolonged it could lead to cell death. Vasoconstriction and vasodilation In most tissues of the body, the response to hypoxia is vasodilation. By widening the blood vessels, the tissue allows greater perfusion. By contrast, in the lungs, the response to hypoxia is vasoconstriction. This is known as "Hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction", or "HPV". Treatment To counter the effects of high-altitude diseases, the body must return arterial pO2 toward normal. Acclimatization, the means by which the body adapts to higher altitudes, only partially restores pO2 to standard levels. Hyperventilation, the body’s most common response to high-altitude conditions, increases alveolar pO2 by raising the depth and rate of breathing. However, while pO2 does improve with hyperventilation, it does not return to normal. Studies of miners and astronomers working at 3000 meters and above show improved alveolar pO2 with full acclimatization, yet the pO2 level remains equal to or even below the threshold for continuous oxygen therapy for patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). In addition, there are complications involved with acclimatization. Polycythemia, in which the body increases the number of red blood cells in circulation, thickens the blood, raising the danger that the heart can’t pump it. In high-altitude conditions, only oxygen enrichment can counteract the effects of hypoxia. By increasing the concentration of oxygen in the air, the effects of lower barometric pressure are countered and the level of arterial pO2 is restored toward normal capacity. A small amount of supplemental oxygen reduces the equivalent altitude in climate-controlled rooms. At 4000 m, raising the oxygen concentration level by 5 percent via an oxygen concentrator and an existing ventilation system provides an altitude equivalent of 3000 m, which is much more tolerable for the increasing number of low-landers who work in high altitude. In a study of astronomers working in Chile at 5050 m, oxygen concentrators increased the level of oxygen concentration by almost 30 percent (that is, from 21 percent to 27 percent). This resulted in increased worker productivity, less fatigue, and improved sleep. Oxygen concentrators are uniquely suited for this purpose. They require little maintenance and electricity, provide a constant source of oxygen, and eliminate the expensive, and often dangerous, task of transporting oxygen cylinders to remote areas. Offices and housing already have climate-controlled rooms, in which temperature and humidity are kept at a constant level. Oxygen can be added to this system easily and relatively cheaply. See also Altitude training for beneficial use of mild hypoxia Asphyxia Cerebral hypoxia Deep water blackout for special case of latent hypoxia Drowning g-LOC cerebral hypoxia induced by excessive g-forces Hypoxic tumor Hypoxicator a device intended for hypoxia acclimatisation in a controlled manner Hyperoxia Sleep apnea Shallow water blackout for special case of hypoxia via self-induced hypocapnia Time of Useful Consciousness For aircraft decompression incidents at altitude see: 1999 South Dakota Learjet crash (the crash which claimed the life of golfer Payne Stewart) 2000 Australia Beechcraft King Air crash Helios Flight 522 Soyuz 11 fatal spacecraft decompression on re-entry References Bibliography Hypoxia - An invisible enemy, Fast, Airbus technical magazine, #38 : presentation for non specialists of hypoxia and related safety procedures in civil airplanes | Hypoxia_(medical) |@lemmatized hypoxia:39 pathological:1 condition:4 body:9 whole:2 generalized:3 region:2 tissue:6 deprive:1 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5,318 | Canadian_Radio-television_and_Telecommunications_Commission | CRTC may also stand for Cathode Ray Tube Controller. CRTC logoThe Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC, in French Conseil de la radiodiffusion et des télécommunications canadiennes) was created in 1976 when it took over responsibility for regulating telecommunication carriers. Prior to 1976 it was known as the Canadian Radio and Television Commission, which was established in 1968 by the Parliament of Canada to replace the Board of Broadcast Governors. History The CRTC was originally known as the Canadian Radio-Television Commission. In 1976, jurisdiction over telecommunications services, most of which were then delivered by monopoly common carriers (e.g., telephone companies), was transferred to it from the Canadian Transport Commission although the abbreviation CRTC remained the same. On the telecom side, the CRTC originally regulated only privately held common carriers, such as B.C. Tel (now part of Telus), in which a U.S. company had a substantial stake; Bell Canada, which served Ontario, most of Quebec, and part of the Northwest Territories; and operations in Newfoundland, the Northwest Territories, Yukon and northern B.C. Other telephone companies, many of which were publicly owned, were regulated by provincial authorities until court rulings during the 1990s affirmed federal jurisdiction over the sector, which also included some fifty small independent incumbents, most of them in Ontario and Quebec. Jurisdiction The CRTC regulates all Canadian broadcasting and telecommunications activities and enforces rules it creates to carry out the policies assigned to it; the best-known of these is probably the Canadian content rules. The CRTC reports to the Parliament of Canada through the Minister of Canadian Heritage, which is responsible for the Broadcasting Act, and has an informal relationship with Industry Canada, which is responsible for the Telecommunications Act. Provisions in these two acts, along with less-formal instructions issued by the federal cabinet known as orders-in-council, represent the bulk of the CRTC's jurisdiction. In many cases, such as the cabinet-directed prohibition on foreign ownership for broadcasters Direction to the CRTC (Ineligibility of Non-Canadians) and the legislated principle of the predominance of Canadian content, Broadcasting Act at 3.(1)(f) these acts and orders often leave the CRTC less room to change policy than critics sometimes suggest, and the result is that the commission is often the lightning rod for policy criticism that could arguably be better directed at the government itself. Complaints against broadcasters, such as concerns around offensive programming, are dealt with by the Canadian Broadcast Standards Council, an independent broadcast industry association, rather than by the CRTC, although CBSC decisions can be appealed to the CRTC if necessary. However, the CRTC is also sometimes erroneously criticized for CBSC decisions — for example, the CRTC was erroneously criticized for the CBSC's decisions pertaining to the airing of Howard Stern's terrestrial radio show in Canada in the late 1990s. The commission is not fully equivalent to the U.S. Federal Communications Commission, which has additional powers over technical matters, in broadcasting and other aspects of communications, in that country. In Canada, the Department of Industry is responsible for allocating frequencies and call signs, managing the broadcast spectrum, and regulating other technical issues such as interference with electronics equipment. Regulation of broadcast distributors The CRTC has in the past regulated the prices cable television broadcast distributors are allowed to charge. In most major markets, however, prices are no longer regulated due to increased competition for broadcast distribution from satellite television. The CRTC also regulates which channels broadcast distributors must or may offer. Per the Broadcasting Act Department of Justice, Laws of Canada (at §3.(1)(t)(i)) the commission also gives priority to Canadian signals—many non-Canadian channels which compete with Canadian channels are thus not approved for distribution in Canada. The CRTC argues that allowing free trade in television stations would overwhelm the smaller Canadian market, preventing it from upholding its responsibility to foster a national conversation. Some people, however, consider this tantamount to censorship. The CRTC's simultaneous substitution rules require that when a Canadian network licences a television show from a US network and shows it in the same time slot, upon request by the Canadian broadcaster, Canadian broadcast distributors must replace the show on the US channel with the broadcast of the Canadian channel, along with any overlays and commercials. If Seinfeld is on Citytv and on NBC, for instance, the cable, satellite, or other broadcast distributor must send the Citytv feed on NBC's channel, even where the NBC version is somehow different, particularly commercials. Signal substitution – same program, different commercials CRTC (These rules are not intended to apply in case of differing episodes of the same series; this difference may not always be communicated to distributors, although this is rather rare.) The goal of this policy is to create a market in which Canadian networks can realize revenue through advertising sales in spite of their inability to match the rates that the much larger American networks can afford to pay for syndicated programming. This policy is also why Canadian viewers do not see American advertisements during the Super Bowl, even when tuning into one of the many American networks carried on Canadian televisions. Regulation of the internet In a major May 1999 decision on "New Media", the CRTC held that under the Broadcasting Act the CRTC had jurisdiction over certain content communicated over the internet including audio and video, but excluding content that is primarily alphanumeric such as emails and most webpages. It also issued an exemption order committing to a policy of non-interference. CRTC.gc.ca Public Notice CRTC 1999-197 The CRTC does not regulate rates, quality of service issues, or business practices for Internet service providers. However, the CRTC does continually monitor the sector and associated trends. http://www.crtc.gc.ca/eng/info_sht/t1003.htm CRTC: Internet Regulation of telephone service The commission currently has some jurisdiction over the provision of local landline telephone service in Canada. This is largely limited to the major incumbent carriers, such as Bell Canada and Telus, for traditional landline service (but not Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP)). It has begun the gradual deregulation of such services where, in the commission's opinion, a sufficient level of competition exists. CRTC.gc.ca CRTC sets criteria for the deregulation of local telephone service The CRTC is sometimes blamed for the current state of the mobile phone industry in Canada, in which there are only three national mobile network operators – Bell Mobility, Telus Mobility, and Rogers Wireless – as well as a handful of MVNOs operating on these networks. In fact, the commission has very little to do with the regulation of mobile phone service, outside of "undue preference" issues (e.g., a carrier offering a superior rate or service to some subscribers and not others without a good reason). It does not regulate service rates, service quality, or other business practices, and commission approval is not necessary for wireless provider sales or mergers as in the broadcasting industry. CRTC.gc.ca Cellular (wireless) telephone services Moreover, it does not deal with the availability of spectrum for mobile phone service, which is part of the Industry Canada mandate, nor the maintenance of competition, which is largely the responsibility of The Competition Bureau. Transfers of ownership/foreign ownership Any transfer of more than 30% of the ownership of a broadcasting licence (including cable/satellite distribution licences) requires advance approval of the commission. One condition normally taken into account in such a decision is the level of foreign ownership; federal regulations require that Canadian citizens ultimately own a majority of a broadcast license. Usually this takes the form of a public process, where interested parties can express their concerns and sometimes including a public hearing, followed by a commission decision. While landline and mobile telephone providers must also be majority-owned by Canadians under the federal Telecommunications Act, the CRTC is not responsible for enforcement of this provision. In fact, the commission does not require licences at all for telephone companies, and CRTC approval is therefore not generally required for the sale of a telephone company, unless said company also owns a broadcast licence. Controversial decisions Since 1987, the CRTC has been involved in several controversial decisions: Milestone Radio: In two separate rounds of license hearings in the 1990s, the CRTC rejected applications by Milestone Radio to launch a radio station in Toronto which would have been Canada's first urban music station; in both cases, the CRTC instead granted licenses to stations that duplicated formats already offered by other stations in the Toronto market. The CRTC finally granted a license to Milestone in 2000, after a cabinet order-in-council directed the commission to license two new radio stations that reflected the cultural diversity of the Toronto market, and CFXJ-FM launched in 2001. CHOI-FM: The CRTC announced it would not renew the licence of the popular CHOI-FM radio station in Quebec City, after having previously sanctioned the station for failing to uphold its promise of performance and then, during the years following, receiving about 50 complaints about offensive behaviour by radio jockeys which similarly contravened CRTC rules on broadcast hate speech. Many thousands of the station's fans marched in the streets and on Parliament Hill against the decision, and the parent company of CHOI, Genex Corp., appealed the CRTC decision unsuccessfully to the Federal Court of Canada. The station was later sold to RNC Media, but instead of renewing its license the CRTC issued RNC a license to launch a new radio station on the same frequency. CBC Newsworld: The CRTC licensed the CBC in November 30, 1987 to provide a national all-news television network. Its competitor applicant, Alberta-based Allarcom, appealed this decision to the Canadian House of Commons. It was overturned and there were questions of whether federal politicians should meddle in CRTC decisions. Because of this the network launch was delayed from September 1, 1988 to July 31, 1989. RAI International: In Summer 2004, this Italian government controlled channel was denied permission to broadcast independently in Canada on the grounds that it had acted and was likely to act contrary to established Canadian policies. RAI International's latest politically appointed President (an avowed right wing nationalist and former spokesperson for Giorgio Almirante, the leader of the post-fascist party of Italy) had unilaterally terminated a 20 year old agreement and stripped all of its 1,500 to 2,000 annual hours of programming from TLN Telelatino, a Canadian-run channel which had devoted 95% of its prime time schedule to RAI programs for 20 years since TLN was founded. All Italian-Canadians were denied RAI programming by RAI International's removal of its programming from the Canadian marketplace, a move intended to create a public outcry and a threat that Canadians would resort to using satellite viewing cards obtained via the US in order to watch RAI, even though these cards were either grey market or black market, according to different analyses (see below). Following unprecedented foreign led and domestic political interference with the CRTC's quasi-judicial independent regulatory process, within 6 months of its original decision, an abrupt CRTC "review" of its policy on third-language foreign services determined to drop virtually all restrictions and adopt a new "open entry" approach to foreign controlled "third language" (non-English, non-French) channels. Al Jazeera: Was approved by the CRTC in 2004 as an optional cable and satellite offering, but on the condition that any carrier distributing it must edit out any instances of illegal hate speech. Cable companies declared that these restrictions would make it too expensive to carry Al Jazeera. Although no cable company released data as to what such a monitoring service would cost, the end-result was that no cable company elected to carry the station, either, leaving many Arabic-speaking Canadians using free-to-air satellite dishes to watch the station. The Canadian Jewish Congress has expressed its opinion over possible anti-Semitic incitement on this station and that the restrictions on Al Jazeera are appropriate, while the Canadian B'nai Brith is opposed to any approval of Al Jazeera in Canada. The CRTC ruling applied to Al Jazeera and not to its English-speaking sister network Al Jazeera English, which was launched two years after the ruling. Fox News: Until 2004, the CRTC's apparent reluctance to grant a digital licence to Fox News under the same policy which made it difficult for RAI to enter the country - same-genre competition from foreign services - had angered many conservative Canadians, who believed the network was deliberately being kept out due to its perceived conservative bias, particularly given the long-standing availability of services such as CNN and BBC World in Canada. On November 18, 2004, however, the CRTC approved an application by cable companies to offer Fox News on the digital cable tier. Fox commenced broadcasting in Canada shortly thereafter. Satellite radio: In June 2005, the CRTC outraged some Canadian cultural nationalists (such as the Friends of Canadian Broadcasting) and labour unions by licencing two companies, Canadian Satellite Radio and Sirius Canada to offer satellite radio services in Canada. The two companies are in partnership with American firms XM Satellite Radio and Sirius Satellite Radio respectively, and in accordance with the CRTC decision will only need to offer ten percent Canadian content. The CRTC contends that this low level of Canadian content, particularly when compared to the 35 percent rule on local radio stations, was necessary because unlicenced U.S. receivers were already flooding into the country, so that enforcing a ban on these receivers would be nearly impossible (see below). This explanation did not satisfy cultural nationalists, who demanded that the federal cabinet overturn the decision and mandate a minimum of 35 percent Canadian content. Supporters of the decision argue that satellite radio can only be feasibly set up as a continental system, and trying to impose 35 percent Canadian content across North America is quite unrealistic. They also argue that satellite radio will boost Canadian culture by giving vital exposure to independent artists, instead of just concentrating on the country's stars, and point to the CRTC's successful extraction of promises to program 10 percent Canadian content on satellite services already operational in the United States as important concessions. Satellite radio - Yahoo News June 27, 2005 (Broken Link) On the other hand some consumers and financial analysts believe that any Canadian content conditions are unnecessarily strict and might hamper the ability of Canadians to legally listen to many of the services currently provided by both providers. Despite popular perception that the CRTC banned Sirius Canada from broadcasting Howard Stern's program, this is not the case. Sirius Canada in fact initially chose not to air Stern based on the possibility of a future issue with the CRTC, although the company reversed its decision and began offering Howard Stern in 2006. 2008 Ottawa radio licences: On November 21, 2008, federal Minister of Canadian Heritage and Official Languages James Moore issued a statement calling on the CRTC to review its approval of two new radio stations, Frank Torres' CIDG-FM and Astral Media's 99.7 FM, which it had licensed in August 2008 to serve the Ottawa-Gatineau radio market. Moore asked the commission to assess whether the francophone population of the Ottawa-Gatineau area was sufficiently well-served by existing French radio services, and to consider licensing one or more of the French language applications — which included a Christian music station, a community radio station and a campus radio station for the Université du Québec en Outaouais — in addition to or instead of the approved stations. "The Government of Canada Refers Decisions on Radio in the Ottawa-Gatineau Region Back to CRTC", November 21, 2008. Reception of non-Canadian services While an exact number has not been determined, thousands of Canadians have purchased and used what they contend to be grey market radio and television services, licensed in the United States but not in Canada. Users of these unlicensed services contend that they are not directly breaking any laws by simply using the equipment. The equipment is usually purchased from an American supplier (although some merchants have attempted to set up shop in Canada) and the services are billed to an American postal address. The advent of online billing and the easy availability of credit card services has made it relatively easy for almost anyone to maintain an account in good standing, regardless of where they actually live. Sec. 9(1)(c) of the Radiocommunication Act creates a prohibition against all decoding of encrypted programming signals, followed by an exception where authorization is received from the person holding the lawful right in Canada to transmit and authorize decoding of the signal. This means receiving the encrypted programming of DishNetwork or DirecTV, even with a grey market subscription, may be construed as unlawful (this remains an unresolved Constitutional issue). Notwithstanding, possession of DishNetwork or DirecTV equipment is not unlawful as provided by The Radiocommuncation Act Section 4(1)(b), which states: "No person shall, except under and in accordance with a radio authorization, install, operate or possess radio apparatus, other than (b)a radio apparatus that is capable only of the reception of broadcasting and that is not a distribution undertaking. (radio apparatus" means a device or combination of devices intended for, or capable of being used for, radiocommunication)." Satellite radio poses a more complicated problem for the CRTC. While an unlicensed satellite dish can often be identified easily, satellite radio receivers are much more compact and can rarely be easily identified, at least not without flagrantly violating provisions against unreasonable search and seizure in the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. Some observers argued that this influenced the CRTC's June 2005 decision to ease Canadian content restrictions on satellite radio (see above). Structure The CRTC is run by up to 13 full-time (including the chairman, the vice-chairman of broadcasting, and the vice-chairman of telecommunications) and six part-time commissioners appointed by the Cabinet for renewable terms of up to five years. Only full-time commissioners can participate in the decision-making process for telecommunications and all commissioners are involved in broadcasting decisions. The current chairman is Konrad von Finckenstein, former head of Canada's Competition Bureau. Related legislation Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission Act Broadcasting Act Telecommunications Act Bell Canada Act See also Category 1 specialty channel Category 2 specialty channel Ontario Telephone Service Commission Régie des télécommunications du Québec Ontario Telecommunications Association Canadian Independent Telephone Association Friends of Canadian Broadcasting References External links Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission CBC Digital Archives - Ruling the Airwaves: The CRTC and Canadian Content | Canadian_Radio-television_and_Telecommunications_Commission |@lemmatized crtc:62 may:5 also:11 stand:2 cathode:1 ray:1 tube:1 controller:1 logothe:1 canadian:53 radio:37 television:12 telecommunication:12 commission:20 french:4 conseil:1 de:3 la:1 radiodiffusion:1 et:1 télécommunications:2 canadiennes:1 create:5 take:3 responsibility:3 regulate:10 carrier:6 prior:1 know:3 establish:2 parliament:3 canada:28 replace:2 board:1 broadcast:18 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5,319 | King_Kong_vs._Godzilla | is a 1962 tokusatsu kaiju film directed by Ishiro Honda with visual effects by Eiji Tsuburaya. It was the third installment in the Japanese series of monster films featuring the mutant dinosaur Godzilla. It is also the first time both King Kong and Godzilla appeared in color. Plot Mr. Tako, head of Pacific Pharmaceuticals, is frustrated with the television shows his company is sponsoring and wants something to boost his ratings. When a doctor tells Tako about a giant monster he discovered on the small Faro Island, Tako believes that it would be a brilliant idea "...with a punch" to use the monster to gain publicity. Tako immediately sends two men, Sakurai and Kinsaburo, to find and bring back the monster from Faro. Meanwhile, the American submarine Seahawk gets caught in an iceberg. Unfortunately, this is the same iceberg that Godzilla was trapped in by the Japanese Self-Defense Forces back in 1955, and the submarine is destroyed by the monster. As an American rescue helicopter circles the iceberg, Godzilla breaks out and heads towards a nearby Soviet Arctic base. The base alarm sounds as they deploy everything they have against him. Tanks were sent to stop Godzilla's advance, but to no avail. Godzilla advances, now closer to the base. 12 rapid-firing four-turreted artillery cannons, despite their firepower and firing rate, had no effect either. Godzilla, now at the coastline of the base, fires his atomic ray at the tanks' defensive line, melting them instantly. The rest of the tanks retreat, now leaving the bases defenses to deal with him. The base itself, of course is ineffective against Godzilla. He continues moving inland, razing the base to the ground, and sends the tank armory up in flames. Godzilla's appearance is all over the press, making Tako furious. Meanwhile on Faro Island, a Giant Octopus (also known as Oodako) attacks the native village. The mysterious Faro monster is then revealed to be the giant gorilla King Kong and he arrives and defeats the tentacled menace. Kong then drinks some red berry juice, becomes intoxicated, and then falls asleep. Sakurai and Kinsaburo place Kong on a large raft and begin to transport him back to Japan. Back at Pacific Pharmaceuticals, Tako is finally glad because Kong is now all over the press instead of Godzilla. Mr. Tako arrives on the ship transporting Kong, but a JSDF ship stops them and orders them to return Kong to Faro Island. Godzilla had just come ashore in Japan and destroyed a train, and the JSDF doesn't want another monster entering Japan. Unfortunately, during all this, Kong wakes up from his drunken state and breaks free from the raft. Reaching the mainland, Kong meets up with Godzilla in a valley and Tako, Sakurai, and Kinsaburo have difficulty avoiding the JSDF to watch the fight. Eventually they find a spot. Kong throws some large rocks at Godzilla, but Godzilla shoots his ray at Kong's chest, forcing the giant ape to retreat. The JSDF desperately tries everything to stop Godzilla from entering Tokyo. In a fielded area outside the city, they dig a large pit laden with explosives and try to lure Godzilla into it. They succeed and set off the explosives, but Godzilla is unharmed and crawls out of the pit. They next string up a barrier of power lines around the city filled with a 1,000,000 volts of electricity (300,000 volts had been tried in the first film, but failed to turn the monster back). The electricity is too much for Godzilla, who then moves away from the city towards the Mt. Fuji area. Later at night, Kong approaches Tokyo. He tears through the power lines, feeding off the electricity which seems to make him stronger. Kong then attacks Tokyo and holds a woman from a train, named Fumiko, hostage. The JSDF explode capsules full of the berry juice from Faro Island and knock out Kong. Tako approved of this plan because he "...didn't want anything bad to happen to Kong." The JSDF then decide to transport Kong via balloons to Godzilla, in hope that they will fight each other to their deaths. The next morning, King Kong is dumbo-dropped onto the summit of Mt. Fuji from the balloon air-lift, meets up with Godzilla and the two begin to fight. Godzilla has the advantage at first, eventually knocking Kong down with a vicious drop kick, and battering the monstrous ape unconscious with powerful tail attacks to his forehead. When Godzilla tries to kill Kong with his ray, an electrical storm arrives and revives Kong, giving him the power of an electric grasp. The two begin to fight again, with the revitalized Kong swinging Godzilla around by his tail, shoving a tree into Godzilla's mouth, and judo tossing him over his shoulder. The brawl between the two monsters continues all the way down to the coastline. Eventually the monsters tear through Atami Castle and Kong drags Godzilla into the Pacific Ocean. After an underwater battle, only King Kong emerges from the water and begins to slowly swim back home to Faro Island. As Kong swims home, onlookers aren't sure if Godzilla survived the underwater battle, but speculate that it was possible. Production The film had its roots in an earlier concept for a new King Kong feature developed by Willis O'Brien, animator of the original stop-motion Kong. In 1960, O'Brien came up with a proposed treatment, King Kong vs. Frankenstein, where Kong would fight against a giant version of Frankenstein's monster in San Francisco. Steve Archer. Willis O'Brien: Special Effects Genius. Mcfarland, 1993. O'Brien took the project (which consisted of some concept art and a screenplay treatment) to RKO to secure permission to use the King Kong character. During this time the story was renamed King Kong vs. the Ginko when it was believed that Universal had the rights to the Frankenstein name (they actually only had the rights to the monster's makeup design). O'Brien was introduced to producer John Beck who promised to find a studio to make the film (at this point in time RKO was no longer a production company). Beck took the story treatment and had George Worthing Yates flesh it out into a screenplay. The story was slightly altered and the title changed to King Kong vs. Prometheus, returning the name to the original Frankenstein concept (The Modern Prometheus was the alternate name of Frankenstein in the original novel). Unfortunately, the cost of stop animation discouraged potential studios from putting the film into production. After shopping the script around overseas, Beck would eventually attract the interest of the Japanese studio Toho. Toho had long wanted to make a King Kong film and decided to replace the Frankenstein creature with their own monster Godzilla. They thought it would be the perfect way to celebrate their thirtieth year in production. Paul A. Woods. King Kong Cometh!. Plexus Publishing Limited, 2005. Pg. 119 John Beck's dealings with Willis O'Brien's project were done behind his back, and O'Brien was never credited for his idea Willis O'Brien-Creator of the Impossible by Don Shay. Cinefex #7 R.B Graphics. 1982. Pgs. 69-70 . In 1963, Merian C. Cooper attempted to sue John Beck claiming that he outright owned the King Kong character, but the lawsuit never went through as it turned out he was not Kong's sole legal owner as he had previously believed. Mark Cotta Vaz. Living Dangerously: The Adventures of Merian C Cooper. Villard, 2005. Pgs.361-363 Special effects Director Eiji Tsuburaya had a stated intention to move the Godzilla series in a lighter direction. This approach was not favoured by most of the effects crew, who "couldn't believe" some of the things Tsuburaya asked them to do, such as Kong and Godzilla volleying a giant boulder back and forth. But Tsuburaya wanted to appeal to children's sensibilities and broaden the genre's audience. Gaisha Kabushiki. Gojira Eiga 40-Nenshi, Gojira Deizu (Godzilla Days: 40 years of Godzilla Movies). Shueisha, 1993. This approach was favoured by Toho and to this end, King Kong vs. Godzilla has a much lighter tone than the previous two Godzilla films and contains a great deal of humor within the action sequences. The decision was also taken to shoot the film in a "Scope" ratio (2.35:1) and to film in color, marking both monsters' first color portrayals. Toho had planned to shoot this film on location in Sri Lanka, but had to forgo that (and scale back on production costs) because they ended up paying RKO roughly $200,000 (US) for the rights to the King Kong character. The bulk of the film was shot on Oshima (an island near Japan) instead. Stuart Galbraith IV. Monsters are Attacking Tokyo!. Feral House, 1998. Pgs. 83-84 During pre-production, Ishiro Honda had toyed with the idea of using Willis O'Brien's stop motion technique instead of the suitmation process used in the first two Godzilla films, but budgetary concerns prevented him from using the process except in a few, isolated scenes. Godzilla's appearance was slightly altered for this film. King Kong vs. Godzilla was made more as a comedy rather than having the "sense of terror" theme from the two previous films. Because of that, Toho decided to make Godzilla less frightening. The suit went through slight alterations, such as the removal of Godzilla's tiny ears, 3 toes on each foot rather than four, enlarged central dorsal fins and a bulkier body. As well, the head was slightly longer, a slight frown was added to the side of the mouth and the pupils were enlarged. These new features gave Godzilla a more reptilian appearance. While the look of Godzilla in this film has remained popular with fans, the same can not be said for the King Kong design. Resembling a worn out shag rug...with a ghastly inmovable face that varies from shot to shot, depending on if it is the suit or hand puppet, it is one of the poorest gorilla suits in film history. This as well as a number of sub standard effects and poor composite work are significant negatives that work against the film. For the attack of the Giant Octopus, four live octopuses were used. They were forced to move by blowing hot air on them. After the filming of that scene was finished, three of the four were released. The fourth became special effects director Eiji Tsuburaya's dinner. Since King Kong was seen as the bigger draw (at the time, he was even more popular in Japan than Godzilla), and since Godzilla was still a villain at this point in the series, it led to the decision to not only give King Kong top billing, but also to present him as the winner of the climatic fight. While the ending of the film does look somewhat ambiguous, Toho confirmed that King Kong was indeed the winner in their 1962/63 press book Toho Films Vol. 8, which states, A spectacular duel is arranged on the summit of Mt. Fuji, and King Kong is victorious. Toho Company Limited. Toho Films Vol.8. Toho Publishing Co. Ltd, 1963. Pg.9 English version When John Beck sold the King Kong vs. Prometheus script to Toho (which became King Kong vs. Godzilla), he was given exclusive rights to produce his own version of the film . Beck was able to line up a couple of potential distributors in Warner Brothers and Universal Pictures International even before the film began production. After the film was completed, Beck was given a private screening of the film and didn't like the comedic aspect of the movie (the original Japanese version is a satire of commercialism). He went to work on his version and tried to turn the film into a straight sci-fi story. This resulted in what would be the most altered Godzilla film from its original Japanese version to the English version in the film series history. Beck removed much of the overt comedy from the original version of the film, cutting out huge amounts of Japanese dialogue which primarily comprised of character development. He replaced this footage with newly shot scenes of Eric Carter, a UN reporter who spends much of the time commenting on the action from a UN communication satellite, as well of Arnold Johnson, the head of the Museum of Natural History in New York, who tries to explain Godzilla's origin and his and Kong's motivations. The Legend of Godzilla-Part One by August Ragone and Guy Tucker. Markalite: The Magazine of Japanese Fantasy #3. Pacific Rim Publishing Company, 1991. Pg. 27 . Several of the assertions made by the Johnson character in regards to Godzilla's origins and intelligence however, are erroneous, having been refuted either by the previous two films, or by later films in the series. The new footage was directed by Thomas Montgomery Kaijuphile Movie Reviews : King Kong vs. Godzilla . Beck was able to secure a deal with Universal Pictures International during this time as a distributor and was able to obtain from them library music from some of their older films (music tracks that had been composed by Henry Mancini, Hans J. Salter, and even a track from Heinz Roemheld). These films include Creature from the Black Lagoon, Bend of the River, Untamed Frontier, The Golden Horde, Frankenstein Meets the Wolfman, Man Made Monster, and The Monster That Challenged the World. He used these scores to almost completely replace the original Japanese score by Akira Ifukube. War of the Titans (Linear Notes) by David Hirsch. King Kong vs Godzilla: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack. La-La Land Records, 2005. Pgs. 4-9 . Beck also obtained stock footage from the film The Mysterians from RKO (the film's US copyright holder at the time) which he used to not only represent the UN communication satellite but which he also used during the film's climax. Beck was unimpressed with the tiny tremor that occurs in the Japanese version when Kong and Godzilla are fighting underwater. He utilized stock footage of a massive Earthquake from The Mysterians, in order to make the Earthquake much more violent than the tame tremor seen in the Japanese version. This footage features massive tidal waves, flooded valleys, and the ground splitting open swallowing up various huts. None of this over the top carnage is seen in the Japanese version of the film. Beck spent roughly $15,500 making his English version and sold the film to Universal Pictures International for roughly $200,000 on April 29, 1963. The English version runs 91 minutes, seven minutes shorter than the original Japanese version. Box office In Japan, this film has the highest box office attendance figures of all of the Godzilla series to date. It sold 11.2 million tickets during its initial theatrical run. After 2 theatrical re-releases in 1970 and 1977 respectively, it has a lifetime figure of 12,550,000 tickets sold. Legacy This film marks a number of firsts for King Kong and Godzilla films: this film was the first time either King Kong and Godzilla were filmed in color and the first time either filmed in wide-screen. Coincidentally, this film was also the third film for both King Kong and Godzilla (although this film isn't considered a sequel to the original King Kong or Son of Kong). Due to this film's great box office success, Toho had wanted to do a sequel almost immediately. The sequel was simply called Continuation: King Kong vs Godzilla. However the project never got off the ground. In 1992 (to coincide with the company's 60th anniversary), Toho wanted to remake this film as Godzilla vs King Kong as part of the Heisei series of Godzilla fims. However, according to the late Tomoyuki Tanaka, it proved to be difficult to obtain permission to use King Kong. Toho Company Limited, Toho Sf Special Effects Movie Series Vol 8: Godzilla vs Mechagodzilla, Toho Publishing Products Division, 1993 Next, Toho thought to make Godzilla vs Mechani-Kong but, (according to Koichi Kawakita), it was discovered that obtaining permission even to use the likeness of King Kong would be difficult. Koichi Kawakita interview by David Milner, Cult Movies #14, Wack "O" Publishing, 1995 . In the end, the film became Godzilla vs Mechagodzilla II. Even though it was only featured in this one film (although it was used for a couple of brief shots in Godzilla vs. Mothra ), this Godzilla suit was always one of the more popular designs among fans from both sides of the Pacific. It formed the basis for some early merchandise in the US in the 1960s, such as a popular model kit by Aurora Plastics Corporation, and a popular board game by Ideal Toys . The film was referenced in Da Lench Mob's 1992 single "Guerillas in tha Mist". In Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man's Chest, the special effects crew was instructed to watch the Giant Octopus scene to get reference for the Kraken. Dual ending myth For many years a popular myth has persisted that in the Japanese version of this film, Godzilla emerges as the winner. It isn't known where this myth of the dual endings actually originated, but it's been reported as far back as Famous Monsters of Filmland in the early 1960s. Decades later in the 1980s, the myth was still going strong. The Genus III edition of the popular board game Trivial Pursuit had a question that asked "Who wins in the Japanese version of King Kong vs Godzilla", and states that the correct answer is "Godzilla". As well, through the years, this myth has been misreported by various members of the media, and has been misreported by reputable news organizations. Steve Ryfle. Japan's Favourite Mon-Star. ECW Press, 1998. Pgs.87-90 But as more Westerners were able to view the original version of the film especially after its availability on home video during the late 1980s, the myth became dispelled. Both versions of the film end the same way. Kong and Godzilla crash into the ocean, and Kong is the only monster to emerge and swims home. The only differences between the two endings of the film are extremely minor and trivial ones. In the Japanese version, as Kong and Godzilla are fighting underwater, a very small Earthquake occurs. In the American version, producer John Beck tacked on stock footage of a violent Earthquake from the film The Mysterians to make the climatic earthquake seem far more violent and destructive. The dialogue is slightly different. In the Japanese version onlookers are speculating that Godzilla might be dead as they watch Kong swim home, and speculate that it's possible he survived. In the American version, onlookers simply say "Godzilla has disappeared without a trace", and newly shot scenes of reporter Eric Carter has him watching Kong swim home on a viewscreen and wishing him luck on his long journey home. As the film ends and the screen fades to black, Owari (The End) appears on screen, Godzilla's roar followed by Kong's is on the Japanese soundtrack. This was akin to the monsters "taking a bow" or saying "Goodbye" to the audience, as at this point the film is over. In the American version, only Kong's roar is present on the soundtrack. Alternate Titles This film was released in Germany as Die Rückkehr des King Kong (The Return of King Kong) and in Italy as Il Trionfo Di King Kong (The Triumph of King Kong) Godzilla Abroad by J.D Lees. G-Fan #22. Daikaiju Enterprises, 1996. Pgs.20-21 DVD release Universal Studios Released: November 29, 2005 Aspect Ratio: Widescreen (2.35:1) anamorphic Sound: English Region 1 Note: Contains the English version of the film; Only available in a two-pack with King Kong Escapes References External links Godzilla on the web(Japan) Archer, Eugene. "King Kong vs. Godzilla" (film review) The New York Times. June 27, 1963. Martinez, Mike A. "King Kong vs. Godzilla" (extended film analysis) Millon Monkey Theater. 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5,320 | Articolo_31 | Articolo 31 is a popular band in Milan, Italy, melding hip hop, funk, pop and traditional Italian musical forms. They are one of the most popular Italian rock/hip hop groups. Band history Members are the rapper J.Ax (real name Alessandro Aleotti), and DJ Jad (Vito Luca Perrini). The band took its name from the Irish constitutional law guaranteeing freedom of the press. Articolo 31 was one of the first hip hop groups in Italy, and they released one of the first Italian hip hop records, Strade di città, in 1993. Soon they signed with BMG/Ricordi and started to mix their rap with pop music, obtaining great success and popularity. However, the underground hip hop scene pointed them as traitors. Their producer was Franco Godi who produced the music for the Signor Rossi animated series. In 1997 DJ Gruff dissed Articolo 31 in the track titled 1 vs 2 appearing on the first album of the beatmaker Fritz da Cat, but Articolo 31's lawyers obtained a retraction of the record, and its reissue without the dissing song. In 2001 Articolo 31 collaborated with the American old school rapper Kurtis Blow on the album XChé SI!. In the same year they made the movie Senza filtro (in English, Without filter). With Domani smetto Articolo 31 left the world of hip hop and moved to rap with many influences; even more so than previously, this album found J.Ax and others rapping and singing to rock/pop tracks. In recent years J.Ax and DJ Jad have each released solo records, and in 2006 the group declared an indefinite hiatus. Their posse, Spaghetti Funk, includes other popular performers like Space One and pop rappers Gemelli DiVersi. Band members J Ax - vocals DJ Jad - turntables Discography Year Title Label 1993 Strade di città Best Sound 1994 Messa di Vespiri Best Sound 1996 Cosi com'è Best Sound 1998 Nessuno Best Sound 2001 XChé SI! Best Sound 2002 Domani smetto Best Sound 2003 Italiano Medio Best Sound External links Official website | Articolo_31 |@lemmatized articolo:6 popular:3 band:4 milan:1 italy:2 meld:1 hip:6 hop:6 funk:2 pop:4 traditional:1 italian:3 musical:1 form:1 one:4 rock:2 group:3 history:1 member:2 rapper:3 j:4 ax:4 real:1 name:2 alessandro:1 aleotti:1 dj:4 jad:3 vito:1 luca:1 perrini:1 take:1 irish:1 constitutional:1 law:1 guarantee:1 freedom:1 press:1 first:3 release:2 record:3 strade:2 di:3 città:2 soon:1 sign:1 bmg:1 ricordi:1 start:1 mix:1 rap:3 music:2 obtain:2 great:1 success:1 popularity:1 however:1 underground:1 scene:1 point:1 traitor:1 producer:1 franco:1 godi:1 produce:1 signor:1 rossi:1 animate:1 series:1 gruff:1 diss:1 track:2 title:2 v:1 appear:1 album:3 beatmaker:1 fritz:1 da:1 cat:1 lawyer:1 retraction:1 reissue:1 without:2 dissing:1 song:1 collaborate:1 american:1 old:1 school:1 kurtis:1 blow:1 xché:2 si:2 year:3 make:1 movie:1 senza:1 filtro:1 english:1 filter:1 domani:2 smetto:2 leave:1 world:1 move:1 many:1 influence:1 even:1 previously:1 find:1 others:1 sing:1 recent:1 solo:1 declare:1 indefinite:1 hiatus:1 posse:1 spaghetti:1 include:1 performer:1 like:1 space:1 gemelli:1 diversi:1 vocal:1 turntable:1 discography:1 label:1 best:7 sound:7 messa:1 vespiri:1 cosi:1 com:1 è:1 nessuno:1 italiano:1 medio:1 external:1 link:1 official:1 website:1 |@bigram hip_hop:6 kurtis_blow:1 external_link:1 |
5,321 | Houston_Astros | The Houston Astros are a professional baseball team based in Houston, Texas. The Astros are a member of the Central Division of Major League Baseball's National League. From 2000 to the present, the Astros have played their home games at Minute Maid Park. The Astros joined MLB under the name Colt .45s along with the New York Mets in . The Astros' current owner is Drayton McLane, Jr. The Astros have had one World Series appearance in their history, losing in 2005 against the Chicago White Sox. They have made the postseason eight times (4 as Central Division champs, 2 as Western Division champs, and twice as the wild card). Franchise history Major League Baseball comes to Houston Prior to Major League Baseball expansion Houston's connection to MLB was the Houston Buffaloes or Buffs. The Buffs were the minor league team for the St. Louis Cardinals from 1921–1958. Houston had been making efforts to bring a Major League franchise to the city before the expansion in 1962. There were four men chiefly responsible for bringing Major League Baseball to Houston: George Kirksey and Craig Cullinan, who had led a futile attempt to purchase the St. Louis Cardinals in 1952; R.E. "Bob" Smith, a prominent oilman and real estate magnate in Houston who was brought in for his financial resources; and Judge Roy Hofheinz, a former Mayor of Houston and Harris County Judge who was recruited for his salesmanship and political style. They formed the Houston Sports Association as their vehicle for attaining a big league franchise for the city of Houston. Given Major League Baseball's refusal to consider expanding, Kirksey, Cullinan, Smith, and Hofheinz joined forces with would-be owners from other cities and announced the formation of a new league to compete with the established National and American Leagues. They called the new league the Continental League. Wanting to protect potential new markets, both existing leagues chose to expand from eight teams to ten. Houston won a franchise in the National League to begin play in 1962. The Continental League folded before it ever started. But if its real object was to secure Houston a Major League franchise, it clearly succeeded. The new Houston team was named the Colt .45s after a "Name The Team" contest was held. The name "Colt .45s" won out, as the Colt .45 was well-known as "the gun that won the west." The colors selected were navy blue and orange. The first team was a collection of cast-offs culled mostly through an expansion draft held after the 1961 season. The Colt .45s and the other expansion team the New York Mets, took turns choosing players left unprotected by the other National League franchises. The Colt .45s would play ball at Colt Stadium. Colt Stadium however was just a temporary field until Judge Hofheinz could build his indoor stadium. Hofheinz had convinced the National League owners that the sweltering Houston summers would not be a problem as he would build an indoor baseball stadium based loosely on the Coliseum in Rome. Bonds were passed and construction began but, until it was ready, the team played on some reclaimed marshland south of town. Colt Stadium was built on the same land that would eventually hold its famous successor. It was built on the cheap with little to protect fans from the weather or other hazards. True baseball fans hardly cared. Houston had become a "major league" city. 1962–1964: The Colt .45s era Colt .45s logo, 1962–64 The Colt .45s started their inaugural season on April 10, 1962 against the Chicago Cubs. Harry Craft was named Houston's first manager. The Colt .45s finished eighth among the National League's ten teams. To get an idea of how the first season was for Houston, look at the team's best pitcher, Richard "Turk" Farrell. A starter for the Colt .45s, he was primarily a relief pitcher when he was with the Los Angeles Dodgers and Philadelphia Phillies. Turk lost 20 games in 1962, but had an ERA of 3.02. Turk was selected to both All-Star games that year. There was a bright spot in the line up in 1962. Román Mejías, who was acquired from the Pittsburgh Pirates in the expansion draft, was named the Colt .45s starting right fielder. It was in Houston that Mejías would play the best season of his career. While he played better the first half of the season, an injury slowed him the second half of the season. However he still finished with a .286 batting average, 24 home runs, and 76 RBIs. His modesty and his hard play made him a fan favorite that year. Despite his good year Mejías was traded to the Boston Red Sox in the fall of 1962. 1963 saw more young talent mixed with seasoned veterans. Jimmy Wynn, Rusty Staub, and Joe Morgan all made their major league debuts in the 1963 season. Still, the results in the win–lose department did not change much. In fact, the Colt .45s finished in ninth place with a 66–96 record. The team was still building, trying to find that perfect mix to compete. Craft had plenty of rookies to play and on September 27 he fielded an all rookie team versus the New York Mets. Houston lost 10–3 but it was a glimpse of what was to come in the next few seasons. The 1964 campaign began on a sad note. Pitcher Jim Umbricht died of cancer just before opening day. Umbricht was the only Colt .45s pitcher to post winning records in the Colt .45s first two seasons. So well liked by players and fans the Colt .45 retired his Jersey number 32 in 1965. Umbricht was 33 years old. Jim Umbricht Incredible-people.com On the field the 1964 Colt .45s got off to a quick start, but it would not last. Manager Harry Craft was fired presumably for wanting to play more experienced players, while the front office wanted to showcase the young up and coming talent. Craft was replaced by one of the Colt .45s coaches, Luman Harris. Some of that up and coming talent the front office wanted to showcase was a young pitcher by the name of Larry Dierker. He started versus the San Francisco Giants on his eighteenth birthday. He lost the game but it was the beginning of a long relationship with the Houston organization. Just on the horizon the structure of the new domed stadium was more prevalent and the way baseball was watched in Houston, and around the league, was about to change. 1965–1970: The Great Indoors Astros logo, 1965–1974 With Judge Roy Hofheinz now the sole owner of the franchise and his vision of a domed stadium to play ball indoors complete, the Colt .45s moved into their new domed stadium in 1965. The judge called the new domed stadium the Astrodome. The name was in honor of Houston's importance to the country's space program and to match with the meaning of the name, the Colt .45s were renamed the Astros. Astrodome Houston-Astros.com The new park, coined as the "Eighth Wonder of the World" did little to help the play on the field. While several "indoor" firsts were accomplished, the team still finished ninth in the standings. The attendance was high not because of the team accomplishments, but because people came from miles around to see the Astrodome. Just as the excitement was settling down over the Astrodome, the 1966 season found something new to put the domed stadium in the spotlight once again; the field. Grass would not grow in the new park, since the roof panels had been painted to reduce the glare that was causing players on both the Astros and the visiting team to miss routine pop flies. A new artificial turf was created called "AstroTurf" and once again Houston would be involved in yet another change in the way the game was played. Ballparksofbaseball.com With new manager Grady Hatton the Astros got hot right away. By May they were in second place in the National League and looked like a team that could contend. Joe Morgan and Sonny Jackson appeared on the cover of Sports Illustrated, an Astros first, and Morgan was named as a starter on the All-Star Team. The Astros cooled as quickly as they got hot. They lost Jimmy Wynn for the season after he crashed into an outfield fence in Philadelphia and Morgan had broken his knee cap. There were some good notes however. Sonny Jackson set a league record with 49 steals, and led the Astros with a .292 batting average. The Astros were a young team full of talent that was not yet refined and the inconsistencies of their youth was viewed on the field. 1967 saw third baseman Eddie Mathews join the Astros. Mathews, however, would play first base. The slugger hit his 500th home run while in Houston. He would be traded late in the season and Doug Rader would be promoted to the big leagues. Rookie Don Wilson pitched a no hitter on June 18th, Fathers Day, against the Braves. It was the first no hit, shut out, pitched in team history and in the Astrodome. Jimmy Wynn also provided some enthusiasm in 1967. The 5 ft 9 in Wynn was becoming known not only for how often he hit home runs, but for the distance of the home runs. Wynn set club records with 37 home runs, and 107 RBIs He also had a pinch hit single in the All-Star game that year; another Astros first. Jimmy Wynn Statistics - Baseball-Reference.com As the season came to a close the Astros found themselves once again in ninth place and a winning percentage below .500. The team looked good on paper, but could not seem to make it work on the field. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr's assassination delayed the start to the 1968 season. When Robert F. Kennedy was killed two months later, Major League Baseball let teams decide if they would postpone games or not. Astros management decided to not postpone games. Rusty Staub and Bob Aspromonte sat out in protest. Both were traded at season's end. April 15 saw a pitching duel that was one for the ages. Mets pitcher Tom Seaver and Don Wilson faced each other in a pitching duel that lasted six hours. Seaver went ten frames allowing no walks and just two hits. Wilson went nine innings and allowed five hits and three walks. After the starters pitched eleven relievers, seven for the New York Mets and four for the Astros tried to end the game. The game finally ended when Aspromonte hit a shot toward Mets shortstop Al Weis. Weis had been perfect all night at short, but he was not the same player he was six hours earlier. Weis was not quick enough to make the play and the ball zipped into left field allowing Norm Miller to score. Baseball-Reference.com Houston hosted the All-Star game in 1968 and as expected in the "Year of the Pitcher" the game was a low scoring match that saw the National league winning 1–0. Grady Hatton was fired as manager on June 18 and Harry Walker replaced him. Walker had been fired from Pittsburgh the year before The Astros ended the season in last place. With baseball expansion and trades the Astros had dramatically changed in 1969. Gone were Aspromonte, Cuellar, and Staub, just to name a few. Added to the team were catcher Johnny Edwards, outfielder Jesus Alou, infielder Denis Menke and pitcher Dave Lemaster. Who would help the Astros finish better than they had since they started playing ball in 1962. Wilson continued pitching great and on May 1 threw the second no hitter of his career. He was just 24 years of age and was second to only Sandy Koufax for career no hit wins. Wilson's no hitter lit the Astros' fire and six days later the Astros tied a major league record by turning seven double plays. By May's end the Astros had put together a ten game winning streak. The Astros infield tandem of Menke and Joe Morgan continued to improve and provided power at the plate and great defense. Morgan had 15 homers and stole 49 bases while Menke led the Astros with 90 RBIs. The Menke/Morgam punch was beginning to come alive. On September 10, the Astros were tied for fourth and only two games out of first, but fell to the Atlanta Braves three days later. Larry Dierker had no hit the Braves and was one out away from ending it when Felix Millan broke it up with a single. The Astros scored two runs in the thirteenth, but ex-teammates Aspromonte and Jackson led a three-run Braves comeback. It seemed to be the turning point for the Astros as they slid into fifth place and Atlanta went on to win the division. The series against the Braves gave the Astros, and the fans, a taste of a race. It was also the first time in the team's history that they did not finish the season below .500. 1969 saw both the 1962 expansion teams improve, but it was the New York Mets that climbed to the top winning the World Series. In 1970 the Astros were expected to be a serious threat in the National League West. The year started with a bang when Doug Rader clobbered a shot into the upper reserve (gold) seats in left field during an exhibition game on April 3rd. Nine days later Jimmy Wynn knocked one into the purple seats (just below the gold) proving that the unreachable area of the dome was reachable. The seats were repainted marking this feat. No other Astro ever hit a home run into that part of the Astrodome. In June, 19-year-old Cesar Cedeno was called up and immediately showed signs of being a superstar. The Dominican outfielder was often compared to Willie Mays and Roberto Clemente. Cedeno batted .310 after being called up from the minors. Not to be outdone Denis Menke batted .304 and Jesus Alou batted .306. The Astros' batting average was up by 19 points compared to the season before. The team looked good, but the Astros' ERA was up. Larry Dierker and Don Wilson had winning records, but the pitching staff as a whole had an off season. Houston finish in fourth place in 1970 and saw the Reds take the division title, something that would become common in the 1970s. 1971–1974: The Boys in Orange The fashion trends of the 1960s had started taking root in baseball. Long hair and loud colors were starting to appear on teams uniforms, including the Astros. In 1971 the Astros made some changes to their uniform: they kept the same style they had in previous seasons, but inverted the colors. What was navy blue was now orange and what was orange was now a lighter shade of blue. The players last names were added to the back of the jerseys. The uniform fabric was also changed to what was at the time revolutionizing the industry – polyester. Belts were replaced by elastic waistbands and jerseys zipped up instead of buttons. The uniforms became popular with fans but would only last for four season. The Astros would shock baseball and the fashion world four years later. The uniforms were about the only thing that did change in 1971. That and the acquisition of Roger Metzger from the Chicago Cubs in the off-season. This moved Menke to first base and Bob Watson to the outfield. The Astros got off to a slow start and the pitching and hitting averages were down. Larry Dierker was selected to the All-Star game in 1971, but due to an arm injury he could not make it. Don Wilson took his place and pitched two scoreless innings. Cesar Cedeno led the club with 81 RBIs and the league with 40 doubles, but batted just .264 and had 102 strikeouts in his second season with the Astros. J.R. Richard made his debut in September of the 1971 season against the Giants. The 6 ft 8 in Richard struck out 15 to tie the debut record of Karl Spooner set in 1954. Richards won the game 5–3. The city of Houston saw they had the talent for a winning team and were growing tired of finishing in the middle of the pack. The Astros were about to pull off on of the most controversial trades in team history in the off season. The Big Trade In November 1971 The Houston Astros and Cincinnati Reds made a blockbuster trade that was one of the most impactful in the history of the sport, and helped create The Big Red Machine of the 1970s, with the Reds getting the better end of the deal. The Astros sent second baseman Joe Morgan, infielder Denis Menke, pitcher Jack Billingham, and outfielders Cesar Geronimo and prospect Ed Armbrister to Cincinnati for first baseman Lee May, second baseman Tommy Helms and infielder Jim Stewart. The trade left Astros fans and the baseball world scratching their heads as to why Astros General Manager Spec Richardson would give up so much for so little. May and Helms were good talents but both had obvious weaknesses. The Reds on the other hand would shore up many problems. They had an off year in 1971, but were the National League Pennant winner in 1970. They had plenty of power at the plate in Johnny Bench, Tony Perez, and Lee May. The problem was they were all right-handed batters and two of the three were first basemen. Three sluggers batting in a row in the middle of the Reds line up caused issues. The first left them vulnerable to right-handed pitching. Next, there was the problem of double play balls killing a rally. Finally, Perez, a first basemen, was placed at third in order to have both May and Perez in the line-up. Perez at Third caused a fielding weakness. Now with Denis Menke, a proven veteran that could play third, Perez could move to first, thus strengthening the left side of the field. They Also got the 6 ft 4 in Billigham, who was just entering his prime as a pitcher and would go on to help lead the Big Red Machine to back to back World Series in 1975 and 1976. The deal turned out to be more than just Morgan for May, but Morgan turning out to be a great second baseman for the Astros, to a second baseman that would turn out to be an all-time great just made the deal that much better for the Reds. Lee May added more power to the lineup in 1972. An All-Star in 1970 and 1971 May return to the All-Star game in 1972 this time as an Astro. May, Wynn, Rader and Cedeno all had 20 or more home runs and Watson hit 16. Cedeno also lead the Astros with a .320 batting average, 55 stolen bases and made spectacular plays on the field. Cedeno made his first All-Star game in 1972 and became the first Astros in team history to hit for the cycle in August versus the Reds. Houston lead the league with 708 runs and were playing the first winning season in team history, but the Reds were hot and pulling away fast. Despite having a winning season, the Astros fired manager Harry Walker and replace him with Leo Durocher. The skipper of the 1951 New York Giants had his best seasons behind him and the Astros finish 16–15 with Durocher as manager. Still, it was the best season the Astros had to date with a strike shortened season at 84–69. A distant second to the Cincinnati Reds. It would be as close as they would get to winning a title for several more season. Astros fans had hoped for more of the same in 1973 as they had in 1972, but it was not to be. The Astros run production was down to the season before even though the same five sluggers the year before were still punching the ball out of the park. Lee May lead the Astros with 28 home runs and Cesar Cedeno batted .320 with 25 home runs. Bob Watson hit the .312 mark and drove in 94 runs. Doug Rader and Jimmy Wynn both had 20 or more home runs. Wynn's 20 came despite a season long slump. Where the Astros were hurting was in their pitching. Larry Dierker and Tom Griffin sat out for long periods of time due to injuries and Don Wilson had a bad year and spent time in the bullpen. Pitchers Dave Roberts and Jerry Russ did manage to win 16 or more games each, with little help from the bullpen. The Astros bullpen was in bad shape with nobody having more than six saves. Leo Durocher decided to retire at seasons end after taking ill in mid season. Durocher took the Astros to an 82–80 finish and the Astros finished in fourth place. The Astros didn't fair much better in 1974, but did finish with a .500 average under new manager Preston Gomez. The Astros again finish in fourth place in the National League West. The Astros were in need of rebuilding both on and off the field. Owner Roy Hofheinz empire was beginning to fall apart and he would soon have to sell. The Astrodomain had accumulated a $38 million debt and the Judge, due to illness, was in no position to try and rebuild. 1975 would see many new changes in the Astros system. Hofheinz, Roy Mark tshonline.org 1975–1979: The Rainbow era Astros logo, 1975–1993 With the $38 million debit of the Astrodomain, control was passed from Judge Roy Hofheinz to GE Credit and Ford Motor Credit. This included the Astros. 1975 proved to be a bad year for the Astros. The creditors were just interested in preserving asset value of the team so any money spent management had to find or save somewhere else. Tal Smith returned to the Astros from the New York Yankees to a team that needed a lot of work and did not have a lot of money. However there would be some bright spots that would prove to be good investments in the near future. The year started on a sad note. Pitcher Don Wilson was found dead in the passenger seat of his car on January 5, 1975. Cause of death was asphyxiation by carbon monoxide. Wilson was 29 years old. Wilson's 5-year-old son Alex also died as his room was connected to the garage. Wilson's number was retired on April 13, 1975. The 1975 season was the introduction of the Astros new-look uniforms. Many teams were going away from the traditional uniform and the Astros were no exception. The uniforms had multishade stripes of orange, red and yellow in front and in back behind a large dark blue star over the midsection. The same stripes run down the paint legs. Players numbers not only appeared on the back of the jersey, but also on the pant leg. The bright stripes were meant to appear as a fiery trail like a rocket sweeping across the heavens. The uniforms were panned by the critics, but the public liked them and versions started appearing at the high school and little league level. The uniform was so different from what other teams wore that the Astros wore it both at home and on the road until 1980. Besides the bright new uniforms there were some other changes. Lee May was traded to Baltimore for much talked about rookie second baseman Rob Andrews and utility player Enos Cabell. Cabell, played primarily behind Baltimore third baseman Brooks Robinson when he arrived in Houston he took advantage of his opportunity and became the everyday third baseman for Houston. Cabell would go on to become a big part of the teams success in later years. Bob Watson moved to first base with May gone and was a bright spot in the line up batting .324 and 85 RBIs. The two biggest moves the Astros did in the off season were the acquisition of Joe Niekro and José Cruz. The Astros bought Niekro from the Braves for almost nothing. Niekro had bounced around the big leagues with minimal success. His older brother Phil Niekro had started teaching Joe how to throw his knuckleball and Joe was just starting to use it when he came to the Astros. Niekro won six games and saved four and had an ERA of 3.07. José Cruz was also a steal, in retrospect, from the Cardinals. The Cards were in a position where they had too many outfielders and Cruz was having a hard time breaking in. He showed promise in 1973, but only had a batting average of .227. Not wanting to give up on Cruz he was given the chance to prove himself again 1974. Cruz improved but lost his job to rookie Bake McBride. He was sold to the Astros for 25,000. Cruz's role in Astros history would go on to see his number retired as an Astro. The 1975 season was the worst the team had ever seen in their history. Their record was 64–97, far worse than the expansion Colt .45's. It was the worst record in baseball and manager Preston Gomez was fired late in the season and replaced by Bill Virdon. Virdon had managed the Yankees and Pirates before joining Houston. The Astros played .500 ball under Virdon in the last 34 games of the season. With Bill Virdon as the manager the Astros improved greatly in 1976 finishing in third place with a 80–82 record. A healthy Cesar Cedeno was a key reason for the Astros bouncing back in 1976. Bob Watson continued to show consistency and led the club with a .313 average and 102 RBIs. José Cruz became Houston's everyday left fielder and hit .303 with 28 stolen bases. [ http://www.baseball-reference.com/teams/HOU/1976.shtml !-- Bot generated title -->] 1976 saw the end of Larry Dierker's career as an Astro, but before it was all over he would throw a no-hitter and win the 1,000 game in the Astrodome. He was dealt to St Louis in the off-season, but would return to Houston and be a big part of the organization. The Astros finished in third place again in 1977 with a record improved at just one more win than the season before at 81–81. The Astros were still in need of consistent players at key positions. The middle infield was a trouble spot that saw different player playing second and short on any given night. One such player was Art Howe. Howe who almost gave up on baseball before getting a chance in Houston was willing to play anywhere just to get playing time. Howe would hit .264 with 58 RBIs while playing at second, short, and third. Howe, like Larry Dierker would also become part of the Astros future. While J.R. Richard, Joe Niekro and Joaquin Andujar had winning seasons the pitching was still in need of help. The Astros did not have a dominant lefty in the rotation. Floyd Bannister was thought to be that dominant lefty, but the rookie pitcher inconsistent and was 8–9 with an ERA of 4.03. It would be a long time before the Astros had a dominant left hand pitcher. One of the big problems the Astros had was they were unable to compete in the free agent market. Ford Motor Credit Company was still in control of the team and was looking to sell the Astros, but they were not going to spend money on better players. Most of the talent the Astros had was either farm grown or bought on the cheap. 1978 saw the Astros slip to fifth place with a 74–88 record. While money issues hurt the Astros so did injuries. Cedeno was out most of the season due to a knee injury and Howe dealt with a broken finger. José Cruz really started to shine as an Astros and led the team with a .315 average with 83 RBIs and 37 steals. J.R. Richard was the only Astros pitch that had a stellar year. He threw two shut games, back to back, in May, had 303 strike out for the season and won 18. [ http://www.baseball-reference.com/] It may have been an off year for the Astros, but they were building for the future. Players like Denny Walling and Rafael Landestoy were proving to be talented reserves. The starting pitching was looking good with J.R. Richard, Ken Forsch and Joe Niekro. And relief pitcher Joe Sambito was settling in as the closer. The foundation was being laid for making a serious ran at winning their first pennant. 1979 would prove to be a big turn around in Astros history and during the off season the Astros made an effort to fix some of their problem areas. They traded Floyd Bannister to Seattle for shortstop Craig Reynolds and acquired catcher Alan Ashby from Toronto for pitcher Mark Lemongello. Reynolds and Ashby were both solid in their positions and gave Houston a much needed fix. The 1979 season started with a huge boost from pitcher Ken Forsch, who no-hit the Braves on the second game of the season. This would only be the beginning of the excitement that was to come in 1979. Houston also learned in May that Dr. John McMullen had agreed to buy the Astros. Now with an owner and not Ford Motor Credit in charge the Astros would be able to compete in the free agent market. In July, the Astros went to Cincinnati leading the National League West, something the Reds were accustomed to doing. July 4 fireworks erupted when, tired of the Reds taunting pitcher Joaquin Andujar, a fight broke out involving Cesar Cedeno and Ray Knight. Houston went on to win the game and had a ten-game lead in the NL west. But holding on to the lead would prove to be a challenge for the Astros who now felt the pressure of being on top of the division. The other team that was not too happy seeing the Astros on top in the west was the Los Angeles Dodgers. The Dodgers had challenged and won the division over the Big Red Machine and won the division in 1977 and 1978. At the end of July the Dodgers came to the Astrodome to play in a game that saw Forsch give up only three hits to the Dodgers. The game turn out to be more than an outstanding pitching performance by Forsch. The Dodgers taunted Cedeno causing the aggregated Cedeno to throw a hard fastball in the Dodgers dugout. Later that inning Enos Cabell was hit by a pitch and this time the benches did empty. Houston's lead in the division was shrinking and the heat of the Houston summer was only matched by the Astros tempers. The Astros were playing great ball. José Cruz and Enos Cabell both stole 30 bases. Joe Niekro had a great year with 21 wins and 3.00 ERA. J.R. Richard won 18 games and set a new personal strikeout record at 313. Joe Sambito came into his own with 22 saves as the Astros closer. Things were going as they should for a team that could win the west. The Astros and Reds battled the final month of the season. The Reds pulled ahead of the Astros by a game and a half. Later that month they split a pair and the Reds kept the lead. And that would be how it would end. The Astros finished with their best record to that point at 89–73 and 1½ games behind the NL winner Reds. The Astros proved they were contenders and they were ready to show Major League Baseball how serious a contender they were. 1980: Here Come The Astros With Dr. John McMullen as sole owner of the Astros the team would now benefit in ways a corporation could not give them. The rumors of the Astros moving out of Houston, which started when Judge Roy Hofheinz Astrodomain started to crumble, had been stopped and the Astros were now able to compete in the free agent market. Something GE Credit and Ford Motor Credit were not able or willing to do. McMullen showed the city of Houston that he too wanted a winning team by signing near by Alvin, Texas native to the first million dollar a year deal. Ryan had four no-hitters and struck out 383 in one season. Win or lose Ryan would fill the seats. Joe Morgan returned to the Astros in 1980. When Morgan left Houston he was a good player that became a great player with the Reds. Morgan had always regretted leaving the Astros but his destiny was with the Reds. Now back in Houston, his two MVP awards and three World Series rings with him; Morgan wanted to help make the Astros a pennant winner. 1980 saw one of the best pitching line ups the Astros ever had. Ryan with his fastball, Joe Niekro with his knuckle ball that frustrated hitters and J.R. Richard with his imposing 6 ft 8 in frame and terrifying pitches. Teams felt lucky to face Ken Forsch who was a double digit game winner in the previous two seasons. Richard became the first Astros pitcher to start an All-Star game. He pitched two inning striking out three, including Reggie Jackson. Three days later after a medical examination Richard was told to rest his arm. During a work out in the Astrodome on July 30 Richard collapsed. He had suffered a stroke and was taken to the hospital. A blood clot that had made his arm feel tired had moved to his neck and cut off blood flow to the brain. Surgery was done to save his life. The Astros had lost their ace pitcher after a 10–4 start with a stingy 1.89 ERA. Although he attempted to come back, Richard would never again pitch a big league game. The loss of J.R. Richard hit the Astros hard and the team had a hard time scoring runs. The Astros slipped to third place in the division behind the Dodgers and the Reds, the Astros bounced back with a ten game winning streak that put the team back in first place in the division. The Dodgers regained the lead by two games as they came to Houston on September 9. The Astros showed the Dodgers how serious they were by winning the first two games of the series to put both clubs tied for first in the division. By seasons end the Astros held a three game lead over the Dodgers with three games left in the season against the Dodgers. The Dodgers swept all three games thus making the two teams have to square off in a one game playoff the next day to see who would be division champ. [ http://mlb.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd=20080922&content_id=3526704&vkey=news_mlb&fext=.jsp&c_id=mlb] The Astros season had come down to a one game playoff in L.A.. The Astros had faced the Dodgers three best pitchers the three previous days and would now face Dave Goltz who held the hopes of the Dodgers in his hand. The Astros would make the most of facing Goltz. Terry Puhl scored on a fielders choice in the first to give the Astros a 2–0 early lead. In the third Art Howe knocked one out to give the Astros a 4–0 lead. Howe would deliver the final blow to the Dodgers in the fourth to give the Astros 7. The frustrated Dodgers showed third discontent when Ashby, trying to score more another run for the Astros, slid into home where Joe Ferguson, who did not hold the ball when Puhl scored, was waiting with ball in hand to tag Ashby out. He then gave Ashby a knee to the ribs causing a benches to clear. The Dodger faithful began tossing food at the Astros players and on the field forcing the game to be stopped until order was restored. The Astros went on to clinch the division for the first time in team history. While excited by the victory the team would have to fly cross country to face the Phillies the next day for game one of the NLCS. The 1980 NLCS - A Hard Fought Battle The Astros had a coast-to-coast flight lasting six hours the night before game one of the NLCS and had to face Steve Carlton who had beat the Astros six straight times. With that said the experts gave the Phillies the edge in beating the Astros in game one of the NLCS. The Phillies would win game one, but the Astros did not make it easy. The Astros went up 1 – 0 in the third and Astros pitcher Ken Borsch, who gave up four hits in the first three innings, settled down retiring the side 1-2-3 in the fourth and fifth innings. Pete Rose reached on an infield-hit inn the sixth, but Forsch went right back to work retiring the next two batters. Then Greg Luzinski stepped up to the plate. Luzinski worked Forsch to a full counted, fouled of the next pitch and then sent a bomb to 300 level seats of Veterans Stadium for a two run homer. The Phillies added an insurance run in the next inning when Garry Maddox stole third and ex-Astro Greg Gross looped a single to left allowing Muddox to score. Tug McGraw came in for the eighth inning and the Astros went three up, three down. Luis Pujols was able to work McGraw for a walk in the ninth, but that would be all the Astros would get from him as McGraw retired the next three batters leading the Phillies to a 3–1 and one game up in the series. Nolan Ryan would get the call in game two of the NLCS to go against Dick Ruthven. The first two innings were scoreless. Craig Reynolds scored on a Terry Puhl single in the third to give Houston the lead, but the Phillies came right back in the fourth when Mike Schmidt and Greg Luzinski hit back-to-back doubles and then Maddox singled scoring Luzinski. The Astros tied it in the seventh when Phul doubled and brought Ryan home following a walk to the Houston pitcher. The Phillies threatened in the bottom of the seventh when Larry Bowa and Bob Boone singled and then advanced on a Gross sacrifice bunt. Lefty Joe Sambito was called in to relieve Ryan and walked Rose to load the bases. Sambito struck out Bake McBride and was pulled in favor of the right-handed Dave Smith who promptly struck out Schmidt to end the inning with the bases full of Phillies. Each team would score in the eighth to tie the game and both teams would go scoreless in the ninth to send the game to extra innings. Phul had his third hit in the tenth and moved to second on a Enos Cabell sacrifice. After an intentional walk to Morgan, José Cruz singled home Phul to give the Astros the lead. A Bake McBride error advanced the runners. Cedeno’s grounder scored pinch runner Rafael Landestoy with the second run of the inning. Dave Bergman who was a defensive replacement for Art Howe in the eighth hit a triple off Phillies reliever Kevin Saucier to give Houston a 7–3 lead in the middle of the tenth. The Phillies were able to score one run in the bottom of the tenth but Joaquin Andujar was able to end the game by getting Schmidt to fly out to Phul for the final out. The Astros were feeling good about their chances as the final three games moved to Houston. Game three of the 1980 NLCS was a classic pitching duel and somewhat typical of the Astrodome. The Astrodome was a pitchers park and the Astros teams of the time were built on good pitching, solid defense and geared to stealing bases and scrapping out runs. If the Astros could score just one run, their chances of beating the other team were good. Thus was the case when Joe Niekro got the call in game three facing Larry Christenson of the Phillies. Both teams went scoreless through nine innings. Christenson would pitch six good innings for the Phillies, but Niekro would go ten. Dave Smith came out in the eleventh to hold the Phillies back. Tug McGraw who had entered the game in the eighth faced Morgan in the bottom of the eleventh who had a lead off tripled over McBride to start the inning. Manager Bill Virdon would replace Morgan with Landestoy to pinch run. Denny Walling gave Houston a 2 – 1 series lead when he hit a fly ball, scoring Landestoy. The Astros won the game, but not without paying a hefty price. In the sixth inning Cesar Cedeno was lost for the remainder of the playoffs when he dislocated his ankle trying to beat out a double-play ball. In addition Morgan was infuriated with Virdon for pulling him for pinch runner Landestoy creating a personal rift that would result in Morgan leaving the Astros at seasons end. , . [ http://www.baseball-reference.com/n/niekrjo01.shtml] Game four of the series proved to be just as exhilarating as the previous three games. Again fans saw a hard fought game go into extra innings with the Phillies taking the lead and the win in the tenth inning. With the game tied in the tenth Pete Rose started a rally with a one-out single. Schmidt flied out for the second out and Luzinski step up to the plate pinch-hitting for McBride. Luzinski doubled off the left field wall in left and Rose rounded third never intending to hold up. Cruz relayed to Landestoy who threw to catcher Bruce Bochy. Rose then bowled over Bochy to score the winning run. The Phillies then got an insurance run to take the lead 5 – 3 and tie the series. It was then Ryan versus Rose. Rookie Phillies pitcher Marty Bystrom was sent out by Philadelphia manager Dallas Green to face veteran Nolan Ryan. The rookie gave up a run in the first inning but then held the Astros at bay until the sixth inning. The Astros lead did not last long as Bob Boone hit a two out single giving the Phillies the lead in the second. The Astros tied the game in the sixth with a Alan Ashby single that brought home Denny Walling. Houston took a 5 – 2 lead in the seventh, but the Phillies came back in the eighth with a single by Larry Bowa, a ground ball that Ryan was not able to handle thus killing a chance for a double play, then a textbook but by Greg Gross to load the bases. Ryan had pitch great ball in the third, fourth, fifth, sixth and seventh innings striking out six and holding the Phillies to just the two runs they had scored in the second. Now it was Ryan versus Rose. With the count 3 – 2, Rose fouled on off. Ryan then threw a costly ball four that allowed Bowa to score. Rose had won the battle and Ryan was pulled for Joe Sambito. The Phillies scored on a force at second leaving men on the corners and one out. Ken Forsch was brought in my Astros manager Bill Virdon to face Schmidt. Forsch struck out Schmidt for the second out of the inning. Forsch gave up a single letting another run score to tie the game 5 – 5. Manny Trillo the shocked the Astros and their fans when he tripled to left scoring two runs and giving the Phillies a 7 – 5 lead. The Astros came back in the eighth to rough up Tug McGraw for four single and two runs that were scored with two-outs. With the game tied 7 – 7 the two teams went to extra innings for the fourth straight game. The winner would advance to the World Series. Gary Maddox had the hit of his career when he doubled in Del Unser with one out to give the Phillies an 8 – 7 lead. That would be all they needed as the Astros failed to score in the bottom of the tenth. Houston was on the brink of going to the World Series and had a taste of the postseason for the first time. Astros teams were no longer looked at as mediocre. They would prove to contenders in the coming decade. , http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/baseballs_best/mlb_bb_gamepage.jsp?story_page=bb_80nlcs_gm5_phihou<!—Bot generated title -->] 1981–1985: Out With the Old and Rebuild 1981 was the year of the player strike that started on June 12 and ended on August 10. The strike may have helped the Astros get into the playoffs as Major league baseball decided to take the winners of each “half” seasons and set up a best of five divisional playoff. While the Reds won more games than any other team in the National League, they did not win either “half” of the strike seasons division play. The Astros finished 61–49 overall. If the two halves made one complete season, the Astros would have finished third that year behind the Reds and the Dodgers. This flaw allowed Houston its chance in the post season The Astros had won the west the year, but that was not to happen. Injuries and age worked against the Astros. They made several trades, some good and some not so good, trying to get back the dominate team they were in 1980. Joe Morgan left the team for the Giants and the Astros sent Enos Cabell to the Giants for left-handed pitcher Bob Knepper. With plenty of pitching the Astros sent Ken Forsch to the Angels for infielder Dickie Thon. , http://www.astrosdaily.com/files/trans/trades.html<!—Bot generated title-->] Nolan Ryan and Bob Knepper picked up steam in the second half of the season. Ryan threw his fifth no-hitter on September 26 and finished the season with a 1.89 ERA. Knepper would finish with an ERA of 2.18. The division series against first half winner Los Angeles started great as Houston won the first two games at home, but the Dodgers took the next three in LA to win the series and advance to the World Series. Fans saw many players come and go in 1981 and would see more faces that are new in the next few years. 1982 saw a team mush different from the team that was just six outs away from the World Series in 1980. Only four players and three starting pitchers remained from the 1980 squad. The Astros also had three pitchers over the age 35. Knepper was the only starter under the age of thirty. It was clear by mid August the Astros were out of the race and the Astros decided to make some moves that would help them in the near future. Bill Virdon was fired as manager and Bob Lillis, an original Colt .45, took over. When Don Sutton asked to be traded the Astros obliged and sent him to [[Milwaukee for cash and three a young prospects that included Kevin Bass. Minor league player Bill Doran was called up in September so the team could look at him at second base. Bass also got a look playing in the outfield. The Astros finished fourth in the west, but young talent was starting to appear. Before the 1983 season the Astros traded Danny Heep to the Mets for pitcher Mike Scott; Scott had been struggling with the Mets, but the Astros were in need of young pitching and were willing to take a chance on the 28 year old Scott. Art Howe would sit out the ’83 season with an injury, forcing Phil Garner to third and Ray Knight to first. Bill Doran would take over at second becoming the everyday second baseman for the next seven seasons. The Astros would finish third in the NL west, but minor league prospects and key trades would move the Astros closer to the top of the division. The 1984 season started of bad for the Astros. Shortstop Dickie Thon was hit in the head by a rising fastball from Mets pitcher Mike Torrez. Thon suffered a shattered bone above his left eye. Surgery was performed and Thon suffered from blurry vision for the next several months and was lost for the season. Craig Reynolds would take over at his former position for Thon. Enos Cabell would return to the Astros to replace the slumping Ray Knight who was traded to the Mets in August. In September the Astros called up rookie Glenn Davis who was putting up impressive numbers in AAA Tucson. The Astros hoped that Davis would be the slugger that they needed and the everyday first baseman. The Astros finished in second place tied with Atlanta. In 1985 Mike Scott found himself coming off a 5–11 record. The Astros unwilling to give up on him sent him to former Houston pitching coach Roger Craig to learn a new pitch he was calling the “split-finger” fastball. The pitch looked like a normal fastball, but moved sharply downward at the last moment. Scott, who looked like he would be nothing more than a journeyman, had found his new pitch and would become one of Houston’s most celebrated pitchers. In June of 1985 Glenn Davis was called up to play first and add much needed power to the Astros line-up. In September Joe Niekro was traded to the Yankees for two minor league pitchers and lefty Jim Deshaies. Niekro left with the most franchise victories. The Astros finished in forth place in 1985. The talent was there, but the leadership to punch the team to the next level was not working. Changes in the off-season would see the Astros make it big in 1986. 1986: Lighting a Fire After finishing fourth in 1985 the Astros fired general manager Al Rosen and manager Bob Lillis. The former was supplanted by Dick Wagner, the man whose Reds defeated the Astros to win the 1979 NL West. The latter was replaced by Hal Lanier who, like his manger mentor in St. Louis, Whitey Herzog, managed hard nosed and played a style of baseball concentrated on pitching, speed, and defense to win games rather than on home runs. This style of ball, known as Whiteyballtook advantage of stadiums with deep fences and artificial turf, both of which were characteristics of the Astrodome. Laniers style of baseball took Houston by storm. Before Lanier took over, fans were accustomed to Houston's occasional slow starts; but with Lanier leading the way, Houston got off to a hot start, winning 13 of their first 19 contests. , , Prior to the start of the season the Astros acquired outfielder Billy Hatcher from the Cubs for Jerry Mumphrey. Hatcher had not palyed a lot in Chicago but Lanier would make him everyday left fielder for Houston along with Kevin Bass and Jose Cruz. Lainer also made a change in the pitching rotation going with a three man rotation to start the season because of severl off days. This allowed Lanier to keep his thre starters; Ryan, Knepper and Scott sharp and to slowly work in rookie pitcher Jim Deshaies. Bill Doran and Glenn Davis held down the right side of the field but Lainer rotated the left side. Denny Walling and Craig Reynolds faced the right-handed pitchers while Phil Garner and Dickie Thon batted against left-handers. Lainer knew the Astros had talent and he put it to work. http://www.baseball-reference.com/teams/HOU/1986.shtml] , One Pitch Away The 1986 NLCS was noted for great drama and is considered one of the best postseason series ever. In Game 3, the Astros were ahead at Shea Stadium, 5–4, in the bottom of the 9th when closer Dave Smith gave up a two-run home run to Lenny Dykstra, giving the Mets a dramatic 6–5 win. However, the signature game of the series was Game 6. Needing a win to get to Mike Scott (who had been dominant in the series) in Game 7, the Astros jumped off to a 3–0 lead in the first inning but neither team would score again until the 9th inning. In the 9th, starting pitcher Bob Knepper would give two runs, and once again the Astros would look to Dave Smith to close it out. However, Smith would walk Gary Carter and Darryl Strawberry, giving up a sacrifice fly to Ray Knight, tying the game. Despite having the go-ahead runs on base, Smith was able to escape the inning without any further damage. There was no scoring until the 14th inning when the Mets would take the lead on a Wally Backman single and an error by left fielder Billy Hatcher. The Astros would get the run back in the bottom of the 14th when Hatcher (in a classic goat-to-hero-conversion-moment) hit one of the most dramatic home runs in NLCS history, off the left field foul pole. In the 16th inning, Darryl Strawberry doubled to lead off the inning and Ray Knight drove him home in the next at-bat. The Mets would score a total of three runs in the inning to take what appeared an insurmountable 7–4 lead. With their season on the line, the Astros would nonetheless rally for two runs to come to within 7–6. Kevin Bass came up with the tying and winning runs on base; however Jesse Orosco would strike him out, ending the game. At the time the 16-inning game held the record for the longest in MLB postseason history until October 9, 2005 when the Astros defeated the Atlanta Braves 7–6 in an 18-inning Division Series game. However, the 1986 game still holds the record for longest League Championship Series game. Also, Game 3 of the 2005 World Series would tie the record for longest World Series game at 14 innings, meaning that the Astros, despite having been to only 2 LCS and 1 World Series, have played in the longest game for each of the 3 levels in the modern MLB playoffs. 1990–99: Rebuild, new owner, a new look, and a new success Astros logo, 1994 Many people consider the best trade the Astros ever made to be their deal for Jeff Bagwell at the trading deadline in 1990. The Boston Red Sox, in a tight race for the American League East title, needed relief pitching help. The Astros gave the Red Sox journeyman Larry Andersen in exchange for minor-leaguer Bagwell, who would win the 1990 Eastern League MVP award for the AA New Britain Red Sox. With Mo Vaughn in their system, the Red Sox reasoned that Bagwell was expendable, and while Andersen did help the Red Sox to the divisional title, Bagwell went on to become the Astros' all-time home run leader and, in most people's minds, the second best overall player in Astros history, behind the great Craig Biggio. The trade was so lopsided that it appears on virtually any list of the best/worst trades in MLB history, and "Larry Andersen" became a popular phrase in Boston to describe the futility of the Red Sox front office during the 86-year "Curse of the Bambino." However, after the 1991 season, the Astros made one of the worst trades in franchise history, sending speedy outfielder Kenny Lofton to the Cleveland Indians for catcher Eddie Taubensee. Lofton would prove to be one of the best center fielders of the 1990s, earning five AL stolen base titles, six All-Star appearances, and four Gold Gloves. The early 1990s were marked by the Astros' growing discontent with their home, the Astrodome. After the Astrodome was renovated for the primary benefit of the Houston Oilers, the Astros began to grow increasingly disenchanted with the facility. Faced with declining attendance at the Astrodome and the inability of management to obtain a new stadium, in the off-season Astros management announced its intention to sell the team and move the franchise to the Washington, D.C. area. However, the move was not approved by other National League owners, thus compelling the Astros to remain in Houston. Shortly thereafter, McMullen (who also owned the NHL's New Jersey Devils) sold the team to Texas businessman Drayton McLane in 1993, who committed to keeping the team in Houston. Shortly after McLane's arrival, which coincided with the maturation of Bagwell and Biggio, the Astros began to show signs of consistent success. After finishing second in their division in 1994 (in a strike year), 1995, and 1996, the Astros won consecutive division titles in 1997, 1998, and 1999. In the 1998 season, the Astros set a team record with 102 victories. However, each of these titles was followed by a first-round playoff elimination, in 1998 by the San Diego Padres and in 1997 and 1999 against the Atlanta Braves. The manager of these title teams was Larry Dierker, who had previously been a broadcaster and pitcher for the Astros. Coinciding with the change in ownership, the team switched uniforms and team colors after the season in order to go for a new, more serious image. The team's trademark rainbow uniforms were retired, and the team's colors changed to midnight blue and metallic gold. The "Astros" font on the team logo was changed to a more aggressive one, and the team's traditional star logo was changed to a stylized, "flying" star with an open left end. It marked the first time since the team's inception that orange was not part of the team's colors. Despite general agreement that the rainbow uniforms identified with the team had become tired (and looked too much like a minor league team according to the new owners), the new uniforms and caps were never especially popular with fans. Astros logo, 1995–1999 Off the field, in 1994, the Astros hired one of the first African American general managers, former franchise player Bob Watson. Watson would leave the Astros after the 1995 season to become general manager of the New York Yankees and helped to lead the Yankees to a World Championship in 1996. He would be replaced by Gerry Hunsicker, who until 2004 would continue to oversee the building of the Astros into one of the better and most consistent organizations in the Major Leagues. However, in 1996, the Astros again nearly left Houston. By the mid-1990s, McLane (like McMullen before him) wanted his team out of the Astrodome and was asking the city to build the Astros a new stadium. When things did not progress quickly toward that end, he put the team up for sale. He had nearly finalized a deal to sell the team to businessman William Collins, who planned to move them to Northern Virginia. However, Collins was having difficulty finding a site for a stadium himself, so Major League owners stepped in and forced McLane to give Houston another chance to grant his stadium wish. Houston voters responded positively via a stadium referendum and the Astros stayed put. In the 14 years since Drayton McLane has taken ownership of the Houston Astros, they have had the fourth best record in all of Major League Baseball. Only the Yankees, Red Sox, and Braves have done better overall. 2000s: New stadium; First pennant After years at the outdated Astrodome, the Astros moved into their new stadium in 2000. Originally called Enron Field, the stadium was one of the first to feature a functional retractable roof, considered a necessity in Houston. Additionally the ballpark featured more intimate surroundings than the cavernous Astrodome. It is believed by some that the departure of the NFL's Houston Oilers, after Houston refused to build them a new stadium, contributed to the construction of Enron Field. The ballpark features a train theme, since the ball park was built on the grounds of the old Union Station. The locomotive also pays homage to the history of Houston, where by 1860, 11 different railroad companies had lines running through the city. This is also represented in the city of Houston's official seal. A train whistle sounds, and a locomotive transverses a wall above the outfield after Astros hit a home run. The ballpark also contains quirks such as "Tal's Hill", which is a hill in deep center field on which a flagpole stands, all in fair territory. This was modeled after a similar feature that was located in Crosley Field, former home of the Cincinnati Reds. The terrace at Crosley Field was sloped at 15 degrees in left field, while Tal's Hill is sloped at 30 degrees in straightaway center. Over the years, many highlight reel catches have been made by center fielders running up the hill to make catches. Perhaps most significantly, with its short left field fence (only slightly longer to left field than Fenway Park), overall shorter dimensions, and exposure to the elements, including the humid Texas air, Enron Field played like a hitters' park. This was a dramatic difference from the Astrodome, which was considered to be an extreme pitchers' park. In a challenge to home run hitters, owner Drayton McLane's office windows, located in the old Union Station above left field, are made of glass and marked as 442' from home plate. With the change in location also came a change in attire. Gone were the blue and gold uniforms of the 1990s in favor a more "retro" look with pinstripes, a traditional baseball font, and the colors of brick red, sand and black. The "shooting star" logo was modified but still retained its definitive look. 2004 season After two fairly successful seasons without a playoff appearance, at midseason in 2004 the Astros were floundering. Before the season, the Astros had added star pitchers Andy Pettitte and Roger Clemens to a team that already included stars like Lance Berkman and Jeff Kent as well as the nucleus of Bagwell and Biggio. They were quickly anointed one of the favorites to win the National League. However, at the All-Star Break, they were 44–44 largely due to an inability to score runs, and a poor record in 1-run games. After being booed at the 2004 All-Star Game held at Minute Maid Park while serving as a coach for the National League, Williams was fired and replaced by Phil Garner, who had been a star for the Astros' second division winner in 1986. Though many people were highly skeptical of Garner, who had a mediocre track record in his prior managerial stints in Milwaukee and Detroit, with only one winning season at either stop (in 1992), the team responded to Garner, who led the team to a 46–26 record in the second half and the National League's Wild Card. They would go on to win their first playoff series in eight attempts, beating the Braves in five games of the National League Division Series to advance to the National League Championship Series for the third time. However, they would lose to the St. Louis Cardinals in seven games, most dramatically on a walk-off home run by Jim Edmonds in the twelfth inning of Game 6. The Astros' 2004 success had much to do with the postponed retirement of star pitcher Roger Clemens (a Houston resident), who ended 2004 with a record seventh Cy Young Award (his first in the NL). Clemens had previously announced that he was retiring after the season from the New York Yankees. However, after the Astros signed his former Yankee teammate Andy Pettitte and offered Clemens a number of perquisites (including the option to stay home with his family for certain road trips when he wasn't scheduled to pitch), Clemens reconsidered and signed a one-year deal with the Astros. Additionally, the mid-season addition of Carlos Beltrán in a trade with the Kansas City Royals helped the Astros tremendously in their playoff run. Despite rumblings in July and August that the Astros might flip him to another contender, Beltrán would prove instrumental to the Astros' hopes, hitting eight home runs in the postseason. Following the season, after initially asserting a desire to remain with the Astros, Beltrán signed a long term contract with the New York Mets on January 9, 2005. 2005: Houston, we have a pennant In 2005, the Astros got off to a poor start, dropping to 15 games below .500 (15–30) in late May before becoming nearly unbeatable. From that low point until the end of July, Houston went 42–17 and found themselves in the lead for the NL Wild Card. The hitting, largely absent in April and May, was suddenly there, with even the pitchers contributing. The Astros had also developed an excellent pitching staff, anchored by Roy Oswalt, Andy Pettitte, Roger Clemens (who had a league-low ERA of only 1.87), and Brandon Backe. Rookie starters Ezequiel Astacio and Wandy Rodríguez were also successful. In July alone, the Astros went 22–7, the best single month record in the club's history. The Astros finished the 2005 regular season by winning a wild card berth on the final day of the regular season, just as they did in 2004, becoming only the second team to come from 15 games under .500 to enter the post season, the other team being the 1914 Boston Braves, now the Atlanta Braves. (Those Braves would go on and sweep the Philadelphia Athletics in the World Series. Coincidentally, the Astros beat out another Philadelphia team, the Phillies, for the Wild Card, to face the Braves in the first round of the playoffs.) Playoffs The Astros won their National League Division Series against the Atlanta Braves in four games. The fourth game set a record for a post-season game with most innings (18), most players used by a single team (T-23), most grand slams (2), and longest game time (5 hours and 50 minutes). Chris Burke hit a home run to win the game by a score of 7–6. Another notable performance was had by Roger Clemens who appeared from the bullpen for only the second time in his career as a reliever with three shutout innings and the win. After winning in the first round, the Astros picked up where they left off in the previous year, facing a rematch against the St. Louis Cardinals. It is also notable that both the grand slam Lance Berkman hit in the 8th inning and the solo shot hit by Chris Burke in the 18th inning to win three hours later were caught by the same fan, Shaun Dean, in the left field Crawford Boxes. Dean, a 25-year-old comptroller for a construction company, donated the balls to the Hall of Fame and he and his son were rewarded with gifts from the Astros and the Baseball Hall of Fame as well as playoff tickets behind home plate. The National League Championship Series (NLCS) featured a rematch of the 2004 NLCS. The Astros lost the first game in St. Louis, but would win the next three games with one in St. Louis and the next two in Houston. The Astros were poised to close-out the series in Houston, but the Cardinals managed to score three runs in the top of the 9th with a monstrous 3-run home run by Albert Pujols off Brad Lidge with two outs. The stunned crowd was silenced in disbelief. This would take the series back to St. Louis, where the Astros won the final game of the NLCS and the final game played at Busch Stadium. Current honorary National League President William Y. Giles presented the Astros the Warren C. Giles Trophy, which is awarded to the National League Champion. It was Warren Giles, father of William and President of the National League from to , who in October 1960 awarded the city of Houston the Major League franchise that would become the Houston Astros. Roy Oswalt, who went 2–0 and had an ERA of 1.29, won the NLCS MVP. World Series The Astros' opponent in their first ever World Series was the Chicago White Sox. Games 1 and 2 were held at U.S. Cellular Field in Chicago, while Games 3 and 4 were played at Minute Maid Park. Game 3 also marked the first Fall Classic game to be played in the state of Texas, and was the longest game in World Series history, lasting 14 innings. Early conventional wisdom held that the White Sox were a slight favorite, but that Houston would be an even match. However, the Astros' situational hitting continued to plague them throughout the World Series. The White Sox swept the Astros in the best-of-seven series with a run differential of six. 2006 season After losing the World Series the Astros prepared for the offseason by signing Preston Wilson and moving Lance Berkman to first base, ending the long tenure by Jeff Bagwell. The Astros resigned pitcher Roger Clemens and traded two minor league prospects to the Tampa Bay Devil Rays for left-handed hitter Aubrey Huff and cash. In August 2006, Preston Wilson said that he wasn't getting enough playing time since Luke Scott returned from AAA ball with the Round Rock Express. In response the Astros released Wilson and the division rival Cardinals signed him for the rest of the season. After a dramatic last two weeks of the season, including a four game sweep of the Cardinals, the Astros did not get to the playoffs losing their last game to the Braves, 3–1. The Astros had managed to win 10 of their last 12 games of the season, and all but erased what had been an 8 1/2 game lead by the front running St. Louis Cardinals. The Astros were within a 1/2 game of the Cardinals on Thursday September 28, but that is as close as the 2005 NL Champions would get. On October 1 Astros were the last remaining team that still had a chance to reach the 2006 postseason; consequently they were the final MLB team to be officially eliminated from playoff contention. On October 31, the Astros declined option on Jeff Bagwell's contract for 2007, subsequently ending his 15-year tenure as an Astro. Bagwell left his name well-known in the Astros history books. On November 11, Bagwell files for free agency. Finally to end his amazing career, Bagwell announced his retirement on December 15. On November 6, Roger Clemens and Andy Pettitte filed for free agency on Monday, five days before the Nov. 11 deadline. On the complete opposite end of the spectrum, November 10, the Astros made a one-year deal with Craig Biggio worth $5.15 million to continue his march into the history books as he eyes 70 more hits to reach 3,000. This will mark Biggio's 20th season as an Astro. On November 24, the Astros Signed outfielder Carlos Lee to a 6-year contract for $100 million, a franchise record. They also signed pitcher Woody Williams. On December 8, Andy Pettitte, who signed with the Astros in 2003, announced that he will be returning to the Yankees accepting a 1 year $16 million contract with player option year also worth $16 million if picked up. "It shocked me that [the Astros] would not continue to go up, when the Yankees continued to push and push and pursue and they [the Astros] really didn't do much," Pettitte said. "It was a full-court press by the Yankees. I've talked to the guys, and obviously they wanted me to come back up there." The Astros reportedly offered a one-year $12 million contract but would not offer a player option for another year. On December 8, frustrated by the Pettitte negotiations, the Astros were on the verge of acquiring right-hander Jon Garland from the Chicago White Sox in return for Willy Taveras, Taylor Buchholz, and Jason Hirsh but the deal was nixed by the White Sox because right-hander Taylor Buchholz reportedly failed a physical. On December 12, the Astros traded 3 for 2 when they traded Willy Taveras, Taylor Buchholz, and Jason Hirsh to the Colorado Rockies for Rockies pitchers Jason Jennings and Miguel Asencio. This trade turned out terribly for the Astros by the end of the 2007 season, as Taveras continued to develop, Hirsh had a strong rookie campaign, and Jennings was oft-injured and generally ineffective. 2007 season On April 28, the Astros purchased the contract of Hunter Pence, the organization's top prospect from Triple-A affiliate, and made his debut that night where he got his first career hit and run scored. By May 2007, the Astros had suffered one of their worst losing streaks since the 1995 season with 10 losses in a row, losing 4–3 to the Cincinnati Reds on May 30. The Astros were just one loss shy of tying their worst skid in franchise history, before snapping that streak the next day, also against the Reds. On June 12, the Astros beat the Oakland Athletics for the first time in team history. On June 28, second baseman Craig Biggio became the 27th player to accrue 3000 career hits. On the same night in the bottom of the 11th inning Carlos Lee hit a towering walk-off grand slam to win the game for the Astros. On July 24, Craig Biggio announced that he would be retiring at the end of the 2007 season, his 20th season with the club (and a franchise record). He hit a grand slam in that night's game which broke a 3–3 tie and led to an Astros win. On July 28, the Astros traded RHP Dan Wheeler to Tampa Bay for right-handed slugger 3B Ty Wigginton and cash considerations. He is now signed through 2009. On July 29, long time and former All-Star third baseman Morgan Ensberg was designated for assignment to make room for newly acquired Wigginton. On August 26, former first baseman Jeff Bagwell's number 5 was officially retired after a 15 year career with the Astros. On August 27, manager Phil Garner and General Manager Tim Purpura were relieved of their duties. Cecil Cooper and Tal Smith were named as interim replacements, respectively. On September 17, in a 6–0 loss to the Brewers the Astros were officially eliminated from the 2007 playoffs. On September 20, Ed Wade was named as the new General Manager of the Astros. He made his first move as GM by trading Jason Lane to the Padres on September 24. On September 30, Craig Biggio retired, ending a 20-year career with the Astros. On November 7, the Astros traded RHP Brad Lidge and SS Eric Bruntlett to the Philadelphia Phillies for OF Michael Bourn, RHP Geoff Geary, and minor leaguer Mike Costanzo. As well, utility player Mark Loretta accepted Houston's salary arbitration. On November 30, the Astros and 2B Kazuo Matsui finalized a $16.5 million, three-year contract. On December 12, the Astros trade OF Luke Scott, RHP Matt Albers, RHP Dennis Sarfate, LHP Troy Patton, and minor-league 3B Mike Costanzo, to the Baltimore Orioles for SS Miguel Tejada. On December 14, the Astros trade INF Chris Burke, RHP Juan Gutiérrez, RHP Chad Qualls to the Arizona Diamondbacks for RHP José Valverde. On December 27, the Astros came to terms on a deal with All-star, Gold Glove winner Darin Erstad. 2008 season On January 11, the Astros started off 2008 by signing Brandon Backe to a one-year deal. During the rest of the month, they also signed Ty Wigginton and Dave Borkowski to one-year deals. In February the Astros signed Shawn Chacón to a one-year contract. The Astros started off their Spring Training campaign with a loss to the Cleveland Indians on February 28. Spring Training ended with a loss to the Detroit Tigers at Minute Maid Park before the Astros went on to face the San Diego Padres. Manager Cecil Cooper and General Manager Ed Wade had a tough decision to make before the trip. Astros pitcher Woody Williams had a bad spring, going 0–4 throughout the stay in Florida. They released him on March 30 with which he immediately retired. The Astros also announced their starting pitching rotation. As usual, Roy Oswalt was given the ball on opening day. With Jason Jennings in Texas and Williams retired, the Astros named Brandon Backe to the second spot. Wandy Rodríguez would get the ball in the third spot with Shawn Chacón and Chris Sampson following them in the #4 and 5 spots, respectively. The Astros opened up their season in San Diego without second baseman Kazuo Matsui. Matsui, who had been injured in Spring Training, was completing a Minor League rehab assignment. The game that day was bad for Houston with Roy Oswalt gave up four runs in six innings of work. The final was 4–0 for the Padres. As well, the Astros lost the second game of the series with Mark Loretta and Geoff Blum in the starting lineup. On Wandy Rodríguez's start, the Astros won their first game with a 9–6 victory over the Padres. Lance Berkman hit a game-winning, three-run home run in the 9th. In the final game of the series, Shawn Chacón pitched a solid game but the Astros lost after Chacón exited with the score tied 2–2. In May, the Astros have made some roster moves by sending rookie catcher J. R. Towles to the Triple A Round Rock Express and calling up center fielder Reggie Abercrombie. Dave Borkowski was sent down earlier in the month, Chris Sampson was demoted to the bullpen and Brian Moehler was promoted into the starting rotation. On June 25, Shawn Chacón was suspended indefinitely for insubordination. The next day the Astros placed him on waivers. On June 28, the Astros beat the Boston Red Sox for the first time in team history. They have played Boston previously in 2003, but they were swept when they played in Fenway Park. On September 14, the Astros lost a no hitter to the Chicago Cubs while playing in Milwaukee due to the effects of Hurricane Ike. Season-by-season results For the past five seasons. To see entire season results, see Houston Astros seasons World Series Champions(1903–present)NL Champions(1901–present) For lists of all National League pennant winners see National League pennant winners 1876–1968, and National League Championship Series Division Champions(1969–present)Wild Card Berth(1994–present) Regular seasonAttendancePlayoffsSeasonTeamLeagueDivisionFinishWonLost%GBAttendanceAverage2004NLCentral2nd9270.568133,087,87238,121.9 Won NLDS (3–2) (Braves) Lost NLCS (3–4) (Cardinals)2005NLCentral2nd8973.549112,804,76034,626.7Won NLDS (3–1) (Braves) Won NLCS (4–2) (Cardinals) Lost World Series (0-4) (White Sox)2006NLCentral2nd8280.5061½3,022,76337,318.120072007NLCentral4th7389.451123,020,40537,288.920082008NLCentral3rd8675.52711.52,541,750*35,302.08*Totals416383.5212005 National League Champions *Does not include 2 "home" games played At Miller Park in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. Quick facts Founded: (National League expansion) Uniform colors: Black, brick red, sand Logo design: Red five-pointed star with the word "Astros" below it in script Owner: Drayton McLane, Jr. General Manager: Ed Wade Manager: Cecil Cooper Playoff appearances (9): , , , , , , , , World Series appearances (1): Television Stations: FS-Houston,KTXH(My 20) Radio Stations: KTRH-AM 740 (flagship); KLAT-AM 1010 (Spanish); KBME-AM 790 (used to broadcast games in emergencies, power knockouts, weekday spring training games, or when KTRH can not broadcast said game). Announcers (Radio): Milo Hamilton (Home games only), Dave Raymond, Brett Dolan and Franciso Romero and Alex Treviño on the Spanish side Announcers (TV): Bill Brown, Jim Deshaies Spring Training Facility: Osceola County Stadium, Kissimmee, FL Rivals: St. Louis Cardinals, Texas Rangers Famous Fans: George H. W. Bush, Barbara Bush, Chamillionaire, Paul Wall, Hilary Duff, Matthew McConaughey, Tracy McGrady, Joel Osteen See also: Lone Star Series (Rangers-Astros rivalry) Astros–Cardinals rivalry Traditions Los Caballitos Los Caballitos, are a group of devoted Carlos Lee fans that attend every Astros home game, usually standing in a balcony above the Crawford boxes near the Home Run Pump. Their name in Spanish means "The little horses," a name that pays homage to Carlos Lee's nickname El Caballo, meaning "the horse." This is due to his speed and large build. They traditionally have wood-stick horses that they hold as they cheer. They are often dressed as Mexican cowboys, complete with sombreros. This is another homage to Lee, as one of his life interests is ranching. The Little Pumas The Little Pumas formed during the 2008 season when Lance Berkman was among the league leaders in many offensive categories, due to a hot-hitting month of May. The name of the group pays tribute to Berkman's nickname, "Big Puma", which, in a tongue-in-cheek remark during a radio interview, he coined due to his fierce yet quick style of play. as well as his dislike towards his other nickname, "Fat Elvis". At games they can be found cheering on the "Conoco Home Run Porch", dressed up as none other than "little" pumas. The O's Bros The O's Bros are a group of fans who attend every Roy Oswalt home game (some road games as well). Created in May 2002, the O's Bros would hang "O's" instead of the traditional "K" for every strikeout Oswalt would get, along with performing a strikeout dance. They originally had two signs they would hang, one saying "Wizard of O's" and the second saying "O's Bros". In 2004, the Bros revealed a new and improved O's Bros sign. Section 337 of the Upper Deck at Minute Maid Park was the home of the O's Bros for 5 plus years, but has recently relocated to section 255 of the Mezzanine due to obstructed viewing in the upper deck. The O's Bros are always looking for new members and joining is simple: just show up. The Killer Bs The Killer Bs were a group of players that played for Houston that all had names starting with the letter "B" and performing commendably. The original Killer Bs were nicknamed in the '90s, and consisted of Craig Biggio, Derek Bell, Jeff Bagwell, and Sean Berry. Other players have been added and some have been dropped as they have left the Astros. Other players of mention are Lance Berkman, Carlos Beltrán, Chris Burke, Brandon Backe, and Eric Bruntlett. Hall of Fame While there has yet to be an Astros player to go into the Hall of Fame as an Astro, there are two announcers that have been inducted. Gene Elston, play-by-play announcer, 1962–1986 Milo Hamilton, play-by-play announcer, 1986–present Retired numbers <b>JeffBagwell1B<b>CraigBiggioC,2B,OF<b>JimmyWynnOF<b>JoséCruzOF<b>JimUmbrichtP<b>MikeScottP<b>NolanRyanP<b>DonWilsonP<b>LarryDierkerP,M<b>JackieRobinson2B While not officially retired, the Astros have not reissued number 57 since 2002, when former Astros pitcher Darryl Kile died as an active player with the St. Louis Cardinals. The number 42 is retired by MLB in honor of Jackie Robinson Current Roster Minor league affiliations AAA: Round Rock Express, Pacific Coast League AA: Corpus Christi Hooks, Texas League Advanced A: Lancaster Jethawks, California League A: Lexington Legends, South Atlantic League (North) Short A: Tri-City ValleyCats, New York - Penn League (Stedler) Rookie: Greeneville Astros, Appalachian League (West) Rookie: GCL Astros, Gulf Coast League (North) Radio and television , the Astros' flagship radio station is KTRH, 740AM. Milo Hamilton, a veteran voice who was on the call for Hank Aaron's 715th career home run in 1974, is the current play-by-play announcer for home games. Dave Raymond and Brett Dolan share play-by play duty for road games, while Raymond additionally works as Hamilton's color analyst. Spanish language radio play-by-play is handled by Francisco Romero, and his play-by-play partner is Alex Treviño, a former backup catcher for the club. Television coverage is mainly on Fox Sports Houston (formerly a subfeed of Fox Sports Southwest, now its own network; logo on top-right of the screen reads FSASTROS), although some games are on My Network TV affiliate KTXH (My 20), with the games produced by FSN Houston. Bill Brown and Jim Deshaies compose the broadcast team on TV. References A Six-Gun Salute: An Illustrated History of the Houston Colt .45s, by Robert Reed (Rowman-Littlefield Publishing, Boston, 1999) External links Houston Astros official web site Houston Astros news from the Houston Chronicle Astros team page on Baseball-Reference.com Astros Point - Your Houston Astros Online Home The Daily Astros Update Houston Astros Video on ESPN Video Archive The Houston Colt .45s Page | Houston_Astros |@lemmatized houston:96 astros:306 professional:1 baseball:30 team:96 base:18 texas:8 member:2 central:2 division:25 major:17 league:81 national:29 present:7 play:54 home:44 game:129 minute:6 maid:5 park:15 join:4 mlb:13 name:20 colt:27 along:3 new:47 york:11 mets:15 current:4 owner:13 drayton:5 mclane:8 jr:3 one:48 world:24 series:45 appearance:5 history:26 lose:22 chicago:8 white:7 sox:16 make:37 postseason:6 eight:4 time:26 champ:3 western:1 twice:1 wild:6 card:7 franchise:15 come:30 prior:3 expansion:9 connection:1 buffalo:1 buff:2 minor:12 st:12 louis:12 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5,322 | John_Peel | John Robert Parker Ravenscroft, OBE (30 August 1939 – 25 October 2004), known professionally as John Peel, was an English disc jockey, radio presenter and journalist. Known for his eclectic taste in music and his honest and warm broadcasting style, John Peel was a popular and respected DJ and broadcaster. He was one of the first to play American psychedelic rock, reggae and punk on British radio, and his significant promotion of performers ranging from alternative rock, pop, death metal, British hip hop and dance music is widely acknowledged. He was the longest-serving of the original BBC Radio 1 DJs, broadcasting regularly from 1967 until his death in 2004. Early life Peel was born in Heswall Cottage Hospital in Heswall on the Wirral Peninsula, near Liverpool, and grew up in the nearby village of Burton. His father was an upper middle class cotton merchant, and he was sent away to be educated as a boarder at Shrewsbury School. His housemaster, R H J Brooke, whom Peel described as "extraordinarily eccentric" and "amazingly perceptive", wrote on one of his school reports: In his posthumously published autobiography, Peel revealed that he had been raped by an older pupil while at Shrewsbury. His decision to reveal this was praised by campaigners for children's rights. After finishing his National Service in 1959 in the Royal Artillery as a B2 Radar Operator, he worked as a mill operative at Townhead Mill in Rochdale and travelled home each weekend to Heswall on a scooter borrowed from his sister. Whilst in Rochdale Monday to Friday he stayed in a bed and breakfast in the Milkstone Road/Drake Street area. United States In 1960, he went to the United States to work for a cotton producer who had business dealings with his father. Once this job had finished, he took a number of others, including working as a travelling insurance salesman, remaining in the United States until 1967. While in Dallas, he spoke to John F. Kennedy as the presidential candidate and Lyndon B. Johnson toured the city during the 1960 election campaign. Following Kennedy's assassination, he passed himself off as a reporter for the Liverpool Echo in order to attend the arraignment of Lee Harvey Oswald and he and a friend can be seen in the footage of the press conference shortly before Oswald's assassination. He later phoned in the story to the Liverpool Echo. While working for an insurance company based in Dallas, Texas, filing card programs for an early IBM 1410 computer (which led to his entry in Who's Who noting him as a former computer programmer), he got his first radio job, albeit unpaid, working for WRR Radio in Dallas. There, he presented the second hour of the Monday night programme Kat's Karavan. Following this, and as Beatlemania hit the United States, Peel got a job as the official Beatles correspondent with the Dallas radio station KLIF due to his connection to Liverpool. He later worked for KOMA in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma until 1965 when he moved to KMEN in San Bernardino, California, using the name John Ravencroft to present the breakfast show. While in Dallas in 1965, he married his first wife, Shirley Anne Milburn, in what Peel later described as a "mutual defence pact". She was only 15 at the time, a fact she successfully concealed from Peel, and both her parents had recently died. The marriage was never happy and although Shirley accompanied Peel back to in 1967, they were soon separated. The divorce became final in 1973. She later committed suicide. Favourite music John Peel writes in his autobiography, Margrave of the Marshes, that the band of which he owns the most records is The Fall. Regulars in the Festive 50, and easily recognised by vocalist Mark E. Smith's distinctive delivery, The Fall became synonymous with Peel's Radio 1 show through the 1980s and 90s. Peel kept in contact with many of the artists he championed but only met Smith on two, apparently awkward, occasions. The Misunderstood is the only band that Peel ever personally managed—he first met the band in Riverside, California in 1966 and convinced them to move to London. He championed their music throughout his career; in 1968, he described their 1966 single "I Can Take You To The Sun" as "the best popular record that's ever been recorded." John Peel, Top Gear (BBC Radio 1), 8 November 1968. and shortly before his death, he stated, "If I had to list the ten greatest performances I've seen in my life, one would be The Misunderstood at Pandora's Box, Hollywood, 1966. My god, they were a great band!" His favourite single is widely known to have been "Teenage Kicks" by The Undertones; in an interview in 2001, he stated "There's nothing you could add to it or subtract from it that would improve it." John Peel So hard to Beat, The Guardian, 2 November 2001. Accessed online 31 August 2006. In the same 2001 interview, he also listed "No More Ghettos In America" by Stanley Winston, "There Must Be Thousands" by The Quads and "Lonely Saturday Night" by Don French as being amongst his all-time favourites. A longer list of his favourite singles was revealed in 2005 when the contents of a wooden box in which he stored the records that meant the most to him were made public. Beginning of British career He returned to England in early 1967 and found work with the offshore pirate radio station Radio London. He was offered the midnight-to-two shift, which gradually developed into a programme called The Perfumed Garden (some thought it was named after an erotic book famous at the time - which Peel claimed never to have read). It was on "Big L" that he first adopted the name John Peel (the name was suggested by a Radio London secretary) and established himself as a distinctive radio voice. Under the spell of the Beatles' newly-released Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band LP and the underground/flower-power scene, John Peel brought 1967 hippy culture to a generation of young British listeners. He played classic blues (Howlin' Wolf, Lightnin' Hopkins, Elmore James) and folk music (Bob Dylan, Tim Hardin, the Incredible String Band, Donovan) and gently introduced the ground-breaking music of West Coast bands such as Love, The Doors, The Mothers of Invention, Country Joe and the Fish and Jefferson Airplane, their British contemporaries like Pink Floyd, John Mayall and the Bluesbreakers and Cream - and his special favourites, The Misunderstood (whom he persuaded to move from California to London), Marc Bolan (as a solo artist and with Tyrannosaurus Rex, or T.Rex) and Captain Beefheart (for whom he later acted as chauffeur during the latter's 1969 UK tour). As important as the musical content of the programme was the personal—sometimes confessional—tone of Peel's presentation, and the listener participation it engendered. He would often wish his audience love and peace, but this seemed sincere and heartfelt, rather than a mere hippy cliché. Underground events he had attended during his periods of shore leave, like the UFO Club and "The 14 Hour Technicolor Dream", together with causes célèbres like the drug "busts" of the Rolling Stones and John "Hoppy" Hopkins, were discussed between records. All this was far removed from Radio London's daytime format. Listeners, enthused by The Perfumed Garden'''s unique atmosphere, sent Peel letters, poems, even records from their own collections, so that the programme became a vehicle for two-way communication — by the final week of Radio London he was receiving far more mail than any other DJ on the station. Interview re Perfumed Garden After the closure of Radio London in 1967, The Perfumed Garden lived on in his column of that name in the underground newspaper International Times (from autumn 1967 to mid-1969), in which he showed himself to be a committed, if critical, supporter of the ideals of the underground; and in The Perfumed Garden mailing list, a group formed by keen listeners, which facilitated contacts and gave rise to numerous small-scale, local arts projects typical of the time, including the poetry magazine Sol. (Peel, supportive at first, distanced himself from this "community" as his career developed - as can be seen from his autobiography, which contains very critical comments on the late 1960s British "Arts Lab" movement.) Studio in Broadcasting House BBC career BBC Radio 1 When Radio London closed down on 14 August 1967, John Peel joined the BBC's new pop music station, BBC Radio 1, which began broadcasting the following month. Unlike Big L, Radio 1 was not a full-time station, but a hybrid of recorded music and live studio orchestras broadcast at the same time as the talk and light music of BBC Radio 2. The pirate stations had been successful partly because they played records continuously, but the BBC was restricted by the Musicians' Union and record company practice called needle time. While The Perfumed Garden had been spontaneously produced and introduced by John Peel, BBC regulations demanded that Peel introduce a show produced by Bernie Andrews called Top Gear. Peel recalled: At first he was obliged to share presentation duties with other DJs (Pete Drummond and Tommy Vance were among his co-hosts) but in February 1968 was given sole charge of Top Gear - a role which he held until the show ended in 1975. His subsequent programmes, known simply as John Peel shows, continued in the same vein, playing an eclectic mix of music that simply caught Peel's attention. According to his autobiography, both the authorities at Radio 1 and his audience did not always appreciate the music he played, and at various stages of his career he received complaints for playing music, such as reggae, hip-hop, punk and industrial music, which challenged the preconceptions of his listeners. He later reflected that his Old Salopian background probably helped to save him from being sacked. From the start Peel had displayed a quirky, eclectic and avant-garde taste in music. He was largely responsible for introducing BBC listeners to punk rock, reggae and hip-hop and electronic dance music. In 1973 he played both sides of Mike Oldfield's Tubular Bells in full, the subsequent success of which helped establish Richard Branson's Virgin music label. Peel championed the long-running Manchester band The Fall, who played 24 sessions for the show, including one on Peel's 60th birthday. Once he liked a Cocteau Twins album so much that he played a whole side, non-stop, without interruption. His avant-garde musical tastes brought him into conflict with other more conservative DJs at the BBC such as Tony Blackburn and later Simon Bates. During 1969, after hosting a trailer for a BBC programme on VD on his Night Ride programme, Peel received significant media attention because of admitting on air to having suffered from a sexually transmitted disease earlier that year. This admission was later used in an attempt to discredit him when he appeared as a defence witness in the 1971 Oz obscenity trial. The judge in that case even instructed that a glass of water he had drunk from be thrown out. The Night Ride programme (on Wednesdays, between 12 midnight and 1am), advertised by the BBC as an exploration of words and music, seemed to take up from where the Perfumed Garden had left off. It featured a highly eclectic choice of music, from rock, folk (e.g. the Incredible String Band, the Young Tradition, John Renbourn, Davey Graham, Tangerine Dream) and blues (Fred McDowell, Jo Ann Kelly) to classical (Albéniz, Dvořák, Penderecki, Messiaen, Pachelbel's "Canon") as well as electronic music composed by Morton Subotnick. A unique feature of the programme was the inclusion of tracks, mostly of exotic non-Western music, drawn from the BBC Sound Archives; the most popular of these were gathered on a BBC Records LP, John Peel's Archive Things (1970). Night Ride also featured poetry readings from Brian Patten, Carlyle Reedy, Adrian Henri (and his band The Liverpool Scene), Adrian Mitchell, Christopher Logue and many other "beat" or "pop" poets. There were also numerous interviews with a wide range of guests, from his personal friends - Marc Bolan, journalist and musician Mick Farren, poet Pete Roche, singer-songwriter Bridget St. John - to stars such as the Byrds, the Rolling Stones and John Lennon and Yoko Ono - and even Hans Keller, head of BBC Radio 3. A youthful Richard Branson promoted his magazine Student; Tony Elliott publicised the new London listings magazine Time Out. Peel interviewed a monk, Dom Robert Petit Pierre, and eulogised the night Robert Kennedy was killed. The programme captured much of the creative activity of the underground scene. Its anti-establishment stance and unpredictability did not find approval with the BBC hierarchy, though, and after 18 months it ended in September 1969. In his sleeve notes to the Archive Things LP Peel calls the free-form nature of Night Ride his preferred radio format, but he was never again to present such an adventurous programme (although others, notably Radio Geronimo, attempted US-style hippy radio). The BBC's restrictive scheduling compelled him to return to the mixture of records and live sessions which was to characterise his Radio 1 programmes for the rest of his career. Peel made his reputation in the late 1960s, but did not share the nostalgia of those who look back on it as a "golden era". Later, he would speak of being uncomfortable as a "minor princeling among the hippies" and uneasy with the guru-like status he was afforded at the height of his fame. It was easy to forget that he was ten years older than most of his listeners; also, despite his tendency to talk about his life experiences between the records he played, his listeners knew little of the difficulties of his first marriage. He did, however, believe very strongly in the hippy ideals, and was deeply disappointed when some of the leading lights of the underground scene proved to be careerists, opportunists or charlatans. After separation from his first wife, Peel's personal life began to stabilise, as he found friendship and support from new Top Gear producer John Walters - and from a girlfriend whom he identified on-air as "the Pig". Eventually, on 31 August 1974, Peel married Sheila Gilhooly. The reception was in London's Regent's Park, with Walters as best man. Peel wore Liverpool football colours (red) and walked down the aisle to the song "You'll Never Walk Alone". Their sheepdog, Woggle, served as a bridesmaid. Peel was the first to play the Sex Pistols' "God Save the Queen", in June 1977, having played "Anarchy in the UK", which was banned from the BBC's daytime play list, in 1976. He was also the first to play Bob Dylan's Desire in the UK, despite Capital Radio having exclusive permission from CBS to be the first to do so. Peel got hold of a copy of the record and, to beat Capital, played it in full, separated by a reggae track while he changed the record over. Peel was to show this disregard for record company rules again when in 2003 he played three tracks from The White Stripes album Elephant before its official release date, resulting in him being threatened by lawyers for the record company V2. Peel's affection for music outside the mainstream occasionally brought him into conflict with the Radio 1 hierarchy. In early 1977 station controller Derek Chinnery contacted John Walters and asked him to confirm that the show was not playing any punk, which he (Chinnery) had read about in the press and disapproved of. Chinnery was evidently somewhat surprised by Walters' reply that in recent weeks they had been playing little else. Relations between Peel and the station deteriorated further still when it was announced in 1984 that his broadcasts would be reduced from four to three a week, with Tommy Vance's Into the Music show (playing mostly progressive rock from the 1970s) filling the vacant slot. Peel was unhappy with the move and said so publicly on a number of occasions, although his displeasure was mitigated slightly when Into the Music was axed after only a year. Peel Acres His radio show was latterly sometimes broadcast from his home in Suffolk, England, nicknamed "Peel Acres", and had a homely air, with his wife, Sheila, and their children, William, Tom, Alexandra (Danda) and Florence (Flossie) often being involved or at least mentioned. Latterly the show also regularly featured live performances, mostly from BBC Maida Vale Studios in West London, but occasionally in the Peel Acres living room. In addition to his championing of new music, Peel also played many older, often obscure records on his show, specifically in two sections he introduced: "The Pig's Big 78": Sheila, Peel's wife, chose a 78 rpm record, which he played. "The Peelennium": broadcast over his last 100 shows of 1999, this covered the music of the 20th century. Each show covered a different year in turn—four records from the year would be played and main news stories covered. Besides the countless bands he championed, Peel also supported the rare and the unusual, often in the form of the spoken word. If not for John Walters and John Peel, it's possible that Vivian Stanshall's "Sir Henry at Rawlinson End" might never have been heard. He also brought the work of the eccentric Scottish humourist and poet Ivor Cutler to the attention of a wider audience. Festive fifty countdown An annual tradition of the show was the Festive Fifty—a countdown of the best tracks of the year as voted for by the listeners. Despite Peel's eclectic play list, the Festive Fifty tended to be composed largely of "white boys with guitars", as Peel complained in 1988. In 1991 the broadcast of the chart was cancelled due to a lack of votes, although many have speculated that it was because it didn't feature a single entry from the dance acts that Peel had been championing that year. Topped inevitably by Nirvana's "Smells Like Teen Spirit", this Phantom Fifty was eventually broadcast at the rate of one track per programme, some years later. The 1997 chart was initially cancelled due to the lack of air-time Peel had been allocated for the period, but enough "spontaneous" votes were received over the phone that a Festive Thirty-One was compiled and broadcast. BBC - Radio 1 - Keeping It Peel - Festive 50s Peel wrote that Peel's show was the only place on Radio 1 where listeners could hear the latest electronic dance music before they became popular, such as the various styles of house, techno and hardcore music - indeed, there is a UK hardcore track entitled "John Peel is Not Enough" by the artist CLSM, reflecting hardcore's hopes for wider broadcast exposure. Peel was so impressed by this that not only did he play it on his show several times, but dedicated an entire show to the genre, in hopes that it could spawn its own show. Peel also championed a wealth of other musical genres from reggae to death metal. Many bands and artists of a wide range of different musical styles from different decades credit Peel as a major boost to their careers. The list includes T-Rex, Led Zeppelin, Kevin Ayers, David Bowie, The Faces, Bolt Thrower, The Sex Pistols, The Slits, Siouxsie and the Banshees, Fairport Convention, Pink Floyd, The Clash, Napalm Death, Carcass, Extreme Noise Terror, The Undertones, Buzzcocks, Gary Numan, The Cure, Joy Division, The Comsat Angels, The Wedding Present, Six By Seven, Def Leppard, The Orb, Pulp, Ash, Orbital, The Smiths, The Bhundu Boys, Syd Barrett, FSK, Trumans Water, The Black Keys, The White Stripes The Bhundu Boys and PJ Harvey. Peel's reputation as the most important DJ breaking unsigned acts into the mainstream was such that young hopefuls sent him an enormous amount of records, CDs, and tapes. When he returned home from a three week holiday at the end of 1986 there were 173 LPs, 91 12"s and 179 7"s waiting for him. Another example in point is that in 1983 unsigned artist Billy Bragg drove to the Radio 1 studios with a mushroom biryani and a copy of his record after hearing Peel mention that he was hungry, the subsequent airplay launching his career. Andrew Collins, 2002. Still Suitable for Miners (Billy Bragg: The Official Biography). Virgin Books; ISBN 0-7535-0691-2 (Revised and Updated edition). He fronted and provided voice-overs for a large number of other programmes in his long career. Never someone to shy away from controversial topics, Peel agreed to front a 1994 one-off documentary for Radio 1 about the use of recreational drugs by popular musicians. The programme, Lost In Music, made by an independent production company, was heavily slated by a dry BBC Review board and Liz Forgan in particular, who declared that she hoped "my children never hear this". However it received critical acclaim for its honest approach to a delicate subject. Peel remained on BBC Radio 1 for 37 years, until his death in 2004. During that time over 4000 sessions were recorded for him by over 2000 artists. The last track he played on his final show was "Time 4 Change" by Klute from the album No One's Listening Anymore. Peel Sessions A feature of Peel's BBC Radio 1 shows were the famous John Peel Sessions, which usually consisted of four pieces of music pre-recorded at the BBC's studios. The sessions originally came about due to restrictions imposed on the BBC by the Musicians' Union and Phonographic Performances Limited which represented the record companies dominated by the EMI cartel. Because of these restrictions the BBC had been forced to hire bands and orchestras to render cover versions of recorded music. The theory behind this device was that it would create employment and force people to buy records and not listen to them free of charge on the air. One of the reasons why all of the offshore broadcasting stations of the 1960s were called "pirates" was because they operated outside of British laws and were not bound by the needle time restriction on the number of records they could play on the air. The BBC employed its own house bands and orchestras and it also engaged outside bands to record exclusive tracks for its programs in BBC studios. This was the reason why Peel was able to use "session men" in his own programs. Sessions were usually four tracks recorded and mixed in a single day; as such they often had a rough and ready, demo-like feel, somewhere between a live performance and a finished recording. Many classic Peel Sessions have been released on record, particularly by the Strange Fruit label. BBC World Service, foreign radio and BBC Local Radio In addition to his Radio 1 show, he broadcast as a disc jockey on the BBC World Service, 30 years on the British Forces Broadcasting Service BFBS (John Peel's Music on BFBS), VPRO Radio3 in the Netherlands, YLE Radio Mafia in Finland, Ö3 in Austria (Nachtexpress), and on Radio 4U, Radio Eins (Peel ...), Radio Bremen (Ritz) and some independent radio stations around FSK Hamburg in Germany. His audience also broadened to include listeners around the world listening to internet audio broadcasts. As a result of his BFBS programme he was voted, in Germany, 'Top DJ in Europe'. Additionally, for a few years in the late 1980s and early 1990s he hosted a Sunday evening programme on BBC Radio Cambridgeshire which was also broadcast on several other local stations in the East of England. BBC Television He was an occasional presenter of Top of the Pops on BBC 1 TV from the late 1960s until the 1990s, and in particular from 4 February 1982 to 5 February 1987, when he appeared regularly. Unlike other presenters of the show he was noted for his caustic remarks about the acts and songs appearing, for example saying of George Michael and Aretha Franklin's "I Knew You Were Waiting For Me": In 1971 he appeared not as presenter but performer, alongside Rod Stewart and The Faces, pretending to play mandolin on "Maggie May". In 1982 he appeared on the first edition of Noel Edmonds' Late Late Breakfast Show where he delivered a monologue in his usual dry style. Though intended to be a regular feature, it was so obviously out of step with the rest of the programme that he did not appear again. Peel, as the most senior and well known "alternative" DJ often presented the BBC's television coverage of music events, notably Glastonbury Festival. In 1996 he was the subject of the BBC's This Is Your Life. In spite of all of these appearances he never particularly liked appearing on television and, in an interview for Radio 1's Radio Radio series broadcast on 8 February 1986, disdained those Radio 1 DJs who he felt were using their radio careers as a stepping stone on the way to TV stardom. Dandelion Records and Strange Fruit In 1969 Peel founded Dandelion Records (named after his pet hamster) so he could release the debut album by Bridget St John, which he also produced. The label released 27 albums by 18 different artists before folding in 1972. Of its albums, There is Some Fun Going Forward was a sampler intended to present its acts to a wide audience, however Dandelion was never a great success with only two releases charting in national charts: Medicine Head in the UK with "(And The) Pictures In The Sky" and Beau in Lebanon with "1917 Revolution". In 1972, the second album for the label by Tractor reached number 18 in the Radio Luxembourg chart and number 30 in the Virgin Shops best selling album chart. Peel continued throughout his career to maintain a close link with Tractor and Rochdale. As Peel stated, In the 1980s Peel set up the Strange Fruit record label with Clive Selwood to release material recorded by the BBC for Peel Sessions. Family and home life studio at Peel Acres In the 1970s, John Peel and his wife Sheila moved to a thatched cottage in the village of Great Finborough near Stowmarket in Suffolk. In the eight-acre (32,000 m²) garden, referred to on the radio as 'Peel Acres' (a name he had also used for his small London flats in the late '60s), he housed his record collection, estimated by then to be in the hundreds of thousands, in a number of barns and stables. In his later years, Peel introduced many of his radio shows from a studio at Peel Acres. Peel and Sheila had four children. His passion for Liverpool F.C. was reflected in their names: William Robert Anfield, Alexandra Mary Anfield, Thomas James Dalglish and Florence Victoria Shankly. John credited Ipswich Town F.C. and the family doctor Ian Jenkins with helping to save his wife Sheila's life after her serious illness and regularly went with her to watch her favourites at Portman Road. Later years A mural of John Peel on the side wall of The Prince Albert pub in Brighton. In his later years, Peel mellowed. Between 1995 and 1997, he presented a show about children, called Offspring, on BBC Radio 4. In 1998, Offspring grew into the magazine-style documentary show Home Truths. When he took on the job presenting the programme, which was about everyday life in British families, Peel requested that it be free from celebrities, as he found real life stories more entertaining. Home Truths was described by occasional stand-in presenter John Walters as being "about people who had fridges called Renfrewshire". He also made regular contributions to BBC Two's humorous look at the irritations of modern life Grumpy Old Men. He appeared as a celebrity guest on a number of TV shows, including This Is Your Life (1996, BBC), Travels With My Camera (1996, Channel 4 TV), and Going Home (2002, ITV TV). He was also in demand as a voice-over artist for television documentaries, such as BBC One's A Life of Grime, and advertisements, though he reportedly refused to work on adverts for products that he didn't use himself. He once said that he hoped his voice-over for Andrex toilet tissue would "make people want to wipe their bottom". Peel became known as one of the few people in public life that could be described as having integrity. On that question, he told Third Way magazine "I don't know what people mean by “integrity”. I’ve always found it easier to tell the truth because that way you don’t have to remember what you’ve said. So, for purely practical reasons, it is the best thing." Some Straight Answers His only appearance in an acting role in film was in 1999 as a "grumpy old man who catalogues records" in Five Seconds to Spare, although he had provided narration for others. "Keeping it Peel, BBC Radio 1 Broadcast 30 September 2007. IMDb reference (Retrieved 30 September 2007) Awards and honorary degrees Peel was 11 times Melody Maker's DJ of the year, Sony Broadcaster of the Year in 1993, winner of the Godlike Genius Award from the NME in 1994, Sony Gold Award winner in 2002 and is a member of the Radio Academy Hall of Fame. At the NME awards in 2005 he was Hero of the Year and was posthumously given a special award for "Lifelong Service To Music". At the same event the "John Peel Award For Musical Innovation" was awarded to The Others. He was awarded many honorary degrees including an MA from the University of East Anglia, doctorates (Anglia Polytechnic University and Sheffield Hallam University), various honorary degrees (University of Liverpool, Open University, University of Portsmouth, University of Bradford) and a fellowship of Liverpool John Moores University. He was appointed an OBE in 1998, for his services to British music. In that year, he was also voted 47th in a Cosmopolitan readers' poll of the Top 50 Most Lovable Men in the World. In 2002, the BBC conducted a vote to discover the 100 Greatest Britons of all time. Peel was voted 43rd. In April 2003, the publishers Transworld successfully wooed Peel with a package worth up to £1.6 million for his autobiography, having placed an advert in a national newspaper aimed only at Peel. Unfinished at the time of his death it was completed by Sheila and journalist Ryan Gilbey. It is called Margrave Of The Marshes and was published on 17 October 2005. A collection of Peel's miscellaneous writings, The Olivetti Chronicles, was published on 23 October 2008. "Memorial sees Peel try new tracks", BBC News, 20 October 2008 Health in later years and death Peel was diagnosed with diabetes in 2001. In an interview with The Guardian newspaper in 2003, he was asked how his life could be improved. He replied: "By not having diabetes. If you have diabetes, you have to eat things you may not want to; at times you don't feel hungry. I have a hell of a battle not to get overweight. One of the side-effects is penile dysfunction. Effectively, my sex life is over. I can't take Viagra because it conflicts with the other medicines that I have to take." In the same interview, he talked about growing old: "I hope I can retain a few of my faculties until I die but the idea of drifting into an unattractive old age worries you." Peel died suddenly at the age of 65 from a heart attack on 25 October 2004, on a working holiday in the Inca city of Cuzco in Peru. Shortly after the announcement of his death, tributes began to arrive from fans and supporters both in and out of public life. Among the first to pay their respects were such notable British artists as Blur, Oasis and New Order. Shortly after his death, friend and colleague Andy Kershaw claimed that the move of Peel's show, in summer 2004, back an hour from a 10pm start to 11pm, had caused Peel a lot of stress and that he (Peel) had said he felt marginalised and unappreciated. This was denied by Radio 1 controller Andy Parfitt who said Peel had been fully supportive of the schedule changes. "BBC hits back at claim that Peel died of overwork", The Times, 28 October 2004 On 26 October 2004 BBC Radio 1 cleared its schedules to broadcast a day of tributes while BBC Three TV added an additional caption to its on-screen logo: "Dedicated to John Peel". A stage for new bands at the Glastonbury Festival, previously known simply as 'The New Bands Tent' has been renamed 'The John Peel Stage'. Peel often spoke wryly of his eventual death. He once said on the show Room 101, At one point, he said that if he died before his producer John Walters, he wanted the latter to play Roy Harper's "When an Old Cricketer Leaves the Crease". Walters predeceased Peel in 2001, and it was left to Andy Kershaw to end his tribute programme to Peel on BBC Radio 3 with the song, and Peel's stand-in on his Radio 1 slot, Rob da Bank, played the song at the start of the final show before his funeral. Another time, Peel said he'd like to be remembered with a gospel song. He stated that the final record he would play would be the Rev C. L. Franklin's sermon "Dry Bones in The Valley". His funeral, on 12 November 2004, in Bury St Edmunds, Suffolk, was attended by over a thousand people including many of the artists he had championed. Eulogies were read by his brother, Alan Ravenscroft, and DJ Paul Gambaccini. The service ended with clips of him talking about his life and his coffin was carried out to the accompaniment of his favourite song: The Undertones' "Teenage Kicks". A private family service was held after the public funeral. In 2001, Peel had written in The Guardian that, apart from his name, all he wanted on his gravestone were the words, "Teenage dreams, so hard to beat", from the lyrics of "Teenage Kicks". In February 2008, a headstone engraved in accordance with his wishes was placed at his grave. John Peel Day On 13 October 2005, the first "John Peel Day" took place in the UK and as far away as Canada and New Zealand. The BBC encouraged as many bands as possible to stage gigs on the 13th, and over 500 gigs from bands ranging from Peel favourites New Order (who were introduced by Feargal Sharkey of The Undertones) and The Fall, to many new and unsigned bands, took place. The day had been announced in August, and Andy Parfitt, the head of BBC Radio 1 said, "John Peel Day is about celebrating John's legacy and his unrivalled passion for music." John Peel Day attracted some criticism from those who felt that the mass press coverage was slightly cynical given the relative popularity of his niche slot while alive. Equally there were some criticisms of the organisation of the day and the later charity single in that it focused on established artists while he was always interested in new and upcoming sounds. A second John Peel day was held on 12 October 2006, and a third on 11 October 2007. The BBC had originally planned to hold a John Peel Day annually. However Radio 1 did not hold any official commemoration of the event in 2008, although a number of gigs still took place around the country to mark the anniversary of Peel's death. John Peel Day 2008, BBC Radio Berkshire, 11 October 2008 Southern Records website, 30 September 2008 John Peel Day, swindonweb.com 17 October 2005 saw the release of a double CD tribute album. A number of other Peel-related albums have been released since his death, including John Peel - Right Time Wrong Speed: 1977-1987 and John Peel And Sheila: The Pig's Big 78s: A Beginner's Guide. The Cuban Boys recorded a tribute to Peel in 2005 sampling some of his broadcasts. Tractor issued a CD in 2006 entitled John Peel Bought us Studio Gear and a PA which in fact he had. There is a dance remix track on the album of their 1972 track for John's birthday: "Ravenscroft's 13 Bar Boogie". On 23 October 2008, Merseytravel announced they would be naming a train after John Peel. Councillor Mark Dowd, Merseytravel chairman, stated that the train would be named after Peel to "celebrate his connection with Merseyside and to pay tribute to a true broadcasting legend." The John Peel Archive Movement John Peel has attracted a great number of amateur archivists since his death, and there is a large online community of blogs dedicated to sharing recordings of his radio shows. Such blogs started appearing soon after Peel's death, and now hundreds of shows spanning Peel's entire radio career are available in various digital formats. Those at the forefront of this archiving include the blogs Fades in Slowly, John Peel Everyday and Kat's Karavan. The John Peel Newsgroup also shares the latest information on newly digitised archive material, and was recently responsible for the purchase of 400 cassettes of Peel shows from the period 1978 to 1982. Discography Trivia He co-wrote and performed a track on a High Fidelity album, Omnichord. Peel was a devoted fan of Liverpool Football Club. After the Hillsborough disaster he started his show with Aretha Franklin's gospel version of "You'll Never Walk Alone". But since his move down to Suffolk he admitted live on air he followed Ipswich Town results as his children sometimes saw them play. Peel was also a supporter of Hibernian Football Club as he is shown in a picture in a studio wearing an old Hibernian F.C. shirt. Peel appeared on the Tyrannosaurus Rex album My People Were Fair and Had Sky in Their Hair... But Now They're Content to Wear Stars on Their Brows reading a poem entitled Children's song. He also sang backing vocals and whistled on Altered Images' cover of Neil Diamond's "Song Sung Blue", on their 1982 album Pinky Blue. The band first recorded the song for a Peel Session, and included an invitation for Peel to join in. During its first broadcast, in a rare instance of him talking over a track, he interjected, "Not on your nelly." On several occasions on his radio show, Peel played albums in their entirety from start to finish, including Bob Dylan's Desire, Pink Floyd's Animals, Siouxsie & The Banshees's debut The Scream, Simon Joyner's The Cowardly Traveller Pays His Toll and Mike Oldfield's Tubular Bells. The last band to record a Peel session was Skimmer, at Maida Vale Studios on 21 October 2004. In his 1990 appearance on Desert Island Discs, Peel chose the following: Handel's Zadok the Priest as recorded at the coronation of George VI Roy Orbison – "It's Over" Jimmy Reed – "Too Much" Misty in Roots – "Mankind" The Undertones – "Teenage Kicks" (choice if only allowed one record) Rachmaninoff's 2nd piano concerto The Fall – "Eat Y'self Fitter" Four Brothers – "Pasi pano pane zviedzo" Book: A Dance to the Music of Time by Anthony Powell Luxury: A football, and a wall to kick it against Of these, only the Undertones "Teenage Kicks" was in the box of 142 singles that he reportedly would have carried with him if his house were to have burned down. Peel only released two mix albums, one entitled Fabric Live 07 and another entitled John Peel And Sheila: The Pig's Big 78s: A Beginner's Guide. However many of his BBC shows were distributed on vinyl to US college stations and copies exist. Mitch Benn wrote a tribute song called "Minute's Noise for John", which appears on his album Crimes Against Music. The lyrics declare that "a minute's silence wouldn't show him how we feel /Let's have a minute's noise for Peel." Although originally from Liverpool, his Liverpudlian accent was an affectation. In his youth, his true accent had been RP. He changed it while working in the USA during the 1960s, to mimic The Beatles. Holly Tessler: "Dialect and dialectic: John Peel's 'Stylised Scouseness' and contested contexts of Englishness in Broadcast Radio", The Radio Journal, October 2007 John Peel was a vegan. List of famous vegetarians and vegans at happycow.net The Hard Dance act Lab 4 dedicated their last studio album "None Of Us Are Saints" to the memory of John Peel References BibliographyMargrave of the Marshes, Autobiography with Sheila Ravenscroft, Bantam Press, 2005. ISBN 0-593-05252-8The Olivetti Chronicles''. Articles for The Observer, Radio Times, The Guardian a.o., selected by his wife Sheila and their children. Bantam Press 2008. ISBN 9780593060612 External links John Peel Radio 1 minisite John Peel Biography by BBC Radio 1 (PDF) A sorted directory of links referencing Peel's working life | John_Peel |@lemmatized john:61 robert:4 parker:1 ravenscroft:4 obe:2 august:5 october:15 know:10 professionally:1 peel:153 english:1 disc:3 jockey:2 radio:70 presenter:5 journalist:3 eclectic:5 taste:3 music:37 honest:2 warm:1 broadcasting:4 style:6 popular:5 respect:2 dj:11 broadcaster:2 one:15 first:17 play:32 american:1 psychedelic:1 rock:5 reggae:5 punk:4 british:11 significant:2 promotion:1 performer:2 range:4 alternative:2 pop:4 death:15 metal:2 hip:3 hop:5 dance:7 widely:2 acknowledge:1 long:3 serving:1 original:1 bbc:55 broadcast:20 regularly:4 early:5 life:18 bear:1 heswall:3 cottage:2 hospital:1 wirral:1 peninsula:1 near:2 liverpool:11 grow:3 nearby:1 village:2 burton:1 father:2 upper:1 middle:1 class:1 cotton:2 merchant:1 send:3 away:3 educate:1 boarder:1 shrewsbury:2 school:2 housemaster:1 r:1 h:1 j:1 brooke:1 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5,323 | Contra_dance | Contra dance (also contradance, contra-dance and other variant spellings) refers to several folk dance styles in which couples dance in two facing lines of indefinite length. Contra dances can be found around the world, though they are especially popular in the United States. Contra dance is also referred to as traditional New England folk dance. There are regularly scheduled contra dances in many North American cities, as well as in Belgium, Denmark, England, Czech Republic and Australia. Contra dancers in Peterborough, New Hampshire History At the end of the 17th century, English country dances were taken up by French dancers; hybrid choreographies exist from this period using the steps from French court dance in English dances. The French called these dances contra-dance or contredanse. As time progressed, English country dances were spread and reinterpreted throughout the Western world, and eventually the French form of the name came to be associated with the American folk dances, especially in New England (this Frenchified name change may have followed a contemporary misbelief that the form was originally French). (as access to the OED online is not free, the relevant excerpt is provided) "Littré's theory, that there was already in 17th c. a French contre-danse with which the English word was confused and ran together, is not tenable; no trace of the name has been found in French before its appearance as an adaptation of the English. But new dances of this type were subsequently brought out in France, and introduced into England with the Frenchified form of the name, which led some Englishmen to the erroneous notion that the French was the original and correct form, and the English a corruption of it." Contra dances were fashionable in the United States until the early to mid-19th century, when they were supplanted in popularity by square dances (such as the quadrille and lancers) and couple dances (such as the waltz and polka). By the late 19th century, square dances too had fallen out of favor, except in rural areas. When squares were revived (around 1925 to 1940, depending on the region), contra dances were generally not included. In the 1930s and 1940s, contra dances appear to have been done only in small towns in widely scattered parts of northeastern North America, such as Ohio, the Maritime provinces of Canada, and particularly northern New England. Ralph Page almost single-handedly maintained the New England tradition until it was revitalized in the 1950s and 1960s, particularly by Ted Sannella and Dudley Laufman. By then, early dance camps, retreats, and weekends had emerged, such as Pinewoods Camp, in Plymouth, Massachusetts, which became primarily a music and dance camp in 1933, Pinewoods Camp History and NEFFA, the New England Folk Festival, also in Massachusetts, which began in 1944. NEFFA History These and others continue to be popular and some offer dancing and activities besides contra dancing. In the 1970s, Sannella added heys and gypsies to the contra dances. how figures like heys and gypsies got into modern contradancing New dances, such as Shadrack's Delight by Tony Parkes, featured symmetrical dancing by all couples. (Previously, the actives and inactives —see Progression below— had significantly different roles). Double progression dances, popularized by Herbie Gaudreau, Gaudreau, Herbie Modern Contra Dancing Sandusky, OH: Square Dance Magazine, 1971 added to the aerobic nature of the dances, and one caller, Gene Hubert, wrote a quadruple progression dance, Contra Madness. Becket formation was introduced, with partners next to each other in the line instead of opposite. The Brattleboro Dawn Dance started in 1976, and continues to run semiannually. Brattleboro Dawn Dances In the early 1980s, contra dance musician Randy Miller started the first Saturday dance in the Peterborough Town House, which remains one of the more popular regional dances. Peterborough Contra Dance Tod Whittemore started the popular Thursday night Boston area dance. As musicians and callers moved to other locations, they founded contra dances in Michigan, Washington, California, Texas, and elsewhere. Gender free or queer contra dancing started in the 1980s as well. In 1981, a group in Minneapolis/St. Paul, Minnesota called "Les be Gay and Dance" was started, in which contra dance was done without any reference to gender, avoiding calling moves with any reference to "ladies" or "gents." In 1987, Chris Ricciotti started a gay dance group in Providence, R.I. using the terms "ladies" and "gents" although dancers were not lining up according to gender. Other gender-free dance groups started up in the area after that, and in 1989, at the gender-free dance group in Jamaica Plain, MA, a group of dancers led by Janet Dillon protested the use of these terms, and the armband system was devised: the traditionally male-role dancers (leads) would wear armbands and be called "armbands" or just "bands," and the traditionally female-role dancers (follows) would be called "bare arms" or just "bares." The Lavender Country and Folk Dancers organization now serves as an umbrella organization for dances in Massachusetts, New York, Georgia, and California. Events A Thursday night contra dance at the Fresh Pond Veterans of Foreign Wars hall in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Contra dance events are open to all, regardless of experience. They are family-friendly, and alcohol consumption is not part of the culture. Many events offer beginner-level instructions for up to half an hour before the dance. A typical evening of contra dance is three hours long, including an intermission. The event consists of a number of individual contra dances, divided by a scattering of other partner dances, perhaps one or more waltzes, schottisches, polkas, or Swedish hambos. In some places, square dances are thrown into the mix. Music for the evening is typically performed by a live band, playing jigs and reels from Ireland, Scotland, Canada, or the USA. The tunes are traditional and more than a century old, or modern compositions which follow the same form as the traditional pieces. (See "Music", below.) Generally, a leader, known as a caller, will teach each individual dance just before the music for that dance begins. During this introductory "walk-through" period, participants learn the dance by walking through the steps and formations, following the caller's instructions. The caller gives the instructions orally, and sometimes augments them with demonstrations of steps by experienced dancers in the group. The walk-through usually proceeds in the order of the moves as they will be done with the music; in some dances, the caller may vary the order of moves during the dance, a fact that is usually explained as part of the caller's instructions. After the walk-through, the music begins and the dancers repeat that sequence some number of times before that dance ends, often 10 to 15 minutes, depending on the length of the contra lines. Calls are normally given at least the first few times through, and often for the last. At the end of each dance, the dancers thank their partners. The contra dance tradition in North America is to change partners for every dance, while in the United Kingdom typically people dance with the same partner the entire evening. One who attends an evening of contra dances in North America does not need to bring his or her own partner. In the short break between individual dances, women and men invite each other to dance. Booking ahead (lining up a partner or partners ahead of time for each individual dance), while common at some venues, is often discouraged. English / American dancing - a comparison 10 reasons not to book ahead Susan Kevra's Letter to the Greenfield Contra Dancers Dance Community Hospitality Notes on Calling Contra Dances At most dances, no special outfits are worn, but "peasant skirts" or other full, lightweight skirts are popular, as these have a very pretty effect when swinging or twirling and some dancers —including some men— find them more comfortable to dance in than pants. Low, broken-in, soft-soled, non-marking shoes, such as dance shoes, sneakers, or sandals, are recommended and, in some places, required. However, dancing barefoot is also common. As in any social dance, cooperation is vital to contra dancing. Since over the course of any single dance, individuals interact with not just their partners but everyone else in the set, contra dancing might be considered a group activity. As will necessarily be the case when beginners are welcomed in by more practiced dancers, mistakes are made; most dancers are very willing to help beginners, and will often go out of their way to give extra instructions to help them learn the steps. Form Formations Contra dance sets, seen from the balcony of the town house of Peterborough, New Hampshire. Although most people think a municipal hall is always called "town hall," there is a long tradition of calling the building with town offices the "town house" as Peterborough calls their municipal building. Peterborough NH: Town House Rentals, Park Rentals & Tent Rentals Contra dances are arranged in long paired lines of couples. A pair of lines is called a set. Sets are generally arranged so they run the length of the hall, with the top or head of the set being the end closest to the band and caller. Correspondingly, the bottom or foot of the set is the end farthest from the caller. Couples consist of two people, traditionally but not necessarily one male and one female, referred to as the gent, gentleman or man, and lady or woman. Couples interact primarily with an adjacent couple for each round of the dance. Each sub-group of two interacting couples is known to choreographers as a minor set and to dancers as a foursome. Couples in the same minor set are neighbors. Minor sets originate at the head of the set, starting with the topmost dancers as the 1's (the active couple or actives); the other couple are 2's (or inactives). The 1's are said to be above their neighboring 2's; 2's are below. If there is an uneven number of couples dancing, the bottom-most couple will wait out the first time through the dance. There are three common ways of arranging dancers in the minor sets: proper formation, improper formation, and Becket formation. There are many additional forms a contra dance may take. Five of them are: triple minor, triplet, indecent, four-face-four, and whole-set. (For diagrams and full descriptions, see Contra Dance Form main article.) Progression A fundamental aspect of contra dancing is that the same dance, one time through which lasts roughly 30 seconds, is repeated over and over - but each time you dance with new neighbors. This change is effected by progressing the 1's down the set and progressing the 2's up (also up the hall and down the hall; see Contra Dance Form main article for full characterizations of the progression in the eight dance forms mentioned above). A single dance runs around ten minutes, long enough to progress 15-20 times. If the sets are short to medium length the caller will often try to run the dance until each couple has danced with every other couple both as a 1 and a 2 and returned to where they started. With longer sets (more than ~40 people) this would require long enough sets that the caller will usually only run the dance all the way around on (rare) non equal-turn dances. Choreography Contra dance choreography specifies the dance formation, the figures, and the sequence of those figures in a dance. Notably, contra dance figures (with a few exceptions) do not have defined footwork; within the limits of the music and the comfort of their fellow dancers, individuals move according to their own taste. Most contra dances consist of a sequence of about six to twelve individual figures, prompted by the caller in time to the music as the figures are danced. As the sequence repeats, the caller may cut down his or her prompting, and eventually drop out, leaving the dancers to each other and the music. A figure is a pattern of movement that typically takes eight counts, although figures with four or sixteen counts are also common. Each dance is a collection of figures assembled to allow the dancers to progress along the set (see "Progression," above). A count (as used above) is one half of a musical measure, such as one quarter note in 2/4 time or three eighth notes in 6/8 time. A count may also be called a step, as contra dance is a walking form, and each count of a dance typically matches a single physical step in a figure. Typical contra dance choreography comprises four parts, each 16 counts (8 measures) long. The parts are called A1, A2, B1 and B2. This nomenclature stems from the music: Most contra dance tunes (as written) have two parts (A and B), each 8 measures long, and each fitting one part of the dance. The A and B parts are each played twice in a row, hence, A1, A2, B1, B2. While the same music is generally played in, for example, parts A1 and A2, distinct choreography is followed in those parts. Thus, a contra dance is typically 64 counts, and goes with a 32 measure tune. Tunes of this form are called "square"; tunes that deviate from this form are called "crooked". Crooked tunes are more commonly used in square dancing, where the phrasing of the dance does not have to align as closely with the phrasing of the music. Sample contra dances: Michael Dyck's Country Dance Index Traditional - the actives do most of the dancing Chorus Jig (Proper duple minor) A1 (16) Actives down the outside and back A2 (16) Actives down the center, turn individually, come back, and cast off B1 (16) Actives turn contra corners, turning inactives by the left B2 (16) Actives meet in the middle for a balance and swing, end swing facing up Occasionally inactives will swing in the middle (14 beats) while actives are going down the outside Modern - the dance is symmetrical for actives and inactives Hay in the Barn by Chart Guthrie (Improper duple minor) A1 (16) Neighbors balance and swing A2 (8) Ladies chain across, (8) Half hey, ladies pass right shoulders to start B1 (16) Partners balance and swing B2 (8) Ladies chain across, (8) Half hey, ladies pass right shoulders to start Music The most common contra dance repertoire is rooted in the Anglo-Celtic tradition as it developed in North America. Irish, Scottish, French Canadian, and Old-time tunes are common, and Klezmer tunes have also been used. The old-time repertoire includes very few of the jigs common in the others. Tunes used for a contra dance are nearly always "square" 64-beat tunes, in which one time through the tune is each of two 16-beat parts played twice (this is notated AABB). However, any 64-beat tune will do; for instance, three 8-beat parts could be played AABB AACC, or two 8-beat parts and one 16-beat part could be played AABB CC. Tunes not 64 beats long are called "crooked" and are almost never used for contra dancing, although a few crooked dances have been written as novelties. Until the 1970s it was traditional to play a single tune for the duration of a contra dance (about 5 to 10 minutes). Since then, contra dance musicians have typically played tunes in sets of two or three related (and sometimes contrasting) tunes, though single-tune dances are again becoming popular with some northeastern bands. In the Celtic repertoires it is common to change keys with each tune. A set might start with a tune in G, switch to a tune in D, and end with a tune in Em. Here, D is related to G as its dominant (5th), while D and Em (dorian) share a key signature of two sharps. In the southern old-time tradition the musicians will either play the same tune for the whole dance, or switch to tunes in the same key. This is because the tunings of the banjo are key-specific. An old-time band might play a set of tunes in D, then use the time between dances to retune for a set of tunes in A. (Fiddlers also may take this opportunity to retune; tune- or key-specific fiddle tunings are uncommon in American Anglo-Celtic traditions other than old-time.) In the Celtic repertoires it is most common for bands to play sets of reels and sets of jigs. However, since the underlying beat structure of jigs and reels is the same (two "counts" per bar) it is not uncommon to mix jigs and reels in a set. See also Bob Dalsemer Quadrille References Further reading See chapter VI, "Frolics for Fun: Dances, Weddings and Dinner Parties, pages 109 - 124. (Reprint: first published in 1956 by American Squares as a part of the American Squares Dance Series) See chapter entitled "Country Dancing," Pages 57 - 120. (The first edition was published in 1939.) External links Descriptions & definitions Gary Shapiro's What Is Contra Dance? Hamilton Country Dancers' A Contra Dance Primer Sharon Barrett Kennedy's "Now, What in the World is Contra Dancing?" Different traditions and cultures in contra dance Colin Hume's Advice to Americans in England Mary Dart's book Contra Dance Choreography, A Reflection of Social Change Research resources University of New Hampshire Special Collections: New Hampshire Library of Traditional Music and Dance Contra dance associations Country Dance and Song Society (CDSS) works to preserve and sustain a variety of Anglo-American folk traditions in North America, including folk music, folk song, English country dance, contra dance and morris dance, through its hundreds of affiliated associations. Anglo-American Dance Service Based in Belgium, promoting contra dance and English dance in Western Europe. Photography and Video Doug Plummer's Northwest contra dance photos Doug Plummer's New England contra dance photos Contra dance videos - educational, instructional, and fun - free, on-line contrausa.com A video of the Brattleboro Dawn Dance in Vermont, Susan Kevra calling (19 min) - note the differences in dance and music styles between this northeastern dance and the southeastern one linked below A fun video (1 min) of the Montpelier Vermont Contradance, Will Mentor calling for Beeswax Sheepskin A video of the Lake Eden Arts Festival 2006 (LEAF) in North Carolina (2 min) Two American country dance films on DVD: "Country Corners" (1976), and "Full of Life A-Dancin'" (1978). Finding contra dances in North America Contra Corners (map of US dances) Contra Dance Links (U.S. contra dance calendars and further contra dance links) The Dance Gypsy (locate contra dances and many other types of dance around the world) NEFFA LinkFest (links to dances) Ted Crane's Dance Database (locate dances -primarily contra- in North America) | Contra_dance |@lemmatized contra:68 dance:154 also:10 contradance:3 variant:1 spelling:1 refers:1 several:1 folk:8 style:2 couple:15 two:10 face:3 line:8 indefinite:1 length:4 find:4 around:5 world:4 though:2 especially:2 popular:6 united:3 state:2 refer:2 traditional:6 new:14 england:9 regularly:1 schedule:1 many:4 north:9 american:10 city:1 well:2 belgium:2 denmark:1 czech:1 republic:1 australia:1 dancer:21 peterborough:6 hampshire:4 history:3 end:7 century:4 english:9 country:10 take:4 french:9 hybrid:1 choreography:6 exist:1 period:2 use:9 step:6 court:1 call:18 contredanse:1 time:18 progress:5 spread:1 reinterpret:1 throughout:1 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eden:1 art:1 leaf:1 carolina:1 film:1 dvd:1 life:1 dancin:1 map:1 u:2 calendar:1 locate:2 linkfest:1 crane:1 database:1 |@bigram contra_dance:57 czech_republic:1 single_handedly:1 jig_reel:3 everyone_else:1 dance_choreography:4 external_link:1 north_carolina:1 |
5,324 | High_German_languages | "Hochdeutsch" or "High German" is also used in the sense of Standard German. The High German languages are a subdivision of the West Germanic Languages By the High German consonant shift, the map of German dialects is divided into Upper German (green) and Central German (blue), and the Low German (yellow). The main isoglosses, the Benrath and Speyer lines, are marked black. The High German languages (in German, Hochdeutsche Dialekte) are any of the varieties of standard German, Luxembourgish and Yiddish, as well as the local German dialects spoken in central and southern Germany, Austria, Liechtenstein, Switzerland, Luxembourg and in neighbouring portions of Belgium, France (Alsace and northern Lorraine), Italy, and Poland. The language is also spoken in diaspora in Romania (Transylvania), Russia, the United States, Argentina, Chile, and Namibia. As a technical term, the "high" in High German is a geographical reference to whence the dialect family that forms High German originates. It refers to the mountainous areas of central and southern Germany and the Alps. This is opposed to Low German, which is spoken along the flat sea coasts of the north. See the definition of "high" in the Oxford English Dictionary (Concise Edition): "... situated far above ground, sealevel, etc; upper, inland, as ... High German". High German can be subdivided into Upper German and Central German (Oberdeutsch, Mitteldeutsch). History High German as used in Southern Germany, Bavaria and Austria was an important basis for the development of standard German. The historical forms of the language are Old High German and Middle High German. Classification High German are distinguished from other West Germanic varieties in that they took part in the High German consonant shift (c. AD 500). To see this, compare German Pfanne with English pan ( to ), German zwei with English two ( to ), German machen with English make ( to ). In the High Alemannic dialects, there is a further shift; Sack (like English "sack") is pronounced ( to ). Family tree Note that divisions between subfamilies of Germanic are rarely precisely defined; most form continuous clines, with adjacent dialects being mutually intelligible and more separated ones not. In particular, there has never been an original "Proto-High German". For this and other reasons, the idea of representing the relationships between West Germanic language forms in a tree diagram at all is controversial among linguists; what follows should be used with care in the light of this caveat. Central German (German: Mitteldeutsch) East Central German South Markish Upper Saxon North Upper Saxon Thuringian Dialect Lower Silesian language (mostly in Lower Silesia, in Poland) High Prussian Transylvanian Saxon (in Transylvania) West Central German Ripuarian Moselle Franconian, including the Luxembourgish language Rhine Franconian Lorraine Franconian (France) Pfälzisch language Central Hessian East Hessian Lower Hessian Transitional areas between Central German and Upper German High Franconian Pennsylvania German (in the United States and Canada) Upper German (German: Oberdeutsch) Alemannic Swabian Low Alemannic (including one Swiss German dialect: Basel German) Alsatian language (but often also classified as within Low Alemannic) Mittelalemannisch High Alemannic (including many Swiss German dialects) Highest Alemannic (including Swiss German dialects) Austro-Bavarian (On the use of dialects and Standard German in Austria, see Austrian language) Northern Austro-Bavarian (spoken in Upper Palatinate) Central Austro-Bavarian (includes the dialects of Upper Bavaria, Lower Bavaria, Upper Austria, Lower Austria and Vienna — see Viennese language) Southern Austro-Bavarian (includes the dialects of Tirol, Carinthia and Styria) Cimbrian (northeastern Italy) Mócheno (Trentino, in Italy) Hutterite German (in Canada and the United States) Yiddish Western Yiddish (Germany, France) Eastern Yiddish Northeastern Yiddish (Lithuania, Latvia, Belarus, Russia, northeastern Poland) Central Yiddish (Poland, Galicia) Southeastern Yiddish (Ukraine, Bessarabia, Romania) References | High_German_languages |@lemmatized hochdeutsch:1 high:21 german:44 also:3 use:4 sense:1 standard:4 language:12 subdivision:1 west:4 germanic:4 consonant:2 shift:3 map:1 dialect:12 divide:1 upper:10 green:1 central:11 blue:1 low:8 yellow:1 main:1 isoglosses:1 benrath:1 speyer:1 line:1 mark:1 black:1 hochdeutsche:1 dialekte:1 variety:2 luxembourgish:2 yiddish:7 well:1 local:1 speak:4 southern:4 germany:4 austria:5 liechtenstein:1 switzerland:1 luxembourg:1 neighbouring:1 portion:1 belgium:1 france:3 alsace:1 northern:2 lorraine:2 italy:3 poland:4 diaspora:1 romania:2 transylvania:2 russia:2 united:3 state:3 argentina:1 chile:1 namibia:1 technical:1 term:1 geographical:1 reference:2 whence:1 family:2 form:4 originates:1 refer:1 mountainous:1 area:2 alp:1 oppose:1 along:1 flat:1 sea:1 coast:1 north:2 see:4 definition:1 oxford:1 english:5 dictionary:1 concise:1 edition:1 situate:1 far:1 ground:1 sealevel:1 etc:1 inland:1 subdivide:1 oberdeutsch:2 mitteldeutsch:2 history:1 bavaria:3 important:1 basis:1 development:1 historical:1 old:1 middle:1 classification:1 distinguish:1 take:1 part:1 c:1 ad:1 compare:1 pfanne:1 pan:1 zwei:1 two:1 machen:1 make:1 alemannic:6 sack:2 like:1 pronounce:1 tree:2 note:1 division:1 subfamily:1 rarely:1 precisely:1 define:1 continuous:1 cline:1 adjacent:1 mutually:1 intelligible:1 separated:1 one:2 particular:1 never:1 original:1 proto:1 reason:1 idea:1 represent:1 relationship:1 diagram:1 controversial:1 among:1 linguist:1 follow:1 care:1 light:1 caveat:1 east:2 south:1 markish:1 saxon:3 thuringian:1 lower:1 silesian:1 mostly:1 silesia:1 prussian:1 transylvanian:1 ripuarian:1 moselle:1 franconian:4 include:6 rhine:1 pfälzisch:1 hessian:3 transitional:1 pennsylvania:1 canada:2 swabian:1 swiss:3 basel:1 alsatian:1 often:1 classify:1 within:1 mittelalemannisch:1 many:1 austro:4 bavarian:4 austrian:1 palatinate:1 vienna:1 viennese:1 tirol:1 carinthia:1 styria:1 cimbrian:1 northeastern:3 mócheno:1 trentino:1 hutterite:1 western:1 eastern:1 lithuania:1 latvia:1 belarus:1 galicia:1 southeastern:1 ukraine:1 bessarabia:1 |@bigram mutually_intelligible:1 austro_bavarian:4 upper_palatinate:1 carinthia_styria:1 lithuania_latvia:1 |
5,325 | IEEE_802.11 | IEEE 802.11 is a set of standards carrying out wireless local area network (WLAN) computer communication in the 2.4, 3.6 and 5 GHz frequency bands. They are implemented by the IEEE LAN/MAN Standards Committee (IEEE 802). General description A Linksys Residential gateway, which contains an 802.11b radio and a 4-port Ethernet switch (and is sitting on a Cable modem) A Compaq 802.11b PCI card The 802.11 family includes over-the-air modulation techniques that use the same basic protocol. The most popular are those defined by the 802.11b and 802.11g protocols, and are amendments to the original standard. 802.11-1997 was the first wireless networking standard, but 802.11b was the first widely accepted one, followed by 802.11g and 802.11n. Security was originally purposefully weak due to export requirements of some governments, Looking for 802.11g Wireless Internet Access information, definitions and technology descriptions? and was later enhanced via the 802.11i amendment after governmental and legislative changes. 802.11n is a new multi-streaming modulation technique that is still under draft development, but products based on its proprietary pre-draft versions are being sold. Other standards in the family (c–f, h, j) are service amendments and extensions or corrections to previous specifications. 802.11b and 802.11g use the 2.4 GHz ISM band, operating in the United States under Part 15 of the US Federal Communications Commission Rules and Regulations. Because of this choice of frequency band, 802.11b and g equipment may occasionally suffer interference from microwave ovens, cordless telephones and Bluetooth devices. Both 802.11 and Bluetooth control their interference and susceptibility to interference by using spread spectrum modulation. Bluetooth uses a frequency hopping spread spectrum signaling method (FHSS) while 802.11b/g use the direct sequence spread spectrum signaling (DSSS) and orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) methods respectively. 802.11a uses the 5 GHz U-NII band, which, for much of the world, offers at least 19 non-overlapping channels rather than the 3 offered in the 2.4 GHz ISM frequency band. List of WLAN channels However propagation around objects such as walls and furniture tends to be better at higher frequencies. This is because higher frequencies scatter more which helps them get around objects. However penetration is better with lower frequencies. You may get better or worse performance with higher or lower frequencies (channels) depending on your environment. WiFi generally reflects around objects rather than going through them. The segment of the radio frequency spectrum used varies between countries. In the US, 802.11a and 802.11g devices may be operated without a license, as allowed in Part 15 of the FCC Rules and Regulations. Frequencies used by channels one through six (802.11b) fall within the 2.4 GHz amateur radio band. Licensed amateur radio operators may operate 802.11b/g devices under Part 97 of the FCC Rules and Regulations, allowing increased power output but not commercial content or encryption. Protocols 802.11-1997 (802.11 legacy) The original version of the standard IEEE 802.11 was released in 1997 and clarified in 1999, but is today obsolete. It specified two net bit rates of 1 or 2 megabits per second (Mbit/s), plus forward error correction code. It specifed three alternative physical layer technologies: diffuse infrared operating at 1 Mbit/s; frequency-hopping spread spectrum operating at 1 Mbit/s or 2 Mbit/s; and direct-sequence spread spectrum operating at 1 Mbit/s or 2 Mbit/s. The latter two radio technologies used microwave transmission over the Industrial Scientific Medical frequency band at 2.4 GHz. Some earlier WLAN technologies used lower frequencies, such as the U.S. 900 MHz ISM band. Legacy 802.11 with direct-sequence spread spectrum was rapidly supplemented and popularized by 802.11b. 802.11a Release date Op. Frequency Throughput (typ.) Net bit rate (max.) Gross bit rate (max.) October 1999 5 GHz 27 Mbit/s page 14 54 Mbit/s 72 Mbit/s The 802.11a standard uses the same data link layer protocol and frame format as the original standard, but an OFDM based air interface (physical layer). It operates in the 5 GHz band with a maximum net data rate of 54 Mbit/s, plus error correction code, which yields realistic net achievable throughput in the mid-20 Mbit/s . Since the 2.4 GHz band is heavily used to the point of being crowded, using the relatively un-used 5 GHz band gives 802.11a a significant advantage. However, this high carrier frequency also brings a disadvantage: The effective overall range of 802.11a is less than that of 802.11b/g; and in theory 802.11a signals cannot penetrate as far as those for 802.11b because they are absorbed more readily by walls and other solid objects in their path due to their smaller wavelength. In practice 802.11b typically has a higher distance range at low speeds (802.11b will reduce speed to 5 Mbit/s or even 1 Mbit/s at low signal strengths). However, at higher speeds, 802.11a typically has the same or higher range due to less interference. 802.11b Release date Frequency band Throughput (typ.) Net bit rate (max.) October 1999 2.4 GHz ~5 Mbit/s 11 Mbit/s 802.11b has a maximum raw data rate of 11 Mbit/s and uses the same media access method defined in the original standard. 802.11b products appeared on the market in early 2000, since 802.11b is a direct extension of the modulation technique defined in the original standard. The dramatic increase in throughput of 802.11b (compared to the original standard) along with simultaneous substantial price reductions led to the rapid acceptance of 802.11b as the definitive wireless LAN technology. 802.11b devices suffer interference from other products operating in the 2.4 GHz band. Devices operating in the 2.4 GHz range include: microwave ovens, Bluetooth devices, baby monitors and cordless telephones. 802.11g Release date Op. Frequency Throughput (typ.) Net bit rate (max.) Gross bit rate (max.) June 2003 2.4 GHz ~22 Mbit/s 54 Mbit/s 128 Mbit/s In June 2003, a third modulation standard was ratified: 802.11g. This works in the 2.4 GHz band (like 802.11b), but uses the same OFDM based transmission scheme as 802.11a. It operates at a maximum physical layer bit rate of 54 Mbit/s exclusive of forward error correction codes, or about 22 Mbit/s average throughput. 802.11g hardware is fully backwards compatible with 802.11b hardware and therefore is encumbered with legacy issues that reduce throughput when compared to 802.11a by ~21%. The then-proposed 802.11g standard was rapidly adopted by consumers starting in January 2003, well before ratification, due to the desire for higher data rates, and reductions in manufacturing costs. By summer 2003, most dual-band 802.11a/b products became dual-band/tri-mode, supporting a and b/g in a single mobile adapter card or access point. Details of making b and g work well together occupied much of the lingering technical process; in an 802.11g network, however, activity of an 802.11b participant will reduce the data rate of the overall 802.11g network. Like 802.11b, 802.11g devices suffer interference from other products operating in the 2.4 GHz band. 802.11-2007 In 2003, task group TGma was authorized to "roll up" many of the amendments to the 1999 version of the 802.11 standard. REVma or 802.11ma, as it was called, created a single document that merged 8 amendments (802.11a,b,d,e,g,h,i,j) with the base standard. Upon approval on March 08, 2007, 802.11REVma was renamed to the current base standard IEEE 802.11-2007. 802.11n 802.11n is a proposed amendment which improves upon the previous 802.11 standards by adding multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) and many other newer features. The TGn workgroup is not expected to finalize the amendment until December 2009. Enterprises, however, have already begun migrating to 802.11n networks based on Draft 2 of the 802.11n proposal. A common strategy for many businesses is to set up 802.11b and 802.11g client devices while gradually moving to 802.11n clients as part of new equipment purchases. Release date Op. Frequency Throughput (typ.) Net bit rate (max.) January 2010 (est.) 5 GHz and/or 2.4 GHz 144 Mbit/s 600 Mbit/s http://www.wirevolution.com/2007/09/07/how-does-80211n-get-to-600mbps/ Channels and international compatibility 802.11 divides each of the above-described bands into channels, analogously to how radio and TV broadcast bands are carved up but with greater channel width and overlap. For example the 2.4000–2.4835 GHz band is divided into 13 channels each of width 22 MHz but spaced only 5 MHz apart, with channel 1 centred on 2.412 GHz and 13 on 2.472 GHz to which Japan adds a 14th channel 12 MHz above channel 13. Availability of channels is regulated by country, constrained in part by how each country allocates radio spectrum to various services. At one extreme Japan permits the use of all 14 channels (with the exclusion of 802.11g/n from channel 14), while at the other Spain allowed only channels 10 and 11 and France allowed only 10, 11, 12 and 13 (now both countries follow the european model of allowing channels 1 through 13 ). Most other European countries are almost as liberal as Japan, disallowing only channel 14, while North America and some Central and South American countries further disallow 12 and 13. For more details on this topic, see List of WLAN channels. Besides specifying the centre frequency of each channel, 802.11 also specifies (in Clause 17) a spectral mask defining the permitted distribution of power across each channel. The mask requires that the signal be attenuated by at least 30 dB from its peak energy at ±11 MHz from the centre frequency, the sense in which channels are effectively 22 MHz wide. One consequence is that stations can only use every fourth or fifth channel without overlap, typically 1, 6 and 11 in the Americas, 1, 5, 9 and 13 in Europe, etc. Another is that channels 1-13 effectively require the band 2.401–2.483 GHz, the actual allocations being, for example, 2.400–2.4835 GHz in the UK, 2.402–2.4735 GHz in the US, etc. Since the spectral mask only defines power output restrictions up to ±22 MHz from the center frequency to be attenuated by 50 dB, it is often assumed that the energy of the channel extends no further than these limits. It is more correct to say that, given the separation between channels 1, 6, and 11, the signal on any channel should be sufficiently attenuated to minimally interfere with a transmitter on any other channel. Due to the near-far problem a transmitter can impact a receiver on a "non-overlapping" channel, but only if it is close to the victim receiver (within a meter) or operating above allowed power levels. Although the statement that channels 1, 6, and 11 are "non-overlapping" is limited to spacing or product density, the 1–6–11 guideline has merit. If transmitters are closer together than channels 1, 6, and 11 (for example, 1, 4, 7, and 10), overlap between the channels may cause unacceptable degradation of signal quality and throughput. However, overlapping channels may be used under certain circumstances. This way, more channels are available. Frames Current 802.11 standards define "frame" types for use in transmission of data as well as management and control of wireless links. Frames are divided into very specific and standardized sections. Each frame has a 2-byte frame control field that provides detailed information on the wireless link. This field is segmented 11 ways and will be presented in order, with the first two bits reserved for identification of the protocol being used (e.g., 802.11g, 802.11b, etc.). These respectively two and four bit fields are used for identification of which frame type is used. The next two segment are reserved for type and subtype. The next two bits are the To DS and From DS fields. They indicate whether a frame is headed for a distributed system. All frames will have one of these bits set. The More Fragmentation bit is set most notable when higher level packets have been partitioned and will be set for all non-final sections. Some management frames may required partitioning as well. Sometimes frames require retransmission, and for this there is a Retry bit which is set to one when a frame is resent. This aids in the elimination of duplicate frames station side. The Power Management bit indicates the power management state of the sender after the completion of a frame exchange. Access points are required to manage the connection and will never set the power saver bit. The More Data bit is used to buffer frames received in a distributed system. The access point uses this bit to facilitate stations in power saver mode. It indicates that at least one frame is available and addresses all stations connected. The WEP bit is modified after processing a frame. It is toggled to one after a frame has been decrypted or if no encryption is set it will have already been one. The last bit is the Order bit and is only set when the "strict ordering" delivery method is employed. Frames and fragments are not always sent in order as it causes a transmission performance penalty. The next two bytes are reserved for the Duration ID field. This field take on one of three forms, Duration, contention-free period (CFP), and PS-Poll. An 802.11 frame can contain up to four address fields. Six bytes are reserved for each address field. Each field is numbered are is used for different purposes. Address 1 is the receiver, Address 2 is the transmitter, Address 3 is used for filtering purposes by the receiver. As addresses are only 46 bits long and there are 48 bits reserved for each address, the first bit has a special function. A 0 indicates a single stations address (unicast), while a 1 represent a group of stations (multicast). If all the bits are 1's then the frame is broadcast to all station connected to an access point. The Sequence Control field is a two byte section used for identifying message order as well as eliminating duplicate frames. The first 4 bits are used for the fragmentation number and the last 12 bits are the sequence number. The Frame Body field is variably size, from 0 – 2132 bytes, an contains information from higher layers. The Frame Check Sequence (FCS) is the last four bytes in the standard 802.11 frame. Often referred to as the Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC), it allows for integrity check of retrieved frames. As frames are about to be sent the FCS is calculated and appending. When a station receives a frame it can calculate the FCS of the frame and compare it to the one received. If they match it is assumed that the frame was not distorted during transmission. Management Frames allow for the maintenance of communication. Some common 802.11 subtypes include: Authentication frame: 802.11 authentication begins with the WNIC sending an authentication frame to the access point containing its identity. With an open system authentication the WNIC only sends a single authentication frame and the access point responds with an authentication frame of its own indicating acceptance or rejection. With shared key authentication, after the WNIC sends its initial authentication request it will receive an authentication frame from the access point containing challenge text. The WNIC sends an authentication frame containing the encrypted version of the challenge text to the access point. The access point ensures the text was encrypted with the correct key by decrypting it with its own key. The result of this process determines the WNIC's authentication status. Association request frame: sent from a station it enables the access point to allocate resources and synchronize. The frame carries information about the WNIC including supported data rates and the SSID of the network the station wishes to associate with. If the request is accepted the access point reserve memory and establishes and association ID for the WNIC. Association response frame: sent from an access point to a station containing the acceptance or rejection to an association request. If it is an acceptance the frame will contain information such an association ID and supported data rates. Beacon frame: Sent periodically from an access point to announce its presence and provide the SSID, and other parameters for WNICs within range. Deauthentication frame: Sent from a station wishing to terminate connection from another station. Disassociation frame: Sent from a station wishing to terminate connection. It's an elegant way to allow the access point to relinquish memory allocation and remove the WNIC from the association table. Probe request frame: Sent from a station when it requires information from another station. Probe response frame: Sent from a station containing capability information, supported data rates, etc., after receiving a probe request frame. Reassociation request frame: A WNIC sends a reassociation request when it drops from range of the currently associated access point and finds another access point with a stronger signal. The new access point coordinates the forwarding of any information that may still be contained in the buffer of the previous access point. Reassociation response frame: Sent from an access point containing the acceptance or rejection to a WNIC reassociation request frame. The frame includes information required for association such as the association ID and supported data rates. Control frames facility in the exchange of data frames between station. Some common 802.11 control frames include: Acknowledgement (ACK) frame: After receiving a data frame the receiving station will send an ACK frame to the sending station if no errors are found. If the sending station doesn't receive an ACK frame within a predetermined period of time the sending station will resend the frame. Request to Send (RTS) frame: The RTS and CTS frames provide an optional collision reduction scheme for access point with hidden stations. A station sends a RTS frame to as the first step in a two-way handshake required before sending data frames. Clear to Send (CTS) frame: A station responds to an RTS frame with a CTS frame. It provides clearance for the requesting station to send a data frame. The CTS provides collision control management by including a time value for which all other stations are to hold off transmission while the requesting stations transmits. Data frames carry packets from web pages, files, etc. within the body. Standard and amendments Within the IEEE 802.11 Working Group, the following IEEE Standards Association Standard and Amendments exist: IEEE 802.11 - THE WLAN STANDARD was original 1 Mbit/s and 2 Mbit/s, 2.4 GHz RF and infrared [IR] standard (1997), all the others listed below are Amendments to this standard, except for Recommended Practices 802.11F and 802.11T. IEEE 802.11a - 54 Mbit/s, 5 GHz standard (1999, shipping products in 2001) IEEE 802.11b - Enhancements to 802.11 to support 5.5 and 11 Mbit/s (1999) IEEE 802.11c - Bridge operation procedures; included in the IEEE 802.1D standard (2001) IEEE 802.11d - International (country-to-country) roaming extensions (2001) IEEE 802.11e - Enhancements: QoS, including packet bursting (2005) IEEE 802.11F - Inter-Access Point Protocol (2003) Withdrawn February 2006 IEEE 802.11g - 54 Mbit/s, 2.4 GHz standard (backwards compatible with b) (2003) IEEE 802.11h - Spectrum Managed 802.11a (5 GHz) for European compatibility (2004) IEEE 802.11i - Enhanced security (2004) IEEE 802.11j - Extensions for Japan (2004) IEEE 802.11-2007 - A new release of the standard that includes amendments a, b, d, e, g, h, i & j. (July 2007) IEEE 802.11k - Radio resource measurement enhancements (2008) IEEE 802.11n - Higher throughput improvements using MIMO (multiple input, multiple output antennas) (November 2009) IEEE 802.11p - WAVE - Wireless Access for the Vehicular Environment (such as ambulances and passenger cars) (working - 2009?) IEEE 802.11r - Fast roaming Working "Task Group r" - (2008) IEEE 802.11s - Mesh Networking, Extended Service Set (ESS) (working - July 2010?) IEEE 802.11T - Wireless Performance Prediction (WPP) - test methods and metrics Recommendation cancelled IEEE 802.11u - Interworking with non-802 networks (for example, cellular) (proposal evaluation - March 2010?) IEEE 802.11v - Wireless network management (early proposal stages - September 2010?) IEEE 802.11w - Protected Management Frames (early proposal stages - 2009?) IEEE 802.11y - 3650-3700 MHz Operation in the U.S. (2008) IEEE 802.11z - Extensions to Direct Link Setup (DLS) (August 2007 - December 2011) IEEE 802.11aa - Robust streaming of Audio Video Transport Streams (March 2008 - May 2011) IEEE 802.11mb - Maintenance of the standard. Expected to become 802.11-2010. (ongoing) IEEE 802.11ac - Very High Throughput <6GHz (September 2008 - December 2012) IEEE 802.11ad - Extremely High Throughput 60GHz (December 2008 - December 2012) There is no standard or task group named "802.11x". Rather, this term is used informally to denote any current or future 802.11 amendment, in cases where further precision is not necessary. (The IEEE 802.1X standard for port-based network access control is often mistakenly called "802.11x" when used in the context of wireless networks.) 802.11F and 802.11T are recommended practices rather than standards, and are capitalized as such. Standard or amendment? Both the terms "standard" and "amendment" are used when referring to the different variants of IEEE 802.11. As far as the IEEE Standards Association is concerned, there is only one current standard; it is denoted by IEEE 802.11 followed by the date that it was published. IEEE 802.11-2007 is the only version currently in publication. The standard is updated by means of amendments. Amendments are created by task groups (TG). Both the task group and their finished document are denoted by 802.11 followed by a non-capitalized letter. For example IEEE 802.11a and IEEE 802.11b. Updating 802.11 is the responsibility of task group m. In order to create a new version, TGm combines the previous version of the standard and all published amendments. TGm also provides clarification and interpretation to industry on published documents. New versions of the IEEE 802.11 were published in 1999 and 2007. The working title of 802.11-2007 was 802.11-REVma. This denotes a third type of document, a "revision". The complexity of combining 802.11-1999 with 8 amendments made it necessary to revise already agreed upon text. As a result, additional guidelines associated with a revision had to be followed. Nomenclature Various terms in 802.11 are used to specify aspects of wireless local-area networking operation, and may be unfamiliar to some readers. For example, Time Unit (usually abbreviated TU) is used to indicate a unit of time equal to 1024 microseconds. Numerous time constants are defined in terms of TU (rather than the nearly-equal millisecond). Also the term "Portal" is used to describe an entity that is similar to an IEEE 802.1D bridge. A Portal provides access to the WLAN by non-802.11 LAN STAs. Community networks With the proliferation of cable modems and DSL, there is an ever-increasing market of people who wish to establish small networks in their homes to share their broadband Internet connection. Many hotspot or free networks frequently allow anyone within range, including passersby outside, to connect to the Internet. There are also efforts by volunteer groups to establish wireless community networks to provide free wireless connectivity to the public. Security In 2001, a group from the University of California, Berkeley presented a paper describing weaknesses in the 802.11 Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP) security mechanism defined in the original standard; they were followed by Fluhrer, Mantin, and Shamir's paper entitled "Weaknesses in the Key Scheduling Algorithm of RC4". Not long after, Adam Stubblefield and AT&T publicly announced the first verification of the attack. In the attack they were able to intercept transmissions and gain unauthorized access to wireless networks. The IEEE set up a dedicated task group to create a replacement security solution, 802.11i (previously this work was handled as part of a broader 802.11e effort to enhance the MAC layer). The Wi-Fi Alliance announced an interim specification called Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA) based on a subset of the then current IEEE 802.11i draft. These started to appear in products in mid-2003. IEEE 802.11i (also known as WPA2) itself was ratified in June 2004, and uses government strength encryption in the Advanced Encryption Standard AES, instead of RC4, which was used in WEP. The modern recommended encryption for the home/consumer space is WPA2 (AES PreShared Key) and for the Enterprise space is WPA2 along with a radius server the strongest is EAP-TLS. In January 2005, IEEE set up yet another task group, TGw, to protect management and broadcast frames, which previously were sent unsecured. See IEEE 802.11w Non-standard 802.11 extensions and equipment Many companies implement wireless networking equipment with non-IEEE standard 802.11 extensions either by implementing proprietary or draft features. These changes may lead to incompatibilities between these extensions. See also Bluetooth, another wireless protocol primarily designed for shorter range applications. Comparison of wireless data standards Spectral efficiency comparison table IEEE 802.15 IEEE 802.16 (aka WiMAX) IEEE 802.20 IEEE 802.22 List of device bandwidths List of WLAN channels MLME OFDM system comparison table Ultra-wideband Wi-Fi Alliance Wibree References External links IEEE 802.11 working group Download the 802.11 standards from IEEE | IEEE_802.11 |@lemmatized ieee:56 set:12 standard:45 carry:3 wireless:17 local:2 area:2 network:15 wlan:7 computer:1 communication:3 ghz:28 frequency:22 band:21 implement:3 lan:3 man:1 committee:1 general:1 description:2 linksys:1 residential:1 gateway:1 contain:10 radio:8 port:2 ethernet:1 switch:1 sit:1 cable:2 modem:2 compaq:1 pci:1 card:2 family:2 include:11 air:2 modulation:5 technique:3 use:37 basic:1 protocol:6 popular:1 define:8 amendment:18 original:8 first:7 widely:1 accept:2 one:12 follow:7 security:5 originally:1 purposefully:1 weak:1 due:5 export:1 requirement:1 government:2 look:1 internet:3 access:28 information:9 definition:1 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5,326 | LGBT_topics_and_Wicca | Throughout most branches of Wicca, all sexual orientations including homosexuality are considered healthy and positive, provided that individual sexual relationships are healthy and loving The Wicca Bible, Anne-Marie Gallagher . Sexual orientation is therefore not considered an issue. Although Gerald Gardner, a key figure in Wicca, was arguably homophobic Gardner, G.B., Witchcraft Today, p.75, London:Rider, 1954 this historical aversion is not now commonly held. Lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender (LGBT) people are almost always welcomed in individual communities, covens, study groups, and circles. Many LGBT Neopagans were initially attracted to Neopagan religions because of this inclusion, in which their relationships are seen on an equal footing. In support of this philosophy, many Wiccans cite the Charge of the Goddess, which says "All acts of Love and Pleasure are My rituals". Gardner, Gerald. Witchcraft and the Book of Shadows (2004) Edited by A.R.Naylor. Thame, Oxfordshire: I-H-O Books, p.70. ISBN 1-872189-52-0 Therefore all forms and expressions of sexuality, as long as they are otherwise healthy and consensual, are accepted. LGBT issues in Gardnerian practice Anti-homosexuality Gardnerian Wicca and other more traditional groups form their covens from male-female pairs. This practice may stem from the influence of Gerald Gardner who wrote (ostensibly quoting a witch, but perhaps in his own words):The witches tell me 'The law always has been that power must be passed from man to woman or from woman to man, the only exception being when a mother initiates her daughter or a father his son, because they are part of themselves' (the reason is that great love is apt to occur between people who go through the rites together.) They go on to say: 'The Templars broke this age-old rule and passed the power from man to man: this led to sin and in doing so it brought about their downfall.' Gardner, Gerald. Witchcraft Today (1954) London: Rider. p. 69 However, The above quote is in the context of a section in Gardner's book examining why the Templar were executed by the Christian Church, so it is entirely possible that the reference is not to Gardner's own opinion of homosexuality but that of earlier Christians. Gardner goes on to defend the Templar by saying that the charges against them were "trumped up". Gardner was rumored to be homophobic by Lois Bourne, one of the High Priestesses of the Bricket Wood coven:Gerald was homophobic. He had a deep hatred and detestation of homosexuality, which he regarded as a disgusting perversion and a flagrant transgression of natural law....'There are no homosexual witches, and it is not possible to be a homosexual and a witch' Gerald almost shouted. No one argued with him Bourne, Lois Dancing with Witches. (2006) London: Robert Hale. ISBN 0-7090-8074-3. p.38. (Hardback edition first published 1998). . However, the legitimacy of Gardner's rumored homophobia is disputable because Gardner showed much more evidence of an open and accepting attitude about practices in his writing which would not be characterized by the hatred or phobia which was common in the 1950s: Also, though the witch ideal is to form perfect couples of people ideally suited to each other, nowadays this is not always possible; the right couples go together and the rest go singly and do as they can. Witchcraft today is largely a case of "make do". Gardner, Gerald. Witchcraft Today (1954) London: Rider. p. 125 Most traditional Wiccans worship the god and goddess, and a central part of Wiccan liturgy involves the Great Rite; Farrar, Stewart. What Witches Do: A Modern Coven Revealed (1973) London: Sphere Books. pp85-94. an act of actual or symbolic ritual sexual intercourse between the two deities. This is traditionally carried out by a priest and priestess who have had the deities invoked upon them, and the conventional practice appears to be exclusively heterosexual. When performed 'in token' this involves the athame (representing the masculine principle) descending into the chalice (representing the feminine). Crowley, Vivianne. Wicca: The Old Religion in the New Age (1989) London: The Aquarian Press. ISBN 0-85030-737-6 p.234 However, there is no evidence to suggest that a gay priest or lesbian priestess could not carry out this ritual for the sake of what it represents. Pro-homosexuality In support of this philosophy, many Wiccans cite the Charge of the Goddess, which says "All acts of Love and Pleasure are My rituals". Gardner, Gerald. Witchcraft and the Book of Shadows (2004) Edited by A.R.Naylor. Thame, Oxfordshire: I-H-O Books, p.70. ISBN 1-872189-52-0 Therefore all forms and expressions of sexuality, as long as they are otherwise healthy and consensual, are accepted. According to Ann-Marie Gallagher, a professor of women's studies and long-time author of many books related to Wicca, "there is no moralistic doctrine or dogma other than the advice offered in the Wiccan Rede... The only 'law' here is love... It matters not whether we are gay, straight, bisexual or transgendered - the physical world is sacred, and [we are] celebrating our physicality, sexuality, human nature and celebrating the goddess, Giver of ALL life and soul of ALL nature." More recent beliefs and practice According to the Pagan Federation of Canada: 'Over the last few decades, many people have thought that the emphasis on male/female polarity in Wicca excludes homosexuals'. Huneault, Robert.Homosexuality and Wicca. Pagan Federation/Fédération Païenne Canada website, accessed 11 May 2007. However, this source goes on to make the case for the validity of LGBT orientations even within traditional Wicca, suggesting that gay men and lesbians are likely to be particularly alive to the interplay of the masculine and feminine principles in the Universe. Historically, the Christian church and lay-people have believed that more women than men are involved in paganism and witchcraft, which can be seen as far back as 1487 with the printing of the Malleus Maleficarum Several modern authors of Wiccan books state that, in current Wicca, the situation is the same. An exception is Dianic Wicca (also known as Feminist Witchcraft and/or Feminist Spirituality), a branch of Wicca practiced almost exclusively by women, most of whom are heterosexual, preferring to practice their spirituality with other women in pursuit of Women's Mysteries. Some Dianics, of course, are lesbians, just as there are lesbians in other Wiccan denominations. Dianic Wiccans worship a goddess but not the god, and form female-only covens, for the most part. There are some mixed-gender Dianics, specifically the McFarland Dianics, who practice in either all female or mixed-gender circles, and who may or may not include the god in their workings. Since the nineteen eighties, a number of all-male or "Mithraic" circles have been formed. These masculist circles worship both the god and the goddess, but tend to emphasise the role of the god in their lives. It is thought that these circles may have been formed In response to Dianic Wicca. Homosexual members within traditional Wiccan groups Many of the more traditional Wiccan groups maintain both the emphasis on male-female pairings and an acceptance of homosexuality. Often this is justified by arguing that male-female pairings are an important part of reproduction and, as such, are of central importance to a fertility religion (which traditional Wicca is, though some later forms of Wicca are not). However many traditional Wiccans hold that they can venerate this generative aspect of heterosex without claiming it is the only valid form of sexual expression, but rather venerating it as a vital part of aspect without which nobody would exist (including the LGBT community) and there would be no food for anyone (including the LGBT community) to eat. Indeed, since no form of Wicca has ever made claims that sexuality should only be in the pursuit of reproduction the claim of such traditionals is there is no conflict between someone venerating the generative aspects of sex even if that does not relate directly to their own sexual experience. Gay- and lesbian-oriented traditions Dianic Wicca is a religion that welcomes lesbian pagans and celebrates their perspectives on feminism, sexism, and women's empowerment within patriarchal culture. Although not specifically Wiccan, one branch of traditional Witchcraft has provided a home for many Neo-Pagan LGBT men and women. The Feri Tradition is very open to all sexual orientations and some sources encourage bisexuality during rituals to reach states of ecstasy. The Feri Tradition should not be confused, however, with other spiritual traditions bearing the name Faery (including the Radical Faeries as well as branches of Wicca that focus on fairy/faery lore.) Faery Witch covens of gay men only have been formed and are readily accepted among the larger group of Faery Witches. Both heterosexual and LGBT couples are married and handfasted in Faery Witch ceremonies every year. The Minoan Brotherhood was founded in 1977 in New York by Edmund Buczynski, an elder in the Gardnerian, WICA and New York Welsh Traditions, in order to create a Craft tradition for gay and bisexual men--one that would celebrate and explore the distinctive mysteries unique to men who love men. The Minoan Sisterhood was founded as the Women's counterpart to the Brotherhood soon thereafter by Lady Rhea and Lady Miw-Sekhmet in collaboration with Buczynski, based on his work with the Brotherhood. Legitimate Minoan initiations and elevations are all conducted in same-sex only circles. Both traditions continue to this day. The Brotherhood and Sisterhood are oath-bound, initiatory mystery religions which use a ritual framework descended from Gardnerian Wicca. The Brotherhood of the Phoenix was founded in the summer of 2004 by seven gay men from diverse traditions such as ceremonial magic, shamanism, and pre-Gardnerian witchcraft in order to create an ecumenical Neopagan tradition which serves the community of men who love men. The mandate of the Brotherhood is to help gay, bisexual, and transgender men overcome the burden of societal labels. The Brotherhood rejects the limiting beliefs and prejudices of modern culture and religions that preach intolerance and hate. Instead of didactic teaching, they stress a simple Neopagan principle: "Find the Divine within your own experience." To impart this principle, they hold public rituals near the eight common holidays of Neopagan tradition where they celebrate the embodiment of the gay male divine through the life-cycle of human experience. There is another predominantly gay group called the Radical Faeries, which emphasizes queer spirituality. Certain branches are exclusively focused on gay male spirituality; others are open to all genders and orientations. Other gay traditions include the Triad Brotherhood (Hectite Tradition), and the Green Man Tradition. Deities whose realms may be associated with LGBT Many Neopagan gods and goddesses are seen as bisexual or gay. The Neopagan pantheon includes many gay themes. A few of them are: Zeus, the Greek King of the gods, had affairs with both women and men, such as Ganymedes. Astarte, the Great Mother. Her temple staff included a caste of gay male priests called the kelabim. Pan, the patron god of shepherds and god of nature, is famous for his sexual prowess with both maidens and shepherds. Pan is also reported to have had relationships with younger, teenage boys. Inanna had a creature neither male nor female rescue her from the underworld, named Asushunamir. This is sometimes regarded as the origin of the queer ones. Apollo has often been seen as bisexual, as he has been associated with the hyacinth (the traditional flower symbolic of homosexuality). He may have also been sexually involved with a man bearing that same name (Hyacinthus) in Greek myth. See Apollo and Hyacinthus Also, Artemis and Hestia were specifically virgin goddesses, possibly implying asexuality. In addition, the Feri Tradition teaches about the Divine Twins, who often appear as a sexually active same-gendered pair, as well as of "the Blue God", the BlueGod... online shrine a queer (and often androgynous) deity associated with snakes and with spring. See also Homosexuality and religion References Further reading Barrett, Ruth (2003), « Lesbian Rituals and Dianic Tradition » in Ramona Faith Oswald (ed), Lesbian Rites: Symbolic Acts and the Power of Community. The Haworth Press. Conner, Randy P. Blossom of Bone – Reclaiming the Connections between Homoeroticism and the Sacred (1993). San Francisco: Harper. Conner, Randy P., Sparks, David Hatfield, and Sparks, Mariya (1997), Cassell’s Encyclopedia of Queer Myth, Symbol and Spirit. London and New York: Cassell. Ford, Thomas Michael (2005), The Path of the Green Man: Gay Men, Wicca and Living a Magical Life. New York: Citadel Press. Kaldera, Raven (2002), Hermaphrodeities, the Transgender Spiritual Workbook. Xlibris Corporation. Moon, T. (2005). Spirit Matters IV: Ten Queer Spiritual Roles. San Francisco Bay Times. Penczak, Christopher (2003), Gay Witchcraft: Empowering the Tribe. Newburyport (MA): Weiser Books. Rodgers, B (1995), The Radical Faerie Movement: A Queer Spirit Pathway. Social Alternatives, 14:4 pp 34-37. External links Gay Paganism: 26 articles on the Witchvox website Greek Mythology The secret Greek myths of male love, ancient coming-of-age rituals, uncensored and developed Article about Edmund Buczynski The Brotherhood of the Phoenix Short biography of Lady Rhea, co-founder of the Minoan Sisterhood Gay pagans, Gay Witches...? Links to reprinted articles and essays from The Wellhead. 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5,327 | National_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Colored_People | The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, usually abbreviated as NAACP and pronounced N-double-A-C-P, is one of the oldest and most influential civil rights organizations in the United States. Appiah, K. A. and Gates, Jr., Henry Louis, eds. Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience, in articles "Civil Rights Movement" by Patricia Sullivan (pp 441-455) and "National Association for the Advancement of Colored People" by Kate Tuttle (pp 1,388-1,391). ISBN 0-465-00071-1. Its mission is "to ensure the political, educational, social, and economic equality of rights of all persons and to eliminate racial hatred and racial discrimination". Its name, retained in accord with tradition, is one of the last surviving uses of the term colored people. The NAACP bestows the annual Image Awards for achievement in the arts and entertainment, and the annual Spingarn Medals for outstanding positive achievement of any kind, on deserving African Americans. Organization The NAACP's headquarters are in Baltimore, Maryland, with additional regional offices in California, New York, Michigan, Missouri, Georgia, and Texas. Each regional office is responsible for coordinating the efforts of state conferences in the states included in that region. Local, youth, and college chapters organize activities for individual members. The NAACP is run nationally by a 64-member board led by a chair. The board elects one person as the President and chief executive officer for the organization; Benjamin Jealous is its most recent (and youngest) President, selected to replace Bruce K. Gordon, who resigned in March 2007. Civil Rights Movement activist and former Georgia State Senator Julian Bond remains as chairman. Departments within the NAACP govern areas of action. Local chapters are supported by the Branch and Field Services department and the Youth and College department. The Legal Department focuses on court cases of broad application to minorities, such as systematic discrimination in employment, government, or education. The Washington, D.C., bureau is responsible for lobbying the U.S. government, and the Education Department works to improve public education at the local, state and federal levels. The goal of the Health Division is to advance health care for minorities through public policy initiatives and education. As of 2007, the NAACP had approximately 400,000 paying and non-paying members. History In 1905, a group of 32 prominent, outspoken African Americans met to discuss the challenges facing "people of color" (a term used to describe people who were not white) - and possible strategies and solutions. Among the issues they were concerned about was the disfranchisement of blacks in the South starting in 1890 to 1908, when Southern legislatures ratified new constitutions creating barriers to voter registration and more complex election rules. Voter registration and turnout dropped markedly in the South as a result. Men who had been voting for 30 years were told they did not "qualify" to register. Because hotels in the U.S. were segregated, the men convened under the leadership of Harvard scholar W. E. B. Du Bois at a hotel situated on the Canadian side of Niagara Falls. As a result, the group came to be known as the Niagara Movement. A year later, three whites joined the group: journalist William E. Walling, social worker Mary White Ovington, and Jewish social worker Henry Moskowitz, then Associate Leader of the New York Society for Ethical Culture. The fledgling group struggled for a time with limited resources and decided to broaden its membership to increase its scope and effectiveness. Solicitations for support went out to more than 60 prominent Americans, and a meeting date was set for February 12, 1909. This was intended to coincide with the 100th anniversary of the birth of President Abraham Lincoln, who emancipated enslaved African Americans. While the meeting did not take place until three months later, this date is often cited as the founding date of the organization. The Race Riot of 1908 in Lincoln's hometown of Springfield, Illinois, the previous summer had highlighted the urgent need for an effective civil rights organization in the U.S. This event is often cited as the catalyst for the formation of the NAACP. The NAACP was founded on February 12, 1909, by a diverse group composed of Du Bois, Ida B. Wells, Archibald Grimké, Henry Moscowitz, Mary White Ovington, Oswald Garrison Villard, William English Walling (the last son of a former slave-holding family), , and Florence Kelley, a social reformer and friend of Du Bois. Kathryn Kish Sklar, "Florence Kelley", Women Building Chicago, 1790-1990: A Biographical Dictionary, Rima Lunin Schultz and Adele Hast, eds., Indiana University Press, Bloomington, Indiana, 2001, p. 463 On May 30, 1909, the Niagara Movement conference took place at New York City's Henry Street Settlement House, from which an organization of more than 40 individuals emerged, calling itself the National Negro Committee. Du Bois played a key role in organizing the event and presided over the proceedings. Also in attendance was African-American journalist and anti-lynching crusader Ida B. Wells-Barnett. At its second conference on May 30, 1910, members chose as the organization's name the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People and elected its first officers, who were NAACP - How NAACP Began : National President, Moorfield Storey, Boston Chairman of the Executive Committee, William English Walling Treasurer, John E. Milholland (a Lincoln Republican and Presbyterian from New York City and Lewis, NY) Disbursing Treasurer, Oswald Garrison Villard Executive Secretary, Frances Blascoer Director of Publicity and Research, Dr. W.E.B. DuBois. The NAACP was incorporated a year later in 1911. The association's charter delineated its mission: To promote equality of rights and to eradicate caste or race prejudice among the citizens of the United States; to advance the interest of colored citizens; to secure for them impartial suffrage; and to increase their opportunities for securing justice in the courts, education for the children, employment according to their ability and complete equality before law. The conference resulted in a more influential and diverse organization, where the leadership was predominantly white and heavily Jewish American. In fact, at its founding, the NAACP had only one African American on its executive board, Du Bois himself. It did not elect a black president until 1975, although executive directors had been African American. The Jewish community contributed greatly to the NAACP's founding and continued financing. Jewish historian Howard Sachar writes in his book A History of Jews in America of how, "In 1914, Professor Emeritus Joel Spingarn of Columbia University became chairman of the NAACP and recruited for its board such Jewish leaders as Jacob Schiff, Jacob Billikopf, and Rabbi Stephen Wise." Early Jewish-American co-founders included Julius Rosenthal, Lillian Wald, Rabbi Emil G. Hirsch and Wise. According to Pbs.org "Over the years Jews have also expressed empathy (capability to share and understand another's emotion and feelings) with the plight of Blacks. In the early 1900s, Jewish newspapers drew parallels between the Black movement out of the South and the Jews' escape from Egypt, pointing out that both Blacks and Jews lived in ghettos, and calling anti-Black riots in the South "pogroms". Stressing the similarities rather than the differences between the Jewish and Black experience in America, Jewish leaders emphasized the idea that both groups would benefit the more America moved toward a society of merit, free of religious, ethnic and racial restrictions." http://www.pbs.org/itvs/fromswastikatojimcrow/relations.html Pbs.org further states, "The American Jewish Committee, the American Jewish Congress, and the Anti-Defamation League were central to the campaign against racial prejudice. Jews made substantial financial contributions to many civil rights organizations, including the NAACP, the Urban League, the Congress of Racial Equality, and the Student Non-Violent Coordinating Committee. About 50 percent of the civil rights attorneys in the South during the 1960s were Jews, as were over 50 percent of the Whites who went to Mississippi in 1964 to challenge Jim Crow Laws. " Du Bois continued to play a pivotal role in the organization and served as editor of the association's magazine, The Crisis, which had a circulation of over 30,000. Moorfield Storey, who was white, was the president of the NAACP from its founding to 1915. Storey was a long-time classical liberal and Grover Cleveland Democrat who advocated laissez-faire free markets, the gold standard, and anti-imperialism. Storey consistently and aggressively championed civil rights, not only for blacks but also for Native Americans and immigrants (he opposed immigration restrictions). Fighting Jim Crow and disfranchisement An African American drinks out of a segregated water cooler designated for "colored" patrons in 1939 at a streetcar terminal in Oklahoma City. In its early years, the NAACP concentrated on using the courts to overturn the Jim Crow statutes that legalized racial segregation. In 1913, the NAACP organized opposition to President Woodrow Wilson's introduction of racial segregation into federal government policy, offices, and hiring. By 1914, the group had 6,000 members and 50 branches. It was influential in winning the right of African Americans to serve as officers in World War I. Six hundred African-American officers were commissioned and 700,000 men registered for the draft. The following year, the NAACP organized a nationwide protest, with marches in numerous cities, against D.W. Griffith's silent movie Birth of a Nation, a film that glamorized the Ku Klux Klan. As a result, several cities refused to allow the film to open. The NAACP began to lead lawsuits targeting disfranchisement and racial segregation early in its history. It played a significant part in the challenge of Guinn v. Harris (1915) to Oklahoma's discriminatory grandfather clause that disfranchised most black citizens while exempting many whites from certain voter registration requirements. It persuaded the Supreme Court of the United States to rule in Buchanan v. Warley in 1917 that state and local governments cannot officially segregate African Americans into separate residential districts. The Court's opinion reflected the jurisprudence of property rights and freedom of contract as embodied in the earlier precedent it established in Lochner v. New York. In 1916, when the NAACP was just seven years old, chairman Joel Spingarn invited James Weldon Johnson to serve as field secretary. Johnson was a former U.S. consul to Venezuela and a noted scholar and columnist. Within four years, Johnson was instrumental in increasing the NAACP's membership from 9,000 to almost 90,000. In 1920, Johnson was elected head of the organization. Over the next ten years, the NAACP escalated its lobbying and litigation efforts, becoming internationally known for its advocacy of equal rights and equal protection for the "American Negro". The NAACP devoted much of its energy during the interwar years to fighting the lynching of blacks throughout the United States by working for legislation, lobbying and educating the public. The organization sent its field secretary Walter F. White to Phillips County, Arkansas, in October 1919, to investigate the Elaine Race Riot. More than 200 black tenant farmers were killed by roving white vigilantes and federal troops after a deputy sheriff's attack on a union meeting of sharecroppers left one white man dead. White published his report on the riot in the Chicago Daily News. Kenneth Robert Janken, Walter White: Mr. NAACP, Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina, 2006, p.49 The NAACP organized the appeals for twelve black men sentenced to death a month later based on the fact that testimony used in their convictions was obtained by beatings and electric shocks. It gained a groundbreaking Supreme Court decision in Moore v. Dempsey that significantly expanded the Federal courts' oversight of the states' criminal justice systems in the years to come. White investigated eight race riots and 41 lynchings for the NAACP and directed its study Thirty Years of Lynching in the United States. Kenneth Robert Janken, Walter White: Mr. NAACP, Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina, 2006, p.2 and 42 The NAACP also spent more than a decade seeking federal legislation against lynching, but Southern white Democrats voted as a block against it or used the filibuster in the Senate to block passage. Because of disfranchisement, there were no black representatives from the South in Congress and the region had essentially a one-party system of Democrats. The NAACP regularly displayed a black flag stating "A Man Was Lynched Yesterday" from the window of its offices in New York to mark each lynching. In alliance with the American Federation of Labor, the NAACP led the successful fight to prevent the nomination of John Johnston Parker to the Supreme Court, based on his support for denying the vote to blacks and his anti-labor rulings. It organized support for the Scottsboro Boys. The NAACP lost most of the internecine battles with the Communist Party and International Labor Defense over the control of those cases and the strategy to be pursued in that case. The organization also brought litigation to challenge the "white primary" system in the South. Southern states had created white-only primaries as another way of barring blacks from the political process. Since southern states were one-party states, the primaries were the only competitive contests. In 1944 in Smith v. Allwright, the Supreme Court ruled against the white primary. Although states had to retract legislation related to the white primaries, the legislatures soon came up with new methods to limit the franchise for blacks. Desegregation Locals viewing the bomb-damaged home of Arthur Shores, NAACP attorney, Birmingham, Alabama, on 5 September 1963. The bomb exploded on 4 September, the previous day, injuring Shores' wife. With the rise of private corporate litigators like the NAACP to bear the expense, civil suits became the pattern in modern civil rights litigation. The NAACP's Legal department, headed by Charles Hamilton Houston and Thurgood Marshall, undertook a campaign spanning several decades to bring about the reversal of the "separate but equal" doctrine announced by the Supreme Court's decision in Plessy v. Ferguson. The NAACP's Baltimore chapter under president Lillie Mae Carroll Jackson, challenged segregation in Maryland state professional schools by supporting the 1935 Murray v. Pearson case argued by Marshall. Houston's victory in Missouri ex rel. Gaines v. Canada (1938) led to the formation of the NAACP Legal Defense fund in 1940. The campaign for desegregation culminated in a unanimous 1954 Supreme Court decision in Brown v. Board of Education that held state-sponsored segregation of elementary schools was unconstitutional. Bolstered by that victory, the NAACP pushed for full desegregation throughout the South. Starting on December 5, 1955, NAACP activists, including E.D. Nixon, its local president, and Rosa Parks, who had served as the chapter's Secretary, helped organize a bus boycott in Montgomery, Alabama. This was designed to protest segregation on the city's buses, two-thirds of whose riders were black. The boycott lasted 381 days. The State of Alabama responded by effectively barring the NAACP from operating within its borders because of its refusal to divulge a list of its members. The NAACP feared members could be fired or face violent retaliation for their activities. Although the Supreme Court eventually overturned the state's action in NAACP v. Alabama, , the NAACP lost its leadership role in the Civil Rights Movement while it was barred from Alabama. New organizations such as the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) and the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) rose up with different approaches to activism. These newer groups relied on direct action and mass mobilization to advance the rights of African Americans, rather than litigation and legislation. Roy Wilkins, NAACP's executive director, clashed repeatedly with Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. and other civil rights leaders over questions of strategy and leadership within the movement. The NAACP continued to use the Supreme Court's decision in Brown to press for desegregation of schools and public facilities throughout the country. Daisy Bates, president of its Arkansas state chapter, spearheaded the campaign by the Little Rock Nine to integrate the public schools in Little Rock, Arkansas. By the mid-1960s, the NAACP had regained some of its preeminence in the Civil Rights Movement by pressing for civil rights legislation. The March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom took place on August 28, 1963. That fall President John F. Kennedy sent a civil rights bill to Congress before he was assassinated. President Lyndon B. Johnson worked hard to persuade Congress to pass a civil rights bill aimed at ending racial discrimination in employment, education and public accommodations, and succeeded in gaining passage in July 1964. He followed that with passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965, which provided for protection of the franchise, with a role for federal oversight and administrators in places where voter turnout was historically low. After Kivie Kaplan died in 1975, scientist W. Montague Cobb became President of the NAACP and served until 1982. Benjamin Hooks, a lawyer and clergyman, was elected as the NAACP's executive director in 1977, after the retirement of Roy Wilkins. The 1990s: Crisis and restored strength In the 1990s, the NAACP ran into debt. The dismissal of two leading officials further added to the picture of an organization in deep crisis. In 1993 the NAACP's Board of Directors narrowly selected Reverend Benjamin Chavis over Reverend Jesse Jackson to fill the position of Executive Director. A controversial figure, Chavis was ousted eighteen months later by the same board that had hired him. They accused him of using NAACP funds for an out-of-court settlement in a sexual harassment lawsuit. Following the dismissal of Chavis, Myrlie Evers-Williams narrowly defeated NAACP chairperson William Gibson for president in 1995, after Gibson was accused of overspending and mismanagement of the organization's funds. In 1996 Congressman Kweisi Mfume, a Democratic Congressman from Maryland and former head of the Congressional Black Caucus, was named the organization's president. Three years later strained finances forced the organization to drastically cut its staff, from 250 in 1992 to just fifty. In the second half of the 1990s, the organization restored its finances, permitting the NAACP National Voter Fund to launch a major get-out-the-vote offensive in the 2000 U.S. presidential elections. 10.5 million African Americans cast their ballots in the election. This was one million more than four years before, and the NAACP's effort was credited by observers as playing a significant role in Democrat Al Gore's winning several states where the election was close, such as Pennsylvania and Michigan. Lee Alcorn Controversy During the 2000 Presidential election, Lee Alcorn, president of the Dallas NAACP branch, criticized Al Gore's selection of Senator Joe Lieberman for his Vice-Presidential candidate because Lieberman was Jewish. On a gospel talk radio show on station KHVN, Alcorn stated, "If we get a Jew person, then what I'm wondering is, I mean, what is this movement for, you know? Does it have anything to do with the failed peace talks?" ... "So I think we need to be very suspicious of any kind of partnerships between the Jews at that kind of level because we know that their interest primarily has to do with money and these kind of things." NAACP President Kweisi Mfume immediately suspended Alcorn and condemned his remarks. Mfume stated, "I strongly condemn those remarks. I find them to be repulsive, anti-Semitic, anti-NAACP and anti-American. Mr. Alcorn does not speak for the NAACP, its board, its staff or its membership. We are proud of our long-standing relationship with the Jewish community and I personally will not tolerate statements that run counter to the history and beliefs of the NAACP in that regard." Alcorn, who had been suspended three times in the previous five years for misconduct, subsequently resigned from the NAACP and started his own organization called the Coalition for the Advancement of Civil Rights. Alcorn criticized the NAACP, saying, "I can't support the leadership of the NAACP. Large amounts of money are being given to them by large corporations that I have a problem with." Alcorn also said, "I cannot be bought. For this reason I gladly offer my resignation and my membership to the NAACP because I cannot work under these constraints." Alcorn's remarks were also condemned by the Reverend Jesse Jackson, Jewish groups and George W. Bush's rival Republican presidential campaign. Jackson said he strongly supported Lieberman's addition to the Democratic ticket, saying, "When we live our faith, we live under the law. He [Lieberman] is a firewall of exemplary behavior." Al Sharpton, another prominent African-American leader, said, "The appointment of Mr. Lieberman was to be welcomed as a positive step." The leaders of the American Jewish Congress praised the NAACP for its quick response, stating that: "It will take more than one bigot like Alcorn to shake the sense of fellowship of American Jews with the NAACP and black America. . . Our common concerns are too urgent, our history too long, our connection too sturdy, to let anything like this disturb our relationship." AJCongress on Statement by NAACP Chapter Director on Lieberman, American Jewish Congress (AJC), August 9, 2000. U.S. President Bush and the NAACP In 2004, President George W. Bush (2001-2009) became the first sitting U.S. president since Herbert Hoover (1929–1933) to fail to address the NAACP when he declined an invitation to speak to its national convention. The White House originally said the president had a schedule conflict with the NAACP convention, slated for July 10-15, 2004. On July 10, 2004, however, Bush's spokesperson said that Bush had declined the invitation to speak to the NAACP because of harsh statements about him by its leaders. In an interview, Bush said, "I would describe my relationship with the current leadership as basically nonexistent. You've heard the rhetoric and the names they've called me." Bush also mentioned his admiration for some members of the NAACP and said he would seek to work with them "in other ways." On July 20, 2006, after having declined the civil rights group's invitations for five years, Bush addressed the NAACP national convention. He made a bid for increasing support by African Americans for Republicans, in the midst of a midterm election. Bush invokes civil rights in NAACP speech, Associated Press (reprinted by MSNBC.com), July 20, 2006. (retrieved on October 14, 2008). NAACP and Tax Exempt Status The Internal Revenue Service informed the NAACP in October 2004 that it was investigating its tax-exempt status based on Julian Bond's speech at its 2004 Convention in which he criticized President George W. Bush as well as other political figures. In general, the US Internal Revenue Code prohibits organizations granted tax-exempt status from "directly or indirectly participating in, or intervening in, any political campaign on behalf of (or in opposition to) any candidate for elective public office." The NAACP denounced the investigation as retaliation for its success in increasing the number of African Americans who vote. In August 2006, the IRS investigation concluded with the agency's finding "that the remarks did not violate the group's tax-exempt status." NAACP and Youth This aspect of the NAACP came into existence in 1936 and now is made of over 600 groups and totaling over 30,000 individuals. The NAACP Youth and College Division is a branch of the NAACP in which the youth are actively involved. The Youth Council is composed of hundreds of state,county,high school and college operations in which youth (and college students) volunteer to share their voices or opinions with their fellow mankind and address issues that are both local and national. Sometimes volunteer work expands to a more international scale. Committing to the Youth Council may reward youth with opportunities to travel or even scholarships. In 2003, NAACP President and CEO, Kweisi Mfume, appointed Brandon Neal, the National Youth and College Division Director [Jet Magazine, April 2003]. Currently, Stefanie L. Brown serves as the NAACP's National Youth and College Division Director. A graduate and former Student Government President at Howard University, Stefanie previously served as the National Youth Council Coordinator of the NAACP. Mission of the Youth and College Division "The mission of the NAACP Youth & College Division shall be to inform youth of the problems affecting African Americans and other racial and ethnic minorities; to advance the economic, education, social and political status of African Americans and other racial and ethnic minorities and their harmonious cooperation with other peoples; to stimulate an appreciation of the African Diaspora and other people of color’s contribution to civilization; and to develop an intelligent, militant effective youth leadership" ACT-SO program Since 1978 the NAACP has sponsored the WHITE-Academic, Cultural, Technological and Scientific Olympics (ACT-SO) program for high-school youth around the United States. The program is designed to recognize and award African American youth who demonstrate accomplishment in academics, technology, and the arts. Local chapters sponsor competitions in various categories of achievement for young people in grades 9–12. Winners of the local competitions are eligible to proceed to the national event at a convention held each summer at various locations around the United States. Winners at the national competition receive national recognition along with cash awards and various prizes. Criticism The non-profit rating organization Charity Navigator lists the NAACP as #7 on their list of "10 Highly Paid CEOs at Low-Rated Charities". Charity Navigator rates the NAACP's finances at zero out of four stars, in part because only 52.8% of the NAACP expenditures go towards programs, with the rest going towards administration and fund raising. References Sources Richard Dalfiume, "The Forgotten Years of the Negro Revolution," Journal of American History 55 (June, 1969): 99-100. fulltext in JSTOR Fleming, Cynthia Griggs. In the Shadow of Selma: The Continuing Struggle for Civil Rights in the Rural South Rowman and Littlefield, 2004. 349 pp. Goings, Kenneth W. The NAACP Comes of Age: The Defeat of Judge John J. Parker (1990). late 1920s Hughes, Langston. Fight for Freedom: The Story of the NAACP (1962) Janken, Kenneth Robert. White: The Biography of Walter White, Mr. NAACP. New Press, 2003. Jonas, Gilbert S. Freedom's Sword: The NAACP and the Struggle against Racism in America, 1909-1969. Routledge, 2005. 240 pp. Lewis, David Levering. W.E.B. DuBois (2 vol, 1994, 2001); Pulitzer Prize Mosnier, L. Joseph. Crafting Law in the Second Reconstruction: Julius Chambers, the NAACP Legal Defense Fund, and Title VII. U. of North Carolina, 2005. The NAACP Legal Defense Fund is an entirely separate organization despite its similar name Barbara Joyce Ross, J. E. Spingarn and the Rise of the NAACP, 1911-1939 (1972) Warren D. St. James, The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People: A Case Study in Pressure Groups (1958) Mark Robert Schneider. We Return Fighting: The Civil Rights Movement in the Jazz Age (2001) Simon Topping; "'Supporting Our Friends and Defeating Our Enemies': Militancy and Nonpartisanship in the NAACP, 1936-1948," The Journal of African American History, Vol. 89, 2004 Robert Zangrando, The NAACP Crusade Against Lynching, 1909-1950 (1980) Events on the NAACP timeline (1939 - Present) See also Association for the Study of African American Life and History Black Rock Coalition Niagara Movement NAACP Image Award Spingarn Medal NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund Racial integration External links Official site Civil Rights Movement Veterans Annual ACT-SO Contest Official site of the Brooklyn, New York Branch George W. Bush addresses NAACP national convention for the first time, July 20 2006 (Video) NAACP in Georgia http://www.naacp.org/youth/college/mission/index.htm The Wichita NAACP Blog | National_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Colored_People |@lemmatized national:17 association:7 advancement:5 colored:5 people:10 usually:1 abbreviate:1 naacp:104 pronounce:1 n:1 double:1 c:2 p:4 one:9 old:2 influential:3 civil:21 right:27 organization:23 united:7 state:29 appiah:1 k:2 gate:1 jr:2 henry:4 louis:1 ed:1 africana:1 encyclopedia:1 african:23 american:34 experience:2 article:1 movement:12 patricia:1 sullivan:1 pp:4 kate:1 tuttle:1 isbn:1 mission:5 ensure:1 political:5 educational:2 social:5 economic:2 equality:4 person:3 eliminate:1 racial:12 hatred:1 discrimination:3 name:5 retain:1 accord:3 tradition:1 last:3 surviving:1 us:1 term:2 color:4 bestow:1 annual:3 image:2 award:4 achievement:3 art:2 entertainment:1 spingarn:5 medal:2 outstanding:1 positive:2 kind:4 deserve:1 headquarters:1 baltimore:2 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5,328 | Acts_of_Union_1707 | The Acts of Union were a pair of Parliamentary Acts passed in 1707 by the Parliament of Scotland and the Parliament of England to put into effect the terms of the Treaty of Union that had been agreed on 22 July 1706, following negotiation between commissioners representing the parliaments of the two countries. The Acts joined the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of Scotland (previously separate states, with separate legislatures but with the same monarch) into a single United Kingdom of Great Britain. Welcome parliament.uk, accessed 7 October, 2008 The two countries had shared a monarch since the Union of the Crowns in 1603, when King James VI of Scotland inherited the English throne from his double first cousin twice removed, Queen Elizabeth I. Although described as a Union of Crowns, until 1707 there were in fact two separate Crowns resting on the same head. There had been three attempts in 1606, 1667, and 1689 to unite the two countries by Acts of Parliament, but it was not until the early 18th century that the idea had the will of both political establishments behind them, albeit for rather different reasons. The Acts took effect on 1 May 1707. On this date, the Scots Parliament and the English Parliament united to form the Parliament of Great Britain, based in the Palace of Westminster in London, the home of the English Parliament. Act of Union 1707, Article 3 Hence, the Acts are referred to as the Union of the Parliaments. On the Union, historian Simon Schama said "What began as a hostile merger, would end in a full partnership in the most powerful going concern in the world... it was one of the most astonishing transformations in European history." Background Previous attempts at union England and Scotland were separate states for several centuries before eventual union, and English attempts to take over Scotland by military force in the late 13th and early 14th centuries were ultimately unsuccessful (see the Wars of Scottish Independence). The first attempts at Union surrounded the foreseen unification of the Royal lines of Scotland and England. In pursuing the English throne in the 1560s, Mary, Queen of Scots pledged herself to a peaceful union between the two kingdoms. http://www.abdn.ac.uk/historic/actsofunion/panel2.php Early Stuart union The first attempt to unite the parliaments of England and Scotland was by Mary's son, King James VI and I. On his accession to the English throne in 1603 King James announced his intention to unite his two realms so that he would not be "guilty of bigamy". James used his Royal prerogative powers to take the style of 'King of Great Britain' Larkin and Hughes (eds), Stuart Royal Proclamations: Volume I (Clarendon Press, 1973), p.19 and to give an explicitly British character to his court and person. R. Lockyer, James VI and I (Addison Wesley Longman, 1998), pp.51-52 Whilst James assumed the creation of a full union was a foregone conclusion, the Parliament of England was concerned that the formation of a new state would deprive England of its ancient liberties, taking on the more absolutist monarchical structure which James had previously enjoyed in Scotland. Lockyer, op. cit., pp. 54-59 In the meantime, James declared that Great Britain should be viewed 'as presently united, and as one realm and kingdom, and the subjects of both realms as one people'. http://www.parliament.uk/actofunion/tk_01_dream.html The Scottish and English parliaments established a commission to negotiate a union, formulating an instrument of union between the two countries. A latent unpopularity of the union remained, however, and when James dropped his policy of a speedy union the topic quietly disappeared from the legislative agenda. When the House of Commons attempted to revive the proposal in 1610, it was met with a more open hostility. Lockyer, op. cit., p.59 Union during the interregnum The Solemn League and Covenant 1643 sought a forced union of the Church of England into the Church of Scotland, and although the covenant referred repeatedly to union between the three kingdoms, a political union was not spelled out. In the aftermath of the Civil War, in which the Covenanters had fought for the King, Oliver Cromwell conquered Scotland and began a process of creating a 'Godly Britannic' Union between the former Kingdoms. http://www.parliament.uk/actofunion/tk_02_cromwell.html In 1651, the Parliament of England sent Commissioners to Scotland with the express purpose of securing support for Union, which was assented to by the Commissioners (Members of Parliament) in Scotland. On 12 April 1654, Cromwell - styling himself Lord Protector of England, Scotland and Ireland - enacted An Ordinance by the Protector for the Union of England and Scotland which created 'one Commonwealth and under one Government' to be known as the Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland. http://www.constitution.org/eng/conpur098.htm One united Parliament sat in Westminster, with 30 representatives from Scotland and 30 from Ireland joining the existing members from England. Whilst free trade was brought about amongst the new Commonwealth, the economic benefits were generally not felt as a result of heavy taxation used to fund Cromwell's New Model Army. http://www.parliament.uk/actofunion/tk_02_cromwell.html This republican union was dissolved automatically with the restoration of King Charles II to the thrones of England and Scotland. Scottish members expelled from the Commonwealth Parliament petitioned unsuccessfully for a continuance of the union. Cromwell's union simultaneously raised interest and suspicion at the concept of union and when Charles II attempted to recreate the union and fulfil the work of his grandfather in 1669, and negotiations between Commissioners ground to a halt. C. Whatley, op. cit., p.95 Later attempts An abortive scheme for union occurred in Scotland in 1670. C. Whatley, op. cit., p.30 Following the Glorious Revolution in 1689, the records of the Parliament of Scotland show much discussion of possible union. William and Mary, whilst supportive of the idea, had no interest in allowing it to delay their enthronement. Impetus for this incorporating union came almost entirely from the direction of Scotland. In the 1690s, however, the economic position of Scotland worsened and the relations between Scotland and England became strained. C. Whatley, The Scots and the Union (Edinburgh University Press, 2006), p.91 By the 18th century, however, union became a significant matter on the political agenda. Motivations The English perspective The English purpose of it was to ensure that Scotland would not choose a monarch different from the one on the English throne. The two countries had shared a king for much of the previous century, but the English were concerned that an independent Scotland with a different king, even if he were a Protestant, might make alliances against England. The English succession was provided for by the English Act of Settlement 1701, which ensured that the monarch of England would be Protestant member of the House of Hanover. Until the Union of Parliaments, the Scots could choose their own successor to Queen Anne: the Scottish Act of Security 1704 explicitly required a choice different from the English monarch. The Scottish perspective In Scotland, it was claimed that union would enable Scotland to recover from the financial disaster wrought by the Darien scheme through English assistance and the lifting of measures put in place through the Alien Act to force the Scottish Parliament into compliance with the Act of Settlement. The ultimate securing of the treaty in the unicameral Scottish Parliament is attributed by some to the weakness and lack of cohesion between the various opposition groups in the House, rather than to the strength of pro-incorporationists. The combined votes of the Court party with a majority of the Squadrone Volante were sufficient to ensure the final passage of the treaty through the House. Personal financial interests were also involved. Many Commissioners had invested heavily in the Darien Scheme and they believed that they would receive compensation for their losses; Article 15, the Equivalent granted £398,085 10s sterling to Scotland to offset future liability towards the English national debt. In essence, it was also used as a means of compensation for investors in the Darien Scheme. Even more direct bribery was said to be a factor. £20,000 (£240,000 Scots) was dispatched to Scotland for distribution by the Earl of Glasgow. James Douglas, 2nd Duke of Queensberry, the Queen's Commissioner in Parliament, received £12,325, the majority of the funding. (Other studies suggest that all of this money was properly accounted for as compensation for loss of office, pensions and so forth not outwith the usual run of government. It is perhaps a debate that will never be set to rest.) Robert Burns referred to this: We were bought and sold for English Gold, Sic a Parcel of Rogues in a Nation. Some of the money was used to hire spies, such as Daniel Defoe; his first reports were of vivid descriptions of violent demonstrations against the Union. "A Scots rabble is the worst of its kind," he reported, "for every Scot in favour there is 99 against". Years later John Clerk of Penicuik, originally a leading Unionist, wrote in his memoirs that, (Defoe) was a spy among us, but not known as such, otherwise the Mob of Edinburgh would pull him to pieces. Defoe recalls that he was hired by Robert Harley. The Treaty could be considered unpopular in Scotland: Sir George Lockhart of Carnwath, the only member of the Scottish negotiating team against union, noted that `The whole nation appears against the Union' and even Sir John Clerk of Penicuik, an ardent pro-unionist and Union negotiator, observed that the treaty was `contrary to the inclinations of at least three-fourths of the Kingdom'. Public opinion against the Treaty as it passed through the Scottish Parliament was voiced through petitions from shires, burghs, presbyteries and parishes. The Convention of Royal Burghs also petitioned against the Union and not one petition in favour of an incorporating union was received by Parliament. On the day the treaty was signed, the carilloner in St Giles Cathedral, Edinburgh, rang the bells in the tune Why should I be so sad on my wedding day? Notes by John Purser to CD Scotland's Music, Facts about Edinburgh. There were also massive protests in Edinburgh and several other Scottish burghs on the day it was passed by Parliament, as threats of widespread civil unrest resulted in Parliament imposing martial law. The Irish perspective Ireland, the third of the "sister kingdoms" was not included in the union. It remained a separate kingdom and indeed was legally subordinate to Great Britain until 1784. Ireland's benefits from the Union of 1707 were few. Its preferential status in trade with England now extended to Scotland. The strengthening of Great Britain improved Ireland's defence against enemies, whether foreign or domestic. Nevertheless, Ireland was left unequal and unrepresented in the Parliament of Great Britain. In July 1707 each House of the Parliament of Ireland passed a congratulatory address to Queen Anne, praying that "May God put it in your royal heart to add greater strength and lustre to your crown, by a still more comprehensive Union" Journals of the Irish Commons, vol. iii. p. 421 . The British government did not respond to the invitation and an equal union between Great Britain and Ireland was out of consideration until the 1790s. The union with Ireland finally came about on 1 January 1801. Provisions of the Acts The treaty consisted of 25 articles, 15 of which were economic in nature. In Scotland, each article was voted on separately and several clauses in articles were delegated to specialised subcommittees. Article 1 of the treaty was based on the political principle of an incorporating union and this was secured by a majority of 116 votes to 83 on 4 November 1706. In order to minimise the opposition of the Church of Scotland, an Act was also passed to secure the Presbyterian establishment of the Church, after which the Church stopped its open opposition, although hostility remained at lower levels of the clergy. The treaty as a whole was finally ratified on 16 January 1707 by a majority of 110 votes to 69. PJW Riley, The English Historical Review, Vol. 84, nº 332. (Jul., 1969), pp. 523–4. The two Acts incorporated provisions for Scotland to send representative peers from the Peerage of Scotland to sit in the House of Lords. It guaranteed that the Church of Scotland would remain the established church in Scotland, that the Court of Session would "remain in all time coming within Scotland", and that Scots law would "remain in the same force as before". Other provisions included the restatement of the Act of Settlement 1701 and the ban on Roman Catholics from taking the throne. It also created a customs union and monetary union. The Act provided that any "laws and statutes" that were "contrary to or inconsistent with the terms" of the Act would "cease and become void." Soon after the Union, the Act 6 Anne c.40 (later infelicitously named the "Union with Scotland (Amendment) Act 1707") united the English and Scottish Privy Councils and decentralised Scottish administration by appointing justices of the peace in each shire to carry out administration. In effect it took the day to day government of Scotland out of the hands of politicians and into those of the College of Justice. Criticisms The English and Scottish parliaments had evolved along different lines, so contradictions and teething troubles in the merged parliament were frequent. For example, the English doctrine of parliamentary sovereignty in all aspects of national life did not exist in Scotland, and the Scottish Parliament was unicameral, not bicameral. Most of the pre-Union traditions of Westminster continued, while those of Scotland were forgotten or ignored. Defoe drew upon his Scottish experience to write his Tour thro' the whole Island of Great Britain, published in 1726, where he actually admitted that the increase of trade and population in Scotland, which he had predicted as a consequence of the Union, was "not the case, but rather the contrary." Andrew Fletcher of Saltoun, a vehement critic of the Union, said in An Account of a Conversation, that Scotland suffered "...the miserable and languishing condition of all places that depend upon a remote seat of government." However by the time Samuel Johnson and James Boswell made their tour in 1773, recorded in A Journey to the Western Islands of Scotland Johnson noted that Scotland was: “a nation of which the commerce is hourly extending, and the wealth increasing”, and Glasgow in particular had become one of the greatest cities of Britain. A new Scottish Parliament In 1999, after almost three centuries, a devolved Scottish Parliament was opened after a referendum in Scotland. The opening of the new parliament was presided over by Winifred Ewing MSP in her role as the oldest member and de facto Mother of the House, being first to take the parliamentary oath to Her Majesty the Queen. During the opening address which she delivered, she concluded with the words "the Scottish Parliament, adjourned on the 25th of March in the year 1707 is hereby reconvened." http://www.guardian.co.uk/politics/1999/may/13/uk.politicalnews5 As a devolved institution, the new Scottish Parliament does not have the same powers as the old parliament with issues like defence and foreign policy being reserved to the UK parliament. Scotland remains a country of the United Kingdom and the Parliament may not pass laws to change this. 300th anniversary The 2 Pound Coin issued in the United Kingdom in 2007 to commemorate the 300th Anniversary of the Acts of Union A commemorative two-pound coin was issued to mark the 300th anniversary of the Union, which occurred two days before the Scottish Parliament general election on 3 May 2007. House of Lords - Written answers, 6 November 2006, TheyWorkForYou.com The Scottish Executive held a number of commemorative events through the year including an education project led by the Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Scotland, an exhibition of Union-related objects and documents at the National Museums of Scotland and an exhibition of portraits of people associated with the Union at the National Galleries of Scotland. Announced by the Scottish Culture Minister, Patricia Ferguson, 9 November 2006 Notes References Defoe, Daniel. A tour thro' the Whole Island of Great Britain, 1724–27 Defoe, Daniel. The Letters of Daniel Defoe, GH Healey editor. Oxford: 1955. Fletcher, Andrew (Saltoun). An Account of a Conversation Herman, Arthur. How the Scots Invented the Modern World. Three Rivers Press, 2001. ISBN 0-609-80999-7 Lockhart, George, "The Lockhart Papers", 1702 - 1728 See also Andrew Fletcher Daniel Defoe List of treaties History of democracy MacCormick v. Lord Advocate Scottish Parliament Scottish independence Parliament of the United Kingdom Political union Real union Unionism in Scotland External links Act of Union 1707, the UK Parliament The Treaty of Union, the Scottish Parliament Articles of Union 1707 at the Parliamentary Archives Image of the Treaty of Union courtesy of the National archives of Scotland, published by the Scottish Council on Archives Union with England Act and Union with Scotland Act - Full original text Treaty of Union and the Darien Experiment, University of Guelph, McLaughlin Library, Library and Archives Canada | Acts_of_Union_1707 |@lemmatized act:23 union:68 pair:1 parliamentary:4 pass:6 parliament:47 scotland:54 england:19 put:3 effect:3 term:2 treaty:14 agree:1 july:2 follow:2 negotiation:2 commissioner:6 represent:1 two:11 country:6 join:2 kingdom:13 previously:2 separate:5 state:3 legislature:1 monarch:5 single:1 united:5 great:12 britain:11 welcome:1 uk:9 access:1 october:1 share:2 since:1 crown:4 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5,329 | Cetus | Cetus (, genitive Ceti ) is a constellation in the northern sky. Its name refers to Cetus, a sea monster in Greek mythology, although it is often called 'the whale' today. Cetus is located in the region of the sky known as the Water, along with other watery constellations such as Aquarius, Pisces, and Eridanus. Notable features Ecliptic Although Cetus is not considered part of the zodiac, the ecliptic passes close to its constellation boundary, and thus the planets may be seen in Cetus for brief periods of time. This is even more true of asteroids, since their orbits usually have a greater inclination to the ecliptic than planets; for example, the asteroid 4 Vesta was discovered in this constellation in 1807. Stars This constellation's most notable star is Mira (or ό Ceti), the first variable star to be discovered. Over a period of 331.65 days it can reach a maximum magnitude as high as 2.0m, one of the brightest in the sky and easily visible to the unaided eye, then drop to 10.1m and back again. Its discovery in 1596 by David Fabricius further dented the supposed unchangeability of the heavens and lent support to the Copernican revolution. Other stars in the constellation include α Ceti (Menkar); β Ceti (Deneb Kaitos), brightest in the constellation; and τ Ceti, the 17th closest star to Earth. Deep sky objects Cetus lies far from the galactic plane, so many distant galaxies are visible, unobscured by dust from the Milky Way. Of these, the brightest is Messier 77 (NGC 1068), a 9th magnitude spiral galaxy near δ Ceti. References Ian Ridpath and Wil Tirion (2007). Stars and Planets Guide, Collins, London. ISBN 978-0007251209. Princeton University Press, Princeton. ISBN 978-0691135564. External links The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Cetus Star Tales – Cetus | Cetus |@lemmatized cetus:8 genitive:1 ceti:6 constellation:8 northern:1 sky:4 name:1 refers:1 sea:1 monster:1 greek:1 mythology:1 although:2 often:1 call:1 whale:1 today:1 locate:1 region:1 know:1 water:1 along:1 watery:1 aquarius:1 pisces:1 eridanus:1 notable:2 feature:1 ecliptic:3 consider:1 part:1 zodiac:1 pass:1 close:2 boundary:1 thus:1 planet:3 may:1 see:1 brief:1 period:2 time:1 even:1 true:1 asteroid:2 since:1 orbit:1 usually:1 great:1 inclination:1 example:1 vesta:1 discover:2 star:7 mira:1 ό:1 first:1 variable:1 day:1 reach:1 maximum:1 magnitude:2 high:1 one:1 bright:1 easily:1 visible:2 unaided:1 eye:1 drop:1 back:1 discovery:1 david:1 fabricius:1 far:2 dent:1 suppose:1 unchangeability:1 heaven:1 lent:1 support:1 copernican:1 revolution:1 include:1 α:1 menkar:1 β:1 deneb:1 kaitos:1 brightest:2 τ:1 earth:1 deep:2 object:1 lie:1 galactic:1 plane:1 many:1 distant:1 galaxy:2 unobscured:1 dust:1 milky:1 way:1 messy:1 ngc:1 spiral:1 near:1 δ:1 reference:1 ian:1 ridpath:1 wil:1 tirion:1 guide:2 collins:1 london:1 isbn:2 princeton:2 university:1 press:1 external:1 link:1 photographic:1 tale:1 |@bigram constellation_aquarius:1 aquarius_pisces:1 asteroid_vesta:1 unaided_eye:1 copernican_revolution:1 milky_way:1 messy_ngc:1 spiral_galaxy:1 ian_ridpath:1 ridpath_wil:1 wil_tirion:1 tirion_star:1 external_link:1 deep_photographic:1 |
5,330 | History_of_religions | The history of religion refers to the written record of human religious experiences and ideas. This period of religious history typically begins with the invention of writing about 5,000 years ago (3,000 BCE) in the Near East. The prehistory of religion relates to the study of religious beliefs that existed prior to the advent of written records. The timeline of religion is a comparative chronology of religion. History of study Religionsgeschichtliche Schule, school of religious history was a 19th century German school of thought which was the first to systematically study religion as a socio-cultural phenomenon. It depicted religion as evolving with human culture, from primitive polytheism to ethical monotheism. Religiongeschichteschule appeared at a time when scholarly study of the Bible and church history was flourishing in Germany and elsewhere (see Higher criticism, Historical-critical method). Overview The nineteenth century saw a dramatic increase in knowledge about other cultures and religions, and also the establishment of economic and social histories of progress. The "history of religions" school sought to account for this religious diversity by connecting it with the social and economic situation of a particular group. Typically religions are divided into stages of progression from simple to complex societies, especially from polytheistic to monotheistic and from extempore to organised. (There are now claims "that religion evolved from polytheism to monotheism has now been discredited" p. 1763 Man, Myth & Magic 1995) Thus, the starting point is the tribal band whose religion is animistic and involves shamans and totems. Since the group is tribal, there is no permanent sanctuary. Cultic rites centre on identification with wild animals and appeasing spirits, often of the hunted. As society developed into chiefdoms and small kingdoms, religious rites began to serve different functions. Agriculture became important and so fertility gods were introduced (often female, as it is the woman who has the power to produce life). The status of the "big man" (or chief) was supported with mythic tales of heroes and demigods, from whom he may be descended. When these small kingdoms merged into larger groups (often through conquest), different cults merged. The conquest of one group by another is therefore recorded in an epic tale of the conquest of the conquered group's god by the victor's (e.g. some Hinduism and the Babylonian Marduk). Another solution was to syncretise different religious traditions, for example, the Romans' identification of their Gods with the Greeks and the Greeks' adoption of Anatolian myths and characters. Finally, the growth of the city state brought about progression to the most "civilised" level of religion, ethical monotheism. Students of the history of religions often learnt that this began in Egypt with Akhnaten and grew through 7th century BC Judaism, Persian Zoroastrianism and Greek Philosophy to endow Western society with the most progressive form of religion. The historical basis of this — that religion moved from polytheism to ethical monotheism — is now doubted. Nevertheless, it is still widely held that ethical monotheism (e.g. Judaism, Christianity, Islam, some forms of Hinduism and Buddhism) was encouraged by the growth of city states. This was partly due to the role of a hierarchical society with a god-like absolute ruler. A more powerful social force was the isolation of the individual as he moved from the clan to a more cosmopolitan lifestyle. Questions of justice and value that had been previously answered by the family and small tribe were now to be pursued independently. The relative anonymity of the city afforded the opportunity for not only "sin" but also loneliness. Ethical monotheism answered society's need for a moral guide and motivation, whilst a unique personal God who was sovereign over all areas of life answered people's feelings of isolation and powerlessness. Good examples of this are the prophetic literature of the Jewish Tanakh (Old Testament), especially Isaiah, and the wisdom literature of the ancient near east dealing with apparently unjustified suffering. This includes Job, in the Judaeo-Christian Bible, and "The Dialogue of Pessimism", a Babylonian text. Origin The earliest evidence of religious ideas dates back several hundred thousand years to the Middle and Lower Paleolithic periods. Archeologists refer to apparent intentional burials of early homo sapiens from as early as 300,000 years ago as evidence of religious ideas. Other evidence of religious ideas include symbolic artifacts from Middle Stone Age sites in Africa. However, the interpretation of early paleolithic artifacts, with regards to how they relate to religious ideas, remains controversial. Archeological evidence from more recent periods is less controversial. A number of artifacts from the Upper Paleolithic (50,000-13,000) are generally interpreted by scientists as representing religious ideas. Examples of Upper Paleolithic remains associated with religious beliefs include the lion man, the Venus figurines, cave paintings from Chauvet Cave and the elaborate ritual burial from Sungir. Organized religion Through the bulk of human evolution, humans lived in small nomadic bands practicing a hunter gatherer lifestyle. The religious practices of hunter gatherers revolve around shamanism, ancestor worship and animism. The emergence of complex and organized religions can be traced to the period when humans abandoned their nomadic hunter gatherer lifestyles in order to begin farming during the Neolithic period. Humans began domesticating crops and animals around 10,000 BCE chiefly in the Near East but independently in a number of locations around the world. The invention of agriculture during the Neolithic revolution was a major event in human history. The increased productivity provided by farming and the relative security of food surpluses allowed these communities to expand. Crop production led to the emergence of the first villages, chiefdoms, states, nations and empires. The societies born out of the neolithic revolution were characterized by high population densities, complex labor diversification, trading economies, centralized administrations and political structures, hiearchical ideologies and depersonalized systems of knowledge. The transition from foraging bands to states and empires resulted in more specialized and developed forms of religion that were reflections of the new social and political environments. While bands and small tribes possess supernatural beliefs, these beliefs are adapted to smaller populations. Organized religion emerged as a means of providing social and economic stability to large populations through the following ways: Organized religion served to Justify the central authority, which in turn possessed the right to collect taxes in return for providing social and security services to the state. The empires of Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia, were theocracies with chiefs, kings and emperors playing dual roles of political and spiritual leaders. Virtually all state societies and chiefdoms around the world have similar political structures where political authority is justified by divine sanction. Organized religion emerged as means of maintaining peace between unrelated individuals. Bands and tribes consist of small number of related individuals. However states and nations are composed of thousands or millions of unrelated individuals. Jared Diamond argues that organized religion served to provide a bond between unrelated individuals who would otherwise be more prone to enmity. He argues that the leading cause of death among hunter gatherer societies is murder. Neolithic religions The religions of the Neolithic peoples provide evidence of some of the earliest known forms of organized religions. The Neolithic settlement of Catalhoyuk, in what is now Turkey, was home to about 8,000 people and remains the largest known settlement from the Neolithic period. James Mellaart, who excavated the site, believed that Catalhoyuk was the spiritual center of central Anatolia. Invention of writing Following the neolithic revolution, the pace of technological development intensified. As human society became more complex, more sophisticated accounting systems became necessary. Writing was invented in either Sumeria or Ancient Egypt by 3000 BCE as a means of recording accounting transactions. Subsequently writing would be used to record myth. The first religious texts mark the beginning of religious history. The Pyramid Texts from ancient Egypt are one of the oldest known religious texts in the world dating to between 2400-2300 BCE. Writing played a major role in sustaining organized religion by standardizing religious ideas regardless of time or location. The "Axial Age" Karl Jaspers, in his Vom Ursprung und Ziel der Geschichte (The Origin and Goal of History), identified a number of key Axial Age thinkers as having had a profound influence on future philosophy and religion, and identified characteristics common to each area from which those thinkers emerged. Jaspers saw in these developments in religion and philosophy a striking parallel without any obvious direct transmission of ideas from one region to the other, having found very little recorded proof of extensive inter-communication between the ancient Near East, Greece, India and China. Jaspers held up this age as unique, and one which to compare the rest of the history of human thought to. Jaspers' approach to the culture of the middle of the first millennium BCE has been adopted by other scholars and academics, and has become a point of discussion in the history of religion. In its later part, the "Axial Age" culminated in the development of monism and monotheism, notably of Platonic realism and Neoplatonism in Hellenistic philosophy, the notion of atman in Vedanta Hindu philosophy, and the notion of Tao in Taoism. Middle Ages Newer present-day world religions established themselves throughout Eurasia during the Middle Ages by: Christianization of the Western world; Buddhist missions to East Asia; the decline of Buddhism in the Indian subcontinent; and the spread of Islam throughout the Middle East, Central Asia, North Africa and parts of Europe and India. During the Middle Ages, Muslims were in conflict with Zoroastrians during the Islamic conquest of Persia; Christians were in conflict with Muslims during the Byzantine-Arab Wars, Crusades, Reconquista and Ottoman wars in Europe; Christians were in conflict with Jews during the Crusades, Reconquista and Inquisition; Shamans were in conflict with Buddhists, Taoists, Muslims and Christians during the Mongol invasions; and Muslims were in conflict with Hindus and Sikhs during Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent. Many medieval religious movements emphasized mysticism, such as the Cathars and related movements in the West, the Bhakti movement in India and Sufism in Islam. Monotheism reached definite forms in Christian Christology and in Islamic Tawhid. Hindu monotheist notions of Brahman likewise reached their classical form with the teaching of Adi Shankara. Modern period European colonisation during the 15th to 19th centuries resulted in the spread of Christianity to Sub-Saharan Africa, the Americas, Australia and the Philippines. The 18th century saw the beginning of secularisation in Europe, rising to notability in the wake of the French Revolution. In the 20th century, the regimes of Communist Eastern Europe and Communist China were explicitly anti-religious. A great variety of new religious movements originated in the 20th century, many proposing syncretism of elements of established religions. Adherence to such new movements is limited, however, remaining below 2% worldwide in the 2000s. Adherents of the classical world religions account for more than 75% of the world's population, while adherence to indigenous tribal religions has fallen to 4%. As of 2005, an estimated 14% of the world's population identifies as nonreligious. Development of new religions New Religious Movement (NRM) is a term used to refer to a religious faith or an ethical, spiritual, or philosophical movement of recent origin that is not part of an established denomination, church, or religious body. See also Religion and politics Christianity and politics Women as theological figures List of founders of religious traditions Code of Hammurabi Shamanism and ancestor worship Prehistoric religion Shamanism Animism Ancestor worship Tribal religion Polytheism Ancient Near Eastern religion, Egyptian mythology Ancient Greek religion, Ancient Roman religion Germanic paganism, Finnish Paganism, Norse paganism Maya religion, Inca religion, Aztec religion Neopaganism, Polytheistic reconstructionism Monotheism See also Monotheism, Abrahamic religions. Aten History of Judaism Neoplatonism History of Christianity History of Roman Catholicism History of Eastern Orthodox Christianity History of Protestantism History of Islam Sikhism Monism History of Buddhism History of Jainism History of Hinduism Dualism Zoroastrianism Gnosticism New religious movements History of Ayyavazhi Rastafari movement History of Wicca Timeline of Scientology History of Spiritism References External links History of religion The history of religious and philosophical ideas, in ''Dictionary of the History of Ideas History of Religion as flash animation | History_of_religions |@lemmatized history:29 religion:46 refers:1 write:6 record:6 human:9 religious:27 experience:1 idea:9 period:7 typically:2 begin:5 invention:3 year:3 ago:2 bce:5 near:5 east:6 prehistory:1 relates:1 study:4 belief:4 exist:1 prior:1 advent:1 timeline:2 comparative:1 chronology:1 religionsgeschichtliche:1 schule:1 school:3 century:7 german:1 thought:2 first:4 systematically:1 socio:1 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5,331 | European_Currency_Unit | The European Currency Unit (₠; ECU) (the word ECU, pronounced either , , or ) was a basket of the currencies of the European Community member states, used as the unit of account of the European Community before being replaced by the euro on January 1, 1999, at parity. The ECU itself replaced the European Unit of Account, also at parity, on March 13, 1979. The European Exchange Rate Mechanism attempted to minimize fluctuations between member state currencies and the ECU. The ECU was also used in some international financial transactions, where its advantage was that securities denominated in ECUs provided investors with the opportunity for foreign diversification without reliance on the currency of a single country. David L. Scott, Wall Street Words (3rd ed. 2003), p. 130. The ECU was conceived on 13 March 1979 as an internal accounting unit. It had the ISO 4217 currency code XEU. On 1 January 1999, the euro (with the code EUR and symbol €) replaced the ECU, at the value €1 = 1 ECU. Unlike the ECU, the euro is a real currency, although not all member states participate (for details on Euro membership see Eurozone). Two of the countries in the ECU basket of currencies, UK and Denmark, did not join the eurozone, and a third, Greece, joined late. On the other hand, Finland and Austria joined the Eurozone from the beginning although their currencies were not part of the ECU basket (since they had joined the EU in 1995, two years after the ECU composition was "frozen"). Due to the ECU being used in some international financial transactions, there was a concern that foreign courts might not recognize the euro as the legal successor to the ECU. This was unlikely to be a problem, since it is a generally accepted principle of private international law that states determine their currencies, and that therefore states would accept the European Union legislation to that effect. However, for abundant caution, several foreign jurisdictions adopted legislation to ensure a smooth transition. Of particular importance here were the USA states of Illinois and New York, under whose laws a large proportion of international financial contracts are made. Both these states passed legislation to ensure that the euro was recognized as successor to the ECU. Although the acronym ECU is formed from English words, at the same time the word écu was a reference to an ancient French coin of the same name. That was one (perhaps the main) reason that a new name was devised for its successor currency, euro, which was felt not to favour any single language. The currency's symbol, ₠ (U+20A0), comprises an interlaced C and E, which are the initial letters of the phrase 'European Community' in many European languages. However, this symbol was not widely used: few systems at the time could render it and in any case banks preferred (as with all currencies) to use the ISO code XEU. + Approximate national currency weights to the ECU value Currency 13.03.1979-16.09.1984 17.09.1984-21.09.1989 21.09.1989-31.12.1998 BEF 9.64% 8.57% 8.183% DEM 32.98% 32.08% 31.955% DKK 3.06% 2.69% 2.653% ESP - - 4.138% FRF 19.83% 19.06% 20.316% GBP 13.34% 14.98% 12.452% GRD - 1.31% 0.437% IEP 1.15% 1.20% 1.086% ITL 9.49% 9.98% 7.840% LUF - - 0.322% NLG 10.51% 10.13% 9.98% PTE - - 0.695% See also Asian Currency Unit Eco World Currency Unit External links Information from the European Central Bank on Economic and Monetary Union (EMU), which the ECU is the first stage References | European_Currency_Unit |@lemmatized european:9 currency:16 unit:6 ecu:18 word:4 pronounce:1 either:1 basket:3 community:3 member:3 state:7 use:5 account:2 replace:3 euro:7 january:2 parity:2 also:3 march:2 exchange:1 rate:1 mechanism:1 attempt:1 minimize:1 fluctuation:1 international:4 financial:3 transaction:2 advantage:1 security:1 denominate:1 ecus:1 provide:1 investor:1 opportunity:1 foreign:3 diversification:1 without:1 reliance:1 single:2 country:2 david:1 l:1 scott:1 wall:1 street:1 ed:1 p:1 conceive:1 internal:1 accounting:1 iso:2 code:3 xeu:2 eur:1 symbol:3 value:2 unlike:1 real:1 although:3 participate:1 detail:1 membership:1 see:2 eurozone:3 two:2 uk:1 denmark:1 join:4 third:1 greece:1 late:1 hand:1 finland:1 austria:1 begin:1 part:1 since:2 eu:1 year:1 composition:1 frozen:1 due:1 concern:1 court:1 might:1 recognize:2 legal:1 successor:3 unlikely:1 problem:1 generally:1 accept:2 principle:1 private:1 law:2 determine:1 therefore:1 would:1 union:2 legislation:3 effect:1 however:2 abundant:1 caution:1 several:1 jurisdiction:1 adopt:1 ensure:2 smooth:1 transition:1 particular:1 importance:1 usa:1 illinois:1 new:2 york:1 whose:1 large:1 proportion:1 contract:1 make:1 pass:1 acronym:1 form:1 english:1 time:2 écu:1 reference:2 ancient:1 french:1 coin:1 name:2 one:1 perhaps:1 main:1 reason:1 devise:1 felt:1 favour:1 language:2 u:1 comprise:1 interlaced:1 c:1 e:1 initial:1 letter:1 phrase:1 many:1 widely:1 system:1 could:1 render:1 case:1 bank:2 prefer:1 approximate:1 national:1 weight:1 bef:1 dem:1 dkk:1 esp:1 frf:1 gbp:1 grd:1 iep:1 itl:1 luf:1 nlg:1 pte:1 asian:1 eco:1 world:1 external:1 link:1 information:1 central:1 economic:1 monetary:1 emu:1 first:1 stage:1 |@bigram external_link:1 |
5,332 | Borland | Borland Software Corporation is a software company headquartered in Austin, Texas. It was founded in 1983 by Niels Jensen, Ole Henriksen, Mogens Glad and Philippe Kahn. In February 2006, Borland announced its intent to divest its IDE business, known as the Developer Tools Group, to allow Borland to be completely focused on the enterprise and driving its Application Lifecycle Management (ALM) business forward. As part of that plan, Borland acquired Segue Software Inc. (NASDAQ CM: SEGU), a provider of software quality and testing tools. In November 2006, the company announced its decision to separate the Developer Tools Group into a wholly owned subsidiary called CodeGear. On May 7, 2008, the company announced it had sold the CodeGear subsidiary to Embarcadero Technologies for $23 million. On May 6, 2009, the company announced it was to be acquired by Micro Focus for $75 million. http://www.foxbusiness.com/story/markets/industries/technology/borland-bought-micro-focus--mln/ History The 1980s: Foundations Three Danish citizens, Niels Jensen, Ole Henriksen, and Mogens Glad founded Borland Ltd. in August 1981 to develop products for the CP/M operating system using an off-the-shelf company. However, response to the company's products at the CP/M-82 show in San Francisco showed that a U.S. company would be needed to reach the American market. They met Philippe Kahn who had just moved to Silicon Valley and had been a key developer of the Micral. The three Danes had embarked, at first successfully, on marketing software first from Denmark, later from Ireland before running into some challenges at the time when they met Philippe Kahn. The partnership seems to have benefited all involved. Philippe Kahn was at all times Chairman, President and CEO of Borland Inc. from its inception in 1983 until he left in 1995. Main shareholders at the incorporation of Borland were Niels Jensen (250,000 shares), Ole Henriksen (160,000), Mogens Glad (100,000) and Philippe Kahn (80,000). Borland successfully launched a series of blockbusters that included Sidekick, Turbo Pascal, SuperKey and Lightning, all developed in Denmark. According to the London IPO filings, the management team was Philippe Kahn as President, Spencer Ozawa as VP of Operations, Marie Bourget as CFO, Spencer Leyton as VP of business development, while all software development was continuing to take place in Denmark and later London as the Danish co-founders moved there. While the Danes remained majority shareholders, Board members were Philippe Kahn, Tim Berry, John Nash and David Heller. With the assistance of John Nash and David Heller, both British members of the Borland Board, the company was taken public on London's Unlisted Securities Market (USM) in 1986. Shroders was the lead investment banker. A first US IPO followed in 1989 after Ben Rosen joined the Borland board with Goldman as the lead banker and a second offering in 1991 with Lazard as the lead banker. All offerings were very successful and over-subscribed. Borland developed a series of well-regarded software development tools. Its first product was Turbo Pascal, using the compiler developed by Anders Hejlsberg. 1984 saw the launch of SideKick, a time organization, notebook and calculator utility, notable for being a Terminate and Stay Resident (TSR) program. In 1985 Borland acquired Analytica and its Reflex database product. The engineering team of Analytica, managed by Brad Silverberg and including Reflex co-founder Adam Bosworth became the core of Borland's engineering team in the USA. Brad Silverberg was VP of engineering until he left in early 1990 to head up the Personal Systems division at Microsoft. Adam Bosworth initiated and headed up the Quattro project until moving to Microsoft later in 1990 to take over the project which eventually became Access. In 1987 Borland purchased Wizard Systems and incorporated portions of the Wizard C technology into Turbo C. Bob Jarvis, the author of Wizard C became a Borland employee. Turbo C was released on 18 May 1987 and an estimated 100,000 copies were shipped in the first month of its release. This apparently drove a wedge between Borland and Niels Jensen and the other members of his team who had been working on compilers. An agreement was reached and they spun-off a company called TopSpeed. They launched a compiler that became TopSpeed Modula-2 which exists today as the underlying technology of the Clarion 4GL Programming Language, a Windows development tool. In September 1987 Borland purchased Ansa-Software, including their Paradox (version 2.0) database management tool. Richard Schwartz, CEO of Ansa, became Borland's CTO and Ben Rosen joined the Borland board. The Quattro Pro spreadsheet was launched in 1989 with, at the time, a notable improvement and charting capabilities. Lotus Development, under the leadership of Jim Manzi sued Borland for copyright infringement (see "look and feel"). The litigation brought forward Borland's open standards position as opposed to Lotus' closed approach. Borland, under Kahn's leadership took a position of principle and announced that they would defend against Lotus' legal position and "fight for programmer's rights". After 6 years of litigation the United States Supreme Court validated Borland's position and Lotus lost the case. Additionally, Borland was known for its practical and creative approach towards software piracy and intellectual property (IP), introducing its "Borland no-nonsense license agreement". This allowed the developer/user to utilize its products "just like a book"; he or she was allowed to make multiple copies of a program, as long as only one copy was in use at any point in time. The 1990s: Rise and change In September 1991 Borland purchased Ashton-Tate, bringing the dBase and InterBase databases to the house, in an all stock transaction. Competition with Microsoft was fierce. Microsoft launched the competing database Microsoft Access and bought the dBase clone FoxPro in 1992, undercutting Borland's prices. During the early 1990s Borland's implementation of C and C++ outsold Microsoft's. Borland survived as a company, but no longer had the dominance in software tools that it once had. It has gone through a radical transition in products, financing, and staff, now a very different company from the one which challenged Microsoft and Lotus in the early 1990s. The internal problems that arose with the Ashton-Tate merger were a large part of the fall. Ashton-Tate's product portfolio proved to be weak, with no provision for evolution into the GUI environment of Windows. Almost all product lines were discontinued. The consolidation of duplicate support and development offices was costly and disruptive. Worst of all, the highest revenue earner of the combined company was dBASE with no Windows version ready. Borland had had an internal project to clone dBASE which was intended to run on Windows and was part of the strategy of the acquisition, but by late 1992 this was abandoned due to technical flaws and the company had to constitute a replacement team (the ObjectVision team, redeployed) headed by Bill Turpin to redo the job. Borland was losing financial strength to project its marketing and moving internal resources off other products to shore up the dBASE/W effort. Layoffs occurred in 1993 to keep the company afloat, the third retrenchment in 5 years. By the time dBASE for Windows eventually shipped, a nice product and a heroic effort, the developer community had moved on to other products such as Clipper or FoxBase and dBASE never regained significant share of Ashton-Tate's former market. This happened against the backdrop of the rise in Microsoft's combined Office product marketing. A change in market conditions also contributed to Borland's fall from prominence. In the 1980s, companies had few people who understood the growing personal computer phenomenon, and so most technical people were given free rein to purchase whatever software they thought they needed. Borland had done an excellent job marketing to those with a highly technical bent. By the mid-1990s, however, companies were beginning to ask what the return was on the investment they had made in this loosely controlled PC software buying spree. Company executives were starting to ask questions that were hard for technical folks to answer, and so corporate standards began to be created. This required new kinds of marketing and support materials from software vendors, but Borland remained focused on quality and software craftsmanship. During 1993 Borland explored ties with WordPerfect as a possible way to form a suite of programs to rival Microsoft's nascent integration strategy. WordPerfect itself was struggling with a late and troubled transition to Windows. The eventual joint company effort, named Borland Office for Windows (a combination of the WordPerfect word processor, Quattro Pro spreadsheet and Paradox database) was introduced at the 1993 Comdex computer show. Borland Office never made significant in-roads against Microsoft Office. WordPerfect was then bought by Novell. In October 1994, Borland sold Quattro Pro and Paradox to Novell for $140 Million in cash, repositioning the company on its core software development tools and the Interbase database engine and shifting toward client-server scenarios in corporate applications. This later proved a good foundation for the shift to web development tools. Philippe Kahn and the Borland board came to a disagreement on how to focus the company, and Philippe Kahn resigned as Chairman, CEO and President of Borland, a position he had held for 12 years, in January 1995. However, the parting was amicable as Kahn remained on the Borland board until November 7, 1996, when he resigned from that position. Borland named Gary Wetsel as CEO, but he resigned in July 1996. William F. Miller was interim CEO until September of that year, when Whitney G. Lynn became interim president and CEO and then continued to have a succession of CEOs including Dale Fuller and Tod Nielsen. Philippe Kahn co-founded Starfish Software in 1994 and pioneered wireless synchronization. The company is now owned by Nokia. Kahn then founded LightSurf in 1998 after his invention of the camera phone in 1997 which he discusses in a recent NPR interview. The Delphi 1 rapid application development (RAD) environment was launched in 1995, under the leadership of Anders Hejlsberg. The Inprise years, and name changes On November 25, 1996, Del Yocam was hired as Borland CEO and Chairman. In 1997, Borland sold Paradox to Corel. In November 1997, Borland acquired Visigenic, a middleware company that was focused on implementations of CORBA. On April 29, 1998, Borland refocused its efforts on targeting enterprise applications development, and went through a name change to Inprise Corporation (the name came from the slogan Integrating the Enterprise). The idea was to integrate Borland's tools, Delphi, C++ Builder, and JBuilder with enterprise environment software, including Visigenic's implementations of CORBA, Visibroker for C++ and Java, and the new emerging product, Application Server. For a number of years (both before and during the Inprise name) Borland suffered from serious financial losses and very poor public image. When the name was changed to Inprise, many thought Borland had gone out of business. In March 1999, dBase was sold to KSoft, Inc. which was soon renamed to dBASE Inc. (In 2004 dBASE Inc. was renamed to dataBased Intelligence, Inc.). In 1999, in the middle of Borland's identity crisis, Dale L. Fuller replaced CEO Del Yocam. At this time Fuller's title was "interim president and CEO." The "interim" was dropped in December 2000. Keith Gottfried served in senior executive positions with the company from 2000 to 2004. A proposed merger between Inprise and Corel was announced in February 2000, aimed at producing Linux based products. The scheme was abandoned when Corel's shares fell and it became clear that there was really no strategic fit. InterBase 6.0 was made available as an open source product in July 2000. Borland reborn in name and fame In January 2001, the Inprise name was abandoned and the company became "Borland" once more. Under the Borland name and a new management team headed by President and CEO Dale L. Fuller, a now-smaller and profitable Borland refocused on Delphi, and created a version of Delphi and C++ Builder for Linux, both under the name Kylix. This brought Borland's expertise in Integrated Development Environments to the Linux platform for the first time. Kylix was launched in 2001. Plans to spin off the InterBase division as a separate company were abandoned after Borland and the people who were to run the new company could not agree on terms for the separation. Borland stopped open source releases of InterBase and has developed and sold new versions at a fast pace. Delphi 6 became the first Integrated Development Environment to support web services. All of the company's development platforms now support web services. C#Builder was released in 2003 as a native C# development tool, competing with Visual Studio .NET. As of the 2005 release, C#Builder, Delphi for Win32, and Delphi for .NET have been combined into a single IDE called "Borland Developer Studio" (though the combined IDE is still popularly known as "Delphi"). In late 2002 Borland purchased design tool vendor TogetherSoft and tool publisher Starbase, makers of the StarTeam configuration management tool and the CaliberRM requirements management tool. The latest releases of JBuilder and Delphi integrate these tools to give developers a broader set of tools for development. Former CEO Dale Fuller was fired in July 2005 after a series of financial and commercial blunders, but remained on the board of directors. Former COO Scott Arnold took the title of interim president and chief executive officer until November 8, 2005, when it was announced that Tod Nielsen would take over as CEO effective November 9, 2005. Nielsen remained with the company until January 2009, when he accepted the position of Chief Operating Officer at VMware; VMware hires away Borland CEO, CNet News, January 6, 2008 CFO Erik Prusch then took over as Acting President and CEO. In October 2005, Borland acquired Legadero, in order to add its IT Management and Governance (ITM&G) suite, called Tempo, to the Borland product line. On February 8 2006 Borland announced the divestiture of their IDE division, including Delphi, JBuilder, and InterBase. At the same time they announced the planned acquisition of Segue Software, a maker of software test and quality tools, in order to concentrate on Application Lifecycle Management (ALM). The new spinoff is called CodeGear. On March 20 2006 Borland announced its acquisition of Gauntlet Systems, a provider of technology that screens software under development for quality and security. On November 14 2006 Borland announced its decision to separate the Developer Tools Group into a wholly-owned subsidiary focused on maximizing developer productivity. The newly formed operation, CodeGear, will be responsible for advancing the four primary product lines formerly associated with Borland’s Integrated Development Environment (IDE) business. In early 2007 Borland rolled out a new company tagline, branding and go to market focus around Open Application Lifecycle Management (ALM) – defining it as the segment of the ALM market in which vendors’ solutions are flexible enough to support a customer’s specific processes, tools and platforms. In April 2007, Borland announced that it would be relocating its headquarters and R&D facilities to Austin, Texas.. It also has development centres at Singapore, Santa Ana, California, and Linz, Austria. On May 7 2008, Borland announced the sale of CodeGear division to Embarcadero Technologies for an expected $23 million price and $7 million in CodeGear accounts receivables retained by Borland. On May 6, 2009, the company announced it was to be acquired by Micro Focus for $75 million. http://www.foxbusiness.com/story/markets/industries/technology/borland-bought-micro-focus--mln/ The San Jose Mercury News reported that, "Philippe Kahn, who founded the company in 1983 and headed it until 1994, called the deal a 'great fit and synergism for both companies and excellent outcome for employees, customers and shareholders.'" Borland bought by Micro Focus for $75M, San Jose Mercury News, May 6th, 2009 Products Current products Borland's current product line includes: Borland CaliberRM Borland Caliber DefineIT Borland Gauntlet Borland StarTeam Borland Tempo Borland Together for Eclipse Borland SilkTest Borland SilkPerformer Borland SilkCentral Test Manager Borland VisiBroker Borland AppServer Borland Enterprise Studio, for C++, Mobile and Java Borland Enterprise Server Old software, no longer actively sold by Borland Programming tools Brief (text editor) Borland C++ C++BuilderX C# Builder CodeWright IntraBuilder Kylix Object Vision Turbo Assembler Turbo BASIC (now PowerBASIC) Turbo C Turbo C++ Turbo Debugger Turbo Modula-2 Turbo Pascal Turbo Profiler Turbo Prolog (now Visual Prolog) Utilities SideKick SideKick Plus SuperKey Turbo Lightning (TSR spell checker) Applications Reflex dBase Paradox Quattro Quattro Pro Sprint Games Turbo GameWorks (Turbo Pascal Source and Executables for Bridge, Go-Moku, and Chess) Word Wizard (Requires Turbo Lightning) References External links Borland Software Corporation. | Borland |@lemmatized borland:90 software:22 corporation:3 company:32 headquarter:1 austin:2 texas:2 found:5 niels:4 jensen:4 ole:3 henriksen:3 mogens:3 glad:3 philippe:11 kahn:14 february:3 announce:14 intent:1 divest:1 ide:5 business:5 know:3 developer:9 tool:21 group:3 allow:3 completely:1 focus:11 enterprise:6 drive:2 application:8 lifecycle:3 management:9 alm:4 forward:2 part:3 plan:2 acquire:6 segue:2 inc:6 nasdaq:1 cm:1 segu:1 provider:2 quality:4 testing:1 november:7 decision:2 separate:3 wholly:2 subsidiary:3 call:6 codegear:6 may:6 sell:6 embarcadero:2 technology:7 million:6 micro:5 http:2 www:2 foxbusiness:2 com:2 story:2 market:8 industry:2 buy:6 mln:2 history:1 foundation:2 three:2 danish:2 citizen:1 ltd:1 august:1 develop:5 product:20 cp:2 operate:2 system:4 use:3 shelf:1 however:3 response:1 show:3 san:3 francisco:1 u:2 would:4 need:2 reach:2 american:1 meet:2 move:5 silicon:1 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5,333 | Elagabalus | For the deity with the same name see Elagabalus (deity) Elagabalus (pronounced ElaGABalus, c. 203 – March 11, 222), also known as Heliogabalus or Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, was a Roman Emperor of the Severan dynasty who reigned from 218 to 222. Born Varius Avitus Bassianus, he was Syrian on his mother's side, the son of Julia Soaemias and Sextus Varius Marcellus, and in his early youth he served as a priest of the god El-Gabal at his hometown, Emesa. Upon becoming emperor he took the name Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus, and was called Elagabalus only a long time after his death. In 217, the emperor Caracalla was murdered and replaced by his Praetorian prefect, Marcus Opellius Macrinus. Caracalla's maternal aunt, Julia Maesa, successfully instigated a revolt among the Third Legion to have her eldest grandson, Elagabalus, declared as emperor in his place. Macrinus was defeated on June 8, 218, at the Battle of Antioch, upon which Elagabalus, barely fourteen years old, ascended to the imperial power and began a reign that was marred by controversies. During his rule, Elagabalus showed a disregard for Roman religious traditions and sexual taboos. He was married as many as five times and is reported to have prostituted himself in the imperial palace. Elagabalus replaced Jupiter, head of the Roman pantheon, with a new god, Deus Sol Invictus, and forced leading members of Rome's government to participate in religious rites celebrating this deity, which he personally led. Amidst growing opposition, Elagabalus, only 18 years old, was assassinated and replaced by his cousin Alexander Severus on March 11, 222, in a plot formed by his grandmother, Julia Maesa, and members of the Praetorian Guard. Elagabalus developed a reputation among his contemporaries for eccentricity, decadence, and zealotry which was likely exaggerated by his successors and political rivals. This propaganda was passed on and, as a result, he was one of the most reviled Roman emperors to early historians. For example, Edward Gibbon wrote that Elagabalus "abandoned himself to the grossest pleasures and ungoverned fury." Gibbon, Edward. Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Vol. 1, Chapter 6. "The name Elagabalus is branded in history above all others" because of his "unspeakably disgusting life," wrote B.G. Niebuhr. Niebuhr, B.G. History of Rome, p. 144 (1844). Elagabalus' vices were, "Too disgusting even to allude to them." __TOC__ Family Elagabalus was born in 203 Herodian, Roman History V.3 as Varius Avitus Bassianus to the family of Sextus Varius Marcellus and Julia Soaemias Bassiana. His father was initially a member of the equestrian class, but was later elevated to the rank of senator. His grandmother Julia Maesa was the widow of the Consul Julius Avitus, the sister of Julia Domna, and the sister-in-law of emperor Septimius Severus. Cassius Dio, Roman History LXXIX.30 Julia Soaemias was a cousin of Roman emperor Caracalla. Other relatives included his aunt Julia Avita Mamaea and uncle Marcus Julius Gessius Marcianus and their son Alexander Severus. Elagabalus's family held hereditary rights to the priesthood of the sun god El-Gabal, of whom Elagabalus was the high priest at Emesa (modern Hims) in Syria. The name El-Gabal originally referred to the patron deity of the emperor's birthplace, Emesa. El refers to the chief Semitic deity, while Gabal, meaning mountain (compare with the Hebrew gevul and Arabic jebel), is his Emesene manifestation. The god was later imported and assimilated with the Roman sun god, who was known as Sol Indiges in republican times, and later Sol Invictus during the 2nd and 3rd centuries. Avitus adopted the name of the god, being styled Elagabalus. Biography of Elagabalus at the Catholic Encyclopedia. Retrieved on 2008-05-03. Rise to power Roman denarius depicting Elagabalus. The reverse reads Fides Exercitus, or The loyalty of the army, depicting the Roman goddess Fides between two Roman army standards. Many coins issued during Elagabalus' reign bear the inscriptions Fides Exercitus or Fides Militum, emphasising the loyalty of the army as the basis for imperial power. When the emperor Macrinus came to power he suppressed the threat against his reign by the family of his assassinated predecessor, Caracalla, by exiling them—Julia Maesa, her two daughters, and her eldest grandson Elagabalus—to their estate at Emesa in Syria. Almost upon arrival in Syria she began a plot, with her eunuch advisor and Elagabalus' tutor Gannys, to overthrow Macrinus and elevate the fourteen-year-old Elagabalus as emperor. Elagabalus and his mother readily complied and announced, falsely, that he was the illegitimate son of Caracalla, therefore due the loyalties of Roman soldiers and senators who had sworn allegiance to Caracalla. After Julia Maesa displayed her wealth to the Third Legion at Raphana they swore allegiance to Elagabalus. At sunrise on May 16, 218, Publius Valerius Comazon Eutychianus, commander of the legion, declared him emperor. Cassius Dio, Roman History LXXIX.31 To strengthen his legitimacy through further propaganda, Elagabalus assumed Caracalla's names, Marcus Aurelius Antoninus. Cassius Dio, Roman History LXXIX.32 In response Macrinus dispatched his Praetorian prefect Ulpius Julianus to the region with a contingent of troops he considered strong enough the crush the rebellion. However this force soon joined the faction of Elagabalus when, during the battle, they turned on their own commanders. The officers were killed and Julianus' head was sent back to the emperor. Herodian, Roman History V.4 Macrinus now sent letters to the Senate denouncing Elagabalus as the False Antoninus and claiming he was insane. Cassius Dio, Roman History LXXIX.36 Both consuls and other high ranking members of Rome's leadership condemned him, and the Senate subsequently declared war on both Elagabalus and Julia Maesa. Cassius Dio, Roman History LXXIX.38 Macrinus and his son, weakened by the desertion of the Second Legion due to bribes and promises circulated by Julia Maesa, were defeated on June 8, 218 at the Battle of Antioch by troops commanded by Gannys. Macrinus fled toward Italy, disguised as a courier, but was later intercepted near Chalcedon and executed in Cappadocia. His son Diadumenianus, sent for safety to the Parthian court, was captured at Zeugma and also put to death. Elagabalus declared the date of the victory at Antioch to be the beginning of his reign and assumed the imperial titles without prior Senatorial approval, Cassius Dio, Roman History LXXX.2 which violated tradition but was a common practice among third-century emperors nonetheless. Letters of reconciliation were dispatched to Rome extending amnesty to the Senate and recognizing the laws, while also condemning the administration of Macrinus and his son. Cassius Dio, Roman History LXXX.1 The Senators responded by acknowledging Elagabalus as emperor and accepting his claim to be the son of Caracalla. Herodian, Roman History V.5 Caracalla and Julia Domna were both deified by the Senate, both Julia Maesa and Julia Soaemias were elevated to the rank of Augustae, and the memory of Macrinus and Diadumenianus was condemned and vilified by the Senate. The former commander of the Third Legion, Comazon, was appointed to be commander of the Praetorian Guard. Cassius Dio, Roman History LXXX.4 Emperor First year A denarius commissioned by Elagabalus, bearing his likeness Elagabalus and his entourage spent the winter of 218 in Bithynia at Nicomedia, where the emperor's religious beliefs first manifested themselves as a problem. The contemporary historian Cassius Dio suggests that Gannys was in fact killed by the new emperor because he was forcing Elagabalus to live "temperately and prudently." Cassius Dio, Roman History LXXX.6 To help Romans adjust to the idea of having an oriental priest as emperor, Julia Maesa had a painting of Elagabalus in priestly robes sent to Rome and hung over a statue of the goddess Victoria in the Senate House. This placed Senators in the awkward position of having to make offerings to Elagabalus whenever they made offerings to Victoria. The legions were dismayed at his behaviour and quickly came to regret their decision to have him supported as emperor. Augustan History, Life of Elagabalus 5 While Elagabalus was still on his way to Rome, brief revolts broke out by the Fourth Legion, at the instigation of Gellius Maximus, and the Third Legion, which itself had been responsible for the accession of Elagabalus as emperor, under command of senator Verus. Cassius Dio, Roman History LXXX.7 The rebellion was quickly struck down, and the Third Legion disbanded. When the entourage reached Rome in the autumn of 219, Comazon and other allies of Julia Maesa and Elagabalus were given powerful and lucrative positions, much to the outrage of many senators who did not consider them to be respectable. Herodian, Roman History V.7 After his tenure as Praetorian prefect, Comazon would serve as the city prefect of Rome three times, and as consul twice. Elagabalus tried to have his presumed lover Hierocles declared Caesar, Cassius Dio, Roman History LXXX.15 while another alleged lover, Aurelius Zoticus, was appointed to the non-administrative but influential position of Cubicularius. Cassius Dio, Roman History LXXX.16 His offer of amnesty for the Roman leadership was largely honored, though the jurist Ulpian was exiled. Augustan History, Life of Elagabalus 16 The relationships between Julia Maesa, Julia Soaemias, and Elagabalus were strong, at first. His mother and grandmother became the first women to be allowed into the Senate, Augustan History, Life of Elagabalus 4 and both received Senatorial titles: Soaemias the established title of Clarissima and Maesa the more unorthodox Mater Castrorum et Senatus. While Julia Maesa tried to position herself as the power behind the throne and subsequently the most powerful woman in the world, Elagabalus would prove to be highly independent, set in his ways, and impossible to control. Religious controversy Roman aureus depicting Elagabalus. The reverse reads Sanct Deo Soli Elagabal (To the Holy Sun God Elagabal), and depicts a four-horse, gold chariot carrying the holy stone of the Emesa temple. Since the reign of Septimius Severus, sun worship had increased throughout the Empire. Elagabalus saw this as an opportunity to install El-Gabal as the chief deity of the Roman Pantheon. The god was renamed Deus Sol Invictus, meaning God the Undefeated Sun, and placed over Jupiter. Cassius Dio, Roman History LXXX.11 As a sign of the union with the Roman religion, Elagabalus gave either Astarte, Minerva, Urania, or some combination of the three, to El-Gabal as a wife. Herodian, Roman History V.6 He provoked further outrage when he himself married the Vestal Virgin Aquilia Severa, claiming the marriage would produce "god-like children". Cassius Dio, Roman History LXXX.9 This was a flagrant breach of Roman law and tradition, which held that any Vestal found to have engaged in sexual intercourse would be buried alive. Plutarch, Parallel Lives, Life of Numa Pompilius, 10 A lavish temple called the Elagabalium was built on the east face of the Palatine Hill to house El-Gabal, who was represented by a black conical meteorite from Emesa. Herodian wrote "this stone is worshipped as though it were sent from heaven; on it there are some small projecting pieces and markings that are pointed out, which the people would like to believe are a rough picture of the sun, because this is how they see them". In order to become the high priest of his new religion, Elagabalus had himself circumcised. He forced senators to watch while he danced around the altar of Deus Sol Invictus to the sound of drums and cymbals, and each summer solstice he held a festival dedicated to the god, which became popular with the masses because of its widely distributed food. During this festival, Elagabalus placed the Emesa stone on a chariot adorned with gold and jewels, which he paraded through the city: A six horse chariot carried the divinity, the horses huge and flawlessly white, with expensive gold fittings and rich ornaments. No one held the reins, and no one rode in the chariot; the vehicle was escorted as if the god himself were the charioteer. Elagabalus ran backward in front of the chariot, facing the god and holding the horses reins. He made the whole journey in this reverse fashion, looking up into the face of his god. The most sacred relics from the Roman religion were transferred from their respective shrines to the Elagabalium, including the Great Mother, the fire of Vesta, the Shields of the Salii and the Palladium, so that no other God except El-Gabal would be worshipped. Augustan History, Life of Elagabalus 3 Sex/gender controversy Roman denarius depicting Aquilia Severa, the second wife of Elagabalus. The marriage caused a public outrage because Aquilia was a Vestal Virgin, sworn by Roman law to celibacy for 30 years. Elagabalus' sexual orientation and gender identity are the source of much controversy and debate. Elagabalus married and divorced five women, three of whom are known. His first wife was Julia Cornelia Paula; the second was the Vestal Virgin Julia Aquilia Severa, but within a year, he abandoned her and married Annia Faustina, a descendant of Marcus Aurelius and the widow of a man recently executed by Elagabalus. He had returned to Severa by the end of the year, but according to Cassius Dio, his most stable relationship seems to have been with his chariot driver, a blond slave from Caria named Hierocles, whom he referred to as his husband. The Augustan History claims that he also married a man named Zoticus, an athlete from Smyrna, in a public ceremony at Rome. Augustan History, Life of Elagabalus 10 Cassius Dio reported Elagabalus would paint his eyes, epilate his hair and wear wigs before prostituting himself in taverns and brothels, Cassius Dio, Roman History LXXX.14 and even the imperial palace: Finally, he set aside a room in the palace and there committed his indecencies, always standing nude at the door of the room, as the harlots do, and shaking the curtain which hung from gold rings, while in a soft and melting voice he solicited the passers-by. Cassius Dio, Roman History LXXX.13 Herodian commented that Elagabalus pampered his natural good looks by wearing too much make-up. He was described as having been "delighted to be called the mistress, the wife, the Queen of Hierocles" and was said to have offered vast sums of money to the physician who could equip him with female genitalia. Subsequently, Elagabalus has often been characterized by modern writers as transgender, most likely transsexual, . . Fall from power By 221 Elagabalus' eccentricities, particularly his relationship with Hierocles, increasingly infuriated the soldiers of the Praetorian Guard. When Julia Maesa perceived that popular support for the emperor was quickly wavering, she decided that he and his mother, who had encouraged his religious practices, had to be replaced. As alternatives, she turned to her other daughter Julia Avita Mamaea and her son, the thirteen-year-old Severus Alexander. Convincing Elagabalus to appoint his cousin as his heir, Alexander was bestowed with the title of Caesar and shared the consulship with the emperor that year. However, Elagabalus reconsidered this arrangement when he began to suspect that the Praetorian Guard favored his cousin over himself. Herodian, Roman History V.8 Following the failure of various attempts at Alexander's life, Elagabalus stripped his cousin of his titles, revoked his consulship, and circulated the news that Alexander was near death to see how the Praetorians would react. A riot ensued, and the guard demanded to see Elagabalus and Alexander in the Praetorian camp. The emperor complied and on March 11, 222 he presented his cousin, along with his mother Julia Soaemias. Upon arrival the soldiers started cheering Alexander, while ignoring Elagabalus, who ordered the summary arrest and execution of anyone who had taken part in this revolt. In response, the Praetorians attacked Elagabalus and his mother: So he made an attempt to flee, and would have got away somewhere by being placed in a chest, had he not been discovered and slain, at the age of 18. His mother, who embraced him and clung tightly to him, perished with him; their heads were cut off and their bodies, after being stripped naked, were first dragged all over the city, and then the mother's body was cast aside somewhere or other, while his was thrown into the river. Cassius Dio, Roman History LXXX.20 Following his demise, many associates of Elagabalus were killed or deposed, including Hierocles and Comazon. His religious edicts were reversed and El-Gabal was returned to Emesa. Herodian, Roman History VI.6 Women were barred from ever attending meetings of the Senate, and damnatio memoriae—erasing a person from all public records—was decreed upon him. Augustan History, Life of Severus Alexander 1 Legacy Historiography The Roses of Heliogabalus, Lawrence Alma-Tadema, 1888 A propaganda campaign against Elagabalus, traditionally attributed to Julia Avitus Mamaea, was instituted after his death. Many denigrating and false stories were circulated about him, and his eccentricities may have been exaggerated. The most famous among these, immortalized in the 19th-century painting The Roses of Heliogabalus, is that he smothered guests at a dinner to death with a mass of "violets and other flowers" dropped from above. Augustan History, Life of Elagabalus 21 Augustan History The source of many of these stories of Elagabalus's debauchery is the Augustan History (Historia Augusta), which scholarly consensus now feels to be unreliable in its details. The Historia Augusta was most likely written near the end of the 4th century during the reign of emperor Theodosius I, drawing as much upon the invention of its author as actual historical sources. The life of Elagabalus as described in the Augustan History is believed to be largely a work of historical fiction. Only the sections 13 to 17, relating to the fall of Elagabalus, are considered to hold any historical value. Cassius Dio Sources more credible than the Augustan History include the contemporary historians Cassius Dio and Herodian. Cassius Dio lived from the second half of the 2nd century until sometime after 229. Born into a patrician family, he spent the greater part of his life in public service. He was a senator under emperor Commodus and governor of Smyrna after the death of Septimius Severus. Afterwards he served as suffect consul around 205, and as proconsul in Africa and Pannonia. Alexander Severus held him in the highest esteem and made him his consul again. His Roman History spans nearly a millennium, from the arrival of Aeneas in Italy until the year 229. As a contemporary of Elagabalus, Cassius Dio's account of his reign is generally considered more reliable than the Augustan History, although it should be noted that Dio spent the larger part of this period outside of Rome and had to rely on second-hand accounts when composing his Roman History. Furthermore, the political climate in the aftermath of Elagabalus' reign, as well as his own position within the government of Alexander likely imposed restrictions on the extent to which his writing on this period is truthful. Herodian Another contemporary of Elagabalus was Herodian, who was a minor Roman civil servant who lived from c. 170 until 240. His work, History of the Roman Empire since Marcus Aurelius, commonly abbreviated as Roman History, is an eye-witness account of the reign of Commodus until the beginning of the reign of Gordian III. His work largely overlaps with Dio's own Roman History, but both texts seem to be independently consistent with each other. Although Herodian is not deemed as reliable as Cassius Dio, his lack of literary and scholarly pretensions make him less biased than senatorial historians. Herodian is considered the most important source on the religious reforms which took place during the reign of Elagabalus, which have been confirmed by modern numismatical and archaeological evidence. Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum, CIL II: 1409, 1410, 1413 and CIL III: 564-589. Edward Gibbon Gibbon (1737-94) wrote: Elagabalus in later art Due to these stories, Elagabalus became something of a hero to the Decadent movement in the late 19th century. He appears in many paintings and poems as the epitome of an amoral aesthete. His life and character has inspired or at least informed many famous artworks, including the following: Literature "Irydion" (1836), a play by Zygmunt Krasiński. "William Wilson" (1839) by Edgar Allan Poe opens with an allusion to the wickedness of Elagabalus. L'Agonie (Agony) (1889), a novel by the French writer Jean Lombard The Sun God (1904), a novel by the English writer Arthur Westcott De Berg van Licht (The Mountain of Light) (1905), a novel by the Dutch writer Louis Couperus Algabal (1892–1919), a collection of poems by the German poet Stefan George The Amazing Emperor Heliogabalus (1911), a biography by the Oxford don John Stuart Hay St. Dorothy, a poem by Algernon Charles Swinburne, which refers to the saint's martyrdom under the emperor Gabalus Héliogabale ou l'Anarchiste couronné (Heliogabalus, or the Crowned Anarchist) (1934), an essay by the French surrealist Antonin Artaud Family Favourites (1960), a novel by the Anglo-Argentine writer Alfred Duggan Child of the Sun (1966), a novel by Lance Horner and Kyle Onstott, who were more famous for writing the novel behind the movie Mandingo. Super-Eliogabalo (1969), a novel by the Italian writer Alberto Arbasino Breakfast of Champions (1973), a novel by Kurt Vonnegut that mistakenly refers to Phalaris, a Sicilian tyrant, as Heliogabalus Boy Caesar (2004), a novel by the English writer Jeremy Reed Being an Account of the Life and Death of the Emperor Heliogabolus, a 24-hour comic by Neil Gaiman "The Lottery in Babylon" (1941), a short story by Argentine writer Jorge Luis Borges, references a biography, "Life of Antoninus Heliogabalus." Paintings The Roses of Heliogabalus (1888), by the Anglo-Dutch academician Sir Lawrence Alma-Tadema Heliogabalus, High Priest of the Sun (1866), by the English decadent Simeon Solomon, once a close friend of Algernon Charles Swinburne Comics Vassalord (2006-), Nanae Chrono's Manga, where the flamboyant main character, Johnny Rayflo (an ancient vampire), is referred to occasionally as "The Confined Elagabalus." Being an Account of the Life and Death of the Emperor Heliogabolus (1991), by Neil Gaiman The Dreaming » Blog Archive » Being An Account of the Life and Death of the Emperor Heliogabolous . Published in Cerebus #147 (1991). Helioglobolus - biography in the Swedish antology Galago, by Simon Gärdenfors. Music Eliogabalo, an opera by Venetian Baroque composer Francesco Cavalli (1667) Heliogabale, an opera by French composer Déodat de Séverac which premiered in 1910 Heliogabalus Imperator (Emperor Heliogabalus), an orchestral work by the German composer Hans Werner Henze (1972) Eliogabalus, an album by rock band Devil Doll (1990) Six Litanies for Heliogabalus, by the composer and saxophonist John Zorn (2007) Elagabalus (as Heliogabalus) is mentioned in the "Major-General's Song" from the Gilbert and Sullivan opera The Pirates of Penzance: "I quote in elegiacs all the crimes of Heliogabalus." Heliogabale, a french rock band, a French rock band which has released five albums since 1995, among them "the full mind is alone the clear" recorded by Steve Albini in 1997 Heliogabalus, a song by Momus from his 2001 album Folktronic, in which the narrator defends Heliogabalus, saying he "wasn't to blame" for the "deaths he caused" Dance Héliogabale, a contemporary dance choreographed by Maurice Béjart Film Héliogabale, a 1909 silent film by the French director André Calmettes Héliogabale, ou L'orgie romaine, a 1911 silent short by the French director Louis Feuillade Plays Mencken, H.L. and Nathan, George Jean. Heliogabalus A Buffoonery in Three Acts. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1920. Elagabalus, Emperor of Rome (2008), a play by the American dramatist Shawn Ferreyra, which premiered in San Francisco, California, January 18 through February 2, 2008 Escobar, C.H. de. "Heliogabalo: O SOL E A PÁTRIA". Ed. Devir. Rio de Janeiro. 1989. Vocabulary The Spanish word heliogábalo heliogábalo in the Diccionario de la Real Academia Española. Retrieved on 2008-05-03. means "person overwhelmed by gluttony". Notes References Primary sources Cassius Dio, Roman History Books 79, and 80, English translation. Herodian, Roman History, Book 5, English translation. Historia Augusta, The Life of Elagabalus Parts 1 and 2, Latin text with English translation. Secondary material Biographical sketches Images Wildwinds coin archive: Elagabalus. Large archive of ancient Roman and provincial coins bearing the image of Elagabalus. Retrieved on 2008-05-03. Coinarchives coin archive: Elagabalus. Large archive of ancient Roman and provincial coins issued under Elagabalus, including coins of family members. 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5,334 | Operation_Barbarossa | Operation Barbarossa (German: Unternehmen Barbarossa) was the code name for Nazi Germany's invasion of the Soviet Union during World War II that commenced on 22 June 1941. Bryan I. Fugate. Strategy and tactics on the Eastern Front, 1941. Novato: Presidio Press, 1984. Over 4.5 million troops of the Axis powers invaded the USSR along a 2,900 kilometer front (1800 miles). World War II Chronicle, 2007. Legacy/ Publications International, Ltd. Page 146. The operation was named after the Emperor Frederick Barbarossa of the Holy Roman Empire, a leader of the Third Crusade in the 12th century. The planning for Operation Barbarossa started on 18 December 1940; the secret preparations and the military operation itself lasted almost a year, from the spring of 1940, through the winter of 1941. The operational goal of Barbarossa was the rapid conquest of the European part of the Soviet Union west of a line connecting the cities of Arkhangelsk and Astrakhan, often referred to as the A-A line (see the translation of Hitler's directive for details). At its conclusion in December 1941, the Red Army had repelled the strongest blow of the Wehrmacht. Hitler had not achieved the victory he had expected, but the situation of the Soviet Union remained critical. Tactically, the Germans had won some resounding victories and occupied some of the most important economic areas of the country, most notably in Ukraine. A.J.P Taylor & Colonel D. M Proektor, p106 Despite these successes, the Germans were pushed back from Moscow and were never able to mount an offensive simultaneously along the entire strategic Soviet-German front again. A.J.P Taylor & Colonel D. M Proektor 1974, p. 107 The failure of Operation Barbarossa resulted in Hitler's demands for additional operations inside the USSR, all of which eventually failed, such as continuation of the Siege of Leningrad, Life and Death in Besieged Leningrad, 1941–44 (Studies in Russian and Eastern European History), edited by John Barber and Andrei Dzeniskevich. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005 (hardcover, ISBN 1-4039-0142-2). Operation Nordlicht, and Battle of Stalingrad, among other battles on the occupied Soviet territory. The siege of Leningrad. By Alan Wykes. Ballantines Illustrated History of WWII, 3rd edition, 1972. Pages 9-61, and, Scorched Earth. (pages 205 - 240) By Paul Carell. Schiffer Military History, 1994. ISBN 0-88740-598-3 and, Finland in the Second World War. Between Germany and Russia. Palgrave. 2002. (pp. 90 - 141) Military-Topographic Directorate, maps No. 194, 196, Officer's Atlas. General Staff USSR. 1947. Атлас Офицера. Генеральный штаб вооруженных сил ССР. М., Военно-топографическоее управление,- 1947. Листы 194, 196 Russia's War: A History of the Soviet Effort: 1941-1945 ISBN 0-14-027169-4 by Richard Overy Page 91 The World War II. Desk Reference. Eisenhower Center Director Douglas Brinkley. Editor Mickael E. Haskey. Grand Central Press, Stonesong Press, HarperCollins, 2004. ISBN0-06-052651-3. Page 210. Siege of Leningrad. Encyclopedia Britannica. Operation Barbarossa remains the largest military operation, in terms of manpower, area traversed, and casualties, in human history. Peter Antill, Peter Dennis. Stalingrad 1942. Osprey Publishing, 2007,ISBN 1846030285, 9781846030284. p. 7. Its failure is considered a turning point in the fortunes of the Third Reich. Most importantly, Operation Barbarossa opened up the Eastern Front, which ultimately became the biggest theater of war in world history. Operation Barbarossa and the areas which fell under it became the site of some of the largest battles, deadliest atrocities, terrible loss of life, and horrific conditions for Soviets and Germans alike - all of which influenced the course of both World War II and the 20th century history. German intentions Nazi theory regarding the Soviet Union As early as 1925, Hitler made his intentions clear in Mein Kampf ("My Struggle") to invade the Soviet Union, based on his assertion that the German people needed Lebensraum ("living space", i.e. land and raw materials) and that it should be sought in the east. Nazi racial ideology cast the Soviet Union as populated by "untermenschen" ethnic Slavs ruled by their "Jewish Bolshevik" masters. Bendersky,Joseph W., A History of Nazi Germany: 1919-1945, Rowman & Littlefield, 2000, ISBN 083041567X, page 177 Müller, Rolf-Dieter, Gerd R. Ueberschär, Hitler's War in the East, 1941-1945: A Critical Assessment, Berghahn Books, 2002, ISBN 157181293, page 244 Mein Kampf stated that Germany's destiny was to turn "to the East" as it did "six hundred years later" and "the end of the Jewish domination in Russia will also be the end of Russia as a State." Thereafter, Hitler spoke of an inescapable battle against "pan-Slav ideals", the victory in which would lead to "permanent mastery of the world", though he stated that they would "walk part of the road with the Russians, if that will help us." Rauschning, Hermann, Hitler Speaks: A Series of Political Conversations With Adolf Hitler on His Real Aims, Kessinger Publishing, 2006,ISBN 142860034, pages 136-7 Accordingly, it was the stated policy of the Nazis to kill, deport or enslave the Russian and other Slavic populations and to repopulate the land with Germanic peoples (see New Order). 1939-1940 Nazi-Soviet relations Soviet and German invasions and annexations in Central and eastern Europe 1939-1940 The Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact had been signed shortly before the German and Soviet invasion of Poland in 1939. It was ostensibly a non-aggression pact but secret protocols outlined an agreement between the Third Reich and the Soviet Union on the division of the border states between them. Text of the Nazi–Soviet Non-Aggression Pact, executed August 23, 1939 The pact surprised the world, because of their mutual hostility and their opposed ideologies. As a result of the pact, Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union had reasonably strong diplomatic relations and engaged in an important economic and trading relationship. The countries entered a German-Soviet trade pact, pursuant to which the Soviets received German military and industrial equipment in exchange for supplying raw materials, such as oil, to Germany to help circumvent a British blockade. Shirer, William L., The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich: A History of Nazi Germany, Simon and Schuster, 1990 ISBN 0671728687, page 668-9 But despite the parties' ongoing relations, both sides remained strongly suspicious of each others' intentions. After Germany entered the Axis Pact with Japan and Italy, it initiated negotiations regarding the potential Soviet entry into the pact. Brackman, Roman, The Secret File of Joseph Stalin: A Hidden Life, London and Portland, Frank Cass Publishers, 2001, ISBN 0714650501, page 341-3 After two days of negotiations in Berlin from November 12-14, Germany presented a proposed written agreement for Soviet entry into the Axis, the Soviet Union presented a written counterproposal agreement on November 25, 1940, to which Germany did not respond. As both sides began colliding with each other in Eastern Europe, conflict appeared more likely, though they signed a border and commercial agreement addressing several open issues in January 1941. Germany plans the invasion Stalin's reputation contributed both to the Nazis' justification of their assault and to their faith in success. During the late 1930s, Stalin had killed or incarcerated millions of citizens during the Great Purge, including large numbers of competent and experienced military officers, leaving the Red Army weakened and leaderless. The Nazis often emphasized the brutality of the Soviet regime when targeting the Slavs with propaganda. German propaganda made claims that the Red Army was preparing to attack them, and their own invasion was thus presented as being pre-emptive. During the summer of 1940, when German raw materials crises and a potential collision with the Soviet Union over territory in the Balkans arose, an eventual invasion of the Soviet Union increasingly looked like the only solution for Hitler. While no concrete plans were yet made, Hitler told one of his generals in June that the victories in western Europe "finally freed his hands for his important real task: the showdown with Bolshevism", though German generals told Hitler that occupying Western Russia would create "more of a drain than a relief for Germany's economic situation." The Führer anticipated additional benefits: When the Soviet Union was defeated, the labour shortage in the German industry could be ended by the demobilization of many soldiers. Ukraine would be a reliable source of agriculture. Having the Soviet Union as a source of slave labour would vastly improve Germany's geostrategic position. Defeat of the Soviet Union would further isolate the Allies, especially the United Kingdom. The German economy needed access to more oil and controlling the Baku Oilfields would achieve this. Weisung Nr. 21: Fall Barbarossa On December 5, Hitler received military plans for the possible invasion, and approved them all, with the invasion scheduled for May 1941. On December 18, 1940, Hitler signed War Directive No. 21 to the German high command for an operation now codenamed "Operation Barbarossa" stating: "The German Wermacht must be prepared to crush Soviet Russia in a quick campaign." The date for the invasion was set for May 15, 1941. In the Soviet Union, speaking to his generals in December, Stalin references Hitler's references to an attack on the Soviet Union in Mein Kampf, stated that they must always be ready to repulse a German attack, stated that Hitler thought that the Red Army would require four years to ready itself such that "we must be ready much earlier" and "we will try to delay the war for another two years." In the fall of 1940, High ranking German officials drafted a memorandum on the dangers of a Soviet invasion, including that the Ukraine, Belorussia and the Baltic States would end up only being a further economic burden for Germany. Another German official argued that the Soviets in their current bureaucratic form were harmless, the occupation would not produce a gain for Germany and "why should it not stew next to us in its damp Bolshevism?" Hitler ignored German economic naysayers, and told Herman Goering that "that everyone on all sides was always raising economic misgivings against a threatening war with Russia. From now onwards he wasn't going to listen to any more of that kind of talk and from now on he was going to stop up his ears in order to get his peace of mind." This was passed on to General Georg Thomas, who had been preparing reports on the negative economic consequences of a Soviet invasion—that it would be a net economic drain unless it was captured intact. Rudolf Hess and others at Heinrich Himmler's "Building and Planning in the East" March 1941 Exhibition Beginning in March 1941, Goering's Green Folder laid out the details of the proposed economic subsection of the Soviet Union after the invasion. The entire urban population of the invaded land was to be eradicated through starvation, thus creating an agricultural surplus to feed Germany and allowing the urban population's replacement by a German upper class. During the Nuremberg Trials in 1946, Sir Hartley Shawcross announced that in March 1941, in addition to administrative divisions previously created, the following divisions in the Russian East were planned: Ural (central and south Ural and nearest territories, created from planned east Russian European territorial reorganization) West Sibirien (future west Siberia and Novosibirsk held lands) Nordland (Soviet Arctic areas: West Nordland (Russian European north coasts) and Ost Nordland (northwest Siberian north coasts)) In the summer of 1941, German Nazi-ideologist Alfred Rosenberg suggested that conquered Soviet territory should be administered in the following Reichskommissariates: Ostland (The Baltic countries and Belarus) Ukraine (Ukraine and adjacent territories) Kaukasus (Southern Russia and the Caucasus area) Moskau (Moscow metropolitan area and the rest of European Russia) Turkestan (Central Asian republics and territories) Nazi policy aimed to destroy the Soviet Union as a political entity in accordance with the geopolitical Lebensraum idea ("Drang nach Osten") for the benefit of future "Aryan" generations in the centuries to come. Operation Barbarossa was to combine a northern assault towards Leningrad, a symbolic capturing of Moscow, and an economic strategy of seizing oil fields in the south, beyond Ukraine. Hitler and his generals disagreed on which of these aspects should take priority and where Germany should focus its energies; deciding upon priorities required a compromise. Hitler considered himself a political and military genius. In the course of planning Barbarossa during 1940 and 1941, in many discussions with his generals, Hitler repeated his order: "Leningrad first, the Donetsk Basin second, Moscow third." Bryan I. Fugate. Operation Barbarossa. Strategy and tactics on the Eastern Front, 1941. Novato: Presidio Press, 1984. Hitler was impatient to get on with his long-desired invasion of the east. He was convinced that Britain would sue for peace, once the Germans triumphed in the Soviet Union, the real area of Germany's interests. General Franz Halder noted in his diaries that, by destroying the Soviet Union, Germany would destroy Britain's hope of defeating Germany. Hitler had become over-confident, owing to his rapid success in Western Europe, as well as the Red Army's ineptitude in the Winter War against Finland in 1939–40. He expected victory within a few months and therefore did not prepare for a war lasting into the winter. His troops therefore lacked adequate warm clothing and preparations for a longer campaign when they began their attack. The assumption that the Soviet Union would quickly capitulate would prove to be his undoing. Albert Speer identifies these points in the The World At War series in the episode "Barbarossa". German preparations In preparation for the attack, Hitler moved 3.5 million German soldiers and about 1 million Axis soldiers to the Soviet border, launched many aerial surveillance missions over Soviet territory, and stockpiled materiel in the East. The Soviets were still taken by surprise, mostly due to Stalin's belief that the Third Reich was unlikely to attack only two years after signing the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact. The Soviet leader also believed that the Nazis would likely finish their war with Britain before opening a new front. He refused to believe repeated warnings from his intelligence services on the Nazi buildup, fearing the reports to be British misinformation designed to spark a war between Germany and the USSR. The spy Dr. Richard Sorge gave Stalin the exact German launch date; Swedish cryptanalysts led by Arne Beurling also knew the date beforehand, but it should be noted that Sorge as well as other informers already gave different dates before the actual invasion which happened to pass peacefully. The Germans set up deception operations, from April 1941, to add substance to their claims that Britain was the real target: Operations Haifisch and Harpune. These simulated preparations in Norway, the Channel coast and Britain. There were supporting activities such as ship concentrations, reconnaissance flights and training exercises. Invasion plans were developed and some details were allowed to leak. Hitler and his generals also researched Napoleon's failed invasion of Russia. At Hitler's insistence, the German High Command (OKW) began to develop a strategy to avoid repeating these mistakes. The strategy Hitler and his generals agreed upon involved three separate army groups assigned to capture specific regions and cities of the Soviet Union. The main German thrusts were conducted along historical invasion routes. Army Group North was assigned to march through the Baltics, into northern Russia, and either take or destroy the city of Leningrad (now Saint Petersburg). Army Group Center would advance to Smolensk and then Moscow, marching through what is now Belarus and the west-central regions of Russia proper. Army Group South was to strike the heavily populated and agricultural heartland of Ukraine, taking Kiev before continuing eastward over the steppes of the southern USSR all the way to the Volga and the oil-rich Caucasus. Hitler, the OKW and the various high commands disagreed about what the main objectives should be. In the preparation for Barbarossa, most of the OKW argued for a straight thrust to Moscow, whereas Hitler kept asserting his intention to seize the resource-rich Ukraine and Baltics before concentrating on Moscow. An initial delay, which postponed the start of Barbarossa from mid-May to the end of June 1941, may have been insignificant, especially since the Russian muddy season came late that year. However, more time was lost at various critical moments as Hitler and the OKW suspended operations in order to argue about strategic objectives. Along with the strategic objectives, the Germans also decided to bring rear forces (mostly Waffen-SS units and Einsatzgruppen) into the conquered territories to counter any partisan activity which they knew would erupt in the areas they controlled. Soviet preparations Despite the estimation by Hitler and others in the German high command, the Soviet Union was by no means a weak country. Rapid industrialization in the 1930s had resulted in industrial output second only to that of the United States, and equal to that of Germany. Production of military equipment grew steadily, and in the pre-war years the economy became progressively more oriented toward military production. In the early 1930s, a very modern operational doctrine for the Red Army was developed and promulgated in the 1936 field regulations. On the 5 of May 1941 Stalin gave a speech to graduates of military academies in Moscow declaring: "War with Germany is inevitable. If comrade Molotov can manage to postpone the war for two or three months that will be our good fortune, but you yourselves must go off and take measures to raise the combat readiness of our forces" N. Lyashchenko, 'O vystuplenii I. V. Stalina v Kremle, 5 maya 1941', Volkogonov Papers, reel no.8, p.1. . Many highlight this as recognition by Stalin of the impeding attack. +Development of the armed forces of the Soviet Unionfrom 1939 to 1941 Meltyukhov 2000:446 Table composed by the author according to: История второй мировой войны. Т. 4. С. 18; 50 лет Вооруженных Сил СССР. М., 1968. С. 201; Советская военная энциклопедия. T. I. M., 1976, С. 56; Боевой и численный состав Вооруженных Сил СССР в период Великой Отечественной войны (1941–1945 гг.). Статистический сборник № 1 (22 июня 1941 г.). М., 1994. С. 10–12; РГАСПИ. Ф. 71. Оп. 25. Д. 4134. Л. 1–8; Д. 5139. Л. 1; РГВА. Ф. 29. Оп. 46. Д. 272. Л. 20–21; учтены пограничные и внутренние войска: Пограничные войска СССР в годы Второй мировой войны, 1939–1945. М., 1995. С. 390–400; РГВА. Ф. 38261. Оп. 1. Д. 255. Л. 175–177, 340–349; Ф. 38650. Оп. 1. Д. 617. Л. 258–260; Ф. 38262. Оп. 1, Д. 41. Л. 83–84; РГАЭ. Ф. 1562. Оп. 329. Д. 277. Л. 1–46, 62, 139; Д. 282. Л. 3–44. 1 January 193922 June 1941% increase Divisions calculated 131.5 316.5 140.7 Personnel 2,485,000 5,774,000 132.4 Guns and mortars 55,800 117,600 110.7 Tanks 21,100 25,700 21.8 Aircraft 7,700 18,700 142.8 According to Taylor and Proektor (1974), the Soviet armed forces in the western districts were outnumbered by their German counterparts, 2.6 million Soviet soldiers vs. 4.5 million for the Axis. The overall size of the Soviet armed forces in early July 1941, though, amounted to a little more than 5 million men, 2.6 million in the west, 1.8 million in the far east, with the rest being deployed or training elsewhere. A.J.P Taylor & D. M Proektor,p98 These figures, however, can be misleading. The figure for Soviet strength in the western districts of the Soviet Union counts only the First Strategic Echelon, which was stationed on and behind the Soviet western frontier to a depth of 400 kilometres; it also underestimates the size of the First Strategic Echelon, which was actually 2.9 million strong. The figure does not include the smaller Second Strategic Echelon, which as of 22 June 1941 was in process of moving toward the frontier; according to the Soviet strategic plan, it was scheduled to be in position reinforcing the First Strategic Echelon by early July. The total Axis strength is also exaggerated; 3.3 million German troops were earmarked for participation in Barbarossa, but that figure includes reserves which did not take part in the initial assault. A further 600,000 troops provided by Germany's allies also participated, but mostly after the initial assault. Total Axis forces available for Barbarossa were therefore in the order of 3.9 million. On 22 June, the German Wehrmacht was able to achieve a local superiority in its initial assault (98 German divisions), including 29 armoured and motorized divisions, some 90% of its mobile forces, attacking on a front of 1,200 kilometres between the Baltic Sea and the Carpathian Mountains, against NKVD border troops and the divisions of the Soviet First Operational Echelon (the part of the First Strategic Echelon stationed immediately behind the frontier) in the three western Special Military Districts) because it had completed its deployment and was ready to attack about two weeks before the Red Army was scheduled to have completed its own deployment with the Second Strategic Echelon in place. At the time, 41% of stationary Soviet bases were located in the near-boundary districts, many of them in the 200 km strip around the border; according to Red Army directive, fuel, equipment railroad cars etc. were similarly concentrated there. Meltyukhov 2000:414 Moreover, on mobilization, as the war went on, the Red Army gained steadily in strength. While the strength of both sides varied, in general it is accurate to say that the 1941 campaign was fought with the Axis having slight numerical superiority in manpower at the front. According to Mikhail Meltyukhov (2000:477), by the beginning of war, Red Army numbered altogether 5,774,211 troops: 4,605,321 in ground forces, 475,656 in air forces, 353,752 in the navy, 167,582 as border guards and 171,900 in internal troops of the NKVD. In some key weapons systems, however, the Soviet numerical advantage was considerable. In tanks, for example, the Red Army had a large superiority. It possessed 23,106 tanks,<ref>N.P.Zolotov and S.I. Isayev, "Boyegotovy byli...", Voenno-Istorichesskiy Zhurnal, N° 11: 1993, p. 77</ref> of which about 12,782 were in the five Western Military Districts (three of which directly faced the German invasion front). However, maintenance and readiness standards were very poor; ammunition and radios were in short supply, and many units lacked the trucks needed for resupply beyond their basic fuel and ammunition loads. Also, from 1938, the Soviets had partly dispersed their tanks to infantry divisions for infantry support, but after their experiences in the Winter War and their observation of German Blitzkrieg tactics against France, had begun to emulate the Germans and organize most of their armoured assets into large, fully mechanized divisions and corps. This reorganization however was only partially implemented at the dawn of Barbarossa, The Russian Front by James F. Dunnigan, Arms & Armour Press 1978, p 82, 88 ISBN 0-85368-152-X as not enough tanks were available to bring the mechanised corps up to organic strength. The German Wehrmacht had about 5,200 tanks overall, of which 3,350 were committed to the invasion. This yields a balance of immediately-available tanks of approximately 4:1 in the Red Army's favor. The best Soviet tank, the T-34, was the most modern in the world, and the KV series the best armoured. The most advanced Soviet tank models, however, the T-34 and KV-1, were not available in large numbers early in the war, and only accounted for 7.2% of the total Soviet tank force. But while these 1,861 modern tanks were technically superior to the 1,404 German medium Panzer III and IV tanks, the Soviets in 1941 still lacked the communications, training and experience to employ such weapons effectively. The Soviet numerical advantage in heavy equipment was also more than offset by the greatly superior training and readiness of German forces. The Soviet officer corps and high command had been decimated by Stalin's Great Purge (1936–1938). Of 90 generals arrested, only six survived the purges, as did only 36 of 180 divisional commanders, and just seven out of 57 army corps commanders. In total, some 30,000 Red Army personnel were executed, Rayfield 2004, p. 315. while more were shipped to Siberia and replaced with officers deemed more "politically reliable." Three of the five pre-war marshals and about two thirds of the corps and division commanders were shot. This often left younger, less experienced officers in their places; for example, in 1941, 75% of Red Army officers had held their posts for less than one year. The average Soviet corps commander was 12 years younger than the average German division commander. These officers tended to be very reluctant to take the initiative and often lacked the training necessary for their jobs. The number of aircraft was also heavily in the Soviets' favor. However, Soviet aircraft were largely obsolete, and Soviet artillery lacked modern fire control techniques. Dunnigan, Russian Front, pp 93-94 Most Soviet units were on a peacetime footing, explaining why aviation units had their aircraft parked in closely-bunched neat rows, rather than dispersed, making easy targets for the Luftwaffe in the first days of the conflict. Prior to the invasion the VVS was forbidden to shoot down Luftwaffe reconnaissance aircraft, despite hundreds of pre-war flights into Soviet airspace. The Soviet war effort in the first phase of the Eastern front war was severely hampered by a shortage of modern aircraft. The Soviet fighter force was equipped with large numbers of obsolete aircraft, such as the I-15 biplane and the I-16. In 1941, the MiG-3, LaGG-3 and Yak-1 were just starting to roll off the production lines, but were far inferior in all-round performance to the Messerschmitt Bf 109 or later, the Fw 190, when it entered operations in September 1941. Few aircraft had radios and those that were available were unencrypted and did not work reliably. The poor performance of VVS (Voenno-Vozdushnye Sily, Soviet Air Force) during the Winter War with Finland had increased the Luftwaffe's confidence that the Soviets could be mastered. The standard of flight training had been accelerated in preparation for a German attack that was expected to come in 1942 or later. But Soviet pilot training was extremely poor. Order No 0362 of the People's Commissar of Defense, dated December 22, 1940, ordered flight training to be accelerated and shortened. Incredibly, while the Soviets had 201 MiG-3s and 37 MiG-1s combat ready on 22 June 1941, only four pilots had been trained to handle these machines. Bergström, p11-12 The Red Army was dispersed and unprepared, and units were often separated and without transportation to concentrate prior to combat. Although the Red Army had numerous, well-designed artillery pieces, some of the guns had no ammunition. Artillery units often lacked transportation to move their guns. Tank units were rarely well-equipped, and also lacked training and logistical support. Maintenance standards were very poor. Units were sent into combat with no arrangements for refueling, ammunition resupply, or personnel replacement. Often, after a single engagement, units were destroyed or rendered ineffective. The army was in the midst of reorganizing the armor units into large tank corps, adding to the disorganization. As a result, although on paper the Red Army in 1941 seemed at least the equal of the German army, the reality in the field was far different; incompetent officers, as well as partial lack of equipment, insufficient motorised logistical support, and poor training placed the Red Army at a severe disadvantage. For example, throughout the early part of the campaign, the Red Army lost about six tanks for every German tank lost. In the spring of 1941, Stalin's own intelligence services made regular and repeated warnings of an impending German attack. However, Stalin chose to ignore these warnings. Although acknowledging the possibility of an attack in general and making significant preparations, he decided not to run the risk of provoking Hitler. He had fielded officers who were likely indeed to tell him only what he wanted to hear, so that he believed that the position of the Soviet Union in early 1941 was much stronger than it actually was. He also had an ill-founded confidence in the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, which had been signed just two years before. Last, he also suspected the British of trying to spread false rumours in order to trigger a war between Germany and the USSR. Roberts 1995, p. 1293. Wold at War series: Volume 5. Supported by Dr. Grigori Tokaty (1909-2003), defected to Britain 1947. Consequently, the Soviet border troops were not put on full alert and were sometimes even forbidden to fire back without permission when attacked — though a partial alert was implemented on April 10 — they were simply not ready when the German attack came. This may be the source of the argument cited below by Viktor Suvorov. Enormous Soviet forces were massed behind the western border in case the Germans did attack. However, these forces were very vulnerable due to changes in the tactical doctrine of the Red Army. In 1938 it had adopted, on the instigation of General Pavlov, a standard linear defence tactic on a line with other nations. Infantry divisions, reinforced by an organic tank component, would be dug in to form heavily fortified zones. Then came the shock of the Fall of France. The French Army, considered the strongest in the world, was defeated in a mere six weeks. Soviet analysis of events, based on incomplete information, concluded that the collapse of the French was caused by a reliance on linear defence and a lack of armoured reserves. The Soviets decided not to repeat these mistakes. Instead of digging in for linear defence, the infantry divisions would henceforth be concentrated in large formations. Roberts 1995, p. 1297-1298 Most tanks would also be concentrated into 31 mechanised corps, each with over 1000 tanks - larger than an entire German panzer army (though only a few such corps had attained their nominal strength by June 22). Should the Germans attack, their armoured spearheads would be cut off and wiped out by the mechanised corps. These would then cooperate with the infantry armies to drive back the German infantry, vulnerable in its approach march. The Soviet left wing, in Ukraine, was to be enormously reinforced to be able to execute a strategic envelopment: after destroying German Army Group South, it would swing north through Poland in the back of Army Groups Centre and North. With the complete annihilation of the encircled German Army thus made inevitable, a Red Army offensive into the rest of Europe would follow. Roberts 1995, p. 1212-14. Roberts 1995, p. 1309-1310. The Soviet offensive plans theory Counter-arguments to the usual interpretation have been advanced by former GRU defector Viktor Suvorov, author of Icebreaker. This book argues that Soviet ground forces were extremely well organized, and were mobilizing en masse all along the German-Soviet border for a Soviet invasion of Europe slated for Sunday July 6, 1941. The German Barbarossa, he claims, actually was a pre-emptive strike that capitalized on the massive Soviet troop concentrations immediately on the 1941 Nazi Germany's borders. Suvorov argues therefore that Soviet troop concentrations on Germany's borders were offensive in nature, not defensive as usually described. His interpretation has been thoroughly rejected by various respected historians, in particular David Glantz, and has not found much serious support among Western academic historians. There is though strong recently discovered evidence in a speech that remained un-published but recently recovered Robert Service, Stalin: A Biography,Macmillan, 2004 ISBN 978-0-330-41913-0, Chapter: The Devils Sup', Volkogonov Papers, reel no.8, p.1. . On the 5 of May 1941 Stalin gave a speech to graduates of military academies in Moscow stating clearly offensive intentions: "A good defence signifies the need to attack. Attack is the best form of defence... We must now conduct a peaceful, defensive policy with attack. Yes, defence with attack. We must now re-teach our army and commanders. Educate them in the spirit of attack" N. Lyashchenko, 'O vystuplenii I. V. Stalina v Kremle, 5 maya 1941', Volkogonov Papers, reel no.8, p.1. . A study by Russian military historian Mikhail Meltyukhov (“Stalin's Missed Chance”) supports the claim that Soviet forces were concentrating in order to attack Germany. However, he rejects the statement that the German invasion was a pre-emptive strike: Meltyukhov believes both sides were preparing for the assault but neither believed in the possibility of an attack by the other side. Other Russian historians who support this thesis are Vladimir Nevezhin, Boris Sokolov and Valeri Danilov. In key points this argumentation resembles the interpretation of German historians Werner Maser and Joachim Hoffmann. Bellamy 2007, p. 115. The now published Zhukov proposal of May 15, 1941 Russian original called for a Soviet strike against Germany. Thus the document suggested secret mobilisation and deploying Red Army troops next to the Western border, under the cover of training. Although generally believed to be a mere draft disapproved of by Stalin, As e.g. David Glantz has claimed: Although Defense Commissar S. K. Timoshenko initialed the proposal, there is no evidence either that Stalin saw it or acted upon it. the above mentioned historians have argued, that — given Stalin's concentration of power — the thesis of Soviet generals pursuing a line independent of Stalin's and composing an invasion plan must have been extremely improbable. Moreover, it is argued that the actual Soviet troops concentration was near the border, just like fuel depots and airfields. All of this was unsuitable for defensive operations. (Maser 1994: 376–378; Hoffmann 1999: 52–56) Suvorov presents a piece of evidence favoring the theory of an impending Soviet attack: the maps and phrasebooks issued to Soviet troops. Military topographic maps, unlike other military supplies, are strictly local and cannot be used elsewhere than in the intended target. According to Suvorov, Soviets were issued with maps of Germany and German-occupied territory, and phrasebooks including questions about SA offices — SA offices were found only in German territory proper. In contrast, according to Suvorov, maps of Soviet territory were scarce. Notably, after the German attack, the officer responsible for maps, Lieutenant General M.K. Kudryavtsev was not punished by Stalin, who was known for extreme punishments after failures to obey his orders. According to Suvorov, this demonstrates that General Kudryavtsev was obeying the orders of Stalin, who simply did not expect a German attack. However, none of this is conclusive evidence of Soviet plans for a strategic attack on Germany, especially since Soviet doctrine emphasized the offensive at the operational level, even if the country was strategically on the defensive. +Strength of the opposing forces on theSoviet Western border. June 22, 1941Germany and AlliesSoviet UnionRatio Divisions 166 190 1 : 1.1 Personnel 4,306,800 3,289,851 1.3 : 1 Guns and mortars 42,601 59,787 1 : 1.4 Tanks (incl assault guns) 4,171 15,687 1 : 3.8 Aircraft 4,389 Bergström 2007, p. 130:Uses figures from German archives. Bundesarchiv-Militararchiv, Frieburg; Luftfahrtmuseum, Hannover-Laatzen; WASt Deutsche Dienststelle, Berlin 11, 537 Bergström 2007, p. 131-2: Uses Soviet Record Archives including the Rosvoyentsentr, Moscow; Russian Aviation Research Trust; Russian Central Military Archive TsAMO, Podolsk; Monino Air Force Museum, Moscow. 1 : 2.6Source: Mikhail Meltyukhov “Stalin's Missed Chance” table 47, Meltyukhov 2000, (electronic version). Note that due to the fact that Russian archives have been and to an extent still are inaccessible, exact figures have been difficult to ascertain. The official Soviet sources invariably over-estimated German strength and downplayed Soviet strength, as emphasized by David Glantz (1998:292). Some of the earlier Soviet figures claimed that there had been only 1,540 Soviet aircraft to face Germany's 4,950; that there were merely 1,800 Red Army tanks and assault guns facing 2,800 German units etc. In 1991, Russian military historian Mikhail Meltyukhov published an article on this question (Мельтюхов М.И. 22 июня 1941 г.: цифры свидетельствуют // История СССР. 1991. № 3) with other figures that slightly differed from those of the table here, though had similar ratios. Glantz (1998:293) was of the opinion that those figures “appear[ed] to be most accurate regarding Soviet forces and those of Germany's allies,″ though other figures also occur in modern publications. The invasion Composition of the Axis forces Halder as the Chief of General Staff OKH concentrated the following Wehrmacht and Luftwaffe forces for the operation: Army Group North (Heeresgruppe Nord) (Wilhelm Ritter von Leeb) staged in East Prussia with (26 divisions): 16th Army (16. Armee) (Ernst Busch) 4th Panzer Group (Panzergruppe 4) (Hoepner) 18th Army (18. Armee) (Georg von Küchler) Air Fleet 1 (Luftflotte eins) (Alfred Keller) Army Group Centre (Heeresgruppe Mitte) (Fedor von Bock) staged in Eastern Poland with (49 divisions): 4th Army (4. Armee) (Günther von Kluge) 2nd Panzer Group (Panzergruppe 2) (Guderian) 3rd Panzer Group (Panzergruppe 3) (Hermann Hoth) 9th Army (9. Armee) (Strauss) Air Fleet 2 (Luftflotte zwei) (Albert Kesselring) Army Group South (Heeresgruppe Süd) (Gerd von Rundstedt) was staged in Southern Poland and Romania with (41 divisions): 17th Army (17. Armee) (Carl-Heinrich von Stülpnagel) Slovak Expeditionary Force (Čatloš) Royal Hungarian Army "Fast Moving Army Corps"(Miklós) - Initially part of a larger "Karpat Group" (Karpat Gruppe) 1st Panzer Group (Panzergruppe 1) (von Kleist) 11th Army (Eugen Ritter von Schobert) Italian Expeditionary Corps in Russia (Corpo di Spedizione Italiano in Russia, CSIR) (Messe) 6th Army (6. Armee) (Walther von Reichenau) Romanian 3rd Army (Dumitrescu) Romanian 4th Army (Constantinescu) Air Fleet 4 (Luftflotte vier) (Alexander Löhr) Staged from Norway a smaller group of forces consisted of: Army High Command Norway (Armee-Oberkommando Norwegen) (Nikolaus von Falkenhorst) with two Corps Air Fleet 5 (Luftflotte funf) (Stumpff) Numerous smaller units from all over Nazi-occupied Europe, like the "Legion of French Volunteers Against Bolshevism" (Légion des Volontaires Français contre le Bolchévisme), supported the German war effort. Composition of the Soviet Forces At the beginning of the German Reich’s invasion of the Soviet Union on June 22, 1941 the Red Army areas of responsibility in the European USSR were divided into four active Fronts. More Fronts would be formed within the overall responsibility of the three Strategic Directions commands which corresponded approximately to a German Army (Wehrmacht Heer) Army Group (Heeresgruppen) in terms of geographic area of operations. On Zhukov's orders immediately following the invasion the Northern Front was formed from the Leningrad Military District, the North-Western Front from the Baltic Special Military District, the Western Front was formed from the Western Special Military District, and the Soviet Southwestern Front was formed from the Kiev Special Military District. The Southern Front was created on the June 25, 1941 from the Odessa Military District. The first Directions were established on 10 July 1941, with Voroshilov commanding the North-Western Strategic Direction, Timoshenko commanding the Western Strategic Direction, and Budyonny commanding the South-Western Strategic Direction. Keith E. Bonn (ed.), Slaughterhouse: Handbook of the Eastern Front, Aberjona Press, Bedford, PA, 2005, p.299 The forces of the North-Western Direction were: John Erickson, The Road to Stalingrad, Cassel Military Paperbacks, 2003 edition, p.172 The Northern Front (Colonel General Markian Popov) bordered Finland and included the 14th Army, 7th Army, 23rd Army and smaller units subordinate to the Front commander. The North-Western Front (Colonel General Fyodor Kuznetsov) defended the Baltic region and consisted of the 8th Army, 11th Army, and the 27th Army and other front troops (34 divisions). The Northern and Baltic Fleets The forces of the Western Direction were: The Western Front (General Dmitry Grigoryevitch Pavlov) had the 3rd Army, 4th Army, 10th Army and the Army Headquarters of the 13th Army which coordinated independent Front formations (45 divisions). The Pinsk Flotilla The forces of the South-Western Direction were: The South-Western Front (Colonel General Mikhail Kirponos) was formed from the 5th Army, 6th Army, 12th Army and the 26th Army as well as a group of units under Strategic Direction command (45 divisions). The Southern Front (General Ivan Tyulenev) was created on June 25, 1941 with 9th Independent Army, 18th Army, 2nd and 18th Mechanized Corps (26 divisions). The Black Sea Fleet Beside the Armies in the Fronts, there were a further six armies in the Western region of the USSR: 16th Army, 19th Army, 20th Army, 21st Army, 22nd Army and the 24th Army that formed, together with independent units, the Stavka Reserve Group of Armies, later renamed the Reserve Front nominally under Stalin's direct command. Opening phase (22 June 1941 - 3 July 1941) German advances during the opening phases of Operation Barbarossa At 3:15 am on Sunday, 22 June 1941, the Axis attacked starting with bombing major Soviet cities. It is difficult to precisely pinpoint the strength of the opposing sides in this initial phase, as most German figures include reserves slated for the East but not yet committed, as well as several other issues of comparability between the German and USSR's figures. A reasonable estimate is that roughly three million Wehrmacht troops went into action on June 22, and that they were facing slightly fewer Soviet troops in the border Military Districts. The contribution of the German allies would generally only begin to make itself felt later in the campaign. The surprise was complete: though the Stavka, alarmed by reports that Wehrmacht units were approaching the border, had at 00:30 AM ordered that the border troops be warned that war was imminent, only a small number of units were alerted in time. The shock stemmed less from the timing of the attack than from the sheer number of Axis troops who struck into Soviet territory simultaneously. Aside from the roughly 3.2 million German ground troops engaged in, or earmarked for the Eastern Campaign, about 500,000 Romanian, Hungarian, Slovakian, Croatian, and Italian troops eventually accompanied the German forces, while the Army of Finland waged a separate war against the SU, who attacked Finland on 22nd of June 1941.The Allied Summit in Tehran recognized on 1st of December 1943 the Finnish separate status and decided to negotiate Finland out of the war. Finland did not attack Leningrad or any other target of the German army. The 250th Spanish "Blue" Infantry Division was a formation of Spanish Falangists and Nazi sympathisers. Reconnaissance units of the Luftwaffe worked at a frantic pace to plot troop concentration, supply dumps, and airfields, and mark them for destruction. The task of the Luftwaffe was to neutralise the Soviet Air Force. This was not achieved in the first days of operations, despite the Soviets having concentrated aircraft in huge groups on the permanent airfields rather than dispersing them on field landing strips, making them ideal targets. The Luftwaffe claimed to have destroyed 1,489 aircraft on the first day of operations. Bergström 2007, p. 20 Hermann Göring, Chief of the Luftwaffe distrusted the reports and ordered the figure checked. Picking through the wreckages of Soviet airfields, the Luftwaffe's figures proved conservative, as over 2,000 destroyed Soviet aircraft were found.. The Luftwaffe lost 35 aircraft on the first day of combat. The Germans claimed to have destroyed only 3,100 Soviet aircraft in the first three days. In fact the Soviet losses were far higher, some 3,922 Soviet machines had been lost (according to Russian Historian Viktor Kulikov). Bergstrom 2007, p. 23. The Luftwaffe had achieved air superiority over all three sectors of the front, and would maintain it until the close of the year, largely due to the need by the Red Army Air Forces to manoeuvre in support of retreating ground troops. The Luftwaffe would now be able to devote large numbers of its Geschwader (See Luftwaffe Organization) to support the ground forces. Army Group North Opposite Heersgruppe Nord were two Soviet armies. The Wehrmacht OKH thrust the 4th Panzer Group, with a strength of 600 tanks, at the junction of the two Soviet armies in that sector. The 4th Panzer Group's objective was to cross the rivers Neman and Daugava (Dvina) which were the two largest obstacles in the direction of advance towards Leningrad. On the first day, the tanks crossed the River Neman and penetrated . Near Raseiniai, the tanks were counterattacked by 300 Soviet tanks. It took four days for the Germans to encircle and destroy the Soviet armour. The Panzer Groups then crossed the Daugava near Daugavpils. The Germans were now within striking distance of Leningrad. However, due to their deteriorated supply situation, Hitler ordered the Panzer Groups to hold their position while the infantry formations caught up. The orders to hold would last over a week, giving time for the Soviets to build up a defence around Leningrad and along the bank of River Luga. Further complicating the Soviet position, on 22 June the anti-Soviet June Uprising in Lithuania began, and on the next day an independent Lithuania was proclaimed. Gediminas Zemlickas. Pasaulyje—kaip savo namuose, Mokslo Lietuva, 11 February 1998, No. 3 (161) An estimated 30,000 Lithuanian rebels engaged Soviet forces, joined by ethnic Lithuanians from the Red Army. As the Germans reached further north, armed resistance against the Soviets broke out in Estonia as well. The "Battle of Estonia" ended on 7 August, when the 18.Armee reached the coast at Kunda. Bergstrom 2007, p. 36. Army Group Centre Opposite Heersgruppe Mitte were four Soviet armies: the 3rd, 4th, 10th and 11th Armies. The Soviet Armies occupied a salient which jutted into German occupied Polish territory with the Soviet salient's center at Bialystok. Beyond Bialystok was Minsk, both the capital of Belorussia and a key railway junction. The goals of the AG Centre's two Panzer Groups was to meet at Minsk, denying an escape route to the Red Army from the salient. The 3rd Panzer Group broke through the junction of two Soviet Fronts in the North of the salient, and crossed the River Neman while the 2nd Panzer Group crossed the Western Bug river in the South. While the Panzer Groups attacked, the Wehrmacht Army Group Centre infantry Armies struck at the salient, eventually encircling Soviet troops at Bialystok. Moscow at first failed to grasp the dimensions of the catastrophe that had befallen the USSR. Marshall Timoshenko ordered all Soviet forces to launch a general counter-offensive, but with supply and ammunition dumps destroyed, and a complete collapse of communication, the uncoordinated attacks failed. Zhukov signed the infamous Directive of People's Commissariat of Defence No. 3 (he later claimed under pressure from Stalin), which demanded that the Red Army start an offensive: he commanded the troops “to encircle and destroy the enemy grouping near Suwałki and to seize the Suwałki region by the evening of June 26" and “to encircle and destroy the enemy grouping invading in Vladimir-Volynia and Brody direction” and even “to seize the Lublin region by the evening of 24.6” as cited by Suvorov: http://militera.lib.ru/research/suvorov7/12.html This manoeuvre failed and disorganised Red Army units, which were soon destroyed by the Wehrmacht forces. On 27 June 2nd and 3rd Panzer Groups met up at Minsk advancing into Soviet territory and a third of the way to Moscow. In the vast pocket between Minsk and the Polish border, the remnants of 32 Soviet Rifle, eight tank, and motorized, cavalry and artillery divisions were encircled. Army Group South Opposite Heersgruppe Süd in Ukraine Soviet commanders had reacted quickly to the German attack. From the start, the invaders faced a determined resistance. Opposite the Germans in Ukraine were three Soviet armies, the 5th, 6th and 26th. The German infantry Armies struck at the junctions of these armies while the 1st Panzer Group drove its armored spearhead of 600 tanks right through the Soviet 6th Army with the objective of capturing Brody. On 26 June five Soviet mechanized corps with over 1,000 tanks mounted a massive counter-attack on the 1st Panzer Group. The battle was among the fiercest of the invasion, lasting over four days; in the end the Germans prevailed, though the Soviets inflicted heavy losses on the 1st Panzer Group. With the failure of the Soviet counter-offensives, the last substantial Soviet tank forces in Western Ukraine had been committed, and the Red Army assumed a defensive posture, focusing on conducting a strategic withdrawal under severe pressure. By the end of the first week, all three German Army Groups had achieved major campaign objectives. However, in the vast pocket around Minsk and Bialystok, the Soviets were still fighting; reducing the pocket was causing high German casualties and many Red Army troops were also managing to escape. The usual estimated casualties of the Red Army amount to 600,000 killed, missing, captured or wounded. The Soviet air arm, the VVS, lost 1,561 aircraft over Kiev. Bergstrom 2007, p. 70. The battle was a huge tactical (Hitler thought strategic) victory, but it had succeeded in drawing German forces, away from an early offensive against Moscow, and had delayed further German progress by 11 weeks. General Kurt Von Tippleskirch noted, "The Russians had indeed lost a battle, but they won the campaign". Middle phase (3 July 1941 - 2 October 1941) German advances during Operation Barbarossa, 1941-06-22 to 1941-09-09. On 3 July Hitler finally gave the go-ahead for the Panzers to resume their drive east after the infantry divisions had caught up. However, a rainstorm typical of Russian summers slowed their progress and Russian defences also stiffened. The delays gave the Soviets time to organize for a massive counterattack against Army Group Centre. The ultimate objective of Army Group Centre was the city of Smolensk, which commanded the road to Moscow. Facing the Germans was an old Soviet defensive line held by six armies. On 6 July the Soviets launched an attack with 700 tanks against the 3rd Panzer Army. The Germans defeated this counterattack using their overwhelming air superiority. The 2nd Panzer Army crossed the River Dnieper and closed on Smolensk from the south while the 3rd Panzer Army, after defeating the Soviet counter attack, closed in Smolensk from the north. Trapped between their pincers were three Soviet armies. On 26 July the Panzer Groups closed the gap and 180,000 Red Army troops were captured. According to http://www.soldat.ru/doc/casualties/book/chapter5_13_08.html based on German sources (see site reference page) Four weeks into the campaign, the Germans realized they had grossly underestimated the strength of the Soviets. The German troops had run out of their initial supplies but still not attained the expected strategic freedom of movement. Operations were now slowed down to allow for a resupply; the delay was to be used to adapt the strategy to the new situation. Hitler had lost faith in battles of encirclement as large numbers of Soviet soldiers had continued to escape them and now believed he could defeat the Soviets by inflicting severe economic damage, depriving them from the industrial capacity to continue the war. That meant the seizure of the industrial center of Kharkov, the Donets Basin and the oil fields of the Caucasus in the south and a speedy capture of Leningrad, a major center of military production, in the north. He also wanted to link up with the Finns to the north. The German generals vehemently argued instead for continuing the all-out drive toward Moscow. Besides the psychological importance of capturing the enemy's capital, the generals pointed out that Moscow was a major center of arms production and the center of the Soviet communications and transportation system. More importantly, intelligence reports indicated that the bulk of the Red Army was deployed near Moscow under Semyon Timoshenko for an all-out defense of the capital. However, Hitler was adamant, and issued an order to send Army Group Centre's tanks to the north and south, temporarily halting the drive to Moscow. By mid-July below the Pinsk Marshes, the Germans had come within a few kilometers of Kiev. The 1st Panzer Army then went south while the German 17th Army struck east and in between the Germans trapped three Soviet armies near Uman. As the Germans eliminated the pocket, the tanks turned north and crossed the Dnieper. Meanwhile, the 2nd Panzer Army, diverted from Army Group Centre, had crossed the River Desna with 2nd Army on its right flank. The two Panzer armies now trapped four Soviet armies and parts of two others. For its final attack on Leningrad, the 4th Panzer Army was reinforced by tanks from Army Group Centre. On 8 August the Panzers broke through the Soviet defenses; the German 16th Army attacked to the northeast, the 18th Army cleared Estonia and advanced to Lake Peipus. By the end of August, 4th Panzer Army had penetrated to within of Leningrad. The Finns had pushed southeast on both sides of Lake Ladoga reaching the old Finnish-Soviet frontier. At this stage Hitler ordered the final destruction of Leningrad with no prisoners taken, and on 9 September Army Group North began the final push which within ten days brought it within of the city. However, the pace of advance over the last ten kilometers proved very slow and the casualties mounted. At this stage Hitler lost patience and ordered that Leningrad should not be stormed but starved into submission. He needed the tanks of Army Group North transferred to Army Group Centre for an all-out drive to Moscow. Before the attack on Moscow could begin, operations in Kiev needed to be finished. Half of Army Group Centre had swung to the south in the back of the Kiev position, while Army Group South moved to the north from its Dniepr bridgehead. The encirclement of Soviet Forces in Kiev was achieved on 16 September. The encircled Soviets did not give up easily, and a savage battle ensued in which the Soviets were hammered with tanks, artillery, and aerial bombardment. In the end, after ten days of vicious fighting, the Germans claimed over 600,000 Soviet soldiers captured (but that was false, the German did capture 600,000 males between the ages of 15-70 but only 480,000 were soldiers, out of which 180,000 broke out, netting the Axis 300,000 Prisoners of war). Final phase (2 October 1941 - 7 January 1942) The eastern front at the time of the Battle of Moscow: After Kiev, the Red Army no longer outnumbered the Germans and there were no more directly available trained reserves. To defend Moscow, Stalin could field 800,000 men in 83 divisions, but no more than 25 divisions were fully effective. Operation Typhoon, the drive to Moscow, began on October 2. In front of Army Group Centre was a series of elaborate defense lines, the first centered on Vyazma and the second on Mozhaisk. The first blow took the Soviets completely by surprise as 2nd Panzer Army returning from the south took Orel which was south of the Soviet first main defence line. Three days later the Panzers pushed on Bryansk while 2nd Army attacked from the west. Three Soviet armies were now encircled. To the north, the 3rd and 4th Panzer Armies attacked Vyazma, trapping another five Soviet armies. Moscow's first line of defence had been shattered. The pocket yielded 663,000 Soviet prisoners, bringing the tally since the start of the invasion to three million Soviet soldiers captured. The Soviets had only 90,000 men and 150 tanks left for the defense of Moscow. On 13 October 3rd Panzer Army penetrated to within of the capital. Martial law was declared in Moscow. Almost from the beginning of Operation Typhoon the weather had deteriorated. Temperatures fell while there was a continued rainfall, turning the unpaved road network into mud and steadily slowing the German advance on Moscow to as little as a day. The supply situation rapidly deteriorated. On 31 October the Germany Army High Command ordered a halt to Operation Typhoon while the armies were re-organized. The pause gave the Soviets (who were in a far better supply situation due to the use of their rail network) time to reinforce, and in little over a month the Soviets organized eleven new armies which included 30 divisions of Siberian troops. These had been freed from the Soviet far east as Soviet intelligence had assured Stalin there was no longer a threat from the Japanese. With the Siberian forces would come over 1,000 tanks and 1,000 aircraft. The Germans were nearing exhaustion, they also began to recall Napoleon's invasion of Russia. General Günther Blumentritt noted in his diary: They remembered what happened to Napoleon's Army. Most of them began to re-read Caulaincourt's grim account of 1812. That had a weighty influence at this critical time in 1941. I can still see Von Kluge trudging through the mud from his sleeping quarters to his office and standing before the map with Caulaincourt's book in his hand. A. Clark 1995, p. 165. On 15 November with the ground hardening due to the cold weather, the Germans once again began the attack on Moscow. Although the troops themselves were now able to advance again, there had been no delay allowed to improve the supply situation. Facing the Germans were six Soviet armies. The Germans intended to let 3rd and 4th Panzer Armies cross the Moscow Canal and envelop Moscow from the northeast. 2nd Panzer Army would attack Tula and then close in on Moscow from the south. As the Soviets reacted to the flanks, 4th Army would attack the center. In two weeks of desperate fighting, lacking sufficient fuel and ammunition, the Germans slowly crept towards Moscow. However, in the south, 2nd Panzer Army was being blocked. On 22 November Soviet Siberian units attacked the 2nd Panzer Army and inflicted a defeat on the Germans. However, 4th Panzer Army succeeded in crossing the Moscow canal and began the encirclement. On 2 December the 4th Panzer Army had penetrated to within of Moscow, but by then the first blizzards of the winter began. The Wehrmacht was not equipped for winter warfare. Frostbite and disease caused more casualties than combat, and dead and wounded had already reached 155,000 in three weeks. Some divisions were now at fifty percent strength. The bitter cold also caused severe problems for their guns and equipment, and weather conditions grounded the Luftwaffe. Newly built up Soviet units near Moscow now numbered over 500,000 men and on December 5 they launched a massive counterattack which pushed the Germans back over 320 kilometers (200 miles). The invasion of the USSR would cost the German Army over 250,000 dead and 500,000 wounded, the majority of whom became casualties after October 1 and an unknown number of Axis casualties such as Hungarians, Romanians and Waffen SS troops as well as co-belligerent Finns Later events It is sometimes argued that the fatal decision of the operation was the postponement from the original date of May 15 because Hitler wanted to intervene against an anti-German coup in Yugoslavia and Greek advances against Italy's occupation of Albania. However, this was just one of the reasons for the postponement — the other was the late spring of 1941 in Russia, compounded by particularly rainy weather during June 1941 which made a number of roads in western parts of the Soviet Union impassable to heavy vehicles. During the campaign, Hitler ordered the main thrust toward Moscow to be diverted southward in order to help the southern army group capture Ukraine. This move delayed the assault on the Soviet capital, although it also helped to secure Army Group Center's southern flank. By the time they turned their sights on Moscow, the fierce resistance of the Red Army, assisted by the mud following the autumn rains and eventually the winter snowfall, brought their advance to a halt. In addition, resistance by the Soviets, who proclaimed a Great Patriotic War in defence of the motherland, was much fiercer than the German command had expected. The border fortress of Brest, Belarus illustrates that tenacity: attacked on the very first day of the German invasion, the fortress was expected to be captured by surprise within hours, but held out for weeks (Soviet propaganda later asserted that it held out for six weeks). See also Charles Messenger, The Chronological Atlas of World War Two (New York: Macmillan Publishing 1989), p. 63. German logistics also became a major problem, as supply lines became very long and vulnerable to Soviet partisan attacks in the rear. The Soviets carried out a scorched earth policy on some of the land they were forced to abandon in order to deny the Germans the use of food, fuel, and buildings. Despite the setbacks, the Germans continued to advance, often destroying or surrounding whole armies of Soviet troops and forcing them to surrender. The battle for Kiev was especially brutal. On 19 September Army Group South seized control of Kiev, and took 665,000 Soviets prisoner. Kiev was later awarded the title Hero City for its heroic defence. Army Group North, which was to conquer the Baltic countries and eventually Leningrad, advanced as far as the southern outskirts of Leningrad by August 1941. There, fierce Soviet resistance stopped it. Since capturing the city seemed too costly, German command decided to starve the city to death by a blockade, starting the Siege of Leningrad. The city held out, despite several attempts by the Germans to break through its defenses, unrelenting air and artillery attacks, and severe shortages of food and fuel, until the Germans were driven back again from the city's approaches in early 1944. Leningrad was the first Soviet city to receive the title of 'Hero City'. In addition to the main attacks of Barbarossa, German forces occupied Finnish Petsamo in order to secure important nickel mines. They also launched the beginning of a series of attacks against Murmansk on 28 June 1941. That assault was known as Operation Silberfuchs. Causes of initial Soviet defeats The Red Army and air force were so badly defeated in 1941 chiefly because they were ill-prepared for the surprise attack by the armed forces of the Axis, which by 1941 were the most experienced and best-trained in the world. The Axis had a doctrine of mobility and annihilation, excellent communications, and the confidence that comes from repeated low-cost victories. The Soviet armed forces, by contrast, lacked leadership, training, and readiness. Much of Soviet planning assumed that no war would take place before 1942: thus the Axis attack came at a time when new organizations and promising, but untested, weapons were just beginning to trickle into operational units. And much of the Soviet Army in Europe was concentrated along the new western border of the Soviet Union, in former Polish territory which lacked significant defences, allowing many Soviet military units to be overrun and destroyed in the first weeks of war. Initially, many Soviet units were also hampered by Semyon Timoshenko's and Georgy Zhukov's prewar orders (demanded by Joseph Stalin) not to engage or to respond to provocations (followed by a similarly damaging first reaction from Moscow, an order to stand and fight, then counterattack; this left those military units vulnerable to German encirclements), by a lack of experienced officers, and by bureaucratic inertia. The initial tactical errors of the Soviets in the first few weeks of the Axis offensive proved catastrophic. Initially, the Red Army was fooled by a complete overestimation of its own capabilities. Instead of intercepting German armour, Soviet mechanised corps were ambushed and destroyed after Luftwaffe dive bombers inflicted heavy losses. Soviet tanks, poorly maintained and manned by inexperienced crews, suffered from an appalling rate of breakdowns. Lacks of spare parts and of trucks ensured a logistical collapse. The decision not to dig in the infantry divisions proved disastrous. Without tanks or sufficient motorisation, Soviet troops were incapable of waging mobile warfare against the Germans and their allies. Stalin's orders to his troops not to retreat or surrender resulted in a return to static linear positions which German tanks easily breached, again quickly cutting supply lines and surrounding whole Soviet armies. Only later did Stalin allow his troops to retreat to the rear wherever possible and regroup, to mount a defence in depth or to counterattack. More than 2.4 million Soviet troops had been taken prisoner by December, 1941, by which time German and Soviet forces were fighting almost in the suburbs of Moscow. Most of these captured Soviet troops were to die from exposure, starvation, disease, or willful mistreatment by the German regime. Despite the failure of the Axis to achieve Barbarossa's initial goals, the huge Soviet losses caused a shift in Soviet propaganda. Before the onset of hostilities against Germany, the Soviet government had stated that its army was very strong. But, by the autumn of 1941, the Soviet line was that the Red Army had been weak, that there had not been enough time to prepare for war, and that the German attack had come as a surprise. Viktor Suvorov gives an alternative explanation in his Icebreaker. The larger and better equipped Soviet armed forces, according to Suvorov, were preparing their own surprise offensive against Axis forces, targeting especially their oil supplies in Romania: Suvorov's sources suggest that July 6, 1941 – two weeks later than the actual German invasion – had been set as the start of Soviet Operation "Thunderstorm".<ref>В. Суворов '''', гл. 33 (online text)</ref> Russian historian Boris Sokolov, exploring pre-war Soviet planning, also concluded that after the German invasion on June 22, 1941, the Red Army undertook counterattacks within the framework of the planned offensive and that the subsequent defensive operations of the Soviet Army, in view of the absence of pre-war defensive plans, were merely improvised: Б.В. Соколов Правда о Великой Отечественной войне (Сборник статей).—СПб.: Алетейя, 1999 (online text) hence the initial gigantic defeats. In addition, Soviet exports of large amounts of raw materials to Germany provided by agreements during the countries' economic relationship proved vital to the initial success of the German invasion. Without Soviet exports, German stocks would have run out in several key products by October 1941, within three and a half months. Germany would have been completely out of rubber and grain on the first day of the invasion were it not for Soviet imports: {| class=wikitable |- ! !!Tot USSRimports ||June 1941German stocks||June 1941 (w/oUSSR imports) ||October 1941German stocks||October 1941 (w/oUSSR imports) |- style="text-align:center;" | align="left"|Oil Products||912||1350||438||905||-7 |- style="text-align:center;" | align="left"|Rubber||18.8 ||13.8 ||-4.9 ||12.1||-6.7 |- style="text-align:center;" | align="left"|Manganese||189.5 ||205 ||15.5 ||170||-19.5 |- style="text-align:center;" | align="left"|Grain||1637.1 ||1381 ||-256.1 ||761 ||-876.1 |- |colspan="13"|*German stocks in thousands of tons (with and without USSR imports-October 1941 aggregate) |} Without Soviet deliveries of these four major items, Germany could barely have attacked the Soviet Union, let alone come close to victory, even with more intense rationing. Outcome The climax of Operation Barbarossa came when Army Group Centre, already short on supplies because of the October mud, was ordered to advance on Moscow; forward units came within sight of the spires of the Kremlin in early December 1941. Soviet troops, well supplied and reinforced by fresh divisions from Siberia, defended Moscow in the Battle of Moscow, and drove the Germans back as the winter advanced. The bulk of the counter-offensive was directed at Army Group Center, which was closest to Moscow. With no shelter, few supplies, inadequate winter clothing, chronic food shortages, and nowhere to go, German troops had no choice but to wait out the winter in the frozen wasteland. The Germans managed to avoid being routed by Soviet counterattacks but suffered heavy casualties from battle and exposure. At the time, the seizure of Moscow was considered the key to victory for Germany. Historians currently debate whether or not loss of the Soviet capital would have caused the collapse of the Soviet Union, but Operation Barbarossa failed to achieve that goal. In December 1941, Germany joined Japan in declaring war against the United States. Within six months from the start of Operation Barbarossa, the strategic position of Germany had become desperate, since German military industries were unprepared for a long war. The outcome of Operation Barbarossa was at least as detrimental to the Soviets as it was to the Germans, however. Although the Germans had failed to take Moscow outright, they held huge areas of the western Soviet Union, including the entire regions of what are now Belarus, Ukraine, and the Baltic states, plus parts of Russia proper west of Moscow. German forces had advanced 1 689 kilometers (1,050 miles), and maintained a linearly-measured front of 3,058 kilometers (1,900 miles) . Glantz, David, The Soviet-German War 1941–45: Myths and Realities: A Survey Essay, October 11, 2001, page 7 The Germans held up to of territory with over 75 million people at the end of 1941, and would go on to seize another before being forced to retreat after defeats at Stalingrad and Kursk. However, the occupied areas were not always properly controlled by the Germans and underground activity rapidly escalated. Wehrmacht occupation had been brutal from the start, due to directives issued by Hitler himself at the start of the operation, according to which Slavic peoples were considered an inferior race of untermenschen. This attitude immediately alienated much of the population from the Nazis, while in some areas at least (for example, Ukraine) it seems that some local people had been ready to consider the Germans as liberators helping them to get rid of Stalin. Anti-German partisan operations intensified when Red Army units which had dissolved into the country's large uninhabited areas re-emerged as underground forces, which intensified under the repressive policies of the German armies. The Germans held on as stubbornly as possible in the face of Soviet counterattacks, resulting in huge casualties on both sides in many battles. The war on the Eastern Front went on for four years. The death toll may never be established with any degree of certainty. The most recent western estimate of Soviet military deaths is 7 million that lost their lives either in combat or in Axis captivity. Soviet civilian deaths remain under contention, though roughly 20 million is a frequently cited figure. German military deaths are also not clarified to a large extent. The most recent German estimate (Rüdiger Overmans) concluded that about 4.3 million Germans and a further 900,000 Axis forces lost their lives either in combat or in Soviet captivity. Operation Barbarossa is listed among the most lethal battles in world history. The Soviet Union had not signed the Geneva Convention (1929). However, a month after the German invasion in 1941, an offer was made for a reciprocal adherence to the Hague convention. This 'note' was left unanswered by Third Reich officials. Beevor, Stalingrad. Penguin 2001 ISBN 0141001313 p60 Causes of the failure of Operation Barbarossa The grave situation in which the beleaguered German army found itself, towards the end of 1941 was due to the increasing strength of the Red Army, compounded by a number of factors which in the short run severely restricted the effectiveness of the German forces. Chief among these were their overstretched deployment, a serious transport crisis affecting supply and movement and the eroded strength of most divisions. The infantry deficit that appeared by September 1, 1941 was never made good. For the rest of the war in the Soviet Union, the Wehrmacht would be short of infantry and support services. Parallels have been drawn with Napoleon's invasion of Russia. Underestimated Soviet potential German war planners grossly underestimated the mobilization potential of the Red Army: its primary mobilisation size (i.e. the total of already trained units that could be put on a war-footing in short time) was about twice as large as they had expected. By early August, new armies had taken the place of the destroyed ones. This fact alone implied the failure of Operation Barbarossa, for the Germans now had to limit their operations for a month to bring up new supplies, leaving only six weeks to complete the battle before the start of the mud season, an impossible task. On the other hand, the Red Army proved capable of replacing its huge losses in a timely fashion, and was not destroyed as a coherent force. When the divisions consisting of conscripts trained before the war were destroyed, they were replaced by new ones, on average about half a million men being drafted each month for the duration of the war. The Soviets also proved very skilled in raising and training many new armies from the different ethnic populations of the far flung republics. It was this Soviet ability to mobilise vast (if often badly trained and equipped) forces within a short time and on a continual basis which allowed the Soviet Union to survive the critical first six months of the war, and the grave underestimation of this capacity which rendered German planning unrealistic. In addition, data collected by Soviet intelligence excluded the possibility of a war with Japan, which allowed the Soviets to transfer forces from the Far East (troops who were fully trained to fight a winter war) to the European theatre. The German High Command grossly underestimated the effective control the central Soviet government exercised. The German High Command incorrectly believed the Soviet government was ineffective. The Germans based their hopes of quick victory on the belief the Soviet communist system was like a rotten structure which would collapse from a hard kick. German Attack of USSR ISBN 80 - 7237 - 279 - 3 In fact, the Soviet system proved resilient and surprisingly adaptable. In the face of early crushing defeats, the Soviets managed to dismantle entire industries threatened by the German advance. These critical factories, along with their skilled workers, were transported by rail to secure locations beyond the reach of the German army. Despite the loss of raw materials and the chaos of an invasion, the Soviets managed to build new armaments factories in sufficient numbers to allow the mass production of needed war machinery. The Soviet government was never in danger of collapse and remained at all times in tight control of the Soviet war effort. The Germans treated Soviet prisoners with brutality and exhibited cruelty toward overrun Soviet populations. The effect of this treatment instilled a deep hatred in the hearts and minds of the Soviet citizens. Hatred of the Germans enabled the Soviet government to extract a level of sacrifice from the Soviet population unheard of in Western nations. The Germans underestimated the Soviet people as well. The German High Command viewed Soviet soldiers as incompetent and considered the average citizen as an inferior human being. German soldiers were stunned by the ferocity with which the Red Army fought. German planners were amazed at the level of suffering the Soviet citizens could endure and still work and fight. A further reason for the German defeat was the underestimation of Soviet technical and productive capacity. Faults of logistical planning At the start of the war in the dry summer, the Germans took the Soviets by surprise and destroyed a large part of the Soviet Red Army in the first weeks. When favorable weather conditions gave way to the harsh conditions of the autumn and winter and the Red Army recovered, the German offensive began to falter. The German army could not be sufficiently supplied for prolonged combat; indeed there was simply not enough fuel available to let the whole of the army reach its intended objectives. This was well understood by the German supply units even before the operation, but their warnings were disregarded. The entire German plan was based on the premise that within five weeks the German troops would have attained full strategic freedom due to a complete collapse of the Red Army. Only then would it have been possible to divert necessary logistic support to the fuel requirements of the few mobile units needed to occupy the defeated state. German infantry and tanks stormed ahead in the first week, but their supply lines struggled to keep up. Soviet railroads could at first not be used due to a difference in railway gauges, until a sufficient supply of trains was seized. Lack of supplies significantly slowed down the blitzkrieg. The German logistical planning also seriously overestimated the condition of the Soviet transportation network. The road and railway network of former Eastern Poland was well known, but beyond that information was limited. Roads that looked impressive on maps turned out to be just mere dust roads or were only in the planning stages. van Creveld, Martin. Supplying War: Logistics from Wallenstein to Patton Cambridge, 1977. ISBN 0-421-29793-1 Weather A paper published by the U.S. Army's Combat Studies Institute in 1981 concluded that Hitler's plans miscarried before the onset of severe winter weather. He was so confident of quick victory that he did not prepare for even the possibility of winter warfare in the Soviet Union. Nonetheless, his eastern army suffered more than 734,000 casualties (about 23 percent of its average strength of 3,200,000 troops) during the first five months of the invasion, and on 27 November 1941, General Eduard Wagner, the Quartermaster General of the German Army, reported that "We are at the end of our resources in both personnel and material. We are about to be confronted with the dangers of deep winter." The German forces were not prepared to deal with harsh weather and the poor road network of the USSR. In autumn, the terrain slowed the Wehrmacht’s progress. Few roads were paved. The ground in the USSR was very loose sand in the summer, sticky muck in the autumn, and heavy snow during the winter. The German tanks had narrow treads with little traction and poor flotation in mud. In contrast, the new generation of Soviet tanks such as the T-34 and KV had wider tracks and were far more mobile in these conditions. The 600,000 large western European horses the Germans used for supply and artillery movement did not cope well with this weather. The small ponies used by the Red Army were much better adapted to this climate and could even scrape the icy ground with their hooves to dig up the weeds beneath. German troops were mostly unprepared for the harsh weather changes in the autumn and winter of 1941. Equipment had been prepared for such winter conditions, but the ability to move it up front over the severely overstrained transport network did not exist. Consequently, the troops were not equipped with adequate cold-weather gear, and some soldiers had to pack newspapers into their jackets to stay warm while temperatures dropped to record levels of at least -30 °C (-22 °F). To operate furnaces and heaters, the Germans also burned precious fuel that was difficult to re-supply. Soviet soldiers, in contrast, often had warm, quilted uniforms, felt-lined boots, and fur hats. Some German weapons malfunctioned in the cold. Lubricating oils were unsuitable for extreme cold, resulting in engine malfunction and misfiring weapons. To load shells into a tank’s main gun, frozen grease had to be chipped off with a knife. Soviet units faced less severe problems due to their experience with cold weather. Aircraft were supplied with insulating blankets to keep their engines warm while parked. Lighter-weight oil was used. Tanks and armored vehicles were unable to move due to a lack of antifreeze, causing fuel to solidify and further slowing the German advance. A common myth is that the combination of deep mud, followed by snow, stopped all military movement in the harsh Russian winter. In fact, military operations were slowed by these factors, but much more so on the German side than on the Soviet side. The Soviet December 1941 counteroffensive advanced up to in some sectors, demonstrating that mobile warfare was still possible under winter conditions. When the severe winter began, Hitler became fearful of a repetition of Napoleon's disastrous retreat from Moscow, and quickly ordered the German forces to hold their ground defiantly wherever possible in the face of Soviet counterattacks. This became known as the "stand or die" order. This prevented the Germans from being routed, but resulted in heavy casualties from battle and cold. Aftermath Soviet World War II poster depicting retreating Nazis, among them Hitler and Göring. Stalin deported German POWs to labour camps. Ethnic groups were also deported en masse to the east. Examples include: in September 1941, 439,000 Volga Germans (as well as more than 300,000 other Germans from various locations) were deported mainly to Kazakhstan as their autonomous republic was abolished by Stalin's decree; in May 1944, 182,000 Crimean Tatars were deported from the Crimea to Uzbekistan; and the complete deportation of Chechens (393,000) and Ingushs (91,000) to Kazakhstan took place in 1944 (see Population transfer in the Soviet Union). Germany's inability to achieve victory over the Soviet Union in Operation Barbarossa opened up the possibility for Soviet counterattacks to retake lost land and attack further into Germany proper. Starting in mid-1944, the overwhelming success in Operation Bagration and the quick victory in the Lvov-Sandomierz Offensive led to an unbroken string of Soviet gains and unsupportable losses for the German forces. Operation Barbarossa's failure paved the way for Soviet forces to fight all the way to Berlin, cementing the ultimate fall of Nazism and Germany's defeat in World War II. See also Eastern Front (World War II) Timeline of the Eastern Front of World War II Siege of Leningrad - the siege began in 1941 and was ended in 1944. Continuation War – the war at Finnish front Operation Silberfuchs – the attack on the Soviet Arctic Molotov Line – An incomplete Soviet defence line at the start of Operation Barbarossa Operation Nordlicht – Summer of 1942 was another major attack against besieged Leningrad Operation Blaufuchs – German–Finnish general operational plans Captured Tanks and Armoured cars for German use in Russian Front Captured German equipment in Soviet use on the Eastern front Pobediteli – Russian project celebrating the 60th anniversary of World War II The Battle of Russia – film from the Why We Fight'' propaganda film series Notes References Bellamy, Christopher (2007). Absolute War: Soviet Russia in World War Two. Knopf Publishers. ISBN 978-0-3754-1086-4 Bergstrom, Christer (2007). Barbarossa - The Air Battle: July-December 1941. London: Chervron/Ian Allen. ISBN 978-1-85780-270-2. Bethell, Nicholas and Time - Life Books Attack of USSR (Hard cover, ISBN 80-7237-279-3) Clark, Alan. Barbarossa: The Russian–German Conflict, 1941–45. New York: Willam Morrow & Co., 1965. Erickson, John. The Road to Stalingrad. London: Cassell Military, 2003 (paperback, ISBN 0304365416). Erickson, John and Dilks, David eds. Barbarossa: The Axis and the Allies. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1994 (hardcover, ISBN 0-7486-0504-5); 1998 (paperback, ISBN 0-7486-1111-8). Förster, Jürgen; Mawdsley, Evan. "Hitler and Stalin in Perspective: Secret Speeches on the Eve of Barbarossa", War in History, Vol. 11, Issue 1. (2004), pp. 61–103. Farrell, Brian P. "Yes, Prime Minister: Barbarossa, Whipcord, and the Basis of British Grand Strategy, Autumn 1941", The Journal of Military History, Vol. 57, No. 4. (1993), pp. 599–625. Glantz, David M. Barbarossa: Hitler's invasion of Russia, 1941. Stroud, Gloucestershire: Tempus, 2001 (paperback, ISBN 0-7524-1979-X). Glantz, David M. Stumbling Colossus: The Red Army on the Eve of World War. Lawrence, KA: University Press of Kansas, 1998 (hardcover, ISBN 0-7006-0879-6). Glantz, David M. Colossus Reborn: the Red Army at War, 1941–1943. Kansas: University Press of Kansas, 2005 (hardcover, ISBN 0-7006-1353-6). Gorodetsky, Gabriel Grand Delusion: Stalin and the German Invasion of Russia. New Haven, CT; London: Yale University Press, 2001 (paperback, ISBN 0300084595). Hoffmann, Joachim. Stalin's War of Extermination. Capshaw, AL: Theses & Dissertations Press, 2001 (hardcover, ISBN 0-9679856-8-4). Kershaw, Robert J. War Without Garlands: Operation Barbarossa, 1941/42. Shepperton: Ian Allan, 2000 (hardcover, ISBN 0-7110-2734-X). Kirchubel, Robert. Operation Barbarossa 1941 (1): Army Group South. Oxford: Osprey, 2003 (paperback, ISBN 1-84176-697-6). Kirchubel, Robert. Operation Barbarossa 1941 (2): Army Group North. Oxford: Osprey, 2005 (paperback, ISBN 1-84176-857-X). Krivosheyev, G. Grif sekretnosti snyat. Poteri vooruzhonnyh sil SSSR v voynah, boevyh deystviyah i voyennyh konfliktah, Voenizdat, Moscow, 1993. Krivosheev, G.F. ed. Soviet casualties and combat losses in the twentieth century. London: Greenhill Books, 1997 (hardcover, ISBN 1-85367-280-7). Available on-line in Russian. Koch, H.W. "Hitler's 'Programme' and the Genesis of Operation 'Barbarossa'", The Historical Journal, Vol. 26, No. 4. (1983), pp. 891–920. Latimer, Jon, Deception in War, London: John Murray, 2001 Lubbeck, William; Hurt, David B. At Leningrad's Gates: The Story of a Soldier with Army Group North. Philadelphia, PA: Casemate, 2006 (hardcover, ISBN 1-932033-55-6). Macksey, Kenneth. Why the Germans Lose at War: The Myth of German Military Superiority. London: Greenhill Books, 1999 (paperback, ISBN 1853673838). Maser, Werner. Der Wortbruch: Hitler, Stalin und der Zweite Weltkrieg. München: Olzog, 1994 (hardcover, ISBN 3-7892-8260-X); München: Heyne, 2001 (paperback, ISBN 3453117646). Megargee, Geoffrey P. War of Annihilation: Combat and Genocide on the Eastern Front, 1941. Lanham, MA: Rowman & Littelefield, 2006 (hardcover, ISBN 0-7425-4481-8; paperback, ISBN 0-7425-4482-6). Murphy, David E. What Stalin Knew: The Enigma of Barbarossa. New Haven, CT; London: Yale University Press, 2005 (hardcover, ISBN 0-300-10780-3); 2006 (paperback, ISBN 0-300-11981-X). Reviewed by Robert Conquest at The American Historical Review, Vol. 111, No. 2. (2006), p. 591. Nekrich, Aleksandr Moiseevich. "June 22, 1941; Soviet Historians and the German Invasion". Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1968. Pleshakov, Constantine. Stalin's Folly: The Tragic First Ten Days of World War Two on the Eastern Front. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2005 (hardcover, ISBN 0-618-36701-2). Raus, Erhard. Panzer Operations: The Eastern Front Memoir of General Raus, 1941–1945, compiled and translated by Steven H. Newton. Cambridge, MA: Da Capo Press, 2003 (hardcover, ISBN 0-306-81247-9); 2005 (paperback, ISBN 0-306-81409-9). Rayfield, Donald. Stalin and his Hangmen,London, Penguin Books, 2004, ISBN 0-141-00375-8 Reviewed by David R. Snyder in The Journal of Military History, Vol. 69, No. 1. (2005), pp. 265–266. Roberts, Cynthia. "Planning for War: The Red Army and the Catastrophe of 1941". Taylor and Francis Publishers. Europe-Asia Studies, Vol. 47, No. 8 (December, 1995), pp. 1293–1326. Rees, Laurence. War of the Century: When Hitler Fought Stalin. New York: New Press, 1999 (hardcover, ISBN 1-56584-599-4). Stolfi, R.H.S. German Panzers on the Offensive: Russian Front. North Africa, 1941–1942. Atglen, PA: Schiffer Publishing, 2003 (hardcover, ISBN 0-7643-1770-9). Suvorov, Viktor. The Chief Culprit: Stalin's Grand Design to Start World War II. Dulles, VA: Potomac Books, 2007 (hardcover, ISBN 1-59797-114-6). Taylor, A.J.P. and Mayer, S.L., eds. A History of World War Two. London: Octopus Books, 1974. ISBN 0-70640-399-1. van Creveld, Martin. Supplying War: Logistics from Wallenstein to Patton Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977. ISBN 0-421-29793-1 Weeks, Albert L. Stalin's Other War: Soviet Grand Strategy, 1939–1941. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2002 (hardcover; ISBN 0-7425-2191-5); 2003 (paperback, ISBN 0-7425-2192-3). Wegner, Bernd ed. From Peace to War: Germany, Soviet Russia, and the World, 1939–1941 Providence, RI: Berghahn Books, 1997 (hardcover, ISBN 1-57181-882-0). Reviewed by Peter Konecny, Canadian Journal of History, Vol. 34 Issue 2. (August, 1999) pp. 288–290. Wieczynski, Joseph L.; Fox, J.P. "Operation Barbarossa: The German Attack on The Soviet Union, June 22, 1941", The Slavonic and East European Review, Vol. 74, No. 2. (1996), pp. 344–346. Ziemke, Earl F. Moscow to Stalingrad: Decision in the East. Washington DC: U.S. Army Center of Military History, 1987; New York: Military Heritage Press, 1988 (hardcover, ISBN 0880292946). Ziemke, Earl F. Stalingrad to Berlin: The German Defeat in the East''. Washington DC: U.S. Army Center of Military History, 1966; Honolulu, HA: University Press of the Pacific, 2003 (paperback, ISBN 1410204146). Мельтюхов, М.И. Упущенный шанс Сталина. Советский Союз и борьба за Европу: 1939–1941 (Документы, факты, суждения). Москва: Вече, 2000. Суворов, В. Последняя республика: Почему Советский Союз проиграл Вторую Мировую войну. Москва: AST, 2003 (hardcover, ISBN 5170078765). lt. Kolobanov and KV-2. Notable engagements of KV series against outnumbering enemy forces: http://wio.ru/tank/ww2tank.htm External links Operation Barbarossa Original reports and pictures from The Times Relationship between the campaigns in the Balkans and the invasion of Russia and associated timeline on a US Army website Multimedia map—Covers the invasion of Russia including Operation Barbarossa Operation Barbarossa—Detailed analysis of the operation by author Bevin Alexander. Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Current Intelligence. The Soviet History of World War II, 28 October 1959. Huge very detailed online map on June,22 1941. 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5,335 | Clay_Mathematics_Institute | The Clay Mathematics Institute (CMI) is a private, non-profit foundation, based in Cambridge, Massachusetts. The Institute is dedicated to increasing and disseminating mathematical knowledge. It gives out various awards and sponsorships to promising mathematicians. The institute was founded in 1998 through the vision and generosity of Boston businessman Landon T. Clay. Harvard mathematician Arthur Jaffe was the first president of CMI. While the institute is best known for its Millennium Prize Problems, it carries out a wide range of activities, including a postdoctoral program (ten Clay Research Fellows are supported each year) and an annual summer school, the proceedings of which are published jointly with the American Mathematical Society. Governance The Institute is run according to a standard structure comprising a board of directors that decides on grant-awarding and research proposals, and a scientific advisory committee that oversees and approves the board's decisions. As of February, 2008, the board is made up of members of the Clay family (including Landon Clay), whereas the advisory committee is composed of leading authorities in mathematics, namely Sir Andrew Wiles, Yum-Tong Siu, Richard Melrose, Gregory Margulis, James Carlson,and Simon Donaldson. James Carlson is the current president of CMI. Millennium Prize Problems The institute is best known for its establishment on May 24, 2000 of the Millennium Prize Problems. These seven problems are considered by CMI to be "important classic questions that have resisted solution over the years". The first person to solve each problem will be awarded $1,000,000 by the CMI. In announcing the prize, CMI drew a parallel to Hilbert's problems, which were proposed in 1900, and had a substantial impact on 20th century mathematics. Of the initial twenty-three Hilbert problems, most of which have been solved, only one (the Riemann hypothesis, formulated in 1859) is one of the seven Millennium Prize Problems. Arthur Jaffe's first-hand account of how this Millennium Prize came about can be read in The Millennium Grand Challenge in Mathematics For each problem, the Institute had a professional mathematician write up an official statement of the problem which will be the main standard by which a given solution will be measured against. The seven problems are: P versus NP The Hodge conjecture The Poincaré conjecture - solved, by Grigori Perelman The Riemann hypothesis Yang-Mills existence and mass gap Navier-Stokes existence and smoothness The Birch and Swinnerton-Dyer conjecture Some of the mathematicians who were involved in the selection and presentation of the seven problems were Atiyah, Bombieri, Connes, Deligne, Fefferman, Milnor, Mumford, Wiles, and Witten. Other awards The Clay Research Award In recognition of major breakthroughs in mathematical research, the institute has an annual prize - the Clay Research Award. It recipients to date are Manindra Agrawal, Manjul Bhargava, Alain Connes, Nils Dencker, Alex Eskin, Ben Green, Christopher Hacon, Richard Hamilton, Michael Harris, Laurent Lafforgue, Ngo Bao Chau, Gérard Laumon, James McKernan, Oded Schramm, Stanislav Smirnov, Terence Tao, Richard Taylor, Claire Voisin, Andrew Wiles and Edward Witten. The Olympiad award The CMI also offers the Clay Olympiad Scholar Award for the most creative solution to a problem on the United States of America Mathematical Olympiad. Other activities Besides the Millennium Prize Problems, the Clay Mathematics Institute also supports mathematics via the awarding of research fellowships (which range from two to five years, and are aimed at younger mathematicians), as well as shorter-term scholarships for programs, individual research, and book writing. The Institute also has a yearly Clay Research Award, recognizing major breakthroughs in mathematical research. Finally, the Institute also organizes a number of summer schools, conferences, workshops, public lectures, and outreach activities aimed primarily at junior mathematicians (from the high school to postdoctoral level). CMI publications are available in PDF form at most six months after they appear in print. References Keith J. Devlin, The Millennium Problems: The Seven Greatest Unsolved Mathematical Puzzles of Our Time, Basic Books (October, 2002), ISBN 0-465-01729-0. 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5,336 | Battle_of_Poitiers | This article covers the battle during the Hundred Years' War. For the battle fought by Charles Martel against Muslim forces in 732, see Battle of Tours. The Battle of Poitiers was fought between the Kingdoms of England and France on 19 September 1356 near Poitiers, resulting in the second of the three great English victories of the Hundred Years' War: Crécy, Poitiers, and Agincourt. Background On 8 August 1356, Edward, the Black Prince began a great chevauchée (raid) north from the English base in Aquitaine, in an effort to relieve allied garrisons in central France, as well as to raid and ravage the countryside. His sortie met little resistance, his Anglo-Gascon forces burning numerous towns to the ground and living off the land, until they reached the Loire River at Tours. His army was unable to take the castle nor could they burn the town, due to a heavy downpour. His delay there allowed John II, King of France, to attempt to catch Edward's army and eliminate it. The King, who had been confronting Henry of Grosmont in Normandy, arranged the bulk of his army at Chartres to the north of the besieged Tours, dismissing around 15,000–20,000 of his low-grade infantry to increase the speed of his forces. Upon receiving reports of the French army on the move, Edward decided a retreat was in order. He marched south pursued in earnest by John. The French caught up to the English a few miles southwest of Poitiers. A veteran of the battle of Crécy, at which he had fought when he was only sixteen years old, the Black Prince decided on the same tactical scheme employed at that earlier battle. He positioned his troops in a strongly defensive position, in a plain surrounded by natural obstacles, such as a creek on the left and a wood on the back. The luggage wagons, with a great amount of plunder, remained along the old Roman road, the main route from Poitiers to Bordeaux, to give protection to his weak right side. All his men dismounted and were organized in two, or perhaps three units, with the English and Welsh longbowmen placed in a V-formation on both flanks. The Battle of Crécy, by Jonathon Blair, referencing Armies of Crecy and Poitiers (Men-At-Arms Series, No 111), by Christopher Rothero The Black Prince kept a small cavalry unit, commanded by Jean de Grailly, the Captal de Buch, hidden in the woods at the rear. The attacking French forces were divided in four parts. At the front were around 300 elite knights, commanded by general Clermont and accompanied by German mercenary pikemen. The purpose of this group was to charge the English archers and eliminate the threat they posed. These were followed by three groups of infantry (dismounted cavalry) commanded by the Dauphin (later Charles V of France), the Duke of Orléans and King John. The Battle Battle of Poitiers (miniature of Froissart). At the beginning of the battle, the English simulated flight on their left wing. This provoked a hasty charge by the French knights against the archers. However, the English were expecting this and quickly attacked the enemy, especially the horses, with a shower of arrows. Belgian chronicler Jean Froissart writes that the French armour was invulnerable to the English arrows, that the arrowheads either skidded off the armor or shattered on impact! English history of the battle disputes this, as some claim that the narrow bodkin point arrows they used have been proven capable of penetrating most plate armour of that time period. While tests have been done to support this with fixed pieces of flat metal, armor was curved, so the point is debatable. Given the following actions of the English archers—it seems likely Froissart was correct. The armour on the horses was weaker on the sides and back, so the English archers moved to the sides of the cavalry and shot the horses in the flanks. This was a popular method of stopping a cavalry charge, as a falling horse often destroyed the cohesion of the enemy's line. The results were devastating. This attack was followed by the Dauphin's infantry, who engaged in heavy fighting, but withdrew to regroup. The next wave of infantry under Orléans, seeing that the Dauphin's men were not attacking, turned back and panicked. This stranded the forces led by the King himself. This was a formidable fighting force, and the English archers were out of arrows: the archers joined the infantry in the fight and some of both groups mounted horses to form an improvised cavalry. Combat was hard, but the Black Prince still had a mobile reserve hidden in the woods, which were able to circle around and attack the French in the flank and rear. The French were fearful of encirclement and attempted to flee. King John was captured with his immediate entourage. <onlyinclude> Pre-battle maneuvers. Map of the Battle. Aftermath John II, the Good, being captured. The result was a decisive French defeat, not only in military terms, but also economically: France would be asked to pay a ransom equivalent to twice the country's yearly income to have the king returned. John, who was accorded royal privileges whilst being a prisoner, was permitted to return to France to try to raise the required funds. He subsequently handed himself back to the English, claiming to be unable to pay the ransom, and died a few months later. In many ways, Poitiers was a repeat of the battle of Crécy showing once again that tactics and strategy can overcome a disadvantage in numbers. As the Black Prince wrote shortly afterward in a letter to the people of London: Notes and references Further reading Belloc, Hilaire (1913). Poitiers, London: H. Rees. via Internet Archive. External links On The Hundred Years War, a primary source written by Jean Froissart Great Battles: The Battle of Poitiers (myArmoury.com article) | Battle_of_Poitiers |@lemmatized article:2 cover:1 battle:16 hundred:3 year:4 war:3 fought:1 charles:2 martel:1 muslim:1 force:6 see:2 tour:3 poitier:10 fight:3 kingdom:1 england:1 france:6 september:1 near:1 result:3 second:1 three:3 great:4 english:13 victory:1 crécy:4 agincourt:1 background:1 august:1 edward:3 black:5 prince:5 begin:1 chevauchée:1 raid:2 north:2 base:1 aquitaine:1 effort:1 relieve:1 allied:1 garrison:1 central:1 well:1 ravage:1 countryside:1 sortie:1 meet:1 little:1 resistance:1 anglo:1 gascon:1 burn:2 numerous:1 town:2 ground:1 live:1 land:1 reach:1 loire:1 river:1 army:5 unable:2 take:1 castle:1 could:1 due:1 heavy:2 downpour:1 delay:1 allow:1 john:6 ii:2 king:6 attempt:2 catch:1 eliminate:2 confront:1 henry:1 grosmont:1 normandy:1 arrange:1 bulk:1 chartres:1 besieged:1 dismiss:1 around:3 low:1 grade:1 infantry:5 increase:1 speed:1 upon:1 receive:1 report:1 french:8 move:2 decide:2 retreat:1 order:1 march:1 south:1 pursue:1 earnest:1 caught:1 mile:1 southwest:1 veteran:1 sixteen:1 old:2 tactical:1 scheme:1 employ:1 early:1 position:2 troop:1 strongly:1 defensive:1 plain:1 surround:1 natural:1 obstacle:1 creek:1 left:2 wood:3 back:4 luggage:1 wagon:1 amount:1 plunder:1 remain:1 along:1 roman:1 road:1 main:1 route:1 bordeaux:1 give:2 protection:1 weak:2 right:1 side:3 men:3 dismount:1 organize:1 two:1 perhaps:1 unit:2 welsh:1 longbowman:1 place:1 v:2 formation:1 flank:3 jonathon:1 blair:1 reference:2 crecy:1 arm:1 series:1 christopher:1 rothero:1 keep:1 small:1 cavalry:5 command:3 jean:3 de:2 grailly:1 captal:1 buch:1 hide:2 rear:2 attack:5 divide:1 four:1 part:1 front:1 elite:1 knight:2 general:1 clermont:1 accompany:1 german:1 mercenary:1 pikemen:1 purpose:1 group:3 charge:3 archer:6 threat:1 pose:1 follow:2 dismounted:1 dauphin:3 late:1 duke:1 orléans:2 miniature:1 froissart:4 beginning:1 simulated:1 flight:1 wing:1 provoke:1 hasty:1 however:1 expect:1 quickly:1 enemy:2 especially:1 horse:5 shower:1 arrow:3 belgian:1 chronicler:1 write:3 armour:3 invulnerable:1 arrowhead:1 either:1 skid:1 armor:2 shatter:1 impact:1 history:1 dispute:1 claim:2 narrow:1 bodkin:1 point:2 arrows:1 use:1 prove:1 capable:1 penetrate:1 plate:1 time:1 period:1 test:1 support:1 fixed:1 piece:1 flat:1 metal:1 curve:1 debatable:1 following:1 action:1 seem:1 likely:1 correct:1 shoot:1 popular:1 method:1 stop:1 fall:1 often:1 destroy:1 cohesion:1 line:1 devastate:1 engage:1 fighting:2 withdraw:1 regroup:1 next:1 wave:1 turn:1 panic:1 strand:1 lead:1 formidable:1 join:1 mount:1 form:1 improvised:1 combat:1 hard:1 still:1 mobile:1 reserve:1 able:1 circle:1 fearful:1 encirclement:1 flee:1 capture:2 immediate:1 entourage:1 onlyinclude:1 pre:1 maneuver:1 map:1 aftermath:1 good:1 decisive:1 defeat:1 military:1 term:1 also:1 economically:1 would:1 ask:1 pay:2 ransom:2 equivalent:1 twice:1 country:1 yearly:1 income:1 return:2 accord:1 royal:1 privilege:1 whilst:1 prisoner:1 permit:1 try:1 raise:1 required:1 fund:1 subsequently:1 hand:1 die:1 month:1 later:1 many:1 way:1 repeat:1 show:1 tactic:1 strategy:1 overcome:1 disadvantage:1 number:1 shortly:1 afterward:1 letter:1 people:1 london:2 note:1 far:1 read:1 belloc:1 hilaire:1 h:1 rees:1 via:1 internet:1 archive:1 external:1 link:1 primary:1 source:1 myarmoury:1 com:1 |@bigram charles_martel:1 battle_crécy:3 duke_orléans:1 jean_froissart:2 plate_armour:1 flank_rear:1 shortly_afterward:1 external_link:1 |
5,337 | Mindanao | Mindanao is the second largest and easternmost island in the Philippines. It is also one of the three island groups in the country, along with Luzon and Visayas. Historically the island was also known as Gran Molucas or Great Mollucas. History Spanish map of Mindanao Mindanao is named after the Maguindanaons who constituted the largest Sultanate historically, and evidence from maps made during the 17th and 18th centuries suggest the name was used to refer to the island by natives at the time. Evidence of human occupation dates back tens of thousands of years. In prehistoric times the Negrito people arrived. Sometime around 1500 BC Austronesian peoples spread throughout the Philippines and far beyond. Islam spread to the region during the 13th century AD and Philippine sultanates were established, like that of Sulu and Maguindanao. In the late 16th to early 17th century, first contact with Spain occurred, with Spanish forces trying to occupy the area. Today the region is home to most of the country's Muslim or Moro populations, composed of many ethnic groups such as the Maranao and the Tausug, the Banguingui (users of the vinta), as well as the collective group of indigenous tribes known as the Lumad. Contrary to common belief, only a portion of Mindanao was inhabited by Muslims by the time the Spanish arrived and colonized the Philippines, and centuries after the first native was converted to Islam. In fact, most of the people in the northern and eastern part of the island practiced native religions before they converted to Christianity. Japanese and government forces failed to quell the desire for separation from the largely Christian nation by Muslim factions on the island. Due to an influx of migration, as well as evangelization, Mindanao's population is now predominantly Christian. Sectarian and ethnic conflicts as well as land disputes are central features of the complex thirty-year-old conflict on the island. Geography Mindanao is the second largest island in the country at 94,630 square kilometers, and is the eighth most populous island in the world. The island of Mindanao is larger than 125 countries worldwide, including the Netherlands, Austria, Portugal, Czech Republic, Hungary, Taiwan and Ireland. The island is mountainous, and is home to Mount Apo, the highest mountain in the country. Mindanao is surrounded by seas: the Sulu Sea to the west, the Philippine Sea to the east, and the Celebes Sea to the south. Of all the islands of the Philippines, Mindanao and Borneo shows the greatest variety of physiographic development. High, rugged, faulted mountains; almost isolated volcanic peaks; high rolling plateaus; and broad, level, swampy plains are found there. The island group of Mindanao encompasses Mindanao island itself and the Sulu Archipelago to the southwest. The island group is divided into six regions, which are further subdivided into 25 provinces. Mountains and Plateaus The mountains of Mindanao can be conveniently be grouped into five ranges, including both complex structural mountains and volcanoes. The structural mountains on the extreme eastern and western portions of the island show broad exposures of Mesozoic rock with ultrabasic rocks at the surface in many places along the east coast. Surface rock in other areas of the island is mainly Tertiary and Quarternary volcanic or sedimentary. Paralleling the east coast, from Bilas Point in Surigao del Norte to Cape Agustin in southeast Davao, is a range of complex mountains known in their northern portion as the Diwata Mountains. This range is low and rolling in its central portion. A proposed road connecting Bislig on the east coast with the Agusan River would pass through a ten-mile broad saddle across the mountains at a maximum elevation of less than 250 meters while the existing east-west road from Lianga, 30 air miles north of Bislig, reaches a maximum elevation of only 450 meters. The Diwata Mountains, north of these low points, are considerably higher and more rugged, reaching an elevation of 2,012 meters in Mount Hilonghilong, 17 miles northeast of Butuan City. The southern portion of this east coast range is broader and even more rugged than the northern section. In eastern Davao, several peaks rise above 2,500 meters and one unnamed mountain rises to 2,810 meters. The east facing coastal regions of Davao and Surigao del Sur are marked by a series of small coastal lowlands separated from the other by rugged forelands which extend to the water’s edge. Offshore are numerous coral reefs and tiny islets. This remote and forbidding coast is made doubly difficult to access during the months from October to March by the heavy surf driven before the northeast trades. A few miles offshore is found the Mindanao or Philippine Deep. This ocean trench, reaching measured depths of 35,400 feet, marks one of the greatest depths known on the earth’s surface. A second north-south range extends along the western borders of Agusan and Davao provinces from Camiguin Island in the north to Tinaca Point in the south. This range is mainly structural in origin, but it also contains at least three active volcano peaks. In the central and northern portions of this range, there are several peaks between 2,000 and 2,500 meters and here the belt of mountains is about 30 miles across. West of the city of Davao two active volcanoes, Mount Talomo at 2,693 meters and Mount Apo at 2,954 meters, the highest point in the Philippines, dominate the skyline, South of Mount Apo, this central mountain belt is somewhat lower than it is to the north, with peaks averaging 1,100 and 1,800 meters only. In Western Mindanao, a range of complex structural mountains forms the long, hand-like Zamboanga Peninsula. These mountains, reaching heights of only 1,200 meters, are not as high as the other structural belts in Mindanao. In addition, there are several places in the Zamboanga Mountains where small inter-mountain basins have been created, with some potential for future agricultural development. The northeastern end of this range is marked by the twin peaks of the now extinct volcano, Mount Malindang, which rise splendidly behind Ozamis City to a height of 2,425 meters. Mount Dapia is the highest mountain in the Zamboanga Peninsula reaching a height of 2,617 meters (8,586 ft). Meanwhile, Batorampon Point is the highest mountain of the southernmost end of the peninsula reaching a height of only 1,335 meters (4,380 ft) located in the boundary of Zamboanga City. A series of volcanic mountains is found near Lake Lanao in a broad arc through Lanao del Sur, northern Cotabato and western Bukidnon provinces. At least six of the twenty odd peaks in this area are active and several are very impressive as they stand in semi-isolation. The Butig Peaks, with their four crater lakes, are easily seen from Cotabato. Mount Ragang, an active volcano cone, reaching 2,815 meters is the most isolated, while the greatest height is reached by Mount Kitanglad at 2,896 meters. In southwestern Cotabato, still another range of volcanic mountains is found, this time paralleling the coast. These mountains have a maximum extent of 110 miles from northwest to southeast and measure some 30 miles across. The best known mountain here is Mount Parker whose almost circular crater lake measures a mile and a quarter in diameter and lies 300 meters below its 2,040 meter summit. A second important physiographic division of Mindanao is the series of upland plateaus in Bukidnon and Lanao del Sur provinces. These plateaus are rather extensive and almost surround several volcanoes in this area. The plateaus are comprised of basaltic lava flows interbedded with ash and volcanic tuff. Near their edges the plateaus are cut by deep canyons and at several points spectacular waterfalls drop to the narrow coastal plain. These falls hold considerable promise for development of hydroelectric energy. Indeed, one such site at Maria Cristina Falls has already become a major producer. Because the rolling plateaus lie at an elevation averaging 700 meters above sea level, they offer relief from the often oppressive heat at the coastal lowlands. Lake Lanao occupies the major portion of one such plateau in Lanao del Sur. This largest lake on Mindanao and second in the country is roughly triangular in shape with an 18-mile long base. Having a surface at 780 meters above sea level, and being rimmed on the east, south and west by series of peaks reaching 2,300 meters, the lake provides a scenic grandeur and pleasant temperature seldom equaled in the country. Marawi City, at the northern tip of the lake, is bisected by the Agus River which feeds the Maria Cristina Falls. Another of Mindanao’s spectacular waterfall sites is located in Malabang, 15 miles south of Lake Lanao. Here the Jose Abad Santos Falls present one of the nation’s scenic wonders at the gateway to a 200-hectare national park development. Plains Mindanao contains two large inland lowland areas, the valleys of the Agusan and Mindanao rivers in Agusan and Cotabato Provinces, respectively. There is some indication that the Agusan Valley occupies a broad syncline between the central mountains and the east coast mountains. This valley measures 110 miles from south to north and varies from 20–30 miles in width. Thirty five miles north of the head of Davao Gulf lay the watershed between the Agusan and the tributaries of the Libuganon River which flows to the Gulf. The elevation of this divide is well under 200 meters indicating the almost continuous nature of the lowland from the Mindanao Sea on the north to the Davao Gulf. The Mindanao River and its main tributaries, the Catisan and the Pulangi, form a valley with a maximum length of 120 miles and a width which varies from 12 miles at the river mouth to about 60 miles in central Cotabato. The southern extensions of this Cotabato Valley extends uninterrupted across a 350 meter watershed from Illana Bay on the northwest to Sarangani Bay on the southeast. Other lowlands of a coastal nature are to be found in various parts of Mindanao. Many of these are tiny isolated pockets, as along the northwest coast of Zamboanga. In other areas such as the Davao Plain, these coastal lowlands are as much as ten miles wide and several times that length. From Dipolog eastward along the northern coast of Mindanao almost to Butuan City extends a rolling coastal plain of varying width. In Misamis Occidental, the now dormant Mount Malindang has created a lowland averaging eight miles in width. Shallow Panquil Bay divides this province from Lanao del Norte, and is bordered by low lying, poorly drained lowlands and extensive mangroves. In Misamis Oriental, the plain is narrower and in places almost pinched out by rugged forelands which reach to the sea. East of Cagayan de Oro City, a rugged peninsula extends well into the Mindanao Sea. Political Divisions A map of Mindanao color-coded by regions. For the exclaves, see the text. The island group of Mindanao is an arbitrary grouping of islands in the Southern Philippines which encompasses six administrative regions List of Regions in the Philippines . These regions are further subdivided into 25 provinces, of which only four are not on Mindanao island itself. Some of the areas are semi-autonomous Muslim areas. The island group includes the Sulu Archipelago to the southwest, which consists of the major islands of Basilan, Jolo, and Tawi-Tawi, plus outlying islands in other areas such as Camiguin, Dinagat, Siargao, Samal. The Limunsudan Falls, with an approximate height of 800 ft, is the highest water falls in the Philippines located at Iligan City. The six regions are: Administrative regionArea (km²)Population 2007 CensusPopulation density (/km²) Zamboanga Peninsula16,8233,230,094192.0 Northern Mindanao20,1323,952,437196.3 Davao Region20,2444,156,653205.3 SOCCSKSARGEN22,4663,829,081170.4 Caraga21,4712,293,480106.8 ARMM*26,9744,120,795152.8 Mindanao (Group) 128,110 21,582,540 168.4 The major conurbation on Mindanao is Davao City, the country's largest city by area, with a population of approximately 1.3 million. Gallery Culture The Cebuano language is spoken by the majority in Mindanao. Cebuano is generally the native language in most regions, except for Muslim areas on the west coast, and among the hill tribes. Christians form the majority with 63% of the population, Muslims 32% (mostly on the southern part of the island), other 5%. The native Maguindanaon and other native Muslim/non-Muslim groups of Mindanao have a culture that is different from the main cultures of the Southern Philippines. See also Geography of the Philippines Bangsamoro Moro people Islam in the Philippines Lumad Sultanate of Sulu Sultanate of Maguindanao Regions of the Philippines Provinces of the Philippines Notes and References External links The Mindanao Blog Mindanaw.net - The Catalyst for Countryside Development Mindanao News Overview of hotels in Mindanao Online Mindanao Taboan Mindanao General Santos City | Mindanao |@lemmatized mindanao:37 second:5 large:7 easternmost:1 island:25 philippine:16 also:4 one:6 three:2 group:10 country:8 along:5 luzon:1 visayas:1 historically:2 know:4 gran:1 molucas:1 great:4 mollucas:1 history:1 spanish:3 map:3 name:2 maguindanaons:1 constitute:1 sultanate:4 evidence:2 make:2 century:4 suggest:1 use:1 refer:1 native:6 time:5 human:1 occupation:1 date:1 back:1 ten:3 thousand:1 year:2 prehistoric:1 negrito:1 people:4 arrive:1 sometime:1 around:1 bc:1 austronesian:1 spread:2 throughout:1 far:3 beyond:1 islam:3 region:11 ad:1 establish:1 like:2 sulu:5 maguindanao:2 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5,338 | Christopher_Alexander | Christopher Alexander Christopher Alexander (born October 4, 1936 in Vienna, Austria) is an architect noted for his theories about design, and for more than 200 building projects in California, Japan, Mexico and around the world. Reasoning that users know more about the buildings they need than any architect could, he produced and validated (in collaboration with Sarah Ishikawa and Murray Silverstein) a "pattern language" designed to empower any human being to design and build at any scale. In 1958 he moved to the United States, and has lived in Berkeley, California from 1963 until the present. He is professor emeritus at the University of California, Berkeley. Education Alexander grew up in England and started his education in sciences. In 1954, he was awarded the top open scholarship to Trinity College, Cambridge University in chemistry and physics, and went on to read mathematics. He earned a Bachelor's degree in Architecture and a Master's degree in Mathematics. He took his doctorate at Harvard (the first Ph.D. in Architecture ever awarded at Harvard University), and was elected fellow at Harvard. During the same period he worked at MIT in transportation theory and in computer science, and worked at Harvard in cognition and cognitive studies. He became professor of Architecture at Berkeley in 1963, taught there continuously for 38 years, and is now Professor Emeritus at the University of California. He is widely recognized as the father of the pattern language movement in computer science. He was elected Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1996 for his contributions to architecture. Career Writings The Timeless Way of Building described the perfection of use to which buildings could aspire: A Pattern Language: Towns, Buildings, Construction described a practical architectural system in a form that a theoretical mathematician or computer scientist might call a generative grammar. The work originated from an observation that many medieval cities are attractive and harmonious. The authors said that this occurs because they were built to local regulations that required specific features, but freed the architect to adapt them to particular situations. The book provides rules and pictures, and leaves decisions to be taken from the precise environment of the project. It describes exact methods for constructing practical, safe and attractive designs at every scale, from entire regions, through cities, neighborhoods, gardens, buildings, rooms, built-in furniture, and fixtures down to the level of doorknobs. A notable value is that the architectural system consists only of classic patterns tested in the real world and reviewed by multiple architects for beauty and practicality. The book includes all needed surveying and structural calculations, and a novel simplified building system that copes with regional shortages of wood and steel, uses easily-stored inexpensive materials, and produces long-lasting classic buildings with small amounts of materials, design and labor. It first has users prototype a structure on-site in temporary materials. Once accepted, these are finished by filling them with very-low-density concrete. It uses vaulted construction to build as high as three stories, permitting very high densities. This book's method was adopted by the University of Oregon, as described in The Oregon Experiment, and remains the official planning instrument. It has also been adopted in part by some cities as a building code. The idea of a pattern language appears to apply to any complex engineering task, and has been applied to some of them. It has been especially influential in software engineering where patterns have been used to document collective knowledge in the field. The Nature of Order: An Essay on the Art of Building and the Nature of the Universe, which includes The Phenomenon of Life, The Process of Creating Life, A Vision of a Living World and The Luminous Ground, is Alexander's latest, and most comprehensive and elaborate work. In it, he puts forth a new theory about the nature of space and describes how this theory influences thinking about architecture, building, planning, and the way in which we view the world in general. The mostly static patterns from A Pattern Language have been amended by more dynamic sequences, which describe how to work towards patterns (which can roughly be seen as the end result of sequences). Sequences, like patterns, promise to be tools of wider scope than building (just as his theory of space goes beyond architecture). Architecture Among Alexander's most notable built works are the Eishin Campus near Tokyo; the West Dean Visitors Centre England, The West Dean Visitors Centre - Project History in Sussex, England; the Julian Street Inn (a homeless shelter) in San Jose, California (both described in Nature of Order); the Martinez House (an experimental house in Martinez, California made of lightweight concrete); and the low-cost housing in Mexicali, Mexico (described in The Production of Houses). Influence Computer Science Alexander's Notes on the Synthesis of Form was required reading for researchers in computer science throughout the 1960s. It had an influence in the 1960s and 1970s on programming language design, modular programming, object-oriented programming, software engineering and other design methodologies. Alexander's mathematical concepts and orientation were similar to Edsger Dijkstra's influential A Discipline of Programming . A Pattern Language‘s greatest influence in computer science is the design patterns movement. Alexander's philosophy of incremental, organic, coherent design influenced also the extreme programming movement. The Wiki was invented to allow the Hillside Group to work on design patterns. Will Wright wrote that Alexander's work was influential in the origin of The Sims computer game, and in his current new work, Spore. Religion The fourth volume of The Nature of Order approaches religious questions from a scientific rather than mystical direction. In it, Alexander describes deep ties between the nature of matter, human perception of the universe, and the geometries people construct in buildings, cities, and artifacts, and he suggests a crucial link between traditional beliefs and recent scientific advances. Published works Alexander's published works include: Notes on the Synthesis of Form (1964) Community and Privacy, with Serge Chermayeff (1965) The Atoms of Environmental Structure (1967) A Pattern Language which Generates Multi-service Centers, with Ishikawa and Silverstein (1968) Houses Generated by Patterns (1969) The Oregon Experiment (1975) A Pattern Language, with Ishikawa and Silverstein (1977) The Timeless Way of Building (1979) The Linz Cafe (1981) The Production of Houses, with Davis, Martinez, and Corner (1985) A New Theory of Urban Design, with Neis, Anninou, and King (1987) Foreshadowing of 21st Century Art: The Geometry of Very Early Turkish Carpets (1993) The Mary Rose Museum, with Black and Tsutsui (1995) The Nature of Order Book 1: The Phenomenon of Life (2004) The Nature of Order Book 2: The Process of Creating Life (2004) The Nature of Order Book 3: A Vision of a Living World (2004) The Nature of Order Book 4: The Luminous Ground (2003) External links Official website for Alexander's Pattern Language Essay on Christopher Alexander's Pattern Language Introduction to Christopher Alexander Review of The Nature of Order NPR radio interview with Christopher Alexander References See also Pattern Garden Pattern Language | Christopher_Alexander |@lemmatized christopher:5 alexander:15 born:1 october:1 vienna:1 austria:1 architect:4 note:3 theory:6 design:11 building:14 project:3 california:6 japan:1 mexico:2 around:1 world:5 reason:1 user:2 know:1 need:2 could:2 produce:2 validate:1 collaboration:1 sarah:1 ishikawa:3 murray:1 silverstein:3 pattern:20 language:12 empower:1 human:2 build:5 scale:2 move:1 united:1 state:1 live:1 berkeley:3 present:1 professor:3 emeritus:2 university:5 education:2 grow:1 england:3 start:1 science:7 award:2 top:1 open:1 scholarship:1 trinity:1 college:1 cambridge:1 chemistry:1 physic:1 go:2 read:1 mathematics:2 earn:1 bachelor:1 degree:2 architecture:7 master:1 take:2 doctorate:1 harvard:4 first:2 ph:1 ever:1 elect:2 fellow:2 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website:1 introduction:1 npr:1 radio:1 interview:1 reference:1 |@bigram professor_emeritus:2 earn_bachelor:1 bachelor_degree:1 cognition_cognitive:1 generative_grammar:1 san_jose:1 lightweight_concrete:1 orient_programming:1 edsger_dijkstra:1 external_link:1 |
5,339 | Dictator | A dictator is a ruler (e.g. absolutist or autocratic) who assumes sole and absolute power with military control but, without hereditary ascension such as an absolute monarch. When other states call the head of state of a particular state a dictator, that state is called a dictatorship. The word originated as the title of a magistrate in ancient Rome appointed by the Senate to rule the republic in times of emergency (see Roman dictator and justitium). Like the term tyrant, originally a respectable Ancient Greek title, and to a lesser degree autocrat, it came to be used almost exclusively as a non-titular term for oppressive, even abusive rule, yet had rare modern titular uses. In modern usage, the term "dictator" is generally used to describe a leader who holds and/or abuses an extraordinary amount of personal power, especially the power to make laws without effective restraint by a legislative assembly. Dictatorships are often characterized by some of the following traits: suspension of elections and of civil liberties; proclamation of a state of emergency; rule by decree; repression of political opponents without abiding by rule of law procedures; these include single-party state, and cult of personality. The term "dictator" is comparable to (but not synonymous with) the ancient concept of a tyrant, although initially "tyrant", like "dictator", did not carry negative connotations. A wide variety of leaders coming to power in a number of different kinds of regimes, such as military juntas, single-party states and civilian governments under personal rule, have been described as dictators. Roman Origin In the Roman Republic the term "Dictator" did not have the negative meaning it has later assumed. Rather, a Dictator was a person given sole power (unlike the normal Roman republican practice, where rule was divided between two equal Consuls) for a specific limited period, in order to deal with an emergency. At the end of his term, the Dictator was supposed to hand over back to the normal Consular rule and give account of his actions - and Roman Dictators usually did. The term started to get its modern negative meaning with Julius Caesar making himself a Dictator without a set limit to his term, and keeping the title until his assassination (which was itself largely due to republican diehards resenting his keeping indefinite dictatorial powers). Garibaldi as a positive dictator Still, even in the 19th Century, the term "Dictator" did not always have negative connotations. For example, the Italian revolutionary Garibaldi, during his famous Expedition of the Thousand in 1860, proclaimed himself "Dictator of Sicily", which did not prevent him from being extremely popular in Italian and international public opinion. His usage of the term was clearly derived from the original Roman sense - i.e., a person taking power for a limited time in order to deal with an emergency (in this case, the need to unite Italy) and with the task done Garibaldi handed over power to the government of Victor Emmanuel II of Italy. Garibaldi's case was, however, an exception. In general, the term "dictator" came to be a negative term, not a title used by rulers to call themselves but a term used by the foes of an oppressive ruler. Modern era Modern dictators have usually come to power in times of emergency. Frequently dictators have seized power by coup d'état as Benito Mussolini did in Italy at the culmination of his March on Rome. But some dictators, most notably Adolf Hitler in Germany, achieved office as head of government by legal means. However, once he was elected in office, Hitler gained additional extraordinary powers. Mainly Latin American, Asian, and African nations, especially developing nations, have known many dictatorships, usually by military leaders at the head of a junta, either claiming to constitute a revolution or to reestablish order and stability. Europe has known many dictatorships as well, as was the case of Portugal, Spain, Greece, Germany, Romania, Austria and Russia. In popular usage in western nations, "dictatorship" is often associated with brutality and oppression. As a result, it is often also used as a term of abuse for political opponents, for example, Henry Clay's dominance in Congress—first as Speaker of the House and later as a member of the Senate—led to his nickname, "the Dictator." The term has also come to be associated with megalomania. Many dictators create a cult of personality and have come to favor increasingly grandiloquent titles and honours for themselves. For instance, Idi Amin Dada, who had been a British army lieutenant prior to Uganda's independence from Britain in October 1962, subsequently styled himself as "His Excellency President for Life Field Marshal Al Hadji Dr. Idi Amin, VC, DSO, MC, Lord of All the Beasts of the Earth and Fishes of the Sea and Conqueror of the British Empire in Africa in General and Uganda in Particular". In "The Great Dictator" (1940), Charlie Chaplin satirized not only Hitler but the institution of dictatorship itself. The association between the dictator and the military is a common one; many dictators take great pains to emphasize their connections with the military and often wear military uniforms. In some cases, this is perfectly legitimate; Francisco Franco was a lieutenant general in the Spanish Army before he became Chief of State of Spain; Manuel Noriega was officially commander of the Panamanian Defense Forces. In other cases, the association is mere pretense. Modern use in formal titles Because of the negative associations, modern leaders very rarely (if ever) use the term in their formal titles. In the 19th century, however, official use was more common. Dictator (plain) Italy In the former doge-state Venice, while a republic resisting annexation by either the kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia or the Austrian empire, a former Chief Executive (president, 23 March 1848 5 July 1848), Daniele Manin (b. 1804 - d. 1857), was styled Dictator 11-13 August 1848 before joining the 13 August 1848 - 7 March 1849 Triumvirate. Peru General Simón Bolívar, the 17 February 1824 - 28 January 1827 Head of state, was acting Dictator until 10 February 1825 when his title changed to Libertador ('Liberator'), and on 9 December 1826 again to President-for-Life. Philippines Emilio Aguinaldo, the last President of the Supreme Government Council 23 March 1897 - 16 December 1897 and chairman of the Revolutionary Government from 23 June to 1 November 1897, was dictator from 12 June 1898 - 23 January. Philippine Legislature:100 Years, Cesar Pobre Ferdinand Marcos, the 10th Philippine president; December 30, 1965 until his ouster on February 25, 1986 through the popular uprising known as the People Power Revolution of 1986. On September 21, 1972, he announced his declaration of martial law over the entirety of the nation and incarcerated all of his political opponents under trumped-up charges. This helped him pave the way to create his version of the 1973 Constitution and impose a new order he dubbed "Bagong Lipunan" (Filipino: "New Society"). Poland Józef Chlopicki was styled Dictator from 5 December 1830 - December 1830 and again in December 1830 - 25 January 1831 Jan Tyssowski was Dictator from 24 February 1846 - 2 March 1846. Ludwik Mierosławski was Dictator from 22 January 1863 - 10 March 1863 Marian Langiewicz was Dictator from 10 March 1863 - 19 March 1863 An Executive Dictatorial Commission of three members existed from 19 March 1863 - 20 March 1863 Romuald Traugutt was Dictator from 17 October 1863 - 10 April 1864 Russia during the Civil War Nazarov was Dictator of the Don Cossack Republics (which before, since its founding on 2 December 1917 at Novocherkassk, had been governed by a Triumvirate including the last pre-Soviet Ataman, Aleksei Maksimovich Kaledin) from 11 February 1918 till 25 February 1918 when Bolshevik troops ended their existence Prince N. Tarkovsky was Dictator of the Mountainous Republic of the Northern Caucasus, from its founding in Western Dagestan on 11 May 1918 till the end of the Turkish occupation (September-November 1918). Compound and derived titles Dictator President, twice in modern Colombia: In Antioquia, 30 July 1813 to 1 or 5 March 1814: Juan Bautista Antonio María del Corral y Alonso Carriazo; continued to 7 April 1814 as one of the Presidents of the State (27 July 1811 - July 1815) In Cartagena de Indias (after Presidents of the Supreme Junta of Government since 13 August 1810, even before the 11 November 1811 declaration of Independence as Province of Cartagena de Indias, 21 January 1812 restyled State of Cartagena de Indias; and since 21 January 1812 one of them, José María del Real e Hidalgo (d. 1835)), as Governor President of the State), 1 April 1812 - 4 October 1812: Manuel Rodríguez Torices (b. 1788 - d. 1816) cf. supra (Poland) 19 March 1863 - 20 March 1863 Executive Dictatorial Commission of three members * In Paraguay, in a procession of generally short-lived juntas, the last of the Consuls of the Republic in power, two Consuls alternating in power every 4 months, 12 June 1814 - 3 October 1814 José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia (2nd time), succeeded himself as the only ever Supreme Dictator 3 October 1814 - 20 September 1840 - from 6 June 1816 he was styled Perpetual Supreme Dictator Prodittatore (plural: Prodittatori) was the title of the governors appointed in Sicily after Garibaldi's conquest of the island (11 May 1860) till shortly before the 12 December 1860 annexation to the Savoy dynasty's Kingdom of Sardinia: 23 July - September 17, 1860 Agostino Depretis (b. 1813 - d. 1887) 17 - end September 1860 Antonio Mordini (b. 1819 - d. 1902) "The benevolent dictator" The benevolent dictator is a more modern version of the classical “enlightened despot”, being an absolute ruler who exercises his or her political power for the benefit of the people rather than exclusively for his or her own benefit. Like many political classifications, this term suffers from its inherent subjectivity. Such leaders as Napoleon Bonaparte, Anwar Sadat, Kenneth Kaunda, Józef Piłsudski, Ion Antonescu, Miklós Horthy, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, and Omar Torrijos, Park Chung-hee have been characterized by their supporters as benevolent dictators. For example some of these people have been democratically elected e.g. Mustafa Kemal Atatürk. http://www.tccb.gov.tr/pages/past_presidents/ In Spanish, the word dictablanda is sometimes used for a dictatorship conserving some of the liberties and mechanisms of democracy. (The pun is that, in Spanish, dictadura is “dictatorship”, dura is “hard” and blanda is “soft”). Some examples includes Yugoslavia under Tito or Spain under Francisco Franco. This contrasts with democradura (literally “hard democracy”), characterized by full formal democracy alongside limitations on constitutional freedoms and human rights abuses, frequently within the context of a civil conflict or the existence of an insurgency. Governments in Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Eritrea, El Salvador, Guatemala, Haiti, Mexico, Peru and Venezuela have at various times been considered régimes by different critics and opposition groups, not necessarily with an academic or political consensus about the application of the term emerging. Dictators in game theory In social choice theory, the notion of a dictator is formally defined as a person who can achieve any feasible social outcome he/she wishes. The formal definition yields an interesting distinction between two different types of dictators. The strong dictator has, for any social goal he/she has in mind (e.g. raise taxes, having someone killed, etc.), a definite way of achieving that goal. This can be seen as having explicit absolute power, like Sulla. The weak dictator has, for any social goal he/she has in mind, and for any political scenario, a course of action that would bring about the desired goal. For the weak dictator, it is usually not enough to "give their orders", rather he/she has to manipulate the political scene appropriately. This means that the weak dictator might actually be lurking in the shadows, working within a political setup that seems to be non-dictatorial. An example of such a figure is Lorenzo the Magnificent, who controlled Renaissance Florence. Note that these definitions disregard some alleged dictators, e.g. Benito Mussolini, who are not interested in the actual achieving of social goals, as much as in propaganda and controlling public opinion. Monarchs and military dictators are also excluded from these definitions, because their rule relies on the consent of other political powers (the barons or the army). Notes See also Dictatorship Dictator novel Governor-General Heads of state timeline List of political leaders who suspended the constitution List of political leaders who held active military ranks in office List of successful coups d'état Military rule President for life Roman dictator Rule by decree Single party state External links WorldStatesmen Manual del Neo-Dictador be-x-old:Дыктатар | Dictator |@lemmatized dictator:52 ruler:4 e:6 g:4 absolutist:1 autocratic:1 assume:2 sole:2 absolute:4 power:17 military:9 control:3 without:4 hereditary:1 ascension:1 monarch:2 state:15 call:3 head:5 particular:2 dictatorship:9 word:2 originate:1 title:10 magistrate:1 ancient:3 rome:2 appoint:2 senate:2 rule:10 republic:6 time:5 emergency:5 see:3 roman:7 justitium:1 like:4 term:18 tyrant:3 originally:1 respectable:1 greek:1 less:1 degree:1 autocrat:1 come:6 use:9 almost:1 exclusively:2 non:2 titular:2 oppressive:2 even:3 abusive:1 yet:1 rare:1 modern:9 us:1 usage:3 generally:2 describe:2 leader:7 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5,340 | History_of_the_petroleum_industry_in_the_United_States | Before the Drake well (See Early uses of petroleum) Native Americans had known of the oil in western Pennsylvania, and had made some use of it for many years before the mid 19th century. Interest grew substantially in the mid-1850s as scientists reported on the potential to manufacture kerosene from crude oil, if a sufficiently large oil supply could be found. Salt was a valuable commodity, and an industry developed near salt springs in the Ohio River Valley, producing salt by evaporating brine from the springs. Wells were sunk at the salt springs to increase the supply of brine for evaporation. Some of the wells were hand-dug, but salt producers also learned to drill wells by percussion methods. In a number of locations in western Virginia, Ohio, and Kentucky, oil and natural gas came up the wells along with the brine. The oil was mostly a nuisance, but some salt producers saved it and sold it as illuminating oil. In some locations, enough natural gas was produced to be used as fuel for the salt evaporating pans. Edgar Wesley Owen (1975) Trek of the Oil Finders, Tulsa, Okla.: American Association of Petroleum Geologists, p.9-10. The Drake well, Titusville, Pennsylvania 1879 retail brochure for various petroleum products On August 28, 1859 George Bissell and Edwin L. Drake made the first successful use of a drilling rig to produce oil, at a site on Oil Creek near Titusville, Pennsylvania. The Drake well is often referred to as the "first" commercial oil well, although that title is also claimed for wells in Azerbaijan, Ontario, West Virginia, and Poland. Historians have noted that the importance of the Drake well was not in being first, but in attracting the first great wave of investment in oil drilling, refining, and marketing: "The importance of the Drake well was in the fact that it caused prompt additional drilling, thus establishing a supply of petroleum in sufficient quantity to support business enterprises of magnitude. Edgar Wesley Owen (1975) Trek of the Oil Finders, Tulsa, Okla.: American Association of Petroleum Geologists, p.12. Appalachian Basin The success of the Drake well quickly led to oil drilling in other locations in the western Appalachian mountains, where oil was seeping to the surface, or where salt drillers had previously found oil fouling their salt wells. During the American Civil War, the oil-producing region spread over much of western Pennsylvania, up into western New York state, and down the Ohio River valley into the states of Ohio, Kentucky, and the western part of Virginia (now West Virginia). The Appalachian Basin continued to be the leading oil-producing region in the United States through 1904. Harold F. Williamson and others (1963) The American Petroleum Industry, 1899-1959, the Age of Energy, Evanston, Ill.: Northwestern Univ. Press, p.16. The principal product of the oil in the 1800s was kerosene, which quickly replaced whale oil for illuminating purposes in the United States. Originally dealing in whale oil which was widely used for illumination, Charles Pratt (1830-1891) of Massachusetts was an early pioneer of the natural oil industry in the United States. He was founder of Astral Oil Works in the Greenpoint section of Brooklyn, New York. Pratt's product later gave rise to the slogan, "The holy lamps of Tibet are primed with Astral Oil." He joined with his protégé Henry H. Rogers to form Charles Pratt and Company in 1867. Both companies became part of John D. Rockefeller's Standard Oil in 1874. Lima-Indiana District (See Indiana Gas Boom) Mid-Continent The Mid-continent area is an area generally including Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas away from the Gulf Coast. The first commercially successful oil well drilled in Kansas was the Norman No. 1 near Neodesha, Kansas, on November 28, 1892. Corsicana, Texas, 1896, Texas, plus 44 million barrels (7,000,000 m³) McCamey, 1928, Baker No. 1., Texas. Oklahoma Oil was discovered at Bartlesville and Burbank in 1897. But the initial discoveries created no great excitement until the discovery gusher of the Glenn pool in 1906. The Glenn discovery came when Gulf Coast production was decling rapidly, and the operators were eager for new areas to drill. The increased drilling resulted in major discoveries at Cushing in 1912 and Healdton in 1913. Harold F. Williamson and others (1963) The American Petroleum Industry, 1899-1959, the Age of Energy, Evanston, Ill.: Northwestern Univ. Press, p.21-24. Greater Seminole, 1926, Oklahoma, plus 200 million barrels (31,800,000 m³) Oklahoma City, No. 1 Discovery Well, 1928, Oklahoma. The Mary Sudik No. 1, "Wild Mary Sudik", gusher did not blow until March 25, 1930—she sprayed an estimated an hour (133 L/s) for the next 11 days. East Texas The largest oil field in the lower 48 states, the East Texas oil field, was not discovered until 1930, when wildcatter Columbus Marion Joiner (more commonly "Dad" Joiner) drilled the Daisy Bradford No. 3 well, in Rusk County, Texas. James A. Clark and Michael Halbouty (1972) The Last Boom, New York: Random House, ISBN 0-394-48232-8. Gulf Coast The Lucas gusher at Spindletop Capt. Anthony Francis Lucas, an experienced mining engineer and salt driller, drilled a well to find oil at Spindletop Hill. On the morning of January 10, 1901, the little hill south of Beaumont, Texas began to tremble and mud bubbled up over the rotary table. A low rumbling sound came from underground, and then, with a force that shot 6 tons of 4-inch (100 mm) diameter pipe out over the top of the derrick, knocking off the crown block, the Lucas Gusher roared in and the Spindletop oil field was born. Spindletop became the focus of frenzied drilling; oil production from the field peaked in 1902 at 17.4 million barrels, but by 1905 production had declined 90% from the peak. Harold F. Williamson and others (1963) The American Petroleum Industry, 1899-1959, the Age of Energy, Evanston, Ill.: Northwestern Univ. Press, p.22. Spindletop Hill turned out to be the surface expression of an underground salt dome, around which the oil accumulated. The Spindletop gusher started serious oil exploration of the Gulf Coast in Texas and Louisiana, an area that had previously been dismissed by oil men. Other salt dome mounds were quickly drilled, resulting in discoveries at Sour Lake (1902), Batson (1904) and Humble (1905). W.A. Ver Wiebe (1950) North American and Middle Eastern Oil Fields, Wichita, Kans.: W.A. Ver Wiebe, p.147-148. The Standard Oil Company was slow to appreciate the economic potential of the Spindletop oil field, and the Gulf Coast generally, which gave greater opportunity to others; Spindletop became the birthplace of oil giants Texaco and Gulf Oil. Although in 1899 Standard Oil controlled more than 85% of the oil production in the older oil regions in the Appalachian Basin and the Lima-Indiana trend, it never controlled more than 10% of the oil production in the new Gulf Coast province. Harold F. Williamson and others (1963) The American Petroleum Industry, 1899-1959, the Age of Energy, Evanston, Ill.: Northwestern Univ. Press, p.7. California Indians had known of the tar seeps in southern California for thousands of years, and used the tar to waterproof their canoes. Spanish settlers also knew of the seeps, such as at Rancho La Brea (Spanish for Tar Ranch) in present-day Los Angeles. Despite the abundance of well-known seeps in southern California, the first commercial oil well in California was drilled in Humboldt County, northern California in 1865. W.A. Ver Wiebe (1950) North American and Middle Eastern Oil Fields, Wichita, Kans.: W.A. Ver Wiebe, p.198. Some attempts were made in the 1860s to exploit oil deposits under tar seeps in the Ventura Basin of Ventura County and northeastern Los Angeles county. The early efforts failed because of complex geology, and, more importantly, because the refining techniques then available could not manufacture high-quality kerosene from California crude oil, which differed chemically from Pennsylvania crude oil. Gerald T. White (1962) Formative Years in the Far West, New York: Appleton-Crofts, p.20. Most California crude oil in the early years was turned into the less lucrative products of fuel oil and asphalt. Oil production in the Los Angeles Basin started with the Los Angeles City oil field in 1893. Oil in the San Joaquin Basin was first discovered at the Coalinga field in 1890. By 1901, the San Joaquin Basin was the main oil-producing region of California. Rocky Mountains The first commercial oil well in the Rocky Mountains was drilled near Canon City, Colorado in 1862. The wells in the Canyon City-Florence field, drilled near surface oil seeps, produced from fractures in the Pierre Shale. Bighorn Basin Denver Basin Green River Basin North Park (Colorado basin) Paradox Basin Piceance Basin Powder River Basin Raton Basin San Juan Basin Uinta Basin Alaska A Russian sea captain noted oil seeps along the shore of the Cook Inlet as early as 1853, and oil drilling began in 1898 in a number of locations along the southern coast of Alaska. W.A. Ver Wiebe (1950) North American and Middle Eastern Oil Fields, Wichita, Kans.: W.A. Ver Wiebe, p.232-236. Production was relatively small, however, until huge discoveries were made on Alaska's remote North Slope. Oil seeps on the North Slope have been known for many years, and in 1923, the federal government created US Naval Petroleum Reserve No. 4 to cover the presumed oil fields beneath the seeps. Some exploration drilling was done in the reserve during World War II and the 1950s, but the remote location deterred intensive exploration until the 1960s. The Prudhoe Bay Oil Field, the largest oil field in the United States in terms of total oil produced, was discovered in 1968. Production began in 1977, following completion of the Trans-Alaska Pipeline. Through 2005, the field has produced 13 billion barrels of oil, and is estimated to contain another 2 billion barrels of economically recoverable oil. See also The Seven Sisters Offshore oil and gas in the United States Oil industry References External Links American Oil and Gas Historical Society Handbook of Texas Online: Oil and gas industry Utah History to Go: The growth of Utah's petroleum industry | History_of_the_petroleum_industry_in_the_United_States |@lemmatized drake:7 well:21 see:3 early:5 us:1 petroleum:11 native:1 american:12 know:5 oil:70 western:6 pennsylvania:5 make:4 use:5 many:2 year:5 mid:4 century:1 interest:1 grow:1 substantially:1 scientist:1 report:1 potential:2 manufacture:2 kerosene:3 crude:4 sufficiently:1 large:3 supply:3 could:2 find:3 salt:12 valuable:1 commodity:1 industry:9 develop:1 near:5 spring:3 ohio:4 river:4 valley:2 produce:9 evaporate:2 brine:3 sink:1 increase:1 evaporation:1 hand:1 dug:1 producer:2 also:4 learn:1 drill:9 percussion:1 method:1 number:2 location:5 virginia:4 kentucky:2 natural:3 gas:6 come:3 along:3 mostly:1 nuisance:1 save:1 sell:1 illuminate:2 enough:1 fuel:2 pan:1 edgar:2 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morning:1 january:1 little:1 south:1 beaumont:1 begin:3 tremble:1 mud:1 bubble:1 rotary:1 table:1 rumbling:1 sound:1 underground:2 force:1 shoot:1 ton:1 inch:1 mm:1 diameter:1 pipe:1 top:1 derrick:1 knock:1 crown:1 block:1 roar:1 bear:1 focus:1 frenzied:1 peak:2 decline:1 turn:2 expression:1 dome:2 around:1 accumulate:1 start:2 serious:1 exploration:3 louisiana:1 dismiss:1 men:1 mound:1 sour:1 lake:1 batson:1 humble:1 w:6 ver:6 wiebe:6 north:6 middle:3 eastern:3 wichita:3 kans:3 slow:1 appreciate:1 economic:1 opportunity:1 birthplace:1 giant:1 texaco:1 control:2 old:1 trend:1 never:1 province:1 california:8 indian:1 tar:4 seeps:8 southern:3 thousand:1 waterproof:1 canoe:1 spanish:2 settler:1 rancho:1 la:1 brea:1 ranch:1 present:1 los:4 angeles:4 despite:1 abundance:1 humboldt:1 northern:1 attempt:1 exploit:1 deposit:1 ventura:2 northeastern:1 effort:1 fail:1 complex:1 geology:1 importantly:1 technique:1 available:1 high:1 quality:1 differ:1 chemically:1 gerald:1 white:1 formative:1 far:1 appleton:1 croft:1 less:1 lucrative:1 asphalt:1 san:3 joaquin:2 coalinga:1 main:1 rocky:2 mountains:1 canon:1 colorado:2 canyon:1 florence:1 fracture:1 pierre:1 shale:1 bighorn:1 denver:1 green:1 park:1 paradox:1 piceance:1 powder:1 raton:1 juan:1 uinta:1 alaska:4 russian:1 sea:1 captain:1 shore:1 cook:1 inlet:1 relatively:1 small:1 however:1 huge:1 remote:2 slope:2 federal:1 government:1 u:1 naval:1 reserve:2 cover:1 presumed:1 beneath:1 world:1 ii:1 deter:1 intensive:1 prudhoe:1 bay:1 term:1 total:1 follow:1 completion:1 trans:1 pipeline:1 billion:2 contain:1 another:1 economically:1 recoverable:1 seven:1 sister:1 offshore:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 historical:1 society:1 handbook:1 online:1 utah:2 history:1 go:1 growth:1 |@bigram crude_oil:4 petroleum_geologist:2 drilling_rig:1 oil_drilling:3 appalachian_mountain:1 northwestern_univ:4 univ_press:4 commercially_successful:1 inch_mm:1 w_ver:6 ver_wiebe:6 los_angeles:4 san_joaquin:2 rocky_mountain:1 san_juan:1 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5,341 | Controlled_Substances_Act | The Controlled Substances Act (CSA) was enacted into law by the Congress of the United States as Title II of the Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act of 1970. , codified at et. seq. The CSA is the federal U.S. drug policy under which the manufacture, importation, possession, use and distribution of certain substances is regulated. The Act also served as the national implementing legislation for the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs. The legislation created five Schedules (classifications), with varying qualifications for a substance to be included in each. Two federal agencies, the Drug Enforcement Administration and the Food and Drug Administration, determine which substances are added or removed from the various schedules, though the statute passed by Congress created the initial listing. Classification decisions are required to be made on criteria including potential for abuse (which is undefined by the CSA ), currently accepted medical use in treatment in the United States, and international treaties. History In 1969, President Richard Nixon announced that the Attorney General, John N. Mitchell, was preparing a comprehensive new measure to more effectively meet the narcotic and dangerous drug problems at the federal level by combining all existing federal laws into a single new statute. Also during this time, Nixon commissioned the National Commission on Marijuana and Drug Abuse—known as the Shafer Commission after its chairman, Raymond P. Shafer—to study marijuana abuse in the United States. During his presentation of the commission's findings to Congress, Shafer recommended the decriminalization of marijuana in small amounts, saying, "[T]he criminal law is too harsh a tool to apply to personal possession even in the effort to discourage use. It implies an overwhelming indictment of the behavior which we believe is not appropriate. The actual and potential harm of use of the drug is not great enough to justify intrusion by the criminal law into private behavior, a step which our society takes only 'with the greatest reluctance." Nixon buried this commission's findings and went on to sign the Controlled Substances Act. Rufus King notes that this stratagem was similar to that used by Harry Anslinger when he consolidated the previous anti-drug treaties into the Single Convention and took the opportunity to add new provisions that otherwise might have been unpalatable to the international community. The 1970 Act: Don't Sit There, Amend Something According to David T. Courtwright, "the Act was part of an omnibus reform package designed to rationalize, and in some respects to liberalize, American drug policy." It eliminated mandatory minimum sentences and provided support for drug treatment and research. King notes that the rehabilitation clauses were added as a compromise to Senator Hughes, who favored a moderate approach. The bill, as introduced by Senator Dirksen, ran 91 pages. While it was being drafted, the Uniform Controlled Substances Act, to be passed by state legislatures, was also being drafted by the Department of Justice; its wording closely mirrored the Controlled Substances Act. Since its enactment in 1970, the Act has been amended several times: The Psychotropic Substances Act of 1978 added provisions implementing the Convention on Psychotropic Substances. The Controlled Substances Penalties Amendments Act of 1984. The Chemical Diversion and Trafficking Act of 1988 added provisions implementing the United Nations Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances. The Domestic Chemical Diversion and Control Act of 1993. The Federal Analog Act. Enforcement authority Proceedings to add, delete, or change the schedule of a drug or other substance may be initiated by the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA), the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS), or by petition from any interested party, including the manufacturer of a drug, a medical society or association, a pharmacy association, a public interest group concerned with drug abuse, a state or local government agency, or an individual citizen. When a petition is received by the DEA, the agency begins its own investigation of the drug. The DEA also may begin an investigation of a drug at any time based upon information received from laboratories, state and local law enforcement and regulatory agencies, or other sources of information. Once the DEA has collected the necessary data, the DEA Administrator, by authority of the Attorney General, requests from HHS a scientific and medical evaluation and recommendation as to whether the drug or other substance should be controlled or removed from control. This request is sent to the Assistant Secretary of Health of HHS. Then, HHS solicits information from the Commissioner of the Food and Drug Administration and evaluations and recommendations from the National Institute on Drug Abuse and, on occasion, from the scientific and medical community at large. The Assistant Secretary, by authority of the Secretary, compiles the information and transmits back to the DEA a medical and scientific evaluation regarding the drug or other substance, a recommendation as to whether the drug should be controlled, and in what schedule it should be placed. The medical and scientific evaluations are binding to the DEA with respect to scientific and medical matters. The recommendation on scheduling is binding only to the extent that if HHS recommends that the substance not be controlled, the DEA may not control the substance. Once the DEA has received the scientific and medical evaluation from HHS, the DEA Administrator will evaluate all available data and make a final decision whether to propose that a drug or other substance be controlled and into which schedule it should be placed. Under certain circumstances, the Government may temporarily schedule a drug without following the normal procedure. An example is when international treaties require control of a substance. In addition, allows the Attorney General to temporarily place a substance in Schedule I "to avoid an imminent hazard to the public safety". Thirty days' notice is required before the order can be issued, and the scheduling expires after a year; however, the period may be extended six months if rulemaking proceedings to permanently schedule the drug are in progress. In any case, once these proceedings are complete, the temporary order is automatically vacated. The CSA also creates a closed system of distribution for those authorized to handle controlled substances. The cornerstone of this system is the registration of all those authorized by the DEA to handle controlled substances. All individuals and firms that are registered are required to maintain complete and accurate inventories and records of all transactions involving controlled substances, as well as security for the storage of controlled substances. International law The Congressional findings in , , and state that a major purpose of the CSA is to "enable the United States to meet all of its obligations" under international treaties - specifically, the 1961 Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs and the 1971 Convention on Psychotropic Substances. The CSA bears many resemblances to these Conventions. Both the CSA and the treaties set out a system for classifying controlled substances in several Schedules in accordance with the binding scientific and medical findings of a public health authority. Under 21 U.S.C. § 811 of the CSA, that authority is the Secretary of Health and Human Services (HHS). Under Article 3 of the Single Convention and Article 2 of the Convention on Psychotropic Substances, the World Health Organization is that authority. A provision for automatic compliance with treaty obligations is found at , which also establishes mechanisms for amending international drug control regulations to correspond with HHS findings on scientific and medical issues. If control of a substance is mandated by the Single Convention, the Attorney General is required to "issue an order controlling such drug under the schedule he deems most appropriate to carry out such obligations," without regard to the normal scheduling procedure or the findings of the HHS Secretary. However, the Secretary has great influence over any drug scheduling proposal under the Single Convention, because requires the Secretary the power to "evaluate the proposal and furnish a recommendation to the Secretary of State which shall be binding on the representative of the United States in discussions and negotiations relating to the proposal." Similarly, if the United Nations Commission on Narcotic Drugs adds or transfers a substance to a Schedule established by the Convention on Psychotropic Substances, so that current U.S. regulations on the drug do not meet the treaty's requirements, the Secretary is required to issue a recommendation on how the substance should be scheduled under the CSA. If the Secretary agrees with the Commission's scheduling decision, he can recommend that the Attorney General initiate proceedings to reschedule the drug accordingly. If the HHS Secretary disagrees with the UN controls, however, the Attorney General must temporarily place the drug in Schedule IV or V (whichever meets the minimum requirements of the treaty) and exclude the substance from any regulations not mandated by the treaty, while the Secretary is required to request that the Secretary of State take action, through the Commission or the UN Economic and Social Council, to remove the drug from international control or transfer it to a different Schedule under the Convention. The temporary scheduling expires as soon as control is no longer needed to meet international treaty obligations. This provision was invoked in 1984 to place Rohypnol (flunitrazepam) in Schedule IV. The drug did not then meet the Controlled Substances Act's criteria for scheduling; however, control was required by the Convention on Psychotropic Substances. In 1999, an FDA official explained to Congress: Rohypnol is not approved or available for medical use in the United States, but it is temporarily controlled in Schedule IV pursuant to a treaty obligation under the 1971 Convention on Psychotropic Substances. At the time flunitrazepam was placed temporarily in Schedule IV (November 5, 1984), there was no evidence of abuse or trafficking of the drug in the United States. The Cato Institute's Handbook for Congress calls for repealing the CSA, an action that would likely bring the United States into conflict with international law. The exception would be if the U.S. were to claim that the treaty obligations violate the United States Constitution. Many articles in these treaties - such as Article 35 and Article 36 of the Single Convention - are prefaced with phrases such as "Having due regard to their constitutional, legal and administrative systems, the Parties shall . . ." or "Subject to its constitutional limitations, each Party shall . . ." According to former United Nations Drug Control Programme Chief of Demand Reduction Cindy Fazey, "This has been used by the USA not to implement part of article 3 of the 1988 Convention, which prevents inciting others to use narcotic or psychotropic drugs, on the basis that this would be in contravention of their constitutional amendment guaranteeing freedom of speech". Schedules of controlled substances The below lists include examples only. Placing a drug or other substance in a certain Schedule or removing it from a certain Schedule is primarily based on , , , , , , and arbitrarydecisions. Despite the exceptions which exist to the findings requirements of it is remarkable that every Schedule otherwise requires a finding specifying the "potential for abuse" before a substance can be placed in that Schedule yet the Controlled Substances Act does not define abuse. http://www4.law.cornell.edu/uscode/html/uscode21/usc_sup_01_21_10_13.html The specific classification of any given drug or other substance is usually a source of controversy, as is the purpose and effectiveness of the entire regulatory scheme. "The term 'controlled substance' means a drug or other substance, or immediate precursor, included in schedule I, II, III, IV, or V of part B of this subchapter. The term does not include distilled spirits, wine, malt beverages, or tobacco, as those terms are defined or used in subtitle E of the Internal Revenue Code of 1986." Some have argued that this is an important exemption, since alcohol Appendix C: Measurement of Dependence, Abuse, Treatment, and Treatment Need - 2000 NHSDA - Substance Dependence, Abuse, and Treatment and tobacco InfoFacts - Cigarettes and Other Tobacco Products are the two most widely used drugs in the United States. Caffeine is also not on the list. Recently, in a report published in The Lancet Journal, researchers have introduced an alternative method for drug classification in the UK. This new system uses a “nine category matrix of harm, with an expert Delphic procedure, to assess the harms of a range of illicit drugs in an evidence-based fashion.” The new classification system suggested that alcohol and tobacco were in the mid-range of harm, while cannabis, lysergic acid diethylamide ("LSD") and MDMA ("Ecstacy") were all less harmful than the two legal drugs. This research is in line with a British House Of Commons report Drug Classification: Making A Hash Of It. The placement of some drugs or other substances is paradoxical: both morphine and fentanyl are in Schedule II, and heroin is in Schedule I. Fentanyl is approximately 80 times the potency of morphine, and heroin is somewhere between morphine and fentanyl. Morphine has been used by physicians for over 150 years. It is very addictive, but it is very effective for severe pain, so it is licensed for careful medical use. Heroin was introduced in the late 19th century and licensed the same way until it was banned in 1924 History of Opioids . Fentanyl has been used for less than 50 years and has always been carefully restricted. Dextromethorphan (DXM), a drug found in many OTC cough medications, is also explicitly exempt from scheduling under the original 1970 version of the CSA. However, the DEA has noted DXM to be abused recreationally as a dissociative anaesthetic similar to PCP or ketamine. DXM is therefore listed as a 'chemical of concern' and is being considered for possible evaluation for scheduling. Schedule I controlled substances "Placement on schedules; findings required Except ... The findings required for each of the schedules are as follows: (1) Schedule I.— (A) The drug or other substance has a high potential for abuse. (B) The drug or other substance has no currently accepted medical use in treatment in the United States. (C) There is a lack of accepted safety for use of the drug or other substance under medical supervision." No prescriptions may be written for Schedule I substances, and such substances are subject to production quotas by the DEA. Under the DEA's interpretation of the CSA, a drug does not necessarily have to have the same abuse potential as heroin or cocaine to merit placement in Schedule I (in fact, cocaine is currently a Schedule II drug due to limited medical use): Government Printing Office When it comes to a drug that is currently listed in schedule I, if it is undisputed that such drug has no currently accepted medical use in treatment in the United States and a lack of accepted safety for use under medical supervision, and it is further undisputed that the drug has at least some potential for abuse sufficient to warrant control under the CSA, the drug must remain in schedule I. In such circumstances, placement of the drug in schedules II through V would conflict with the CSA since such drug would not meet the criterion of "a currently accepted medical use in treatment in the United States." 21 USC 812(b). Sentences for first-time, non-violent offenders convicted of trafficking in Schedule I drugs can easily turn into de facto life sentences when multiple sales are prosecuted in one proceeding. See United States v. Angelos, 433 F.3d 738 (10th Cir. 2006) (55 years for three sales of marijuana). Sentences for violent offenders are much higher. Drugs in this schedule include gamma-Hydroxybutyric acid (GHB), which has been used as a general anaesthetic with minimal side-effects and controlled action but a limited safe dosage range. It was placed in Schedule I in March 2000 after widespread recreational use. Uniquely, this drug is also listed in Schedule III for limited uses, under the trademark Xyrem; 12-Methoxyibogamine (Ibogaine), which has been used in opiate addiction treatment and psychotherapy. Cannabis (includes cannabinoids found in marijuana, hashish, and hashish oil). Controversy exists about its placement in Schedule I. Although in some states, ie. California it has been place on Schedule II Main article: Removal of cannabis from Schedule I of the Controlled Substances Act. Dimethyltryptamine (DMT), which is rumored to be found in small quantities in the human brain but is pharmacologically active in larger quantities. Heroin (Diacetylmorphine), which is used in some European countries as a potent pain reliever in terminal cancer patients, and as second option, after morphine. (It is about twice as potent, by weight, as morphine.) Other strong opiates and opioids used in many other countries, or even in the USA in previous decades for palliation of moderate to severe pain such as nicomorphine (Vilan), dextromoramide (Palfium), ketobemidone (Ketalgin), dihydromorphine (Paramorfan), piritramide (Dipidolor), diacetyldihydromorphine (Paralaudin), dipipanone (Wellconal), phenadoxone (Heptalgin) and many others. Weak opioids used for relief of moderate pain, diarrhea, and coughing such as benzylmorphine (Peronine), nicocodeine (Tusscodin), Dihydrocodeinone enol acetate, tilidine (Valoron), meptazinol (Meptid), propiram (Algeril), acetyldihydrocodeine and others. Pholcodine, a weak opioid cough suppressant with negligible abuse potential which is available over-the-counter in many other countries. MDMA (3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine, Ecstasy), which continues to be used medically, notably in the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) (approved by the FDA for PTSD use in 2001). The medical community originally agreed upon placing it as a Schedule III substance, but the government denied this suggestion, despite two court rulings by the DEA's administrative law judge that placing MDMA in Schedule I was illegal. It was temporarily unscheduled after the first administrative hearing from December 22, 1987 - July 1, 1988. MAPS Legal History of MDMA Psilocybin, the active ingredient in psychedelic mushrooms; 5-MeO-DIPT (Foxy / Foxy Methoxy / 5-methoxy-N,N-diisopropyltryptamine) Lysergic acid diethylamide ("LSD" / "Acid"), formerly used in psychotherapy Peyote, a cactus growing in nature primarily in northeastern Mexico; one of the few plants specifically scheduled, with a narrow exception to its legal status for religious use by members of the Native American Church; Mescaline, the main psychoactive ingredients of the peyote, san pedro, achuma, and Peruvian torch cacti; Methaqualone (Quaalude, Sopor, Mandrax), a sedative that was previously used for similar purposes as barbiturates, until it was rescheduled; 2,5-dimethoxy-4-methylamphetamine (STP / DOM), a psychotropic hallucinogen that rose to prominence in 1967 in San Francisco when it appeared in pill form (known as "STP", in doses as high as four times the amounts previously considered "safe") on the black market; Tetrahydrogestrinone (THG / "The Clear"), an anabolic progestegenic androgen first created by the BALCO athletic supplement company that was the drug of choice for athletes using steroids due to its "invisibility" in standard steroid screening tests until 2003, when Trevor Graham provided a sample to the United States Anti-Doping Agency for use in creating a screening test; banned by the FDA for medical use and added to Schedule I in 2003; 2C-T-7 (Blue Mystic / T7), a psychotropic entheogen; 2C-B (Nexus / Bees / Venus / Bromo Mescaline), a psychotropic hallucinogen and aphrodisiac; Cathinone (β-ketoamphetamine), a monoamine alkaloid found in the shrub Catha edulis (Khat); AMT (alpha-methyltryptamine), an anti-depressant from the tryptamine family with hallucinogenic properties; first developed in the Soviet Union and marketed under the brand name Indopan; Bufotenin (5-OH-DMT), a naturally-occurring tryptamine with hallucinogenic and aphrodisiac properties; named for the Bufo genus of toads whose venom contains the chemical; Drug Scheduling. DEA. Accessed on May 7, 2007. Benzylpiperazine (BZP), a synthetic drug with a slight resemblance to MDMA and stimulant effects 10 times less potent than amphetamine (though it was mistakenly said to be 10 times more addictive than amphetamine at the drug's schedule hearing). DXO, active metabolite of Dextromethorphan, NMDA antagonist. Controlled Substances Act. Accessed from the US Drug Enforcement Administration website on May 29, 2007. Controlled Substance Analogs intended for human consumption (as defined by the Federal Analog Act) Schedule II controlled substances "Placement on schedules; findings required Except.... The findings required for each of the schedules are as follows: Schedule II.— (A) The drug or other substance has a high potential for abuse. (B) The drug or other substance has a currently accepted medical use in treatment in the United States or a currently accepted medical use with severe restrictions. (C) Abuse of the drug or other substances may lead to severe psychological or physical dependence." These substances are only available by prescription, and distribution is carefully controlled and monitored by the DEA. Oral prescriptions are allowed, except that the prescription is limited to 30 days worth of doses, although exceptions are made for cancer patients, burn victims, etc. and oral prescriptions for schedule II drugs must be confirmed in writing within 3 days. No refills are allowed. The Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) is finalizing a Notice of Proposed Rulemaking published on September 6, 2006 (71 FR 52724). In that document, DEA proposed to amend its regulations to allow practitioners to provide individual patients with multiple prescriptions, to be filled sequentially, for the same schedule II controlled substance, with such multiple prescriptions having the combined effect of allowing a patient to receive over time up to a 90- day supply of that controlled substance. This went in to effect December 19, 2007. Also, Schedule II substances are subject to production quotas set by the DEA. Some of these drugs (notably Fentanyl in non-transdermal form) are never given to patients for home use, but are administered only by a licensed healthcare provider. Fentanyl can be given to patients for home use in Duragesic transdermal therapeutic system patch form. There is no formal time limit of prescription delivery to the pharmacy, although state controlled substances acts do impose a time limit. (21 days in Texas) The prescription is limited to 30 days worth of doses. These drugs vary in potency: for example Fentanyl is about 80 times as potent as morphine. (Heroin is roughly four times as potent.) Drugs in this schedule include: Cocaine (used as a topical anesthetic); Methylphenidate (Ritalin and Concerta) & Dexmethylphenidate (Focalin) (used in treatment of Attention Deficit Disorder); Opium and opium tincture (laudanum), which is used as a potent antidiarrheal; Methadone (used in treatment of heroin addiction as well as for treatment of extreme chronic pain) Oxycodone (semi-synthetic opioid; active ingredient in Percocet, OxyContin, and Percodan) Fentanyl and Most other strong pure opioid agonists, i.e. levorphanol, opium, or oxymorphone; Morphine Amphetamine Salts (racemic) Under brand name Adderall Dextroamphetamine (Dexedrine) Dextromethamphetamine (Desoxyn) Hydromorphone (Dilaudid) Pure codeine and any drug for non-parenteral administration containing the equivalent of more than 90 mg of codeine per dosage unit.; Pure hydrocodone and any drug for non-parenteral administration containing no other active ingredients or more than 15 mg per dosage unit.; Secobarbital (Seconal) Pethidine (USAN: Meperidine; Demerol) Phencyclidine (PCP); Short-acting barbiturates, such as pentobarbital, (Nembutal (now out of production)); Amphetamines were originally placed on Schedule III, but were moved to Schedule II in 1971. Injectable methamphetamine has always been on Schedule II; Nabilone (Cesamet) A synthetic cannabinoid. An analogue to dronabinol (Marinol) which is a Schedule III drug. Schedule III controlled substances "Placement on schedules; findings required Except... . The findings required for each of the schedules are as follows: Schedule III.— (A) The drug or other substance has a potential for abuse less than the drugs or other substances in schedules I and II. (B) The drug or other substance has a currently accepted medical use in treatment in the United States. (C) Abuse of the drug or other substance may lead to moderate or low physical dependence or high psychological dependence." These drugs are available only by prescription, though control of wholesale distribution is somewhat less stringent than Schedule II drugs. Prescriptions for Schedule III drugs may be refilled up to five times within a six month period. Drugs in this schedule include: Anabolic steroids (including prohormones such as androstenedione); Intermediate-acting barbiturates, such as talbutal or butalbital; Buprenorphine; Dihydrocodeine single-ingredient drugs and the pure drug itself. Ketamine, a drug originally developed as a milder substitute for PCP (mainly to use as a human anesthetic) but has since become popular as a veterinary and pediatric anesthetic; Xyrem, a preparation of GHB used to treat narcolepsy. Xyrem is in Schedule III but with a restricted distribution system. All other forms of GHB are in Schedule I; Hydrocodone / codeine, when compounded with an NSAID (e.g. Vicoprofen, when compounded with ibuprofen) or with acetaminophen (paracetamol) (e.g. Vicodin / Tylenol 3); Marinol, a synthetic form of Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) used to treat nausea and vomiting caused by chemotherapy, as well as appetite loss caused by AIDS; Paregoric, an antidiarrheal and anti-tussive, which contains opium combined with camphor (which makes it less addiction-prone than laudanum, which is in Schedule II; Lysergic acid amide ("LSA"), listed as a sedative but considered by most experts to be psychedelic. A precursor to and chemical relative of LSD. LSA occurs naturally in Rivea corymbosa, morning glory seeds, and Hawaiian baby woodrose seeds. LSA is not biosynthesized by the ergot fungus (Claviceps purpurea), but can be biosynthesized by other Claviceps geni. LSA can be present as an artifact in extracts of ergot. Schedule IV controlled substances "Placement on schedules; findings required Except.... The findings required for each of the schedules are as follows: Schedule IV.— (A) The drug or other substance has a low potential for abuse relative to the drugs or other substances in schedule III. (B) The drug or other substance has a currently accepted medical use in treatment in the United States. (C) Abuse of the drug or other substance may lead to limited physical dependence or psychological dependence relative to the drugs or other substances in schedule III. Control measures are similar to Schedule III. Prescriptions for Schedule IV drugs may be refilled up to five times within a six month period." Drugs in this schedule include: Benzodiazepines, such as alprazolam (Xanax), chlordiazepoxide (Librium), clonazepam, (Klonopin) diazepam (Valium) temazepam (Restoril) (Note that some states require specially coded prescriptions for temazepam) flunitrazepam (Rohypnol) (Note that flunitrazepam is not used medically in the United States); The benzodiazepine-like "Z-drugs": Zolpidem (Ambien), Zopiclone, Eszopiclone, and Zaleplon; Dextropropoxyphene (Doloxene) and propoxyphene (sold in the U.S. as Darvon, and in combination with acetaminophen as Darvocet); Long-acting barbiturates such as phenobarbital; Some partial agonist opioid analgesics, such as pentazocine (Talwin); The stimulant-like drug modafinil (sold in the U.S. as Provigil) as well as its (R)-enantiometer armodafinil (sold in the U.S. as Nuvigil); Antidiarrheal drugs, such as difenoxin, when combined with atropine (Motofen) (difenoxin is 2-3 times more potent then diphenoxylate, the active ingredient in Lomotil, which is in Schedule V); Schedule V controlled substances "Placement on schedules; findings required Except.... The findings required for each of the schedules are as follows: Schedule V.— (A) The drug or other substance has a low potential for abuse relative to the drugs or other substances in schedule IV. (B) The drug or other substance has a currently accepted medical use in treatment in the United States. (C) Abuse of the drug or other substance may lead to limited physical dependence or psychological dependence relative to the drugs or other substances in schedule IV." Schedule V substances are only available for a medical purpose. Drugs in this schedule include: Cough suppressants containing small amounts of codeine (e.g., promethazine+codeine); Preparations containing small amounts of opium or diphenoxylate (used to treat diarrhea); Pregabalin (Lyrica), an anticonvulsant and pain modulator. Pyrovalerone Some centrally-acting anti-diarrhoeals, such as diphenoxylate (Lomotil) when mixed with atropine to make it unpleasant for people to grind up, cook, and inject. Difenoxin with atropine (Motofen) has been moved to Schedule IV. Otherwise the drugs are in Schedule II. Other provisions The federal law has only five schedules, but some states have added a "Schedule VI" to cover certain substances which are not "drugs" in the conventional sense, but are nonetheless used, or abused, recreationally; these include toluene (found in many types of paint, especially spray paint) and similar inhalants such as amyl nitrite (or “poppers”), butyl nitrite, and nitrous oxide (found in many types of aerosol cans, though it is pharmacologically active, it is considered an inhalant). Many state and local governments enforce age limits on the sale of products containing these substances. Pharmaceuticals that require a prescription to be dispensed often are not covered under the Controlled Substances Act. This category includes medicines which should only be taken under a doctor's care, or which may have harmful interactions with other substances, but which are not known to be addictive and which are not used recreationally. These medications are used to treat a wide variety of medical conditions and to manage chronic conditions. Drugs requiring prescriptions are sometimes also known as legend drugs because legislation formerly required labels with the legend, "Caution! Federal law prohibits dispensing without a prescription."; the current requirement has been simplified to the legend "Rx only". The term controlled drugs is sometimes used for scheduled drugs because of the additional controls placed on them (beyond the need for a prescription). Federal regulation of pseudoephedrine Due to pseudoephedrine being widely used in the manufacture of methamphetamine (see also: pseudoephedrine, "Misuse and illicit use"), Congress passed the Methamphetamine Precursor Control Act which places restrictions on the sale of any medicine containing pseudoephedrine. That bill was then superseded by the Combat Methamphetamine Epidemic Act of 2005, which was passed as an amendment to the Patriot Act renewal and included wider and more comprehensive restrictions on the sale of pseudoephedrine containing products. This law requires http://www.doh.state.fl.us/mqa/pharmacy/info_federallaw.pdf customer signature of a "log-book" and presentation of valid photo ID to purchase of pseudoephedrine (PSE) containing products from all retailers. http://www.deadiversion.usdoj.gov/meth/index.html The law restricts an individual to the retail sale of such products to no more than three packages or no more than nine grams in a single transaction (9 grams is equivalent to 300 standard 30 mg tablets of Sudafed nasal decongestant). A violation of this statute constitutes a misdemeanor. In states where OTC medications which contain pseudoephedrine are not regulated, many retailers, notably Target and Wal-Mart have restricted their purchase by requiring it to be sold behind the pharmacy or service counter and/or placing an age restriction on purchase. Additionally, pharmacies such as CVS and Walgreens also require photo ID and log-book signatures for sales of PSE containing products in compliance with Federal law. Prior to this, the state of Oregon passed a law requiring a prescription for pharmacies to dispense any cold remedy containing pseudoephedrine. Likewise, the states of Alabama, Arizona, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, South Carolina, New Mexico, New Jersey, North Carolina, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Colorado, Texas, Virginia, Washington, Wisconsin and Wyoming restrict sales of pseudoephedrine-containing products to licensed pharmacies and require customers to show photo ID and sign a log book. California, Maryland, and Maine have also enacted degrees of controlled access to over the counter drugs that contain pseudoephedrine. This affects many preparations which were previously available over-the-counter without restriction, such as Actifed, their generic equivalents, etc. California Health and Safety Code sections 11100 and 11106 specify the new restrictions regarding over the counter (OTC) sale of ephedrine or pseudoephedrine containing products (PSE). Notes See also Regulation of therapeutic goods Gonzales v. Raich United States v. Oakland Cannabis Buyers' Cooperative External links Controlled Substances Act - U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration - Full text of the law, and interpretive text used as the basis of this article Schedules of controlled substances Code of Federal Regulations, Section 1308 21 USC, Chapter 13 (Cornell) - full text of the law 21 USC, Chapter 13 (GPO) - full text of the law Controlled Substances Act The schedules of the Act, with the chemical name and structure of each substance. Correlates the drugs and substances of the Act with those named in the UK Misuse of Drugs Act 1971, the Canadian Controlled Drugs and Substances Act and three United Nations treaties, the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, the Convention on Psychotropic Substances and the United Nations Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Cato Handbook for Congress, Chapter 17 "The War on Drugs". Convention on Psychotropic Substances 1971, International Narcotics Control Board. Fazey, Cindy: The UN Drug Policies and the Prospect for Change, April 2003. Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs 1961, International Narcotics Control Board. Statement on "Date Rape" Drugs by Nicholas Reuter, M.P.H., March 11, 1999. US Department of Justice (Drug Enforcement Administration), Marijuana Rescheduling Petition: Opinion and recommended ruling, findings of fact, conclusions of law and decision of administrative law judge, 6 September 1988, Section VIII, Part 16 Boaz, David: Drug Prohibition Has Failed, March 3, 1997. 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5,342 | Personal_Telco | The Personal Telco Project (or PTP) is a wireless community network project in Portland, Oregon. It was founded by Adam Shand in November 2000 after he read a Slashdot article about the Consume The Net project in London. PTP currently has about 100 Personal Telco Node Map wireless hotspots offering free Internet access at locations around Portland including Pioneer Courthouse Square, three public parks, and several restaurants and coffee shops. Ballard, Nigel, Wi-Fi for Everyone!, BlueOregon, April 7, 2005 PTP is currently involved in a grant-funded project to bring free wireless Internet to an entire neighborhood in North Portland, along N. Mississippi Avenue. Willamette Week, Mississippi Wi-Fi'ing, April 6, 2005 PTP is a non-profit organization in the state of Oregon, and received its 501(c)(3) status (a federal tax exemption granted to charitable organizations) in early 2003. PTP made US news in August 2002 when their hotspot at Pioneer Courthouse Square was blocked by a for-fee hotspot at a nearby Starbucks coffee shop. The problem was resolved amicably when the for-fee hotspot moved their connection to another channel. Slashdot, Starbucks Clashes With WiFi Hobbyists Over Airwaves, August 20, 2002 On March 4, 2003, a study was published stating Portland had more wireless hotspots per capita than any other U.S. city. This was due in part to PTP's advocacy. Dundas, Zach, Free For All, Willamette Week, June 9, 2004 References External links Personal Telco Home Page (Wiki server) Index of Personal Telco nodes Article about the first PTP meeting Article about PTP in the Portland Business Journal | Personal_Telco |@lemmatized personal:4 telco:4 project:4 ptp:8 wireless:4 community:1 network:1 portland:5 oregon:2 found:1 adam:1 shand:1 november:1 read:1 slashdot:2 article:3 consume:1 net:1 london:1 currently:2 node:2 map:1 hotspot:5 offer:1 free:3 internet:2 access:1 location:1 around:1 include:1 pioneer:2 courthouse:2 square:2 three:1 public:1 park:1 several:1 restaurant:1 coffee:2 shop:2 ballard:1 nigel:1 wi:2 fi:2 everyone:1 blueoregon:1 april:2 involve:1 grant:2 fund:1 bring:1 entire:1 neighborhood:1 north:1 along:1 n:1 mississippi:2 avenue:1 willamette:2 week:2 ing:1 non:1 profit:1 organization:2 state:2 receive:1 c:1 status:1 federal:1 tax:1 exemption:1 charitable:1 early:1 make:1 u:2 news:1 august:2 block:1 fee:2 nearby:1 starbucks:2 problem:1 resolve:1 amicably:1 move:1 connection:1 another:1 channel:1 clash:1 wifi:1 hobbyist:1 airwave:1 march:1 study:1 publish:1 per:1 caput:1 city:1 due:1 part:1 advocacy:1 dundas:1 zach:1 june:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 home:1 page:1 wiki:1 server:1 index:1 first:1 meeting:1 business:1 journal:1 |@bigram portland_oregon:1 coffee_shop:2 wi_fi:2 tax_exemption:1 per_caput:1 external_link:1 |
5,343 | Length | A cuboid demonstrating the dimensions length, width, and height Length is the long dimension of any object. The length of a thing is the distance between its ends, its linear extent as measured from end to end. This may be distinguished from height, which is vertical extent, and width or breadth, which are the distance from side to side, measuring across the object at right angles to the length. In the physical sciences and engineering, the word "length" is typically used synonymously with "distance", with symbol or or letter-like symbol . Length is a measure of one dimension, whereas area is a measure of two dimensions (length squared) and volume is a measure of three dimensions (length cubed). In most systems of measurement, the unit of length is a fundamental unit, from which other units are defined. Units of length In the physical sciences and engineering, when one speaks of "units of length", the word "length" is synonymous with "distance". There are several units that are used to measure length. Units of length may be based on lengths of human body parts, the distance travelled in a number of paces, the distance between landmarks or places on the Earth, or arbitrarily on the length of some fixed object. In the International System of Units (SI), the basic unit of length is the meter and is now defined in terms of the speed of light. The centimeter and the kilometer, derived from the meter, are also commonly used units. In U.S. customary units, English or Imperial system of units, commonly used units of length are the inch, the foot, the yard, and the mile. Units used to denote distances in the vastness of space, as in astronomy, are much longer than those typically used on Earth and include the astronomical unit, the light-year, and the parsec. Units used to denote microscopically small distances, as in chemistry, include the micron and the ångström. Length of moving rods While the length of a resting rod can be measured by direct comparison with a measuring rod, this comparison cannot be performed while the rod is moving, due to relativistic concerns. In this case we define its moving length as the distance between its two endpoints at a given instance. If the world lines of the two endpoints of the rod expressed in the coordinates of an inertial reference frame are and then the length of the rod in this reference frame at the instance is Since in special relativity the relation of simultaneity depends on the chosen frame of reference, the length of moving rods also depends. Generalizations In the differential geometry of curves and differential geometry of surfaces, length is an important global Riemannian invariant. See also Distance Dimension Orders of magnitude (length) Smoot Unit of length be-x-old:Даўжыня | Length |@lemmatized cuboid:1 demonstrate:1 dimension:6 length:26 width:2 height:2 long:2 object:3 thing:1 distance:10 end:3 linear:1 extent:2 measure:7 may:2 distinguish:1 vertical:1 breadth:1 side:2 across:1 right:1 angle:1 physical:2 science:2 engineering:2 word:2 typically:2 use:7 synonymously:1 symbol:2 letter:1 like:1 one:2 whereas:1 area:1 two:3 square:1 volume:1 three:1 cub:1 system:3 measurement:1 unit:17 fundamental:1 define:3 speaks:1 synonymous:1 several:1 base:1 human:1 body:1 part:1 travel:1 number:1 pace:1 landmark:1 place:1 earth:2 arbitrarily:1 fixed:1 international:1 si:1 basic:1 meter:2 term:1 speed:1 light:2 centimeter:1 kilometer:1 derive:1 also:3 commonly:2 u:1 customary:1 english:1 imperial:1 inch:1 foot:1 yard:1 mile:1 denote:2 vastness:1 space:1 astronomy:1 much:1 include:2 astronomical:1 year:1 parsec:1 microscopically:1 small:1 chemistry:1 micron:1 ångström:1 move:4 rod:7 rest:1 direct:1 comparison:2 measuring:1 cannot:1 perform:1 due:1 relativistic:1 concern:1 case:1 endpoint:2 give:1 instance:2 world:1 line:1 express:1 coordinate:1 inertial:1 reference:3 frame:3 since:1 special:1 relativity:1 relation:1 simultaneity:1 depend:2 chosen:1 generalization:1 differential:2 geometry:2 curve:1 surface:1 important:1 global:1 riemannian:1 invariant:1 see:1 order:1 magnitude:1 smoot:1 x:1 old:1 даўжыня:1 |@bigram special_relativity:1 differential_geometry:2 |
5,344 | Democracy | Democracy is a form government in which state-power is held by the majority of citizens within a country or a state. It is derived from the Greek (), "popular government", Demokratia, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, "A Greek-English Lexicon", at Perseus which was coined from (dêmos), "people" and (krátos), "rule, strength" in the middle of the fifth-fourth century BC to denote the political systems then existing in some Greek city-states, notably Athens following a popular uprising in 508 BC. Democracy is people who rule the government directly.BBC History of democracy In political theory, democracy describes a small number of related forms of government and also a political philosophy. Even though there is no universally accepted definition of 'democracy', Liberty and justice for some at Economist.com there are two principles that any definition of democracy includes. The first principle is that all members of the society (citizens) have equal access to power and the second that all members (citizens) enjoy universally recognized freedoms and liberties. R. Alan Dahl, I. Shapiro, J. A. Cheibub, The Democracy Sourcebook, MIT Press 2003, ISBN 0262541475, Google Books link M. Hénaff, T. B. Strong, Public Space and Democracy, University of Minnesota Press, ISBN 0816633878 There are several varieties of democracy, some of which provide better representation and more freedoms for their citizens than others. G. F. Gaus, C. Kukathas, Handbook of Political Theory, SAGE, 2004, p. 143-145, ISBN 0761967877, Google Books link The Judge in a Democracy, Princeton University Press, 2006, p. 26, ISBN 069112017X, Google Books link However, if any democracy is not carefully legislated to avoid an uneven distribution of political power with balances, such as the separation of powers, then a branch of the system of rule could accumulate power and become harmful to the democracy itself. A. Barak, The Judge in a Democracy, Princeton University Press, 2006, p. 40, ISBN 069112017X, Google Books link T. R. Williamson, Problems in American Democracy, Kessinger Publishing, 2004, p. 36, ISBN 1419143166, Google Books link U. K. Preuss, "Perspectives of Democracy and the Rule of Law." Journal of Law and Society, 18:3 (1991). pp. 353-364 The "majority rule" is often described as a characteristic feature of democracy, but without responsible government it is possible for the rights of a minority to be abused by the "tyranny of the majority". An essential process in representative democracies are competitive elections, that are fair both substantively Substantively fairness means equality among all citizens in all respects i.e. equality in chances, in starting point etc. and procedurally. Procedural fairness means that the rules of the elections are clear and set in advance Furthermore, freedom of political expression, freedom of speech and freedom of the press are essential so that citizens are informed and able to vote in their personal interests. A. Barak,The Judge in a Democracy, Princeton University Press, 2006, p. 27, ISBN 069112017X, Google Books link H. Kelsen, Ethics, Vol. 66, No. 1, Part 2: Foundations of Democracy (Oct., 1955), pp. 1-101 Popular sovereignty is common but not a universal motivating philosophy for establishing a democracy. In some countries, democracy is based on the philosophical principle of equal rights. Many people use the term "democracy" as shorthand for liberal democracy, which may include additional elements such as political pluralism, equality before the law, the right to petition elected officials for redress of grievances, due process, civil liberties, human rights, and elements of civil society outside the government. In the United States, separation of powers is often cited as a supporting attribute, but in other countries, such as the United Kingdom, the dominant philosophy is parliamentary sovereignty (though in practice judicial independence is generally maintained). In other cases, "democracy" is used to mean direct democracy. Though the term "democracy" is typically used in the context of a political state, the principles are also applicable to private organizations and other groups. Democracy has its origins in Ancient Greece. John Dunn, Democracy: the unfinished journey 508 BC - 1993 AD, Oxford University Press, 1994, ISBN 0198279345 Kurt A. Raaflaub, Josiah Ober, Robert W. Wallace, Origin of Democracy in Ancient Greece, University of California Press, 2007, ISBN 0520245628, Google Books link However other cultures have significantly contributed to the evolution of democracy such as Ancient India, http://www.nipissingu.ca/department/history/muhlberger/histdem/indiadem.htm Ancient Rome, Europe, and North and South America. Democracy has been called the "last form of government" and has spread considerably across the globe. "The Global Trend" chart on Freedom in the World 2007: Freedom Stagnation Amid Pushback Against Democracy published by Freedom House Suffrage has been expanded in many jurisdictions over time from relatively narrow groups (such as wealthy men of a particular ethnic group), but still remains a controversial issue with regard to disputed territories, areas with significant immigration, and countries that exclude certain demographic groups. History Ancient origins The term democracy first appeared in ancient Greek political and philosophical thought. The philosopher Plato contrasted democracy, the system of "rule by the governed", with the alternative systems of monarchy (rule by one individual), oligarchy (rule by a small élite class) and timocracy. Political Analysis in Plato's Republic at the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Although Athenian democracy is today considered by many to have been a form of direct democracy, originally it had two distinguishing features: firstly the allotment (selection by lot) of ordinary citizens to government offices and courts, Aristotle Book 6 and secondarily the assembly of all the citizens. All the male Athenian citizens were eligible to speak and vote in the Assembly, which set the laws of the city-state; citizenship was not granted to women, or slaves. Of the 250,000 inhabitants only some 30,000 on average were citizens. Of those 30,000 perhaps 5,000 might regularly attend one or more meetings of the popular Assembly. Most of the officers and magistrates of Athenian government were allotted; only the generals (strategoi) and a few other officers were elected. Democracy Index as published in January, 2007. The palest blue countries get a score above 9.5 out of 10 (with Sweden being the most democratic country at 9.88), while the black countries score below 2 (with North Korea being the least democratic at 1.03). A possible example of primitive democracy may have been the early Sumerian city-states. Jacobsen, T. (July 1943), "Primitive Democracy in Ancient Mesopotamia", Journal of Near Eastern Studies 2(3): 159-72 Vaishali in what is now Bihar, India is also one of the first governments in the world to have elements of what we would today consider democracy, similar to those found in ancient Greece (although it was not a monarchy, ancient Vaishali is perhaps better described as an oligarchy). A similar proto-democracy or oligarchy existed temporarily among the Medes in the 6th century BC, but which came to an end after the Achaemenid Emperor Darius the Great declared that the best monarchy was better than the best oligarchy or best democracy. Even though the Roman Republic contributed significantly into certain aspects of democracy, such as Laws, it never became a democracy. The Romans had elections for choosing representatives, but again women, slaves, and the large foreign population were excluded. Also the votes of the wealthy were given more weight and almost all high officials, such as being member of Senate, came from a few wealthy and noble families. ANCIENT ROME FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES DOWN TO 476 A.D A serious claim for early democratic institutions comes from the independent "republics" of India, sanghas and ganas, which existed as early as the sixth century BC and persisted in some areas until the fourth century AD. The evidence is scattered and no pure historical source exists for that period. In addition, Diodorus (a Greek historian at the time of Alexander the Great's excursion of India), without offering any detail, mentions that independent and democratic states existed in India. Dio. 2.39 However, modern scholars note that the word democracy at the third century BC had been degraded and could mean any autonomous state no matter how oligarchic it was. Larsen, J. A. O., Demokratia, Classical Philology, Vol. 68, No. 1 (Jan., 1973), p. 45-46 de Sainte Croix G. E. M., The Class Struggle in the Ancient Greek World, Ithaca, 1981 Middle Ages During the Middle Ages, there were various systems involving elections or assemblies, although often only involving a small amount of the population, such as the election of Uthman in the Rashidun Caliphate, the election of Gopala in Bengal, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, the Althing in Iceland, certain medieval Italian city-states such as Venice, the tuatha system in early medieval Ireland, the Veche in Novgorod and Pskov Republics of medieval Russia, Scandinavian Things, The States in Tirol and Switzerland and the autonomous merchant city of Sakai in the 16th century in Japan. However, participation was often restricted to a minority, and so may be better classified as oligarchy. Most regions in medieval Europe were ruled by clergy or feudal lords. A little closer to modern democracy were the Cossack republics of Ukraine in the 16th-17th centuries: Cossack Hetmanate and Zaporizhian Sich. The highest post - the Hetman- was elected by the representatives from the country's districts. Because these states were very militarised, the right to participate in Hetman's elections was largely restricted to those who served in the Cossack Army and over time was curtailed effectively limiting these rights to higher army ranks. The Parliament of England had its roots in the restrictions on the power of kings written into Magna Carta. The first elected parliament was De Montfort's Parliament in England in 1265. However only a small minority actually had a voice; Parliament was elected by only a few percent of the population (less than 3% in 1780. The National Archives | Exhibitions & Learning online | Citizenship | Struggle for democracy ), and the system had problematic features such as rotten boroughs. The power to call parliament was at the pleasure of the monarch (usually when he or she needed funds). After the Glorious Revolution of 1688, the English Bill of Rights was enacted in 1689, which codified certain rights and increased the influence of the Parliament. The franchise was slowly increased and the Parliament gradually gained more power until the monarch became largely a figurehead. The National Archives | Exhibitions & Learning online | Citizenship | Rise of Parliament Democracy was also seen to a certain extent in bands and tribes such as the Iroquois Confederacy. However, in the Iroquois Confederacy only the males of certain clans could be leaders and some clans were excluded. Only the oldest females from the same clans could choose and remove the leaders. This excluded most of the population. An interesting detail is that there should be consensus among the leaders, not majority support decided by voting, when making decisions. Activity Four Omdirigeringsmeddelande Band societies, such as the Bushmen, which usually number 20-50 people in the band often do not have leaders and make decisions based on consensus among the majority. In Melanesia, farming village communities have traditionally been egalitarian and lacking in a rigid, authoritarian hierarchy. Although a "Big man" or "Big woman" could gain influence, that influence was conditional on a continued demonstration of leadership skills, and on the willingness of the community. Every person was expected to share in communal duties, and entitled to participate in communal decisions. However, strong social pressure encouraged conformity and discouraged individualism. "Melanesia Historical and Geographical: the Solomon Islands and the New Hebrides", Southern Cross n°1, London: 1950 18th and 19th centuries Number of nations 1800-2003 scoring 8 or higher on Polity IV scale, another widely used measure of democracy. Although not described as a democracy by the founding fathers, the United States founders shared a determination to root the American experiment in the principle of natural freedom and equality for white male landowners. Jacqueline Newmyer, "Present from the start: John Adams and America", Oxonian Review of Books, 2005, vol 4 issue 2 The United States Constitution, adopted in 1788, provided for an elected government and protected civil rights and liberties. In the colonial period before 1776, and for some time after, only adult white male property owners could vote; enslaved Africans, free black people and women were not extended the franchise. On the American frontier, democracy became a way of life, with widespread social, economic and political equality. Ray Allen Billington, America's Frontier Heritage (1974) 117-158. ISBN 0826303102 Democracy only became a way of life for men. Women still were not permitted to vote by the constitution of the United States of America. Likewise, the frontier did not produce much democracy in Canada, Australia or Russia. By the 1840s almost all property restrictions were ended and nearly all white adult male citizens could vote; and turnout averaged 60–80% in frequent elections for local, state and national officials. The system gradually evolved, from Jeffersonian Democracy to Jacksonian Democracy and beyond. In Reconstruction after the Civil War (late 1860s) the newly freed slaves became citizens with (in the case of men) a nominal right to vote. In 1789, Revolutionary France adopted the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen and, although short-lived, the National Convention was elected by all males. The French Revolution II New Zealand granted suffrage to (native) Maori men in 1867, white men in 1879, and women in 1893, thus becoming the first major nation to achieve universal suffrage. However, women were not eligible to stand for parliament until 1919. Liberal democracies were few and often short-lived before the late nineteenth century, and various nations and territories have also claimed to be the first with universal suffrage. 20th century Since World War II, democracy has gained widespread acceptance. This map displays the official self identification made by world governments with regard to democracy, as of March 2008. It shows the de jure status of democracy in the world. 20th century transitions to liberal democracy have come in successive "waves of democracy," variously resulting from wars, revolutions, decolonization, religious and economic circumstances. World War I and the dissolution of the Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian empires resulted in the creation of new nation-states from Europe, most of them at least nominally democratic. In the 1920s democracy flourished, but the Great Depression brought disenchantment, and most of the countries of Europe, Latin America, and Asia turned to strong-man rule or dictatorships. Fascism and dictatorships flourished in Nazi Germany, Italy, Spain and Portugal, as well as nondemocratic regimes in the Baltics, the Balkans, Brazil, Cuba, China, and Japan, among others. AGE OF DICTATORS: TOTALITARIANISM IN THE INTER-WAR PERIOD World War II brought a definitive reversal of this trend in western Europe. The successful democratization of the American, British, and French sectors of occupied Germany (disputed Did the United States Create Democracy in Germany?: The Independent Review: The Independent Institute ), Austria, Italy, and the occupied Japan served as a model for the later theory of regime change. However, most of Eastern Europe, including the Soviet sector of Germany was forced into the non-democratic Soviet bloc. The war was followed by decolonization, and again most of the new independent states had nominally democratic constitutions. India, however emerged as the world's largest democracy and continues to be so. BBC NEWS | World | South Asia | Country profiles | Country profile: India In the decades following World War II, most western democratic nations had mixed economies and developed a welfare state, reflecting a general consensus among their electorates and political parties. In the 1950s and 1960s, economic growth was high in both the western and Communist countries; it later declined in the state-controlled economies. By 1960, the vast majority of nation-states were nominally democracies, although the majority of the world's populations lived in nations that experienced sham elections, and other forms of subterfuge (particularly in Communist nations and the former colonies.) This graph shows Freedom House's evaluation of the number of nations in the different categories given above for the period for which there are surveys, 1972-2005 A subsequent wave of democratization brought substantial gains toward true liberal democracy for many nations. Spain, Portugal (1974), and several of the military dictatorships in South America returned to civilian rule in the late 1970s and early 1980s (Argentina in 1983, Bolivia, Uruguay in 1984, Brazil in 1985, and Chile in the early 1990s). This was followed by nations in East and South Asia by the mid- to late 1980s. Economic malaise in the 1980s, along with resentment of communist oppression, contributed to the collapse of the Soviet Union, the associated end of the Cold War, and the democratization and liberalization of the former Eastern bloc countries. The most successful of the new democracies were those geographically and culturally closest to western Europe, and they are now members or candidate members of the European Union . The liberal trend spread to some nations in Africa in the 1990s, most prominently in South Africa. Some recent examples of attempts of liberalization include the Indonesian Revolution of 1998, the Bulldozer Revolution in Yugoslavia, the Rose Revolution in Georgia, the Orange Revolution in Ukraine, the Cedar Revolution in Lebanon, and the Tulip Revolution in Kyrgyzstan. Currently, there are 123 countries that are democratic, and the trend is increasing freedomhouse.org: Tables and Charts (up from 40 in 1972). As such, it has been speculated that this trend may continue in the future to the point where liberal democratic nation-states become the universal standard form of human society. This prediction forms the core of Francis Fukayama's "End of History" controversial theory. These theories are criticized by those who fear an evolution of liberal democracies to post-democracy, and other who points out the high number of illiberal democracies. Forms Political ratings of countries according to Freedom House’s Freedom in the World survey, 2009: The study shows that economic freedom, not democracy, leads to political freedom. Representative Representative democracy involves the selection of government officials by the people being represented. If the head of state is also democratically elected is also called a democratic republic. The most common mechanisms involve election of the candidate with a majority or a plurality of the votes. Representatives may be elected or become diplomatic representatives by a particular district (or constituency), or represent the entire electorate proportionally proportional systems, with some using a combination of the two. Some representative democracies also incorporate elements of direct democracy, such as referendums. A characteristic of representative democracy is that while the representatives are elected by the people to act in their interest, they retain the freedom to exercise their own judgment as how best to do so. Parliamentary Parliamentary democracy is where government is appointed by parliamentary representatives as opposed to a 'presidential rule' by decree dictatorship. Under a parliamentary democracy, government is exercised by delegation to an executive ministry and subject to ongoing review, checks and balances by the legislative parliament elected by the people. Keen, Benjamin, A History of Latin America. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1980. Kuykendall, Ralph, Hawaii: A History. New York: Prentice Hall, 1948. Mahan, Alfred Thayer, "The United States Looking Outward," in The Interest of America in Sea Power. New York: Harper & Bros., 1897. Brown, Charles H., The Correspondents' War. New York: Charles Scribners' Sons, 1967. Taussig, Capt. J. K., "Experiences during the Boxer Rebellion," in Quarterdeck and Fo'c'sle. Chicago: Rand McNally & Company, 1963 Hegemony Or Survival, Noam Chomsky Black Rose Books ISBN 0-8050-7400-7 Deterring Democracy, Noam Chomsky Black Rose Books ISBN 0374523495 Class Warfare, Noam Chomsky Black Rose Books ISBN 1-5675-1092-2 Liberal A Liberal democracy is a representative democracy in which the ability of the elected representatives to exercise decision-making power is subject to the rule of law, and usually moderated by a constitution that emphasizes the protection of the rights and freedoms of individuals, and which places constraints on the leaders and on the extent to which the will of the majority can be exercised against the rights of minorities (see civil liberties). Constitutional See: Constitutional democracy Direct Direct democracy is a political system where the citizens participate in the decision-making personally, contrary to relying on intermediaries or representatives. The supporters of direct democracy argue that democracy is more than merely a procedural issue (i.e. voting). Article on direct democracy by Imraan Buccus Most direct democracies to date have been weak forms, relatively small communities, usually city-states. However, some see the extensive use of referenda, as in California, as akin to direct democracy in a very large polity with more than 20 million in California, 1898-1998 (2000) (ISBN 0-8047-3821-1). In Switzerland, five million voters decide on national referendums and initiatives two to four times a year; direct democratic instruments are also well established at the cantonal and communal level. Vermont towns have been known for their yearly town meetings, held every March to decide on local issues. No direct democracy is in existence outside the framework of a different overarching form of government. Participatory A Parpolity or Participatory Polity is a theoretical form of democracy that is ruled by a Nested Council structure. The guiding philosophy is that people should have decision making power in proportion to how much they are affected by the decision. Local councils of 25-50 people are completely autonomous on issues that affect only them, and these councils send delegates to higher level councils who are again autonomous regarding issues that affect only the population affected by that council. A council court of randomly chosen citizens serves as a check on the tyranny of the majority, and rules on which body gets to vote on which issue. Delegates can vote differently than their sending council might wish, but are mandated to communicate the wishes of their sending council. Delegates are recallable at any time. Referenda are possible at any time via votes of the majority of lower level councils, however, not everything is a referendum as this is most likely a waste of time. A parpolity is meant to work in tandem with a participatory economy See: Parpolity Socialist Socialist thought has several different views on democracy. Social democracy, democratic socialism, and the dictatorship of the proletariat (usually exercised through Soviet democracy) are some examples. Many democratic socialists and social democrats believe in a form of participatory democracy and workplace democracy combined with a representative democracy. Within Marxist orthodoxy there is a hostility to what is commonly called "liberal democracy", which they simply refer to as parliamentary democracy because of its often centralized nature. Because of their desire to eliminate the political elitism they see in capitalism, Marxists, Leninists and Trotskyists believe in direct democracy implemented though a system of communes (which are sometimes called soviets). This system ultimately manifests itself as council democracy and begins with workplace democracy. (See Democracy in Marxism) Anarchist Anarchists are split in this domain, depending on whether they believe that a majority-rule is tyranic or not. The only form of democracy considered acceptable to many anarchists is direct democracy. Pierre-Joseph Proudhon argued that the only acceptable form of direct democracy is one in which it is recognized that majority decisions are not binding on the minority, even when unanimous. Pierre-Joseph Proudhon. General Idea of the Revolution See also commentary by Graham, Robert. The General Idea of Proudhon's Revolution However, anarcho-communist Murray Bookchin criticized individualist anarchists for opposing democracy, Bookchin, Murray. Communalism: The Democratic Dimensions of Social Anarchism. Anarchism, Marxism and the Future of the Left: Interviews and Essays, 1993-1998, AK Press 1999, p. 155 and says "majority rule" is consistent with anarchism. Bookchin, Murray. Social Anarchism or Lifestyle Anarchism: An Unbridgeable Chasm Some anarcho-communists oppose the majoritarian nature of direct democracy, feeling that it can impede individual liberty and opt in favour of a non-majoritarian form of consensus democracy, similar to Proudhon's position on direct democracy. Graeber, David and Grubacic, Andrej. Anarchism, Or The Revolutionary Movement Of The Twenty-first Century Some Anarchists such as Murray Rothbard criticize what they see as the dangers of majority rule, believing that morality should not be dependent on the majority because, as they see it, history has shown majority rule to be fallible. Henry David Thoreau, who did not self-identify as an anarchist but argued for "a better government" Thoreau, H. D. On the Duty of Civil Disobedience and is cited as an inspiration by some anarchists, argued that people should not be in the position of ruling others or being ruled when there is no consent. Iroquois Iroquois society had a form of participatory democracy and representative democracy. Iroquois Contributions to Modern Democracy and Communism. Bagley, Carol L.; Ruckman, Jo Ann. American Indian Culture and Research Journal, v7 n2 p53-72 1983 Iroquois government and law was discussed by Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson. Native American Societies and the Evolution of Democracy in America, 1600-1800 Bruce E. Johansen Ethnohistory, Vol. 37, No. 3 (Summer, 1990), pp. 279-290 Though some others disagree, Political Theory and the Rights of Indigenous Peoples By Duncan Ivison, Paul Patton, Will Sanders. Page 237 some scholars regard it to have influenced the formation of American representative democracy. Sortition Sometimes called "democracy without elections", sortition is the process of choosing decision makers via a random process. The intention is that those chosen will be representative of the opinions and interests of the people at large, and be more fair and impartial than an elected official. The technique was in widespread use in Athenian Democracy and is still used in modern jury selection. Consensus Consensus democracy requires varying degrees of consensus rather than just a mere democratic majority. It typically attempts to protect minority rights from domination by majority rule. Interactive Interactive Democracy seeks to utilise information technology to involve voters in law making. It provides a system for proposing new laws, prioritising proposals, clarifying them through parliament and validating them through referendum. Supranational Qualified majority voting (QMV) is designed by the Treaty of Rome to be the principal method of reaching decisions in the European Council of Ministers. This system allocates votes to member states in part according to their population, but heavily weighted in favour of the smaller states. This might be seen as a form of representative democracy, but representatives to the Council might be appointed rather than directly elected. Some might consider the "individuals" being democratically represented to be states rather than people, as with many other international organizations. European Parliament members are democratically directly elected on the basis of universal suffrage, may be seen as an example of a supranational democratic institution. Non-governmental Aside from the public sphere, similar democratic principles and mechanisms of voting and representation have been used to govern other kinds of communities and organizations. Many non-governmental organizations decide policy and leadership by voting. Most trade unions choose their leadership through democratic elections. Cooperatives are enterprises owned and democratically controlled by their customers or workers. Theory Voting is an important part of the formal democratic process. Aristotle Aristotle contrasted rule by the many (democracy/polity), with rule by the few (oligarchy/aristocracy), and with rule by a single person (tyranny or today autocracy/monarchy). He also thought that there was a good and a bad variant of each system (he considered democracy to be the degenerate counterpart to polity). Aristotle, The Politics [http://www.iep.utm.edu/a/aristotl.htm Aristotle (384-322 BC): General Introduction Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy For Aristotle the underlying principle of democracy is freedom, since only in a democracy the citizens can have a share in freedom. In essence, he argues that this is what every democracy should make its aim. There are two main aspects of freedom: being ruled and ruling in turn, since everyone is equal according to number, not merit, and to be able to live as one pleases. Conceptions Among political theorists, there are many contending conceptions of democracy. Aggregative democracy uses democratic processes to solicit citizens’ preferences and then aggregate them together to determine what social policies society should adopt. Therefore, proponents of this view hold that democratic participation should primarily focus on voting, where the policy with the most votes gets implemented. There are different variants of this: Under minimalism, democracy is a system of government in which citizens give teams of political leaders the right to rule in periodic elections. According to this minimalist conception, citizens cannot and should not “rule” because, for example, on most issues, most of the time, they have no clear views or their views are not well-founded. Joseph Schumpeter articulated this view most famously in his book Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy. Joseph Schumpeter, (1950). Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy. Harper Perennial. ISBN 0-06-133008-6. Contemporary proponents of minimalism include William H. Riker, Adam Przeworski, Richard Posner. Direct democracy, on the other hand, holds that citizens should participate directly, not through their representatives, in making laws and policies. Proponents of direct democracy offer varied reasons to support this view. Political activity can be valuable in itself, it socializes and educates citizens, and popular participation can check powerful elites. Most importantly, citizens do not really rule themselves unless they directly decide laws and policies. Governments will tend to produce laws and policies that are close to the views of the median voter with half to his left and the other half to his right. This is not actually a desirable outcome as it represents the action of self-interested and somewhat unaccountable political elites competing for votes. Downs suggests that ideological political parties are necessary to act as a mediating broker between individual and governments. Anthony Downs laid out this view in his 1957 book An Economic Theory of Democracy. Anthony Downs, (1957). An Economic Theory of Democracy. Harpercollins College. ISBN 0-06-041750-1. Robert A. Dahl argues that the fundamental democratic principle is that, when it comes to binding collective decisions, each person in a political community is entitled to have his/her interests be given equal consideration (not necessarily that all people are equally satisfied by the collective decision). He uses the term polyarchy to refer to societies in which there exists a certain set of institutions and procedures which are perceived as leading to such democracy. First and foremost among these institutions is the regular occurrence of free and open elections which are used to select representatives who then manage all or most of the public policy of the society. However, these polyarchic procedures may not create a full democracy if, for example, poverty prevents political participation. Dahl, Robert, (1989). Democracy and its Critics. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 0300049382 Some see a problem with the wealthy having more influence and therefore argue for reforms like campaign finance reform. Some may see it as a problem that the majority of the voters decide policy, as opposed to majority rule of the entire population. This can be used as an argument for making political participation mandatory, like compulsory voting or for making it more patient (non-compulsory) by simply refusing power to the government until the full majority feels inclined to speak their minds. Deliberative democracy is based on the notion that democracy is government by discussion. Deliberative democrats contend that laws and policies should be based upon reasons that all citizens can accept. The political arena should be one in which leaders and citizens make arguments, listen, and change their minds. Radical democracy is based on the idea that there are hierarchical and oppressive power relations that exist in society. Democracy's role is to make visible and challenge those relations by allowing for difference, dissent and antagonisms in decision making processes. Republic In contemporary usage, the term democracy refers to a government chosen by the people, whether it is direct or representative. democracy - Definition from the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary The term republic has many different meanings, but today often refers to a representative democracy with an elected head of state, such as a president, serving for a limited term, in contrast to states with a hereditary monarch as a head of state, even if these states also are representative democracies with an elected or appointed head of government such as a prime minister. republic - Definition from the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary The Founding Fathers of the United States rarely praised and often criticized democracy, which in their time tended to specifically mean direct democracy; James Madison argued, especially in The Federalist No. 10, that what distinguished a democracy from a republic was that the former became weaker as it got larger and suffered more violently from the effects of faction, whereas a republic could get stronger as it got larger and combats faction by its very structure. What was critical to American values, John Adams insisted, Novanglus, no. 7, 6 Mar. 1775 was that the government be "bound by fixed laws, which the people have a voice in making, and a right to defend." As Benjamin Franklin was exiting after writing the U.S. constitution, a woman asked him Sir, what have you given us?. He replied A republic ma'am, if you can keep it Republican Government: Introduction Constitutional monarchs and upper chambers Initially after the American and French revolutions the question was open whether a democracy, in order to restrain unchecked majority rule, should have an elitist upper chamber, the members perhaps appointed meritorious experts or having lifetime tenures, or should have a constitutional monarch with limited but real powers. Some countries (as Britain, the Netherlands, Belgium, Scandinavian countries, Thailand, Japan and Bhutan) turned powerful monarchs into constitutional monarchs with limited or, often gradually, merely symbolic roles. Often the monarchy was abolished along with the aristocratic system (as in France, China, Russia, Germany, Austria, Hungary, Italy, Greece and Egypt). Many nations had elite upper houses of legislatures which often had lifetime tenure, but eventually these lost power (as in Britain) or else became elective and remained powerful (as in the United States). Opposition to democracy This is one attempted measurement of democracy called the Polity IV data series. This map shows the data presented in the polity IV data series report as of 2003. The lightest countries get a perfect score of 10, while the darkest countries (Saudi Arabia and Qatar), considered the least democratic, score -10. Democracy in modern times has almost always faced opposition from the existing government. The implementation of a democratic government within a non-democratic state is typically brought about by democratic revolution. Monarchy had traditionally been opposed to democracy, and to this day remains opposed to its abolition, although often political compromise has been reached in the form of shared government. Currently, opposition to democracy exists in communist states, absolute monarchies, and Islamic governments, which appear to have various reasons for opposing the implementation of democracy or democratic reforms. Criticism of democracy Economists since Milton Friedman have strongly criticized the efficiency of democracy. They base this on their premise of the irrational voter. Their argument is that voters are highly uninformed about many political issues, especially relating to economics, and have a strong bias about the few issues on which they are fairly knowledgeable. For example, members of labor unions are most passionate and informed about labor policies. They will organize themselves and lobby the government to adopt policies beneficial to labor unions but not necessarily to the rest of the population. As a result, politicians are unaware of voters' actual desires. Chicago economist, Donald Wittman, has written numerous works attempting to counter these common views of his colleagues. He argues democracy is efficient based on the premise of rational voters, competitive elections, and relatively low political transactions costs. Economist Bryan Caplan argues, while Wittman makes strong arguments for the latter two points, he cannot overcome the insurmountable evidence in favor of voter irrationality. It still remains the Achilles heel of democratic government. The problem is not mere lack of information; it is that voters badly interpret and judge the information they do have. Caplan, Bryan. "From Friedman to Wittman: The Transformation of Chicago Political Economy" (April 2005). Furthermore, some have argued that voters may not be well educated enough to exercise their democratic right. A population with low intellect may not be capable of making correct decisions. While this view today is increasingly regarded by advocates of democracy as an attempt to maintain or revive traditional hierarchy in order to justify autocratic rule , extensions have been made to develop the argument further. One such variant of the argument is that the benefits of a specialised society may be compromised by democracy. As ordinary citizens are encouraged to take part in the political life of the country, they have the power to directly influence the outcome of government policies through the democratic procedures of voting, campaigning and the use of press. The result is that government policies may be more influenced by non-specialist opinions and thereby the effectiveness compromised, especially if a policy is very technically sophisticated and/or the general public inadequately informed. For example, there is no guarantee that those who campaign about the government's economic policies are themselves professional economists or academically competent in this particular discipline, regardless of whether they were well-educated. Additionally, some political scientists question the notion that democracy is an "uncontested good." Fierlbeck, K. (1998) Globalizing Democracy: Power, Legitimacy and the Interpretation of democratic ideas. (p. 13) Manchester University Press, New York If we base our critique on the definition of democracy as governance based on the will of the majority, there can be some forseeable and unfavorable consequences to this form of rule. For example, Fierlbeck (1998: 12) points out that the middle class majority in a country may decide to redistribute wealth and resources into the hands of those that they feel are most capable of investing or increasing them. This could result in a wealth disparity in such a country, or even racial descrimination. Fierlbeck (1998) points out that such a result is not necessarily due to a failing in the democratic process, but rather, "because democracy is too responsive to the desires of a large middle class increasingly willing to disregard the muted voices of economically marginalized groups within its own borders." Shrag, P. (1994), "California's elected anarchy." Harper's, 289(1734), 50-9. The criticism remains that the will of the democratic majority may not always be in the best interest of all citizens within the country or beneficial to the future of the country itself. Mob rule Plato's the Republic presents a critical view of democracy through the narration of Socrates: "Democracy, which is a charming form of government, full of variety and disorder, and dispensing a sort of equality to equals and unequaled alike." Plato, the Republic of Plato (London: J.M Dent & Sons LTD.; New York: E.P. Dutton & Co. Inc.), 558-C. In his work, Plato lists 5 forms of government from best to worst. Assuming that the Republic was intended to be a serious critique of the political thought in Athens, Plato argues that only Kallipolis, an aristocracy lead by the unwilling philosopher-kings (the wisest men) is a just form of government. The other forms of government place too much focus on lesser virtues, and degenerate into each other from best to worst, starting with Timocracy, which overvalues honour. Then comes Oligarchy, overvaluing wealth, which is followed by Democracy. In Democracy, the oligarchs, or merchant, are unable to wield their power effectively and the people take over, electing someone who plays on their wishes, by throwing lavish festivals etc. However, the government grants the people too much freedom, and the state degenerates into the fourth form, Tyranny/mob rule. The Founding Fathers of the United States intended to address this criticism by combining democracy with republicanism. A constitution would limit the powers of what a simple majority can accomplish. James Madison, Federalist No. 10 Moral decay Traditional Asian cultures, in particular that of Confucian and Islamic thought, believe that democracy results in the people's distrust and disrespect of governments or religious sanctity. The distrust and disrespect pervades to all parts of society whenever and wherever there is seniority and juniority, for example between a parent and a child, a teacher and a student. This in turn is suggested to be the cause of frequent divorces, teenage crimes, vandalism, hooliganism and low education attainment in Western societies, all of which are lower in Asian societies. It is argued by Islamists that moral decay occurs when there is no longer a respectable leader who sets high moral standards and when a politically free environment creates excessive individuality. Further, Islamists argue that only an Islamic republic is truly compatible with the will of God. Abdul Qadir Bin Abdul Aziz, The Criticism of Democracy and the Illustration of its Reality Political instability More recently, democracy is criticised for not offering enough political stability. As governments are frequently elected on and off there tends to be frequent changes in the policies of democratic countries both domestically and internationally. Even if a political party maintains power, vociferous, headline grabbing protests and harsh criticism from the mass media are often enough to force sudden, unexpected political change. Frequent policy changes with regard to business and immigration are likely to deter investment and so hinder economic growth. For this reason, many people have put forward the idea that democracy is undesirable for a developing country in which economic growth and the reduction of poverty are top priority. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/7671283.stm Short-termism Democracy is also criticised for frequent elections due to the instability of coalition governments. Coalitions are frequently formed after the elections in many countries (for example India) and the basis of alliance is predominantly to enable a viable majority, not an ideological concurrence. This opportunist alliance not only has the handicap of having to cater to too many ideologically opposing factions, but it is usually short lived since any perceived or actual imbalance in the treatment of coalition partners, or changes to leadership in the coalition partners themselves, can very easily result in the coalition partner withdrawing its support from the government. Conflict of interests Politicians need votes to continue in power. Hence, whenever possible, they subvert the constitutional machinery to gain favours and to appeal to narrow interests (i.e. their vote bank) instead of working for the welfare of the people at large. Politicians are in charge of the constitutional machinery to a high degree, but their interest is not in upholding it, but in using it (as far as allowed) to remain in power. Western influence Democratic institutions, and the notion of equality, are counter to the traditions and cultures of many regions which perceive these as western influences with little relevance to their political setup. In this line of thinking, it is usually supposed that the west is promoting or engineering democracy (or a farce of it) to further its own financial interests. This standpoint is sometimes vindicated when the United States, which plays a very vocal lip-service to democracy throughout the world, has subverted the democratic governments, or refused to accept the results of elections, of many countries when the leader had a leftist bias. Slow governmental response Democratic institutions work on consensus to decide an issue, which usually takes longer than a unilateral decision. Vote Buying This is a simple form of appealing to the short term interests of the voters. Non-democratic democracies Mere elections are just one aspect of the democratic process. If one examines the central tenets of democracy, i.e. equality and freedom, these are frequently absent in ostensibly democratic countries such as Pakistan and Afghanistan. Moreover, in many countries, democratic participation is less than 50% at times, which makes them democracies only in name. The Election of individual(s) instead of ideas is the primary disrupter of democracy. Volatility/unsustainability The new establishment of democratic institutions in countries where the associated practices have as yet been uncommon or deemed culturally unacceptable, can result in institutions, that are not sustainable in the long term. One circumstance supporting this outcome may be when it is part of the common perception among the populace that the institutions were established as a direct result of foreign pressure. Sustained regular inspection from democratic countries, however effortfull and well-meaning, are normally not sufficient in preventing the erosion of democratic practices. In the cases of several African countries, corruption still is rife in spite of democratically elected governments, as one of the most severe examples, Zimbabwe is often perceived to have backfired into outright militarianism. See also List of types of democracy Parliamentary democracy Crowdsourcing Community of Democracies Democracy Index Democratic Peace Theory Democratization Direct democracy E-democracy Election Foucault/Habermas debate Freedom deficit Freedom House, Freedom in the World report Liberal democracy Majority rule Media democracy Netocracy Poll Polyarchy Sociocracy Sortition Subversion Voting Notes The United Nations has declared Sept. 15 as the International Day of Democracy. GENERAL ASSEMBLY DECLARES 15 SEPTEMBER INTERNATIONAL DAY OF DEMOCRACY; ALSO ELECTS 18 MEMBERS TO ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COUNCIL References Further reading Appleby, Joyce. (1992). Liberalism and Republicanism in the Historical Imagination. Harvard University Press. Becker, Peter, Heideking, Juergen, & Henretta, James A. (2002). Republicanism and Liberalism in America and the German States, 1750-1850. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521800662 Benhabib, Seyla. (1996). Democracy and Difference: Contesting the Boundaries of the Political. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0691044781 Blattberg, Charles. (2000). From Pluralist to Patriotic Politics: Putting Practice First, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0198296881. Birch, Anthony H. (1993). The Concepts and Theories of Modern Democracy. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0415414630 Castiglione, Dario. (2005). "Republicanism and its Legacy." European Journal of Political Theory. pp 453–65. Copp, David, Jean Hampton, & John E. Roemer. (1993). The Idea of Democracy. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521432542 Caputo, Nicholas. (2005). America's Bible of Democracy: Returning to the Constitution. SterlingHouse Publisher, Inc. ISBN 978-1585010929 Dahl, Robert A. (1991). Democracy and its Critics. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0300049381 Dahl, Robert A. (2000). On Democracy. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0300084559 Dahl, Robert A. Ian Shapiro & Jose Antonio Cheibub. (2003). The Democracy Sourcebook. MIT Press. ISBN 978-0262541473 Dahl, Robert A. (1963). A Preface to Democratic Theory. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0226134260 Davenport, Christian. (2007). State Repression and the Domestic Democratic Peace. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521864909 Diamond, Larry & Marc Plattner. (1996). The Global Resurgence of Democracy. Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0801853043 Diamond, Larry & Richard Gunther. (2001). Political Parties and Democracy. JHU Press. ISBN 978-0801868634 Diamond, Larry & Leonardo Morlino. (2005). Assessing the Quality of Democracy. JHU Press. ISBN 978-0801882876 Diamond, Larry, Marc F. Plattner & Philip J. Costopoulos. (2005). World Religions and Democracy. JHU Press. ISBN 978-0801880803 Diamond, Larry, Marc F. Plattner & Daniel Brumberg. (2003). Islam and Democracy in the Middle East. JHU Press. ISBN 978-0801878473 Elster, Jon. (1998). Deliberative Democracy. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521596961 Fotopoulos, Takis. (2006). "Liberal and Socialist “Democracies” versus Inclusive Democracy", The International Journal Of Inclusive Democracy. 2(2) Fotopoulos, Takis. (1992). "Direct and Economic Democracy in Ancient Athens and its Significance Today", Democracy & Nature, 1(1) Gabardi, Wayne. (2001). Contemporary Models of Democracy. Polity. Griswold, Daniel. (2007). Trade, Democracy and Peace: The Virtuous Cycle Halperin, M. H., Siegle, J. T. & Weinstein, M. M. (2005). The Democracy Advantage: How Democracies Promote Prosperity and Peace. Routledge. ISBN 978-0415950527 Hansen, Mogens Herman. (1991). The Athenian Democracy in the Age of Demosthenes. Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN 978-0631180173 Held, David. (2006). Models of Democracy. Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0804754729 Inglehart, Ronald. (1997). Modernization and Postmodernization. Cultural, Economic, and Political Change in 43 Societies. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0691011806 Khan, L. Ali. (2003). A Theory of Universal Democracy: Beyond the End of History. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. ISBN 978-9041120038 Köchler, Hans. (1987). The Crisis of Representative Democracy. Peter Lang. ISBN 978-3820488432 Lijphart, Arend. (1999). Patterns of Democracy: Government Forms and Performance in Thirty-Six Countries. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0300078930 Lipset, Seymour Martin. (1959). "Some Social Requisites of Democracy: Economic Development and Political Legitimacy." American Political Science Review, 53(1): 69-105. Macpherson, C. B. (1977). The Life and Times of Liberal Democracy. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0192891068 Morgan, Edmund. (1989). Inventing the People: The Rise of Popular Sovereignty in England and America. Norton. ISBN 978-0393306231 Plattner, Marc F. & Aleksander Smolar. (2000). Globalization, Power, and Democracy. JHU Press. ISBN 978-0801865688 Plattner, Marc F. & João Carlos Espada. (2000). The Democratic Invention. John Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0801864193 Putnam, Robert. (2001). Making Democracy Work. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-5551091035 Raaflaub, Kurt A., Ober, Josiah & Wallace, Robert W. (2007). Origins of democracy in ancient Greece. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0520245624 Riker, William H.. (1962). The Theory of Political Coalitions. Yale University Press. Sen, Amartya K. (1999). "Democracy as a Universal Value." Journal of Democracy 10(3): 3-17. Tannsjo, Torbjorn. (2008). Global Democracy: The Case for a World Government. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 978-0748634996. Argues that not only is world government necessary if we want to deal successfully with global problems it is also, pace Kant and Rawls, desirable in its own right. Weingast, Barry. (1997). "The Political Foundations of the Rule of Law and Democracy." American Political Science Review, 91(2): 245-263. Weatherford, Jack. (1990). Indian Givers: How the Indians Transformed the World. New York: Fawcett Columbine. ISBN 978-0449904961 Whitehead, Laurence. (2002). Emerging Market Democracies: East Asia and Latin America. JHU Press. ISBN 978-0801872198 Willard, Charles Arthur. (1996). Liberalism and the Problem of Knowledge: A New Rhetoric for Modern Democracy. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0226898452 Wood, E. M. (1995). Democracy Against Capitalism: Renewing historical materialism. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521476829 Wood, Gordon S. (1991). The Radicalism of the American Revolution. Vintage Books. ISBN 978-0679736882 examines democratic dimensions of republicanism External links Democracy vs. REPUBLIC Center for Democratic Network Governance Democracy at the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Dictionary of the History of Ideas: Democracy Ethical Democracy Journal The Economist Intelligence Unit’s index of democracy Democracy Watch (Canada) Leading democracy monitoring organization Critique Erik von Kuehnelt-Leddihn, Liberty or Equality J.K. Baltzersen, Churchill on Democracy Revisited, (24 January 2005) GegenStandpunkt: The Democratic State: Critique of Bourgeois Sovereignty Does Democracy End Tyranny? 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5,345 | Mutation | A mutation has caused this garden moss rose to produce flowers of different colors. This is a somatic mutation that may also be passed on in the germ line. In biology, mutations are changes to the nucleotide sequence of the genetic material of an organism. Mutations can be caused by copying errors in the genetic material during cell division, by exposure to ultraviolet or ionizing radiation, chemical mutagens, or viruses, or can be induced by the organism itself, by cellular processes such as hypermutation. In multicellular organisms with dedicated reproductive cells, mutations can be subdivided into germ line mutations, which can be passed on to descendants through the reproductive cells, and somatic mutations, which involve cells outside the dedicated reproductive group and which are not usually transmitted to descendants. If the organism can reproduce asexually through mechanisms such as cuttings or budding the distinction can become blurred. For example, plants can sometimes transmit somatic mutations to their descendants asexually or sexually where flower buds develop in somatically mutated parts of plants. A new mutation that was not inherited from either parent is called a de novo mutation. The source of the mutation is unrelated to the consequence, although the consequences are related to which cells were mutated. Mutations create variation within the gene pool. Less favorable (or deleterious) mutations can be reduced in frequency in the gene pool by natural selection, while more favorable (beneficial or advantageous) mutations may accumulate and result in adaptive evolutionary changes. For example, a butterfly may produce offspring with new mutations. The majority of these mutations will have no effect; but one might change the color of one of the butterfly's offspring, making it harder (or easier) for predators to see. If this color change is advantageous, the chance of this butterfly surviving and producing its own offspring are a little better, and over time the number of butterflies with this mutation may form a larger percentage of the population. Neutral mutations are defined as mutations whose effects do not influence the fitness of an individual. These can accumulate over time due to genetic drift. It is believed that the overwhelming majority of mutations have no significant effect on an organism's fitness. Also, DNA repair mechanisms are able to mend most changes before they become permanent mutations, and many organisms have mechanisms for eliminating otherwise permanently mutated somatic cells. Mutation is generally accepted by the scientific community as the mechanism upon which natural selection acts, providing the advantageous new traits that survive and multiply in offspring or disadvantageous traits that die out with weaker organisms. Classification By effect on structure Illustrations of five types of chromosomal mutations. The sequence of a gene can be altered in a number of ways. Gene mutations have varying effects on health depending on where they occur and whether they alter the function of essential proteins. Structurally, mutations can be classified as: Small-scale mutations, such as those affecting a small gene in one or a few nucleotides, including: Point mutations, often caused by chemicals or malfunction of DNA replication, exchange a single nucleotide for another . These changes are classified as transitions or transversions . Most common is the transition that exchanges a purine for a purine (A ↔ G) or a pyrimidine for a pyrimidine, (C ↔ T). A transition can be caused by nitrous acid, base mis-pairing, or mutagenic base analogs such as 5-bromo-2-deoxyuridine (BrdU). Less common is a transversion, which exchanges a purine for a pyrimidine or a pyrimidine for a purine (C/T ↔ A/G). An example of a transversion is adenine (A) being converted into a cytosine (C). A point mutation can be reversed by another point mutation, in which the nucleotide is changed back to its original state (true reversion) or by second-site reversion (a complementary mutation elsewhere that results in regained gene functionality). Point mutations that occur within the protein coding region of a gene may be classified into three kinds, depending upon what the erroneous codon codes for: Silent mutations: which code for the same amino acid. Missense mutations: which code for a different amino acid. Nonsense mutations: which code for a stop and can truncate the protein. Insertions add one or more extra nucleotides into the DNA. They are usually caused by transposable elements, or errors during replication of repeating elements (e.g. AT repeats). Insertions in the coding region of a gene may alter splicing of the mRNA (splice site mutation), or cause a shift in the reading frame (frameshift), both of which can significantly alter the gene product. Insertions can be reverted by excision of the transposable element. Deletions remove one or more nucleotides from the DNA. Like insertions, these mutations can alter the reading frame of the gene. They are generally irreversible: though exactly the same sequence might theoretically be restored by an insertion, transposable elements able to revert a very short deletion (say 1–2 bases) in any location are either highly unlikely to exist or do not exist at all. Note that a deletion is not the exact opposite of an insertion: the former is quite random while the latter consists of a specific sequence inserting at locations that are not entirely random or even quite narrowly defined. Large-scale mutations in chromosomal structure, including: Amplifications (or gene duplications) leading to multiple copies of all chromosomal regions, increasing the dosage of the genes located within them. Deletions of large chromosomal regions, leading to loss of the genes within those regions. Mutations whose effect is to juxtapose previously separate pieces of DNA, potentially bringing together separate genes to form functionally distinct fusion genes (e.g. bcr-abl). These include: Chromosomal translocations: interchange of genetic parts from nonhomologous chromosomes. Interstitial deletions: an intra-chromosomal deletion that removes a segment of DNA from a single chromosome, thereby apposing previously distant genes. For example, cells isolated from a human astrocytoma, a type of brain tumor, were found to have a chromosomal deletion removing sequences between the "fused in glioblastoma" (fig) gene and the receptor tyrosine kinase "ros", producing a fusion protein (FIG-ROS). The abnormal FIG-ROS fusion protein has constitutively active kinase activity that causes oncogenic transformation (a transformation from normal cells to cancer cells). Chromosomal inversions: reversing the orientation of a chromosomal segment. Loss of heterozygosity: loss of one allele, either by a deletion or recombination event, in an organism that previously had two different alleles. By effect on function Loss-of-function mutations are the result of gene product having less or no function. When the allele has a complete loss of function (null allele) it is often called an amorphic mutation. Phenotypes associated with such mutations are most often recessive. Exceptions are when the organism is haploid, or when the reduced dosage of a normal gene product is not enough for a normal phenotype (this is called haploinsufficiency). Gain-of-function mutations change the gene product such that it gains a new and abnormal function. These mutations usually have dominant phenotypes. Often called a neomorphic mutation. Dominant negative mutations (also called antimorphic mutations) have an altered gene product that acts antagonistically to the wild-type allele. These mutations usually result in an altered molecular function (often inactive) and are characterised by a dominant or semi-dominant phenotype. In humans, Marfan syndrome is an example of a dominant negative mutation occurring in an autosomal dominant disease. In this condition, the defective glycoprotein product of the fibrillin gene (FBN1) antagonizes the product of the normal allele. Lethal mutations are mutations that lead to the death of the organisms which carry the mutations. A back mutation or reversion is a point mutation that restores the original sequence and hence the original phenotype. By effect on fitness In applied genetics it usual to speak of mutations as either harmful or beneficial. A harmful mutation is a mutation that decreases the fitness of the organism. A beneficial mutation is a mutation that increases fitness or promotes traits that are desirable to the breeder. In theoretical population genetics, it is more usual to speak of such mutations as deleterious or advantageous. In the neutral theory of molecular evolution, genetic drift is the basis for most variation at the molecular level. A neutral mutation has no harmful or beneficial effect on the organism. Such mutations occur at a steady rate, forming the basis for the molecular clock. A deleterious mutation has a negative effect on the phenotype, and thus decreases the fitness of the organism. An advantageous mutation has a positive effect on the phenotype, and thus increases the fitness of the organism. A nearly neutral mutation is a mutation that may be slightly deleterious or advantageous, although most nearly neutral mutations are slightly deleterious. By inheritance inheritable generic in pro-generic tissue or cells on path to be changed to gametes. non inheritable somatic (eg, carcinogenic mutation) non inheritable post mortem aDNA mutation in decaying remains. By pattern of inheritance The human genome contains two copies of each gene – a paternal and a maternal allele. A heterozygous mutation is a mutation of only one allele. A homozygous mutation is an identical mutation of both the paternal and maternal alleles. Compound heterozygous mutations or a genetic compound comprises two different mutations in the paternal and maternal alleles. Medterms.com A wildtype or homozygous non-mutated organism is one in which neither allele is mutated. (Just not a mutation) By impact on protein sequence A frameshift mutation is a mutation caused by insertion or deletion of a number of nucleotides that is not evenly divisible by three from a DNA sequence. Due to the triplet nature of gene expression by codons, the insertion or deletion can disrupt the reading frame, or the grouping of the codons, resulting in a completely different translation from the original. The earlier in the sequence the deletion or insertion occurs, the more altered the protein produced is. Missense mutations or nonsynonymous mutations are types of point mutations where a single nucleotide is changed to cause substitution of a different amino acid. This in turn can render the resulting protein nonfunctional. Such mutations are responsible for diseases such as Epidermolysis bullosa, sickle-cell disease, and SOD1 mediated ALS . A neutral mutation is a mutation that occurs in an amino acid codon which results in the use of a different, but chemically similar, amino acid. This is similar to a silent mutation, where a codon mutation may encode the same amino acid (see Wobble Hypothesis); for example, a change from AUU to AUC will still encode leucine, so no discernible change occurs (a silent mutation). A nonsense mutation is a point mutation in a sequence of DNA that results in a premature stop codon, or a nonsense codon in the transcribed mRNA, and possibly a truncated, and often nonfunctional protein product. Silent mutations are mutations that do not result in a change to the amino acid sequence of a protein. They may occur in a region that does not code for a protein, or they may occur within a codon in a manner that does not alter the final amino acid sequence. The phrase silent mutation is often used interchangeably with the phrase synonymous mutation; however, synonymous mutations are a subcategory of the former, occurring only within exons. The name silent could be a misnomer. For example, a silent mutation in the exon/intron border may lead to alternative splicing by changing the splice site (see Splice site mutation), thereby leading to a changed protein. Special classes Conditional mutation is a mutation that has wild-type (or less severe) phenotype under certain "permissive" environmental conditions and a mutant phenotype under certain "restrictive" conditions. For example, a temperature-sensitive mutation can cause cell death at high temperature (restrictive condition), but might have no deleterious consequences at a lower temperature (permissive condition). Causes of mutation Two classes of mutations are spontaneous mutations (molecular decay) and induced mutations caused by mutagens. Spontaneous mutations on the molecular level include: Tautomerism – A base is changed by the repositioning of a hydrogen atom, altering the hydrogen bonding pattern of that base resulting in incorrect base pairing during replication. Depurination – Loss of a purine base (A or G) to form an apurinic site (AP site). Deamination – Hydrolysis changes a normal base to an atypical base containing a keto group in place of the original amine group. Examples include C → U and A → HX (hypoxanthine), which can be corrected by DNA repair mechanisms; and 5MeC (5-methylcytosine) → T, which is less likely to be detected as a mutation because thymine is a normal DNA base. Transition – A purine changes to another purine, or a pyrimidine to a pyrimidine. Transversion – A purine becomes a pyrimidine, or vice versa. Benzopyrene, the major mutagen in tobacco smoke, in an adduct to DNA. Produced from PDB 1JDG. Induced mutations on the molecular level can be caused by: Chemicals Hydroxylamine NH2OH Base analogs (e.g. BrdU) Alkylating agents (e.g. N-ethyl-N-nitrosourea) These agents can mutate both replicating and non-replicating DNA. In contrast, a base analog can only mutate the DNA when the analog is incorporated in replicating the DNA. Each of these classes of chemical mutagens has certain effects that then lead to transitions, transversions, or deletions. Agents that form DNA adducts (e.g. ochratoxin A metabolites) DNA intercalating agents (e.g. ethidium bromide) DNA crosslinkers Oxidative damage Nitrous acid converts amine groups on A and C to diazo groups, altering their hydrogen bonding patterns which leads to incorrect base pairing during replication. Radiation Ultraviolet radiation (nonionizing radiation). Two nucleotide bases in DNA – cytosine and thymine – are most vulnerable to radiation that can change their properties. UV light can induce adjacent thymine bases in a DNA strand to pair with each other, as a bulky dimer. Ionizing radiation Viral infections DNA has so-called hotspots, where mutations occur up to 100 times more frequently than the normal mutation rate. A hotspot can be at an unusual base, e.g., 5-methylcytosine. Mutation rates also vary across species. Evolutionary biologists have theorized that higher mutation rates are beneficial in some situations, because they allow organisms to evolve and therefore adapt more quickly to their environments. For example, repeated exposure of bacteria to antibiotics, and selection of resistant mutants, can result in the selection of bacteria that have a much higher mutation rate than the original population (mutator strains). Nomenclature Nomenclature of mutations specify the type of mutation and base or amino acid changes. Nucleotide substitution (e.g. 76A>T) - The number is the position of the nucleotide from the 5' end, the first letter represents the wild type nucleotide, and the second letter represents the nucleotide which replaced the wild type. In the given example, the adenine at the 76th position was replaced by a thymine. If it becomes necessary to differentiate between mutations in genomic DNA, mitochondrial DNA, and RNA, a simple convention is used. For example, if the 100th base of a nucleotide sequence mutated from G to C, then it would be written as g.100G>C if the mutation occurred in genomic DNA, m.100G>C if the mutation occurred in mitochondrial DNA, or r.100g>c if the mutation occurred in RNA. Note that for mutations in RNA, the nucleotide code is written in lower case. Amino acid substitution (e.g. D111E) – The first letter is the one letter code of the wild type amino acid, the number is the position of the amino acid from the N terminus, and the second letter is the one letter code of the amino acid present in the mutation. Nonsense mutations are represented with an X for the second amino acid (e.g. D111X). Amino acid deletion (e.g. ΔF508) – The Greek letter Δ (delta) indicates a deletion. The letter refers to the amino acid present in the wild type and the number is the position from the N terminus of the amino acid were it to be present as in the wild type. Harmful mutations Changes in DNA caused by mutation can cause errors in protein sequence, creating partially or completely non-functional proteins. To function correctly, each cell depends on thousands of proteins to function in the right places at the right times. When a mutation alters a protein that plays a critical role in the body, a medical condition can result. A condition caused by mutations in one or more genes is called a genetic disorder. Some mutations alter a gene's DNA base sequence but do not change the function of the protein made by the gene. Studies in the fly Drosophila melanogaster suggest that if a mutation does change a protein, this will probably be harmful, with about 70 percent of these mutations having damaging effects, and the remainder being either neutral or weakly beneficial. If a mutation is present in a germ cell, it can give rise to offspring that carries the mutation in all of its cells. This is the case in hereditary diseases. On the other hand, a mutation can occur in a somatic cell of an organism. Such mutations will be present in all descendants of this cell, and certain mutations can cause the cell to become malignant, and thus cause cancer . Often, gene mutations that could cause a genetic disorder are repaired by the DNA repair system of the cell. Each cell has a number of pathways through which enzymes recognize and repair mistakes in DNA. Because DNA can be damaged or mutated in many ways, the process of DNA repair is an important way in which the body protects itself from disease. Beneficial mutations Although many mutations are deleterious, mutations may have a positive effect given certain selective pressures in a population. For example, a specific 32 base pair deletion in human CCR5 (CCR5-Δ32) confers HIV resistance to homozygotes and delays AIDS onset in heterozygotes. The CCR5 mutation is more common in those of European descent. One theory for the etiology of the relatively high frequency of CCR5-Δ32 in the European population is that it conferred resistance to the bubonic plague in mid-14th century Europe. People who had this mutation were able to survive infection; thus, its frequency in the population increased. It could also explain why this mutation is not found in Africa where the bubonic plague never reached. Newer theory says the selective pressure on the CCR5 Delta 32 mutation has been caused by smallpox instead of the bubonic plague. See also Aneuploidy Antioxidant Budgerigar colour genetics Homeobox Macromutation Muller's morphs Mutant Polyploidy Robertsonian translocation Signature tagged mutagenesis Site-directed mutagenesis References External links Central Locus Specific Variation Database at the Institute of Genomics and Integrative Biology The mutations chapter of the WikiBooks General Biology textbook Examples of Beneficial Mutations Correcting mutation by gene therapy BBC Radio 4 In Our Time - GENETIC MUTATION - with Steve Jones - streaming audio | Mutation |@lemmatized mutation:143 cause:20 garden:1 moss:1 rise:2 produce:6 flower:2 different:7 color:3 somatic:6 may:12 also:6 pass:2 germ:3 line:2 biology:3 change:23 nucleotide:15 sequence:15 genetic:9 material:2 organism:17 copy:3 error:3 cell:20 division:1 exposure:2 ultraviolet:2 ionize:2 radiation:6 chemical:4 mutagen:4 virus:1 induce:2 cellular:1 process:2 hypermutation:1 multicellular:1 dedicated:2 reproductive:3 subdivide:1 descendant:4 involve:1 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5,346 | Dolly_(sheep) | image|Dolly's remains are exhibited at the Royal Museum of Scotland. Dolly (July 5, 1996 – February 14, 2003), was a female domestic sheep remarkable in being the first mammal to be cloned from an adult somatic cell, using the process of nuclear transfer. She was cloned by Ian Wilmut, Keith Campbell and colleagues at the Roslin Institute in Edinburgh, Scotland. She was born on July 5, 1996 and she lived until the age of six, "Dolly the sheep clone dies young", BBC News, Friday, 14 February, 2003 and was dubbed "the world's most famous sheep" by Scientific American. The cell used as the donor for the cloning of Dolly was taken from a mammary gland, and the production of a healthy clone therefore proved that a cell taken from a specific part of the body that could recreate a whole individual. As Dolly was cloned from part of a mammary gland, she was named after the famously busty country western singer Dolly Parton. Birth In the previous year, the same team had produced cloned sheep from the embryonic cells, but this was not seen as a breakthrough since adult cloned animals had been produced from embryonic tissue as long ago as 1958, using cells from the frog Xenopus laevis. Dolly was the first clone produced from a cell taken from an adult mammal (the first animal cloned was an Asian carp in China in 1963 by Tong Dizhou). The production of Dolly showed that genes in the nucleus of such a mature differentiated somatic cell are still capable of reverting back to an undifferentiated totipotent state, creating a cell that can then go on to develop into any part of an animal. However, this reprogramming process is not perfect and embryos produced by nuclear transfer often show abnormal development. As a consequence of these difficulties in development, cloning mammals by nuclear transfer is still highly inefficient, with Dolly the only lamb that survived to adulthood from 277 attempts. However, her birth is still recognised as one of the major stepping stones in the development of modern biology. Wilmut, who led the team that created Dolly, announced in 2007 that the nuclear transfer technique may never be sufficiently efficient for use in humans. Roger Highfield Dolly creator Prof Ian Wilmut shuns cloning Daily Telegraph 16/11/2007 Life Dolly lived for her entire life at the Roslin Institute. There she was bred with a Welsh Mountain ram and produced six lambs in total. Her first lamb called Bonnie, was born in April 1998. The next year Dolly produced twin lambs Sally and Rosie, and she gave birth to triplets Lucy, Darcy and Cotton in the year after that. Dolly's family Roslin Institute, Accessed 21 February 2008 Cached version In the autumn of 2001, at the age of five, Dolly developed arthritis and began to walk stiffly, but this was successfully treated with anti-inflammatory drugs. Dolly's arthritis Roslin Institute, Accessed 21 February 2008 Cached version Death On February 14 , 2003, Dolly was euthanised because of a progressive lung disease. Dolly's final illness Roslin Institute, Accessed 21 February 2008 Cached version A Finn Dorset such as Dolly has a life expectancy of around 11 to 12 years, but Dolly lived to be only six years of age. A post-mortem examination showed she had a form of lung cancer called Jaagsiekte that is a fairly common disease of sheep and is caused by the retrovirus JSRV. Roslin scientists stated that they did not think there was a connection with Dolly's being a clone, and that other sheep in the same flock had died of the same disease. Such lung diseases are a particular danger for sheep kept indoors, and Dolly had to sleep inside for security reasons. However, some have speculated that a contributing factor to Dolly's death was that she could have been born with a genetic age of six years, the same age as the sheep from which she was cloned. One basis for this idea was the finding that Dolly's telomeres were short, which typically is a result of the aging process. However, the Roslin Institute have stated that intensive health screening did not reveal any abnormalities in Dolly that could have come from advanced aging. Was Dolly already 'old' at birth? Roslin Institute, Accessed 21 February 2008 Cached version Legacy After cloning was successfully demonstrated through the production of Dolly, many other large mammals have been cloned, including horses and bulls. The attempt to clone argali sheep did not produce viable embryos. The attempt to clone a banteng bull was more successful, as were the attempts to clone mouflon (a form of wild sheep), both resulting in viable offspring. In 2005 a dog, Snuppy, was cloned by Korean stem cell researcher, Hwang Woo-Suk. Cloning may become a viable tool for preserving endangered species. In January 2009, scientists from the Centre of Food Technology and Research of Aragon, in Zaragoza, northern Spain announced the cloning of the Pyrenean ibex, a form of wild mountain goat, which was officially declared extinct in 2000. Using DNA from skin samples kept in liquid nitrogen the scientists managed to clone the Ibex from domestic goat egg-cells. The newborn ibex died shortly after birth due to physical defects in its lungs. However, it is the first time an extinct animal has been cloned, and may open doors for saving endangered and newly extinct species by resurrecting them from frozen tissue. It has also increased the possibility that in the future it will be possible to reproduce long-dead species such as woolly mammoths and even dinosaurs. Although cloning may eventually become a viable tool for preserving endangered species and important in the future production of transgenic livestock, animal conservation professionals point out that cloning does not alleviate the problems of loss of genetic diversity (see inbreeding) and habitat, and so must be considered an experimental technology for the time being, and all in all would only rarely be worth the cost, which on a per-individual basis far exceeds conventional techniques such as captive breeding or embryo transfer. References External links Dolly the Sheep, 1996-2000 from the Science Museum, London Cloning - A life of Dolly from the Roslin Institute. Animal cloning & Dolly Image library Photos of Dolly and other cloned animals at the Roslin Institute. | Dolly_(sheep) |@lemmatized image:2 dolly:31 remains:1 exhibit:1 royal:1 museum:2 scotland:2 july:2 february:7 female:1 domestic:2 sheep:11 remarkable:1 first:5 mammal:4 clone:24 adult:3 somatic:2 cell:10 use:5 process:3 nuclear:4 transfer:5 ian:2 wilmut:3 keith:1 campbell:1 colleague:1 roslin:10 institute:9 edinburgh:1 bear:3 live:3 age:7 six:4 die:3 young:1 bbc:1 news:1 friday:1 dub:1 world:1 famous:1 scientific:1 american:1 donor:1 cloning:4 take:3 mammary:2 gland:2 production:4 healthy:1 therefore:1 prove:1 specific:1 part:3 body:1 could:3 recreate:1 whole:1 individual:2 name:1 famously:1 busty:1 country:1 western:1 singer:1 parton:1 birth:5 previous:1 year:6 team:2 produce:7 embryonic:2 see:2 breakthrough:1 since:1 animal:7 tissue:2 long:2 ago:1 frog:1 xenopus:1 laevis:1 asian:1 carp:1 china:1 tong:1 dizhou:1 show:3 gene:1 nucleus:1 mature:1 differentiate:1 still:3 capable:1 revert:1 back:1 undifferentiated:1 totipotent:1 state:3 create:2 go:1 develop:2 however:5 reprogramming:1 perfect:1 embryo:3 often:1 abnormal:1 development:3 consequence:1 difficulty:1 highly:1 inefficient:1 lamb:4 survive:1 adulthood:1 attempt:4 recognise:1 one:2 major:1 step:1 stone:1 modern:1 biology:1 lead:1 announce:2 technique:2 may:4 never:1 sufficiently:1 efficient:1 human:1 roger:1 highfield:1 creator:1 prof:1 shuns:1 daily:1 telegraph:1 life:4 entire:1 breed:1 welsh:1 mountain:2 ram:1 total:1 call:2 bonnie:1 april:1 next:1 twin:1 sally:1 rosie:1 give:1 triplet:1 lucy:1 darcy:1 cotton:1 family:1 access:4 cached:4 version:4 autumn:1 five:1 arthritis:2 begin:1 walk:1 stiffly:1 successfully:2 treat:1 anti:1 inflammatory:1 drug:1 death:2 euthanised:1 progressive:1 lung:4 disease:4 final:1 illness:1 finn:1 dorset:1 expectancy:1 around:1 post:1 mortem:1 examination:1 form:3 cancer:1 jaagsiekte:1 fairly:1 common:1 cause:1 retrovirus:1 jsrv:1 scientist:3 think:1 connection:1 flock:1 particular:1 danger:1 kept:1 indoors:1 sleep:1 inside:1 security:1 reason:1 speculate:1 contribute:1 factor:1 genetic:2 basis:2 idea:1 finding:1 telomere:1 short:1 typically:1 result:2 intensive:1 health:1 screen:1 reveal:1 abnormality:1 come:1 advanced:1 already:1 old:1 legacy:1 demonstrate:1 many:1 large:1 include:1 horse:1 bull:2 argali:1 viable:4 banteng:1 successful:1 mouflon:1 wild:2 offspring:1 dog:1 snuppy:1 korean:1 stem:1 researcher:1 hwang:1 woo:1 suk:1 become:2 tool:2 preserve:2 endangered:1 specie:4 january:1 centre:1 food:1 technology:2 research:1 aragon:1 zaragoza:1 northern:1 spain:1 pyrenean:1 ibex:3 goat:2 officially:1 declare:1 extinct:3 dna:1 skin:1 sample:1 keep:1 liquid:1 nitrogen:1 manage:1 egg:1 newborn:1 shortly:1 due:1 physical:1 defect:1 time:2 open:1 door:1 save:1 endanger:2 newly:1 resurrect:1 frozen:1 also:1 increase:1 possibility:1 future:2 possible:1 reproduce:1 dead:1 woolly:1 mammoth:1 even:1 dinosaur:1 although:1 eventually:1 important:1 transgenic:1 livestock:1 conservation:1 professional:1 point:1 alleviate:1 problem:1 loss:1 diversity:1 inbreeding:1 habitat:1 must:1 consider:1 experimental:1 would:1 rarely:1 worth:1 cost:1 per:1 far:1 exceed:1 conventional:1 captive:1 breeding:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 science:1 london:1 library:1 photo:1 cloned:1 |@bigram somatic_cell:2 ian_wilmut:2 roslin_institute:9 dolly_sheep:2 bbc_news:1 mammary_gland:2 dolly_parton:1 survive_adulthood:1 daily_telegraph:1 cached_version:4 anti_inflammatory:1 inflammatory_drug:1 life_expectancy:1 post_mortem:1 lung_cancer:1 endangered_specie:1 woolly_mammoth:1 endanger_specie:1 captive_breeding:1 external_link:1 |
5,347 | Christine_Lavin | At New Bedford Summerfest, 2005. Photo by Thom C. Christine Lavin (born January 2, 1952) is a New York City-based singer-songwriter and promoter of contemporary folk music. She has recorded numerous solo albums, and has also recorded with other female folk artists under the name Four Bitchin' Babes. She has also put together several compilation albums of contemporary folk artists, including On a Winter's Night. She is known for her sense of humor, which is expressed in both her music and her onstage performances. Many of her songs alternate between emotional reflections on romance and outright comedy. Two of her more famous songs include "Sensitive New Age Guys" and "Bald Headed Men". In her youth, Lavin was a cheerleader in Geneva, New York and she still has impressive baton-twirling skills; she often ends a concert by twirling a glow-in-the-dark baton with the house lights turned off as she leaves the stage. Lavin worked at Caffe Lena in Saratoga, New York until Dave Van Ronk convinced her to move to New York City and make a career as a singer-songwriter. She followed his advice and accepted his offer of guitar lessons. She has lived in the City ever since. Lavin was the original host of "Sunday Breakfast" on WFUV in New York City. Lavin was a founding member of the Four Bitchin' Babes when they were formed in 1990. Discography Absolutely Live (1981; re-issued by Winthrop, 2000) Future Fossils (Philo, 1984) Beau Woes and Other Problems of Modern Life (Philo, 1986) Another Woman's Man (Philo, 1987) Good Thing He Can't Read My Mind (Philo, 1988) Attainable Love (Philo, 1990) Compass (Philo, 1991) Live at the Cactus Cafe: What Was I Thinking? (Philo, 1993) Please Don't Make Me Too Happy (Shanachie , 1995) Shining My Flashlight on the Moon (Shanachie, 1997) One Wild Night in Concert (1998) Getting in Touch With My Inner Bitch (Christine Lavin, 1999) The Bellevue Years (Philo, 2000) The Subway Series (Christine Lavin, 2001) Final Exam (2001) I Was in Love With a Difficult Man (Redwing, 2002) The Runaway Christmas Tree (2003) Sometimes Mother Really Does Know Best [Live] (Appleseed, 2004) Folkzinger (Appleseed, 2005) ''Happydance of the Xenophobe (2007) External links Official Christine Lavin site | Christine_Lavin |@lemmatized new:7 bedford:1 summerfest:1 photo:1 thom:1 c:1 christine:4 lavin:8 born:1 january:1 york:5 city:4 base:1 singer:2 songwriter:2 promoter:1 contemporary:2 folk:3 music:2 record:2 numerous:1 solo:1 album:2 also:2 female:1 artist:2 name:1 four:2 bitchin:2 babe:2 put:1 together:1 several:1 compilation:1 include:2 winter:1 night:2 know:2 sense:1 humor:1 express:1 onstage:1 performance:1 many:1 song:2 alternate:1 emotional:1 reflection:1 romance:1 outright:1 comedy:1 two:1 famous:1 sensitive:1 age:1 guy:1 bald:1 head:1 men:1 youth:1 cheerleader:1 geneva:1 still:1 impressive:1 baton:2 twirling:1 skill:1 often:1 end:1 concert:2 twirl:1 glow:1 dark:1 house:1 light:1 turn:1 leave:1 stage:1 work:1 caffe:1 lena:1 saratoga:1 dave:1 van:1 ronk:1 convince:1 move:1 make:2 career:1 follow:1 advice:1 accept:1 offer:1 guitar:1 lesson:1 live:4 ever:1 since:1 original:1 host:1 sunday:1 breakfast:1 wfuv:1 founding:1 member:1 form:1 discography:1 absolutely:1 issue:1 winthrop:1 future:1 fossil:1 philo:8 beau:1 woe:1 problem:1 modern:1 life:1 another:1 woman:1 man:2 good:1 thing:1 read:1 mind:1 attainable:1 love:2 compass:1 cactus:1 cafe:1 thinking:1 please:1 happy:1 shanachie:2 shin:1 flashlight:1 moon:1 one:1 wild:1 get:1 touch:1 inner:1 bitch:1 bellevue:1 year:1 subway:1 series:1 final:1 exam:1 difficult:1 redwing:1 runaway:1 christmas:1 tree:1 sometimes:1 mother:1 really:1 best:1 appleseed:2 folkzinger:1 happydance:1 xenophobe:1 external:1 link:1 official:1 site:1 |@bigram singer_songwriter:2 christmas_tree:1 external_link:1 |
5,348 | Psychological_egoism | Psychological egoism is the view that humans are always motivated by self-interest, even in what seem to be acts of altruism. It claims that, when people choose to help others, they do so ultimately because of the personal benefits that they themselves expect to obtain, directly or indirectly, from doing so. It is a non-normative view, since it only makes claims about how things are, not how they ought to be. It is, however, related to several other normative forms of egoism, such as ethical egoism and rational egoism. A specific form of psychological egoism is psychological hedonism, the view that the ultimate motive for all voluntary human action is the desire to experience pleasure or to avoid pain. Many discussions of psychological egoism focus on this variety, but the two are not the same: one can hold that all actions are ultimately motivated by considerations of self-interest without thinking that all agents conceive of their self-interest in terms of feelings of pleasure and pain. Shaver (2002); Moseley (2006). A possible (albeit controversial) example of someone who holds such a view is Aristotle, who asserts that the ultimate aim of all actions is the agent's eudaimonia, or happiness, but who denies that all people think that happiness consists solely in pleasure and the absence of pain. Some, however, interpret Aristotle as not conceiving of eudaimonia as self-interested. The debate Psychological egoism is controversial. Proponents argue that it is true either because reflection upon human psychology reveals as much See Bentham 1789. Thomas Hobbes is also often read as a psychological egoist, but this is fairly controversial, especially in respect of whether or not he used it to ground his moral theory. See Gert (1967) and Lloyd & Sreedhar (2008). or that it is empirically supported (e.g. Slote, 1964). Critics argue that it is false either because it as an over-simplified interpretation of behaviour — see Butler, 1726; Hume, 1751; and Nagel, 1970 — or that there exists empirical evidence of altruistic behaviour. (See Batson, 1991.) Recently, some have argued that evolutionary theory provides evidence against it. (See Sober and Wilson, 1998.) The problem of apparent altruism Psychological egoism may seem at first obviously false, because there are many acts that appear to be altruistic which are common and well known, such as self-sacrifice and gratuitous help. As David Hume once wrote, "What interest can a fond mother have in view, who loses her health by assiduous attendance on her sick child, and afterwards languishes and dies of grief, when freed, by its death, from the slavery of that attendance?" (1751, Appendix II). It seems incorrect to describe such a mother's goal as self-interested. Psychological egoists, however, respond that helping others in such ways is ultimately motivated by some form of self-interest, such as the expectation of reciprocation, the desire to gain respect or reputation, non-sensory satisfaction, or by the expectation of a reward in a putative afterlife. The helpful action is merely instrumental to these ultimately selfish goals. This sort of explanation appears to be close to the view of La Rochefoucauld (1691) (and perhaps Hobbes, 1650). According to psychological hedonism (a form of psychological egoism), the ultimate egoistic motive is to gain good feelings of pleasure and avoid bad feelings of pain. Other, less restricted forms of psychological egoism may allow the ultimate goal of a person to include such things as avoiding punishments from oneself or others (such as guilt or shame) and attaining rewards (such as pride, self-worth, power or reciprocal beneficial action). Criticisms Explanatory power Even accepting the theory of the universal good feeling, it is difficult to explain, for example, the actions of a soldier who sacrifices his life by jumping on a grenade in order to save his comrades. In this case, there is simply no time to experience a good feeling for one's actions, although a psychological egoist may argue that the soldier experiences good feeling in knowing that he is sacrificing his life to ensure the survival of his comrades, or that he is avoiding the pain associated with the thought of all his comrades dying. Psychological egoists argue that, although actions might not effectively cause pleasure or avoid of pain, one's contemplated or reactionary expectation of this is the main factor in the decision. When a dog is first taught to sit, it is given a biscuit. This is repeated until, finally, the dog sits without requiring a biscuit. Psychological egoists could also claim that actions that do not directly result in a good feeling (or biscuit) are not dissimilar from the actions of the dog. People still sit or jump on the grenade simply because a similar action in the past resulted in a good. Circularity Finally, psychological egoism has been accused of using circular logic: "If a person willingly performs an act, that means he derives personal enjoyment from it; therefore, people only perform acts that give them personal enjoyment." In particular, seemingly altruistic acts must be performed because people derive enjoyment from them and are therefore, in reality, egoistic. This statement is circular because its conclusion is identical to its hypothesis: it assumes that people only perform acts that give them personal enjoyment, and concludes that people only perform acts that give them personal enjoyment. This objection was tendered by William Hazlitt Hazlitt (1991). and Thomas Macaulay http://oll.libertyfund.org/Home3/Essay.php?recordID=1249 in the 19th century, and has been restated many times since. An earlier version of the same objection was made by Joseph Butler in 1726. Joel Feinberg, in his 1958 paper "Psychological Egoism", embraces a similar critique by drawing attention to the infinite regress of psychological egoism. He expounds it in the following cross-examination: "All men desire only satisfaction." "Satisfaction of what?" "Satisfaction of their desires." "Their desires for what?" "Their desires for satisfaction." "Satisfaction of what?" "Their desires." "For what?" "For satisfaction"—etc., ad infinitum. Feinberg 2008. Evolutionary theory An examination of the arguments for and against psychological egoism can be found in Unto Others (1998), by Elliot Sober and David Sloan Wilson, who ultimately argue that the psychological evidence and philosophical arguments are inconclusive, yet that evolutionary theory provides circumstantial evidence that psychological egoism is false. Sober & Wilson (1998), Ch. 10 "The Evolution of Psychological Altruism". See also reward system, for an anatomic basis of psychological egoism. Inclusive fitness References Baier, Kurt (1990). "Egoism" in A Companion to Ethics, Peter Singer (ed.), Blackwell: Oxford. Batson, C.D. (1991). The Altruism Question: Toward a Social-Psychological Answer, Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Batson, C.D. & L. Shaw (1991). "Evidence for Altruism: Toward a Pluralism of Prosocial Motives," Psychological Inquiry 2: 107-122. Bentham, Jeremy (1789). Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1907. First published in 1789. (link) Broad, C. D. (1971). "Egoism as a Theory of Human Motives," in his Broad's Critical Essays in Moral Philosophy, London: George Allen and Unwin. Butler, J. (1726). Fifteen Sermons Preached at the Rolls Chapel, in The Works of Bishop Butler, J. H. Bernard (ed.), London: Macmillan, Sermons I and XI. Gert, Bernard (1967). "Hobbes and Psychological Egoism", Journal of the History of Ideas, Vol. 28, No. 4, pp. 503-520. Hazlitt, William (1991). Self-Love and Benevolence Selected Writings, edited and with Introduction by Jon Cook, Oxford University Press. Hume, David (1751). An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals. Public domain. (link) Hobbes, Thomas (1650). Human Nature, public domain. Hobbes, Thomas (1651). Leviathan, C. B. Macpherson (ed.), Harmondsworth: Penguin. Hobbes, Thomas (1654). Of Liberty and Necessity, public domain. Feinberg, Joel. "Psychological Egoism." In Reason & Responsibility: Readings in Some Basic Problems of Philosophy, edited by Joel Feinberg and Russ Shafer-Landau, 520-532. California: Thomson Wadsworth, 2008. Krebs, Dennis (1982). "Psychological Approaches to Altruism: An Evaluation". Ethics, 92, pp. 447-58. La Rochefoucauld, François de (1691). Moral Maxims and Reflections, in Four Parts. London: Gillyflower, Sare, & Everingham. Lloyd, Sharon A. & Sreedhar, Susanne. (2008). "Hobbes's Moral and Political Philosophy", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Edward N. Zalta (ed.). (link) Moseley, Alexander (2006). "Egoism", The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, J. Fieser & B. Dowden (eds.). (link) Nagel, Thomas (1970). The Possibility of Altruism. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Shaver, Robert (2002). "Egoism", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.). (link) Slote, M. A. (1964). "An Empirical Basis for Psychological Egoism," Journal of Philosophy 61: 530-537. Sober, E. & D.S. Wilson (1998). Unto Others: The Evolution and Psychology of Unselfish Behavior, Harvard University Press. Notes External links Egoism in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy Egoism in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy | Psychological_egoism |@lemmatized psychological:28 egoism:25 view:6 human:5 always:1 motivate:3 self:9 interest:5 even:2 seem:3 act:7 altruism:7 claim:3 people:7 choose:1 help:3 others:5 ultimately:5 personal:5 benefit:1 expect:1 obtain:1 directly:2 indirectly:1 non:2 normative:2 since:2 make:2 thing:2 ought:1 however:3 relate:1 several:1 form:5 ethical:1 rational:1 specific:1 hedonism:2 ultimate:4 motive:2 voluntary:1 action:11 desire:7 experience:3 pleasure:5 avoid:5 pain:6 many:3 discussion:1 focus:1 variety:1 two:1 one:3 hold:2 consideration:1 without:2 think:2 agent:2 conceive:2 term:1 feeling:7 shaver:2 moseley:2 possible:1 albeit:1 controversial:3 example:2 someone:1 aristotle:2 assert:1 aim:1 eudaimonia:2 happiness:2 deny:1 consist:1 solely:1 absence:1 interpret:1 interested:2 debate:1 proponent:1 argue:6 true:1 either:2 reflection:2 upon:1 psychology:2 reveals:1 much:1 see:6 bentham:2 thomas:6 hobbes:7 also:3 often:1 read:1 egoist:5 fairly:1 especially:1 respect:2 whether:1 use:2 grind:1 moral:6 theory:6 gert:2 lloyd:2 sreedhar:2 empirically:1 support:1 e:2 g:1 slote:2 critic:1 false:3 simplified:1 interpretation:1 behaviour:2 butler:4 hume:3 nagel:2 exist:1 empirical:2 evidence:5 altruistic:3 batson:3 recently:1 evolutionary:3 provide:2 sober:4 wilson:4 problem:2 apparent:1 may:3 first:3 obviously:1 appear:2 common:1 well:1 know:2 sacrifice:3 gratuitous:1 david:3 write:1 fond:1 mother:2 lose:1 health:1 assiduous:1 attendance:2 sick:1 child:1 afterwards:1 languishes:1 dy:1 grief:1 freed:1 death:1 slavery:1 appendix:1 ii:1 incorrect:1 describe:1 goal:3 respond:1 way:1 expectation:3 reciprocation:1 gain:2 reputation:1 sensory:1 satisfaction:7 reward:3 putative:1 afterlife:1 helpful:1 merely:1 instrumental:1 selfish:1 sort:1 explanation:1 close:1 la:2 rochefoucauld:2 perhaps:1 accord:1 egoistic:2 good:6 bad:1 less:1 restricted:1 allow:1 person:2 include:1 punishment:1 oneself:1 guilt:1 shame:1 attain:1 pride:1 worth:1 power:2 reciprocal:1 beneficial:1 criticisms:1 explanatory:1 accept:1 universal:1 difficult:1 explain:1 soldier:2 life:2 jump:2 grenade:2 order:1 save:1 comrade:3 case:1 simply:2 time:2 although:2 ensure:1 survival:1 associate:2 thought:1 die:1 might:1 effectively:1 cause:1 contemplate:1 reactionary:1 main:1 factor:1 decision:1 dog:3 taught:1 sit:3 give:4 biscuit:3 repeat:1 finally:2 require:1 could:1 result:2 dissimilar:1 still:1 similar:2 past:1 circularity:1 accuse:1 circular:2 logic:1 willingly:1 perform:5 mean:1 derive:2 enjoyment:5 therefore:2 particular:1 seemingly:1 must:1 reality:1 statement:1 conclusion:1 identical:1 hypothesis:1 assume:1 conclude:1 objection:2 tender:1 william:2 hazlitt:3 macaulay:1 http:1 oll:1 libertyfund:1 org:1 essay:2 php:1 recordid:1 century:1 restate:1 early:1 version:1 joseph:1 joel:3 feinberg:4 paper:1 embrace:1 critique:1 draw:1 attention:1 infinite:1 regress:1 expound:1 following:1 cross:1 examination:2 men:1 etc:1 ad:1 infinitum:1 argument:2 find:1 unto:2 elliot:1 sloan:1 philosophical:1 inconclusive:1 yet:1 circumstantial:1 ch:1 evolution:2 system:1 anatomic:1 basis:2 inclusive:1 fitness:1 reference:1 baier:1 kurt:1 companion:1 ethic:2 peter:1 singer:1 ed:5 blackwell:1 oxford:3 c:4 question:1 toward:2 social:1 answer:1 hillsdale:1 n:3 j:4 lawrence:1 erlbaum:1 l:1 shaw:1 pluralism:1 prosocial:1 motif:2 inquiry:1 jeremy:1 introduction:2 principle:2 legislation:1 clarendon:1 press:4 publish:1 link:6 broad:2 critical:1 philosophy:9 london:3 george:1 allen:1 unwin:1 fifteen:1 sermon:2 preach:1 roll:1 chapel:1 work:1 bishop:1 h:1 bernard:2 macmillan:1 xi:1 journal:2 history:1 idea:1 vol:1 pp:2 love:1 benevolence:1 select:1 writing:1 edit:2 jon:1 cook:1 university:3 enquiry:1 concern:1 public:3 domain:3 nature:1 leviathan:1 b:2 macpherson:1 harmondsworth:1 penguin:1 liberty:1 necessity:1 reason:1 responsibility:1 reading:1 basic:1 rus:1 shafer:1 landau:1 california:1 thomson:1 wadsworth:1 krebs:1 dennis:1 approach:1 evaluation:1 françois:1 de:1 maxim:1 four:1 part:1 gillyflower:1 sare:1 everingham:1 sharon:1 susanne:1 political:1 stanford:3 encyclopedia:5 edward:2 zalta:2 alexander:1 internet:2 fieser:1 dowden:1 eds:1 possibility:1 princeton:2 robert:1 winter:1 edition:1 unselfish:1 behavior:1 harvard:1 note:1 external:1 |@bigram psychological_egoism:16 directly_indirectly:1 ethical_egoism:1 rational_egoism:1 thomas_hobbes:1 psychological_egoist:5 altruistic_behaviour:1 david_hume:1 guilt_shame:1 william_hazlitt:1 joel_feinberg:2 infinite_regress:1 ad_infinitum:1 circumstantial_evidence:1 inclusive_fitness:1 lawrence_erlbaum:1 erlbaum_associate:1 oxford_clarendon:1 clarendon_press:1 allen_unwin:1 sermon_preach:1 enquiry_concern:1 harmondsworth_penguin:1 thomson_wadsworth:1 stanford_encyclopedia:3 n_zalta:2 zalta_ed:2 princeton_princeton:1 external_link:1 |
5,349 | John_Ambrose_Fleming | Sir John Ambrose Fleming (29 November 1849 – 18 April 1945) was an English electrical engineer and physicist. He is known for inventing the first thermionic valve or vacuum tube, the diode, then called the kenotron in 1904. He also invented the right-hand rule, used in mathematics and electronics. He was born the eldest of seven children of James Fleming DD (died 1879), a Congregational minister, and his wife, Mary Ann, at Lancaster, Lancashire and baptized on 11 February 1850. He was a devout Christian and preached on one occasion at St Martin-in-the-Fields in London on the topic of evidence for the resurrection. In 1932, along with Douglas Dewar and Bernard Acworth, he helped establish the Evolution Protest Movement. Having no children, he bequeathed much of his estate to Christian charities, especially those that helped the poor. He was an accomplished photographer and, in addition, he painted watercolours and enjoyed climbing in the Alps. Early years Ambrose Fleming was born in Lancaster and educated at University College School, London, and University College London. He won a fellowship to St John's College, Cambridge in 1877, and went on to Lecture at several universities including the University of Cambridge, the University of Nottingham, and University College London, where he was the first professor of Electrical Engineering. He was also consultant to the Marconi Wireless Telegraph Company, Swan Company, Ferranti, Edison Telephone, and later the Edison Electric Light Company. In 1892, Fleming presented an important paper on electrical transformer theory to the Institution of Electrical Engineers in London. Education and marriages Fleming started school at about the age of ten, attending a private school where he particularly enjoyed geometry. Prior to that his mother tutored him and he had learned, virtually by heart, a book called the Child's Guide to Knowledge, a popular book of the day — even as an adult he would quote from it. His schooling continued at the University College School where, although accomplished at maths, he habitually came bottom of the class at Latin. Even as a boy he wanted to become an engineer. At 11 he had his own workshop where he built model boats and engines. He even built his own camera, the start of a lifelong interest in photography. Training to become an engineer was beyond the family's financial resources, but he reached his goal via a path that alternated education with paid employment. He enrolled for a BSc degree at University College, London, graduated in 1870, and studied under the mathematician Augustus de Morgan and the physicist George Carey Foster. He became a student of chemistry at the Royal College of Science in South Kensington in London (now Imperial College). There he first studied Alessandro Volta's battery, which became the subject of his first scientific paper. This was the first paper to be read to the new Physical Society of London (now the Institute of Physics) and appears on page one of volume one of their Proceedings. Financial problems again forced him to work for a living and in the summer of 1874 he became science master at Cheltenham College, a public school, earning £400 per year. (He later also taught at Rossall School.) His own scientific research continued and he corresponded with James Clerk Maxwell at Cambridge University. After saving £400, and securing a grant of £50 a year, in October 1877 at the age of 27, he once again enrolled as a student, this time at Cambridge. Maxwell's lectures, he admitted, were difficult to follow. Maxwell, he said, often appeared obscure and had "a paradoxical and allusive way of speaking". On occasions Fleming was the only student at those lectures. Fleming again graduated, this time with a First Class Honours degree in chemistry and physics. He then obtained a DSc from London and served one year at Cambridge University as a demonstrator of mechanical engineering before being appointed as the first Professor of Physics and Mathematics at the University of Nottingham, but he left after less than a year. On 11 June 1887 he married Clara Ripley (1856/7–1917), daughter of Walter Freake Pratt, a solicitor from Bath. On 27 July 1928 he married the popular young singer Olive May Franks (b. 1898/9), of Bristol, daughter of George Franks, a Cardiff businessman. Activities and achievements In November 1904, he invented the two-electrode vacuum-tube rectifier, which he called the oscillation valve. He would later patent this invention. Fleming Valve patent It was also called a thermionic valve, vacuum diode, kenotron, thermionic tube, or Fleming valve. The Supreme Court of the United States later invalidated the patent because of an improper disclaimer and, additionally, maintained the technology in the patent was known art when filed. "Misreading the Supreme Court: A Puzzling Chapter in the History of Radio". November 1998, Mercurians.org. This invention is often considered to have been the beginning of electronics, for this was the first vacuum tube. Fleming's diode was used in radio receivers and radars for many decades afterwards, until it was superseded by solid state electronic technology more than 50 years later. In 1906, Lee De Forest of the U.S. added a control "grid" to the valve to create a vacuum tube RF detector called the Audion, leading Fleming to accuse him of copying his ideas. De Forest's device was shortly refined by him and Edwin H. Armstrong into the first electronic amplifier, a tube called the triode. The triode was vital in the creation of long-distance telephone and radio communications, radars, and early electronic digital computers (mechanical and electro-mechanical digital computers already existed using different technology). Fleming also contributed in the fields of photometry, electronics, wireless telegraphy (radio), and electrical measurements. He was knighted in 1929, and died at his home in Sidmouth, Devon in 1945. His contributions to electronic communications and radar were of vital importance in winning World War II. Fleming was awarded the IRE Medal of Honor in 1933 for "the conspicuous part he played in introducing physical and engineering principles into the radio art". Note from eulogy at the Centenary celebration of the invention of the thermionic valve: One century ago, in November 1904, John Ambrose Fleming FRS, Pender Professor at UCL, filed in Great Britain, for a device called the Thermionic Valve. When inserted together with a galvanometer, into a tuned electrical circuit, it could be used as a very sensitive rectifying detector of high frequency wireless currents, known as radio waves. It was a major step forward in the ‘wireless revolution’. In November 1905, he patented the "Fleming Valve" (). As a rectifying diode, and forerunner to the triode valve and many related structures, it can also be considered to be the device that gave birth to modern electronics. In the ensuing years such valves, were largely superseded by "cat’s whiskers", and decades later most electron tubes, as they became generically known, were gradually replaced by semiconductor diodes and transistors, which were significantly smaller, cheaper, and more reliable. In time and in turn, even these have been largely replaced by integrated circuits, better known as silicon chips. Today, descendants of the original vacuum tube still play an important role in a range of applications. They can be found in the power stages of radio and television transmitters, in audio amplifiers, as detectors of optical and short wavelength radiation, and in sensitive equipment that must be "radiation-hard". On the 27th November 2004 a Blue Plaque (presented by the Institute of Physics) was unveiled at the "Norman Lockyer Observatory", Sidmouth, to mark 100 years since the invention of the Thermionic Radio Valve. Books by Fleming Electric Lamps and Electric Lighting: A course of four lectures on electric illumination delivered at the Royal Institution of Great Britain (1894) 228 pages, ISBN 0548479377. The Alternate Current Transformer in Theory and Practice "The Electrician" Printing and Publishing Company (1896) Magnets and Electric Currents E. & F. N. Spon. (1898) A Handbook for the Electrical Laboratory and Testing Room "The Electrician" Printing and Publishing Company (1901) Waves and Ripples in Water, Air, and Aether MacMillan (1902). The Evidence of Things Not Seen Christian Knowledge Society: London (1904) The Principles of Electric Wave Telegraphy (1906), Longmans Green, London, 671 pages. The Propagation of Electric Currents in Telephone and Telegraph Conductors (1908) Constable, 316 pages. An Elementary Manual of Radiotelegraphy and Radiotelephony (1911) Longmans Green, London, 340 pages. On the power factor and conductivity of dielectrics when tested with alternating electric currents of telephonic frequency at various temperatures (1912) Gresham, 82 pages, ASIN: B0008CJBIC The Wonders of Wireless Telegraphy : Explained in simple terms for the non-technical reader Society for promoting Christian Knowledge (1913) The Wireless Telegraphist's Pocket Book of Notes, Formulae and Calculations The Wireless Press (1915) The Thermionic Valve and its Development in Radio Telegraphy and Telephony (1919). Fifty Years of Electricity The Wireless Press (1921) Electrons, Electric Waves and Wireless telephony The Wireless Press (1923) Introduction to Wireless Telegraphy and Telephony Sir Isaac Pitman and Sons Ltd. (1924) Mercury-arc Rectifiers and Mercury-vapour Lamps London. Pitman (1925) The Electrical Educator (3 volumes), The New Era Publishing Co Ltd (1927) Memories of a Scientific life Marshall, Morgan & Scott (1934) Evolution or Creation? (1938) Marshall Morgan and Scott, 114 pages, ASIN: B00089BL7Y - outlines objections to Darwin. Mathematics for Engineers George Newnes Ltd (1938) References External articles IEEE History Center biography Department of Electronic & Electrical Engineering, UCL - home of the original Fleming valve 100 Years of Electronics 2004 - The Centenary of the Fleming Valve | John_Ambrose_Fleming |@lemmatized sir:2 john:3 ambrose:3 fleming:18 november:6 april:1 english:1 electrical:9 engineer:5 physicist:2 know:5 invent:3 first:9 thermionic:7 valve:15 vacuum:6 tube:8 diode:5 call:7 kenotron:2 also:6 right:1 hand:1 rule:1 use:4 mathematics:3 electronics:5 bear:2 eldest:1 seven:1 child:3 james:2 dd:1 died:1 congregational:1 minister:1 wife:1 mary:1 ann:1 lancaster:2 lancashire:1 baptize:1 february:1 devout:1 christian:4 preach:1 one:5 occasion:2 st:2 martin:1 field:2 london:13 topic:1 evidence:2 resurrection:1 along:1 douglas:1 dewar:1 bernard:1 acworth:1 help:2 establish:1 evolution:2 protest:1 movement:1 bequeath:1 much:1 estate:1 charity:1 especially:1 poor:1 accomplished:1 photographer:1 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maintain:1 technology:3 art:2 file:2 misread:1 puzzle:1 chapter:1 history:2 radio:9 mercurians:1 org:1 consider:2 beginning:1 receiver:1 radar:3 many:2 decade:2 afterwards:1 supersede:2 solid:1 electronic:5 lee:1 forest:2 u:1 add:1 control:1 grid:1 create:1 rf:1 detector:3 audion:1 lead:1 accuse:1 copy:1 idea:1 device:3 shortly:1 refine:1 edwin:1 h:1 armstrong:1 amplifier:2 triode:3 vital:2 creation:2 long:1 distance:1 communication:2 digital:2 computer:2 electro:1 already:1 exist:1 different:1 contribute:1 photometry:1 telegraphy:5 measurement:1 knight:1 die:1 home:2 sidmouth:2 devon:1 contribution:1 importance:1 world:1 war:1 ii:1 award:1 ire:1 medal:1 honor:1 conspicuous:1 part:1 play:2 introduce:1 principle:2 note:2 eulogy:1 centenary:2 celebration:1 century:1 ago:1 fr:1 pender:1 ucl:2 great:2 britain:2 insert:1 together:1 galvanometer:1 tuned:1 circuit:2 could:1 sensitive:2 rectify:1 high:1 frequency:2 current:5 wave:4 major:1 step:1 forward:1 revolution:1 rectifying:1 forerunner:1 related:1 structure:1 give:1 birth:1 modern:1 ensue:1 largely:2 cat:1 whisker:1 electron:2 generically:1 gradually:1 replace:2 semiconductor:1 transistor:1 significantly:1 small:1 cheap:1 reliable:1 turn:1 integrated:1 well:1 silicon:1 chip:1 today:1 descendant:1 original:2 still:1 role:1 range:1 application:1 find:1 power:2 stage:1 television:1 transmitter:1 audio:1 optical:1 short:1 wavelength:1 radiation:2 equipment:1 must:1 hard:1 blue:1 plaque:1 unveil:1 norman:1 lockyer:1 observatory:1 mark:1 since:1 lamp:1 lighting:1 course:1 four:1 illumination:1 deliver:1 isbn:1 practice:1 electrician:2 printing:2 publishing:3 magnet:1 e:1 f:1 n:1 spon:1 handbook:1 laboratory:1 test:2 room:1 ripple:1 water:1 air:1 aether:1 macmillan:1 thing:1 see:1 longmans:2 green:2 propagation:1 conductor:1 constable:1 elementary:1 manual:1 radiotelegraphy:1 radiotelephony:1 factor:1 conductivity:1 dielectric:1 telephonic:1 various:1 temperature:1 gresham:1 asin:2 wonder:1 explain:1 simple:1 term:1 non:1 technical:1 reader:1 promote:1 telegraphist:1 pocket:1 formula:1 calculation:1 press:3 development:1 telephony:3 fifty:1 electricity:1 introduction:1 isaac:1 pitman:2 son:1 ltd:3 mercury:2 arc:1 vapour:1 lamps:1 educator:1 era:1 co:1 memory:1 life:1 marshall:2 scott:2 outline:1 objection:1 darwin:1 newnes:1 reference:1 external:1 article:1 ieee:1 center:1 biography:1 department:1 |@bigram ambrose_fleming:3 thermionic_valve:5 vacuum_tube:5 marconi_wireless:1 wireless_telegraph:1 alessandro_volta:1 clerk_maxwell:1 fleming_valve:5 supreme_court:2 electro_mechanical:1 wireless_telegraphy:3 cat_whisker:1 semiconductor_diode:1 diode_transistor:1 integrated_circuit:1 norman_lockyer:1 longmans_green:2 telegraphy_telephony:2 isaac_pitman:1 |
5,350 | Emperor_Keitai | "Keitai" is also the Japanese term for mobile/cell phones but is written with different kanji. Keitai (継体天皇 Keitai-tennō), also known as Keitai okimi, was the 26th emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. Titsingh, Isaac. (1834). Annales des empereurs du japon, pp. 31-33; Varley, Paul. (1980). Jinnō Shōtōki, pp. 119-120. No firm dates can be assigned to this emperor's life or reign. Keitai is considered to have ruled the country during the early-6th century, but there is a paucity of information about him. There is insufficient material available for further verification and study. Differences in the record are found in the Kojiki and the Nihon Shoki. Kojiki puts his birth year at 485 and to have died on April 9, 527. Japanese dates correspond to the traditional lunisolar calendar used in Japan until 1873. It writes that he was called Ōdo no Mikoto (袁本杼命). On the other hand, Nihon Shoki put his birth year at 450 and to have died on February 7, 531 or 534. It writes that he was called Ōdo no Kimi (男大迹王) and Hikofuto no Mikoto (彦太尊). Also the version Wo Ofu Ato-no-Hiko Fudo no Mikoto has been present. He is recorded to have originally been King of Koshi, a smaller tribal entity, apparently in northern parts of central Japan, perhaps as far as the coast of Sea of Japan. Some modern reference works of history call Keitai just as King Ohoto of Koshi. Aston, William. (1998). Nihongi, Vol. 2, pp. 1-25. Life and genealogy Keitai was not the son of the immediate previous monarch. According to the Kojiki (712) and Nihon Shoki (720), Emperor Buretsu died without a successor. At which time, a fifth generation grandson of Emperor Ōjin, Keitai, came and ascended the thrown. However, as the genealogical trees of the Nihon Shoki have since been lost, the accuracy of this account is unknown, raising doubt about his genealogy. Some histories suggested a change of dynasties. Genealogy information is supplemented in Shaku Nihongi which quotes from the now lost text Jōgūki (7th century). It says he was a son of Ushi no Kimi, a grandson of Ohi no Kimi, a great-grandson of Ohohoto no Kimi (brother to Emperor Ingyō's consort), a great-great-grandson of Wakanuke Futamata no Kimi, and a great-great-great-grandson of Emperor Ōjin. According to Kojiki and Nihon Shoki, his father was Hikonushi no Kimi and his mother was Furihime. He was born in Echizen province. When Buretsu died, Kanamura recommended Keitai at his age of 58 as a possible heir to the Yamato throne. Keitai declared his ascension in Kusuba, in the northern part of Kawachi Province (present day Shijonawate, Osaka) and married a younger sister of Buretsu, Princess Tashiraga. It is supposed that his succession was not welcomed by everyone, and it took about 20 years for Keitai to enter Yamato province, near Kawachi and the political center of Japan at the time. In Keitai's later years, 527 or 528, a rebellion led by Iwai occurred in Tsukushi province, Kyūshū. Keitai assigned Mononobe no Arakahi as Shogun and sent him to Kyūshū to put down the rebellion. Among his sons, Emperor Ankan, Emperor Senka and Emperor Kimmei ascended to the throne. He is believed to be entombed amongst the burial mounds in the city of Fujiidera near Osaka. Gowland, William. "The Burial Mounds and Dolmens of the Early Emperors of Japan," The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, Vol. 37, Jan.-Jun., 1907, pp. 10-46. Notes References Aston, William George. (1896). Nihongi: Chronicles of Japan from the Earliest Times to A.D. 697. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner. [reprinted by Tuttle Publishing, Tokyo, 2007. 10-ISBN 0-8048-0984-4; 13-ISBN 978-0-8048-0984-9] Brown, Delmer M. and Ichirō Ishida, eds. (1979). [ Jien, c. 1220], Gukanshō (The Future and the Past, a translation and study of the Gukanshō, an interpretative history of Japan written in 1219). Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-03460-0 Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon. (1959). The Imperial House of Japan. Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society. OCLC 194887 Titsingh, Isaac, ed. (1834). [Siyun-sai Rin-siyo/Hayashi Gahō, 1652], Nipon o daï itsi ran; ou, [http://books.google.com/books?id=18oNAAAAIAAJ&dq=nipon+o+dai+itsi+ran Annales des empereurs du Japon.] Paris: Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland. Varley, H. Paul , ed. (1980). [ Kitabatake Chikafusa, 1359], Jinnō Shōtōki ("A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns: Jinnō Shōtōki of Kitabatake Chikafusa" translated by H. Paul Varley). New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-04940-4 See also Emperor of Japan List of Emperors of Japan Imperial cult | Emperor_Keitai |@lemmatized keitai:13 also:4 japanese:2 term:1 mobile:1 cell:1 phone:1 write:4 different:1 kanji:1 継体天皇:1 tennō:1 know:1 okimi:1 emperor:12 japan:11 accord:3 traditional:2 order:1 succession:2 titsingh:2 isaac:2 annales:2 des:1 empereurs:2 du:2 japon:2 pp:4 varley:3 paul:4 jinnō:3 shōtōki:3 firm:1 date:2 assign:2 life:2 reign:1 consider:1 rule:1 country:1 early:3 century:2 paucity:1 information:2 insufficient:1 material:1 available:1 verification:1 study:2 difference:1 record:2 find:1 kojiki:4 nihon:5 shoki:5 put:3 birth:2 year:4 die:4 april:1 correspond:1 lunisolar:1 calendar:1 use:1 call:3 ōdo:2 mikoto:3 袁本杼命:1 hand:1 february:1 kimi:6 男大迹王:1 hikofuto:1 彦太尊:1 version:1 wo:1 ofu:1 ato:1 hiko:1 fudo:1 present:2 originally:1 king:2 koshi:2 small:1 tribal:1 entity:1 apparently:1 northern:2 part:2 central:1 perhaps:1 far:1 coast:1 sea:1 modern:1 reference:2 work:1 history:3 ohoto:1 aston:2 william:3 nihongi:3 vol:2 genealogy:3 son:3 immediate:1 previous:1 monarch:1 buretsu:3 without:1 successor:1 time:3 fifth:1 generation:1 grandson:5 ōjin:2 come:1 ascend:2 thrown:1 however:1 genealogical:1 tree:1 since:1 lose:2 accuracy:1 account:1 unknown:1 raise:1 doubt:1 suggest:1 change:1 dynasty:1 supplement:1 shaku:1 quote:1 text:1 jōgūki:1 say:1 ushi:1 ohi:1 great:8 ohohoto:1 brother:1 ingyō:1 consort:1 wakanuke:1 futamata:1 father:1 hikonushi:1 mother:1 furihime:1 bear:1 echizen:1 province:4 kanamura:1 recommend:1 age:1 possible:1 heir:1 yamato:2 throne:2 declare:1 ascension:1 kusuba:1 kawachi:2 day:1 shijonawate:1 osaka:2 marry:1 young:1 sister:1 princess:1 tashiraga:1 suppose:1 welcome:1 everyone:1 take:1 enter:1 near:2 political:1 center:1 later:1 rebellion:2 lead:1 iwai:1 occur:1 tsukushi:1 kyūshū:2 mononobe:1 arakahi:1 shogun:1 send:1 among:1 ankan:1 senka:1 kimmei:1 believe:1 entomb:1 amongst:1 burial:2 mound:2 city:1 fujiidera:1 gowland:1 dolmen:1 journal:1 royal:1 anthropological:1 institute:1 britain:2 ireland:2 jan:1 jun:1 note:1 george:1 chronicle:2 london:1 kegan:1 trench:1 trubner:1 reprint:1 tuttle:1 publishing:1 tokyo:1 isbn:4 brown:1 delmer:1 ichirō:1 ishida:1 ed:3 jien:1 c:1 gukanshō:2 future:1 past:1 translation:2 interpretative:1 berkeley:1 university:2 california:1 press:2 ponsonby:2 fane:1 richard:1 arthur:1 brabazon:1 imperial:2 house:1 kyoto:1 memorial:1 society:1 oclc:1 siyun:1 sai:1 rin:1 siyo:1 hayashi:1 gahō:1 nipon:2 daï:1 itsi:2 run:2 ou:1 http:1 book:2 google:1 com:1 id:1 dq:1 dai:1 de:1 paris:1 oriental:1 fund:1 h:2 kitabatake:2 chikafusa:2 god:1 sovereign:1 translate:1 new:1 york:1 columbia:1 see:1 list:1 cult:1 |@bigram succession_titsingh:1 titsingh_isaac:2 isaac_annales:1 annales_des:1 des_empereurs:1 empereurs_du:2 du_japon:2 japon_pp:1 paul_jinnō:1 jinnō_shōtōki:3 paucity_information:1 kojiki_nihon:3 nihon_shoki:5 lunisolar_calendar:1 william_nihongi:1 nihongi_vol:1 yamato_province:1 emperor_senka:1 emperor_kimmei:1 ascend_throne:1 burial_mound:2 george_nihongi:1 nihongi_chronicle:1 kegan_paul:1 trench_trubner:1 trubner_reprint:1 reprint_tuttle:1 tuttle_publishing:1 brown_delmer:1 delmer_ichirō:1 ichirō_ishida:1 ishida_ed:1 ed_jien:1 jien_c:1 gukanshō_future:1 gukanshō_interpretative:1 ponsonby_fane:1 fane_richard:1 arthur_brabazon:1 brabazon_imperial:1 kyoto_ponsonby:1 ponsonby_memorial:1 oclc_titsingh:1 ed_siyun:1 siyun_sai:1 sai_rin:1 rin_siyo:1 siyo_hayashi:1 hayashi_gahō:1 gahō_nipon:1 nipon_daï:1 daï_itsi:1 itsi_run:2 id_dq:1 dq_nipon:1 nipon_dai:1 dai_itsi:1 japon_paris:1 ireland_varley:1 varley_h:1 ed_kitabatake:1 kitabatake_chikafusa:2 chikafusa_jinnō:1 shōtōki_chronicle:1 sovereign_jinnō:1 shōtōki_kitabatake:1 chikafusa_translate:1 paul_varley:1 |
5,351 | Macro_(computer_science) | A macro (from the Greek 'μάκρο' for long or far) in computer science is a rule or pattern that specifies how a certain input sequence (often a sequence of characters) should be mapped to an output sequence (also often a sequence of characters) according to a defined procedure. The mapping process that instantiates a macro into a specific output sequence is known as macro expansion. The term originated with macro-assemblers, where the idea is to make available to the programmer a sequence of computing instructions as a single program statement, making the programming task less tedious and less error-prone. Quotation: "One of the important uses of programmer macros is to save time and clerical-type errors in writing sequence of instructions which are often repeated in the course of a program." Keyboard and mouse macros Keyboard macros and mouse macros allow short sequences of keystrokes and mouse actions to be transformed into other, usually more time-consuming, sequences of keystrokes and mouse actions. In this way, frequently-used or repetitive sequences of keystrokes and mouse movements can be automated. Separate programs for creating these macros are called macro recorders. During the 1980s, macro programs -- originally SmartKey, then SuperKey, KeyWorks, Prokey -- were very popular, first as a means to automatically format screenplays, then for a variety of user input tasks. These programs were based on the TSR (Terminate and stay resident) mode of operation and applied to all keyboard input, no matter in which context it occurred. They have to some extent fallen into obsolescence following the advent of mouse-driven user interface and the availability of keyboard and mouse macros in applications, such as word processors and spreadsheets, which makes it possible to create application-sensitive keyboard macros. Keyboard macros have in more recent times come to life as a method of exploiting the economy of massively multiplayer online role-playing game (MMORPG)s. By tirelessly performing a boring, repetitive, but low risk action, a player running a macro can earn a large amount of the game's currency. This effect is even larger when a macro-using player operates multiple accounts simultaneously, or operates the accounts for a large amount of time each day. As this money is generated without human intervention, it can dramatically upset the economy of the game by causing runaway inflation. For this reason, use of macros is a violation of the TOS or EULA of most MMORPGs, and administrators of MMORPGs fight a continual war to identify and punish macro users . Application macros and scripting Keyboard and mouse macros that are created using an application's built-in macro features are sometimes called application macros. They are created by carrying out the sequence once and letting the application record the actions. An underlying macro programming language, most commonly a Scripting language, with direct access to the features of the application may also exist. The programmers' text editor Emacs (short for "editing macros") follows this idea to a conclusion. In effect, most of the editor is made of macros. Emacs was originally devised as a set of macros in the editing language TECO; it was later ported to dialects of Lisp. Another programmer's text editor Vim (a descendant of ) also has full implementation of macros. It can record into a register (macro) what a person types on the keyboard and it can be replayed or edited just like VBA macros for Microsoft Office. Also it has a scripting language called Vimscript http://www.vim.org/scripts/index.php to create macros. http://vim.wikia.com/wiki/Macros Visual Basic for Applications (VBA) is a programming language included in Microsoft Office and some other applications. However, its function has evolved from and replaced the macro languages that were originally included in some of these applications. Macro virus VBA has access to most Microsoft Windows system calls and executes when documents are opened. This makes it relatively easy to write computer viruses in VBA, commonly known as macro viruses. In the mid-to-late 1990s, this became one of the most common types of computer virus. However, during the late 1990's and to date, Microsoft has been patching and updating their programs. In addition, current anti-virus programs immediately counteract such attacks. Text substitution macros Languages such as C and assembly language have simple macro systems, implemented as preprocessors to the compiler or assembler. C preprocessor macros work by simple textual search-and-replace at the token, rather than the character, level. A classic use of macros is in the computer typesetting system TeX and its derivatives, where most of the functionality is based on macros. MacroML is an experimental system that seeks to reconcile static typing and macro systems. Nemerle has typed syntax macros, and one productive way to think of these syntax macros is as a multi-stage computation. Other examples: M4 is a sophisticated, stand-alone, macro processor. TRAC PHP Macro Extension TAL, accompanying Template Attribute Language SMX, for web pages ml/1 The General Purpose Macroprocessor is a contextual pattern matching macro processor, which could be described as a combination of regular expressions, EBNF and AWK SAM76 Procedural macros Macros in the PL/I are written in a subset of PL/I itself: the compiler executes "preprocessor statements" at compilation time, and the output of this execution forms part of the code that is compiled. The ability to use a familiar procedural language as the macro language gives power much greater than that of text substitution macros, at the expense of a larger and slower compiler. Frame Technology's frame macros have their own command syntax but can also contain text in any language. Each frame is both a generic component in a hierarchy of nested subassemblies, and a procedure for integrating itself with its subassembly frames (a recursive process that resolves integration conflicts in favor of higher level subassemblies). The outputs are custom documents, typically compileable source modules. Frame Technology can avoid the proliferation of similar but subtly different components, an issue that has plagued software development since the invention of macros and subroutines. Most assembly languages have less powerful procedural macro facilities, for example allowing a block of code to be repeated N times for loop unrolling; but these have a completely different syntax from the actual assembly language. Lisp macros Lisp's uniform, parenthesized syntax works especially well with macros. Languages of the Lisp family, such as Common Lisp and Scheme, have powerful macro systems because the syntax is simple enough to be parsed easily. Lisp macros transform the program structure itself, with the full language available to express such transformations. Common Lisp and Scheme differ in their macro systems: Scheme's is based on pattern matching, while Common Lisp macros are functions that explicitly construct sections of the program. Being able to choose the order of evaluation (see lazy evaluation and non-strict functions) enables the creation of new syntactic constructs (e.g. control structures) indistinguishable from those built into the language. For instance, in a Lisp dialect that has cond but lacks if, it is possible to define the latter in terms of the former using macros. Macros also make it possible to define data languages that are immediately compiled into code, which means that constructs such as state machines can be implemented in a way that is both natural and efficient. Brown University Paper on Automata Macros Macros as solution to machine independent software Macros are normally used to map a short string (macro invocation) to a longer sequence of instructions. Another, less common, use of macros is to do the reverse: to map a sequence of instructions to a macro string. This was the approach taken by the STAGE2 Mobile Programming System, which used a rudimentary macro compiler (called SIMCMP) to map the specific instruction set of a given computer to counterpart machine-independent macros. Applications (notably compilers) written in these machine-independent macros can then be run without change on any computer equipped with the rudimentary macro compiler. The first application run in such a context is a more sophisticated and powerful macro compiler, written in the machine-independent macro language. This macro compiler is applied to itself, in a bootstrap fashion, to produce a compiled and much more efficient version of itself. The advantage of this approach is that complex applications can be ported from one computer to a very different computer with very little effort (for each target machine architecture, just the writing of the rudimentary macro compiler). The advent of modern programming languages, notably C, for which compilers are available on virtually all computers, has rendered such an approach superfluous. This was, however, one of the first instances (if not the first) of compiler bootstrapping. See also Hygienic macros References DM dhambhere , system programming and operating system - Tata Macgrahill. | Macro_(computer_science) |@lemmatized macro:72 greek:1 μάκρο:1 long:2 far:1 computer:9 science:1 rule:1 pattern:3 specify:1 certain:1 input:3 sequence:13 often:3 character:3 map:4 output:4 also:7 accord:1 defined:1 procedure:2 mapping:1 process:2 instantiate:1 specific:2 know:2 expansion:1 term:2 originate:1 assembler:2 idea:2 make:6 available:3 programmer:4 compute:1 instruction:5 single:1 program:11 statement:2 task:2 le:1 tedious:1 less:3 error:2 prone:1 quotation:1 one:5 important:1 us:1 save:1 time:6 clerical:1 type:4 write:5 repeat:2 course:1 keyboard:8 mouse:8 allow:2 short:3 keystroke:3 action:4 transform:2 usually:1 consuming:1 way:3 frequently:1 use:10 repetitive:2 movement:1 automate:1 separate:1 create:5 call:5 recorder:1 originally:3 smartkey:1 superkey:1 keyworks:1 prokey:1 popular:1 first:4 mean:2 automatically:1 format:1 screenplay:1 variety:1 user:3 base:3 tsr:1 terminate:1 stay:1 resident:1 mode:1 operation:1 apply:2 matter:1 context:2 occur:1 extent:1 fall:1 obsolescence:1 follow:2 advent:2 drive:1 interface:1 availability:1 application:13 word:1 processor:3 spreadsheet:1 possible:3 sensitive:1 recent:1 come:1 life:1 method:1 exploit:1 economy:2 massively:1 multiplayer:1 online:1 role:1 playing:1 game:3 mmorpg:1 tirelessly:1 perform:1 boring:1 low:1 risk:1 player:2 run:3 earn:1 large:4 amount:2 currency:1 effect:2 even:1 operate:2 multiple:1 account:2 simultaneously:1 day:1 money:1 generate:1 without:2 human:1 intervention:1 dramatically:1 upset:1 cause:1 runaway:1 inflation:1 reason:1 violation:1 tos:1 eula:1 mmorpgs:2 administrator:1 fight:1 continual:1 war:1 identify:1 punish:1 script:2 built:1 feature:2 sometimes:1 carry:1 let:1 record:2 underlying:1 programming:4 language:19 commonly:2 scripting:2 direct:1 access:2 may:1 exist:1 text:5 editor:3 emacs:2 edit:2 macros:3 conclusion:1 devise:1 set:2 editing:1 teco:1 later:1 port:2 dialect:2 lisp:9 another:2 vim:3 descendant:1 full:2 implementation:1 register:1 person:1 replay:1 like:1 vba:4 microsoft:4 office:2 vimscript:1 http:2 www:1 org:1 index:1 php:2 wikia:1 com:1 wiki:1 visual:1 basic:1 include:2 however:3 function:3 evolve:1 replace:2 languages:1 virus:5 window:1 system:10 execute:2 document:2 open:1 relatively:1 easy:1 mid:1 late:2 become:1 common:5 date:1 patch:1 update:1 addition:1 current:1 anti:1 immediately:2 counteract:1 attack:1 substitution:2 c:3 assembly:3 simple:3 implement:2 preprocessors:1 compiler:11 preprocessor:2 work:2 textual:1 search:1 token:1 rather:1 level:2 classic:1 typeset:1 tex:1 derivative:1 functionality:1 macroml:1 experimental:1 seek:1 reconcile:1 static:1 typing:1 nemerle:1 syntax:6 productive:1 think:1 multi:1 stage:1 computation:1 example:2 sophisticated:2 stand:1 alone:1 trac:1 extension:1 tal:1 accompany:1 template:1 attribute:1 smx:1 web:1 page:1 ml:1 general:1 purpose:1 macroprocessor:1 contextual:1 match:1 could:1 describe:1 combination:1 regular:1 expression:1 ebnf:1 awk:1 procedural:3 pl:2 subset:1 compilation:1 execution:1 form:1 part:1 code:3 compile:2 ability:1 familiar:1 give:2 power:1 much:2 great:1 expense:1 slow:1 frame:5 technology:2 command:1 contain:1 generic:1 component:2 hierarchy:1 nested:1 subassemblies:2 integrate:1 subassembly:1 recursive:1 resolve:1 integration:1 conflict:1 favor:1 high:1 custom:1 typically:1 compileable:1 source:1 module:1 avoid:1 proliferation:1 similar:1 subtly:1 different:3 issue:1 plague:1 software:2 development:1 since:1 invention:1 subroutine:1 powerful:3 facility:1 block:1 n:1 loop:1 unrolling:1 completely:1 actual:1 uniform:1 parenthesized:1 especially:1 well:1 family:1 scheme:3 enough:1 parse:1 easily:1 structure:2 express:1 transformation:1 differ:1 matching:1 explicitly:1 construct:3 section:1 able:1 choose:1 order:1 evaluation:2 see:2 lazy:1 non:1 strict:1 enable:1 creation:1 new:1 syntactic:1 e:1 g:1 control:1 indistinguishable:1 build:1 instance:2 cond:1 lack:1 define:2 latter:1 former:1 data:1 state:1 machine:6 natural:1 efficient:2 brown:1 university:1 paper:1 automaton:1 solution:1 independent:4 normally:1 string:2 invocation:1 reverse:1 approach:3 take:1 mobile:1 rudimentary:3 simcmp:1 counterpart:1 notably:2 change:1 equip:1 bootstrap:1 fashion:1 produce:1 compiled:1 version:1 advantage:1 complex:1 little:1 effort:1 target:1 architecture:1 writing:1 modern:1 virtually:1 render:1 superfluous:1 bootstrapping:1 hygienic:1 reference:1 dm:1 dhambhere:1 operating:1 tata:1 macgrahill:1 |@bigram user_interface:1 massively_multiplayer:1 multiplayer_online:1 http_www:1 index_php:1 macro_virus:2 microsoft_window:1 static_typing:1 pattern_matching:1 lazy_evaluation:1 |
5,352 | Daniel_Defoe | Daniel Defoe (c. 1659-1661 — 24 April 1731 According to Paul Duguid in "Limits of self organization", First Monday (September 11, 2006): "Most reliable sources hold that the date Defoe’s his birth was uncertain and may have fallen in 1659 or 1661. The day of his death is also uncertain." ), born Daniel Foe, was an English writer, journalist, and pamphleteer, who gained enduring fame for his novel Robinson Crusoe. Defoe is notable for being one of the earliest practitioners of the novel, as he helped to popularise the form in Britain, and is even referred to by some as one of the founders of the English novel. Schwanitz: "Bildung: alles, was man wissen muss", edited by Eichborn, Frankfurt 1999. A prolific and versatile writer, he wrote more than five hundred books, pamphlets, and journals on various topics (including politics, crime, religion, marriage, psychology and the supernatural). He was also a pioneer of economic journalism. Biography Early life Daniel Foe (his original name) was probably born in the parish of St. Giles Cripplegate, London. (Daniel later added the aristocratic sounding "De" to his name and on occasion claimed descent from the family of De Beau Faux.) Both the date and the place of his birth are uncertain with sources often giving dates of 1659 to 1661. His father, James Foe, though a member of the Butchers' Company, was a tallow chandler. In Daniel's early life he experienced first-hand some of the most unusual occurrences in English history: in 1664, when Defoe was probably about four years old, a Dutch fleet sailed up the River Thames and attacked London. In 1665 70,000 were killed by the plague. On top of all these catastrophes, the Great Fire of London (1666) hit Defoe's neighbourhood hard, leaving only his and two other homes standing in the area. West, Richard. Daniel Defoe: The Life and Strange, Surprising Adventures. New York: Carroll & Graf Publishers. 1998. ISBN 978-0786705573 All of this happened before Defoe was around seven years old, and by the age of about thirteen, Defoe's mother had died. Richetti, John J. The Life of Daniel Defoe. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing, 2005. His parents were Presbyterian dissenters; he was educated in a Dissenting Academy at Newington Green run by Charles Morton (later vice-president of Harvard University), and is believed to have attended the church there "Defoe in Stoke Newington". Arthur Secord, P.M.L.A. Vol. 66, p. 211, 1951. Cited in Thorncroft, p9, who identifies him as "an American scholar". . Although Defoe was a Christian himself, he decided not to become a dissenting minister, and entered the world of business as a general merchant, dealing at different times in hosiery, general woollen goods, and wine. Though his ambitions were great and he bought both a country estate and a ship (as well as civet cats to make perfume), he was rarely free of debt. In 1684, Defoe married a woman by the name of Mary Tuffley, receiving a dowry of £3,700. With his recurring debts, their marriage was most likely a difficult one. They had eight children, six of whom survived. In 1685, he joined the ill-fated Monmouth Rebellion, but gained a pardon by which he escaped the Bloody Assizes of Judge George Jeffreys. In 1692, Defoe was arrested for payments of £700 (and his civets were seized), though his total debts may have amounted to £17,000. His laments were loud, and he always defended unfortunate debtors, but there is evidence that his financial dealings were not always honest. Following his release, he probably traveled in Europe and Scotland, and it may have been at this time that he traded in wine to Cadiz, Porto, and Lisbon. By 1695 he was back in England, using the name "Defoe", and serving as a "commissioner of the glass duty", responsible for collecting the tax on bottles. In 1696, he was operating a tile and brick factory in what is now Tilbury, Essex and living in the parish of Chadwell St Mary. Pamphleteering and prison Defoe's first notable publication was An Essay upon Projects, a series of proposals for social and economic improvement, published in 1697. From 1697 to 1698, he defended the right of King William III to a standing army during disarmament after the Treaty of Ryswick (1697) had ended the War of the Grand Alliance (1689–97). His most successful poem, The True-Born Englishman (1697), defended the king against the perceived xenophobia of his enemies, satirising the English claim to racial purity. In 1701, Defoe, flanked by a guard of sixteen gentlemen of quality, presented the Legion's Memorial to the Speaker of the House of Commons, later his employer, Robert Harley. It demanded the release of the Kentish petitioners, who had asked Parliament to support the king in an imminent war against France. Defoe's pamphleteering and political activities resulted in his arrest and placement in a pillory on July 31, 1703, principally on account of a pamphlet entitled "The Shortest Way with the Dissenters", purporting to argue for their extermination. In it he ruthlessly satirised both the High church Tories and those Dissenters who hypocritically practiced so-called "occasional conformity", such as his Stoke Newington neighbour Sir Thomas Abney. However, according to legend, the publication of his poem Hymn to the Pillory caused his audience at the pillory to throw flowers instead of the customary harmful and noxious objects, and to drink to his health. The historicity of this story, however, is questioned by most scholars, although the scholar J. R. Moore later said that “no man in England but Defoe ever stood in the pillory and later rose to eminence among his fellow men.” Thomas Cochrane, the 10th Earl of Dundonald and famous Royal Navy officer, was sentenced to the pillory, but was excused for fear his popularity would cause a riot. "Wherever God erects a house of prayer the Devil always builds a chapel there; And 't will be found, upon examination, the latter has the largest congregation." — Defoe's The True-Born Englishman, 1701 After his three days in the pillory, Defoe went into Newgate Prison. Robert Harley, 1st Earl of Oxford and Mortimer, brokered his release in exchange for Defoe's co-operation as an intelligence agent. Within a week of his release from prison, Defoe witnessed the Great Storm of 1703, which raged from 26 to 27 November, the only true hurricane ever to have made it over the Atlantic Ocean to the British Isles at full strength. It caused severe damage to London and Bristol, uprooted millions of trees, and over 8,000 people lost their lives, mostly at sea. The event became the subject of Defoe's The Storm (1704), a collection of eyewitness accounts of the tempest. The Storm: or, a collection of the most remarkable casualties and disasters which happen'd in the late dreadful tempest, both by sea and land. London: 1704. In the same year he set up his periodical A Review of the Affairs of France, which supported the Harley ministry, chronicling the events of the War of the Spanish Succession (1702–14). The Review ran tri-weekly without interruption until 1713. When Harley was ousted from the ministry in 1708 Defoe continued writing it to support Godolphin, then again to support Harley and the Tories in the Tory ministry of 1710 to 1714. After the Tories fell from power with the death of Queen Anne, it is widely thought Defoe continued doing intelligence work for the Whig government. Later life and writings The extent and particulars of Defoe's writing in the period from the Tory fall in 1714 to the publication of Robinson Crusoe in 1719 is widely contested. Defoe comments on the tendency to attribute author-less tracts to him in his self-vindicatory Appeal to Honour and Justice (1715), a defence of his part in Harley's Tory ministry (1710 – 14). Other works that are thought to anticipate his novelistic career include: The Family Instructor (1715), an immensely successful conduct manual on religious duty; Minutes of the Negotiations of Monsr. Mesnager (1717), in which he impersonates Nicolas Mesnager, the French plenipotentiary who negotiated the Treaty of Utrecht (1713); and A Continuation of the Letters Writ by a Turkish Spy (1718), a satire on European politics and religion, professedly written by a Muslim in Paris. Memorial to "Daniel De-Foe", Bunhill Fields, City Road, London. From 1719 to 1724, Defoe published the novels for which he is now famous (see below). In the final decade of his life, he also wrote conduct manuals, including Religious Courtship (1722), The Complete English Tradesman (1726), and The New Family Instructor (1727). He published a number of books decrying the breakdown of the social order, such as The Great Law of Subordination Considered (1724) and Everybody's Business is Nobody's Business (1725), and works on the supernatural, like The Political History of the Devil (1726), A System of Magick (1726), and An Essay on the History and Reality of Apparitions (1727). His works on foreign travel and trade include A General History of Discoveries and Improvements (1727) and Atlas Maritimus and Commercialis (1728). Perhaps his greatest achievement alongside the novels is the magisterial A tour thro' the Whole Island of Great Britain (1724 – 27), which provided a panoramic survey of British trade on the eve of the Industrial Revolution. Daniel Defoe died on April 26, 1731, probably whilst in hiding from his creditors. He was interred in Bunhill Fields, London, where his grave can still be visited. Novels Defoe's famous novel Robinson Crusoe (1719) tells of a man's shipwreck on a deserted island and his subsequent adventures. The author may have based part of his narrative on the true story of the Scottish castaway Alexander Selkirk. He may have also been inspired by the Latin or English translation of Abubacer's Philosophus Autodidactus, an earlier novel also set on a desert island. Nawal Muhammad Hassan (1980), Hayy bin Yaqzan and Robinson Crusoe: A study of an early Arabic impact on English literature, Al-Rashid House for Publication. Cyril Glasse (2001), New Encyclopedia of Islam, p. 202, Rowman Altamira, ISBN 0759101906. Amber Haque (2004), "Psychology from Islamic Perspective: Contributions of Early Muslim Scholars and Challenges to Contemporary Muslim Psychologists", Journal of Religion and Health 43 (4): 357-377 [369]. Martin Wainwright, Desert island scripts, The Guardian, 22 March 2003. Tim Severin's book Seeking Robinson Crusoe (2002) unravels a much wider range of potential sources of inspiration for Robinson Crusoe. Severin concludes his thorough investigations by stating that the real Robinson Crusoe figure was a castaway surgeon to the Duke of Monmouth named Henry Pitman. Pitman's short book about his real-life desperate escape from a Caribbean penal colony for his part in the Monmouth Rebellion, his shipwrecking and subsequent desert island misadventures, was published by J.Taylor of Paternoster Street, London, whose son William Taylor later published Defoe's novel. Severin argues that since Pitman appears to have lived in the lodgings above the father's publishing house and that Defoe himself was a mercer in the area at the time, Defoe may have met Pitman in person and learnt of his real-life experiences as a castaway first-hand. If he didn't meet Pitman directly, Severin points out, Defoe, upon submitting even a mere draft of a novel about a castaway to his publisher, would undoubtedly have learnt about Pitman's book published by his father, especially since the interesting castaway had previously lodged with them at their former premises. Severin also provides sufficient evidence in his book that another publicised case William Dampier, A New Voyage round the World, 1697 . of a real-life marooned Miskito Central American man named only as Will may have caught Defoe's attention, which led to the depiction of Man Friday, in his novel. "One day, about noon, going towards my boat, I was exceedingly surprised with the print of a man's naked foot on the shore, which was very plain to be seen on the sand." — Robinson Crusoe The novel has been variously read as an allegory for the development of civilisation, as a manifesto of economic individualism, and as an expression of European colonial desires. But it also shows the importance of repentance and illustrates the strength of Defoe's religious convictions. Early critics, such as Robert Louis Stevenson, admired it, saying that the footprint scene in Crusoe was one of the four greatest in English literature, and most unforgettable. It has inspired a new genre, the Robinsonade, as works like Johann Wyss's The Swiss Family Robinson (1812) adapt its basic premise, and has provoked modern postcolonial responses, including J. M. Coetzee's Foe (1986), and Michel Tournier's Vendredi ou les limbes du Pacifique (in English, Friday) (1967). Two sequels followed, Defoe's Farther Adventures (1719) and his Serious Reflections (1720). Jonathan Swift's Gulliver's Travels (1726) in part parodies Defoe's adventure novel. Defoe's next novel was Captain Singleton (1720), a bipartite adventure story whose first half covers a traversal of Africa, and whose second half taps into the contemporary fascination with piracy. It has been commended for its depiction of the homosexual relationship between the eponymous hero and his religious mentor, the Quaker, William Walters. Colonel Jack (1722) follows an orphaned boy from a life of poverty and crime to colonial prosperity, military and marital imbroglios, and religious conversion, always guided by a quaint and misguided notion of becoming a gentleman. Also in 1722, Defoe wrote Moll Flanders, another first-person picaresque novel of the fall and eventual redemption of a lone woman in seventeenth century England. The titular heroine appears as a whore, bigamist and thief, lives in The Mint, commits adultery and incest, yet manages to keep the reader's sympathy. Moll Flanders and Defoe's final novel Roxana: The Fortunate Mistress (1724) are examples of the remarkable way in which Defoe seems to inhabit his fictional (yet "drawn from life") characters, not least in that they are women. The latter narrates the moral and spiritual decline of a high society courtesan. A work that is often read as if it were non-fiction is his account of the Great Plague of London in 1665: A Journal of the Plague Year, a complex historical novel published in 1722. In November 1703, a hurricane-like storm hit London, now known as The Great Storm. (It remains one of the greatest storms in British history.) Yet another of the remarkable events in Defoe's life, the storm was the subject of his book The Storm. Defoe describes the aftermath of the incident this way: “The streets lay so covered with tiles and slates from the tops of the houses [. . .] that all the tiles in fifty miles round would be able to repair but a small part of it." Later, Defoe also wrote Memoirs of a Cavalier (1720), set during the Thirty Years War and the English Civil Wars. Defoe and the Anglo-Scottish Union of 1707 No fewer than 545 titles, ranging from satirical poems, political and religious pamphlets and volumes have been ascribed to Defoe (Note: in their Critical Bibliography (1998), Furbank and Owens argue for the much smaller number of 276 published items). His ambitious business ventures saw him bankrupt by 1692, with a wife and seven children to support. In 1703, he published a satirical pamphlet against the High Tories and in favour of religious tolerance entitled A short way with Dissenters. As has happened with ironical writings before and since, this pamphlet was widely misunderstood, but eventually its author was prosecuted for seditious libel, sentenced to be pilloried, fined 200 marks, and be detained at the Queen's pleasure. In despair, he wrote to William Paterson, the London Scot, and founder of the Bank of England and part instigator of the Darien scheme, who was in the confidence of Robert Harley, 1st Earl of Oxford and Mortimer, leading Minister and spymaster in the English Government. Harley accepted Defoe's services and released him in 1703. He immediately published The Review, which appeared weekly, then three times a week, written mostly by himself. This was the main mouthpiece of the English Government promoting the Act of Union 1707. Defoe began his campaign in The Review and other pamphlets aimed at English opinion, claiming that it would end the threat from the north, gaining for the Treasury an "inexhaustible treasury of men", a valuable new market increasing the power of England. By September 1706 Harley ordered Defoe to Edinburgh as a secret agent, to do everything possible to help secure acquiescence of the Treaty. He was very conscious of the risk to himself. Thanks to books such The Letters of Daniel Defoe, (edited by GH Healey, Oxford 1955) which are readily available far more is known about his activities than is usual with such agents. His first reports were of vivid descriptions of violent demonstrations against the Union. "A Scots rabble is the worst of its kind," he reported. Years later John Clerk of Penicuik, a leading Unionist, wrote in his memoirs that, Defoe, being a Presbyterian who suffered in England for his convictions, was accepted as an adviser to the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland and committees of the Parliament of Scotland. He told Harley that he was "privy to all their folly", but "Perfectly unsuspected as with corresponding with anybody in England". He was then able to influence the proposals that were put to Parliament and reported back: For Scotland he used different arguments, even the opposite of those he used in England, for example, usually ignoring the English doctrine of the Sovereignty of Parliament, telling the Scots that they could have complete confidence in the guarantees in the Treaty. Some of his pamphlets were purported to be written by Scots, misleading even reputable historians into quoting them as evidence of Scottish opinion of the time. The same is true of a massive history of the Union which Defoe published in 1709 and which some historians still treat as a valuable contemporary source for their own works. Defoe took pains to give his history an air of objectivity by giving some space to arguments against the Union, but always having the last word for himself. He disposed of the main Union opponent, Andrew Fletcher of Saltoun, by just ignoring him. Nor does he account for the deviousness of the Duke of Hamilton, the official leader of the various factions opposed to the Union, who seemingly betrayed his former colleagues when he switched to the Unionist/Government side in the decisive final stages of the debate. Defoe made no attempt to explain why the same Parliament of Scotland which was so vehement for its independence from 1703 to 1705 became so supine in 1706. He received very little reward from his paymasters and, of course, no recognition for his services by the government. He made use of his Scottish experience to write his Tour thro' the whole Island of Great Britain, published in 1726, where he actually admitted that the increase of trade and population in Scotland, which he had predicted as a consequence of the Union, was "not the case, but rather the contrary". Defoe's description of Glasgow (Glaschu) as a "Dear Green Place" has often been misquoted as a Gaelic translation for the town. The Gaelic Glas could mean grey or green, chu means dog or hollow. Glaschu probably actually means 'Green Hollow'. The "Dear Green Place", like much of Scotland, was a hotbed of unrest against the Union. The local Tron minister urged his congregation "to up and anent for the City of God". The 'Dear Green Place' and "City of God" required government troops to put down the rioters tearing up copies of the Treaty, as at almost every mercat cross in Scotland. When Defoe revisited in the mid 1720s, he claimed that the hostility towards his party was, "because they were English and because of the Union, which they were almost universally exclaimed against". Works Novels Captain Singleton Robinson Crusoe The Farther Adventures of Robinson Crusoe A Journal of the Plague Year Memoirs of a Cavalier Moll Flanders Roxana: The Fortunate Mistress Atalantis Major Essays Serious Reflections of Robinson Crusoe See also English Dissenters Libertatia Conjugal Lewdness References Bibliography Daniel Defoe, A General History of the Pyrates ISBN 0-486-40488-9 (Dover Publications, 1999) (contains the text on Libertatia, a pirate utopia) Daniel Defoe, The Storm ISBN 0-14-143992-0 Penguin Classics, 2005 A tour thro' the Whole Island of Great Britain, 1724 – 27 Daniel Defoe, a biography by William Minto for the "English Men of Letters" series. Trust in Freedom: The Story of Newington Green Unitarian Church 1708 - 1958 by Michael Thorncroft. Privately printed for church trustees, 1958. Chapter titles: The Fertile Soil; The Church is Built; The Early Years (1714-1758); The Age of Richard Price; New Causes for Old; The Ideal of Service; The Lights Go Out; The Present Day. External links Daniel Defoe fiction at The Literature Network Full online versions of various copies of Defoe's Robinson Crusoe and the Robinsonades An account of his life and works Full texts in German and English - eLibrary Projekt (eLib) The Journeys of Daniel Defoe around Britain (from a Vision of Britain) | Daniel_Defoe |@lemmatized daniel:15 defoe:63 c:1 april:2 accord:2 paul:1 duguid:1 limit:1 self:2 organization:1 first:7 monday:1 september:2 reliable:1 source:4 hold:1 date:3 birth:2 uncertain:3 may:7 fall:3 day:4 death:2 also:10 bear:3 foe:5 english:18 writer:2 journalist:1 pamphleteer:1 gain:3 endure:1 fame:1 novel:18 robinson:13 crusoe:13 notable:2 one:6 early:8 practitioner:1 help:2 popularise:1 form:1 britain:6 even:4 refer:1 founder:2 schwanitz:1 bildung:1 alles:1 man:6 wissen:1 mus:1 edit:2 eichborn:1 frankfurt:1 prolific:1 versatile:1 write:12 five:1 hundred:1 book:8 pamphlet:7 journal:4 various:3 topic:1 include:5 politics:2 crime:2 religion:3 marriage:2 psychology:2 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5,353 | Modulation | In telecommunications, modulation is the process of varying a periodic waveform, i.e. a tone, in order to use that signal to convey a message, in a similar fashion as a musician may modulate the tone from a musical instrument by varying its volume, timing and pitch. Normally a high-frequency sinusoid waveform is used as carrier signal. The three key parameters of a sine wave are its amplitude ("volume"), its phase ("timing") and its frequency ("pitch"), all of which can be modified in accordance with a low frequency information signal to obtain the modulated signal. A device that performs modulation is known as a modulator and a device that performs the inverse operation of modulation is known as a demodulator (sometimes detector or demod). A device that can do both operations is a modem (short for "Modulator-Demodulator"). Aim The aim of digital modulation is to transfer a digital bit stream over an analog bandpass channel, for example over the public switched telephone network (where a filter limits the frequency range to between 300 and 3400 Hz) or a limited radio frequency band. The aim of analog modulation is to transfer an analog lowpass signal, for example an audio signal or TV signal, over an analog bandpass channel, for example a limited radio frequency band or a cable TV network channel. Analog and digital modulation facilitate frequency division multiplexing (FDM), where several low pass information signals are transferred simultaneously over the same shared physical medium, using separate bandpass channels. The aim of digital baseband modulation methods, also known as line coding, is to transfer a digital bit stream over a lowpass channel, typically a non-filtered copper wire such as a serial bus or a wired local area network. The aim of pulse modulation methods is to transfer a narrowband analog signal, for example a phone call over a wideband lowpass channel or, in some of the schemes, as a bit stream over another digital transmission system. Analog modulation methods In analog modulation, the modulation is applied continuously in response to the analog information signal. A low-frequency message signal (top) may be carried by an AM or FM radio wave. Common analog modulation techniques are: Amplitude modulation (AM) (here the amplitude of the modulated signal is varied) Double-sideband modulation (DSB) Double-sideband modulation with unsuppressed carrier (DSB-WC) (used on the AM radio broadcasting band) Double-sideband suppressed-carrier transmission (DSB-SC) Double-sideband reduced carrier transmission (DSB-RC) Single-sideband modulation (SSB, or SSB-AM), SSB with carrier (SSB-WC) SSB suppressed carrier modulation (SSB-SC) Vestigial sideband modulation (VSB, or VSB-AM) Quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) Angle modulation Frequency modulation (FM) (here the frequency of the modulated signal is varied) Phase modulation (PM) (here the phase shift of the modulated signal is varied) Digital modulation methods In digital modulation, an analog carrier signal is modulated by a digital bit stream. Digital modulation methods can be considered as digital-to-analog conversion, and the corresponding demodulation or detection as analog-to-digital conversion. The changes in the carrier signal are chosen from a finite number of M alternative symbols (the modulation alphabet). A simple example: A telephone line is designed for transferring audible sounds, for example tones, and not digital bits (zeros and ones). Computers may however communicate over a telephone line by means of modems, which are representing the digital bits by tones, called symbols. If there are four alternative symbols (corresponding to a musical instrument that can generate four different tones, one at a time), the first symbol may represent the bit sequence 00, the second 01, the third 10 and the fourth 11. If the modem plays a melody consisting of 1000 tones per second, the symbol rate is 1000 symbols/second, or baud. Since each tone represents a message consisting of two digital bits in this example, the bit rate is twice the symbol rate, i.e. 2000 bit per second. According to one definition of digital signal, the modulated signal is a digital signal, and according to another definition, the modulation is a form of digital-to-analog conversion. Most textbooks would consider digital modulation schemes as a form of digital transmission, synonymous to data transmission; very few would consider it as analog transmission. Fundamental digital modulation methods These are the most fundamental digital modulation techniques: In the case of PSK, a finite number of phases are used. In the case of FSK, a finite number of frequencies are used. In the case of ASK, a finite number of amplitudes are used. In the case of QAM, a finite number of at least two phases, and at least two amplitudes are used. In QAM, an inphase signal (the I signal, for example a cosine waveform) and a quadrature phase signal (the Q signal, for example a sine wave) are amplitude modulated with a finite number of amplitudes, and summed. It can be seen as a two-channel system, each channel using ASK. The resulting signal is equivalent to a combination of PSK and ASK. In all of the above methods, each of these phases, frequencies or amplitudes are assigned a unique pattern of binary bits. Usually, each phase, frequency or amplitude encodes an equal number of bits. This number of bits comprises the symbol that is represented by the particular phase. If the alphabet consists of alternative symbols, each symbol represents a message consisting of N bits. If the symbol rate (also known as the baud rate) is symbols/second (or baud), the data rate is bit/second. For example, with an alphabet consisting of 16 alternative symbols, each symbol represents 4 bits. Thus, the data rate is four times the baud rate. In the case of PSK, ASK or QAM, where the carrier frequency of the modulated signal is constant, the modulation alphabet is often conveniently represented on a constellation diagram, showing the amplitude of the I signal at the x-axis, and the amplitude of the Q signal at the y-axis, for each symbol. Modulator and detector principles of operation PSK and ASK, and sometimes also FSK, are often generated and detected using the principle of QAM. The I and Q signals can be combined into a complex-valued signal I+jQ (where j is the imaginary unit). The resulting so called equivalent lowpass signal or equivalent baseband signal is a representation of the real-valued modulated physical signal (the so called passband signal or RF signal). These are the general steps used by the modulator to transmit data: Group the incoming data bits into codewords, one for each symbol that will be transmitted. Map the codewords to attributes, for example amplitudes of the I and Q signals (the equivalent low pass signal), or frequency or phase values. Adapt pulse shaping or some other filtering to limit the bandwidth and form the spectrum of the equivalent low pass signal, typically using digital signal processing. Perform digital-to-analog conversion (DAC) of the I and Q signals (since today all of the above is normally achieved using digital signal processing, DSP). Generate a high-frequency sine wave carrier waveform, and perhaps also a cosine quadrature component. Carry out the modulation, for example by multiplying the sine and cosine wave form with the I and Q signals, resulting in that the equivalent low pass signal is frequency shifted into a modulated passband signal or RF signal. Sometimes this is achieved using DSP technology, for example direct digital synthesis using a waveform table, instead of analog signal processing. In that case the above DAC step should be done after this step. Amplification and analog bandpass filtering to avoid harmonic distortion and periodic spectrum At the receiver side, the demodulator typically performs: Bandpass filtering. Automatic gain control, AGC (to compensate for attenuation, for example fading). Frequency shifting of the RF signal to the equivalent baseband I and Q signals, or to an intermediate frequency (IF) signal, by multiplying the RF signal with a local oscillator sinewave and cosine wave frequency (see the superheterodyne receiver principle). Sampling and analog-to-digital conversion (ADC) (Sometimes before or instead of the above point, for example by means of undersampling). Equalization filtering, for example a matched filter, compensation for multipath propagation, time spreading, phase distortion and frequency selective fading, to avoid intersymbol interference and symbol distortion. Detection of the amplitudes of the I and Q signals, or the frequency or phase of the IF signal. Quantization of the amplitudes, frequencies or phases to the nearest allowed symbol values. Mapping of the quantized amplitudes, frequencies or phases to codewords (bit groups). Parallel-to-serial conversion of the codewords into a bit stream. Pass the resultant bit stream on for further processing such as removal of any error-correcting codes. As is common to all digital communication systems, the design of both the modulator and demodulator must be done simultaneously. Digital modulation schemes are possible because the transmitter-receiver pair have prior knowledge of how data is encoded and represented in the communications system. In all digital communication systems, both the modulator at the transmitter and the demodulator at the receiver are structured so that they perform inverse operations. Non-coherent modulation methods do not require a receiver reference clock signal that is phase synchronized with the sender carrier wave. In this case, modulation symbols (rather than bits, characters, or data packets) are asynchronously transferred. The opposite is coherent modulation. List of common digital modulation techniques The most common digital modulation techniques are: Phase-shift keying (PSK): Binary PSK (BPSK), using M=2 symbols Quadrature PSK (QPSK), using M=4 symbols 8PSK, using M=8 symbols 16PSK, usign M=16 symbols Differential PSK (DPSK) Differential QPSK (DQPSK) Offset QPSK (OQPSK) π/4–QPSK Frequency-shift keying (FSK): Audio frequency-shift keying (AFSK) Multi-frequency shift keying (M-ary FSK or MFSK) Dual-tone multi-frequency (DTMF) Continuous-phase frequency-shift keying (CPFSK) Amplitude-shift keying (ASK) On-off keying (OOK), the most common ASK form M-ary vestigial sideband modulation, for example 8VSB Quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) - a combination of PSK and ASK: Polar modulation like QAM a combination of PSK and ASK. Continuous phase modulation (CPM) methods: Minimum-shift keying (MSK) Gaussian minimum-shift keying (GMSK) Orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) modulation: discrete multitone (DMT) - including adaptive modulation and bit-loading. Wavelet modulation Trellis coded modulation (TCM), also known as trellis modulation Spread-spectrum techniques: Direct-sequence spread spectrum (DSSS) Chirp spread spectrum (CSS) according to IEEE 802.15.4a CSS uses pseudo-stochastic coding Frequency-hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) applies a special scheme for channel release MSK and GMSK are particular cases of continuous phase modulation. Indeed, MSK is a particular case of the sub-family of CPM known as continuous-phase frequency-shift keying (CPFSK) which is defined by a rectangular frequency pulse (i.e. a linearly increasing phase pulse) of one symbol-time duration (total response signaling). OFDM is based on the idea of frequency division multiplexing (FDM), but is utilized as a digital modulation scheme. The bit stream is split into several parallel data streams, each transferred over its own sub-carrier using some conventional digital modulation scheme. The modulated sub-carriers are summed to form an OFDM signal. OFDM is considered as a modulation technique rather than a multiplex technique, since it transfers one bit stream over one communication channel using one sequence of so-called OFDM symbols. OFDM can be extended to multi-user channel access method in the Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access (OFDMA) and MC-CDMA schemes, allowing several users to share the same physical medium by giving different sub-carriers or spreading codes to different users. Of the two kinds of RF power amplifier, switching amplifiers (Class C amplifiers) cost less and use less battery power than linear amplifiers of the same output power. However, they only work with relatively constant-amplitude-modulation signals such as angle modulation (FSK or PSK) and CDMA, but not with QAM and OFDM. Nevertheless, even though switching amplifiers are completely unsuitable for normal QAM constellations, often the QAM modulation principle are used to drive switching amplifiers with these FM and other waveforms, and sometimes QAM demodulators are used to receive the signals put out by these switching amplifiers. Digital baseband modulation or line coding The term digital baseband modulation (or digital baseband transmission) is synonymous to line codes. These are methods to transfer a digital bit stream over an analog baseband channel (a.k.a. lowpass channel) using a pulse train, i.e. a discrete number of signal levels, by directly modulating the voltage or current on a cable. Common examples are unipolar, non-return-to-zero (NRZ), Manchester and alternate mark inversion (AMI) coding. Pulse modulation methods Pulse modulation schemes aim at transferring a narrowband analog signal over an analog lowpass channel as a two-level signal by modulating a pulse wave. Some pulse modulation schemes also allow the narrowband analog signal to be transferred as a digital signal (i.e. as a quantized discrete-time signal) with a fixed bit rate, which can be transferred over an underlying digital transmission system, for example some line code. These are not modulation schemes in the conventional sense since they are not channel coding schemes, but should be considered as source coding schemes, and in some cases analog-to-digital conversion techniques. Analog-over-analog methods: Pulse-amplitude modulation (PAM) Pulse-width modulation (PWM) Pulse-position modulation (PPM) Analog-over-digital methods: Pulse-code modulation (PCM) Differential PCM (DPCM) Adaptive DPCM (ADPCM) Delta modulation (DM or Δ-modulation) Sigma-delta modulation (∑Δ) Continuously variable slope delta modulation (CVSDM), also called Adaptive-delta modulation (ADM) Pulse-density modulation (PDM) Miscellaneous modulation techniques The use of on-off keying to transmit Morse code at radio frequencies is known as continuous wave (CW) operation. Adaptive modulation Space modulation A method whereby signals are modulated within airspace, such as that used in Instrument landing systems. See also Demodulation Electrical resonance Modulation order Types of radio emissions Communications channel Channel access methods Channel coding Line code Telecommunication Modem RF modulator Codec Ring modulation References be-x-old:Мадуляцыя | Modulation |@lemmatized telecommunication:2 modulation:75 process:1 vary:5 periodic:2 waveform:6 e:5 tone:8 order:2 use:26 signal:63 convey:1 message:4 similar:1 fashion:1 musician:1 may:4 modulate:6 musical:2 instrument:3 volume:2 timing:1 pitch:2 normally:2 high:2 frequency:36 sinusoid:1 carrier:14 three:1 key:3 parameter:1 sine:4 wave:9 amplitude:20 phase:21 time:6 modify:1 accordance:1 low:6 information:3 obtain:1 modulated:9 device:3 performs:1 know:7 modulator:7 perform:4 inverse:2 operation:5 demodulator:6 sometimes:5 detector:2 demod:1 modem:4 short:1 aim:6 digital:42 transfer:13 bit:25 stream:10 analog:27 bandpass:5 channel:18 example:19 public:1 switch:5 telephone:3 network:3 filter:5 limit:2 range:1 hz:1 limited:2 radio:6 band:3 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5,354 | Arbitration_in_the_United_States | Arbitration, in the context of United States law, is a form of alternative dispute resolution — specifically, a legal alternative to litigation whereby the parties to a dispute agree to submit their respective positions (through agreement or hearing) to a neutral third party (the arbitrator(s) or arbiter(s)) for resolution. In practice arbitration is generally used as a substitute for judicial systems, particularly when the judicial processes are viewed as too slow, expensive or biased. Arbitration is also used by communities which lack formal law, as a substitute for formal law. Arbitration may also serve a distinct purpose: as an alternative to strikes and lockouts as a means of resolving labor disputes. Labor arbitration comes in two varieties: interest arbitration, which provides a method for resolving disputes about the terms to be included in a new contract when the parties are unable to agree, and grievance arbitration, which provides a method for resolving disputes over the interpretation and application of a collective bargaining agreement. Species of Arbitration Commercial and other forms of contract arbitration Agreements to arbitrate were not enforceable at common law, though once the parties had actually submitted a pending dispute to an arbitrator, the arbitrator's judgment was usually enforceable. The reasoning for this was that the power of the arbitrator arose solely from the mutual consent of the parties to his jurisdiction; but by the time a dispute reached the point that one party wished to take it to an arbitrator, the other often preferred to take their chances in court instead. Thus, without the consent of both parties to his jurisdiction, the arbitrator lacked the power to decide the case. During the Industrial Revolution, large corporations became increasingly opposed to this policy. They argued that too many valuable business relationships were being destroyed through years of expensive adversarial litigation, in courts whose rules differed significantly from the informal norms and conventions of businesspeople (the private law of commerce, or jus merchant). Arbitration was promoted as being faster, less adversarial, and cheaper. The result was the New York Arbitration Act of 1920, followed by the United States Arbitration Act of 1925. Both made agreements to arbitrate valid and enforceable (unless one party could show fraud or unconscionability or some other ground for rescission which undermined the validity of the entire contract). The USAA is now known as the Federal Arbitration Act. Due to the subsequent judicial expansion of the meaning of interstate commerce, the U.S. Supreme Court reinterpreted the FAA in a series of cases in the 1980s and 1990s to cover almost the full scope of interstate commerce. In the process, the Court held that the FAA preempted many state laws covering arbitration, some of which had been passed by state legislatures to protect their consumers against powerful corporations. Since commercial arbitration is based upon either contract law or the law of treaties, the agreement between the parties to submit their dispute to arbitration is a legally binding contract. All arbitral decisions are considered to be "final and binding." This does not, however, void the requirements of law. Any dispute not excluded from arbitration by virtue of law (e.g. criminal proceedings) may be submitted to arbitration. Labor arbitration Arbitration has also been used as a means of resolving labor disputes for more than a century. Labor organizations in the United States, such as the National Labor Union, called for arbitration as early as 1866 as an alternative to strikes to resolve disputes over the wages, benefits and other rights that workers would enjoy. Governments have also relied on arbitration to resolve particularly large labor disputes, such as the Coal Strike of 1902. This type of arbitration, wherein a neutral arbitrator decides the terms of the collective bargaining agreement, is commonly known as interest arbitration. The United Steelworkers of America adopted an elaborate form of interest arbitration, known as the Experimental Negotiating Agreement, in the 1970s as a means of avoiding the long and costly strikes that had made the industry vulnerable to foreign competition. Major League Baseball uses a variant of interest arbitration, in which an arbitrator chooses between the two sides' final offers, to set the terms for contracts for players who are not eligible for free agency. Interest arbitration is now most frequently used by public employees who have no right to strike (e.g., law enforcement and firefighters). Unions and employers have also employed arbitration to resolve employee and union grievances arising under a collective bargaining agreement. The Amalgamated Clothing Workers of America made arbitration a central element of the Protocol of Peace it negotiated with garment manufacturers in the second decade of the twentieth century. Grievance arbitration became even more popular during World War II, when most unions had adopted a no-strike pledge. The War Labor Board, which attempted to mediate disputes over contract terms, pressed for inclusion of grievance arbitration in collective bargaining agreements. The Supreme Court subsequently made labor arbitration a key aspect of federal labor policy in three cases which came to be known as the Steelworkers' Trilogy. The Court held that grievance arbitration was a preferred dispute resolution technique and that courts could not overturn arbitrators' awards unless the award does not draw its essence from the collective bargaining agreement. State and federal statutes may allow vacating an award on narrow grounds (e.g., fraud). These protections for arbitrator awards are premised on the union-management system, which provides both parties with due process. Due process in this context means that both parties have experienced representation throughout the process, and that the arbitrators practice only as neutrals. Securities arbitration In the United States securities industry, arbitration has long been the preferred method of resolving disputes between brokerage firms, and between firms and their customers. The securities industry uses a pre-dispute arbitration agreement, where the parties agree to arbitrate their disputes before any such dispute arises. Those agreements were upheld by the United States Supreme Court in Shearson v. MacMahon, 482 U.S. 220 (1987) and today nearly all disputes involving brokerage firms are resolved in arbitration. The process operates under its own rules, and is described in an article Introduction to Securities Arbitration. Securities arbitrations are held primarily by the Financial Industry Regulatory Authority ("FINRA"). Judicial arbitration Some state court systems have promulgated court-ordered arbitration; family law (particularly child custody) is the most prominent example. Judicial arbitration is often merely advisory dispute resolution technique, serving as the first step toward resolution, but not binding either side and allowing for trial de novo. Litigation attorneys present their side of the case to an independent teritary lawyer, who issues an opinion on settlement. Should the parties in question decide to continue to dispute resolution process, there can be some sanctions imposed from the initial arbitration per terms of the contract. Validity of Arbitration Clauses The validity of arbitration clauses in the US is not a settled legal matter. Arbitration clauses of companies such as Blockbuster, AT&T, and Talk America have been ruled unconscionable and, therefore, unenforceable. Douglas v. Talk America, 495 F.3d 1062 (9th Cir. 2007) Harris v. Blockbuster Inc., No. 3:09-cv-217-M (N.D. Tex. April 15, 2009) However arbitration clauses have been upheld repeatedly as well. Applebee's Proceedings Various bodies of rules have been developed that can be used for arbitration proceedings. The two most important are the UNCITRAL rules and the ICSID rules. The rules to be followed by the arbitrator are specified by the agreement establishing the arbitration. The Convention on the Recognition and Enforcement of Foreign Arbitral Awards (Done at New York, 10 June 1958; Entered into force, 7 June 1959; 330 U.N.T.S. 38, 1959) provides for the enforcement of foreign arbitral awards on the territory of the contracting parties. Similar provisions are contained in the earlier Convention on the Execution of Foreign Arbitral Awards (Done at Geneva, 26 September 1927; Entered into force, 25 July 1929; L.N.T.S. ???). Some jurisdictions have instituted a limited grace period during which an arbitral decision may be appealed against, but after which there can be no appeal. In the case of arbitration under international law, a right of appeal does not in general exist, although one may be provided for by the arbitration agreement, provided a court exists capable of hearing the appeal. When arbitration occurs under U.S. law, either party to an arbitration may appeal from the arbitrator's decision to a court, however the court will generally not change the arbitrator's findings of fact but will decide only whether the arbitrator was guilty of malfeasance, or whether the arbitrator exceeded the limits of his or her authority in the arbitral award or whether the award conflicts with positive law. The Supreme Court has described the standard of review as one of the narrowest known to Western jurisprudence. Wherever so seen, arbitration may be the best approach to the legal manners and parties involved. Arbitrators Arbitrators have wide latitude in crafting remedies in the arbitral decision, with the only real limitation being that they may not exceed the limits of their authority in their award. An example of exceeding arbitral authority might be awarding one party to a dispute the personal automobile of the other party when the dispute concerns the specific performance of a business-related contract. It is open to the parties to restrict the possible awards that the abitrator can make. If this restriction requires a straight choice between the position of one party or the position of the other, then it is known as pendulum arbitration or final offer arbitration. It is designed to encourage the parties to moderate their initial positions so as to make it more likely they receive a favourable decision. No definitive statement can be made concerning the credentials or experience levels of arbitrators, although some jurisdictions have elected to establish standards for arbitrators in certain fields. Several independent organizations, such as the American Arbitration Association and the National Arbitration Forum National Arbitration Forum , offer arbitrator training programs and thus in effect, credentials. Generally speaking, however, the credibility of an arbitrator rests upon reputation, experience level in arbitrating particular issues, or expertise/experience in a particular field. Arbitrators are generally not required to be members of the legal profession. To ensure effective arbitration and to increase the general credibility of the arbitral process, arbitrators will sometimes sit as a panel, usually consisting of three arbitrators. Often the three consist of an expert in the legal area within which the dispute falls (such as contract law in the case of a dispute over the terms and conditions of a contract), an expert in the industry within which the dispute falls (such as the construction industry, in the case of a dispute between a homeowner and his general contractor), and an experienced arbitrator. Criticism Critics of arbitration argue that contractual requirements to arbitrate can be unfair to employees or consumers who have no power to negotiate what is often a form contract. In these cases, the choice of arbiter may be spelled out in a contract. The arbitration panel may contain industry experts who may be more sympathetic to the industry than to the individual. Also, some have argued that the fact that an arbitration institute may handle many cases for a corporation while an individual rarely goes through arbitration twice may bias the arbitrators in favor of the company. The Christian Science Monitor found that the National Arbitration Forum's 10 most frequently used arbitrators – who decided almost 60 percent of the consumer-related cases heard by the National Arbitration Forum – decided in favor of the consumer only 1.6 percent of the time Consumer advocates slam credit-card arbitration, Simone Baribeau, Christian Science Monitor, July 16, 2007 at http://www.csmonitor.com/2007/0716/p13s01-wmgn.htm . The fact that most arbitral procedures are not public, and that there may be no provision for an individual to be represented by counsel, may also work to the disadvantage of the individual. These potential disadvantages make the ethics and professionalism of arbitrators even more important. Arbitration in the U.S. has also been criticized because of the unavailability of appellate review. Although the New York and federal arbitration laws were based on the English arbitration law of 1898, they omitted the English provision permitting for de novo review of questions of law. Thus, American courts can overturn arbitral rulings only for extremely gross procedural errors that violate due process, but cannot reverse most substantive errors. Unlike judicial opinions, arbitration opinions are often confidential. As a result, the law relating to activities (such as reinsurance contracts and certain types of securities industry disputes) where contracts to arbitrate are widespread may develop more slowly because the usual process of creating precedent is not available. Critics say arbitration can mean high filing fees, unqualified arbitrators, lost legal rights, limited awards and no appeals. Filing a case in state Superior Court costs from $90 to $185, depending on the amount claimed. Filing fees for arbitration can cost thousands of dollars, depending on the case and the arbitration firm. Fees for hearing rooms and the arbitrator's time can run tens of thousands of dollars more and discourage individuals from pursuing a case. In court, Judges or other judicial officers hear cases. Many arbitrators are former judges, but some are not even lawyers. Arbitrators are rarely required to follow the law and are regulated in only two states. Judges are usually assigned according to a rotation or by a presiding judge. Parties select arbitrators, usually from a list compiled by an arbitration firm. Firms offer parties various methods of striking names from the list and reducing them to one. If the parties cannot agree, the firm may designate an arbitrator. . In courts, the right to a fair process is protected by legal safeguards such as discovery, testimony and evidence rules. Court rules do not apply to arbitration, meaning the arbitrator - sometimes guided by an arbitration agreement or the rules of an arbitration firm - controls the process. Arbitration awards are generally lower than in court, and arbitration agreements sometimes limit the type of damages an individual can recover. Judges' decisions are public record and subject to appeal. Most decisions by arbitrators are confidential. They cannot be appealed and are subject to judicial review only in narrow circumstances. Critics say many arbitrators "cut the baby in half" irrespective of the merits of the parties' cases. Arbitration on TV The "judge shows" that have become popular in many countries, especially the United States, are actually binding arbitration. The most famous example is The People's Court. Arbitration Fairness Act Most recently Senators Russ Feingold of Wisconsin and Congressman Hank Johnson of Georgia, together with numerous co-sponsors in both Houses, introduced the Arbitration Fairness Act (S. 1782, H.R. 3010) in the U.S. Congress. The bill would prohibit mandatory pre-dispute binding arbitration in consumer, employment, and franchise disputes. Parties to a dispute would still be able to choose arbitration over court if they wanted to, but individuals would be given a choice in the matter and would not be denied their constitutional right to access the courts and have a jury trial. The bill would overturn the strong presumption in favor of arbitrability that has been erected by decisions of the United States Supreme Court under the rubric of the Federal Arbitration Act, at least as applied to consumer and employment disputes. The bill is supported by the groups such as Public Citizen, Center for Responsible Lending, Consumer Federation of America, Homeowners Against Deficient Dwellings, Home Owners for Better Building, National Association of Consumer Advocates, National Consumer Law Center, National Consumer Coalition for Nursing Home Reform, National Employment Lawyers Association, and American Association for Justice. Opposition to the bill is led by the U.S. Chamber of Commerce's Institute for Legal Reform. Among other things, the proposed Act states that: "No predispute arbitration agreement shall be valid or enforceable if it requires arbitration of— (1) an employment, consumer, or franchise dispute; or (2) a dispute arising under any statute intended to protect civil rights or to regulate contracts or transactions between parties of unequal bargaining power." References Jerold S. Auerbach, Justice Without Law?: Non-Legal Dispute Settlement in American History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1983). Mark J. Astarita, Esq., Introduction to Securities Arbitration (SECLaw.com, 2000 - www.seclaw.com/arbover.htm) David Sherwyn, Bruce Tracey & Zev Eigen, In Defense of Mandatory Arbitration of Employment Disputes: Saving the Baby, Tossing out the Bath Water, and Constructing a New Sink in the Process, 2 U. Pa. J. Lab. & Emp. L. 73 (1999) Ed Brunet, J.D., Arbitration Law in America: A Critical Assessment, Cambridge University Press, 2006. Footnotes See also Arbitration award Conciliation Dispute resolution Expert determination London Court of International Arbitration Mediation Negotiation Special referee Subrogation Tort reform UNCITRAL Model Law on International Commercial Arbitration National Arbitration Forum National Academy of Arbitrators For the relevant Conflict of Laws elements, see contract, forum selection clause, choice of law clause, proper law, and lex loci arbitri External links Read actual arbitration awards and find arbitrator's resumes at GVSU American Arbitration Association's Home Page Chartered Institute of Arbitrators (UK, elsewhere) Web Site Chartered Institute of Arbitrators (Irish Branch) the Global Arbitration Mediation Association. | Arbitration_in_the_United_States |@lemmatized arbitration:99 context:2 united:8 state:14 law:28 form:4 alternative:4 dispute:37 resolution:7 specifically:1 legal:9 litigation:3 whereby:1 party:27 agree:4 submit:4 respective:1 position:4 agreement:17 hearing:1 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5,355 | Blade_Runner | Blade Runner is a 1982 American science fiction film, directed by Ridley Scott and starring Harrison Ford, Rutger Hauer, and Sean Young. The screenplay, written by Hampton Fancher and David Peoples, is based on the novel Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep? by Philip K. Dick. The film depicts a dystopian Los Angeles in November 2019 in which genetically manufactured beings called replicants – visually indistinguishable from adult humans – are used for dangerous or menial work on Earth's "off-world colonies". Following a replicant uprising, replicants become illegal on Earth and specialist police called "blade runners" are trained to hunt down and "retire" escaped replicants on Earth. The plot focuses on a brutal and cunning group of recently-escaped replicants hiding in Los Angeles and the semi-retired blade runner, Rick Deckard (Harrison Ford), who reluctantly agrees to take on one more assignment. Blade Runner initially polarized critics: some were displeased with the pacing, while others enjoyed its thematic complexity. The film performed poorly in North American theaters. Despite the box office failure of the film, it has since become a cult classic. Blade Runner has been hailed for its production design, depicting a "retrofitted" future. Sammon, p. 79 It remains a leading example of the neo-noir genre. Blade Runner brought author Philip K. Dick to the attention of Hollywood, and several more films have since been based on his work. Bukatman, p. 41 Ridley Scott regards Blade Runner as "probably" his most complete and personal film. In 1993, Blade Runner was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant". In 2007, the American Film Institute named it the 97th greatest American film of all time in the 10th Anniversary edition of its 100 years... 100 Movies list. Seven versions of the film have been shown, for various markets, and as a result of controversial changes made by film executives. A rushed Director's Cut was released in 1992 after a strong response to workprint screenings. This, in conjunction with its popularity as a video rental, made it one of the first films released on DVD, resulting in a basic disc with mediocre video and audio quality. In 2007 Warner Bros. released in select theaters and DVD/HD DVD/Blu-ray, the 25th anniversary digitally remastered definitive Final Cut by Scott. Plot Note: There are several versions of Blade Runner. Advances in genetic technology have allowed scientists to create sophisticated biologically-engineered humanoid beings called "replicants". Following a violent revolt that takes place "off world," replicants are declared illegal on Earth. In Los Angeles, November 2019, Rick Deckard (Harrison Ford) is called out of retirement when a fellow Blade Runner, Holden (Morgan Paull) is shot administering a Voight-Kampff test to Leon (Brion James), an escaped replicant. A reluctant Deckard is brought to his old boss Bryant (M. Emmet Walsh), who informs him that the recent escape of Nexus-6 replicants is the worst yet. He orders Deckard to eliminate the four replicants, a process referred to as "retirement". Deckard agrees to help after Bryant makes thinly-veiled threats – if Deckard is not a cop, then he is 'little people'. Bryant briefs Deckard on the replicants: Roy Batty (Rutger Hauer), the leader, is a "combat model"; Leon Kowalski (Brion James) is a nuclear fuel loader; Zhora (Joanna Cassidy) is an assassin built for martial arts; and Pris (Daryl Hannah) is a "basic pleasure model". Bryant also explains that the Nexus-6 model has a four-year lifespan as a failsafe to prevent them from developing emotions and desire for independence. Deckard is then teamed with Gaff (Edward James Olmos) and sent to the Tyrell Corporation to ensure that the Voight-Kampff test works on Nexus-6 models. While there, Deckard discovers that Tyrell's (Joe Turkel) young assistant Rachael (Sean Young) is an experimental replicant who believes she is a human; Rachael's consciousness has been enhanced with implanted memories from Tyrell's niece, an accomplishment with which Tyrell seems most pleased. Deckard and Gaff search Leon's apartment as Roy and Leon enter the eye manufactory of Chew (James Hong); under interrogation, Chew directs them to J.F. Sebastian (William Sanderson) as their best chance of meeting Tyrell. Roy's plan to meet his maker is hampered by the urgency created by his limited lifespan; he is already exhibiting symptoms of impending death. Later, Rachael visits Deckard at his apartment to prove her humanity to him but leaves in tears after Deckard coldly tells her that her memories are implants. Meanwhile, Pris meets J.F. Sebastian and he invites her into his apartment in the Bradbury Building where he lives with his manufactured companions. In some versions of the film, Deckard is seen in his apartment daydreaming about a unicorn; he gets back to work and uses a computer scanner to find an image of Zhora in Leon's photos. Deckard goes to an area of the city where genetically engineered animals are sold to analyze a scale found in Leon's bathroom, learning that it came from a snake made by Abdul Ben Hassan. After a rough interrogation, the snake dealer directs Deckard to a sleazy strip club owned by Taffey Lewis (Hy Pyke), who employs Zhora. After a struggle in Zhora's changing room and a chase through the crowded streets, Deckard shoots and "retires" Zhora. Deckard meets with Bryant shortly after and is told to add Rachael to his list of retirements, as she has disappeared from the Tyrell Corporation headquarters. Deckard spots Rachael in the crowd and follows her but is grabbed and brutally beaten by Leon. Rachael saves Deckard by shooting and killing Leon, and the two head back to Deckard's apartment, where they have sex. Back at Sebastian's apartment Roy arrives, kisses Pris deeply and tells her they are the only ones left. They employ Sebastian's help by explaining their plight in a subtly threatening manner. Roy discovers that Sebastian, though human, is suffering from a genetic disorder that accelerates his aging; he sympathizes with Sebastian because of their common fate. Under the pretext of Sebastian informing Tyrell of a move for a game of correspondence chess that Sebastian and Tyrell are playing, Roy and Sebastian enter Tyrell's penthouse. Roy demands an extension to his lifespan from his maker. Tyrell refuses to help because of limitations of nature that even he can't overcome. Roy then asks absolution of his sins, confessing that he has done "questionable things". Tyrell arrogantly dismisses this, praising Roy's advanced design and his amazing accomplishments. He tells Roy to "revel in his time", to which Roy comments "Nothing the god of biomechanics wouldn't let you into heaven for." Roy then holds Tyrell's head in his hands, gives him a kiss, and kills him by crushing his skull. Sebastian, watching in horror, begins to run for the elevator, with Roy following. Roy rides the elevator down alone, strongly implying that he has killed Sebastian as well. Sebastian's death was never shot because of concerns over too much violence in the film (Sammon, p. 175). In The Final Cut, Deckard is told Sebastian's body was found as well. Deckard arrives at Sebastian's apartment and is ambushed by Pris. Deckard manages to grab his gun and retires Pris, just as Roy returns. Roy is horrified at her death. Angrily, Roy manages to punch through a wall and grab Deckard's right arm, and proceeds to break two of his fingers in retaliation for killing Zhora and Pris. Roy releases Deckard and gives him a little time to run before he begins to hunt him through the dilapidated Bradbury Building. However, not too long into the hunt, the symptoms of Roy's limited lifespan worsen and his right hand begins to cramp, so he jabs a nail through it to regain control. Able again, albeit temporarily, Roy eventually forces Deckard to the roof, as Deckard attempts to escape Roy, he leaps across to another building but falls short and ends up hanging from a rain-slicked beam. Roy easily vaults the same distance and is left standing above his struggling opponent. As Deckard loses his grip, Roy seizes his arm and hauls him onto the roof, saving Deckard. As Roy's life fades away, he sits and delivers a brief soliloquy about the experiences of his life: Roy dies, and from a distance, Gaff shouts over to Deckard, "It's too bad she won't live; but then again, who does?" A worried Deckard returns to his apartment and is relieved to find Rachael alive. As they leave, Deckard finds an origami unicorn, a calling card left by Gaff. Depending on the version, the film ends with Deckard and Rachael either leaving the apartment block to an uncertain future or driving through an idyllic pastoral landscape. Novel comparison As a result of Fancher's divergence from the novel, numerous re-writes before and throughout shooting the film, and the fact that Ridley Scott never entirely read the novel on which the film was based, the film diverged significantly from its original inspiration. Some of the themes in the novel that were minimized or entirely removed include: fertility/sterility of the population, religion, mass media, Deckard's uncertainty that he is human, and real versus synthetic pets and emotions. Philip K. Dick refused an offer of $400,000 to write a novelization of the Blade Runner screenplay, saying: "[I was] told the cheapo novelization would have to appeal to the twelve-year-old audience" and "[it] would have probably been disastrous to me artistically." He added, "That insistence on my part of bringing out the original novel and not doing the novelization — they were just furious. They finally recognized that there was a legitimate reason for reissuing the novel, even though it cost them money. It was a victory not just of contractual obligations but of theoretical principles." (Available from the Philip K. Dick Trust) In the end, Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep? was reprinted as a tie-in with the film poster as a cover and the original title in parentheses below the Blade Runner title. The producers of the film arranged for a screening of some special effects rough cuts for Philip K. Dick shortly before he died in early 1982. Despite his well known skepticism of Hollywood in principle, he became quite enthusiastic about the film. He said, "I saw a segment of Douglas Trumbull's special effects for Blade Runner on the KNBC-TV news. I recognized it immediately. It was my own interior world. They caught it perfectly." He also approved of the film's script, saying, "After I finished reading the screenplay, I got the novel out and looked through it. The two reinforce each other, so that someone who started with the novel would enjoy the movie and someone who started with the movie would enjoy the novel." Cast With the exception of Harrison Ford, Blade Runner had a number of then-unknown actors such as Daryl Hannah and Sean Young. Sammon, pp. 92–93 The cast included: Harrison Ford as Rick Deckard. Coming off some success with Star Wars (1977), The Empire Strikes Back (1980) and Raiders of the Lost Ark (1981), Ford was looking for a role with dramatic depth. After Steven Spielberg praised Ford, he was hired for Blade Runner. In 1992, Ford revealed, "Blade Runner is not one of my favorite films. I tangled with Ridley." Sammon, p. 211 Apart from friction with the director, Ford also disliked the voiceovers: "When we started shooting it had been tacitly agreed that the version of the film that we had agreed upon was the version without voiceover narration. It was a f**king nightmare. I thought that the film had worked without the narration. But now I was stuck re-creating that narration. And I was obliged to do the voiceovers for people that did not represent the director's interests." "I went kicking and screaming to the studio to record it." Sammon, p. 296 Rutger Hauer as Roy Batty, the violent yet thoughtful leader of replicants; and was regarded by Philip K. Dick as "the perfect Batty—cold, Aryan, flawless". Of the many films Hauer has done, Blade Runner is his favorite. As he explained in a live chat in 2001, "BLADE RUNNER needs no explanation. It just IZZ . All of the best. There is nothing like it. To be part of a real MASTERPIECE which changed the world's thinking. It's awesome." Sean Young as Rachael. Tyrell's assistant with memories that belonged to Tyrell's niece. Edward James Olmos as Gaff. Olmos used his diverse ethnic background, and some in-depth personal research, to help create the fictional "Cityspeak" language his character uses in the film. Sammon, pp. 115–116 His initial addresses to Deckard at the noodle bar is partly in Hungarian, and means, "Horse dick! No way. You are the Blade…Blade Runner." Daryl Hannah as Pris. A "basic pleasure model." M. Emmet Walsh as Captain Bryant. Walsh lived up to his reputation as a great character actor with the role of a hard-drinking, sleazy and underhanded police veteran typical of the Film Noir genre. Joe Turkel as Dr. Eldon Tyrell. This corporate mogul with a confident penetrating voice, has built an empire on genetically-manipulated humanoid slaves. William Sanderson as J. F. Sebastian, a quiet and lonely genius who provides a compassionate yet compliant portrait of humanity. J.F. is able to sympathize with the replicants' short lifespan because he has progeria, a genetic disease that causes faster aging and a short lifespan. Brion James as Leon Kowalski a waste disposal engineer. Although at first glance a dumb replicant used for muscle, Leon did have an undertone of intuitive intelligence. Joanna Cassidy as Zhora. Cassidy portrays a strong female replicant who has seen the worst humanity has to offer. Morgan Paull as Holden. The Blade Runner initially assigned to the case, he is shot by Leon while screening new Tyrell employees in an attempt to find the replicants, prompting his replacement with Deckard. James Hong as Hannibal Chew. An elderly Asian geneticist who loves his work, especially synthesizing eyes. Hy Pyke as Taffey Lewis. Pyke conveys Lewis' sleaziness with ease and with one take; something almost unheard-of with Scott's drive for perfection resulting at times in double-digit takes. Sammon, p. 150 Production Interest in adapting Philip K. Dick's novel Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep? developed shortly after its 1968 publication. According to Dick, director Martin Scorsese was interested in filming the novel, but never optioned it. James Van Hise, Philip K. Dick on Blade Runner, Starlog. Producer Herb Jaffe optioned it in the early 1970s, but Dick wasn't impressed with the screenplay: "Robert Jaffe, who wrote the screenplay, flew down here to Orange County. I said to him then that it was so bad that I wanted to know if he wanted me to beat him up there at the airport or wait till we got to my apartment." The screenplay by Hampton Fancher was optioned in 1977. Sammon, pp. 23–30 Producer Michael Deeley became interested in Fancher's draft and convinced director Ridley Scott to use it to create his first American film. Scott had previously declined the project, but after leaving the slow production of Dune, wanted a faster-paced project to take his mind off his older brother's recent death. Sammon, pp. 43–49 He joined the project on February 21, 1980, and managed to push up the promised financing from Filmways from $13 million to $15 million. Fancher's script focused more on environmental issues and less on issues of humanity and faith, which weighed heavily in the novel. Scott wanted changes. Fancher found a cinema treatment by William S. Burroughs for Alan E. Nourse's novel The Bladerunner (1974), entitled Blade Runner (a movie). Some editions of Nourse's novel use the two-word spacing Blade Runner, as does the Burroughs book. Scott liked the name so Deeley obtained the rights to the titles. Eventually he hired David Peoples to rewrite the script, and Fancher left the job on December 21, 1980 over the issue, although he later returned to contribute additional rewrites. Sammon, pp. 49–63 Having invested over $2.5 million in pre-production, Sammon, p. 49 as the date of commencement of principal photography neared, Filmways withdrew financial backing. In ten days, Deeley secured $21.5 million in financing through a three way deal between The Ladd Company (through Warner Bros.), the Hong Kong-based producer Sir Run Run Shaw, and Tandem Productions. Bukatman, pp. 18–19 and Sammon, pp. 64–67 Philip K. Dick became concerned that no one had informed him about the film's production, which added to his distrust of Hollywood. Sammon, pp. 63–64 After Dick criticized an early version of Hampton Fancher's script in an article written for the Los Angeles Select TV Guide, the studio sent Dick the David Peoples rewrite. Sammon, pp.67–69 Although Dick died shortly before the film's release, he was pleased with the rewritten script, and with a twenty-minute special effects test reel that was screened for him when he was invited to the studio. Dick enthused after the screening to Ridley Scott that the world created for the film looked exactly as he had imagined it. Sammon, p. 284 The motion picture was dedicated to Dick. Blade Runner has numerous and deep similarities to Fritz Lang's Metropolis, including a built up urban environment, in which the wealthy literally live above the workers, dominated by a huge building—the Stadtkrone Tower in Metropolis and the Tyrell Building in Blade Runner. Special effects supervisor David Dryer used stills from Metropolis when lining up Blade Runners miniature building shots. Bukatman, pp. 61–63 and Sammon, p. 111 Hong Kong inspired the look of 2019 Los Angeles. Ridley Scott credits Edward Hopper's painting Nighthawks and the French science fiction comic magazine Métal Hurlant (Heavy Metal), to which the artist Moebius contributed, as stylistic mood sources. Sammon, p. 74 He also drew on the landscape of "Hong Kong on a very bad day" and the industrial landscape of his one-time home in the North East of England. Scott hired as his conceptual artist Syd Mead, who, like Scott, was influenced by Métal Hurlant. Sammon, p. 53 Moebius was offered the opportunity to assist in the pre-production of Blade Runner, but he declined so that he could work on René Laloux's animated film Les Maîtres du temps, a decision he later regretted. Giraud, Jean. (1988) The Long Tomorrow & Other SF Stories. ISBN 0-87135-281-8 Lawrence G. Paull (production designer) and David Snyder (art director) realized Scott's and Mead's sketches. Douglas Trumbull and Richard Yuricich supervised the special effects for the film. Principal photography of Blade Runner began on March 9, 1981 and ended four months later. Casting the film proved troublesome, particularly for the lead role of Deckard. Screenwriter Hampton Fancher envisioned Robert Mitchum as Deckard, and wrote the character's dialogue with Mitchum in mind. Director Ridley Scott and the film's producers "spent months" meeting and discussing the role with Dustin Hoffman, who eventually departed due to differences in vision. Harrison Ford was ultimately chosen due to several factors, including his performance in the Star Wars films, Ford's interest in the story of Blade Runner, and discussions with Steven Spielberg, who was finishing Raiders of the Lost Ark at the time and strongly praised Ford's work in the film. According to production documents, a long list of actors were considered for the role, including, but not limited to, Gene Hackman, Sean Connery, Jack Nicholson, Paul Newman, Clint Eastwood, Tommy Lee Jones, Arnold Schwarzenegger, Al Pacino, and Burt Reynolds. Casting the roles of Rachael and Pris also proved troublesome; a lengthy series of screen tests were filmed with numerous actresses auditioning for the roles. Morgan Paull, who played the role of Deckard during the screen tests with actresses auditioning for the role of Rachael, was cast as Deckard's fellow bounty hunter Holden based on his performances in the tests. One role that was not difficult to cast was Roy Batty: Ridley Scott cast Rutger Hauer without having met him, based solely on Hauer's performances in other films Scott had seen. Joe Pantoliano, who later played the role of Cypher in the Blade Runner-inspired The Matrix, was considered for the role of Sebastian. Aaron Brinkley, A Chat With William Sanderson, BladeZone, 2000. In 2006 Ridley Scott was asked "Who's the biggest pain in the arse you've ever worked with?" He replied: "It's got to be Harrison…he'll forgive me because now I get on with him. Now he's become charming. But he knows a lot, that's the problem. When we worked together it was my first film up and I was the new kid on the block. But we made a good movie." Ford said of Scott in 2000: "I admire his work. We had a bad patch there, and I’m over it." More recently in 2006, Ford reflected on the production of the film saying: "What I remember more than anything else when I see Blade Runner is not the 50 nights of shooting in the rain, but the voiceover...I was still obliged to work for these clowns that came in writing one bad voiceover after another." Ridley Scott confirmed in the summer 2007 issue of Total Film that Harrison Ford has contributed to the Blade Runner Special Edition DVD, having already done his interviews. "Harrison's fully on board," said Scott. Interpretation Despite appearing to be an action film, Blade Runner has many dramatic, narrative levels, greatly indebted to film noir conventions, such as the femme fatale, protagonist-narration (removed in later versions), dark and shadowy cinematography, and the questionable moral outlook of the hero, extended to include his humanity. It is a literate science fiction film, thematically enfolding the philosophy of religion and moral implications of human mastery of genetic engineering in the context of classical Greek drama and hubris, and draws on Biblical images, such as Noah's flood, and literary sources, such as Frankenstein. Linguistically, the theme of mortality is subtly reiterated in the chess game between Roy and Tyrell based on the famous Immortal game of 1851, though Scott has said that was coincidental. Sammon, p. 384 Dr. Tyrell polarizing his office window to control the Sun implies the god-like powers of the Tyrell Corporation. Blade Runner delves into the implications of technology on the environment and society by reaching to the past, using literature, religious symbolism, classical dramatic themes, and film noir. This tension, among past, present, and future is seen in the retrofitted future of Blade Runner, which is high-tech and gleaming in places but elsewhere decayed and old. Interviewing Ridley Scott in 2002, reporter Lynn Barber in The Observer described the film as: "extremely dark, both literally and metaphorically, with an oddly masochistic feel". Director Scott said he "liked the idea of exploring pain" in the wake of his brother's skin cancer death. "When he was ill, I used to go and visit him in London, and that was really traumatic for me." A perceptively high level of paranoia exists in the cinematic manifestation of corporate power, omnipresent police, probing lights, and in the power over the individual especially represented by genetic programming of replicants. Control over the environment is large scale, hand in hand with the absence of any natural life, and with artificial animals substituting for the extinct originals. This oppressive backdrop clarifies why people are migrating to off-world colonies. The dystopian themes explored in "Blade Runner" are an early example of cyberpunk concepts expanding into film. The film also makes extensive use of eyes for a variety of themes and manipulated images to call into question reality and our ability to accurately perceive and remember it. Bukatman, pp. 9–11 These thematic elements provide an atmosphere of uncertainty for Blade Runner's central theme of examining humanity. In order to discover replicants, an empathy test is used with a number of questions focused on the treatment of animals, thus making it the essential indicator of someone's "humanity". The replicants are juxtaposed with human characters who lack empathy, while the replicants appear to show compassion and concern for one another at the same time as the mass of humanity on the streets is cold and impersonal. The film goes so far as to put in doubt whether Deckard is a human, and forces the audience to reevaluate what it means to be human. Kerman, Judith. (1991) Retrofitting Blade Runner: Issues in Ridley Scott's "Blade Runner" and Philip K. Dick's "Do Android's Dream of Electric Sheep?" Bowling Green University Popular Press. ISBN 0-87972-510-9 The question of whether Deckard is intended to be a human or a replicant has been an ongoing controversy since the film's release. Bukatman, pp. 80–83 Both Michael Deeley and Harrison Ford wanted Deckard to be human while Hampton Fancher preferred ambiguity. Sammon, p. 362 Ridley Scott has confirmed that in his vision Deckard is a replicant. The New York Times stated: "The film’s theme of dehumanization has also been sharpened. What has been a matter of speculation and debate is now a certainty: Deckard, the replicant-hunting cop, is himself a replicant. Mr. Scott confirmed this: “Yes, he’s a replicant. He was always a replicant.” Deckard's unicorn dream sequence inserted into the Director's Cut coinciding with Gaff's parting-gift of an origami unicorn is seen by many as showing Deckard is a replicant as Gaff could have access to Deckard's implanted memories. The interpretation that Deckard is a replicant is challenged by others who believe unicorn imagery shows that the characters, whether human or replicant, share the same dreams and recognise their affinity, or that the absence of a decisive answer is crucial to the film's main theme. Bukatman, p. 83 The inherent ambiguity and uncertainty of the film, as well as its textual richness, has permitted viewers to see it from their own perspective. Soundtrack The Blade Runner soundtrack by Vangelis is a dark melodic combination of classic composition and futuristic synthesizers which mirrors the film-noir retro-future envisioned by Ridley Scott. Vangelis, fresh from his Academy Award winning score for Chariots of Fire, composed and performed the music on his synthesizers. Sammon, pp. 271–274 He also made use of various chimes and the vocals of collaborator Demis Roussos. Sammon, pp. 419–423 Another memorable sound is the haunting tenor sax solo "Love Theme" by UK saxophonist Dick Morrissey, who appeared on many of Vangelis' albums. Ridley Scott also used "Memories of Green" from Vangelis' album See You Later (an orchestral version of which Scott would later use in his film Someone To Watch Over Me). Along with Vangelis' compositions and ambient textures, the film's sound scape also features a track by the Japanese Ensemble Nipponia ('Ogi No Mato' or 'The Folding Fan as a Target' from the Nonesuch Records release "Traditional Vocal And Instrumental Music") and a track by harpist Gail Laughton ("Harps of the Ancient Temples" from Laurel Records). Sammon, p. 424 Despite being well received by fans and critically acclaimed and nominated in 1983 for a BAFTA and Golden Globe as best original score, and the promise of a soundtrack album from Polydor Records in the end titles of the film, the release of the official soundtrack recording was delayed for over a decade. There are two official releases of the music from Blade Runner. In light of the lack of a release of an album, the New American Orchestra recorded an orchestral adaptation in 1982 which bore little resemblance to the original. Some of the film tracks would in 1989 surface on the compilation Vangelis: Themes, but not until the 1992 release of the Director's Cut version would a substantial amount of the film's score see commercial release. These delays and poor reproductions led to the production of many bootleg recordings over the years. A bootleg tape surfaced in 1982 at science fiction conventions and became popular given the delay of an official release of the original recordings, and in 1993 "Off World Music, Ltd." created a bootleg CD that would prove more comprehensive than Vangelis' official CD in 1994. A disc from "Gongo Records" features most of the same material, but with slightly better sound quality. In 2003, two other bootlegs surfaced, the "Esper Edition," closely preceded by "Los Angeles: November 2019". The double disc "Esper Edition" combined tracks from the official release, the Gongo boot and the film itself. Finally "2019" provided a single disc compilation almost wholly consisting of ambient sound from the film, padded out with some sounds from the Westwood game Blade Runner. A set with 3 CDs of Blade Runner-related Vangelis music was released on December 10, 2007. Titled Blade Runner Trilogy, the first CD contains the same tracks as the 1994 official soundtrack release, the 2nd CD contains previously unreleased music from the movie, and the 3rd CD is all newly composed music from Vangelis, inspired by, and in the spirit of the movie. Reception Blade Runner was released in 1,290 theaters on June 25, 1982. That date was chosen by producer Alan Ladd, Jr. because his previous highest-grossing films (Star Wars and Alien) had a similar opening date (May 25) in 1977 and 1979, making the date his "lucky day". Sammon, p. 309 However, the gross for the opening weekend was a disappointing $6.15 million. Bukatman, p. 34 and Sammon, p. 316 A significant factor in the film's rather poor box office performance was that its release coincided with other science fiction film releases, including The Thing, Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan, and, most significantly, E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial, which dominated box office revenues that summer. Sammon, pp. 316–317 Film critics were polarized as some felt the story had taken a back seat to special effects and that it was not the action/adventure the studio had advertised. Others acclaimed its complexity and predicted it would stand the test of time. Sammon, pp. 313–315 In the United States, a general criticism was its slow pacing that detracts from other strengths; Sheila Benson from the Los Angeles Times called it "Blade crawler," while Pat Berman in State and Columbia Record described it as "science fiction pornography". Quoted in Sammon, p. 313 and p. 314, respectively Roger Ebert praised Blade Runner's visuals and recommended it for that reason; however, he found the human story clichéd and a little thin. In 2007, upon release of The Final Cut, Roger Ebert somewhat revised his original opinion of the film and added it to his list of Great Movies. Awards and honors Blade Runner has won the following awards: YearAwardCategory – Recipient(s)1982Los Angeles Film Critics Association AwardBest Cinematography – Jordan Cronenweth1983BAFTA Film Award Best Cinematography – Jordan Cronenweth Best Costume Design – Charles Knode, Michael Kaplan Best Production Design/Art Direction – Lawrence G. Paull1983Hugo AwardBest Dramatic Presentation1983London Critics Circle Film Awards – Special Achievement AwardLawrence G. Paull, Douglas Trumbull, Syd Mead – For their visual concept (technical prize). It has been nominated for the following awards: Academy Award (1983) Best Art Direction-Set Decoration – Lawrence G. Paull, David L. Snyder, Linda DeScenna Best Effects, Visual Effects – Douglas Trumbull, Richard Yuricich, David Dryer BAFTA (1983) Best Film Editing – Terry Rawlings Best Make Up Artist – Marvin G. Westmore Best Score – Vangelis Best Sound – Peter Pennell, Bud Alper, Graham V. Hartstone, Gerry Humphreys Best Special Visual Effects – Douglas Trumbull, Richard Yuricich, David Dryer British Society of Cinematographers: Best Cinematography Award (1982) – Jordan Cronenweth Fantasporto International Fantasy Film Award (1983) – Best Film – Ridley Scott International Fantasy Film Award (1993) – Best Film – Ridley Scott (Director's cut) Golden Globe: Best Original Score (1983) – Motion Picture – Vangelis Saturn Award (1983) Best Science Fiction Film Best Director – Ridley Scott Best Special Effects – Douglas Trumbull, Richard Yuricich Best Supporting Actor – Rutger Hauer Best Genre Video Release (1994) – Director's cut Current rankings Current recognitions for Blade Runner include: In 2007, the American Film Institute listed it as the 97th greatest film of all time, making it new to the list, having been left off the 1997 version. In 2008, Blade Runner was voted the sixth best science fiction film ever made as part of the AFI's 10 Top 10. Blade Runner is currently ranked the third best film of all time by The Screen Directory. One of Time'''s 100 All-Time best movies. British movie magazine Empire voted it the "Best Science Fiction Film Ever" in 2007. In 2002, Blade Runner was voted the 8th greatest film of all time in Channel 4's 100 Greatest Films poll.New Scientist readers voted it as the "all-time favourite science fiction" film in October 2008. Cultural influence A police spinner flying beside huge advertising-laden skyscrapers. These special effects are benchmarks that have influenced many subsequent science-fiction films. While it initially was not a success with North American audiences, the film was popular internationally and became a cult classic. Sammon, pp. 318–329 Blade Runner's dark style and futuristic design have served as a benchmark and its influence can be seen in many subsequent science fiction films, anime and television programs. For example, Ronald D. Moore and David Eick, the producers of the re-imagining of Battlestar Galactica, have both openly cited Blade Runner as one of the major influences for the show. Blade Runner continues to reflect modern trends and concerns, and an increasing number consider it one of the greatest science fiction films of all time. The film was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry in 1993 and is frequently used in university courses. In 2007, it was named the 2nd most visually influential film of all time by the Visual Effects Society. Blade Runner is one of the most musically sampled films of the 20th century, and inspired the Grammy nominated song "More Human than Human" by White Zombie. Blade Runner has influenced adventure games, such as Rise of the Dragon, Snatcher, Beneath a Steel Sky and Flashback: The Quest for Identity, the anime series Bubblegum Crisis, the role-playing game Shadowrun, the first-person shooter Perfect Dark, and the Syndicate series of video games. The look of the film (darkness, neon lights and opacity of vision) is easier to render than complicated backdrops, making it a popular choice for game designers. Blade Runner has also been the subject of parody, such as the comics Blade Bummer by Crazy comics, Bad Rubber by Steve Gallacci, the Harvey Birdman: Attorney at Law episode "Identity Theft", and the Red Dwarf special episodes, "Back To Earth". Blade Runner curse Among the folklore that has grown up around the film over the years has been the belief that the film was a curse to the companies whose logos were displayed prominently as product placements in some scenes. Sammon, p. 104 While they were market leaders at the time, many of them experienced disastrous setbacks over the next decade and hardly exist today. RCA, which at one time was the U.S. leading consumer electronics and communications conglomerate, was bought out by one time parent GE in 1985, and dismantled. Atari, which dominated the home video game market when the film came out, never recovered from the next year's downturn in the industry, and by the 1990s had ceased to exist as anything more than a brand, a back catalog of games and some legacy computers. The Atari of today is an entirely different firm, using the former company's name. Cuisinart similarly went bankrupt in 1989, though it lives on under new ownership. The Bell System monopoly was broken up that same year, and all of the resulting Regional Bell operating companies have since changed their names and merged back with each other and other companies to form the new AT&T. Pan Am suffered the terrorist bombing/destruction of Pan Am Flight 103 and after a decade of mounting losses, finally went bankrupt in 1991 with the falloff in overseas travel caused by the Gulf War. The Coca-Cola Company suffered losses during its failed introduction of New Coke in 1985, but soon afterwards regained its market share. Chapman, Murray. (1992-1998) The Blade Runner Curse Murray Chapman, University of Queensland. Retrieved on 2008-01-30 Its continued success has made Coca-Cola one of several exceptions to the Blade Runner curse; also appearing in the film are logos for Budweiser, and the electronics company TDK, which continue to thrive in contemporary markets. Future Noir Before the film's principal photography began, Cinefantastique magazine commissioned Paul M. Sammon to write an article about Blade Runners production, which became the book Future Noir: The Making of Blade Runner (referred to as the "Blade Runner Bible" by many of the film's fans). The book chronicles the evolution of Blade Runner as a film, and focuses on film-set politics, especially the British director's experiences with his first American film crew, of which producer Alan Ladd, Jr. has said, "Harrison wouldn't speak to Ridley and Ridley wouldn't speak to Harrison. By the end of the shoot Ford was 'ready to kill Ridley', said one colleague. He really would have taken him on if he hadn't been talked out of it." Future Noir has short cast biographies and quotations about their experiences in making Blade Runner, as well as many photographs of the film's production, and preliminary sketches. The cast chapter was deleted from the first edition; it is available online. A second edition of Future Noir was published in 2007. Versions Seven different versions of Blade Runner have been shown: The 5-disc limited edition DVD set, packaged in a reproduction Voight-Kampff test case The contents of the 5-disc limited edition DVD set Original workprint version (1982, 113 minutes) shown to audience test previews in Denver and Dallas in March 1982. It was also seen in 1990 and 1991 in Los Angeles and San Francisco as a Director's Cut without Scott's approval. Negative responses to the test previews led to the modifications resulting in the U.S. theatrical version, Sammon, pg. 289 while positive response to the showings in 1990 and 1991 pushed the studio to approve work on an official director's cut. Bukatman, p. 37 It was re-released with 5-disc Ultimate Edition in 2007. A San Diego Sneak Preview shown only once in May 1982, which was almost identical to the Domestic Cut with three extra scenes. Sammon, pp. 306 and 309–311 The U.S. theatrical version (1982, 116 minutes), known as the original version or Domestic Cut, released on VHS in 1983 and laserdisc in 1987. The International Cut (1982, 117 minutes) also known as the "Criterion Edition" or uncut version, included more violent action scenes than the U.S. theatrical version. Although initially unavailable in the U.S. and distributed in Europe and Asia via theatrical and local Warner Home Video laserdisc releases, it was later released on VHS and Criterion Collection laserdisc in North America, and re-released in 1992 as a "10th Anniversary Edition". Sammon, pp. 326–329 The U.S. broadcast version (1986, 114 minutes), the U.S. theatrical version edited for violence, profanity and nudity by CBS to meet broadcast restrictions. Sammon, pp. 407–408 and 432 The Ridley Scott-approved (1992, 116 minutes) Director's Cut; prompted by the unauthorized 1990–1 workprint theatrical release and made available on VHS and laserdisc in 1993, and on DVD in 1997. Significant changes from the theatrical version include: removal of Deckard's voice-over, re-insertion of a unicorn sequence and removal of the studio-imposed happy ending. Ridley did provide extensive notes and consultation to Warner Brothers through film preservationist Michael Arick who was put in charge of creating the Director's Cut. Sammon, pp. 353, 365 Ridley Scott's Final Cut (2007, 117 minutes), or the "25th Anniversary Edition," released by Warner Bros. theatrically on October 5, 2007 and subsequently released on DVD, HD DVD, and Blu-ray in December 2007 (U.K. December 3; U.S. December 18). This is the only version over which Ridley Scott had complete artistic control as the Director's Cut was rushed and he was not directly in charge. Sammon, pp. 353, 365 In conjunction with the Final Cut, extensive documentary and other materials were produced for the home video releases culminating in a five-disc "Ultimate Collector's Edition" release by Charles de Lauzirika. DocumentariesOn the Edge of Blade Runner (2000)On the Edge of Blade Runner (55 minutes) was produced in 2000 by Nobles Gate Ltd. (for Channel 4), was directed by Andrew Abbott and hosted/written by Mark Kermode. Interviews with production staff, including Scott, give details of the creative process and the turmoil during preproduction. Stories from Paul M. Sammon and Hampton Fancher provide insight into Philip K. Dick and the origins of Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?. Interwoven are cast interviews (with the notable exceptions of Harrison Ford and Sean Young), which convey some of the difficulties of making the film (including an exacting director and humid, smoggy weather). There is also a tour of some locations, most notably the Bradbury Building and the Warner Bros. backlot that became the LA 2019 streets, which look very different from Scott's dark vision. The documentary then details the test screenings and the resulting changes (the voice over, the happy ending, and the deleted Holden hospital scene), the special effects, the soundtrack by Vangelis, and the unhappy relationship between the filmmakers and the investors which culminated in Deeley and Scott being fired but still working on the film. The question of whether or not Deckard is a replicant surfaces. Future Shocks (2003)Future Shocks (27 minutes) is a more recent documentary from 2003 by TVOntario (part of their Film 101 series using footage compiled over the years for Saturday Night at the Movies). It includes interviews with executive producer Bud Yorkin, Syd Mead, and the cast, this time with Sean Young, but still without Harrison Ford. There is extensive commentary by science fiction author Robert J. Sawyer and from film critics, as the documentary focuses on the themes, visual impact and influence of the film. Edward James Olmos describes Ford's participation, and personal experiences during filming are related by Young, Walsh, Cassidy and Sanderson. They also relate a story about crew members creating T-shirts that took pot shots at Scott. The different versions of the film are critiqued and the accuracy of its predictions of the future are discussed.Dangerous Days (2007)Dangerous Days: Making Blade Runner is an approximately three and a half hour long documentary directed and produced by Charles de Lauzirika for the 2007 Final Cut version of the film. It appears with every edition of The Final Cut on DVD, HD DVD and Blu-ray. (It is a DVD format disc, even in the HD DVD and Blu-ray editions). It was culled from over 80 interviews, including Harrison Ford, Sean Young, Rutger Hauer, Edward James Olmos, Jerry Perenchio, Bud Yorkin and Ridley Scott, and also contains several alternate and deleted shots within the context of the documentary itself. The documentary consists of eight chapters, each covering a portion of the film-making – or in the case of the final chapter, the film's controversial legacy. The chapters and their length: Incept Date – 1980: Screenwriting and Dealmaking – 30:36Blush Response: Assembling the Cast – 22:46A Good Start: Designing the Future – 26:34Eye of the Storm: Production Begins – 28:48Living in Fear: Tension on the Set – 29:23Beyond the Window: Visual effects – 28:49In Need of Magic: Post-Production Problems – 23:05To Hades and Back: Release and Resurrection – 24:12All Our Variant Futures (2007)All Our Variant Futures: From Workprint to Final Cut (29 minutes), produced by Paul Prischman, appears on Disc 5 of the Blade Runner Ultimate Collector's Edition and provides an overview of the film's multiple versions and their origins, as well as detailing the seven year-long restoration, enhancement and remastering process behind The Final Cut. Included are interviews with director Ridley Scott, restoration producer Charles de Lauzirika, restoration consultant Kurt P. Galvao, restoration VFX supervisor John Scheele and Future Noir: The Making of Blade Runner author Paul M. Sammon. Behind-the-scenes footage documenting the restoration – from archival work done in 2001 through the 2007 filming of Joanna Cassidy and Benjamin Ford for The Final Cut's digital fixes – are seen throughout. Additional featurettes (2007) In addition to Dangerous Days: Making Blade Runner, a variety of other supplemental featurettes produced and directed by Charles de Lauzirika are included both the 4-disc and 5-disc collector's editions of Blade Runner released by Warner Home Video in 2007: The Electric Dreamer: Remembering Philip K. Dick – 14:22Sacrificial Sheep: The Novel Vs. The Film – 15:07Philip K. Dick: The Blade Runner Interviews – 23:03Signs of the Times: Graphic Design – 13:40Fashion Forward: Wardrobe and Styling – 20:40Screen Tests: Rachael and Pris – 8:54The Light That Burns: Remembering Jordan Cronenweth – 19:58Deleted & Alternate Scenes – 45:47Promoting Dystopia: Rendering the Poster Art – 9:35Deck-A-Rep: The True Nature of Rick Deckard – 9:30Nexus Generation: Fans and Filmmakers – 21:491982 Promotional Featurettes – 36:21Sequels K.W. Jeter, a friend of Philip K. Dick, has written three official, authorised Blade Runner novels that continue Rick Deckard's story, attempting to resolve many differences between Blade Runner and the source novel Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?. Blade Runner 2: The Edge of Human (1995)Blade Runner 3: Replicant Night (1996)Blade Runner 4: Eye and Talon (2000)Blade Runner co-writer David Peoples wrote Soldier (1998), which is set in the same fictional universe; it features spinners, however it remains an informal sequel, unapproved by the Blade Runner Partnership, who own the Blade Runner universe rights. Ridley Scott apparently toyed with the idea of a sequel film, which would have been titled Metropolis. However, the project was ultimately shelved due to rights issues. A script was also written for a proposed sequel entitled Blade Runner Down, which would have been based on K. W. Jeter's first Blade Runner sequel novel. At the 2007 Comic-Con, Scott again announced that he is considering a sequel to the film. By September 2008, Eagle Eye co-writer Travis Wright was writing the screenplay. Wright worked with producer Bud Yorke for a few years on the project. His colleague John Glenn, who left the film by 2008, stated the script explores the nature of the off-world colonies as well as what happens to the Tyrell Corporation in the wake of its founder's death. Other adaptations Comics Archie Goodwin scripted the comic book adaptation, A Marvel Comics Super Special: Blade Runner, published September 1982. The Jim Steranko cover leads into a 45-page adaptation illustrated by the team of Al Williamson, Carlos Garzon, Dan Green and Ralph Reese. This adaptation includes one possible explanation of the title's significance in story context: the narrative line, "Blade runner. You're always movin' on the edge." In 2009, BOOM! Studios will publish a 24-issue miniseries comic book adaptation of the Blade Runner source novel, Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep? Philip K. Dick Press Release - BOOM! ANNOUNCES DO ANDROIDS DREAM OF ELECTRIC SHEEP? Video games There are two video games based on the film, one for Commodore 64, Sinclair ZX Spectrum and Amstrad CPC (1985) by CRL Group PLC based on the music by Vangelis (due to licensing issues), and another action adventure PC game (1997) by Westwood Studios. The Westwood PC game featured new characters and branching storylines based on the Blade Runner world, coupled with voice work from some of the original cast from the film and some recurring locations from the film. The events portrayed in the 1997 game occur not after, but in parallel to those in the film – the player assumes the role of another replicant-hunter working at the same time as Deckard, though of course they never meet, so as to remain consistent with the film. The PC game featured a non-linear plot, non-player characters that each ran in their own independent AI, and an unusual pseudo-3D engine (which eschewed polygonal solids in favor of voxel elements) that did not require the use of a 3D accelerator card to play the game. A prototype board game was also created in California (1982) that had game play similar to Scotland Yard. Television series Though not an official sequel to Blade Runner, Total Recall 2070 was initially planned as a spin-off of the movie Total Recall but transformed into a hybrid of that movie and Blade Runner. There are many similarities between the 1999 television series Total Recall 2070 and the Blade Runner universe; The series takes place in a dark, crowded, industrial and cosmopolitan setting. David Hume is a senior detective for the Citizens Protection Bureau (CPB) who is partnered with Ian Farve, an Alpha Class android. The series focused on questions such as the nature of humanity and the rights of androids. Total Recall 2070 was based on two works by Phillip K. Dick: "We Can Remember It for You Wholesale" (the basis for the film Total Recall), and Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep? (the basis for Blade Runner''). Notes External links | Blade_Runner |@lemmatized blade:95 runner:92 american:9 science:14 fiction:14 film:127 direct:6 ridley:29 scott:45 star:5 harrison:15 ford:22 rutger:6 hauer:8 sean:8 young:9 screenplay:7 write:12 hampton:6 fancher:11 david:11 people:7 base:12 novel:20 android:11 dream:11 electric:10 sheep:10 philip:14 k:19 dick:25 depict:2 dystopian:2 los:8 angeles:9 november:3 genetically:3 manufacture:1 call:7 replicants:16 visually:2 indistinguishable:1 adult:1 human:15 use:19 dangerous:4 menial:1 work:19 earth:5 world:9 colony:3 follow:4 replicant:17 uprising:1 become:10 illegal:2 specialist:1 police:4 train:1 hunt:3 retire:3 escape:4 plot:3 focus:6 brutal:1 cunning:1 group:2 recently:2 hide:1 semi:1 rick:5 deckard:55 reluctantly:1 agree:4 take:9 one:20 assignment:1 initially:5 polarized:1 critic:5 displease:1 pacing:2 others:3 enjoy:3 thematic:2 complexity:2 perform:2 poorly:1 north:4 theater:3 despite:4 box:3 office:4 failure:1 since:4 cult:2 classic:3 hail:1 production:17 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5,356 | Apollo_15 | Apollo 15 was the ninth manned mission in the Apollo program and the fourth mission to land on the Moon. It was the first of what were termed "J missions", long duration stays on the Moon with a greater focus on science than had been possible on previous missions. The mission began on July 26, 1971, and concluded on August 7. NASA called it the most successful manned flight ever achieved. http://www.upi.com/Audio/Year_in_Review/Events-of-1971/12295509436546-1/#title "Apollo 15: 1971 Year in Review, UPI.com" Commander David Scott and Lunar Module Pilot James Irwin spent three days on the Moon and a total of 18½ hours outside the spacecraft on lunar extra-vehicular activity. The mission was the first not to land in a Lunar mare, instead landing near Hadley rille in an area of the Mare Imbrium called Palus Putredinus (Marsh of Decay). The crew explored the area using the first Lunar Rover allowing them to travel much further from the Lunar Module lander than had previously been possible. They collected a total of 77 kg (170 lbs) of lunar surface material. At the same time Command Module Pilot Alfred Worden orbited the Moon, using a Scientific Instrument Module (SIM) to study the lunar surface and environment in great detail using a panoramic camera, gamma ray spectrometer, mapping camera, laser altimeter, mass spectrometer, and lunar sub-satellite that was launched at the end of the mission. Crew David R. Scott (3) - Commander Alfred M. Worden (1) - Command Module Pilot James B. Irwin (1) - Lunar Module Pilot Number in parentheses indicates number of spaceflights by each individual prior to and including this mission. All three astronauts on the all-Air Force crew received either an honorary degree or Master's degree from the University of Michigan, including Scott's honorary degree—which was awarded last-minute in Spring 1971 as the crew prepared for launch. Scott did attend the University of Michigan, but left before graduating to accept an appointment to West Point. The crew did their undergraduate work at West Point or the United States Naval Academy. Backup crew Richard F. Gordon, Jr. - Commander Vance D. Brand - Command Module Pilot Harrison H. Schmitt - Lunar Module Pilot Schmitt was the first member of Group 4 to be selected as either a prime or backup crew member for an Apollo flight. Support crew Joseph P. Allen Robert A. Parker Karl G. Heinze Flight directors Gerry Griffin, Gold team Milton Windler, Maroon team Glynn Lunney, Black team Gene Kranz, White team Mission parameters Mass: Launch mass: 2,921,005 kg Total spacecraft: 46,782 kg CSM mass: 30,354 kg, of which CM was 5840 kg, SM 24,514 kg LM mass: 16,428 kg, ascent stage at lunar liftoff 4,951 kg Earth orbits: 3 before leaving for Moon, about one on return Lunar orbits: 74 Earth parking orbit Perigee: 169.5 km Apogee: 171.3 km Inclination: 29.679° Period: 87.84 min LM-CSM docking Undocked: 1971-07-30 - 18:13:16 UTC Docked: 1971-08-02 - 19:10:25 UTC EVAs Scott - Stand up EVA - LM upper hatch Start Stand Up EVA: 1971-07-31, 00:16:49 UTC End Stand Up EVA: July 31, 00:49:56 UTC Duration: 33 minutes, 07 seconds Scott and Irwin - EVA 1 EVA 1 Start: 1971-07-31, 13:12:17 UTC EVA 1 End: July 31, 19:45:59 UTC Duration: 6 hours, 32 minutes, 42 seconds Scott and Irwin - EVA 2 EVA 2 Start: 1971-08-01, 11:48:48 UTC EVA 2 End: August 1, 19:01:02 UTC Duration: 7 hours, 12 minutes, 14 seconds Scott and Irwin - EVA 3 EVA 3 Start: 1971-08-02, 08:52:14 UTC EVA 3 End: August 2, 13:42:04 UTC Duration: 4 hours, 49 minutes, 50 seconds Worden (Irwin - Stand up) - Transearth EVA 4 EVA 4 Start: 1971-08-05, 15:31:12 UTC EVA 4 End: August 5, 16:10:19 UTC Duration: 39 minutes, 07 seconds Mission highlights Launch Incident Shortly after the Saturn V first stage separation, the instrumentation on the spent Stage 1 went dead. This was traced to the exhaust of Stage 2 striking the stage and burning out the electronics. This was later traced to a reduction in the number of Stage 1 retrofire charges from 8 to 4, a weight-saving measure first used on this mission to improve the launch vehicle performance. It was discovered that the two stages were in fact uncomfortably close following stage separation, due to the slow thrust decay of the F-1 engines, and failure of any one charge could have caused a collision. Subsequent flights returned to the original retrofire configuration. Planning and training Commander Dave Scott during geology training in New Mexico on March 19, 1971. The crew for Apollo 15 had previously served as the backup crew for Apollo 12. There had been a friendly rivalry between that prime and backup crew on that mission, with the prime being all Navy, and the backup all Air Force. Originally Apollo 15 would have been an H mission, like Apollos 12, 13, 14. But on September 2, 1970, NASA announced it was cancelling what were to be the current incarnations of the Apollo 15 and Apollo 19 missions. To maximize the return from the remaining missions, Apollo 15 would now fly as a J mission and have the honor of carrying the first Lunar Rover. One of the major changes in the training for 15 was the geology training. Although on previous flights the crews had been trained in field geology, for the first time 15 would make it a high priority. Scott and Irwin would train with Lee Silver, a Caltech geologist who on Earth was interested in the Precambrian. Silver had been suggested by Harrison Schmitt as an alternative to the classroom lecturers that NASA had previously used. Among other things, Silver had made important refinements to the methods for dating rocks using the decay of uranium into lead in the late 1950s. At first Silver would take the prime and backup crews to various geological sites as if for a normal field geology lesson, but as launch time approached, these trips became more realistic. Crews began to wear mock-ups of the backpacks they would carry, and communicate using walkie-talkies to a CapCom in a tent. (During a mission the Capsule Communicators (CapComs), always fellow astronauts, were the only people who normally would speak to the crew). The CapCom was accompanied by a group of geologists unfamiliar with the area who would rely on the astronauts' descriptions to interpret the findings. The decision to land at Hadley came in September 1970. The Site Selection Committees had narrowed the field down to two sites — Hadley Rille or the crater Marius, near which were a group of low, possibly volcanic, domes. Although not ultimately his decision, the commander of a mission always held great sway. To Dave Scott the choice was clear, with Hadley, being "exploration at its finest". Command Module Pilot Al Worden undertook a different kind of geology training. Working with an Egyptian, Farouk El-Baz, he flew over areas in an airplane simulating the speed at which terrain would pass below him while in the CSM in orbit. He became quite adept at making observations as the object traveled below. Hardware The Lunar Roving Vehicle, or the Rover, had been in development since May 1969, with the contract awarded to Boeing. It could be folded into a space 5 ft by 20 in (1.5 m by 0.5 m). Unloaded it weighed 460 lb (209 kg) and when carrying two astronauts and their equipment, 1500 lb (700 kg). Each wheel was independently driven by ¼ horsepower (200 W) electric motor. Although it could be driven by either astronaut, the Commander always drove. Travelling at speeds up to 6 to 8 mph (10 to 12 km/h), it meant that for the first time the astronauts could travel far afield from their lander and still have enough time to do some serious scientific experiments. The Saturn V that launched Apollo 15 was designated SA-510, the tenth flight-ready model of the rocket. Apollo 15 used Command/Service Module CSM-112, which was given the callsign Endeavour, named after the HM Bark Endeavour and Lunar Module LM-10, callsign Falcon, named after the United States Air Force Academy mascot. If Apollo 15 had flown as an H mission it would have been with CSM-111 and LM-9. That CSM was used by the Apollo Soyuz Test Project but the Lunar Module went unused and is now on display at the Kennedy Space Center. As the payload of the rocket was greater, changes were made to its launch trajectory and Saturn V itself. The rocket was launched in a more southerly direction (80–100 degrees azimuth) and the Earth parking orbit lowered to 166 km (90 nautical miles) above the Earth's surface. These two changes meant 1100 pounds (500 kg) more could be launched. The propellant reserves were reduced and the number of retrorockets on the S-IC first stage reduced from eight to four. The four outboard engines of the S-IC would be burned longer and the center engine would also burn longer before being shut down (see Saturn V for more information on the launch sequence). Changes were also made to the S-II second stage to stop pogo oscillations. On the Lunar Module, the fuel and oxidizer tanks were enlarged on both the descent and ascent stages and the engine bell on the descent stage was extended. Batteries and solar cells were added for increased electrical power. In all this increased the weight of the Lunar Module to 36,000 pounds (16,330 kilograms), 4000 pounds (1800 kg) heavier than previous models. The astronauts themselves wore new spacesuits. On all previous Apollo flights, including the non-lunar flights, the commander and lunar module pilot had worn suits with the life support, liquid cooling, and communications connections in two parallel rows of three. On Apollo 15, the new suits, dubbed the "A7L-B," had the connectors situated in triangular pairs. This new arrangement, along with the relocation of the entry zipper (which went in an up-down motion on the old suits), from the right shoulder to the left hip, allowed the inclusion of a new waist joint, allowing the astronauts to bend completely over, and even to sit on the rover. Upgraded backpacks allowed for longer-duration moonwalks, and the command module pilot, who wore a suit with three connectors, would wear a five-connector version of the old moon suit — the liquid cooling water connector being removed, as the command module pilot would make a "deep-space EVA" to retrieve film cartridges on the flight home. Apollo 15 SM SIM bay (NASA) Technicians at the Kennedy Space Center had many problems with the SIM bay. It was the first time it had flown and experienced problems from the start. Problems came from the fact the instruments were designed to operate in zero gravity, but had to be tested in the 1 g on the surface of the Earth. As such things like the 7.5 m booms for the mass and gamma ray spectrometers could only be tested using railings that tried to mimic the space environment, though never worked particularly well. When the technicians tried to integrate the entire bay into the rest of the spacecraft, data streams would not synchronize and lead investigators of the instruments would want to make last minute checks and changes. When it came time to test the operation of the gamma-ray spectrometer it was necessary to stop every engine within 10 miles (16 km) of the test site. Once all the various components had been installed on the Saturn V, it was moved to the launch site, Launch Complex 39A. During late June and early July 1971, the rocket and Mobile Service Structure were struck by lightning at least four times. All was well however, with only minor damage suffered. The following is a brief overview of the Apollo 15 mission. For more in-depth information, see the main article for each section. Outward journey Launching at 9:34:00 am EDT on 1971-07-26, Apollo 15 would take four days to reach the Moon. After spending two hours in orbit around the Earth, the S-IVB third stage of the Saturn V was reignited to send them to the Moon. During the retrieval of the LM from its stowed position below the CSM, a light came on the control panel that indicated the valves of the Service Propulsion System were open and the engine should be firing. A short was found in a switch that controlled all the redundant valves for the engine. New procedures were developed to deal with this. During their first inspection of the LM, Scott and Irwin found that the glass cover of a tapemeter had broken forcing them to clean up the glass shards lest they breathe them in. On the fourth day they entered into lunar orbit and prepared for lunar descent. Solo operations During the three day explorations of the Moon by Scott and Irwin, Worden had a busy schedule of observations. Apollo 15 was the first mission to carry the SIM bay, which contained a panoramic camera, gamma ray spectrometer, mapping camera, laser altimeter and mass spectrometer. Worden had to operate the shutter and lenses on the camera and turn on and off the various instruments. During the coast back to Earth, he would perform an EVA to retrieve film cassettes from the cameras. His photographs and observations led to the selection of Taurus Littrow as the future Apollo 17 landing site. Lunar surface Jim Irwin salutes the US flag Panoramic Assembly of Apollo 15 Landing Site (Moonpans) Apollo 15 was the first mission to perform three EVAs on the lunar surface. After landing at 26°8′ N 3°38′ E, Scott removed the top hatch of the LM to perform a site survey, take some panoramic photographs and get a brief overview of the surrounding areas. This was the only stand up EVA performed during any of the Apollo lunar landing missions. On the first EVA the crew drove the Rover south to sample the area at Elbow Crater. The planned stop at Station 2 was eliminated due to time constraints. The crew continued to the base of Mount Hadley Delta where they sampled the only small boulder they could find. They then drove back the LM where Irwin picked up and deployed the Apollo Lunar Surface Experiment Package (ALSEP) while Scott unloaded the samples from the rover. Scott had extreme difficulty drilling the holes for the heat-flow experiment, forcing him to come back the next day to complete the task. The cause of Scott's troubles was ultimately determined to be a faulty design of the drill stems. The stems have external flutes to carry the drill cuttings to the surface but, because of the relatively low strength of the fiberglass/boron-filament laminate of which these stems were made - chosen because of their thermal characteristics - the walls were made thicker at the joins by decreasing the depth of the flutes. Apollo Lunar Surface Journal The second EVA again took Scott and Irwin to the base of Mount Hadley Delta but they went up its slope. Here Irwin found the Genesis Rock sitting atop another rock as if it were perched on a pedestal. Returning to the LM, Scott completed the heat flow holes and began on a core sample which once again was extremely difficult to drill. He was once again forced to leave it for the next day. Scott strained so hard trying to remove the core tube sample that his finger tips were bruised and sore for two weeks. He was finally able to extract the tubes with a little help from Irwin. The difficulties with the core sample meant the cancellation of the traverse to the North Complex. The crew still traveled to the edge of Hadley Rille. Returning to the LM for the last time, Scott simultaneously dropped a falcon feather and his geology hammer to prove Galileo Galilei's theory that in a vacuum, objects of different mass fall at the same rate, which they did. Before Scott could pick up the feather and return it to earth, Irwin inadvertently stepped on the feather, which buried it in the lunar soil forever. The astronauts spent 18 hours and 37 minutes exploring the moon's surface in their electronic moonbuggy. The astronaunts joked that they wanted to explore all day. David Scott said, "I wish we could just sit down and play with the rocks for a while. Look at these things. They’re shiny, sparkling." http://www.upi.com/Audio/Year_in_Review/Events-of-1971/12295509436546-1/#title "Apollo 15: 1971 Year in Review, UPI.com" Apollo 15's lunar plaque On LRV 1, a plaque was attached bearing the inscription: MANS FIRST WHEELS ON THE MOON, DELIVERED BY FALCON, 1971-07-30 And the signatures of the Apollo 15 Astronauts. Return to Earth After lifting off from the lunar surface, Falcon and Endeavour rendezvoused and docked. After transferring across the lunar samples and other equipment, Falcon was jettisoned. It would fire its rocket engine to cause it to impact the lunar surface. During lunar liftoff, Al Worden played the United States Air Force song "Wild Blue Yonder", signifying the all-Air Force makeup of the Apollo 15 crew. The plan was to play the song after Falcon was well in orbit, but he started the song a few seconds after liftoff, making it hard for Falcon'''s crew to hear the conversation with mission control. When Worden realized his mistake, he stopped the song and started it again a few minutes later as originally planned. The period from the final moonwalk to the lunar ascent and rendezvous with Endeavour proved to be physically and mentally exhausting for the crew and ground controllers, and led to serious problems. By the time of rendezvous, Scott and Irwin had gone 20 hours without sleep, including a grueling third EVA on the lunar surface. It was later determined they had depleted their body fluid electrolytes, and both men began to show heart irregularities. In Irwin's case this was particularly serious, and after the flight he would eventually suffer two heart attacks. After the demanding lunar orbit rendezvous and docking, coordination between the exhausted crew and mission controllers broke down, delaying the jettison of Falcon's spent ascent stage. Learning from this experience, NASA changed the training and flight schedules of the two subsequent Apollo lunar landing missions to allow a full sleep period before liftoff from the lunar surface, and added supplemental electrolytes to the crew's diet.Apollo 15 spent one more day in lunar orbit, continuing the observations of Worden. After releasing a subsatellite, the crew ignited their Service Propulsion engine to put them on a trajectory back to Earth. The next day, Worden performed an EVA to retrieve the film cassettes from the SIM bay cameras, the first deep-space EVA performed outside of earth orbit. The Apollo 15 spacecraft splashed down safely despite a parachute failure. The twelfth day in space was uneventful, with Mission Control holding a press conference where the astronauts were asked questions submitted by the news media. On their 13th and final day they prepared for reentry. During descent, one of their parachutes failed, meaning they landed under only two. Thankfully, the third parachute was added for redundancy and they landed successfully, although the landing was harder than usual. Scandals Dave Scott's space suit on display at the NASM. After a highly successful mission, the reputation of the crew and NASA was tarnished somewhat by a deal they made with H. Walter Eiermann, an American citizen who had many professional and social contacts with NASA employees and the astronaut corps. Scott had carried 398 unauthorized First-Day Covers in his spacesuit. Eiermann had promised each astronaut US$7,000 in the form of savings accounts in return for 100 covers signed after having returned from the Moon. He told them that he would not advertise or sell the covers until the end of the Apollo program. Irwin wrote in his book "To Rule the Night" that the astronauts had agreed to the deal as a way to help finance their children's college tuition. Scott sent 100 of these covers to Eiermann to Stuttgart, Germany. Eiermann then passed them on to the stamp dealer Herman E. Sieger from Lorch, Germany, who had previously approached him and had suggested the deal. Sieger proceeded to sell the covers for an average price of US$1,500 in a public sale in Germany. On hearing these news, Scott contacted Eiermann, asking him to stop the sale. The crew also decided against receiving any money from Eiermann. NASA took possession of the remaining 298 covers. All three crew members were formally reprimanded and their personnel evaluation Officer Efficiency Reports were changed to reflect a formal finding of "lack of judgment." Worden was reassigned within NASA from flight status. Scott was not reassigned. He had already begun working on the design of the docking module for the upcoming ASTP mission when the cover scandal broke. Two Sides of the Moon, by David Scott and Alexei Leonov, Simon & Schuster, 2004 Irwin resigned to form "High Flight", a Christian outreach ministry based in Colorado. Congressional questioning of NASA officials about the "Stamp Affair" caused further embarrassment for the agency as the Apollo program wound down. Another minor controversy centered around two timepieces, a watch and stopwatch, carried by Scott. He had agreed to evaluate the timepieces for the manufacturer at the request of a friend. Thinking they might be useful, particularly for the possible timing of a manually controlled emergency propulsion maneuver, Scott took them along on the mission without prior authorization. One final controversial event happened after the flight. The crew had contacted Belgian sculptor Paul Van Hoeydonck to create a small statuette to personally commemorate those astronauts and cosmonauts having lost their lives in the furtherance of space exploration. The small aluminum sculpture called "Fallen Astronaut" was left on the Moon next to the Rover at the end of EVA 3, along with a plaque bearing the names of fourteen American astronauts and Russian cosmonauts. Unknown at the time, two of the original selection of 20 cosmonauts were also deceased before Apollo 15: Valentin Bondarenko (fire during training, March 1961) and Grigori Nelyubov (train accident/suicide, February 1966). Apollo Lunar Surface Journal Therefore, their names were not included on the plaque. The memorial was left while the TV camera was turned off. Only Irwin knew what Scott was doing at the time. Scott told mission control he was doing some clean up activities around the rover so they wouldn't know what he was doing. They had agreed with Van Hoeydonck that no replicas were to be made. After mentioning the statuette during their post-flight press conference, the National Air and Space Museum contacted the crew asking for a replica made for the museum, and Van Hoeydonck subsequently advertised replicas for sale to the public. Under pressure from NASA, Van Hoeydonck withdrew the sale offer. Spacecraft locations The Command Module Endeavour is displayed at the National Museum of the United States Air Force, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Dayton, Ohio. The Lunar Module Falcon descent stage and LRV 1 remain at the landing site at 26° 7' 55.99" N 3° 38' 1.90" E.Falcon's ascent stage impacted the Moon 3 August 1971 at 03:03:37.0 UT (2 August, 11:03 PM EDT) 26.36 N, 0.25 E. Mission insignia The circular patch features stylized red, white and blue birds flying over the Hadley Rille section of the moon. Immediately behind the birds, a line of craters form the Roman numeral XV. The artwork is circled in red, with a white band giving the mission and crew names and a blue border. Scott contacted fashion designer Emilio Pucci to design the patch, who came up with the basic idea of the three-bird motif. The crew changed the colors from blues and greens to more patriotic red, white and blue. Visibility from space The halo area of the Apollo 15 Landing site, generated by the LEM's exhaust plume, was observed by a camera aboard the Japanese lunar orbiter SELENE and confirmed by comparative analysis of photographs in May, 2008. This corresponds well to photographs taken from the Apollo 15 Command Module showing a change in surface reflectivity due to the plume, and is the first visible trace of manned landings on the moon seen from space since the close of the Apollo program. The "halo" area around Apollo 15 landing site observed by Terrain Camera on SELENE(KAGUYA) Multimedia Depiction in fiction Portions of the Apollo 15 mission are dramatized in the miniseries From the Earth to the Moon episode entitled "Galileo was Right". See also Extra-vehicular activity List of spacewalks Splashdown List of artificial objects on the Moon Google Moon Notes References Chaikin, Andrew (1994). A Man On The Moon: The Voyages of the Apollo Astronauts. Viking. ISBN 0-670-81446-6. Harland, David M. (1999). Exploring the Moon: The Apollo Expeditions. Springer/Praxis Publishing. ISBN 1-85233-099-6. NASA Manned Spacecraft Center (1972). Apollo 15 Preliminary Science Report. Scientific and Technical Office, NASA. Lattimer, Dick (1985). 'All We Did was Fly to the Moon. Whispering Eagle Press. ISBN 0-9611228-0-3. Apollo 15 Flight Journal. Retrieved on 2005-06-17 Apollo 15 Lunar Surface Journal. Retrieved on 2005-06-17 Apollo By The Numbers: A Statistical Reference by Richard W. Orloff (NASA). Retrieved on 2005-06-17 Moonport: A History of Apollo Launch Facilities and Operations. Retrieved on 2005-06-17 Apollo 15 in the Encyclopedia Astronautica. Retrieved on 2005-06-17 Apollo 15 | Endeavour in A Field Guide to American Spacecraft. Apollo 15 Launch Video Apollo Program Summary Report. Retrieved on 2005-06-17 NSSDC Apollo 15 page. Retrieved on 2007-12-20 NASA (1972-09-15). Articles Carried on Manned Space Flights''. Press Release. Sieger Flown Moon Covers. 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5,357 | Ambiorix | Statue of Ambiorix in Tongeren (a fanciful interpretation, rather than an archaeological reconstruction, of his possible appearance). . Ambiorix was, together with Catuvolcus, prince of the Eburones, leader of a Belgic tribe of north-eastern Gaul (Gallia Belgica), where modern Belgium is located. In the 19th century Ambiorix became a Belgian national hero because of his resistance against Julius Caesar, as written in Caesar's Commentarii de Bello Gallico. Early history In 57 BC Julius Caesar conquered Gaul and also Belgica (modernday Northern France, Belgium and a southern section of The Netherlands to the Rhine River; and the north-western portion of North Rhine-Westfalia, Germany.) There were several tribes in the country who fought against each other regularly. The Eburones were ruled by Ambiorix and Catuvolcus. In 54 BC Caesar's troops urgently needed more food and thereby the local tribes were forced to give up part of their harvest, which had not been good that year. Understandably the starving Eburones were reluctant to do so and Caesar ordered that camps be built near the Eburones' villages. Each centurion was ordered to make sure the food supplies were delivered to the Roman soldiers. This created resentment among the Eburones. Although Julius Caesar had freed him from paying tribute to the Atuatuci, Ambiorix joined Catuvolcus in the winter of 54 BC in an uprising against the Roman forces under Quintus Titurius Sabinus and Lucius Aurunculeius Cotta. The Revolt Ambiorix and his tribesmen attacked and killed several Roman soldiers who were foraging for wood in the nearby vicinity. The survivors fled back to their camp, followed by Ambiorix and his men. There he realised there were too many Romans for his troops to fight and he decided to negotiate with them. Ambiorix explained to the Roman camp leaders, Sabinus and Cotta, that he had no problems with them and in fact, was very happy with them, because now he had no troubles with the other tribes. He warned the Romans that a coalition of other tribes were planning to attack them and would get the support of the German tribes who would cross the Rhine. Ambiorix advised them to relocate to another Roman camp so that they would be stronger to battle these troops. He also promised them he would leave them alone when they made this crossing. Sabinus and Cotta debated the whole night on what they should do. Sabinus trusted Ambiorix and considered it would be wise to do what he had advised them. Cotta thought it would be better to stay and try to fight back when the attacks would happen. Ultimately, Cotta decided they would stay, but it wouldn't be his fault if they all got killed by doing so. This made the Roman troops very unsure and therefore they decided to leave anyway. The two closest Roman camps were behind hills and in the other option behind a plain near a valley. Sabinus and Cotta chose for the easy solution and crossed the valley. While they crossed the valley Ambiorix and his men attacked them from up the hills and slaughtered them. Sabinus, Cotta and their troops were massacred. Caesar's revenge When the Roman Senate heard what happened, Caesar swore to put down all the Belgic tribes. It was very important that the other Roman provinces knew that the almighty Roman republic couldn't be beaten so easily. After all, Ambiorix had killed a whole Roman legion and five cohorts. A Belgic attack on Quintus Cicero (brother of the orator), then stationed with a legion in the Nervii's territory, failed due to the timely appearance of Caesar. The Roman campaigns against the Belgae took a few years, but eventually the Belgae were no match against 50,000 trained Roman soldiers. The tribes were slaughtered or driven out and their fields burned. The Eburones were history from that point. Ambiorix and his men, however, managed to cross the Rhine and disappear without a trace. Legacy Caesar wrote about Ambiorix in his commentary about his battles against the Gauls: "De Bello Gallico". In this text he also wrote the famous line: "Of all the Gauls, the Belgae are the bravest." ("...Horum omnium fortissimi sunt Belgae..."). This sentence has often been misquoted as "Of all the Gauls, the Belgians are the bravest.", while Caesar meant the tribes collected under the name, "Belgae" and not "the Belgians", because Belgium didn't exist until 1830. Ambiorix remained forgotten until the 19th century. When Belgium became independent in 1830 the national government started searching through their historical archives for persons who could serve as national heroes. In Caesar's "De Bello Gallico" they discovered Ambiorix and his deeds. In 1841 the Belgian poet Joannes Nolet de Brauwere van Steeland wrote a lyrical epic about Ambiorix and on September 5, 1866 a statue of Ambiorix was erected on the Great Market of Tongeren in Belgium. There is no proof he ever lived there, but since Tongeren is Belgium's oldest village, Caesar referenced Atuatuca and Tongeren's original name is Atuatuca Tongorum it was placed there. Nowadays Ambiorix is one of the most famous characters in Belgian history. Many companies, bars, french fries stands have named themselves after him and in many Belgian comics as Suske en Wiske and Jommeke he once played a guest spot. There was also a short lived comic called Ambionix Ambionix official home page: http://www.wimswerts.be/htmlmap/ambionix.html . Which features a scientist teleporting a Belgae chief, loosely based on Ambiorix, to modern day Belgium. In the French comic Asterix in the album Asterix in Belgium Asterix, Obelix, Dogmatix and Vitalstatistix go to Belgium because they are angry with Caesar about his remark that the Belgians are the bravest of all the Gauls. The Belgian chief in the album, Beefix, does resemble Ambiorix a bit. In 2005 Ambiorix was nominated for the title De Grootste Belg (The Greatest Belgian). In the Flemish edition he ended in fourth place. In the Walloon edition he ended in 50th place. References Caesar, De Bello Gallico v. 26-51, vi. 29-43, viii. 24; Dio Cassius xl. 7-11; Florus iii. 10. External links Ambiorix from www.livius.org All about Ambiorix and his battle against the Roman from www.atuatuca.de | Ambiorix |@lemmatized statue:2 ambiorix:24 tongeren:4 fanciful:1 interpretation:1 rather:1 archaeological:1 reconstruction:1 possible:1 appearance:2 together:1 catuvolcus:3 prince:1 eburones:6 leader:2 belgic:3 tribe:9 north:3 eastern:1 gaul:6 gallia:1 belgica:2 modern:2 belgium:9 locate:1 century:2 become:2 belgian:9 national:3 hero:2 resistance:1 julius:3 caesar:15 write:4 commentarii:1 de:7 bello:4 gallico:4 early:1 history:3 bc:3 conquer:1 also:4 modernday:1 northern:1 france:1 southern:1 section:1 netherlands:1 rhine:4 river:1 western:1 portion:1 westfalia:1 germany:1 several:2 country:1 fight:3 regularly:1 rule:1 troop:5 urgently:1 need:1 food:2 thereby:1 local:1 force:2 give:1 part:1 harvest:1 good:2 year:2 understandably:1 starving:1 reluctant:1 order:2 camp:5 build:1 near:2 village:2 centurion:1 make:3 sure:1 supply:1 deliver:1 roman:16 soldier:3 created:1 resentment:1 among:1 although:1 free:1 pay:1 tribute:1 atuatuci:1 join:1 winter:1 uprising:1 quintus:2 titurius:1 sabinus:6 lucius:1 aurunculeius:1 cotta:7 revolt:1 tribesman:1 attack:5 kill:3 forage:1 wood:1 nearby:1 vicinity:1 survivor:1 flee:1 back:2 follow:1 men:3 realise:1 many:3 decide:3 negotiate:1 explain:1 problem:1 fact:1 happy:1 trouble:1 warn:1 coalition:1 plan:1 would:8 get:2 support:1 german:1 cross:4 advise:2 relocate:1 another:1 strong:1 battle:3 promise:1 leave:2 alone:1 crossing:1 debate:1 whole:2 night:1 trusted:1 consider:1 wise:1 think:1 stay:2 try:1 happen:2 ultimately:1 fault:1 unsure:1 therefore:1 anyway:1 two:1 close:1 behind:2 hill:2 option:1 plain:1 valley:3 chose:1 easy:1 solution:1 slaughter:2 massacre:1 revenge:1 senate:1 heard:1 swore:1 put:1 important:1 province:1 know:1 almighty:1 republic:1 beat:1 easily:1 legion:2 five:1 cohort:1 cicero:1 brother:1 orator:1 station:1 nervii:1 territory:1 fail:1 due:1 timely:1 campaign:1 belgae:6 take:1 eventually:1 match:1 trained:1 drive:1 field:1 burn:1 point:1 however:1 manage:1 disappear:1 without:1 trace:1 legacy:1 commentary:1 text:1 famous:2 line:1 brave:3 horum:1 omnium:1 fortissimi:1 sunt:1 sentence:1 often:1 misquote:1 mean:1 collect:1 name:3 exist:1 remain:1 forgotten:1 independent:1 government:1 start:1 search:1 historical:1 archive:1 person:1 could:1 serve:1 discover:1 deed:1 poet:1 joannes:1 nolet:1 brauwere:1 van:1 steeland:1 lyrical:1 epic:1 september:1 erect:1 great:2 market:1 proof:1 ever:1 live:2 since:1 old:1 reference:2 atuatuca:3 original:1 tongorum:1 place:3 nowadays:1 one:1 character:1 company:1 bar:1 french:2 fry:1 stand:1 comic:3 suske:1 en:1 wiske:1 jommeke:1 play:1 guest:1 spot:1 short:1 call:1 ambionix:3 official:1 home:1 page:1 http:1 www:3 wimswerts:1 htmlmap:1 html:1 feature:1 scientist:1 teleport:1 chief:2 loosely:1 base:1 day:1 asterix:3 album:2 obelix:1 dogmatix:1 vitalstatistix:1 go:1 angry:1 remark:1 beefix:1 resemble:1 bit:1 nominate:1 title:1 grootste:1 belg:1 flemish:1 edition:2 end:2 fourth:1 walloon:1 v:1 vi:1 viii:1 dio:1 cassius:1 xl:1 florus:1 iii:1 external:1 link:1 livius:1 org:1 |@bigram gallia_belgica:1 julius_caesar:3 caesar_commentarii:1 commentarii_de:1 de_bello:4 bello_gallico:4 urgently_need:1 pay_tribute:1 http_www:1 asterix_obelix:1 dio_cassius:1 external_link:1 livius_org:1 |
5,358 | Esotericism | Esotericism or Esoterism is a term with two basic meanings. In the dictionary sense of the term, it signifies the holding of esoteric opinions, Chambers 20thC dictionary, 1972 and derives from the Greek (esôterikos), a compound of (esô): "within", thus "pertaining to the more inward", mystic. Its antonym is exoteric. In the scholarly literature, the term designates a series of historically related religious currents including Gnosticism, Hermetism, magic, astrology, alchemy, Rosicrucianism, the Christian Theosophy of Jacob Böhme and his followers, Illuminism, Mesmerism, Swedenborgianism, Spiritualism, the theosophical currents associated with Helena Blavatsky and her followers. There are competing views regarding the common traits uniting these currents, not all of which involve "inwardness", mystery or secrecy as a crucial trait. Esoteric knowledge, in the dictionary (non-scholarly) sense, is thus that which is available only to a narrow circle of "enlightened", "initiated", or specially educated people. Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary : esoteric Esoteric items may be known as esoterica. Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary : esoterica In contrast, exoteric knowledge is knowledge that is well-known or public; or perceived as informally canonic in society at large. Finally, it can be noted that esotericism, beside its scholarly and dictionary definitions, can be used in a loose, popular sense: not in order to denote e.g. mystical knowledge or practice, but rather informally to mean any perception or knowledge that is for the advanced individual such as theoretical physics, or that pertains to the minutiae of a particular discipline, such as "esoteric" baseball statistics. Etymology Plato, in his dialogue Alcibíades (circa 390 BC), uses the expression ta esô meaning "the inner things", and in his dialogue Theaetetus (circa 360 BC) he uses ta eksô meaning "the outside things". The probable first appearance of the Greek adjective esôterikos is in Lucian of Samosata's "The Auction of Lives", § 26 (also called "The Auction of the Philosophical Schools"), written around AD 166. http://paginasesotericas.tripod.com/esoterismo.htm The term esoteric first appeared in English in the 1701 History of Philosophy by Thomas Stanley, in his description of the mystery-school of Pythagoras; the Pythagoreans were divided into "exoteric"(under training), and "esoteric" (admitted into the "inner" circle). The corresponding noun "esotericism" was coined in French by Jacques Matter in 1828 and popularized by Eliphas Levi in the 1850s. It entered the English language in the 1880s via the works of theosophist Alfred Sinnett. Definition Among the competing understandings of what unites the various currents designated by "Esotericism" in the scholarly sense, perhaps the most influential has been proposed by Antoine Faivre. His definition is based on the presence in these currents of four essential traits: a theory of correspondences, the conviction that nature is a living entity, the need for mediating elements (such as symbols or visions) in order to access spiritual knowledge, and a sense of personal transmutation when arriving at this knowledge. To this are added two less crucial traits. Esotericism sometimes suggests an additional element of initiation. Finally, esotericists frequently suggest that there is a concordance between different religious traditions. It should, however, be emphasized that Faivre's definition is one of several divergent understandings of the most appropriate use of the term. History Since esotericism is not a single tradition but a vast array of often unrelated figures and movements, there is no single historical thread underlying them all. The developments that one might wish to emphasize in drawing up a history of esotericism furthermore depends on whether esotericism in the dictionary (non-scholarly) or the scholarly sense is intended. Several historically attested religions emphasize secret or hidden knowledge, and are thus esoteric in the dictionary sense, without necessarily being esoteric movements in the scholarly sense of the word. Thus, the Roman Empire had several mystery religions which emphasized initiation. Some saw Christianity, with its ritual of baptism, as a mystery religion. None of these are "esoteric" in the scholarly sense. The terms "Gnosticism" and "Gnosis" refer to a family of religious movements which claimed to possess secret knowledge (gnosis). Another important movement from the ancient world was Hermeticism or Hermetism. Both of these are often seen as precursors to esoteric movements in the scholarly sense of the word. Non-Western traditions can also display the characteristics of esoteric movements. The Ismaili Muslims also stress a distinction between the inner and the outer. It is believed that spiritual salvation is attained by receiving the 'Nur' (light) through the "esoteric", that is, spiritual search for enlightenment. Ismaili Islam also has some of the characteristics associated with esotericism as defined by Faivre, e.g. the belief in an intermediate spiritual sphere mediating between humans and the divine. In order to distinguish esoteric currents based primarily on sources from late Antiquity and the European Middle Ages, from e.g. Islamic or Jewish currents with similar features, the more precise term "Western esotericism" is often employed. Western esoteric movements in the scholarly sense thus have roots in Antiquity and the Middle Ages. A major phase in the development of Western esotericism begins in the Renaissance, partly as the result of various attempts to revive such earlier movements. During the Italian Renaissance, for example, translators such as Ficino and Pico della Mirandola turned their attention to the classical literature of neo-Platonism, and what was thought to be the pre-Mosaic tradition of Hermeticism. Other pursuits of Antiquity that entered into the mix of esoteric speculation were astrology and alchemy. Beside such revived currents from late Antiquity, a second major source of esoteric speculation is the kabbalah, which was lifted out of its Jewish context and adapted to a Christian framework by people such as Johannes Reuchlin. Outside the Italian Renaissance, yet another major current of esotericism was initiated by Paracelsus, who combined e.g. alchemical and astrological themes into a complex body of doctrines. In the early 17th century, esotericism is represented by currents such as Christian Theosophy and Rosicrucianism. A century later, esoteric ideas entered various strands of Freemasonry. Later in the 18th century, as well as in the early 19th century, the diffuse movement known as Mesmerism became a major expression of esotericism. In the 19th century, esotericism is also represented e.g. by certain aspects of the philosophy, literature and science associated with Romanticism, by spiritualism, and by a notable French wave of occultism. The major exponent of esotericism in the latter part of the 19th century is the Theosophy of H. P. Blavatsky, not to be confused with the Christian Theosophy mentioned above. In the 20th century, Theosophy was reformulated by Annie Besant, C. W. Leadbeater, Alice Bailey, Rudolf Steiner and many others, and became the source for a whole range of post-theosophical movements such as The Summit Lighthouse. A particularly successful post-theosophical movement is Anthroposophy, a synthesis of occultist, Christian and neo-Platonic ideas with Western esoteric concepts as formulated in the wake of Theosophy. Anthroposophy, which was founded by Rudolf Steiner in the early part of the 20th century, includes esoteric versions of education, agriculture, and medicine. Robert McDermott, The Essential Steiner, ISBN 0-06-065345-0, pp. 3-11 Yet another notable esoteric strain stems from the teachings of G. I. Gurdjieff and P. D. Ouspensky. Theosophy is also considered a major influence on the many less institutionally organized varieties of esotericism in metaphysical milieus, "Ascended Master Activities", and within the New Age. Finally, it can be noted that Carl Gustav Jung, can be seen as an exponent of esotericism: his writings concern esoteric subject such as alchemy, and rephrased the concept of correspondences in a modern, psychologizing terminology in his theory of synchronicity. See also Alchemy Anthroposophy Archeosophy Astrology Behmenism Clairvoyance Esoteric Buddhism Esoteric Christianity Esoteric cosmology Esotericism in Germany and Austria Freemasonry Gnosticism Hermeticism Kabbalah Karma List of Buddhist topics List of spirituality-related topics List of religious, esoteric, metaphysical and mystical symbols List of Western esoteric topics Magic and religion Martinism Merkabah Mysticism Neoplatonism New Age Numerology Occult Odic force Qigong Planes of existence Reincarnation Rosicrucianism Spiritual evolution Spirituality Telepathy Theosophy Western Esotericism Western Esotericism (academia) Western mystery tradition References Benjamin Walker, Encyclopedia of Esoteric Man: The Hidden Side of the Human Entity, Routledge and Kegan Paul, London, 1977, ISBN 0-7100-8479-X Benjamin Walker, Man and the Beasts Within: The Encyclopedia of the Occult, the Esoteric, and the Supernatural, Stein & Day, New York, 1978, ISBN 0-8128-1900-4 Wouter J. Hanegraaff (ed.) in collaboration with Antoine Faivre, Roelof van den Broek & Jean-Pierre Brach, Dictionary of Gnosis and Western Esotericism, 2 vols., Brill, Leiden 2005. Aries: Journal for the Study of Western Esotericism, Brill, Leiden, since 2001. Aries Book Series: Texts and Studies in Western Esotericism, Brill, Leiden, since 2006. Antoine Faivre, Access to Western Esotericism, SUNY Press, Albany 1994. Antoine Faivre, Theosophy, Imagination, Tradition: Studies in Western Esotericism, SUNY Press, Albany 2000. Kocku von Stuckrad, Western Esotericism: A Brief History of Secret Knowledge, Equinox, London / Oakville 2005. Wouter J. Hanegraaff, 'The Study of Western Esotericism: New Approaches to Christian and Secular Culture', in: Peter Antes, Armin W. Geertz & Randi R. Warne, New Approaches to the Study of Religion, vol. I: Regional, Critical, and Historical Approaches, Walter de Gruyter, Berlin / New York 2004. External links University of Amsterdam Center for Study of Western Esotericism Research & BA/MA programs in Western esotericism. 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5,359 | Odyssey | The Odyssey (, Odýsseia) is one of two major ancient Greek epic poems attributed to Homer. It is, in part, a sequel to the Iliad, the other work traditionally ascribed to Homer. The poem is fundamental to the modern Western canon. Indeed it is the second—the Iliad being the first—extant work of Western literature. It was probably composed near the end of the eighth century BC, somewhere in Ionia, the then Greek-controlled coastal region of what is now Turkey. D.C.H. Rieu's introduction to The Odyssey (Penguin, 2003), p. xi. The poem mainly centers on the Greek hero Odysseus (or Ulysses, as he was known in Roman myths) and his long journey home following the fall of Troy. It takes Odysseus ten years to reach Ithaca after the ten-year Trojan War. The dog Argos dies autik' idont' Odusea eeikosto eniauto ("seeing Odysseus again in the twentieth year"), Odyssey 17.327; cf. also 2.174-6, 23.102, 23.170. In his absence, it is assumed he has died, and his wife Penelope and son Telemachus must deal with a group of unruly suitors, the Mnesteres (Greek: Μνηστῆρες) or Proci, competing for Penelope's hand in marriage. It continues to be read in Homeric Greek and translated into modern languages around the world. The original poem was composed in an oral tradition by an aoidos, perhaps a rhapsode, and was intended more to be sung than read. D.C.H. Rieu's introduction to The Odyssey (Penguin, 2003), p. xi. The details of the ancient oral performance, and the story's conversion to a written work inspire continual debate among scholars. The Odyssey was written in a regionless poetic dialect of Greek and comprises 12,110 lines of dactylic hexameter. Among the most impressive elements of the text are its strikingly modern non-linear plot, and the fact that events are shown to depend as much on the choices made by women and serfs as on the actions of fighting men. In the English language as well as many others, the word odyssey has come to refer to an epic voyage. Synopsis Telemachus, Odysseus's son, is only a month old when Odysseus sets out for Troy to fight a war he wants no part of. The Odyssey, Book XIV. At the point where the Odyssey begins, ten years after the end of the ten-year Trojan War, Telemachus is twenty and is sharing his absent father’s house on the island of Ithaca with his mother Penelope and a crowd of 108 boisterous young men, "the Suitors", whose aim is to persuade Penelope that her husband is dead and that she should marry one of them. Odysseus’s protector, the goddess Athena, discusses his fate with Zeus, king of the gods, at a moment when Odysseus's enemy, the god of the sea Poseidon, is absent from Mount Olympus. Then, disguised as a Taphian chieftain named Mentes, she visits Telemachus to urge him to search for news of his father. He offers her hospitality; they observe the Suitors dining rowdily, and the bard Phemius performing a narrative poem for them. Penelope objects to Phemius's theme, the "Return from Troy" This theme once existed in the form of a written epic, Nostoi, now lost. because it reminds her of her missing husband, but Telemachus rebuts her objections. That night, Athena disguised as Telemachus finds a ship and crew for the true Telemachus. The next morning, Telemachus calls an assembly of citizens of Ithaca to discuss what should be done to the suitors. Accompanied by Athena (now disguised as his friend Mentor), he departs for the Greek mainland and the household of Nestor, most venerable of the Greek warriors at Troy, now at home in Pylos. From there, Telemachus rides overland, accompanied by Nestor's son, to Sparta, where he finds Menelaus and Helen, now reconciled. He is told that they returned to Greece after a long voyage by way of Egypt; there, on the magical island of Pharos, Menelaus encountered the old sea-god Proteus, who told him that Odysseus is a captive of the nymph Calypso. Incidentally, Telemachus learns the fate of Menelaus’ brother Agamemnon, king of Mycenae and leader of the Greeks at Troy, murdered on his return home by his wife Clytemnestra and her lover Aegisthus. Charles Gleyre, Odysseus and Nausicaä We then come to the story of Odysseus, who has spent seven years in captivity on Calypso's island. She is persuaded to release him by the messenger god Hermes, who has been sent by Zeus. Odysseus builds a raft and is given clothing, food and drink by Calypso. The raft is wrecked by Poseidon, but Odysseus swims ashore on the island of Scherie, where, naked and exhausted, he hides in a pile of leaves and falls asleep. The next morning, awakened by the laughter of girls, he sees the young Nausicaa, who has gone to the seashore with her maids to wash clothes. He appeals to her for help. She encourages him to seek the hospitality of her parents, Arete and Alcinous. Odysseus is welcomed and is not at first asked for his name. He remains for several days, takes part in a pentathlon, and hears the blind singer Demodocus perform two narrative poems. The first is an otherwise obscure incident of the Trojan War, the "Quarrel of Odysseus and Achilles"; the second is the amusing tale of a love affair between two Olympian gods, Ares and Aphrodite. Finally, Odysseus asks Demodocus to return to the Trojan War theme and tell of the Trojan Horse, a stratagem in which Odysseus had played a leading role. Unable to hide his emotion as he relives this episode, Odysseus at last reveals his identity. He then begins to tell the amazing story of his return from Troy. Odysseus Overcome by Demodocus' Song, by Francesco Hayez, 1813-15 After a piratical raid on Ismaros in the land of the Cicones, he and his twelve ships were driven off course by storms. They visited the lethargic Lotus-Eaters and were captured by the Cyclops Polyphemus, only escaping by blinding him with a wooden stake. They stayed with Aeolus, the master of the winds; he gave Odysseus a leather bag containing all the winds, except the west wind, a gift that should have ensured a safe return home. However, the sailors foolishly opened the bag while Odysseus slept, thinking that it contained gold. All of the winds flew out and the resulting storm drove the ships back the way they had come, just as Ithaca came into sight. After pleading in vain with Aeolus to help them again, they re-embarked and encountered the cannibal Laestrygones. Odysseus’s ship was the only one to escape. He sailed on and visited the witch-goddess Circe. She turned half of his men into swine after feeding them cheese and wine. Hermes warned Odysseus about Circe and gave Odysseus a drug called moly, a resistance to Circe’s magic. Circe, being attracted to Odysseus' resistance, fell in love with him and released his men. Odysseus and his crew remained with her on the island for one year, while they feasted and drank. Finally, Odysseus' men convinced Odysseus that it was time to leave for Ithaca. Guided by Circe's instructions, Odysseus and his crew crossed the ocean and reached a harbor at the western edge of the world, where Odysseus sacrificed to the dead and summoned the spirit of the old prophet Tiresias to advise him. Next Odysseus met the spirit of his own mother, who had died of grief during his long absence; from her, he learned for the first time news of his own household, threatened by the greed of the suitors. Here, too, he met the spirits of famous women and famous men; notably he encountered the spirit of Agamemnon, of whose murder he now learned, who also warned him about the dangers of women (for Odysseus' encounter with the dead, see also Nekuia). Returning to Circe’s island, they were advised by her on the remaining stages of the journey. They skirted the land of the Sirens, passed between the many-headed monster Scylla and the whirlpool Charybdis, and landed on the island of Thrinacia. There, Odysseus’ men ignored the warnings of Tiresias and Circe, and hunted down the sacred cattle of the sun god Helios. This sacrilege was punished by a shipwreck in which all but Odysseus drowned. He was washed ashore on the island of Calypso, where she compelled him to remain as her lover for seven years before escaping. Having listened with rapt attention to his story, the Phaeacians, who are skilled mariners, agree to help Odysseus get home. They deliver him at night, while he is fast asleep, to a hidden harbor on Ithaca. He finds his way to the hut of one of his own former slaves, the swineherd Eumaeus. Odysseus disguises himself as a wandering beggar in order to learn how things stand in his household. After dinner, he tells the farm laborers a fictitious tale of himself: he was born in Crete, had led a party of Cretans to fight alongside other Greeks in the Trojan War, and had then spent seven years at the court of the king of Egypt; finally he had been shipwrecked in Thesprotia and crossed from there to Ithaca. Meanwhile, Telemachus sails home from Sparta, evading an ambush set by the suitors. He disembarks on the coast of Ithaca and makes for Eumaeus’s hut. Father and son meet; Odysseus identifies himself to Telemachus (but still not to Eumaeus) and they determine that the suitors must be killed. Telemachus gets home first. Accompanied by Eumaeus, Odysseus now returns to his own house, still pretending to be a beggar. He experiences the suitors’ rowdy behavior and plans their death. He meets Penelope and tests her intentions with an invented story of his birth in Crete, where, he says, he once met Odysseus. Closely questioned, he adds that he had recently been in Thesprotia and had learned something there of Odysseus’s recent wanderings. Odysseus’s identity is discovered by the housekeeper, Eurycleia, as she is washing his feet and discovers an old scar Odysseus received during a boar hunt; he swears her to secrecy. The next day, at Athena’s prompting, Penelope maneuvers the suitors into competing for her hand with an archery competition using Odysseus' bow. Odysseus takes part in the competition himself; he alone is strong enough to string the bow and therefore wins. He turns his arrows on the suitors and with the help of Athena, Telemachus, Eumaeus and Philoteus the cowherd, all the suitors are killed. Odysseus and Telemachus hang twelve of their household maids, who had sex with the suitors; they mutilate and kill the goatherd Melanthius, who had mocked and abused Odysseus. Now at last, Odysseus identifies himself to Penelope. She is hesitant, but accepts him when he correctly describes to her the bed he built for her when they married. The next day he and Telemachus visit the country farm of his old father Laertes, who likewise accepts his identity only when Odysseus correctly describes the orchard that Laertes once gave him. The citizens of Ithaca have followed Odysseus on the road, planning to avenge the killing of the Suitors, their sons. Their leader points out that Odysseus has now caused the deaths of two generations of the men of Ithaca—his sailors, not one of whom survived, and the suitors, whom he has now executed. The goddess Athena intervenes and persuades both sides to give up the vendetta. After this, Ithaca is at peace once more, concluding the Odyssey. Outline originally based on pp. xx-xxiv. Character of Odysseus Odysseus' heroic trait is his mētis, or "cunning intelligence"; he is often described as the "Peer of Zeus in Counsel." This intelligence is most often manifested by his use of disguise and deceptive speech. His disguises take forms both physical (altering his appearance) and verbal, such as telling the Cyclops Polyphemus that his name is Ουτις, "Nobody", then escaping after blinding Polyphemus. When asked by other Cyclopes why he is screaming, Polyphemus replies that "Nobody" is hurting him, so the others assume that, "If alone as you are [Polyphemus] none uses violence on you, why, there is no avoiding the sickness sent by great Zeus; so you had better pray to your father, the lord Poseidon". From the Odyssey of Homer translated by Richmond Lattimore [Book 9, page 147/8, lines 410 - 412] The most evident flaw that Odysseus sports is that of his arrogance and his pride, or hubris. As he sails away from the island of the Cyclopēs, he shouts his name and boasts that no one can defeat the "Great Odysseus". The Cyclops then throws the top half of a mountain at him and prays to his father, Poseidon, saying that Odysseus has blinded him. This enrages Poseidon, causing the god to thwart Odysseus' homecoming for a very long time. Structure The Odyssey begins in medias res, meaning that the plot begins in the middle of the overall story, and that prior events are described through flashbacks or storytelling. This device is imitated by later authors of literary epics, for example, Virgil in the Aeneid, as well as modern poets such as Alexander Pope in The Rape of the Lock. In the first episodes, we trace Telemachus' efforts to assert control of the household, and then, at Athena’s advice, to search for news of his long-lost father. Then the scene shifts: Odysseus has been a captive of the beautiful nymph Calypso, with whom he has spent seven of his ten lost years. Released by the intercession of his patroness Athena, he departs, but his raft is destroyed by his divine enemy Poseidon, who is angry because Odysseus blinded his son, Polyphemus. When Odysseus washes up on Scherie, home to the Phaeacians, he is assisted by the young Nausicaa and is treated hospitably. In return, he satisfies the Phaeacians' curiosity, telling them, and the reader, of all his adventures since departing from Troy. The shipbuilding Phaeacians then loan him a ship to return to Ithaca, where he is aided by the swineherd Eumaeus, meets Telemachus, regains his household, kills the suitors, and is reunited with his faithful wife, Penelope. Nearly all modern editions and translations of the Odyssey are divided into 24 books. This division is convenient but not original; it was developed by Alexandrian editors of the 3rd century BC. In the Classical period, moreover, several of the books (individually and in groups) were given their own titles: the first four books, focusing on Telemachus, are commonly known as the Telemachy; Odysseus' narrative, Book 9, featuring his encounter with the cyclops Polyphemus, is traditionally called the Cyclopeia; and Book 11, the section describing his meeting with the spirits of the dead is known as the Nekuia. Books 9 through 12, wherein Odysseus recalls his adventures for his Phaeacian hosts, are collectively referred to as the Apologoi: Odysseus' "stories". Book 22, wherein Odysseus kills all the suitors, has been given the title Mnesterophonia: "slaughter of the suitors". The last 548 lines of the Odyssey, corresponding to Book 24, are believed by many scholars to have been added by a slightly later poet. Several passages in earlier books seem to be setting up the events of Book 24, so if it were indeed a later addition, the offending editor would seem to have changed earlier text as well. For more about varying views on the origin, authorship and unity of the poem see Homeric scholarship. Geography of the Odyssey Events in the main sequence of the Odyssey (excluding the narrative of Odysseus) take place in the Peloponnese and in what are now called the Ionian Islands. There are difficulties in the identification of Ithaca, the homeland of Odysseus, which may or may not be the same island that is now called Ithake. The wanderings of Odysseus as told to the Phaeacians, and the location of the Phaeacians' own island of Scherie, pose more fundamental geographical problems: scholars both ancient and modern are divided as to whether or not any of the places visited by Odysseus (after Ismaros and before his return to [[Ithaca]) are real. Dating the Odyssey In 2008, scientists Marcelo Magnasco and Constantino Baikouzis at Rockefeller University used clues in the text and astronomical data to attempt to pinpoint the time of Odysseus's return from his journey after the Trojan War. The first clue is Odysseus's sighting of Venus just before dawn as he arrives on Ithaca. The second is a new moon on the night before the massacre of the suitors. The final clue is a total eclipse, falling over Ithaca around noon, when Penelope's suitors sit down for their noon meal. The seer Theoclymenus approaches the suitors and foretells their death, saying, "The Sun has been obliterated from the sky, and an unlucky darkness invades the world." Doctors Baikouzis and Magnasco state that "[t]he odds that purely fictional references to these phenomena (so hard to satisfy simultaneously) would coincide by accident with the only eclipse of the century are minute." They conclude that these three astronomical references "'cohere,' in the sense that the astronomical phenomena pinpoint the date of 16 April, 1178 B.C." as the most likely date of Odysseus' return. This dating places the destruction of Troy, ten years before the end of the Trojan War, to 1188 B.C., which is close to the archaeologically dated destruction of Troy VIIa circa 1190 B.C. Near Eastern influences Scholars have seen strong influences from Near Eastern mythology and literature in the Odyssey. Martin West has noted substantial parallels between the Epic of Gilgamesh and the Odyssey.<ref>West, Martin. The East Face of Helicon: West Asiatic Elements in Greek Poetry and Myth. (Oxford 1997) 402-417.</ref> Both Odysseus and Gilgamesh are known for traveling to the ends of the earth, and on their journeys go to the land of the dead. On his voyage to the underworld, Odysseus follows instructions given to him by Circe, a goddess who is the daughter of the sun-god Helios. Her island, Aeaea, is located at the edges of the world, and seems to have close associations with the sun. Like Odysseus, Gilgamesh gets directions on how to reach the land of the dead from a divine helper: in this case, she is the goddess Siduri, who, like Circe, dwells by the sea at the ends of the earth. Her home is also associated with the sun: Gilgamesh reaches Siduri's house by passing through a tunnel underneath Mt. Mashu, the high mountain from which the sun comes into the sky. West argues that the similarity of Odysseus' and Gilgamesh's journeys to the edges of the earth are the result of the influence of the Gilgamesh epic upon the Odyssey. Text history The Athenian tyrant Peisistratos, who ruled between 546 and 527 BC, is believed to have established a Commission of Editors of Homer to edit the text of the poems and remove any errors and interpolations, thus establishing a canonical text. Odyssey Criticism The earliest papyrus fragments date back to the third century BCE. The oldest complete manuscript is the Laurentianus from the 10th or 11th century CE. The editio princeps of both the Iliad and the Odyssey is by Demetrius Chalcondyles in Florence, most likely from 1488. Cultural impactTrue Story, written by Lucian of Samosata in the 2nd century AD, is a parody of the Odyssey describing a journey beyond the Pillars of Hercules and to the moon. A modern novel inspired by the Odyssey is James Joyce's Ulysses (1922). Every episode of Joyce's novel has an assigned theme, technique and correspondences between its characters and those of Homer's Odyssey. The first canto of Ezra Pound's The Cantos is a retelling of Odysseus' journey to the underworld.Merugud Uilix maicc Leirtis is an eccentric Old Irish version of the material; the work exists in a twelfth-century manuscript that linguists believe is based on an eighth-century original Some of the tales of Sinbad the Sailor from The Book of One Thousand and One Nights were taken from the Odyssey. The 1954 Broadway musical The Golden Apple by librettist John Treville Latouche and composer Jerome Moross was freely adapted from the Iliad and the Odyssey, re-setting the action to the American state of Washington in the years after the Spanish-American War, with events inspired by the Iliad in Act Four and events inspired by the Odyssey in Act Three.The Odyssey, a made-for-TV movie from 1997 by Hallmark Entertainment and directed by Andrei Konchalovsky is a slightly abbreviated version of the epic. It stars Armand Assante, Greta Scacchi, Isabella Rossellini and Vanessa L. Williams. 2001: A Space Odyssey is an obvious homage to the work attributed to Homer. There are several elements in 2001 which are direct parallels to The Odyssey such as the hero's shipwreck, his nemesis, (upon whom the hero originally depended upon for sustenance), and the nemesis' single eye. In Jean-Luc Godard's film Le Mépris (Contempt) (1963) German film director Fritz Lang plays himself trying to direct a film adaptation. The Coen Brothers' film O Brother, Where Art Thou? was loosely based on Homer's poem. American progressive metal band Symphony X made a musical interpretation of the Odyssey in the album The Odyssey. Cold Mountain, a Civil War novel written by Charles Frazier follows the path of the classic Odyssey'', as a soldier from the high country of North Carolina struggles to return home to his sweetheart. Notable English translations This is a partial list of translations into English of Homer's Odyssey. For a more complete list see English translations of Homer. George Chapman, 1616 (couplets) Alexander Pope, 1713 (couplets); Project Gutenberg edition; William Cowper, 1791 (blank verse) Samuel Henry Butcher and Andrew Lang, Project Gutenberg edition; William Cullen Bryant, 1871 (blank verse) Mordaunt Roger Barnard 1876 (blank verse) William Morris, 1887 Samuel Butler, 1898 (prose), Project Gutenberg edition; Padraic Colum, 1918 (prose), Great Books Online A. T. Murray (revised by George E. Dimock), 1919; Loeb Classical Library (ISBN 0-674-99561-9) T. E. Shaw (T. E. Lawrence), 1932 W. H. D. Rouse, 1937, prose E. V. Rieu, 1945, prose Robert Fitzgerald, 1963 (ISBN 0-679-72813-9) Richmond Lattimore, 1965 (ISBN 0-06-093195-7) Albert Cook, 1967 (Norton Critical Edition) Walter Shewring, 1980 (ISBN 0-19-283375-8), Oxford University Press (Oxford World's Classics), prose Allen Mandelbaum, 1990 Robert Fagles, 1996 (ISBN 0-14-026886-3); an unabridged audio recording by Ian McKellen is also available (ISBN 0-14-086430-X). Stanley Lombardo, Hackett Publishing Company, 2000 (ISBN 0-87220-484-7). An audio CD recording read by the translator is also available (ISBN 1-930972-06-7). Martin Hammond, 2000, prose Edward McCrorie, 2004 (ISBN 0-8018-8267-2), Johns Hopkins University Press. References External links Odyssey in Ancient Greek and translation from Perseus Project, with hyperlinks to grammatical and mythological commentary Homer's Odyssey by Denton Jaques Snider | Odyssey |@lemmatized odyssey:36 odýsseia:1 one:9 two:4 major:1 ancient:4 greek:12 epic:7 poems:1 attribute:2 homer:10 part:4 sequel:1 iliad:5 work:5 traditionally:2 ascribe:1 poem:8 fundamental:2 modern:7 western:3 canon:1 indeed:2 second:3 first:9 extant:1 literature:2 probably:1 compose:2 near:3 end:5 eighth:2 century:8 bc:3 somewhere:1 ionia:1 control:2 coastal:1 region:1 turkey:1 c:5 h:3 rieu:3 introduction:2 penguin:2 p:2 xi:2 mainly:1 center:1 hero:3 odysseus:74 ulysses:2 know:4 roman:1 myth:2 long:5 journey:7 home:10 follow:4 fall:3 troy:9 take:6 ten:6 year:12 reach:4 ithaca:16 trojan:8 war:10 dog:1 argo:1 die:3 autik:1 idont:1 odusea:1 eeikosto:1 eniauto:1 see:6 twentieth:1 cf:1 also:6 absence:2 assume:2 wife:3 penelope:10 son:6 telemachus:19 must:2 deal:1 group:2 unruly:1 suitor:20 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5,360 | Electrothermal-chemical_technology | Electrothermal-chemical (ETC) technology is an attempt to increase accuracy and muzzle energy of future tank, artillery, and close-in weapon system guns by improving the predictability and rate of expansion of propellants inside the barrel. Results have proven to be promising and it's very possible that electrothermal-chemical gun propulsion will be an integral part of any technologically advanced Army's future combat system, as well as the future combat systems of several other countries such as Germany and the United Kingdom. The technology has been under development since the mid-1980s and at present is actively being researched in the United States by the Army Research Laboratory, as well as various private organizations. Electrothermal-chemical technology is part of a broad research and development program that encompasses all electric gun technology, such as rail guns and coil guns. It is considered the most mature of the three. Background The XM360. The constant battle between armour and round has caused a near constant development of the main battle tank and this certainly had a major influence on tank design during the Cold War. In fact, current American future combat system technologies can be traced back to lethality requirements to successfully combat future Soviet tanks. It was thought in the late eighties that the protection level of the Future Soviet Tank (FST) could exceed 700 mm of rolled homogeneous armour equivalence at its maximum thickness, which was effectively immune against the contemporary M-829 armour piercing fin stabilized discarding sabot. Ropelewski, Soviet Gains in Armor/Antiarmor Shape US Army Master Plan, p.69 Today it is estimated that a tank gun will have to achieve muzzle energies on the level of 18 MJ — which is double the muzzle energy of current solid propellant tank propulsion systems — to be able to successfully perforate future enemy armour plating. In the eighties the most immediate method available to NATO to counter Soviet advances in armour technology was the adoption of a 140 mm main gun. This, however, required a redesigned turret which could incorporate the inherently larger breech and ammunition, and it would also require some sort of automatic loader. Schemmer, Army, SecDef's Office at Loggerheads over Antiarmor, p.53 Although the 140 mm gun was considered a real interim solution it was decided after the fall of the Soviet Union that the increase in muzzle energy was not worth the increase in weight, and therefore more money was poured into research programs which could augment the muzzle energy of existing guns to mirror that of the 140 mm gun without the incrementing weight disadvantages. Furthermore, the 140 mm did not offer the dramatic increase in muzzle velocity also required. Ogorkiewicz, Future tank guns, p.1378. One of the most successful alternative technologies remains electrothermal-chemical ignition. Most proposed advances in gun technology are based on the assumption that the solid propellant as a stand alone propulsion system is no longer capable of delivering the required muzzle energy to penetrate future tanks. This requirement has only been underscored in the west by the appearance of the Russian T-90 main battle tank, and the near future introduction of the T-95. Even the elongation of current gun tubes, such as the new German 120 mm L/55 The length of the cannon can be found by multiplying the diameter of the barrel and the caliber length. For example, the M256, which is a 120 mm L/44, has a total length of 5.28 m, while the 120 mm L/55 has a total length of 6.6 m. which was introduced by Rheinmetall is considered only an interim solution as it doesn't offer the dynamic increase in muzzle velocity required for the future combat system. Sharoni, The Future Combat System, p. 29 Even advanced kinetic energy ammunition such as the United States' M828A3 is considered only an interim solution against future threats. Pengelley, The new era in tank main armament, p.1522 To that extent the solid propellant is considered to have reached the end of its tether, although it will remain the principal propulsion method for at least the next decade until newer technologies mature to a level where they can be successfully implemented. Sharoni, The Future Combat System, p.30 To improve on the capabilities of a solid propellant weapon the electrothermal-chemical gun may see production as early as 2016. Kruse, Studies on Germany's Future 140 mm Tank Gun System, p. 1 ETC technology offers a medium-risk upgrade and is to the point, currently, where changes for maturity are so minor that it can be considered as a realistic replacement for current solid propellant guns within the next two decades. The lightweight American 120 mm XM-291 was extremely close to achieving 17 MJ of muzzle energy which is the lower-end muzzle energy spectrum for a 140 mm gun. Diamond, Electro Thermal Chemical Gun Technology Study, p.5 However, the success of the XM-291 doesn't imply the success of ETC technology as there are key parts of the propulsion system that are not yet understood or fully developed, such as the plasma ignition process. Nevertheless, there is substantial existing evidence that ETC technology is viable and something worth the money to continue development. Furthermore, it can be integrated into current gun systems. Sauerwein, Rheinmetall's NPzK However, technology maturity requires a further understanding of the technology itself. How it works A diagram of a working electrothermal-chemical gun. An electrothermal-chemical gun uses a plasma cartridge to ignite and control the ammunition's propellant, using electrical energy as a catalyst to begin the process. Originally researched by Dr. Jon Parmentola for the U.S. Army, it has grown into a very plausible successor to a standard solid propellant tank gun. Since the beginning of research the United States has funded the XM-291 gun project with USD 4,000,000, basic research with USD 300,000, and applied research with USD 600,000. Since then it has been proven to work, although efficiency to the level required has not yet been accomplished. ETC increases the performance of conventional solid propellants, reduces the effect of temperature on propellant expansion and allows for more advanced, higher density propellants to be used. It will also reduce pressure placed on the barrel in comparison to alternative technologies that offer the same muzzle energy given the fact that it helps spread the propellant's gas much more smoothly during ignition. Hilmes, Aspects of future MBT conception Currently, there are two principal methods of plasma initiation: the flashboard large area emitter (FLARE) and the triple coaxial plasma igniter (TCPI). Flashboard large area emitter Flashboards run in several parallel strings to provide a large area of plasma or ultraviolet radiation and uses the breakdown and vaporization of gaps of diamonds to produce the required plasma. These parallel strings are mounted in tubes and oriented to have their gaps azimuthal to the tube's axis. It discharges by using high pressure air to move air out of the way. Diamond, Electro Thermal Chemical Gun Technology Study, p.11-12 FLARE initiators can ignite propellants through the release of plasma, or even through the use of ultraviolet heat radiation. Diamond, Electro Thermal Chemical Gun Technology Study, p.13-15 The absorption length of a solid propellant is sufficient enough to be ignited by radiation from a plasma source. However, FLARE has most likely not reached optimal design requirements and further understanding of FLARE and how it works is completely necessary to ensure the evolution of the technology. If FLARE provided the XM-291 gun project with the sufficient radiative heat to ignite the propellant to achieve a muzzle energy of 17 MJ one could only imagine the possibilities with a fully developed FLARE plasma igniter. Current areas of study include how plasma will affect the propellant through radiation, the deliverance of mechanical energy and heat directly and by driving gas flow. Despite these daunting tasks FLARE has been seen as the most plausible igniter for future application on ETC guns. For further technical information on FLARE see: P. Diamond Triple coaxial plasma igniter A coaxial igniter consists of a fully insulated conductor, covered by four strips of aluminum foil. All of this is further insulated in a tube about 1.6 cm in diameter which is perforated with small holes. The idea is to use an electrical flow through the conductor and then exploding the flow into vapor and then breaking it down into plasma. Consequently, the plasma would escape through the constant perforations throughout the insulating tube and initiate the surrounding propellant. A TCPI igniter would be fitted in individual propellant cases for each piece of ammunition. However, TCPI is no longer a viable method of propellant ignition because it has the possibility of damaging the fins, and does not deliver energy as efficiently as a FLARE igniter does. TCPI is also covered in Electro Thermal Chemical Gun Technology Study by P. Diamond Feasibility The 60 mm ETC gun developed by the US Navy at FMC as an ETC CIWS proof of principle demonstrator. The XM-291 is the best existing example of a working electrothermal-chemical gun. It was an alternate technology to the heavier caliber 140 mm gun by using the dual-caliber approach. It uses a breech that is large enough to accept 140 mm ammunition and be mounted with both a 120 mm barrel and a 135 mm or 140 mm barrel. The XM-291 also mounts a larger gun tube and a larger ignition chamber than the existing M256 L/44 main gun. Pengelley, A new era in tank main armament, p. 1522 Through the application of electrothermal-chemical technology the XM-291 has been able to achieve muzzle energy outputs that equate that to a low-level 140 mm gun, while achieving muzzle velocities greater than those which can be achieved by using the larger 140 mm gun. Sharoni, The Future Combat System, p.31 Although the XM-291 does not immediately mean that ETC technology is viable at this current point in time it does offer an example that it is possible and that continued research in the area is worth the advantages reaped if such a system was to be successfully implemented on a modern tank. ETC is also a more viable option than other alternatives by definition. ETC requires much less energy input from outside sources, like a battery, than a railgun or a coilgun would. Tests have shown that energy output by the propellant is higher than energy input from outside sources on ETC guns. P. Diamond, Electro Thermal Chemical Gun Technology Study In comparison, a rail gun currently cannot achieve a higher muzzle velocity than the amount of energy input. Even at 50% efficiency a rail gun launching a projectile with a kinetic energy of 20 MJ would require an energy input into the rails of 40 MJ, and 50% efficiency has not yet been achieved. Horst, Recent Advances in Anti-Armor Technology, p.6 To put this into perspective, a rail gun launching at 9 MJ of energy would need roughly 32 MJ worth of energy from capacitors. Current advances in energy storage allow for energy densities as high as 2.5 MJ/m³ which means that a battery delivering 32 MJ of energy would require a volume of 12.8 m³; this is not a viable volume for use in a modern main battle tank, especially one designed to be lighter than existing models. Zahn, The Future Combat System: Minimizing Risk While Maximizing Capability, p.20 There has even been discussion about eliminating the necessity for an outside electrical source in ETC ignition by initiating the plasma cartridge through a small explosive force. Yangmeng, A Novel Concept of Electrothermal Chemical Gun without Power Supply, p.1 Furthermore, ETC technology is not only applicable to solid propellants. To increase muzzle velocity even further electrothermal-chemical ignition can work with liquid propellants, although this would require further research into plasma ignition. ETC technology is also compatible with existing projects to reduce the amount of recoil delivered to the vehicle while firing. Understandably, recoil of a gun firing a projectile at 17 MJ or more will increase directly with the increase in muzzle energy in accordance to Newton's third law of motion and successful implementation of recoil reduction mechanisms will be vital to the installation of an ETC powered gun in an existing vehicle design. For example, Italy's OTO Melara's new lightweight 120 mm L/45 gun has achieved a recoil force of 25 t by using a longer recoil mechanism (550 mm) and a pepperpot muzzle brake. Hilmes, Arming Future MBTs, p.79 Reduction in recoil can also be achieved through mass attenuation of the thermal sleeve. The ability of ETC technology to be applied to existing gun designs means that for future gun upgrades there's no longer the necessity to redesign the turret to include a larger breech or caliber gun barrel. Several countries have already determined that ETC technology is viable for the future and have funded indigenous projects considerably. These include the United States, Germany Hilmes, Modern German Tank Development, p.20-21. and the United Kingdom, amongst others. The United States' XM360, which is planned to equip the Future Combat Systems Mounted Combat System light tank and may be the M1 Abrams' next gun upgrade, is reportedly based on the XM291 and may include ETC technology, or portions of ETC technology. Tests of this gun have been performed using "precision ignition" technology which may refer to ETC ignition. Notes Bibliography External links Electromagnetic Launch Symposium http://www.powerlabs.org/electrothermal.htm | Electrothermal-chemical_technology |@lemmatized electrothermal:12 chemical:16 etc:21 technology:32 attempt:1 increase:9 accuracy:1 muzzle:18 energy:27 future:23 tank:18 artillery:1 close:2 weapon:2 system:17 gun:49 improve:2 predictability:1 rate:1 expansion:2 propellant:22 inside:1 barrel:6 result:1 prove:2 promising:1 possible:2 propulsion:5 integral:1 part:3 technologically:1 advanced:2 army:5 combat:11 well:2 several:3 country:2 germany:3 united:7 kingdom:2 development:5 since:3 mid:1 present:1 actively:1 research:10 state:5 laboratory:1 various:1 private:1 organization:1 broad:1 program:2 encompass:1 electric:1 rail:5 coil:1 consider:6 mature:2 three:1 background:1 constant:3 battle:4 armour:5 round:1 cause:1 near:2 main:7 certainly:1 major:1 influence:1 design:5 cold:1 war:1 fact:2 current:8 american:2 trace:1 back:1 lethality:1 requirement:3 successfully:4 soviet:5 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beginning:1 fund:2 project:4 usd:3 basic:1 apply:2 efficiency:3 accomplish:1 performance:1 conventional:1 reduce:3 effect:1 temperature:1 allow:2 high:5 density:2 pressure:2 place:1 comparison:2 give:1 help:1 spread:1 gas:2 much:2 smoothly:1 hilmes:3 aspect:1 mbt:1 conception:1 initiation:1 flashboard:3 area:5 emitter:2 flare:9 triple:2 coaxial:3 igniter:7 tcpi:4 run:1 parallel:2 string:2 provide:2 ultraviolet:2 radiation:4 breakdown:1 vaporization:1 gap:2 produce:1 mount:4 orient:1 azimuthal:1 axis:1 discharge:1 air:2 move:1 way:1 initiator:1 release:1 heat:3 absorption:1 sufficient:2 enough:2 source:4 likely:1 optimal:1 completely:1 necessary:1 ensure:1 evolution:1 radiative:1 imagine:1 possibility:2 include:4 affect:1 deliverance:1 mechanical:1 directly:2 drive:1 flow:3 despite:1 daunt:1 task:1 application:2 technical:1 information:1 consist:1 insulate:2 conductor:2 cover:2 four:1 strip:1 aluminum:1 foil:1 cm:1 small:2 hole:1 idea:1 explode:1 vapor:1 break:1 consequently:1 escape:1 perforation:1 throughout:1 insulating:1 initiate:2 surrounding:1 fit:1 individual:1 case:1 piece:1 damage:1 efficiently:1 feasibility:1 navy:1 fmc:1 ciws:1 proof:1 principle:1 demonstrator:1 best:1 alternate:1 heavy:1 dual:1 approach:1 accept:1 chamber:1 output:2 equate:1 great:1 immediately:1 mean:3 time:1 advantage:1 reap:1 modern:3 option:1 definition:1 less:1 input:4 outside:3 like:1 battery:2 railgun:1 coilgun:1 test:2 show:1 cannot:1 amount:2 launch:3 projectile:2 horst:1 recent:1 anti:1 put:1 perspective:1 need:1 roughly:1 capacitor:1 storage:1 volume:2 especially:1 light:2 model:1 zahn:1 minimizing:1 maximize:1 discussion:1 eliminate:1 necessity:2 explosive:1 force:2 yangmeng:1 novel:1 concept:1 power:2 supply:1 applicable:1 far:1 liquid:1 compatible:1 recoil:6 vehicle:2 fire:2 understandably:1 accordance:1 newton:1 third:1 law:1 motion:1 implementation:1 reduction:2 mechanism:2 vital:1 installation:1 italy:1 oto:1 melara:1 pepperpot:1 brake:1 arm:1 mbts:1 mass:1 attenuation:1 sleeve:1 ability:1 already:1 determine:1 indigenous:1 considerably:1 amongst:1 others:1 equip:1 abrams:1 reportedly:1 portion:1 perform:1 precision:1 refer:1 note:1 bibliography:1 external:1 link:1 electromagnetic:1 symposium:1 http:1 www:1 powerlabs:1 org:1 htm:1 |@bigram electrothermal_chemical:11 technologically_advanced:1 solid_propellant:9 soviet_union:1 muzzle_velocity:5 kinetic_energy:2 electro_thermal:5 ultraviolet_radiation:1 daunt_task:1 caliber_mm:1 mm_mm:1 external_link:1 http_www:1 |
5,361 | General_Motors | General Motors Corporation (GM) (), is a global automaker founded in 1908 with headquarters in Detroit, Michigan. It is the world's second-largest automaker after Toyota, ranked by 2008 global unit sales. http://articles.moneycentral.msn.com/Investing/Dispatch/Toyota-takes-sales-crown-from-GM.aspx GM was the global sales leader for 77 consecutive calendar years from 1931 to 2007. It manufactures cars and trucks in 34 countries. GM employs 244,500 people around the world, and sells and services vehicles in some 140 countries. In 2008, 8.35 million GM cars and trucks were sold globally under the following brands: Buick, Cadillac, Chevrolet, GMC, GM Daewoo, Holden, Hummer, Opel, Pontiac, Saab, Saturn, Vauxhall and Wuling. http://media.gm.com/servlet/GatewayServlet?target=http://image.emerald.gm.com/gmnews/viewmonthlyreleasedetail.do?domain=828&docid=51535 In late 2008 GM, along with Chrysler, received loans from the United States, Canada, and the Canadian province of Ontario to avoid bankruptcy resulting from the late 2000s recession, record oil prices and fierce competition (see also automotive industry crisis of 2008–2009). GM's higher labor costs compared to its competitors, resulting from its union agreements and pension costs, has contributed significantly to its financial problems. On February 20, 2009, GM's Saab division filed for reorganization in a Swedish court after being denied loans from the Swedish government. On April 27, 2009, amid ongoing financial problems and restructuring efforts, GM announced that it would phase out the Pontiac brand by the end of 2010 and focus on four brands in North America: Chevrolet, Cadillac, Buick, and GMC. It also announced that the resolution (sale) of its Hummer, Saab, and Saturn brands would take place by the end of 2009 at the latest. GM had previously eliminated the Oldsmobile brand earlier in the decade for similar reasons. As of April 24, 2009, GM has received US$15.4 billion in loans from the US Treasury Department under the Troubled Assets Relief Program (TARP). GMAC, a financing company held 49% by GM, has received US$5 billion in loans under the same program, while GM has received an additional US$1 billion loan to buy more equity in GMAC. General Motors Canada, 100% owned by GM, has received a combined loan commitment of C$3 billion from the Canadian and Ontario governments. History General Motors (GM) was founded on September 27, 1908, in Flint, Michigan, as a holding company for Buick, then controlled by William C. Durant. It acquired Oldsmobile later that year. In 1909 Durant brought in Cadillac, Elmore, Oakland (later known as Pontiac) and several others. In 1909, General Motors acquired the Reliance Motor Truck Company of Owosso, Michigan, and the Rapid Motor Vehicle Company of Pontiac, Michigan, the predecessors of GMC Truck. Durant lost control of GM in 1910 to a bankers' trust because of the large amount of debt taken on in its acquisitions coupled with a collapse in new vehicle sales. A few years later, Durant started the Chevrolet Motor car company and through this he secretly purchased a controlling interest in GM. Durant took back control of the company after one of the most dramatic proxy wars in American business history. Shortly after, he again lost control, this time for good, after the new vehicle market collapsed. Alfred Sloan was picked to take charge of the corporation and led it to its post war global dominance. This unprecedented growth of GM would last into the early 1980s when it employed 349,000 workers and 150 assembly plants. Company overview General Motors currently employs approximately 266,000 people around the world. GM's global headquarters is the Renaissance Center located in Detroit, Michigan, United States. In 2007, 9.35 million GM cars and trucks were produced in 19 different countries. http://oica.net/wp-content/uploads/gm.pdf GM is the majority shareholder in GM Daewoo Auto & Technology Co. of South Korea and has had many collaborations with the world's various automakers. This includes product, powertrain and purchasing collaborations with Suzuki Motor Corp. and Isuzu Motors Ltd. of Japan, advanced technology collaborations with Toyota Corporation and BMW AG of Germany and vehicle manufacturing ventures with several of the world's automakers including Toyota, Suzuki, Shanghai Automotive Industry Corporation. of China, AvtoVAZ of Russia, Renault SA of France, and most recently, UzAvtosanoa of Uzbekistan. GM also had collaborations with Fiat S.p.A (see GM/Fiat Premium platform) and Ford Motor Company. To this day, GM retains various stakes in many different automakers. According to at least one automotive columnist, as GM seeks aid from European governments in 2009 while acknowledging it has no alternative plan, and admits it is willing to surrender control of its operations in Europe to enable an infusion of cash, the "de facto deglobalization" of GM is in progress. http://www.detnews.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20090305/OPINION03/903050366/1148/&source=nletter-business The domain name gm.com attracted at least 7 million visitors annually by 2008. http://siteanalytics.compete.com/gm.com?metric=uv Corporate governance The Renaissance Center in Detroit, Michigan, is General Motors' world headquarters. Current members of the board of Directors of General Motors are: Percy Barnevik, Erskine Bowles, John Bryan, Melissa Armando Codina, Erroll Davis, George Fisher, Mark Guildenstern, Karen Katen, Kent Kresa, Philip Laskawy, Kathryn V. Marinello, and Eckhard Pfeiffer. Corporate structure General Motors is structured into the following operating groups: Group Number of Employees as of September 2008 General Motors Corporation SEC filing 10-Q 3rd-quarter 2008, p.113 GMAP (GM Asia-Pacific) 35,000 GME (GM Europe) 56,000 GM LAAM (GM Latin America, Africa and the Middle East) 36,000 GMNA (GM North America) 123,000 GMAC (GM Acceptance Corporation - finance and insurance services) SPO (Service, Parts and Operations) Other operations 2,000 Total number of employees 252,000 Human resources Together with the United Auto Workers, GM created a joint venture dedicated to the quality of life needs of employees in 1985. The UAW-GM Center for human resources in Detroit is dedicated to providing GM salaried employees and GM UAW members programs and services related to medical care, diversity issues, education, training and tuition assistance, as well as programs related to work and family concerns, in addition to the traditional union-employer health and safety partnership. "Welcome to the UAW-GM Center for Human Resources". UAW-GM Joint Activity System. Retrieved on June 19, 2007. Marketing in the United States At one time, each of GM's automotive divisions in the United States were targeted to specific market segments and despite some shared components, each distinguished itself from its stablemates with unique styling and technology. The shared components and common corporate management created substantial economies of scale, while the distinctions between the divisions created an orderly upgrade path, with an entry-level buyer starting out with a practical and economical Chevrolet and moving through offerings of the different divisions until the purchase of a Buick or Cadillac. The postwar automobile industry became enamoured with the concept of "planned obsolescence", implemented by both technical and styling innovations with a typical 3-year product cycle. In this cycle, a new basic body shell is introduced and then modified for the next two years with minor styling changes. GM, Ford, and Chrysler competed vigorously in this new restyling environment. Distinguishing the brands By 1958, the divisional distinctions within GM began to blur with the availability of high-performance engines in Chevrolets and Pontiacs. The introduction of higher trim models such as the Chevrolet Impala and Pontiac Bonneville priced in line with some Oldsmobile and Buick offerings was also confusing to consumers. By the time Pontiac, Oldsmobile and Buick introduced similarly styled and priced compact models in 1961, the old "step-up" structure between the divisions was nearly over. Compacts arrive The decade of the 1960s saw the creation of compact and intermediate classes. The Chevrolet Corvair was a flat 6-cylinder (air cooled) answer to the Volkswagen Beetle, the Chevy II was created to match Ford's conventional Falcon, after sales of the Corvair failed to match its Ford rival, and the Chevrolet Camaro/Pontiac Firebird was GMs counter measure to the Ford Mustang. Among intermediates, the Oldsmobile Cutlass nameplate became so popular during the 1970s that Oldsmobile applied the Cutlass name to most of its products in the 1980s. By the mid 1960s, most of GM's vehicles were built on a few common platforms and in the 1970s GM began to use nearly identical body panel stampings, differing only in internal and external trim items. The 1971 Chevrolet Vega was GM's launch into the new subcompact class to compete against the import's increasing market share. Problems associated with its innovative aluminum engine led to the model's discontinuation after seven model years in 1977. During the late 1970s, GM would initiate a wave of downsizing starting with the Chevrolet Caprice which was reborn into what was the size of the Chevrolet Chevelle, the Malibu would be the size of the Nova, and the Nova was replaced by the troubled front-wheel drive Chevrolet Citation. In 1976 Chevrolet came out with the rear-wheel drive sub compact Chevette. It was a well built car but couldn't compete with the Japanese imports in overall quality and standard features. The electric car In 1990, GM debuted the revolutionary "Impact" concept car at the Los Angeles Auto Show. It was the first car with zero-emissions marketed in the US in over three decades. The Impact was eventually produced as the EV1 for the 1996 model year. It was available through dealers located in only a few regions (e.g., California, Arizona, Georgia). Vehicles were leased, rather than sold, to individuals. In 2003 GM decided to cease production of the vehicles. All EV1's were either destroyed or donated to museums or universities. GM in the 21st century In the late 1990s, the U.S. economy was on the rise and GM and Ford gained market share producing enormous profits primarily from the sale of light trucks and sport-utility vehicles. From 2000 to 2001, the Federal Reserve in a move to quell the stock market, made twelve successive interest rate increases. Following the September 11, 2001 attacks, a severe stock market decline caused a pension and benefit fund underfunding crisis. GM began its Keep America Rolling campaign, which boosted sales, and other auto makers were forced to follow suit. The U.S. automakers saw sales increase to leverage costs as gross margins deteriorated. Although retiree health care costs remain a significant issue, General Motors' investment strategy has generated a $17.1 billion surplus in 2007 in its $101 billion U.S. pension fund portfolio, a $35 billion reversal from its $17.8 billion of underfunding. Sloan, Allan (April 10, 2007).GM's High-Performance Pension Machine Washington Post, D02. In 2004, GM redirected resources from the development of new sedans to an accelerated refurbishment of their light trucks and SUVs for introduction as 2007 models in early 2006. Shortly after this decision, fuel prices increased by over 50% and this in turn affected both the trade-in value of used vehicles and the perceived desirability of new offerings in these market segments. The current marketing plan is to tout these revised vehicles extensively as offering the best fuel economy in their class (of vehicle). GM claims its hybrid trucks will have gas-mileage improvements of 25%. In the middle of 2005, GM announced that its corporate chrome emblem "Mark of Excellence" will begin appearing on all recently introduced and all-new 2006 model vehicles produced and sold in North America. The move is seen as an attempt by GM to link its name and vehicle brands more closely. In 2005, GM promoted sales through an employee discount to all buyers. Marketed as the lowest possible price, GM cleared an inventory buildup of 2005 models to make way for its 2006 lineup. While the promotion was a temporary shot in the arm for sales, it did not help the company's bottom line. GM has since changed its marketing strategy to a no haggle sticker policy in which all vehicle prices are lowered, but incentives are reduced, if not eliminated. Decline of SUV sales In 2008, rapidly rising gas prices resulted in a 30% drop-off of sales of SUVs, which had been GM's most profitable product often returning profits of $10,000 to $15,000 per vehicle. Sales of SUVs had been decreasing since 2004, and in May 2008 a $2 billion investment program for a new SUV platform, the CXX program, was canceled. http://www.worldcarfans.com/9081028.003/gm-cancels-all-future-full-size-suvs During the first 6 months of 2008 GM lost $18.8 billion, and by late October its stock had dropped 76% and it was considering a merger with Chrysler. In only 12 months (October 2007-2008) GM sales in the US dropped 45 percent. http://auto.mail.ru/text.html?id=27985 GM's concentration on SUVs as a profit center dated from the 1990s. On Tuesday, December 23, 2008 the Janesville, Wisconsin plant which produced the Chevrolet Tahoe and Suburban and the GMC Yukon, and the Moraine, Ohio plant which produced the Chevrolet Blazer and the GMC Envoy, closed permanently leaving General Motors with only one factory (in Arlington, Texas) producing SUVs. GM in China General Motors is the best selling foreign auto maker in China. The Buick brand is especially strong, led by the Buick Excelle subcompact. Cadillac initiated sales in China in 2004, starting with imports from the United States. GM pushed the marketing of the Chevrolet brand in China in 2005 as well, moving the former Buick Sail to that marque. The company manufactures most of its China-market vehicles locally, through its Shanghai GM joint venture. Shanghai GM, a joint venture between the Chinese company SAIC and General Motors, was created on March 25, 1997. The Shanghai GM plant was opened December 15, 1998, when the first Chinese-built Buick came off the assembly line. The SAIC-GM-Wuling Automobile joint-venture is also successful selling trucks and vans under the Wuling marque (34% belongs to GM). GM plans to create a research facility in Shanghai for $250m to develop hybrid cars and alternative energy vehicles. Reaction to 2008/2009 global economic decline On October 10, 2008, GM considered exchanging its remaining 49% stake in GMAC to Cerberus Capital Management for Chrysler LLC, potentially merging two of Detroit's "Big Three" automakers. Reports: Chrysler, GM discuss merger, acquisition Acquisition talks involving Chrysler were cancelled, however, before November 7, 2008, as part of a broader response to the increasing urgency of GM's own cash flow problems. That was a result of Chrysler's senior bank debt currently trading at less than 50 cents on the dollar and because Chrysler's other owner – Daimler, formerly DaimlerChrysler – recently revalued its 19.9% Chrysler stake down to zero, which may or may not reflect its value in a potential sale. Bloomberg.com GM Says It May Run Out of Operating Cash This Year (Update2) By Jeff Green and Mike Ramsey On December 12, 2008, General Motors stated that it was nearly out of cash, and may not survive past 2009. The U.S. Senate voted and strongly opposed any source of government assistance through a bailout bridge loan (originally worth $14 billion in emergency aid) which was aimed toward helping the struggling Big Three automakers financially, despite strong support from President George W. Bush and President-elect Barack Obama, along with some mild support from the Democratic and Republican political parties. Prior to the U.S. Senate's announcement, General Motors announced that it had hired several lawyers to discuss the possibility of filing for bankruptcy, with Chapter 11 bankruptcy being one of the options discussed. GM stated that "all options are on the table" for the company. Chrysler LLC, which is owned by Cerberus Capital Management, is in a similar financial situation and like General Motors, warned that it, too, was nearly out of cash and may not survive much longer. On December 18, 2008, President Bush announced that an "orderly" bankruptcy is one option being considered for both General Motors and Cerberus-owned Chrysler LLC. Sources say that setting up this type of "orderly" bankruptcy would be complicated because it would not only involve talks with the automakers, but also the unions and other stakeholders would have to be involved. On December 19, 2008, President Bush approved a bailout plan and gave General Motors and Chrysler $13.4 billion in financing from TARP (Troubled Assets Relief Program) funds, as well as $4 billion to be "withdrawn later." As of February 14, 2009, General Motors is considering filing for Chapter 11 bankruptcy under a plan that would assemble all of their viable assets, including some U.S. brands and international operations, into a new company. http://www.reuters.com/article/newsOne/idUSTRE51D1Q120090214 Less than a week later, its Saab subsidiary filed for bankruptcy protection in Sweden. http://www.nytimes.com/2009/02/21/business/worldbusiness/21auto.html On March 5, 2009, GM's independent public accounting firm (Deloitte & Touche) issued a qualified opinion as part of GM's 2008 annual report that stated "these conditions raise substantial doubt about its ability to continue as a going concern". A qualified going concern audit letter like this is only issued by the auditors when the company is in extreme financial distress and it is likely that it may file for bankruptcy protection. On March 12, 2009, GM's CFO Ray Young said that it would not need the requested $2B in March noting that the cost-cutting measures are starting to take hold. http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/29657254/ On March 29, 2009, GM's Chairman and CEO, Rick Wagoner, agreed to immediately resign his position as part of an Obama administration automotive restructuring plan. G.M. Chief Is Said to Be Resigning in Deal With U.S. GM CEO Wagoner to step down at White House request WSJ: GM's Wagoner Will Step Down In announcing that plan, on March 30, 2009, President Obama stated that both GM and Chrysler may need to use "our bankruptcy code as a mechanism to help them restructure quickly and emerge stronger." President Obama's remarks on U.S. auto industry, March 30, 2009 He also announced that the warranties on cars made by these companies will be guaranteed by the U.S. Government. On March 31, 2009, President Barack Obama announced that he will give GM 60 additional days to try and restructure their company and prove their viability. If they succeed, Washington will provide General Motors with additional bridge loans. However, if GM cannot meet the requirements set by the White House, a prepackaged bankruptcy is probable. President Obama has reiterated that GM will be part of the future even if bankruptcy is necessary. http://gm-volt.com/2009/03/30/government-decision-gm-gets-60-days-to-restructure-otherwise-quick-surgical-bankruptcy/ New GM CEO Fritz Henderson has stated that Chapter 11 bankruptcy is very possible at this time; by mid-April, he was using the word "probable" http://www.detnews.com/article/20090418/AUTO01/904180362/1148/AUTO01/GM+bankruptcy+risk+grows (in his weekly conference call of May 11, his words became "more probable"). http://www.autonews.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20090511/ANA02/905119991/1229 They may file for Chapter 11 bankruptcy by June 1, 2009. http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2009/03/31/business/main4906229.shtml?source=mostpop_story . With a large segment of the GM workforce unionized, 11 U.S.C. §1113 will most likely come into play if bankruptcy is pursued. On April 22, 2009, GM stated that it will not be able to make their June 1, 2009 debt payment. http://www.freep.com/article/20090422/BUSINESS01/90422068/1002/BUSINESS/GM++We+won+t+make+June+debt+payment Detroit Free Press. April 22, 2009 On April 24, 2009, GM announced that they will be scrapping the Pontiac brand in an effort to invest more money into their major brands (Buick, Cadillac, Chevrolet, and GMC). http://money.cnn.com/2009/04/24/autos/pontiac_obit/ On May 4, 2009, German Economy Minister Karl-Theodor zu Guttenberg said Fiat (among others) http://www.autoobserver.com/2009/05/not-so-fast-fiat-russians-interested-in-opel-too.html might be interested in the GM European unit. http://www2.journalnow.com/content/2009/may/05/fiat-targets-gm-unit/business/ Sponsorships 2008–2009 On August 18, 2008, GM announced it has dropped its advertising for the Emmys in September and for the 2009 Academy Awards. "General Motors Drives Away From Oscar Stage", MEDIAWEEK, August 18, 2008 GM cited cost cutting and a return to marketing that works best. Media outlets have been struggling in the face of American automakers cutting "billions" in advertisements as the economy slows and American automakers struggle. American automakers have cut $414 million in advertising spending in the first quarter of 2008 alone. "Media Outlets Losing Money From a Lack of Auto Ads", New York Times, August 10, 2008 On September 22, 2008, GM announced that it would not advertise in the 2009 Super Bowl, citing the cost and the fact that it will not have any particular vehicles to launch at that time. "GM opts against Super Bowl ad amid cost cutting" USA Today. September 22, 2008. "In Game Of Super Bowl Ads, GM Forfeits" Pesca, Mike. NPR, "All Things Considered." September 22, 2008. "Brand Winners... And Losers: GM and Congress" Marketing Doctor Blog. October 4, 2008. In November 2008, GM terminated its marketing agreement with PGA golfer Tiger Woods, whose Buick contract had been extended for a second five-year period in 2004. /http://sports.espn.go.com/golf/columns/story?columnist=harig_bob&id=3723104 Environmental record In the middle of 1999, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) removed of contaminated sediments and soil from the General Motors site in Massena, New York for disposal at a licensed facility in Utah. The amount contained of contaminated sediments dredged from the St.Lawrence River. The sediments had been stored on the site since 1995. There was also of contaminated sludge from the active wastewater treatment plant on the General Motors property. GM To Start Removal Of Contaminated Sediments and Soils Next Week At Federal Superfund Site in Massena, New York | Newsroom | US EPA General Motors was ranked 20th in the 2002 Toxic 100. The company released 12,771,830 pounds of gases in the year 2002. Toxic 100 Detailed Company Report In September 2006, the state of California filed suit against General Motors, Chrysler, Nissan, Toyota, Honda, and Ford. The companies were accused of producing cars that emitted over 289 million metric tons of carbon per year in the United States, accounting for nearly 20% of carbon emissions in the United States and 30% of carbon emissions in California. Gale Group Search The Union of Concerned Scientists ranked General Motors as 7th of the top 8 manufacturers in terms of environmental impact. Although the company touts the most cars getting 30 mpg or better, it also has the most cars getting under 15 mpg. UCS Automaker Rankings 2007 Subsidies in Canada In March 2005, the Government of Canada provided C$200 million in incentives to General Motors for its Ontario plants to expand production and provide jobs, according to Jim Harris. Similar incentives were promised to non-North American auto companies like Toyota; Premier Dalton McGuinty said the money the province and Ottawa are pledging for the project is well-spent. Labor relations 2007 United Auto Workers strike On September 24, 2007 General Motors workers represented by the United Auto Workers union went on the first nationwide strike against GM since 1970. The ripple effect of the strike reached into Canada the following day as two car assembly plants and a transmission facility were forced to close. Overnight a tentative agreement was reached, however, and UAW officials declared the end of the strike in a news conference at 4 a.m. on September 26. By the following day, all GM workers in both countries were back to work. Outcome of strike A new labor contract was ratified by UAW members exactly one week after the tentative agreement was reached, passing by a majority 62% vote. In the contract are several product and employment guarantees stretching well into the next decade. One of GM's key future products, the Chevy Volt, was promised to the GM Poletown/Detroit-Hamtramck plant in 2010. Also included is a VEBA (Voluntary Employee Beneficiary Association) which will transfer retiree health care obligations to the UAW by 2010. This eliminates more than $50 billion from GM's healthcare tab. It will be funded by $30 billion in cash and $1.4 billion in GM stock paid to the UAW over the next four years of the contract. It also eliminates 70% of the labor cost gap with GM's Japanese rivals. Impact of other strikes A strike at American Axle and Manufacturing Holdings Inc. will result in lost production of an additional 230,000 vehicles in the second quarter, with an estimated $1.8 billion impact on earnings before tax. With a total strike cost of $2.81 billion. GM's Cost - Auto News Report 2008 Canadian Auto Workers bargaining In an unusual move, GM Canada and the Canadian Auto Workers (CAW) union ratified a new collective bargaining contract in May 2008, four months before the expiration of the existing contract. As part of the agreement, among other production commitments, GM pledged to maintain production at the Oshawa, Ontario pickup truck plant. Less than three weeks later, GM announced that rising gasoline prices and falling truck sales made it necessary to close certain truck and SUV plants, including the Oshawa pickup plant. http://media.gm.com/servlet/GatewayServlet?target=http://image.emerald.gm.com/gmnews/viewmonthlyreleasedetail.do?domain=3&docid=46161 In response, CAW members staged a 12-day blockade of the GM Canada headquarters. After further discussions with the CAW, GM agreed to compensate workers at the truck plant, as well as making product commitments for the Oshawa car assembly plant. http://www.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/story/LAC.20080728.RGM28/TPStory/Business Financials Labor costs GM has announced elimination of lifetime health benefits for about 100,000 of its white collar retirees by the end of 2008. http://www.calthomas.com/index.php?news=2427 Auto racing General Motors has an extensive history in numerous forms of racing. Vehicles of most, if not all, of GM's brands have been represented in competition, with perhaps Chevrolet being the most prominent. In particular, the Chevrolet Corvette has long been popular and successful in international road racing. GM also is a supplier of racing components, such as engines, transmissions, and electronics equipments. GM's Oldsmobile Aurora engine platform was successful in the Indy Racing League (IRL) throughout the 1990s, winning many races in the small V-8 class. An unmodified Aurora V-8 in the Aerotech, captured 47 world records, including the record for speed endurance in the Motorsports Hall of Fame of America. Recently, the Cadillac V-Series has entered motorsports racing. GM has also used many cars in the American racing series NASCAR. Currently the Chevrolet Impala is the only entry in the series but in the past the Pontiac Grand Prix, Buick Regal, Oldsmobile Cutlass, Chevrolet Lumina, Chevrolet Malibu, and the Chevrolet Monte Carlo were also used. In touring cars (mainly in Europe) Vauxhall is a key player and former champion in the British Touring Car Championship (BTCC) series and competes with a Vauxhall Vectra in Super 2000 spec, although have announced plans to withdraw at the end of 2009. Opel used to participate in the DTM series and also in the 1980s in the World Rally Championship and other Rally Series with Group B Spec Opel Manta's before this category of Rallying was banned. Chevrolet competes with a Chevrolet Cruze in the FIA World Touring Car Championship (WTCC). Tempus Sport and RML also complete with a privately run Lacetti in the BTCC. In Australia, there is the prestigious V8 Supercar Championship which is battled out by the two main rivals of Holden & Ford. The current Holden Racing Team cars are based on the Holden Commodore and run a 5.0-litre V8-cylinder engine producing 635+ BHP (approx 467 kW Power). These cars have a top speed of 294 km/h (182 mph) and run 0-100 km/h in 3.8 seconds. The Holden Racing Team is Australia's most successful team in Australian Touring Car History. In 2007 the Drivers championship was won by the very closely linked HSV Dealer Team. GM also holds the record for most deaths from result of legal automobile racing in Australia. Development of electronics for GM Auto Racing In 1986, the GM Motorsports group asked Delco Electronics Corporation (December), a subsidiary of GM Hughes Electronics (headquarters - Kokomo, Indiana) if an electronic engine management system could be developed for the Chevy Indy V8 engines used in the CART open-wheel race series. Delco Electronics had been supplying all GM automobiles sold in the USA with Engine Control Modules (ECMs) since 1981 when the USA Clean Air Act required 3-way catalytic converters and controlled air-fuel ratios. The production ECMs were becoming more complex, and were becoming powertrain controllers controlling the transmission, spark timing, Idle speed, as well as air-fuel intake mixtures. Delco Electronics used a small group of electronic designers and technicians at their facility in Goleta, California (near Santa Barbara, California) to do special assignable projects that were advanced or more state of the art. This facility was called Delco Systems Operations (formerly known as GM Defense Research Labs), a part of Delco Electronics Corporation at the time. Delco Systems Operations is the place where the Apollo Program's Lunar Rover Mobility Sub-system Anthony Young, Lunar and Planetary Rovers: The Wheels of Apollo and the Quest for Mars. ISBN 0387307745 was developed and built, also the Apollo Program's guidance computers (Apollo PGNCS) and the Boeing 747 guidance computers (Delco Carousel IV) were developed and manufactured there. All Delco Electronics Motorsports products developed before 1994 were designed by this group. From 1994 to present, this activity is at Delco Electronics/Delphi in Kokomo, IN. The first generation of engine management controller for CART racing used a modified production ECM, but performed poorly in the race car due to the harsh EMI (Electromagnetic Interference) environment. This version was never used in racing, but the experience gained enabled the engineers to design a more successful Generation 2 controller for use in the 1988 CART IndyCar World series. Practice at Phoenix 1988. Mario Illien introduces the Gen II to Mario Andretti Generation 2 controllers were used experimentally by Newman/Haas Racing in 1988 and the first win was in the Cleveland GP with Mario Andretti driving. In 1989 Newman/Haas Racing, Team Penske, Galles Racing, and Patrick Racing teams used Delco Electronics Gen-2 controllers with the Ilmor Chevy Indy V8 engine. "By the start of the 1989 season, racing pundits recognized that Chevrolet, with its Ilmor Engineering engines and Delco Electronics equipment, had assembled perhaps the most potent racing power in the history of the sport. As the season got under way in April, the pattern of winning began. Racing's elite drivers -- Al Unser, Jr. and Senior, Emerson Fittipaldi, Rick Mears, Danny Sullivan, and Mario and Michael Andretti—were driving the best equipment in the world. The results began to show early on. By October, Chevy engines with DE equipment had won 13 of the 15 IndyCar races. When Emerson Fittipaldi crossed the finish line to win the 1989 Indianapolis 500, racing fans witnessed history being made. Fans thrilled to the neck-and-neck finish between Fittipaldi and Al Unser, Jr. who went spinning on lap 198 after brushing tires with Emmo, and the 43-year-old Brazilian had his first Indianapolis 500 win. Fittipaldi's victory—in a Chevrolet Indy V8 engine controlled by a Delco Electronics electronic engine control module (ECM) -- was the first time in the 500's storied history that the engine of the winning vehicle was controlled by an electronic engine management system. Delco Electronics Electron Magazine, June 1994, pages 1-5 For the 1990 season, all teams using the Ilmor Chevy Indy V8 were provided a redesigned Gen-3 system and it won 15 poles, 16 wins including the 1990 Indianapolis 500, with 17 races in the IndyCar World Series. To prove the system, the components were used with GM engines in the Trans-Am Racing series during 1989. In the 1991 IndyCar World Series, Gen-3 had a perfect score: 17 poles, 17 wins, 17 races including the 1991 Indianapolis 500. At the 1991 Indianapolis 500, Delco Electronics introduced telemetry to the electronic system using the advanced spread spectrum radio technology James Bogner, SAE paper 962327 : Spread Spectrum Telemetry Data System for Indy Car Racing, October 1996. . It was so popular that all IndyCar teams eventually used it, and many still use it. ABC TV used the data from the systems to display real time data with ABC's in-car video cameras. In 1990 and 1991, the Chevy engine with the Delco Electronics Gen-3 controller won 33 straight IndyCar races. Chevy's dominance proved electronics had found their place in IndyCar racing. In the 1992 IndyCar World Series, race cars with Gen-3 captured 7 poles, 11 wins including the 1992 Indianapolis 500, in 16 races. For the 1993 IndyCar World Series, Delco Electronics had been developing a smaller more powerful controller using 32-bit computers and a high-level software language called Modula-GM. This system was called Gen-4 and won much praise for its improved functions and features. The telemetry system developed for the 1992 season was used, and a new Distributorless Ignition module component was added to the overall engine management system. 10 wins including the 1993 Indianapolis 500 in 16 CART races. Left to Right Gen-4, Gen-3, Gen-2, & Gen-1 Delco Electronics Motorsport Engine Control Modules In 1994, a totally new Ilmor engine was introduced to IndyCar teams and the engine controller was Delco Electronics Gen-4: 12 wins including the 1994 Indianapolis 500, 16 races. In 1995, Gen-4 won 6 races out of 17. In 1996, the Indy Racing League split from CART and used the naturally aspirated Oldsmobile Aurora engine which used the Delco Electronics Gen-4 system until the engine was retired from the IRL IndyCar Series a few years ago. 1997 was the last year the Gen-4 ran in the CART IndyCar World Series. Per a February 27, 2003 Delphi Press Release Delphi's Innovative Earpiece Sensor System Becomes Safety Requirement for Indy Racing League Drivers , Delphi's current involvement in open wheel racing is as follows: "Delphi is the official electronics provider to the IRL and has been involved in open-wheel racing since 1988. Today, a majority of the vehicles in the IRL are equipped with several of Delphi's racing products including: Delphi Earpiece Sensor System - measures dynamic forces to a driver's head during an accident. It uses small sensors integrated into the left and right radio earpieces worn by the driver. The six accelerometers—one for each of the three axes on each side—measure acceleration in the X, Y and Z axes during an accident. The combined data from the earpiece sensor system and onboard accident data recorder provide accident researchers valuable data for a clearer picture of what happens during a crash. Accident Data Recorder (ADR2) - senses and records key vehicle parameters at 1,000 samples per second just prior to, during, and after an accident-triggering event. Track Condition Radio - helps alert drivers with critical information by transmitting messages from race control to the racecar. A dash-mounted display communicates messages including safety warnings, track condition and pits opened/closed. Radio Telemetry Module - transmits engine and chassis data from a speeding racecar to race team engineers located in the pits. The telemetry module helps enhance driver safety and race team strategy by making real-time data available. Multec(R) Bottom Feed Methanol Electronic Fuel Injector - provides a high flow rate and a low profile package that are ideal for port fuel racing applications. The injector is able to operate at high temperatures and provide a high level of spray atomization. Connectors, Cables and Terminals - connectors are coupling devices that provide an electrical and mechanical connection/disconnection in a system. Cables are insulated electrical conductors. Terminals are devices attached to the end of a wire to facilitate electrical connections. All of these Delphi components enable a vehicle's electrical/electronic system to function under the tough conditions in racing. Delphi also has begun offering services to the racing industry, including Hydraulic Sled Testing from its state-of-the-art testing laboratory in Vandalia, Ohio. Delphi provides comprehensive safety testing using a hydraulic test sled to simulate a crash. Services include on-board data acquisition, on- and off-board digital video monitoring and the use of Delphi safety products such as the earpiece sensor system and accident data recorder." Awards for this program: Louis Schwitzer Awards for Engineering Excellence (since 1967): 1994: Mario Illien, Mercedes 209 CID Engine with Delco Electronics Gen-4 controller (Also won in 1986 for Ilmor-Chevrolet Engine that used Gen-2, 3, & 4 controllers 1988 to 1996) 1996: Dave Schnelker, Ning wu, I-Fu Shih of Delco Electronics & Ed Rothrock of Bell Sports (Design of Racing EyeCue) 1997: Ed Keating and Roger Allen of GM Motorsports (Oldsmobile Aurora Engine with Delco Electronics Gen-4 controller) 2005: Delphi engineers Erskine Carter, Glen Gray, Andy Inman, Tim Kronenberg and Bruce Natvig (Delphi Earpiece Sensor System) 2007: Delphi engineers Erskine Carter, Glen Gray, Andy Inman, Tim Kronenberg and Bruce Natvig (Delphi Accident Data Recorder 3 - ADR 3)) Alternative fuels and electric vehicles General Motors is both active in environmental causes and, as a major industrial force, implicated in ecologically harmful activity. The company has long worked on alternative-technology vehicles, and has recently led the industry with ethanol burning flexible-fuel vehicles that can run on either E85 (ethanol) or gasoline. The company was the first to use turbochargers and was an early proponent of V6 engines in the 1960s, but quickly lost interest as the muscle car race took hold. They demonstrated America's First Turbine Car gas turbine vehicles powered by kerosene, an area of interest throughout the industry, but abandoned the alternative engine configuration in view of the 1973 oil crisis. In the 1970s and 1980s, GM pushed the benefits of diesel engines and cylinder deactivation technologies with disastrous results due to poor durability in the Oldsmobile diesels and drivability issues in the Cadillac V8-6-4 variable cylinder engines. In 1987 GM, in conjunction with Aerovironment built the Sunraycer which won the inaugural World Solar Challenge and was a showcase of advanced technology. Much of the technology from Sunraycer found its way into the Impact prototype electric vehicle (also built by Aerovironment) and was the predecessor to the EV1. GM supported a compromise version of the CAFE standard increase from 27 mpg to 35 mpg, the first such increase in over 20 years. GM workers lobbying for less-stringent CAFE rule Hybrid electric initiative In May 2004, GM delivered the world's first full sized hybrid pickups, and introduced a hybrid passenger car. In 2005, the Opel Astra diesel Hybrid concept vehicle was introduced. The 2006 Saturn Vue Green Line was the first hybrid passenger vehicle from GM and is also a mild design. GM has hinted at new hybrid technologies to be employed that will be optimized for higher speeds in freeway driving. GM has recently introduced the concept cars Chevrolet Volt and Opel Flextreme, which are electric vehicles with back-up generators, powered by gasoline, E85, or fuel cells. According to GM, a production Chevrolet Volt will be available by late 2010 as a 2011 model. GM currently offers two types of hybrid systems. The first type, used in the Silverado Hybrid, Saturn Vue, Saturn Aura, and Chevrolet Malibu, is what GM calls a "Mild Hybrid" or "BAS" system. The second hybrid drive system,co-developed with DaimlerChrysler and BMW, is called a "Two-Mode Hybrid." The two-mode is used by the Chevrolet Tahoe/GMC Yukon and will later be used on the Saturn Vue, and possibly other vehicles. Tom Higgs, "Patents General Motors". October 17, 2008 GM's current hybrid electric models: 2009 Saturn Vue Green Line Hybrid 2009 Saturn Aura Green Line Hybrid 2009 GMC Yukon Hybrid 2009 Chevrolet Malibu Hybrid 2009 Chevrolet Tahoe Hybrid 2009 Cadillac Escalade Hybrid (coming late 2009: 2009 Chevy Silverado 2 Mode Hybrid and 2009 GMC Sierra 2 Mode Hybrid) The GM Magic Bus is a hybrid powered bus. GM sold 843 hybrids of all types during the first quarter of 2008, according to the industry newspaper Automotive News. Compared that with Ford, which sold 5,225 hybrids during that time. CSM Worldwide, expects GM to seriously increase its hybrid output, turning the automaker into a serious contender within the next few years. He expects it to produce 40,000 to 50,000 hybrids this year, more than doubling last year's production. Valdes-Dapena, Peter GM gets on the hybrid highway, CNNMoney, April 23, 2008, retrieved 2008-07-06 All-electric vehicles Electric car EV1 shown plugged into charging station The process of obtaining the EV1, GM's first electric vehicle, was difficult. The vehicle could not be purchased outright. Instead, General Motors offered a closed-end lease for three years, with no renewal or residual purchase options. The EV1 was only available from specialist Saturn dealerships, and only in California and Arizona. General Motors EV1: Information and Much More from Answers.com Before reviewing leasing options, a potential lessee would be taken through a 'pre-qualification' process in order to learn how the EV1 was different from other vehicles. Next came a waiting list with no scheduled delivery date. My EV experiences In June 2006 the documentary Who Killed the Electric Car? was released, criticizing among others, GM for being responsible for the demise of the EV1. Several weeks before the debut of the movie, the Smithsonian Institution announced that its EV1 display was being permanently removed and the EV1 car put into storage. GM is a major financial contributor to the museum, but both parties denied that this fact contributed to the removal of the display. Smithsonian Kills the Electric Car. Retrieved on 2008-05-19. General Motors has responded to complaints about the scrapping of the EV1 program and they dispute the existence of any conspiracy surrounding its demise. An entry was posted on the GM blog FastLane in 2006 in which GM defended its decision by saying that it was unable to guarantee the vehicles could continue to be maintained in a safe operating state. GM FYI Blog: Who Ignored the Facts About the Electric Car? GM alleges that during the four years available to the public, only 800 EV1's were released. Over $1 billion was spent on the EV1 program, with a great portion used for consumer incentives and marketing. With a waiting list of 5,000 applicants, only 50 individuals actually were willing to accept a lease on the EV1. Suppliers ceased production of replacement parts due to the low demand for the EV1. This made repairs and continued safety of the vehicles difficult. The EV1 was designed as a developmental vehicle and was never intended for serial production. GM responded to allegations made in the film through a blog post by Dave Barthmuss, who said "Sadly, despite the substantial investment of money and the enthusiastic fervor of a relatively small number of EV1 drivers — including the filmmaker — the EV1 proved far from a viable commercial success." Who Ignored the Facts About the Electric Car? Barthmuss notes investments in electric vehicle technology since the EV1: Two-Mode Hybrid, plug-in hybrid, and fuel cell vehicle programs. The filmmakers suggested that GM did not immediately channel its technological progress with the EV1 into these projects, and instead let the technology languish while focusing on more immediately profitable enterprises such as SUVs. Contrary to this suggestion, as Barthmuss points out, GM is bullish on hydrogen: According to GM, not all of the EV1's were destroyed. Many were donated to research institutions and facilities, along with museums. Some are still owned by General Motors themselves, and are kept at their technical design center in Warren, Michigan, and can occasionally be seen on the road within a closed area of the tech center. On September 16, 2008, as part of its 100th anniversary celebration, GM unveiled the "production" version of the Chevrolet Volt at the GM headquarters in Detroit http://media.gm.com/servlet/GatewayServlet?target=http://image.emerald.gm.com/gmnews/viewpressreldetail.do?domain=827&docid=48589 . General Motors has announced that it is building a prototype two-seat electric vehicle with Segway. An early prototype of the Personal Urban Mobility and Accessibility vehicle—dubbed Project P.U.M.A. -- will be shown off in New York a day ahead of the press previews for the 2009 New York International Auto Show. http://www.detnews.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20090407/AUTO01/904070332/1148/&source=nletter-business Battery Packs for Electric Vehicles GM will build battery packs with LG Chem in Michigan. GM also plans to build an automotive battery laboratory in Michigan http://apps1.eere.energy.gov/news/news_detail.cfm/news_id=12177 . GM will take full responsibility for all the battery management systems and power electronics. The company will build a new factory in Michigan, but a specific site has yet to be announced, in part because negotiations are ongoing with state and local authorities on the usual incentives and approvals. LG Chem's US subsidiary, Compact Power of Troy, Michigan, has been building the prototype packs for the development vehicles and will continue to provide integration support and act as a liaison for the program. Hydrogen initiative Sequel, a fuel cell-powered vehicle from GM. GM has prided its research and prototype development of hydrogen powered vehicles, to be produced in early 2010, using a support infrastructure still in a prototype state. The economic feasibility of the technically challenging hydrogen car, and the low-cost production of hydrogen to fuel it, has also been discussed by other automobile manufacturers such as Ford and Chrysler. In June 2007, Larry Burns, vice president of research and development, said he's not yet willing to say exactly when hydrogen vehicles will be mass produced, but he said it should happen before 2020, the year many experts have predicted. He said "I sure would be disappointed if we weren't there" before 2020. Tom Krisher, "GM steps up work on hydrogen cars", Business Week. June 15, 2007 Flexible-fuel vehicles North American market GM produces several flexible-fuel vehicles that can operate on E85 ethanol fuel or gasoline, or any blend of both. Since 2006 GM started featuring a bright yellow gas cap to remind drivers of the E85 capabilities, and also using badging with the text "Flexfuel/E85 Ethanol" to clearly mark the car as an E85 FFV. GM is the North American leader in E85 flex fuel vehicles, with over 3 million FlexFuel vehicles on the road in the U.S. As of 2009, GM offers 18 ethanol-enabled FlexFuel cars and trucks in the US, and produce more than one million new FlexFuel vehicles. GM's goal is to have half of their annual vehicle production be E85 or biodiesel capable by 2012. GM's goal is to have half of their annual vehicle production be E85 or biodiesel capable by 2012. General Motors | Fuel Economy & Alternative Fuels - E85 Ethanol Despite the significant amount of flex fuel vehicles sold in the US and Canada, the percentage of users actually using ethanol has been very low as many owners are not aware they owned an E85 flex or not enough E85 fueling stations are available nearby, except for the Corn Belt states, where there is a great concentration of E85 stations, as most corn ethanol is produced there. A 2005 survey found that 68% of American flex-fuel car owners were not aware they owned an E85 flex. Several critics have argued that GM and the other American automakers have been producing E85 flex models motivated by a loophole in the CAFE (Corporate Average Fuel Economy) requirements, that allows for a fuel economy credit for every flex-fuel vehicle sold, whether or not in practice these vehicles are fueled with E85. See Chapter 6. Homegrown Energy. This loophole might have allowed the car industry to meet the CAFE targets in fuel economy just by spending between USD 100 to USD 200 that it cost to turn a conventional vehicle into a flex-fuel, without investing in new technology to improve fuel economy, and saving them the potential fines for not achieving that standard in a given model year. Brazilian market Brazilian Chevrolet Celta FlexPower. GM's largest overseas subsidiary is General Motors do Brasil, which started producing flexible-fuel vehicles since its inception in the Brazilian market in 2003. Like other Brazilian flex-fuel vehicles, GM's flex fuel cars and light-duty trucks are optimized to run on any mix of E20-E25 gasoline and up to 100% hydrous ethanol fuel (E100). GM launched its first flex fuel in June 2003, the Chevrolet Corsa 1.8 FlexPower, just two months after the first flex car was launched by another Brazilian carmaker. GM do Brasil also introduced the MultiPower engine in August 2004 which was capable of using natural gas (CNG), ethanol and gasoline (E20-E25 blend) as fuel, and it was used in the multifuel Chevrolet Astra 2.0 model 2005, aimed at the local taxi cab market. The Brazilian GM Powertrain unit also developed the EconoFlex technology, used for the first time in the Chevrolet Prisma 1.4, which allows the flex fuel engine to maximize fuel economy and power. Due to the success and rapid consumer acceptance of the flex versions, GM sold 192,613 flex vehicles and 135,636 gasoline-powered automobiles in 2005, See Table 08 for flex-fuel sales and Table 07 for gasoline sales. jumping to 501,681 flex-fuel vehicles while only 949 cars and 6,834 light trucks powered by gasoline were sold in 2007, See Table 08 for flex-fuel sales and Table 07 for gasoline sales. and reaching new car sales of 535.454 flex fuels in 2008, representing 97 percent of all cars and light duty trucks sold in that year. See Table 08. Political and charitable contributions In the 2008 election cycle General Motors contributed $802,414, with 52% of that amount going to the Democrats and 48% to the Republicans. Top Contributors to Federal Candidates and Parties: Automotive Since 1996, General Motors has been the exclusive source of funding for Safe Kids USA's "Safe Kids Buckle Up" program, a national initiative to ensure child automobile safety through education and inspection. Safe Kids USA. SK Buckle Up usa.safekids.org. Retrieved 24/02/08. GM's Saturn division put up a display at the 2009 Detroit Auto Show congratulating Barack Obama on his election as the first African-American president of the United States. http://jalopnik.com/5129704/gm-sucks-up-to-obama-hard Corporate restructuring After gaining market share in the late 1990s and making enormous profits General Motors stock soared to over $80 a share. However, in 2000, twelve successive interest rate hikes by the Federal Reserve led to a severe stock market decline following the September 11, 2001 attacks, caused a pension and benefit funds crisis at General Motors and many other American companies. General Motors' rising retiree health care costs and Other Post Employment Benefit (OPEB) fund deficit prompted the company to enact a broad restructuring plan. Although GM had already taken action to fully fund its pension plan, its OPEB fund became an issue for its corporate bond ratings. GM had expressed its disagreement with the bond ratings; moreover, GM's benefit funds were performing at higher than expected rates of return. Then, following a $10.6 billion loss in 2005, GM acted quickly to implement its restructuring plan. For the first quarter of 2006 GM earned $400 million, signaling a turnaround had already begun even though many aspects of the restructuring plan had not yet taken effect. Although retiree health care costs remain a significant issue, General Motors' investment strategy has generated a $17.1 billion surplus in 2007 in its $101 billion U.S. pension fund portfolio, a $35 billion reversal from its $17.8 billion of underfunding. In February 2005, GM successfully bought itself out of a put option with Fiat for $2 billion USD (€1.55 billion). In 2000, GM had sold a 6% stake to Fiat in return for a 20% share in the Italian automaker. As part of the deal, GM granted Fiat a put option which, if exercised between January 2004 and July 2009, could have forced GM to buy Fiat. GM had agreed to the put option at the time, perhaps to keep it from being acquired by another automaker such as Daimler AG competing with GM's Opel and Vauxhall marques. The relationship suffered, and Fiat had failed to improve. In 2003, Fiat recapitalized, reducing GM's stake to 10%. In February 2006, GM slashed its annual dividend from 2.00 to $1.00 per share. The reduction saved $565 million a year. In March 2006, GM divested 92.36 million shares (reducing their stake from 20% to 3%) of Japanese manufacturer Suzuki, in order to raise $2.3 billion. GM originally invested in Suzuki in the early 1980s. On March 23, 2006, a private equity consortium including Kohlberg Kravis Roberts, Goldman Sachs Capital, and Five Mile Capital purchased $8.8 billion, or 78% of GMAC's commercial mortgage arm. The new entity, in which GMAC will own a 21% stake, will be known as Capmark Financial Group. On April 3, 2006, GM announced that it would sell 51% of GMAC as a whole to a consortium led by Cerberus Capital Management, raising $14 billion over 3 years. Investors also include Citigroup's private equity arm and Aozora Bank of Japan. The group will pay GM $7.4 billion in cash at closing. GM will retain approximately $20 billion in automobile financing worth an estimated $4 billion over three years. GM sold its remaining 8% stake in Isuzu (which had peaked at 49% just a few years earlier) http://www.channel4.com/4car/news/news-story.jsp?news_id=14382 on April 11, 2006, to raise an additional $300 million. 12,600 workers from Delphi, a key supplier to GM, agreed to buyouts and an early retirement plan offered by GM in order to avoid a strike, after a judge agreed to cancel Delphi's union contracts. 5,000 Delphi workers were allowed to flow to GM. On June 28, 2007, GM agreed to sell its Allison Transmission division to private-equity firms Carlyle Group and Onex for $5.1 billion. The deal will increase GM's liquidity and echoes previous moves to shift its focus towards its core automotive business. The two firms will control seven factories around Indianapolis but GM will retain management of a factory in Baltimore. Former Allison Transmission president Lawrence E. Dewey will be the new CEO of the standalone company. GM Agrees to Sell Allison Transmission Unit, The Wall Street Journal, June 29, 2007 On February 12, 2008 GM announced its loss of $39 billion, the biggest loss of any U.S. automaker. GM has offered buyouts to all its UAW members. In March 24, 2008 GM reported a cash position of $24 billion, or $6 billion less than what was on hand September 31, 2007, which is a loss of $1 billion a month. GM Cash Burn 1B per month - Auto News Report - May 29, 2008 A further quarterly loss of $15.5 billion, the third-biggest in the company's history, was announced on August 1, 2008. On November 17, 2008 GM announced it would sell its stake in Suzuki Motor Corp. (3.02%) for 22.37 billion yen ($230 million) GM to sell stake in Suzuki to raise cash - November 17, 2008 in order to raise much needed cash to get through the 2008 US economic crisis. As GM opens new plants, those scheduled to close under the planned GM restructuring include (source: General Motors Corporation): Plants Location Closing Role # Employees Doraville Assembly Georgia September 26 2008Minivans (Buick, Pontiac, Chevrolet, Saturn) ? Moraine Assembly Ohio December 23 2008 Mid-size SUV assembly 4,165 Oklahoma City Assembly Oklahoma February 20 2006 Mid-size trucks and SUV assembly 2,734 Lansing Craft Centre Michigan March 17 2006 Chevrolet SSR roadster assembly 398 Janesville Assembly Wisconsin December 23 2008 Full Size SUV Assembly 2,800 Lansing Metal Center Michigan 2006 Metal fabricating 1,398 Portland Distribution Center Oregon 2006 Parts distribution 95 Saint Louis Distribution Center Missouri 2006 Parts distribution 182 Pittsburgh Metal Pennsylvania 2007 Metal fabricating 613 Ypsilanti Processing Center Michigan 2007 Parts processing 278 Flint North 3800 Michigan 2008 Engines 2,677 Massena Castings Plant 250 New York 2008 Foam 500 Muncie Transmission Plant Muncie, IN 2004 Transmissions ? Bankruptcy in 2009 General Motors was already vulnerable before the automotive industry crisis of 2008-2009. It came close to bankruptcy after falling sales caused a $4.45bn loss in 1991. Cost-cutting and management changes restored profitability for over 10 years, but in 2005 the company posted a loss of $8.6 billion. In 2006 its attempts to obtain U.S. government financing support for its pension liabilites and to form commercial alliances with Nissan and Renault failed. By 2007 its losses rose to $38.7 billion, and sales for the following year dropped by 45%. On November 7, 2008 General Motors admitted it would run out of cash around mid-2009 without some combination of government funding, a merger or sales of assets. Ten days later General Motors, Ford and Chrysler sought financial aid at a Congressional hearing in Washington D.C.. All three companies were unsuccessful and were invited to draft a new action plan for the sustainability of the industry. Detroit Chiefs Plead for Aid. New York Times on November 18, 2008. Retrieved November 21, 2008. On December 2, 2008, General Motors submitted its "Restructuring Plan for Long-Term Viability" to the Senate Banking Committee and House of Representatives Financial Services Committee. Restructuring Plan for Long-Term Viability On March 30, 2009 President Barack Obama refused to provide financial aid and asked General Motors to produce credible plans, saying that the company's proposals had shirked tough decisions and that Chapter 11 bankruptcy appeared the most promising way to lighten its debts, by allowing the courts to push bondholders and trade unions into a settlement. In the government's opinion bondholders and unions had obstructed measures to reduce the company's operating costs. In April 2009, financial analysts at Bernstein Research blamed the collapse on General Motors' strategy of cutting prices in order to improve sales, instead of cutting its product line, manufacturing capacity and dealer network. As a result every year the company was selling hundreds of thousands car which quickly appeared on the second-hand market via rental fleets, employee discounts and other means. The Bernstein analysts stated that General Motors was selling vehicles at prices below break-even level, and probably below their marginal costs. Efforts to sell General Motors' European operations ran into difficulties, and the corporation was expected to file for bankruptcy by June 1, 2009. The U.S. government suggested that, if it was satisfied with the company's plans to restructure, it would buy at least 50% of the stock and take the right to name board members. On 31 May 2009 news broke that the U.S. would effectively take over GM following a bankruptcy filing. U.S. goverment would own 72.5% of the new GM. CNN, 31 May 2009, General Motors on the brink US Government Guarantee of Warranties On March 30, 2009 President Barack Obama issued a US Government guarantee of General Motor's warranty liabilities: "If you buy a car from Chrysler or General Motors, you will be able to get your car serviced and repaired, just like always. Your warranty will be safe. In fact, it will be safer than it's ever been. Because starting today, the United States government will stand behind your warranty." http://uk.news.yahoo.com/22/20090330/tbs-uk-autos-obama-remarks-sb-03c9bed.html Disability assistance The GM Mobility program was launched in 1991 to assist people with disabilities with their transportation needs. The Mobility program provides financial assistance, plus two extra years of the OnStar safety and security service. This applies when one or more of the 35 eligible aftermarket mobility equipment modifications are installed on the vehicle (i.e., hand controls, scooter hoists or wheelchair lifts). All GM brands (Buick, Cadillac, Chevrolet, GMC, HUMMER, Pontiac, Saab and Saturn) are included in the program. Criticism GM Scrutinized for Alleged Nazi Collaboration In August 1938, a senior executive for General Motors, James Mooney, received the Grand Cross of the German Eagle for his distinguished service to the Reich. "Nazi armaments chief Albert Speer told a congressional investigator that Germany could not have attempted its September 1939 Blitzkrieg of Poland without the performance-boosting additive technology provided by Alfred P. Sloan and General Motors". http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/national/daily/nov98/nazicars30.htm http://www.internalcombustionbook.com/archive/offsite/jweekly/JWeeklyGMandtheNazis.html http://globalresearch.ca/index.php?context=viewArticle&code=20070505&articleId=5571 Deliberate dismantlement of urban rail infrastructure Facing a saturated car market in the US in the early 1920s GM engaged in a controversial policy along with road-builders that triggered the massive shift from the mass transportation of the previous century to the 'one-person-one-car' trip of today. Stephen Leahy, Time Expired In order to expand auto sales and maximize profits GM bought local mass transit systems and privately-owned railways, following which it would proceed to eliminate them. Bradford Snell, The StreetCar Conspiracy. How General Motors Deliberately Destroyed Public Transit In 1996 documentary Taken for a Ride, GM is cited as being mastermind of purchase and destruction of private fixed rail transit systems in US cities from 1920s until 1950s. The documentary claims the motivations were to eliminate fixed rail systems and implement the idea of buses and cars as more efficient and better alternatives in order to increase GM sales. 1968 Corvair Consumer advocate Ralph Nader issued a series of attacks on vehicle safety issues from GM - particularly the Chevrolet Corvair - in his book Unsafe at Any Speed, written in 1968. Being the first major action taken by Nader, he soon established his reputation as a crusader for safety. GM was then accused of sending spies after him. "A woman at the supermarket confronted me and said, 'How would you like to have a talk on foreign affairs?' This wasn't a classroom, this was a supermarket, I was buying cookies - I don't think she wanted to talk about foreign affairs, I think she wanted to talk about domestic affairs," Nader said in the 2006 documentary An Unreasonable Man. Agents were supposedly trying to fix his mind and get him to engage in sexual activity. "Mother would get calls saying, 'We've got a package for Mr. Ralph Nader at 9 AM.' There would also be threats like, 'You better back off, Buddy Boy'," said Claire, Nader's sister. GM was put on trial for attempting manipulation with Nader, Robert Kennedy and numerous other notable figures present at the trial. In the end, the CEO apologized to Nader; however, Nader continued to work against General Motors. Top-level management In 1980, J. Patrick Wright wrote a book named On a Clear Day You Can See General Motors. This book, which critics acclaimed "blows the lid off the king of carmakers" was about the allegations of corruption, "mismanagement and total irresponsibility" at the top level of the company, as seen by John Z. DeLorean, the Vice-President, who in 1973 resigned from his position in spite of a brilliant and meteoric rise (he was earning $ 650,000 per year and was expected to be the next President of GM). Electric car project cancelled In June 2006 the documentary Who Killed the Electric Car? was released, criticizing GM, among others, for the cancellation of its first electric car, the EV1. It should be noted that with the introduction of the production Chevrolet Volt, Chris Paine, director of the documentary, has shown substantial affinity for General Motors. The sequel to the documentary, to be titled Revenge of the Electric Car is expected to portray a less antagonistic view of General Motors. However, the Volt is expected to go 64 km in electric-only mode on a single charge, while the all-electric EV1 could travel up to 240 km before recharging. This shorter range is characteristic of the typical commuter's daily range. An on board generator will use gasoline to extend the maximum range. Yearly American sales Calendar Year Total U.S. sales Chg/yr. 2001 http://www.theautochannel.com/news/2003/01/03/152225.html 4,904,015 2002 4,858,705 −0.9% 2003 4,756,403 −2.1% 2004 http://www.theautochannel.com/news/2006/01/05/205609.html 4,707,416 −1.0% 2005 4,517,730 −4.0% 2006 http://media.gm.com/servlet/GatewayServlet?target=http://image.emerald.gm.com/gmnews/viewmonthlyreleasedetail.do?domain=6&docid=31596 4,124,645 −8.7% 2007 3,866,620 −6.3% 2008 http://media.gm.com/servlet/GatewayServlet?target=http://image.emerald.gm.com/gmnews/viewpressreldetail.do?domain=2&docid=51161 2,980,688 −22.9% See also Automotive industry People Irving Jacob Reuter Alfred P. Sloan William C. Durant Robert Lutz Wayne Cherry John DeLorean Books and films Final Offer - A documentary film that shows the 1984 GM contract negotiations, that would result in the union split of the Canadian arm of the UAW. Roger & Me - the first movie by filmmaker Michael Moore. The film criticizes General Motors for closing down its factories in Moore's hometown of Flint, Michigan, despite record profits. After Flint residents lose their many jobs at GM, Moore claims the town descends into economic chaos. Who Killed the Electric Car? - A documentary film charting GM's launch, then alleged self-sabotage of the electric car EV1. General Motors is mentioned several times in Wheels a novel by Arthur Hailey Active brands (as of 2009) The following GM brands were being produced in April 2009: Holden (1856-present) Opel (1863-present) GMC (1901-present) Cadillac (1902-present) Buick (1903-present) Vauxhall (1903-present) Chevrolet (1911-present) Pontiac (1926-present) Daewoo (1937-present) Saab (1947-present) Saturn (1985-present) Hummer (1992-present) Wuling (2002-present) Defunct brands Acadian (1962-1971, Canada) Asüna (1993, Canada) Beaumont (1966-1969, Canada) Bedford Vehicles (1930–1987, UK) Elmore (1909-1912) Envoy (1960-1970, Canada) Geo (1989–1997) LaSalle (1927–1940) Marquette (1930) Oakland (1907–1931) Oldsmobile (1897-2004) Rapid Truck (1909–1912) Reliance Truck (1909–1912) Samson Tractor (tractor) (1917-1922) Statesman (1971–1984) These were made by GM Holden in Australia so it cannot be considered as a defunct brand as Statesman is still available new from GM Holden in Australia, and was never a separate company Viking (1929–1931) General Motors Diesel Division Former affiliates Fiat (2000-2005, GM owned 20% at one time with put option) http://www.upi.com/Business_News/2004/12/15/Italy-Hapless-Fiat-wants-to-force-GM-hand/UPI-92961103125155/ Fuji Heavy Industries, manufacturer of Subaru (1999-2006, was 20% owned by GM) http://articles.latimes.com/2005/oct/06/business/fi-gm6 Isuzu (1971-2006, GM owned 49% at one time) http://www.usatoday.com/money/autos/2006-04-11-isuzu-sale_x.htm Suzuki (1981-2008, GM owned over 20% at one time) http://www.cartype.com/pages/3403/gm_sells_equity_stake_in_suzuki Spin-offs GM Defense 1950-2003 was once part of General Motors Diesel Division and as General Dynamics Land Systems division of General Dynamics Electro Motive Division of General Motors was also once part of General Motors Diesel Division and now known as Electro-Motive Diesel Detroit Diesel sold to Penske Corporation; broken up and portion sold to the former Daimler-Chrysler AG (now Daimler AG); now part of Daimler AG Transit division was sold to Motor Coach Industries and Transportation Manufacturing Corporation RTS and Classic bus rights owned by MCI And TMC were sold off to Nova Bus; now produced by Millennium Transit Services Diesel Division of General Motors of Canada Limited spun off and later acquired by General Motors Canada as Diesel Division of General Motors of Canada Limited EDS - Electronic Data Systems Hughes Electronics(Now The DirecTV Group((Liberty Media))) 1999 GM spun off its parts making operations as Delphi Subsidiaries AC Delco Adam Opel GmbH Allison Transmission All assets except the Allison plant in Baltimore were divested in early 2007. GM-Allison hybrid-powered buses. General Motors Acceptance Corporation 51% stake sold to Cerberus Capital management for $14.7 billion in late 2006. General Motors Canada General Motors do Brasil General Motors India Global Hybrid Cooperation General Motors South Africa GM-AvtoVAZ GM Daewoo (50.9%) GM Defense GM Europe GM Holden Ltd GM Performance Division GM Powertrain Europe OnStar Pontiac Saab Automobile Shanghai GM (50%) Vauxhall Motors SAIC-GM-Wuling Automobile Joint venture in China. Industry associations United States Council for Automotive Research Alliance of Automobile Manufacturers Competitions EcoCAR Categories List of GM platforms List of GM engines List of GM transmissions List of GM factories GM vehicles by brand Tribrid References GM gets 60 days, names Henderson CEO GM CEO: Bankruptcy looks more probable Further reading Barabba, Vincent P. Surviving Transformation: Lessons from GM's Surprising Turnaround (2004) Chandler, Alfred D., Jr., ed. Giant Enterprise: Ford, General Motors, and the Automobile Industry 1964. Cray, Ed. Chrome Colossus: General Motors and Its Times. 1980. Farber, David. Sloan Rules: Alfred P. Sloan and the Triumph of General Motors U of Chicago Press 2002 Gustin, Lawrence R. Billy Durant: Creator of General Motors, 1973. Halberstam, David. The Reckoning (1986) detailed reporting on the crises of 1973-mid 1980s Keller, Maryann. Rude Awakening: The Rise, Fall, and Struggle for Recovery of General Motors, 1989. Leslie, Stuart W. Boss Kettering: Wizard of General Motors Columbia University Press, 1983. Maxton, Graeme P. and John Wormald, Time for a Model Change: Re-engineering the Global Automotive Industry (2004) Maynard, Micheline. The End of Detroit: How the Big Three Lost Their Grip on the American Car Market (2003) Rae, John B. The American Automobile: A Brief History. University of Chicago Press, 1965. Sloan, Alfred P., Jr. My Years with General Motors, 1963. Weisberger, Bernard A. The Dream Maker: William C. Durant, Founder of General Motors, 1979 External links Corporate website Official Canadian website Official European website Official Brazilian website Official wiki Blog of workers and works council members Database with GM part numbers General Motors Company Profile and Contacts NMEDA QAP Scooter Lift Installation Provider Bush Considering "Orderly" Auto Bankruptcy GM considering Chapter 11 filing, new company: report GM: Independent auditors raise the specter of Chapter 11 General Motors Now - GM News Blog | General_Motors |@lemmatized general:89 motor:96 corporation:13 gm:279 global:8 automaker:18 found:2 headquarters:6 detroit:12 michigan:16 world:18 second:7 large:4 toyota:6 rank:3 unit:5 sale:31 http:44 article:8 moneycentral:1 msn:2 com:44 invest:4 dispatch:1 take:15 crown:1 aspx:1 leader:2 consecutive:1 calendar:2 year:35 manufacture:3 car:60 truck:20 country:4 employ:4 people:4 around:4 sell:27 service:11 vehicle:70 million:13 globally:1 following:4 brand:20 buick:16 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5,362 | Equuleus | Equuleus ( Equúleus, genitive Equulei ) is a constellation. Its name is Latin for 'little horse', i.e. a foal. It was one of the 48 constellations listed by the 1st century astronomer Ptolemy, and remains one of the 88 modern constellations. It is the second smallest of the modern constellations (after Crux), spanning only 72 square degrees. It is also very faint, having no stars brighter than the fourth magnitude. Notable features Stars The brightest star in Equuleus is α Equ (Kitalpha), at magnitude 3.92m. There are few variable stars in Equuleus. Only around 25 are known, most of which are obscure. γ Equ is an alpha CVn star, ranging between magnitudes 4.58m and 4.77m over a period of around 12½ minutes. R Equ is a Mira variable that ranges between magnitudes 8.0m and 15.7m over nearly 261 days. Equuleus contains some double stars of interest. γ Equ consists of a primary star with a magnitude around 4.7m (slightly variable) and a secondary star of magnitude 11.6, separated by 2 arcseconds. ε Equ consists of four components. The brightest three are of magnitudes 6.0m, 6.3m, and 7.2m. δ Equ is a binary star with an orbital period of 5.7 years, which at one time was the shortest known orbital period for an optical binary. The two components of the system are never more than 0.35 arcseconds apart. Deep sky objects Due to its small size and its distance from the plane of the Milky Way, Equuleus contains no notable deep sky objects. Some very faint galaxies between magnitudes 13 and 15 include NGC 7015, NGC 7040, NGC 7045 and NGC 7046. Mythology In Greek mythology, one myth associates Equuleus with the foal Celeris (meaning "swiftness" or "speed"), who was the offspring or brother of the winged horse Pegasus. Celeris was given to Castor by Mercury. Other myths say that Equuleus is the horse struck from Neptune's trident, during the contest between him and Athena when deciding which would be the superior. Because this section of stars rises before Pegasus, it is often called Equus Primus, or the First Horse. Equuleus is also linked to the story of Philyra and Saturn. References Burnham, Robert (1978). Burnham's Celestial Handbook: An observer's guide to the universe beyond the solar system, vol 2. Dover Publications ISBN 0-486-23567-X Hoffleit+ (1991) V/50 The Bright Star Catalogue, 5th revised ed, Yale University Observatory, Strasbourg astronomical Data Center Ian Ridpath & Wil Tirion (2007). Stars and Planets Guide, Collins, London. ISBN 978-0007251209. Princeton University Press, Princeton. ISBN 978-0691135564. External links The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Equuleus Star Tales – Equuleus | Equuleus |@lemmatized equuleus:10 equúleus:1 genitive:1 equulei:1 constellation:5 name:1 latin:1 little:1 horse:4 e:1 foal:2 one:4 list:1 century:1 astronomer:1 ptolemy:1 remain:1 modern:2 second:1 smallest:1 crux:1 span:1 square:1 degree:1 also:2 faint:2 star:13 brighter:1 fourth:1 magnitude:8 notable:2 feature:1 bright:3 α:1 equ:6 kitalpha:1 variable:3 around:3 know:1 obscure:1 γ:2 alpha:1 cvn:1 range:2 period:3 minute:1 r:1 mira:1 nearly:1 day:1 contain:2 double:1 interest:1 consists:2 primary:1 slightly:1 secondary:1 separate:1 arcsecond:2 ε:1 four:1 component:2 three:1 δ:1 binary:2 orbital:2 year:1 time:1 short:1 known:1 optical:1 two:1 system:2 never:1 apart:1 deep:3 sky:2 object:2 due:1 small:1 size:1 distance:1 plane:1 milky:1 way:1 galaxy:1 include:1 ngc:4 mythology:2 greek:1 myth:2 associate:1 celeris:2 mean:1 swiftness:1 speed:1 offspring:1 brother:1 winged:1 pegasus:2 give:1 castor:1 mercury:1 say:1 strike:1 neptune:1 trident:1 contest:1 athena:1 decide:1 would:1 superior:1 section:1 rise:1 often:1 call:1 equus:1 primus:1 first:1 link:2 story:1 philyra:1 saturn:1 reference:1 burnham:2 robert:1 celestial:1 handbook:1 observer:1 guide:3 universe:1 beyond:1 solar:1 vol:1 dover:1 publication:1 isbn:3 x:1 hoffleit:1 v:1 catalogue:1 revise:1 ed:1 yale:1 university:2 observatory:1 strasbourg:1 astronomical:1 data:1 center:1 ian:1 ridpath:1 wil:1 tirion:1 planet:1 collins:1 london:1 princeton:2 press:1 external:1 photographic:1 tale:1 |@bigram astronomer_ptolemy:1 milky_way:1 ngc_ngc:3 dover_publication:1 ian_ridpath:1 ridpath_wil:1 wil_tirion:1 tirion_star:1 external_link:1 deep_photographic:1 |
5,363 | Desi_Arnaz | Desi Arnaz (March 2, 1917 – December 2, 1986) was a Cuban-American musician, actor and television producer. Early life Desi Arnaz was born Desiderio Alberto Arnaz y de Acha III in Santiago de Cuba to Desiderio Alberto Arnaz (1894-1973) and Dolores de Acha (1896-1988). His father was Santiago's youngest mayor and then served in the Cuban House of Representatives. His mother, Dolores Acha y de Socias, was one of the most beautiful and prominent women in Latin America, and her father, Alberto, was one of the three original founders of the Bacardi Rum Company. The family owned three ranches, a palatial home and a vacation mansion on a private island in Santiago Bay, Cuba. The 1933 revolution, led by Fulgencio Batista, overthrew the American-backed President Gerardo Machado, landed his father in jail for six months, and stripped his family of its wealth and power. Arnaz's father was released when U.S. officials, who believed him to be neutral during the revolt, intervened on his behalf. Arnaz and his parents then fled to Miami, Florida. Film career In 1939, he starred on Broadway in the successful musical Too Many Girls. He then went to Hollywood to appear in the 1940 movie version at RKO, which starred actress, comedienne, and future wife Lucille Ball. At the time, he also played guitar for Xavier Cugat. A Book; Arnaz, Desi Arnaz appeared in several movies in the 1940s, most notably Bataan (1943). Shortly after he received his draft notice, but before he was actually inducted, he injured his knee. Although he made it through boot camp, he was eventually classified for limited service, and ended up directing United Service Organization (U.S.O.) programs at a military hospital in the San Fernando Valley. In his memoirs, he recalled discovering that the first thing soldiers requested was almost invariably a glass of cold milk, so he arranged for beautiful starlets to greet the wounded soldiers as they disembarked and pour milk for them. After leaving the Army, he formed another orchestra, which was successful in live appearances and recordings. After he became engaged in television, he kept the orchestra on his payroll throughout the period he remained an active producer. I Love Lucy On October 15, 1951, Arnaz produced and starred in the premiere of I Love Lucy, in which he played a fictitious version of himself, Cuban orchestra leader Enrique "Ricky" Ricardo. His co-star was his real-life wife, Lucille Ball, who played Ricky's wife, Lucy. Television executives had been pursuing Ball to adapt her very popular radio series My Favorite Husband for television. Ball insisted on Arnaz playing her on-air spouse so the two would be able to spend more time together. The original premise was for the couple to portray Lucy and Larry Lopez, a successful show business couple (he a band leader, she an actress) whose glamorous careers interfered with their efforts to maintain a normal marriage. Market research indicated, however, that this scenario would not be popular, so Arnaz changed it to make Ricky a struggling young orchestra leader and Lucy an ordinary housewife who had show business fantasies but no talent. Desi would often appear at, and later own, the Tropicana Club which, under his ownership, he renamed Club Babalu. Initially, the idea of having Ball and the distinctly Latino Arnaz portray a married couple encountered resistance as they were told that Desi's Cuban accent and Latin style would not be agreeable to American viewers. The couple overcame these objections, however, by touring together in a live vaudeville act they developed with the help of Spanish clown Pepito Pérez, together with Ball's radio show writers. Much of the material from their vaudeville act was used in the original "I Love Lucy" pilot, including Lucy's memorable seal routine. (Segments of the pilot originally ran as the sixth episode of the show's first season.) Desilu Productions With Ball, he founded Desilu Productions. At this time, most television programs were broadcast live, and as the largest markets were in New York, the rest of the country received only kinescope images. Karl Freund, Arnaz's cameraman, developed the multiple-camera setup production style using adjacent sets that became the standard for all subsequent situation comedies to this day. The use of film enabled every station around the country to broadcast high-quality images of the show. Arnaz was told that it would be impossible to allow an audience onto a sound stage, but he worked with Freund to design a set that would accommodate an audience, allow filming, and also adhere to fire and safety codes. Network executives considered the use of film an unnecessary extravagance. Arnaz convinced them to allow Desilu to cover all additional costs associated with the filming process, under the stipulation that Desilu owned and controlled all rights to the film. Arnaz's unprecedented arrangement is widely considered to be one of the shrewdest deals in television history. As a result of his foresight, Desilu reaped the profits from all reruns of the series. Arnaz also pushed the network to allow them to show Lucille Ball while she was pregnant. According to Arnaz, the CBS network told him, "You cannot show a pregnant woman on television". Arnaz consulted a priest, a rabbi, and a minister, all of whom told him that there would be nothing wrong with showing a pregnant Lucy or with using the word pregnant. The network finally relented and let Arnaz and Ball weave the pregnancy into the story line, but remained adamant about eschewing use of pregnant, so Arnaz substituted expecting, pronouncing it 'spectin' in his Cuban accent. Oddly, the official title of the episode announcing the pregnancy was "Lucy Is Enciente", employing the French word for pregnant, although the episode titles never appeared on the show itself. In addition to I Love Lucy, he produced December Bride, The Mothers-in-Law, The Lucy Show, Those Whiting Girls, Our Miss Brooks, The Danny Thomas Show, The Andy Griffith Show, The Untouchables, and Star Trek TOS, all top shows in their time, and the 1956 feature film Forever, Darling, in which he and Ball starred. His foresight in filming and retaining post-broadcast ownership of shows had a huge impact on the future of television syndication (reruns). Beliefs Arnaz and Ball avoided ethnic jokes. Arnaz recalled that the only exception consisted of making fun of Ricky Ricardo's accent, and noted that even these jokes worked only when Lucy, as his wife, did the mimicking. Arnaz was patriotic; in his memoirs, the first object of thanks is the United States itself: "I know of no other country in the world", he wrote, in which "a sixteen-year-old kid, broke and unable to speak the language" could reach the success he had. Over the show's six-year run, the fortunes of the Ricardos mirror that of the archetypal 1950s American Dream: At first, they live in a tiny brownstone apartment; Ricky's fortunes continue to improve, and they move into a slightly larger one with a view after Little Ricky is born. Later, Ricky gets his big break and goes to Hollywood; shortly after returning to New York, all of them have the chance to travel through Europe. Finally, Lucy and Ricky head for a house in the wealthy Connecticut countryside. Marriages Arnaz married Lucille Ball on November 30, 1940, and she initiated divorce proceedings in 1944, but returned to him before the interlocutory decree became final. He and Ball are the parents of actress Lucie Arnaz (born 1951) and actor Desi Arnaz, Jr. (born 1953). Arnaz's marriage with Ball began to collapse under the strain of his growing problems with alcohol, drugs, and womanizing. According to his memoir, the combined pressures of managing the production company as well as supervising its day-to-day operations had greatly worsened as it grew much larger, and he felt compelled to seek outlets to alleviate the stress. Arnaz was also suffering from diverticulitis. Ball divorced in 1960. When Ball returned to weekly television, she and Arnaz worked out an agreement regarding Desilu, wherein she bought him out. Arnaz married his second wife, Edith Mack Hirsch, on March 2, 1963, and greatly reduced his show business activities. He served as executive producer of The Mothers-in-Law, and during its two-year run, made four guest appearances as a Spanish matador, Señor Delgado. He was widowed in 1985, when his wife Edith died. Although both Arnaz and Ball remarried to other spouses after their divorce in 1960, they remained friends, and grew closer in his final decade. Family home movies later aired on television showed Ball and Arnaz playing together with their grandson, Simon (or "Simón", if Arnaz's mock protests are to be believed), shortly before Arnaz's death. Later life In the 1970s, Arnaz co-hosted a week of shows with daytime TV host/producer Mike Douglas. Vivian Vance appeared as a guest. Arnaz also headlined a Kraft Music Hall special on NBC that featured his two children, with a brief appearance by Vance. To promote his autobiography, A Book, Arnaz, on February 21, 1976, served as a guest host on Saturday Night Live, with his son, Desi, Jr., also appearing. The program contained spoofs of I Love Lucy and The Untouchables. The spoofs of I Love Lucy were supposed earlier concepts of the show that never made it on the air. They were "I Love Louie", where Desi lived with Louie Armstrong, "I Loathe Lucy", where Desi was a wife beater, and "I Love Desi", where Desi was married to a clone of himself. He also read Lewis Carroll's poem "Jabberwocky" in a heavy Cuban accent (he pronounced it "Habberwocky"). Arnaz, Jr. played the drums and, supported by the SNL band, Desi sang both "Babalu" and another favorite from his dance band days, "Cuban Pete"; the arrangements similar to the ones used on I Love Lucy. He ended the broadcast by leading the entire cast in a raucous conga line through the SNL studio. Arnaz and his wife eventually moved to Del Mar, California, where he lived the rest of his life in semi-retirement. He owned a 45-acre (18 ha) horse breeding farm in Corona, California, and raced thoroughbreds. He contributed to charitable and non-profit organizations, including San Diego State University. Arnaz would make a guest appearance on the TV series Alice, starring Linda Lavin and produced by I Love Lucy co-creators Madelyn Pugh (Madelyn Davis) and Bob Carroll, Jr. Death Arnaz was diagnosed with lung cancer in early 1986. He died several months later on December 2, 1986. Two days earlier, on what would have been his and Lucille's 46th wedding anniversary (November 30), she telephoned him. They shared a few words, mostly "I love you's." She said "All right, honey. I'll talk to you later." She was, in fact, the last person to ever speak with Desi Arnaz. His remaining speech that he wrote prior to his death quoted to Lucille Ball, "'I Love Lucy' was never just a title." Desilu: The Story of Lucille Ball and Desi Arnaz. His death came just five days before Lucille Ball received the Kennedy Center Honors. Desi was outlived by his mother, Dolores, who died in 1988 at the age of 92. http://ssdi.rootsweb.ancestry.com/cgi-bin/ssdi.cgi Legacy Desi Arnaz has two stars on the Hollywood Walk of Fame: one at 6327 Hollywood Boulevard for contributions to motion pictures, and one at 6220 Hollywood Boulevard for television. There is a Lucille Ball-Desi Arnaz Center museum in Jamestown, New York (birthplace of Lucille Ball) and a Desi Arnaz Bandshell in Lucille Ball Memorial Park in Celoron, New York (childhood home of Lucille Ball). Filmography Too Many Girls (1940) Father Takes a Wife (1941) Four Jacks and a Jill (1942) The Navy Comes Through (1942) Bataan (1943) Screen Snapshots: Hollywood in Uniform (1943) (short subject) Cuban Pete (1946) Desi Arnaz and His Orchestra (1946) (short subject) Jitterumba (1947) (short subject) Holiday in Havana (1949) I Love Lucy (1953) (unreleased compilation film of episodes from the show). The Long, Long Trailer (1954) Forever, Darling (1956) Salsa (1976) (documentary) The Escape Artist (1982) Biography A Book (1976) (autobiography up to 1960) Another Book (1960 onward—never completed beyond outline) Desilu: The Story of Lucille Ball and Desi Arnaz By Coyne Stephen Sanders and Tom Gilbert (author) (Whole life, and focuses prominently on the Business affairs of Desilu Productions) See also List of Cuban Americans Desilu Productions References External links Retrieved on 2009-5-17 Retrieved on 2009-5-17 Retrieved on 2009-5-17 Retrieved on 2009-5-17 The Museum of Broadcast Communications: "Arnaz, Desi - U.S. Actor/Media Executive", by B.R. Smith Hispanic (month n.a., 2001): "Luuu-cy! Fifty years later, America still loves Lucy and Ricky", by Gigi Anders (magazine article reprinted at Lucyfan.com) Lucille Ball-Desi Arnaz Center | Desi_Arnaz |@lemmatized desi:22 arnaz:51 march:2 december:3 cuban:9 american:5 musician:1 actor:3 television:11 producer:4 early:2 life:5 bear:2 desiderio:2 alberto:3 de:4 acha:3 iii:1 santiago:3 cuba:2 dolores:3 father:5 young:2 mayor:1 serve:3 house:2 representative:1 mother:4 socias:1 one:7 beautiful:2 prominent:1 woman:2 latin:2 america:2 three:2 original:3 founder:1 bacardi:1 rum:1 company:2 family:3 ranch:1 palatial:1 home:3 vacation:1 mansion:1 private:1 island:1 bay:1 revolution:1 lead:2 fulgencio:1 batista:1 overthrow:1 back:1 president:1 gerardo:1 machado:1 land:1 jail:1 six:2 month:3 strip:1 wealth:1 power:1 release:1 u:3 official:2 believe:2 neutral:1 revolt:1 intervene:1 behalf:1 parent:2 flee:1 miami:1 florida:1 film:6 career:2 star:8 broadway:1 successful:3 musical:1 many:2 girl:3 go:2 hollywood:6 appear:6 movie:3 version:2 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5,364 | Crime | Societies define crime as the breach of one or more rules or laws for which some governing authority or force may ultimately prescribe a punishment. When society deems informal relationships and sanctions, insufficient to establish and maintain a desired social order, there may result more formalized systems of social control imposed by a government, or by a sovereign state. With institutional and legal machinery at their disposal, agents of the State can compel individuals to conform to behavioral codes, and can punish those who do not conform. Authorities employ various mechanisms to regulate behaviour, including rules codified into laws, policing people to ensure they comply with those laws, and other policies and practices designed to prevent crime. In addition, authorities provide remedies and sanctions, and collectively these constitute a criminal justice system. Not all breaches of the law, however, are considered crimes, for example, breaches of contract and other civil law offences. The label of "crime" and the accompanying social stigma normally confine their scope to those activities seen as injurious to the general population or to the State, including some that cause serious loss or damage to individuals. The labellers intend to assert an hegemony of a dominant population, or to reflect a consensus of condemnation for the identified behavior and to justify a punishment imposed by the State, in the event that standard processing tries and convicts an accused person of a crime. Usually, the perpetrator of the crime is a natural person, but in some jurisdictions and in some moral environments, legal persons are also considered to have the capability of committing crimes. Etymology The word crime originates from the Latin crīmen (genitive: criminis), from the root of Latin cernō = "I decide, I give judgement" and Greek κρινω = "I judge". Originally the Latin word crīmen meant "charge (in law), guilt, accusation". Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd edition, 1989; retrieved 2009-03-25 Definition A normative definition views crime as deviant behavior that violates prevailing norms cultural standards prescribing how humans ought to behave normally. This approach considers the complex realities surrounding the concept of crime and seeks to understand how changing social, political, psychological, and economic conditions may affect the current definitions of crime and the form of the legal, law-enforcement, and penal responses made by society. These structural realities remain fluid and often contentious. For example: as cultures change and the political environment shifts, societies may criminalise or decriminalise certain behaviours, which will directly affect the statistical crime rates, determine the allocation of resources for the enforcement of laws, and (re-)influence the general public opinion. Similarly, changes in the collection and/or calculation of data on crime may affect the public perceptions of the extent of any given "crime problem". All such adjustments to crime statistics, allied with the experience of people in their everyday lives, shape attitudes on the extent to which the State should use law to enforce any particular social norm. One can control/influence behaviour in many ways without having to resort to the criminal justice system. Indeed, in those cases where no clear consensus exists on a given norm, the use of criminal law by the group in power to prohibit the behaviour of another group may count as an improper limitation of the second group's freedom, and the ordinary members of society may lose some of their respect for the law in general — whether the authorities enforce the disputed law or not. Legislatures pass laws (called mala prohibita) that define crimes which violate social norms. These laws vary from time to time and from place to place: note variations in gambling laws, for example, and the prohibition or encouragement of duelling. Other crimes, called mala in se, count as outlawed in almost all societies, (murder, theft and rape, for example). Criminalization One can view criminalization as a procedure deployed by society as a pre-emptive, harm-reduction device, using the threat of punishment as a deterrent to those proposing to engage in the behavior causing harm. The State becomes involved because governing entities can become convinced that the costs of not criminalizing (i.e. allowing the harms to continue unabated) outweigh the costs of criminalizing it (i.e. restricting individual liberty in order to minimize harm to others). Criminalization may provide future harm-reduction even after a crime, assuming those incarcerated or otherwise restrained for committing crimes are more likely to cause harm in the future. Some commentators may see criminalization as a way to make potential criminals pay for their crimes. In this case, criminalization is a way to set the price that one must pay (to society) for certain actions that are considered detrimental to society as a whole. In this sense criminalization can be viewed as nothing more than State-sanctioned revenge. States control the process of criminalization because: Even if victims recognize their own role as victims, they may not have the resources to investigate and seek legal redress for the injuries suffered: the enforcers formally appointed by the State have the expertise and the resources. The victims may only want compensation for the injuries suffered, while remaining indifferent to a possible desire for deterrence. See Polinsky & Shavell (1997) on the fundamental divergence between the private and the social motivation for using the legal system. Fear of retaliation may deter victims or witnesses of crimes from taking any action. Even in policed societies, fear may inhibit reporting or co-operation in a trial. Victims, on their own, may lack the economies of scale which might allow them to administer a penal system, let alone to collect any fines levied by a court (see Polinsky (1980) on the enforcement of fines). Garoupa & Klerman (2002) warn that a rent-seeking government has as its primary motivation to maximize revenue and so, if offenders have sufficient wealth, a rent-seeking government will act more aggressively than a social-welfare-maximizing government in enforcing laws against minor crimes (usually with a fixed penalty such as parking and routine traffic violations), but more laxly in enforcing laws against major crimes. As a result of the crime, victims may die or become incapacitated. History The idea of crime has a long history. Some religious communities regard sin as a crime; some may even highlight the crime of sin very early in legendary or mythological accounts of origins — note the tale of Adam and Eve and the theory of original sin. What one group considers a crime may cause or ignite or conflict. However, the earliest known civilizations had codes of law, containing both civil and penal rules mixed together, though not always in recorded form. The Sumerians produced the earliest surviving written codes. Oppenheim (1964) Urukagina had an early code that does not survive; a later king, Ur-Nammu, left the earliest extant written law-system, the Code of Ur-Nammu, which prescribed a formal system of penalties for specific cases in 57 articles. The Sumerians later issued other codes, including the "code of Lipit-Ishtar". This code, from the 20th century BCE, contains some fifty articles, and has been reconstructed by comparison among several sources. Successive legal codes in Babylon, including the code of Hammurabi, reflected Mesopotamian society's belief that law derived from the will of the gods (see Babylonian law). Driver and Mills (1952-55) and Skaist (1994) Many states at this time functioned as theocracies, with codes of conduct largely religious in origin or reference. Sir Henry Maine (1861) studied the ancient codes available in his day, and failed to find any criminal law in the "modern" sense of the word. While modern systems distinguish between offences against the "State" or "Community", and offences against the "Individual", the so-called penal law of ancient communities did not deal with "crimes" (Latin: crimina), but with "wrongs" (Latin: delicta). Thus the Hellenic laws Gagarin: 1986; and Garner: 1987 treated all forms of theft, assault, rape, and murder as private wrongs, and left action for enforcement up to the victims or their survivors. The earliest systems seem to have lacked formal courts. The Romans systematized law and applied their system across the Roman Empire. Again, the initial rules of Roman Law regarded assaults as a matter of private compensation. The most significant Roman Law concept involved dominion. Daube: 1969 The pater familias owned all the family and its property (including slaves); the pater enforced matters involving interference with any property. The Commentaries of Gaius on the Twelve Tables treated furtum (in modern parlance: theft) as a tort. Similarly, assault and violent robbery involved trespass as to the pater's property (so, for example, the rape of a slave could become the subject of compensation to the pater as having trespassed on his "property"), and breach of such laws created a vinculum juris (an obligation of law) that only the payment of monetary compensation (modern "damages") could discharge. Similarly, the consolidated Teutonic laws of the Germanic tribes, Guterman: 1990 included a complex system of monetary compensations for what courts would consider the complete range of criminal offences against the person, from murder down. Even though Rome abandoned its Britannic provinces sometime around 400 AD, the Germanic mercenaries who had largely become instrumental in enforcing Roman rule in Britannia acquired ownership of land there and continued to use a mixture of Roman and Teutonic Law, with much written down under the early Anglo-Saxon Kings. Attenborough: 1963 But only when a more centralized English monarchy emerged following the Norman invasion, and when the kings of England attempted to assert power over the land and its peoples, did the modern concept emerge, namely of a crime not only as an offence against the "individual", but also as a wrong against the "State". Kern: 1948; Blythe: 1992; and Pennington: 1993 This idea came from common law, and the earliest conception of a criminal act involved events of such major significance that the "State" had to usurp the usual functions of the civil tribunals, and direct a special law or privilegium against the perpetrator. All the earliest English criminal trials involved wholly extraordinary and arbitrary courts without any settled law to apply, whereas the civil (delictual) law operated in a highly developed and consistent manner (except where a King wanted to raise money by selling a new form of writ). The development of the idea that the "State" dispenses justice in a court only emerges in parallel with or after the emergence of the concept of sovereignty. In continental Europe, Roman law persisted, but with a stronger influence from the Church. Vinogradoff (1909); Tierney: 1964, 1979 Coupled with the more diffuse political structure based on smaller State units, various different legal traditions emerged, remaining more strongly rooted in Roman jurisprudence, but modified to meet the prevailing political climate. In Scandinavia the effect of Roman law did not become apparent until the 17th century, and the courts grew out of the things — the assemblies of the people. The people decided the cases (usually with largest freeholders dominating). This system later gradually developed into a system with a royal judge nominating a number of most esteemed men of the parish as his board, fulfilling the function of "the people" of yore. From the Hellenic system onwards, the policy rationale for requiring the payment of monetary compensation for wrongs committed has involved the avoidance of feuding between clans and families. The concept of the pater familias acted as a unifying factor in extended kin-groups, and the later practice of wergild functioned in this context. If compensation could mollify families' feelings, this would help to keep the peace. On the other hand, the institution of oaths also played down the threat of feudal warfare. Both in archaic Greece and in medieval Scandinavia, the accused was released if he could get a sufficient number of male relatives to swear him unguilty. This may be compared with the United Nations Security Council where the veto power of the permanent members ensures that the organization is not drawn into crises where it could not enforce its decisions. These means of restraining private feuds did not always work, and sometimes prevented the fulfillment of justice. But in the earliest times the "state" did not always provide an independent police force. Thus criminal law grew out of tort; and, in real terms, many acts and omissions classified as crimes actually overlap with civil-law concepts. The development of sociological thought from the 19th century onwards prompted some fresh views on crime and criminality, and fostered the beginnings of criminology as a study of crime in society. Nietzsche noted a link between crime and creativity in The Birth of Tragedy he asserted: "The best and brightest that man can acquire he must obtain by crime". In the 20th century Michel Foucault in Discipline and Punish made a study of criminalization as a coercive method of state control. Natural-law theory Justifying the State's use of force to coerce compliance with its laws has proven a consistent theoretical problem. One of the earliest justifications involved the theory of natural law. This posits that the nature of the world or of human beings underlies the standards of morality or constructs them. Thomas Aquinas said: "the rule and measure of human acts is the reason, which is the first principle of human acts" (Aquinas, ST I-II, Q.90, A.I), i.e. since people are by nature rational beings, it becomes morally appropriate that they should behave in a way that conforms to their rational nature. Thus, to be valid, any law must conform to natural law and coercing people to conform to that law is morally acceptable. William Blackstone (1979: 41) describes the thesis: "This law of nature, being co-eval with mankind and dictated by God himself, is of course superior in obligation to any other. It is binding over all the globe, in all countries, and at all times: no human laws are of any validity, if contrary to this; and such of them as are valid derive all their force, and all their authority, mediately or immediately, from this original." But John Austin (1790-1859), an early positivist, applied utilitarianism in accepting the calculating nature of human beings and the existence of an objective morality, but denied that the legal validity of a norm depends on whether its content conforms to morality. Thus in Austinian terms a moral code can objectively determine what people ought to do, the law can embody whatever norms the legislature decrees to achieve social utility, but every individual remains free to choose what he or she will do. Similarly, Hart (1961) saw the law as an aspect of sovereignty, with lawmakers able to adopt any law as a means to a moral end. Thus the necessary and sufficient conditions for the truth of a proposition of law simply involved internal logic and consistency, and that the state's agents used state power with responsibility. Ronald Dworkin (2005) rejects Hart's theory and proposes that each individual should expect the equal respect and concern of those who govern him as a fundamental political right. He offers a theory of compliance overlaid by a theory of deference (the citizen's duty to obey the law) and a theory of enforcement, which identifies the legitimate goals of enforcement and punishment. Legislation must conform to a theory of legitimacy, which describes the circumstances under which a particular person or group is entitled to make law, and a theory of legislative justice, which describes the law they are entitled or obliged to make. Indeed, despite everything, the majority of natural-law theorists have accepted the idea of enforcing the prevailing morality as a primary function of the law. This view entails the problem that it makes any moral criticism of the law impossible: if conformity with natural law forms a necessary condition for legal validity, all valid law must, by definition, be morally just. Thus, on this line of reasoning, the legal validity of a norm necessarily entails its moral justice. One can solve this problem by granting some degree of moral relativism and accepting that norms may evolve over time and, therefore, one can criticize the continued enforcement of old laws in the light of the current norms. People may find such law acceptable, but the use of State power to coerce citizens to comply with that law lacks moral justification. In more modern conceptions of the theory, crime is characterized as the violation of individual rights. Since society considers so many rights as natural (hence the term "right") rather than man-made, what constitutes a crime is also natural, in contrast to laws (seen as man-made). Adam Smith illustrates this view, saying that a smuggler would be an excellent citizen, "...had not the laws of his country made that a crime which nature never meant to be so." Natural-law theory therefore distinguishes between "criminality" (which derives from human nature) and "illegality" (which originates with the interests of those in power). Lawyers sometimes express the two concepts with the phrases malum in se and malum prohibitum respectively. They regard a crime malum in se as inherently criminal; whereas a crime malum prohibitum (the argument goes) counts as criminal only because the law has decreed it so. This view leads to a seeming paradox: one can perform an illegal act without committing a crime, while a criminal act could be perfectly legal. Many Enlightenment thinkers (such as Adam Smith and the American Founding Fathers) subscribed to this view to some extent, and it remains influential among so-called classical liberals and libertarians. Distinctions Religious sentiment often becomes a contributory factor of crime. Rioters set fire to many of Ahmedabad's buildings during the 2002 Gujarat violence. Governments criminalise antisocial behaviour — and treat it within a system of offences against society — in order to justify the imposition of punishment. Authorities make a series of distinctions depending on the passive subject of the crime (the victim), or on the offended interest(s), in crimes against: honour the administration of justice law and order patrimony the person personality of the State personality rights public administration public economy, industry, and commerce public morality religious sentiment and faith rights of the citizen Or one can categorise crimes depending on the related punishment, with sentencing tariffs prescribed in line with the perceived seriousness of the offence. Thus fines and noncustodial sentences may address the crimes seen as least serious, with lengthy imprisonment or (in some States) capital punishment reserved for the most serious. Types Researchers and commentators may classify crime into categories, including: property crime public order crime violent crime Analysts can also group crimes by severity, some common category-terms including: felonies (US and previously UK) indictable offences (UK) infractions misdemeanors (US and previously UK) summary offences (UK) U.S. classification In the United States since 1930, the FBI has tabulated Uniform Crime Reports (UCR) annually from crime data submitted by law enforcement agencies across the United States. FBI: Uniform Crime Reports Officials compile this data at the city, county, and state levels into the Uniform crime reports (UCR). They classify violations of laws which derive from common law as Part I (index) crimes in UCR data, further categorised as violent or property crimes. Part I violent crimes include murder and criminal homicide (voluntary manslaughter), forcible rape, aggravated assault, and robbery; while Part I property crimes include burglary, arson, larceny/theft, and motor-vehicle theft. All other crimes count as Part II crimes. For convenience, such lists usually include infractions although, in the U.S., they may come into the sphere not of the criminal law, but rather of the civil law. Compare tortfeasance. Booking arrests requires detention for a time-frame ranging 1 to 24 hours. Crimes in international law Crimes defined by treaty as crimes against international law include: crimes against peace crimes of apartheid genocide piracy the slave trade waging a war of aggression war crimes From the point of view of State-centric law, extraordinary procedures (usually international courts) may prosecute such crimes. Note the role of the International Criminal Court at The Hague in the Netherlands. Popular opinion often associates international law with the concept of opposing terrorism — seen as a crime as distinct from warfare. Religion and crime Socially accepted or imposed religious morality has influenced secular jurisdictions on issues that may otherwise concern only an individual's conscience. Activities sometimes criminalized on religious grounds include (for example) alcohol-consumption (prohibition), abortion and stem-cell research. In various historical and present-day societies institutionalized religions have established systems of earthly justice which punish crimes against the divine will and specific devotional, organizational and other rules under specific codes, such as Islamic sharia or Roman Catholic canon law. Military jurisdictions and states of emergency In the military sphere, authorities can prosecute both regular crimes and specific acts (such as mutiny or desertion) under martial-law codes that either supplant or extend civil codes in times of war. Many constitutions contain provisions to curtail freedoms and criminalize otherwise tolerated behaviors under a state of emergency in the event of war, natural disaster or civil unrest. Such undesired activities may include assembly in the streets, violation of curfew, or possession of firearms. Employee crime Two common types of employee crime exist: embezzlement and sabotage. The complexity and anonymity of computers may help criminal employees camouflage their operations. The victims of the most costly scams include banks, brokerage houses, insurance companies, and other large financial institutions. Sara Baase, "A Gift of Fire: Social, Legal, and Ethical Issues for Computing and The Internet. Third Ed. 'Employee Crime'" (2008) Most people guilty of embezzlement do not have criminal histories. Embezzlers tend to have a gripe against their employer, have financial problems, or simply an inability to resist the temptation of a loop-hole they have found. Screening and background checks on perspective employees can help in prevention; however, many laws make some types of screening difficult or even illegal. Fired or disgruntled employees sometimes sabotage their company's computer system as a form of 'pay back'. This sabotage may take the form of a logic bomb, a computer virus, or creating general havoc. Some places of employment have developed measures in an attempt to combat and prevent employee crime. Places of employment sometimes implement security measures such as cameras, fingerprint records of employees, and background checks. Although privacy-advocates have questioned such methods, they appear to serve the interests of the organisations using them. Not only do these methods help prevent employee crime, but they protect the company from punishment and/or lawsuits for negligent hiring. See also Actus reus Case law Civil law Corrections Crime importation Crime in Brazil Crime in Mexico Crime in the United States Criminal justice Criminal law Crime mapping Criminal record Crime Library Fear of crime Gang Insanity defense Juvenile delinquency Law and order Neighborhood watch Outlaw Penal colony Status crime Timeline of organized crime from 1870 Victimless crime (political philosophy) Victimology Statistics Crime rate List of countries by murder rate Murder statistics Rape statistics United States cities by crime rate Crime by classification Organized Crime Serial crime Signal crime Verbal offence Notes References Aquinas, Thomas. (1988). On Law, Morality and Politics. 2nd edition. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Co. ISBN 0-87220-663-7 Attenborough, F. L. (ed. and trans.) (1922). The Laws of the Earliest English Kings. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Reprint March 2006. The Lawbook Exchange, Ltd. ISBN 1-58477-583-1 Blackstone, William. (1765-1769). Commentaries on the Law of England: A Facsimile of the First Edition of 1765-1769, Vol. 1. (1979). Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-05538-8 Blythe, James M. (1992). Ideal Government and the Mixed Constitution in the Middle Ages. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-03167-3 Cohen, Stanley (1985). Visions of Social Control: Crime, Punishment, and Classification. Polity Press. ISBN 0745600212 Daube, David. (1969). Roman Law: Linguistic, Social and Philosophical Aspects. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 0-85224-051-1 Driver, G. R. & Mills, John C. (1952-55). The Babylonian Laws. 2 Vols. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-825110-6 Dworkin, Ronald. (2005). Taking Rights Seriously. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-86711-4 Foucault, Michel (1975). Discipline and Punish: the Birth of the Prison, New York: Random House. Garner, Richard. (1987). Law and Society in Classical Athens. London: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 0-312-00856-2 Garoupa, Nuno & Klerman, Daniel. (2002). "Optimal Law Enforcement with a Rent-Seeking Government". American Law and Economics Review Vol. 4, No. 1. pp116–140. Guterman, Simeon L. (1990). The Principle of the Personality of Law in the Germanic Kingdoms of Western Europe from the Fifth to the Eleventh Century. New York: P. Lang. ISBN 0-8204-0731-3 Hart, H.L.A. (1961). The Concept of Law. 2nd revised edition (1997). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-876123-6 Hart, H.L.A. (1972). Law, Liberty and Morality. Stanford: Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-0154-7 Kern, Fritz. (1948). Kingship and Law in the Middle Ages. Reprint edition (1985), Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press. Kramer, Samuel Noah. (1971). The Sumerians: Their History, Culture, and Character. Chicago: University of Chicago. ISBN 0-226-45238-7 Maine, Henry Sumner. (1861). Ancient Law: Its Connection with the Early History of Society, and Its Relation to Modern Ideas. Reprint edition (1986). Tucson: University of Arizona Press. ISBN 0-8165-1006-7 Oppenheim, A. Leo (and Reiner, Erica as editor). (1964). Ancient Mesopotamia: Portrait of a Dead Civilization. Revised edition (September 15, 1977). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-63187-7 Pennington, Kenneth. (1993). The Prince and the Law, 1200–1600: Sovereignty and Rights in the Western Legal Tradition. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0520079957 Polinsky, A. Mitchell. (1980). "Private versus Public Enforcement of Fines". The Journal of Legal Studies, Vol. IX, No. 1, (January), pp105–127. Polinsky, A. Mitchell & Shavell, Steven. (1997). On the Disutility and Discounting of Imprisonment and the Theory of Deterrence, NBER Working Papers 6259, National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc. Skaist, Aaron Jacob. (1994). The Old Babylonian Loan Contract: Its History and Geography. Ramat Gan, Israel: Bar-Ilan University Press. ISBN 965-226-161-0 Tierney, Brian. (1979). Church Law and Constitutional Thought in the Middle Ages. London: Variorum Reprints. ISBN 0-86078-036-8 Tierney, Brian. (1964). The Crisis of Church and State, 1050–1300. Reprint edition (1988). Toronto: University of Toronto Press. ISBN 0-8020-6701-8 Vinogradoff, Paul. (1909). Roman Law in Medieval Europe. Reprint edition (2004). Kessinger Publishing Co. ISBN 1-4179-4909-0 External links Crimestoppers - The independent crime-fighting charity - Pass on information about crime anonymously Criminal Law Resources Criminal Law, Law Teacher Internet Crime Archive be-x-old:Злачынства | Crime |@lemmatized society:17 define:3 crime:97 breach:4 one:10 rule:7 law:102 govern:3 authority:7 force:4 may:28 ultimately:1 prescribe:4 punishment:9 deem:1 informal:1 relationship:1 sanction:2 insufficient:1 establish:2 maintain:1 desired:1 social:12 order:6 result:2 formalized:1 system:17 control:5 impose:3 government:7 sovereign:1 state:32 institutional:1 legal:14 machinery:1 disposal:1 agent:2 compel:1 individual:9 conform:6 behavioral:1 code:14 punish:4 employ:1 various:3 mechanism:1 regulate:1 behaviour:5 include:15 codify:1 police:2 people:11 ensure:2 comply:2 policy:2 practice:2 design:1 prevent:4 addition:1 provide:3 remedy:1 collectively:1 constitute:2 criminal:22 justice:9 however:3 consider:6 example:6 contract:2 civil:9 offence:10 label:1 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5,365 | Fields_Medal | The obverse of the Fields Medal The Fields Medal is a prize awarded to two, three, or four mathematicians not over 40 years of age at each International Congress of the International Mathematical Union, a meeting that takes place every four years. The Fields Medal is often viewed as the top honor a mathematician can receive. It comes with a monetary award, which in 2006 was C$15,000 (US$15,000 or €10,000). Founded at the behest of Canadian mathematician John Charles Fields, the medal was first awarded in 1936, to Finnish mathematician Lars Ahlfors and American mathematician Jesse Douglas, and has been regularly awarded since 1950. Its purpose is to give recognition and support to younger mathematical researchers who have made major contributions. Conditions of the award The Fields Medal is often described as the "Nobel Prize of Mathematics" for the prestige it carries, though in most other ways the relatively new Abel Prize is a more direct analogue. The comparison is not entirely accurate because the Fields Medal is only awarded every four years. The Medal also has an age limit: a recipient's 40th birthday must not occur before January 1 of the year in which the Fields Medal is awarded. As a result many great mathematicians have missed it by having done their best work (or having had their work recognized) too late in life. The 40-year rule is based on Fields' desire that … while it was in recognition of work already done, it was at the same time intended to be an encouragement for further achievement on the part of the recipients and a stimulus to renewed effort on the part of others. The monetary award is much lower than the roughly US$1.5 million given with each Nobel prize. Finally, Fields Medals have generally been awarded for a body of work, rather than for a particular result; and instead of a direct citation there is a speech of congratulation. Other major awards in mathematics, such as the Wolf Prize in Mathematics and the Abel Prize, recognise lifetime achievement, again making them different in kind from the Nobels, although the Abel has a large monetary prize like a Nobel. The Fields Medal has the prestige of the selection by the IMU, which represents the world mathematical community. Fields Medalists Year ICM Location Medalists 1936 Oslo, Norway Lars Ahlfors, Finland Jesse Douglas, USA 1950 Cambridge, United States Laurent Schwartz, France Atle Selberg, Norway 1954 Amsterdam, The Netherlands Kunihiko Kodaira, Japan Jean-Pierre Serre, France 1958 Edinburgh, United Kingdom Klaus Roth, UK René Thom, France 1962 Stockholm, Sweden Lars Hörmander, Sweden John Milnor, USA 1966 Moscow, Soviet Union Michael Atiyah, UK Paul Joseph Cohen, USA Alexander Grothendieck, France Stephen Smale, USA 1970 Nice, France Alan Baker, UK Heisuke Hironaka, Japan Sergei Novikov, Soviet Union John G. Thompson, USA 1974 Vancouver, Canada Enrico Bombieri, Italy David Mumford, UK 1978 Helsinki, Finland Pierre Deligne, Belgium Charles Fefferman, USA Grigory Margulis, Soviet Union Daniel Quillen, USA 1982 Warsaw, Poland Alain Connes, France William Thurston, USA Shing-Tung Yau, China 1986 Berkeley, United States Simon Donaldson, UK Gerd Faltings, Germany Michael Freedman, USA 1990 Kyoto, Japan Vladimir Drinfel'd, Soviet Union Vaughan F. R. Jones, New Zealand Shigefumi Mori, Japan Edward Witten, USA 1994 Zürich, Switzerland Jean Bourgain, Belgium Pierre-Louis Lions, France Jean-Christophe Yoccoz, France Efim Zelmanov, Russia 1998 Berlin, Germany Richard Borcherds, UK Timothy Gowers, UK Maxim Kontsevich, Russia Curtis T. McMullen, USA 2002 Beijing, China Laurent Lafforgue, France Vladimir Voevodsky, Russia 2006 Madrid, Spain Andrei Okounkov, Russia, "for his contributions bridging probability, representation theory and algebraic geometry" Grigori Perelman, Russia — Medal declined, "for his contributions to geometry and his revolutionary insights into the analytical and geometric structure of the Ricci flow" Terence Tao, Australia, "for his contributions to partial differential equations, combinatorics, harmonic analysis and additive number theory" Wendelin Werner, France, "for his contributions to the development of stochastic Loewner evolution, the geometry of two-dimensional Brownian motion, and conformal field theory" Landmarks In 1954, Jean-Pierre Serre became the youngest winner of the Fields Medal, at 27. He still retains this distinction. In 1966, Alexander Grothendieck boycotted his own Fields Medal ceremony, held in Moscow, to protest Soviet military actions taking place in Eastern Europe. In 1970, Sergei Petrovich Novikov, due to restrictions placed on him by the Soviet government, was unable to travel to the congress in Nice to receive his medal. In 1978, Grigory Margulis, due to restrictions placed on him by the Soviet government, was unable to travel to the congress in Helsinki to receive his medal. The award was accepted on his behalf by Jacques Tits, who said in his address: I cannot but express my deep disappointment — no doubt shared by many people here — in the absence of Margulis from this ceremony. In view of the symbolic meaning of this city of Helsinki, I had indeed grounds to hope that I would have a chance at last to meet a mathematician whom I know only through his work and for whom I have the greatest respect and admiration. Margulis biography, School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of St Andrews, Scotland. Accessed 27 August 2006. In 1982, the congress was due to be held in Warsaw but had to be rescheduled to the next year, due to political instability. The awards were announced at the ninth General Assembly of the IMU earlier in the year and awarded at the 1983 Warsaw congress. In 1990, Edward Witten became the first and so far only physicist to win this award. In 1998, at the ICM, Andrew Wiles was presented by the chair of the Fields Medal Committee, Yuri I. Manin, with the first-ever IMU silver plaque in recognition of his proof of Fermat's Last Theorem. Don Zagier referred to the plaque as a "quantized Fields Medal". Accounts of this award frequently make reference that at the time of the award Wiles was over the age limit for the Fields medal. Wiles, Andrew John, Encyclopædia Britannica. Accessed 27 August 2006. Although Wiles was slightly over the age limit in 1994, he was thought to be a favorite to win the medal; however, a gap (later resolved by Taylor and Wiles) in the proof was found in 1993. Fields Medal Prize Winners (1998), 2002 International Congress of Mathematicians. Accessed 27 August 2006. Notices of the AMS, November 1998. Vol. 45, No. 10, p. 1359. In 2006, Grigori Perelman, credited with proving the Poincaré conjecture, refused his Fields Medal and did not attend the congress. The medal The medal was designed by Canadian sculptor R. Tait McKenzie http://www.fields.utoronto.ca/aboutus/jcfields/fields_medal.html . On the obverse is Archimedes and a quote attributed to him which reads in Latin: "Transire suum pectus mundoque potiri" (Rise above oneself and grasp the world). On the reverse is the inscription (in Latin): Translation: "The mathematicians having congregated from the whole world awarded because of outstanding writings." In the background, there is the representation of Archimedes' tomb, with the carving of his theorem on the Sphere and the Cylinder (a sphere and a circumscribed cylinder of the same height and diameter, the result of which he was most proud) behind a branch. The rim bears the name of the prizewinner. See also List of prizes, medals, and awards in mathematics Notes External links Official site | Fields_Medal |@lemmatized obverse:2 field:20 medal:24 prize:9 award:17 two:2 three:1 four:3 mathematician:9 year:8 age:4 international:3 congress:7 mathematical:3 union:5 meeting:1 take:2 place:4 every:2 often:2 view:2 top:1 honor:1 receive:3 come:1 monetary:3 c:1 u:2 found:1 behest:1 canadian:2 john:4 charles:2 first:3 finnish:1 lars:3 ahlfors:2 american:1 jesse:2 douglas:2 regularly:1 since:1 purpose:1 give:2 recognition:3 support:1 young:2 researcher:1 make:3 major:2 contribution:5 condition:1 describe:1 nobel:4 mathematics:5 prestige:2 carry:1 though:1 way:1 relatively:1 new:2 abel:3 direct:2 analogue:1 comparison:1 entirely:1 accurate:1 awarded:1 also:2 limit:3 recipient:2 birthday:1 must:1 occur:1 january:1 result:3 many:2 great:2 miss:1 best:1 work:5 recognize:1 late:1 life:1 rule:1 base:1 desire:1 already:1 time:2 intend:1 encouragement:1 achievement:2 part:2 stimulus:1 renew:1 effort:1 others:1 much:1 low:1 roughly:1 million:1 finally:1 generally:1 body:1 rather:1 particular:1 instead:1 citation:1 speech:1 congratulation:1 wolf:1 recognise:1 lifetime:1 different:1 kind:1 although:2 large:1 like:1 selection:1 imu:3 represent:1 world:3 community:1 medalist:2 icm:2 location:1 oslo:1 norway:2 finland:2 usa:11 cambridge:1 united:3 state:2 laurent:2 schwartz:1 france:10 atle:1 selberg:1 amsterdam:1 netherlands:1 kunihiko:1 kodaira:1 japan:4 jean:4 pierre:4 serre:2 edinburgh:1 kingdom:1 klaus:1 roth:1 uk:7 rené:1 thom:1 stockholm:1 sweden:2 hörmander:1 milnor:1 moscow:2 soviet:7 michael:2 atiyah:1 paul:1 joseph:1 cohen:1 alexander:2 grothendieck:2 stephen:1 smale:1 nice:2 alan:1 baker:1 heisuke:1 hironaka:1 sergei:2 novikov:2 g:1 thompson:1 vancouver:1 canada:1 enrico:1 bombieri:1 italy:1 david:1 mumford:1 helsinki:3 deligne:1 belgium:2 fefferman:1 grigory:2 margulis:4 daniel:1 quillen:1 warsaw:3 poland:1 alain:1 connes:1 william:1 thurston:1 shing:1 tung:1 yau:1 china:2 berkeley:1 simon:1 donaldson:1 gerd:1 faltings:1 germany:2 freedman:1 kyoto:1 vladimir:2 drinfel:1 vaughan:1 f:1 r:2 jones:1 zealand:1 shigefumi:1 mori:1 edward:2 witten:2 zürich:1 switzerland:1 bourgain:1 louis:1 lion:1 christophe:1 yoccoz:1 efim:1 zelmanov:1 russia:5 berlin:1 richard:1 borcherds:1 timothy:1 gowers:1 maxim:1 kontsevich:1 curtis:1 mcmullen:1 beijing:1 lafforgue:1 voevodsky:1 madrid:1 spain:1 andrei:1 okounkov:1 bridge:1 probability:1 representation:2 theory:3 algebraic:1 geometry:3 grigori:2 perelman:2 decline:1 revolutionary:1 insight:1 analytical:1 geometric:1 structure:1 ricci:1 flow:1 terence:1 tao:1 australia:1 partial:1 differential:1 equation:1 combinatorics:1 harmonic:1 analysis:1 additive:1 number:1 wendelin:1 werner:1 development:1 stochastic:1 loewner:1 evolution:1 dimensional:1 brownian:1 motion:1 conformal:1 landmarks:1 become:2 winner:2 still:1 retain:1 distinction:1 boycott:1 ceremony:2 hold:2 protest:1 military:1 action:1 eastern:1 europe:1 petrovich:1 due:4 restriction:2 government:2 unable:2 travel:2 accept:1 behalf:1 jacques:1 tit:1 say:1 address:1 cannot:1 express:1 deep:1 disappointment:1 doubt:1 share:1 people:1 absence:1 symbolic:1 meaning:1 city:1 indeed:1 ground:1 hope:1 would:1 chance:1 last:2 meet:1 know:1 respect:1 admiration:1 biography:1 school:1 statistic:1 university:1 st:1 andrew:3 scotland:1 access:3 august:3 reschedule:1 next:1 political:1 instability:1 announce:1 ninth:1 general:1 assembly:1 earlier:1 far:1 physicist:1 win:2 wile:5 present:1 chair:1 committee:1 yuri:1 manin:1 ever:1 silver:1 plaque:2 proof:2 fermat:1 theorem:2 zagier:1 refer:1 quantize:1 account:1 frequently:1 reference:1 encyclopædia:1 britannica:1 slightly:1 think:1 favorite:1 however:1 gap:1 later:1 resolve:1 taylor:1 find:1 notice:1 november:1 vol:1 p:1 credit:1 prove:1 poincaré:1 conjecture:1 refuse:1 attend:1 design:1 sculptor:1 tait:1 mckenzie:1 http:1 www:1 utoronto:1 ca:1 aboutus:1 jcfields:1 html:1 archimedes:2 quote:1 attribute:1 read:1 latin:2 transire:1 suum:1 pectus:1 mundoque:1 potiri:1 rise:1 oneself:1 grasp:1 reverse:1 inscription:1 translation:1 congregate:1 whole:1 outstanding:1 writing:1 background:1 tomb:1 carving:1 sphere:2 cylinder:2 circumscribed:1 height:1 diameter:1 proud:1 behind:1 branch:1 rim:1 bear:1 name:1 prizewinner:1 see:1 list:1 note:1 external:1 link:1 official:1 site:1 |@bigram nobel_prize:2 lifetime_achievement:1 oslo_norway:1 laurent_schwartz:1 jean_pierre:2 pierre_serre:2 stockholm_sweden:1 soviet_union:4 alexander_grothendieck:2 heisuke_hironaka:1 helsinki_finland:1 pierre_deligne:1 alain_connes:1 edward_witten:2 zürich_switzerland:1 jean_christophe:1 algebraic_geometry:1 grigori_perelman:2 partial_differential:1 differential_equation:1 brownian_motion:1 andrew_wile:1 proof_fermat:1 encyclopædia_britannica:1 poincaré_conjecture:1 http_www:1 utoronto_ca:1 external_link:1 |
5,366 | Bohr_model | The Rutherford-Bohr model of the hydrogen atom () or a hydrogen-like ion (), where the negatively charged electron confined to an atomic shell encircles a small positively charged atomic nucleus, and an electron jump between orbits is accompanied by an emitted or absorbed amount of electromagnetic energy (hν). The orbits that the electron may travel in are shown as grey circles; their radius increases as n2, where n is the principal quantum number. The transition depicted here produces the first line of the Balmer series, and for hydrogen () results in a photon of wavelength 656 nm (red). In atomic physics, the Bohr model created by Niels Bohr depicts the atom as a small, positively charged nucleus surrounded by electrons that travel in circular orbits around the nucleus—similar in structure to the solar system, but with electrostatic forces providing attraction, rather than gravity. This was an improvement on the earlier cubic model (1902), the plum-pudding model (1904), the Saturnian model (1904), and the Rutherford model (1911). Since the Bohr model is a quantum physics-based modification of the Rutherford model, many sources combine the two, referring to the Rutherford-Bohr model. Introduced by Niels Bohr in 1913, the model's key success lay in explaining the Rydberg formula for the spectral emission lines of atomic hydrogen. While the Rydberg formula had been known experimentally, it did not gain a theoretical underpinning until the Bohr model was introduced. Not only did the Bohr model explain the reason for the structure of the Rydberg formula, but it provided a justification for its empirical results in terms of fundamental physical constants. The Bohr model is a primitive model of the hydrogen atom. As a theory, it can be derived as a first-order approximation of the hydrogen atom using the broader and much more accurate quantum mechanics, and thus may be considered to be an obsolete scientific theory. However, because of its simplicity, and its correct results for selected systems (see below for application), the Bohr model is still commonly taught to introduce students to quantum mechanics, before moving on to the more accurate but more complex valence shell atom. A related model was originally proposed by Arthur Erich Haas in 1910, but was rejected. The quantum theory of the period between Planck's discovery of the quantum (1900) and the advent of a full-blown quantum mechanics (1925) is often referred to as the old quantum theory. Origin In the early 20th century, experiments by Ernest Rutherford established that atoms consisted of a diffuse cloud of negatively charged electrons surrounding a small, dense, positively charged nucleus. Given this experimental data, Rutherford naturally considered a planetary-model atom, the Rutherford model of 1911 – electrons orbiting a solar nucleus – however, said planetary-model atom has a technical difficulty. The laws of classical mechanics (i.e. the Larmor formula), predict that the electron will release electromagnetic radiation while orbiting a nucleus. Because the electron would lose energy, it would gradually spiral inwards, collapsing into the nucleus. This atom model is disastrous, because it predicts that all atoms are unstable. Also, as the electron spirals inward, the emission would gradually increase in frequency as the orbit got smaller and faster. This would produce a continuous smear, in frequency, of electromagnetic radiation. However, late 19th century experiments with electric discharges through various low-pressure gasses in evacuated glass tubes had shown that atoms will only emit light (that is, electromagnetic radiation) at certain discrete frequencies. To overcome this difficulty, Niels Bohr proposed, in 1913, what is now called the Bohr model of the atom. He suggested that electrons could only have certain classical motions: The electrons can only travel in special orbits: at a certain discrete set of distances from the nucleus with specific energies. The electrons do not continuously lose energy as they travel. They can only gain and lose energy by jumping from one allowed orbit to another, absorbing or emitting electromagnetic radiation with a frequency ν determined by the energy difference of the levels according to the Planck relation: where h is Planck's constant. The frequency of the radiation emitted at an orbit of period T is as it would be in classical mechanics; it is the reciprocal of the classical orbit period: The significance of the Bohr model is that the laws of classical mechanics apply to the motion of the electron about the nucleus only when restricted by a quantum rule. Although rule 3 is not completely well defined for small orbits, because the emission process involves two orbits with two different periods, Bohr could determine the energy spacing between levels using rule 3 and come to an exactly correct quantum rule: the angular momentum L is restricted to be an integer multiple of a fixed unit: where n = 1, 2, 3, ... is called the principal quantum number, and ħ = h/2π. The lowest value of n is 1; this gives a smallest possible orbital radius of 0.0529 nm known as the Bohr radius. Once an electron is in this lowest orbit, it can get no closer to the proton. Starting from the angular momentum quantum rule Bohr N. Bohr, Philosophical Magazine 26, 1-25 (1913) (a link to this article is provided below) was able to calculate the energies of the allowed orbits of the hydrogen atom and other hydrogen-like atoms and ions. Other points are: Like Einstein's theory of the Photoelectric effect, Bohr's formula assumes that during a quantum jump a discrete amount of energy is radiated. However, unlike Einstein, Bohr stuck to the classical Maxwell theory of the electromagnetic field. Quantization of the electromagnetic field was explained by the discreteness of the atomic energy levels; Bohr did not believe in the existence of photons. According to the Maxwell theory the frequency ν of classical radiation is equal to the rotation frequency ν<sub>rot</sup> of the electron in its orbit, with harmonics at integer multiples of this frequency. This result is obtained from the Bohr model for jumps between energy levels En and En−k when k is much smaller than n. These jumps reproduce the frequency of the k-th harmonic of orbit n. For sufficiently large values of n (so-called Rydberg states), the two orbits involved in the emission process have nearly the same rotation frequency, so that the classical orbital frequency is not ambiguous. But for small n (or large k), the radiation frequency has no unambiguous classical interpretation. This marks the birth of the correspondence principle, requiring quantum theory to agree with the classical theory only in the limit of large quantum numbers. The Bohr-Kramers-Slater theory (BKS theory) is a failed attempt to extend the Bohr model which violates the conservation of energy and momentum in quantum jumps, with the conservation laws only holding on average. Bohr's condition, that the angular momentum is an integer multiple of ħ was later reinterpreted by de Broglie as a standing wave condition: the electron is described by a wave and a whole number of wavelengths must fit along the circumference of the electron's orbit: Substituting de Broglie's wavelength reproduces Bohr's rule. Bohr justified his rule by appealing to the correspondence principle, without providing a wave interpretation. In 1925 a new kind of mechanics was proposed, quantum mechanics in which Bohr's model of electrons traveling in quantized orbits was extended into a more accurate model of electron motion. The new theory was proposed by Werner Heisenberg. Another form of the same theory, modern quantum mechanics, was discovered by the Austrian physicist Erwin Schrödinger independently and by different reasoning. Electron energy levels The Bohr model gives almost exact results only for a system where two charged points orbit each other at speeds much less than that of light. This not only includes one-electron systems such as the hydrogen atom, singly-ionized helium, doubly ionized lithium, but it includes positronium and Rydberg states of any atom where one electron is far away from everything else. It can be used for K-line X-ray transition calculations if other assumptions are added (see Moseley's law below). In high energy physics, it can be used to calculate the masses of heavy quark mesons. To calculate the orbits requires two assumptions: 1. Classical mechanics The electron is held in a circular orbit by electrostatic attraction. The centripetal force is equal to the Coulomb force. where me is the mass, e is the charge of the electron and ke is Coulomb's constant. This determines the speed at any radius: It also determines the total energy at any radius: The total energy is negative and inversely proportional to r. This means that it takes energy to pull the orbiting electron away from the proton. For infinite values of r, the energy is zero, corresponding to a motionless electron infinitely far from the proton. The total energy is half the potential energy, which is true for non circular orbits too by the virial theorem. For larger nuclei, the only change is that kee2 is everywhere replaced by Zkee2 where Z is the number of protons. For positronium, me is replaced by its reduced mass (). 2. Quantum rule The angular momentum is an integer multiple of ħ: Substituting the expression for the velocity gives an equation for r in terms of n: so that the allowed orbit radius at any n is: The smallest possible value of r is called the Bohr radius and is equal to: The energy of the n-th level is determined by the radius: An electron in the lowest energy level of hydrogen () therefore has 13.6 eV less energy than a motionless electron infinitely far from the nucleus. The next energy level () is −3.4 eV. The third (n = 3) is −1.51 eV, and so on. For larger values of n, these are also the binding energies of a highly excited atom with one electron in a large circular orbit around the rest of the atom. The combination of natural constants in the energy formula is called the Rydberg energy (RE): This expression is clarified by interpreting it in combinations which form more natural units: is the rest mass energy of the electron (511 keV/c) is the fine structure constant Since this derivation is with the assumption that the nucleus is orbited by one electron, we can generalize this result by letting the nucleus have a charge q = Ze where Z is the atomic number. This will now give us energy levels for hydrogenic atoms, which can serve as a rough order-of-magnitude approximation of the actual energy levels. So, for nuclei with Z protons, the energy levels are (to a rough approximation): The actual energy levels cannot be solved analytically for more than one electron (see n-body problem) because the electrons are not only affected by the nucleus but also interact with each other via the Coulomb Force. However, the analytic soltuion can be approximated using the Hartee-Fock method, which involves replacing "Z" with "Z - b" where b is constant representing electric field screening due to the inner-shell electron(s) (see Electron shell and the later discussion of the "Shell Model of the Atom" below). When Z = 1/α (Z ≈ 137), the motion becomes highly relativistic, and Z2 cancels the α2 in R; the orbit energy begins to be comparable to rest energy. Sufficiently large nuclei, if they were stable, would reduce their charge by creating a bound electron from the vacuum, ejecting the positron to infinity. This is the theoretical phenomenon of electromagnetic charge screening which predicts a maximum nuclear charge. Emission of such positrons has been observed in the collisions of heavy ions to create temporary super-heavy nuclei. For positronium, the formula uses the reduced mass. For any value of the radius, the electron and the positron are each moving at half the speed around their common center of mass, and each has only one fourth the kinetic energy. The total kinetic energy is half what it would be for a single electron moving around a heavy nucleus. (positronium) Rydberg formula The Rydberg formula, which was known empirically before Bohr's formula, is now in Bohr's theory seen as describing the energies of transitions or quantum jumps between one orbital energy level, and another. Bohr's formula gives the numerical value of the already-known and measured Rydberg's constant, but now in terms of more fundamental constants of nature, including the electron's charge and Planck's constant. When the electron moves from one energy level to another, a photon is emitted. Using the derived formula for the different 'energy' levels of hydrogen one may determine the 'wavelengths' of light that a hydrogen atom can emit. The energy of a photon emitted by a hydrogen atom is given by the difference of two hydrogen energy levels: where nf is the final energy level, and ni is the initial energy level. Since the energy of a photon is the wavelength of the photon given off is given by This is known as the Rydberg formula, and the Rydberg constant R is , or in natural units. This formula was known in the nineteenth century to scientists studying spectroscopy, but there was no theoretical explanation for this form or a theoretical prediction for the value of R, until Bohr. In fact, Bohr's derivation of the Rydberg constant, as well as the concomitant agreement of Bohr's formula with experimentally observed spectral lines of the Lyman (), Balmer (), and Paschen () series, and successful theoretical prediction of other lines not yet observed, was one reason that his model was immediately accepted. Shell model of the atom Bohr extended the model of Hydrogen to give an approximate model for heavier atoms. This gave a physical picture which reproduced many known atomic properties for the first time. Heavier atoms have more protons in the nucleus, and more electrons to cancel the charge. Bohr's idea was that each discrete orbit could only hold a certain number of electrons. After that orbit is full, the next level would have to be used. This gives the atom a shell structure, in which each shell corresponds to a Bohr orbit. This model is even more approximate than the model of hydrogen, because it treats the electrons in each shell as non-interacting. But the repulsions of electrons is taken into account somewhat by the phenomenon of screening. The electrons in outer orbits do not only orbit the nucleus, but they also orbit the inner electrons, so the effective charge Z that they feel is reduced by the number of the electrons in the inner orbit. For example, the lithium atom has two electrons in the lowest 1S orbit, and these orbit at Z=2. Each one sees the nuclear charge of Z=3 minus the screening effect of the other, which crudely reduces the nuclear charge by 1 unit. This means that the innermost electrons orbit at approximately 1/4th the Bohr radius. The outermost electron in lithium orbits at roughly Z=1, since the two inner electrons reduce the nuclear charge by 2. This outer electron should be at nearly one Bohr radius from the nucleus. Because the electrons strongly repel each other, the effective charge description is very approximate, the effective charge Z doesn't usually come out to be an integer. But Moseley's law experimentally probes the innermost pair of electrons, and shows that they do see a nuclear charge of approximately Z-1, while the outermost electron in an atom or ion with only one electron in the outermost shell orbits a core with effective charge Z-k where k is the total number of electrons in the inner shells. The shell model was able to qualitatively explain many of the mysterious properties of atoms which became codified in the late 19th century in the periodic table of the elements. One property was the size of atoms, which could be determined approximately by measuring the viscosity of gases and density of pure crystalline solids. Atoms tend to get smaller as you move to the right in the periodic table, becoming much bigger at the next line of the table. Atoms to the right of the table tend to gain electrons, while atoms to the left tend to lose them. Every element on the last column of the table is chemically inert (noble gas). In the shell model, this phenomenon is explained by shell-filling. Successive atoms get smaller because they are filling orbits of the same size, until the orbit is full, at which point the next atom in the table has a loosely bound outer electron, causing it to expand. The first Bohr orbit is filled when it has two electrons, and this explains why helium is inert. The second orbit allows eight electrons, and when it is full the atom is neon, again inert. The third orbital contains eight again, except that in the more correct Sommerfeld treatment (reproduced in modern quantum mechanics) there are extra "d" electrons. The third orbit may hold an extra 10 d electrons, but these positions are not filled until a few more orbitals from the next level are filled (Filling the n=3 d orbitals produces the 10 transition elements). The irregular filling pattern is an effect of interactions between electrons, which are not taken into account in either the Bohr or Sommerfeld models, and which are difficult to calculate even in the modern treatment. Moseley's law and calculation of K-alpha X-ray emission lines Niels Bohr said in 1962, "You see actually the Rutherford work [the nuclear atom] was not taken seriously. We cannot understand today, but it was not taken seriously at all. There was no mention of it any place. The great change came from Moseley." In 1913 Henry Moseley found an empirical relationship between the strongest X-ray line emitted by atoms under electron bombardment (then known as the K-alpha line), and their atomic number Z. Moseley's empiric formula was found to be derivable from Rydberg and Bohr's formula (Moseley actually mentions only Ernest Rutherford and Antonius Van den Broek in terms of models). The two additional assumptions that [1] this X-ray line came from a transition between energy levels with quantum numbers 1 and 2, and [2], that the atomic number Z when used in the formula for atoms heavier than hydrogen, should be diminished by 1, to (Z-1)². Moseley wrote to Bohr, puzzled about his results, but Bohr was not able to help. At that time, he thought that the postulated innermost "K" shell of electrons should have at least four electrons, not the two which would have neatly explained the result. So Moseley published his results without a theoretical explanation. Later, people realized that the effect was caused by charge screening, with an inner shell containing only 2 electrons. In the experiment, one of the innermost electrons in the atom is knocked out, leaving a vacancy in the lowest Bohr orbit, which contains a single remaining electron. This vacancy is then filled by an electron from the next orbit, which has n=2. But the n=2 electrons see an effective charge of Z-1, which is the value appropriate for the charge of the nucleus, when a single electron remains in the lowest Bohr orbit to screen the nuclear charge +Z, and lower it by -1 (due to the electron's negative charge screening the nuclear positive charge). The energy gained by an electron dropping from the second shell to the first gives Moseley's law for K-alpha lines: or Here, Rv = RE/h is the Rydberg constant, in terms of frequency equal to 3.28 x 1015 Hz. For values of Z between 11 and 31 this latter relationship had been empirically derived by Moseley, in a simple (linear) plot of the square root of X-ray frequency against atomic number (however, for silver, Z = 47, the experimentally obtained screening term should be replaced by 0.4). Notwithstanding its restricted validity M.A.B. Whitaker, Europ. J. Phys. 20, 213-220 (1999). did Moseley's law not only establish the objective meaning of atomic number (see Henry Moseley for detail) but, as Bohr noted, it also did more than the Rydberg derivation to establish the validity of the Rutherford/Van den Broek/Bohr nuclear model of the atom, with atomic number as nuclear charge. The K-alpha line of Moseley's time is now known to be a pair of close lines, written as (Kα1 and Kα2) in Siegbahn notation. Shortcomings The Bohr model gives an incorrect value for the ground state orbital angular momentum. The angular momentum in the true ground state is known to be zero. Although mental pictures fail somewhat at these levels of scale, an electron in the lowest modern "orbital" with no orbital momentum, may be thought of as not to rotate "around" the nucleus at all, but merely to go tightly around it in an ellipse with zero area (this may be pictured as "back and forth", without striking or interacting with the nucleus). This is only reproduced in a more sophisticated semiclassical treatment like Sommerfeld's. Still, even the most sophisticated semiclassical model fails to explain the fact that the lowest energy state is spherically symmetric--- it doesn't point in any particular direction. In modern quantum mechanics, the electron in hydrogen is a spherical cloud of probability which grows denser near the nucleus. The rate-constant of probability-decay in hydrogen is equal to the inverse of the Bohr radius, but since Bohr worked with circular orbits, not zero area ellipses, the fact that these two numbers exactly agree, is considered a "coincidence." (Though many such coincidental agreements are found between the semi-classical vs. full quantum mechanical treatment of the atom; these include identical energy levels in the hydrogen atom, and the derivation of a fine structure constant, which arises from the relativistic Bohr-Sommerfield model (see below), and which happens to be equal to an entirely different concept, in full modern quantum mechanics). The Bohr model also has difficulty with, or else fails to explain: Much of the spectra of larger atoms. At best, it can make predictions about the K-alpha and some L-alpha X-ray emission spectra for larger atoms, if two additional ad hoc assumptions are made (see Moseley's law above). Emission spectra for atoms with a single outer-shell electron (atoms in the lithium group) can also be approximately predicted. Also, if the empiric electron-nuclear screening factors for many atoms are known, many other spectral lines can be deduced from the information, in similar atoms of differing elements, via the Ritz-Rydberg combination principles (see Rydberg formula). All these techniques essentially make use of Bohr's Newtonian energy-potential picture of the atom. The theory does not predict the relative intensities of spectral lines; although in some simple cases, Bohr's formula or modifications of it, was able to provide reasonable estimates (for example, calculations by Kramers for the Stark effect). The existence of fine structure and hyperfine structure in spectral lines, which are known to be due to a variety of relativistic and subtle effects, as well as complications from electron spin. The Zeeman effect - changes in spectral lines due to external magnetic fields; these are also due to more complicated quantum principles interacting with electron spin and orbital magnetic fields. The model also violates the uncertainty principle in that it considers electrons to have known orbits and definite radius, two things which can not be directly known at once. Refinements Elliptical orbits with the same energy and quantized angular momentum Several enhancements to the Bohr model were proposed; most notably the Sommerfeld model or Bohr-Sommerfeld model, which suggested that electrons travel in elliptical orbits around a nucleus instead of the Bohr model's circular orbits. This model supplemented the quantized angular momentum condition of the Bohr model with an additional radial quantization condition, the Sommerfeld-Wilson quantization condition where pr is the radial momentum canonically conjugate to the coordinate q which is the radial position and T is one full orbital period. The integral is the action of action-angle coordinates. This condition, suggested by the correspondence principle, is the only one possible, since the quantum numbers are adiabatic invariants. The Bohr-Sommerfeld model was fundamentally inconsistent and led to many paradoxes. The magnetic quantum number measured the tilt of the orbital plane relative to the xy-plane, and it could only take a few discrete values. This contradicted the obvious fact that an atom could be turned this way and that relative to the coordinates without restriction. The Sommerfeld quantization can be performed in different canonical coordinates, and sometimes gives answers which are different. The incorporation of radiation corrections was difficult, because it required finding action-angle coordinates for a combined radiation/atom system, which is difficult when the radiation is allowed to escape. The whole theory did not extend to non-integrable motions, which meant that many systems could not be treated even in principle. In the end, the model was replaced by the modern quantum mechanical treatment of the hydrogen atom, which was first given by Wolfgang Pauli in 1925, using Heisenberg's matrix mechanics. The current picture of the hydrogen atom is based on the atomic orbitals of wave mechanics which Erwin Schrödinger developed in 1926. However, this is not to say that the Bohr model was without its successes. Calculations based on the Bohr-Sommerfeld model were able to accurately explain a number of more complex atomic spectral effects. For example, up to first-order perturbations, the Bohr model and quantum mechanics make the same predictions for the spectral line splitting in the Stark effect. At higher-order perturbations, however, the Bohr model and quantum mechanics differ, and measurements of the Stark effect under high field strengths helped confirm the correctness of quantum mechanics over the Bohr model. The prevailing theory behind this difference lies in the shapes of the orbitals of the electrons, which vary according to the energy state of the electron. The Bohr-Sommerfeld quantization conditions lead to questions in modern mathematics. Consistent semiclassical quantization condition requires a certain type of structure on the phase space, which places topological limitations on the types of symplectic manifolds which can be quantized. In particular, the symplectic form should be the curvature form of a connection of a Hermitian line bundle, which is called a prequantization. See also Franck-Hertz experiment provided early support for the Bohr model. Moseley's law provided early support for the Bohr model. See also Henry Moseley Inert pair effect is adequately explained by means of the Bohr model. Lyman series Schrödinger equation Theoretical and experimental justification for the Schrödinger equation Balmer's Constant Old quantum theory Quantum Mechanics 1913 in science References Historical Reprinted in The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein, A. Engel translator, (1997) Princeton University Press, Princeton. 6 p.434. (Provides an elegant reformulation of the Bohr-Sommerfeld quantization conditions, as well as an important insight into the quantization of non-integrable (chaotic) dynamical systems.) Further reading A great explainer of Chemistry describes the Bohr model, appropriate for High School and College students. Reprint: A popularizer of physics explains the Bohr model in the context of the development of quantum mechanics, appropriate for High School and College students Great explanations, appropriate for High School and College students | Bohr_model |@lemmatized rutherford:10 bohr:74 model:62 hydrogen:22 atom:54 like:4 ion:4 negatively:2 charge:28 electron:85 confine:1 atomic:14 shell:18 encircle:1 small:11 positively:3 nucleus:26 jump:7 orbit:53 accompany:1 emitted:1 absorbed:1 amount:2 electromagnetic:8 energy:52 hν:1 may:6 travel:6 show:3 grey:1 circle:1 radius:13 increase:2 n:17 principal:2 quantum:35 number:19 transition:5 depict:2 produce:3 first:7 line:19 balmer:3 series:3 result:9 photon:6 wavelength:5 nm:2 red:1 physic:4 create:3 niels:4 surround:2 circular:6 around:7 similar:2 structure:8 solar:2 system:7 electrostatic:2 force:4 provide:8 attraction:2 rather:1 gravity:1 improvement:1 early:4 cubic:1 plum:1 pudding:1 saturnian:1 since:6 base:3 modification:2 many:8 source:1 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5,367 | Colon_classification | Colon classification (CC) is a system of library classification developed by S. R. Ranganathan. It was the first ever faceted (or analytico-synthetic) classification. The first edition was published in 1933. Since then six more editions have been published. It is especially used in libraries in India. Its name "Colon classification" comes from the use of colons to separate facets in class numbers. However, many other classification schemes, some of which are completely unrelated, also use colons and other punctuation in various functions. They should not be confused with Colon classification. As an example, the subject "research in the cure of tuberculosis of lungs by x-ray conducted in India in 1950" results in a call number L,45;421:6;253:f.44'N5 The components of this call number represent Medicine,Lungs;Tuberculosis:Treatment;X-ray:Research.India'1950 Organization The Colon Classification uses 42 main classes that are combined with other letters, numbers and marks in a manner resembling the Library of Congress Classification to sort a publication. Facets CC uses five primary categories, or facets to further specify the sorting of a publication collectively called "PMEST". , [[personality]] ; [[matter]] or property : [[energy]] . [[space]] ' [[time]] Classes The following are the main classes of CC, with some subclasses, the main method used to sort the subclass using the PMEST scheme and examples showing application of PMEST. z Generalia 1 Universe of Knowledge 2 Library Science 3 Book science 4 Journalism B Mathematics B1 Arithmetic B13 Theory of numbers B2 Algebra B23 Algebraic equations B25 Higher Algebra B3 Analysis B33 Differential Equations [equation] , [degree] , [order] : [problem] B331,1,2:1 Numerical solutions (:1) of ordered (331) linear (,1) second order (,2) differential equations B37 Real Variables B38 Complex Variables B4 Other Methods B6 Geometry B7 Mechanics B8 Physico-Mathematics B9 Astronomical Mathematics C Physics C1 Fundamentals of Physics C2 Properties of Matter C3 Sound C4 Heat C5 Light and Radiation C6 Electricity C7 Magnetism C8 Cosmic Hypothesis D Engineering E Chemistry facets :1 General Chemistry :2 Physical Chemistry :3 Analytical Chemistry :33 Qualitative Chemistry :34 Quantitative Chemistry :35 Volumetric Chemistry :4 Synthetic Chemistry :5 Extraction Chemistry E1 Inorganic Chemistry E10 Group 0 E11 Group 1 E110 Hydrogen E1109 Lithium E111 Sodium E2 Hydroxl (Base) E3 Acid E4 Salt E5 Organic Substance F Technology G Biology H Geology H1 Mineralogy H2 Petrology H3 Structural Geology H4 Dynamic Geology H5 Stratigraphy H6 Paleontology H7 Economic Geology H8 Cosmic Hypothesis HX Mining I Botany J Agriculture facets :1 Soil :3 Propagation :4 Disease :5 Development :6 Breeding :7 Harvest :91 Nomenclature :92 Morphology :93 Physiology :95 Ecology material facets ,2 Bulb ,3 Root ,4 Stem ,5 Leaf ,6 Flower ,7 Fruit ,8 Seed ,97 Whole Plant J1 Horticulture J2 Feed J3 Food J4 Stimulant J5 Oil J6 Drug J7 Fabric J8 Dye K Zoology (same facet schedule as I Botany)KZ Animal Husbandry (same facet schedule as I Botany)L Medicine [organ]:[problem],[cause]:[handling]LZ3 Pharmacology [substance].[action],[organ]LZ5 Pharmacopoeia M Useful arts M7 Textiles [material]:[work]Δ Spiritual experience and mysticism [religion],[entity]:[problem]N Fine arts NA Architecture [style] , [utility] , [part] : [technique]ND Sculpture [style] , [figure] ; [material] : [technique]NN Engraving NQ Painting [style] , [figure] ; [material] : [technique]NR Music [style] , [music] ; [instrument] : [technique]O Literature P Linguistics Q Religion R Philosophy S Psychology T Education U Geography V History W Political science X Economics Y Sociology Z Law Example The most commonly cited example of the Colon Classification is the classification for: "Research in the cure of the tuberculosis of lungs by x-ray conducted in India in 1950s": Main classification is Medicine (Medicine) Within Medicine, the Lungs are the main concern (Medicine,Lungs) The property of the Lungs is that they are afflicted with Tuberculosis (Medicine,Lungs;Tuberculosis) The Tuberculosis is being performed (:) on, that is the intent is to cure (Treatment) (Medicine,Lungs;Tuberculosis:Treatment) The matter that we are treating the Tuberculosis with are X-Rays (Medicine,Lungs;Tuberculosis:Treatment;X-ray) And this discussion of treatment is regarding the Research phase (Medicine,Lungs;Tuberculosis:Treatment;X-ray:Research) This Research is performed within a geographical space (.) namely India (Medicine,Lungs;Tuberculosis:Treatment;X-ray:Research.India) During the time (') of 1950 (Medicine,Lungs;Tuberculosis:Treatment;X-ray:Research.India'1950) And translating into the codes listed for each subject and facet the classification becomes L,45;421:6;253:f.44'N5 Publication information Colon Classification (6th Edition) by Dr. S.R. Ranganathan, published by Ess Ess Publications, Delhi, India, See also Bliss bibliographic classification Universal Decimal Classification References Chan, Lois Mai. Cataloging and Classification: An Introduction''. 2nd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, c1994. ISBN 0070105065. External links More Detail about the Colon Classification at ISKO Italia An annotated bibliography on Library Classification and Subject Approaches to Information - by Salman Haider, Librarian (Cataloging), US Library of Congress, New Delhi Overseas Office | Colon_classification |@lemmatized colon:9 classification:18 cc:3 system:1 library:6 develop:1 r:3 ranganathan:2 first:2 ever:1 faceted:1 analytico:1 synthetic:2 edition:3 publish:3 since:1 six:1 especially:1 use:7 india:8 name:1 come:1 separate:1 facet:9 class:4 number:5 however:1 many:1 scheme:2 completely:1 unrelated:1 also:2 punctuation:1 various:1 function:1 confuse:1 example:3 subject:3 research:8 cure:3 tuberculosis:12 lung:12 x:9 ray:8 conduct:2 result:1 call:3 l:3 f:3 component:1 represent:1 medicine:12 treatment:8 organization:1 main:5 combine:1 letter:1 mark:1 manner:1 resemble:1 congress:2 sort:2 publication:4 five:1 primary:1 category:1 specify:1 sorting:1 collectively:1 pmest:3 personality:1 matter:3 property:3 energy:1 space:2 time:2 following:1 subclass:2 method:2 examples:1 show:1 application:1 z:2 generalia:1 universe:1 knowledge:1 science:3 book:1 journalism:1 b:1 mathematics:3 arithmetic:1 theory:1 algebra:2 algebraic:1 equation:4 high:1 analysis:1 differential:2 degree:1 order:3 problem:3 numerical:1 solution:1 linear:1 second:1 real:1 variable:2 complex:1 geometry:1 mechanic:1 physico:1 astronomical:1 c:1 physic:2 fundamental:1 sound:1 heat:1 light:1 radiation:1 electricity:1 magnetism:1 cosmic:2 hypothesis:2 engineering:1 e:1 chemistry:10 general:1 physical:1 analytical:1 qualitative:1 quantitative:1 volumetric:1 extraction:1 inorganic:1 group:2 hydrogen:1 lithium:1 sodium:1 hydroxl:1 base:1 acid:1 salt:1 organic:1 substance:2 technology:1 g:1 biology:1 h:1 geology:4 mineralogy:1 petrology:1 structural:1 dynamic:1 stratigraphy:1 paleontology:1 economic:1 hx:1 mining:1 botany:3 j:1 agriculture:1 soil:1 propagation:1 disease:1 development:1 breeding:1 harvest:1 nomenclature:1 morphology:1 physiology:1 ecology:1 material:4 bulb:1 root:1 stem:1 leaf:1 flower:1 fruit:1 seed:1 whole:1 plant:1 horticulture:1 feed:1 food:1 stimulant:1 oil:1 drug:1 fabric:1 dye:1 k:1 zoology:1 schedule:2 kz:1 animal:1 husbandry:1 organ:2 cause:1 handle:1 pharmacology:1 action:1 pharmacopoeia:1 useful:1 art:2 textile:1 work:1 δ:1 spiritual:1 experience:1 mysticism:1 religion:2 entity:1 n:1 fine:1 na:1 architecture:1 style:4 utility:1 part:1 technique:4 nd:1 sculpture:1 figure:2 nn:1 engrave:1 nq:1 paint:1 nr:1 music:2 instrument:1 literature:1 p:1 linguistics:1 q:1 philosophy:1 psychology:1 education:1 u:2 geography:1 v:1 history:1 w:1 political:1 economics:1 sociology:1 law:1 commonly:1 cite:1 within:2 concern:1 afflict:1 perform:2 intent:1 treat:1 discussion:1 regard:1 phase:1 geographical:1 namely:1 translate:1 code:1 list:1 become:1 information:2 dr:1 es:2 delhi:2 see:1 bliss:1 bibliographic:1 universal:1 decimal:1 reference:1 chan:1 lois:1 mai:1 cataloging:1 introduction:1 ed:1 new:2 york:1 mcgraw:1 hill:1 isbn:1 external:1 link:1 detail:1 isko:1 italia:1 annotated:1 bibliography:1 approach:1 salman:1 haider:1 librarian:1 catalog:1 overseas:1 office:1 |@bigram colon_classification:7 lung_tuberculosis:7 differential_equation:2 electricity_magnetism:1 analytical_chemistry:1 inorganic_chemistry:1 animal_husbandry:1 mcgraw_hill:1 external_link:1 annotated_bibliography:1 |
5,368 | Mumbai | Mumbai (Marathi: मुंबई, , IPA:), formerly Bombay, is the capital of the Indian state of Maharashtra. Along with the neighbouring suburbs of Navi Mumbai and Thane, Mumbai forms the world's 4th largest urban agglomeration with around 19 million people. Mumbai lies on the west coast of India and has a deep natural harbour. Mumbai's port handles over half of India's maritime cargo. In the third century BCE, the Maurya Empire transformed the seven islands of Bombay into a centre of Hindu and Buddhist culture. Then, the islands came under the control of successive indigenous empires before being ceded to Portuguese settlers and subsequently to the British East India Company. They were merged and the city was named Bombay. During the mid-18th century, it emerged as a significant trading town. Economic and educational development characterised the city during the 19th century. It became a strong base for the Indian independence movement during the early 20th century and was the epicentre of the Rowlatt Satyagraha and the Royal Indian Navy Mutiny. When India became independent in 1947, the city was incorporated into the State of Bombay. In 1960, following the Samyukta Maharashtra movement, a new state of Maharashtra was created with Bombay as the capital. It was renamed Mumbai in 1996. Mumbai is the commercial and entertainment centre of India, generating 5% of India's GDP, and accounting for 25% of industrial output, 40% of maritime trade, and 70% of capital transactions to India's economy. Mumbai is home to important financial institutions such as the Reserve Bank of India, the Bombay Stock Exchange, the National Stock Exchange of India and the corporate headquarters of many Indian companies and numerous multinational corporations. The city also houses India's Hindi film and television industry, known as Bollywood. Mumbai's business opportunities, as well as its potential to offer a better standard of living, attract migrants from all over India and, in turn, make the city a potpourri of many communities and cultures. Toponymy The name Mumbai is an eponym, etymologically derived from Mumba or Maha-Amba—the name of the Koli goddess Mumbadevi—and Aai, "mother" in Marathi. The former name Bombay had its origins in the 16th century when the Portuguese arrived in the area and called it by various names like Mombai, Mombay, Mombayn, Mombaym, and Bombai, which finally took the written form Bombaim, still common in current Portuguese use. After the British gained possession in the 17th century, it was believed to be anglicised to Bombay from the Portuguese Bombaim. The city was known as Mumbai or Mambai to Marathi and Gujarati-speakers, and as Bambai in Hindi, Persian, and Urdu. It is sometimes still referred to by its older names, like Kakamuchee and Galajunkja. The name was officially changed to its Marathi pronunciation of Mumbai in 1996. This is in keeping with the policy of renaming colonial institutions after historical local names. "Mumbai" written in Marathi at the Taj Mahal Palace & Tower. A widespread explanation of the origin of the traditional English name Bombay holds that it was derived from a Portuguese name meaning "good bay". This is based on the fact that bom (masc.) is Portuguese for "good" whereas the English word "bay" is similar to the Portuguese baía (fem., bahia in old spelling). The normal Portuguese rendering of "good bay" would have been boa bahia rather than the grammatically incorrect bom bahia. However, it is possible to find the form baim (masc.) for "little bay" in 16th-century Portuguese. Other sources have a different origin for the Portuguese toponym Bombaim. José Pedro Machado's Dicionário Onomástico Etimológico da Língua Portuguesa ("Portuguese Dictionary of Onomastics and Etymology") mentions what is probably the first Portuguese reference to the place, dated from 1516, as Benamajambu or Tena-Maiambu, pointing out that "Maiambu" seems to refer to Mumba-Devi, the Hindu goddess after which the place is named in Marathi (Mumbai). In that same century, the spelling seems to have evolved to Mombayn (1525) Documents from the "Tombo do Estado da Índia" (currently the Historical Archives of Goa or Goa Purabhilekha) and then Mombaim (1563). The final form Bombaim appears later in the 16th century, as recorded by Gaspar Correia in his Lendas da Índia ("Legends of India"). J.P. Machado seems to reject the "Bom Bahia" hypothesis, asserting that Portuguese records mentioning the presence of a bay at the place led the English to assume that the noun (bahia, "bay") was an integral part of the Portuguese toponym, hence the English version Bombay, adapted from Portuguese. History The Haji Ali Mosque was built in 1431, when Mumbai was under Islamic rule In place of the present day city was an archipelago of seven islands: Bombay Island, Parel, Mazagaon, Mahim, Colaba, Worli, and Old Woman's Island (also known as Little Colaba). Pleistocene sediments found near Kandivali in northern Mumbai by British archaeologist Todd in 1939 suggest that these islands were inhabited since the Stone Age. They were known as Heptanesia (Ancient Greek: A Cluster of Seven Islands) to the Greek geographer Ptolemy in 150 CE. Their earliest known inhabitants were the Kolis, a fishing community. In the third century BCE, the islands formed part of the Maurya Empire, ruled by the Buddhist emperor, Ashoka of Magadha. Later, between second century BCE and ninth century CE, the islands came under the control of successive dynasties: Satavahanas, Abhiras, Vakatakas, Kalachuris, Chalukyas and Rashtrakutas, before being ruled by the Silhara dynasty from 810 to 1260. Raja Bhimdev founded his kingdom in the region in the late 13th century and established his capital in Mahikawati (present day Mahim). He brought settlers of various communities from Saurashtra and Deccan to Mahikawati. The Muslim rulers of Gujarat annexed the islands in 1348. The islands were later governed by the Gujarat Sultanate from 1391 to 1534. From 1491 to 1494, the islands suffered several sea piracies from Bahadur Khan Gilani, a nobleman of the Bahamani Sultanate. In 1534, the Portuguese appropriated the seven islands of Bombay from Bahadur Shah of the Gujarat Sultanate by the Treaty of Bassein. However, the seven islands were surrendered later on 25 October 1535. They were ceded to Charles II of England in 1661, as part of the dowry of Catherine of Braganza, daughter of King John IV of Portugal. These islands, were in turn leased to the British East India Company in 1668 for a sum of £10 per annum by the Royal Charter of 27 March 1668. The population quickly rose from 10,000 in 1661, to 60,000 in 1675. In 1687, the British East India Company transferred its headquarters from Surat to Bombay. The city eventually became the headquarters of the Bombay Presidency. Following the transfer, Bombay was placed at the head of all the Company's establishments in India. The islands suffered incursions from the Mughals in the late 17th century. The Gateway of India was built to commemorate the arrival of King George V and Queen Mary in India in 1911 From 1782 onwards, the city was reshaped with large-scale civil engineering projects aimed at merging all the seven islands into a single amalgamated mass. This project, known as the Hornby Vellard, was completed by 1784. On 16 April 1853, India's first passenger railway line was established, connecting Bombay to the neighbouring town of Thane. During the American Civil War (1861–1865), the city became the world's chief cotton trading market, resulting in a boom in the economy that subsequently enhanced the city's stature. The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 transformed Bombay into one of the largest seaports on the Arabian Sea. In September 1896, Bombay was hit by a bubonic plague epidemic where the death toll was estimated at 1,900 people per week. About 850,000 people fled Bombay and the textile industry was adversely affected. As the capital of the Bombay Presidency, it witnessed the Indian independence movement, with the Quit India Movement in 1942 and the The Royal Indian Navy Mutiny in 1946 being its most notable events. After India's independence in 1947, the territory of the Bombay Presidency retained by India was restructured into Bombay State. The area of Bombay State increased, after several erstwhile princely states that joined the Indian union were integrated into Bombay State. Subsequently, the city became the capital of Bombay State. In April 1950, Greater Bombay District came into existence with the merger of Bombay Suburbs and Bombay City. Flora Fountain was renamed Hutatma Chowk ("Martyr's Square") as a memorial to the Samyukta Maharashtra movement In the Lok Sabha discussions in 1955, the Congress party demanded that the city be constituted as an autonomous city-state. In 1956, the States Reorganisation Committee recommended a bilingual state for Maharashtra-Gujarat with Bombay as its capital. Bombay Citizens' Committee, an advocacy group comprising of leading Gujarati industrialists lobbied for Bombay's independent status. In the 1957 elections, the Samyukta Maharashtra movement opposed these proposals, and insisted that Bombay be declared the capital of Maharashtra. Following protests by the movement in which 105 people were killed by police, Bombay State was reorganised on linguistic lines on 1 May 1960. Retrieved on 2008-11-12. Gujarati-speaking areas of Bombay State were partitioned into the state of Gujarat. Maharashtra State with Bombay as its capital was formed with the merger of Marathi-speaking areas of Bombay State, eight districts from Central Provinces and Berar, five districts from Hyderabad State, and numerous princely states enclosed between them. The city's secular fabric was torn apart in the Hindu-Muslim riots of 1992–93 in which more than 1,000 people were killed. On 12 March 1993, a series of 13 co-ordinated bombings at several city landmarks by Islamic extremists and the Bombay underworld resulted in 257 deaths and over 700 injuries. In 2006, 209 people were killed and over 700 injured when seven bombs exploded on the city's commuter trains. A series of ten coordinated terrorist attacks by armed gunmen from 26 November 2008 to 29 November 2008 resulted in 164 deaths, 308 injuries, and severe damage to several important buildings. Geography The metropolis consists of the Mumbai city, Mumbai suburban district and also the cities of Navi Mumbai and Thane Mumbai lies at the mouth of the Ulhas River on the western coast of India, in the coastal region known as the Konkan. It sits on Salsette Island, partially shared with the Thane district. Many parts of the city lie just above sea level, with elevations ranging from to . The city has an average elevation of , whereas the southern tip of Colaba has an elevation of . Northern Mumbai is hilly, and the highest point in the city is at Salsette Island. Greater Mumbai spans a total area of . Sanjay Gandhi National Park (Borivili National Park) is located partly in the Mumbai suburban district, and partly in the Thane district, and it extends over an area of . Apart from the Bhatsa Dam, there are six major lakes that supply water to the city, such as Vihar, Lower Vaitarna, Upper Vaitarna, Tulsi, Tansa and Powai. Tulsi Lake and Vihar Lake are located in Borivili National Park, within the city's metropolitan limits. The supply from Powai lake, also within the city limits, is used only for agricultural and industrial purposes. Three small rivers, the Dahisar River, Poinsar (or Poisar) and Ohiwara (or Oshiwara) originate within the park, while the polluted Mithi River originates from Tulsi Lake and gathers water overflowing from Vihar and Powai Lakes. The coastline of the city is indented with numerous creeks and bays, stretching from Thane creek on the eastern to Madh Marve on the western front. The eastern coast of Salsette Island is covered with large mangrove swamps, rich in biodiversity, while the western coast is mostly sandy and rocky. Soil cover in the city region is predominantly sandy due to its proximity to the sea. In the suburbs, the soil cover is largely alluvial and loamy. The underlying rock of the region is composed of black Deccan basalt flows, and their acidic and basic variants dating back to the late Cretaceous and early Eocene eras. Mumbai sits on a seismically active zone owing to the presence of three fault lines in the vicinity. The area is classified as a Seismic Zone III region, which means an earthquake of up to magnitude 6.5 on the Richter-scale may be expected. Climate Average temperature and precipitation in Mumbai Lying in a tropical zone and the near the Arabian Sea, Mumbai observes mainly two seasons, such as the humid season and the dry season. The humid season, between March and October, is characterized by high humidity and temperatures of over . Between June and September, the monsoon rains lash the city, supplying most of the city's annual rainfall of , with an average of falling in July alone. The maximum annual rainfall ever recorded was in 1954. The highest rainfall recorded in a single day was on 26 July 2005. The dry season, between November and February, is characterized by moderate levels of humidity and warm to cool weather. Cold northerly winds are responsible for a mild chill during January and February. January is the coolest month of the year with mean daily minimum being . Annual temperatures range from a high of to a low of . The record high is and the record low is . Economy The Bombay Stock Exchange is the oldest in Asia Mumbai is India's largest city, and is considered the financial capital of the country. It serves as an important economic hub of the India, contributing 10% of all factory employment, 40% of all income tax collections, 60% of all customs duty collections, 20% of all central excise tax collections, 40% of India's foreign trade and in corporate taxes. Mumbai's per-capita income is , which is almost three times the national average. Many of India's numerous conglomerates (including State Bank of India, LIC, Tata Group, Godrej and Reliance), and five of the Fortune Global 500 companies are based in Mumbai. Many foreign banks and financial institutions also have branches in this area, the World Trade Centre (Mumbai) being the most prominent one. Until the 1980s, Mumbai owed its prosperity largely to textile mills and the seaport, but the local economy has since been diversified to include engineering, diamond-polishing, healthcare and information technology. State and central government employees make up a large percentage of the city's workforce. Mumbai also has a large unskilled and semi-skilled self employed population, who primarily earn their livelihood as hawkers, taxi drivers, mechanics and other such blue collar professions. The port and shipping industry is well established with Mumbai Port being one of the oldest and major ports in India. In Dharavi, in central Mumbai, there is an increasingly large recycling industry, processing recyclable waste from other parts of the city; the district has an estimated 15,000 single-room factories. Most of India's major television and satellite networks, as well as its major publishing houses, are headquartered here. The centre of the Hindi movie industry, Bollywood is the largest film producer in India and one of the largest in the world. Along with the rest of India, Mumbai, its commercial capital, has witnessed an economic boom since the liberalization of 1991, the finance boom in the mid-nineties and the IT, export, services and outsourcing boom in 2000s. Mumbai has been ranked 48th on the Worldwide Centres of Commerce Index 2008. In April 2008, Mumbai was ranked seventh in the list of "Top Ten Cities for Billionaires" by Forbes magazine, but in terms of average wealth among the billionaires, Mumbai had the highest rank among these ten cities. Civic administration The Bombay High Court exercises jurisdiction over Maharashtra, Goa, Daman and Diu, and Dadra and Nagar Haveli Mumbai consists of two distinct regions: the city and the suburbs, which also form two separate districts of Maharashtra. The city region is also commonly referred to as the Island City. Mumbai, both island city and suburbs as a whole, is administered by the Brihanmumbai Municipal Corporation (BMC) (formerly the Bombay Municipal Corporation), with executive power vested in the Municipal Commissioner, who is an IAS officer appointed by the state government. The Corporation comprises 227 directly elected Councillors representing the twenty four municipal wards, five nominated Councillors, and a Mayor whose role is mostly ceremonial. Mumbai is headed by mayor Shubha Raul, Municipal Commissioner Jairaj Phatak, and Sheriff Indu Shahani. The BMC is in charge of the civic and infrastructure needs of the metropolis. An Assistant Municipal Commissioner oversees each ward for administrative purposes. Almost all the state political parties field candidates in the elections for Councillors. The Mumbai Metropolitan Region consists of 7 Municipal Corporations and 13 Municipal Councils. In addition to the BMC, it includes the Municipal Corporations of Thane, Kalyan-Dombivali, Navi Mumbai, Mira-Bhayandar, Bhiwandi-Nizampur and Ulhasnagar. Greater Mumbai forms two districts of Maharashtra, each under the jurisdiction of a District Collector. The Collectors are in charge of property records and revenue collection for the Central Government, and oversee the national elections held in the city. The Mumbai Police is headed by a Police Commissioner, who is an IPS officer. The Mumbai Police comes under the state Home Ministry. The city is divided into seven police zones and seventeen traffic police zones, each headed by a Deputy Commissioner of Police. The Traffic Police is a semi-autonomous body under the Mumbai Police. The Mumbai Fire Brigade department is headed by the Chief Fire Officer, who is assisted by four Deputy Chief Fire Officers and six Divisional Officers. Mumbai is the seat of the Bombay High Court, which exercises jurisdiction over the states of Maharashtra and Goa, and the Union Territories of Daman and Diu and Dadra and Nagar Haveli. Mumbai also has two lower courts, the Small Causes Court for civil matters, and the Sessions Court for criminal cases. Mumbai also has a special TADA (Terrorist and Disruptive Activities) court for people accused of conspiring and abetting acts of terrorism in the city. Transport A Modern BEST bus (Starbus) Public transport systems in Mumbai include the Mumbai Suburban Railway, BEST buses, taxis, auto rickshaws, ferries, and aeroplanes. Black and yellow-metered, taxis traverse most of the metropolis. Auto rickshaws operate in the suburban areas of Mumbai. Taxis and rickshaws which run on Compressed Natural Gas are the most common form of hired transport. Mumbai is the headquarters of two railway zones: the Central Railway (CR) headquartered at Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus, and the Western Railway (WR) headquartered near Churchgate. The backbone of the city's transport, the Mumbai Suburban Railway, consists of three separate networks running the length of the city, in a north-south direction. The Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus, formerly known as Victoria Terminus, headquarters of the Central Railway, is a UNESCO World Heritage Site The Mumbai Metro is an underground and elevated rapid transit system currently under construction. The Mumbai Monorail will run from Jacob Circle to Wadala when it is completed. Mumbai is well connected to most parts of India by the Indian Railways. Trains originate from Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus, Dadar, Lokmanya Tilak Terminus, Mumbai Central, Bandra terminus and Andheri. Mumbai's suburban rail systems carry a total of 6.3 million passengers every day. Public buses run by BEST cover almost all parts of the metropolis, as well as parts of Navi Mumbai and Thane. Buses are used for commuting short to medium distances, while train fares are more economical for long distance commutes. The BEST runs a total of 3,408 buses, ferrying 4.5 million passengers daily over 340 routes. Its fleet consists of single-decker, double-decker, vestibule, low-floor, disabled-friendly, air-conditioned and the Euro III compliant Compressed Natural Gas powered buses. MSRTC buses provide intercity transport and connect Mumbai with other major cities of Maharashtra and India. The Mumbai Darshan is a tourist bus service which explores numerous tourist attractions in Mumbai. BRTS lanes have been planned throughout Mumbai, with buses running on seven routes as of March 2009. Chhatrapati Shivaji International Airport is South Asia's busiest airport. Travel Biz Monitor:: Mumbai airport gets ready for new innings Mumbai's Chhatrapati Shivaji International Airport is the main aviation hub in the city and the busiest airport in South Asia. The Juhu aerodrome was India's first airport, and now hosts a flying club and a heliport. The proposed Navi Mumbai International Airport which is to be built in the Kopra-Panvel area, has been sanctioned by the Government and would help relieve the increasing traffic burden on the existing airport. With its unique topography, Mumbai has one of the best natural harbours in the world, handling 50% of the country's passenger traffic, and much of India's cargo. It is also an important base for the Indian Navy, and the headquarters of the Western Naval Command is located here. Ferries from Ferry Wharf allow access to islands and beaches in the area. Utility services The BMC supplies potable water to the city, most of which comes from the Tulsi and Vihar lakes, as well as a few lakes further north. The water is filtered at Bhandup, which is Asia's largest water filtration plant. Even India's first underground water tunnel is being built in Mumbai. The BMC is also responsible for the road maintenance and garbage collection in the city. Almost all of Mumbai's daily refuse of 7,800 metric tonnes is transported to dumping grounds in Gorai in the northwest, Mulund in the northeast, and Deonar in the east. Sewage treatment is carried out at Worli and Bandra, and disposed off by two independent marine outfalls of and at Bandra and Worli respectively. Electricity is distributed by Brihanmumbai Electric Supply and Transport (BEST) in the island city, a consumption of 3,216 GWh. and by Reliance Energy, Tata Power, and Mahavitaran (Maharashtra State Electricity Distribution Co. Ltd) in the suburbs. Most of the city's electricity is hydroelectric and nuclear based. Consumption of electricity is growing faster than production capacity. The largest telephone service provider is the state-owned MTNL, which held a monopoly over fixed line and cellular services up until 2000, and provides fixed line as well as mobile WLL services. Cell phone coverage is extensive, and the main service providers are Vodafone Essar, Airtel, MTNL, BPL group, Reliance Communications, Idea Cellular and Tata Indicom. Both GSM and CDMA services are available in the city. MTNL and Airtel also provide broadband internet service. Demographics According to the 2001 census, the population of Mumbai was 11,914,398, According to extrapolations carried out by the World Gazetteer in 2008, Mumbai has a population of 13,662,885 and the Mumbai Metropolitan Area has a population of 20,870,764. The population density is estimated to be about 22,000 persons per square kilometre. Per 2001 census, Greater Mumbai, the area under the administration of BMC, has literacy rate of 77.45%, higher than the national average of 64.8%. The sex ratio was 774 (females per 1,000 males) in the island city, 826 in the suburbs, and 811 as a whole in the Greater Mumbai, all numbers lower than the national average of 933 females per 1,000 males. Since the 1970s, Mumbai has witnessed a construction boom and a significant influx of migrants, making it India's largest city. The religions represented in Mumbai include Hindus (67.39%), Muslims (18.56%), Buddhists (5.22%), Jains (3.99%) and Christians (3.72%), with Sikhs and Parsis making up the rest of the population. The linguistic/ethnic demographics are: Maharashtrians (53%), Gujaratis (22%), North Indians (17%), Tamils (3%), Sindhis (3%), Tuluvas/Kannadigas (2%) and others. This unique mix of cultures is due to the migration of people from all over India since the 1600s. Christians form a sizable section of Mumbai's society and include Marathi-speaking East Indian Catholics who were converted by the Portuguese. East Indians (the indigenous Catholic inhabitants of Bombay, Salsette and Bassein)(PDF, 80 KB) (This article written by East Indians.com, has been borrowed mainly from Elsie Wilhelmina Baptista's book The East Indians: Catholic Community of Bombay, Salsette and Bassein published by the ″Bombay East Indian Association″ in the year 1967) Mumbai has a large polyglot population like any other metropolitan city of India. Marathi, the official language of Maharashtra state, is widely spoken. Other languages spoken are Hindi, Gujarati, and English. A colloquial form of Hindi, known as Bambaiya—a blend of Marathi, Hindi, Indian English and some invented words—is spoken on the streets. English is extensively spoken and is the principal language of the city's white collar workforce. Mumbai suffers from the same major urbanisation problems seen in many fast growing cities in developing countries: widespread poverty and unemployment, poor public health and poor civic and educational standards for a large section of the population. With available space at a premium, Mumbai residents often reside in cramped, relatively expensive housing, usually far from workplaces, and therefore requiring long commutes on crowded mass transit, or clogged roadways. According to the 2001 census, 54.1% of Mumbai's population lives in slums. Dharavi, Asia's second largest slum is located in central Mumbai and houses 800,000 people. Mike Davis, Planet of Slums [« Le pire des mondes possibles : de l'explosion urbaine au bidonville global »], La Découverte, Paris, 2006 (ISBN 978-2-7071-4915-2), p. 31. Slums are also a growing tourist attraction in Mumbai. The number of migrants to Mumbai from outside Maharashtra during the 1991–2001 decade was 1.12 million, which amounted to 54.8% of the net addition to the population of Mumbai. In 2007, the crime rate (crimes booked under Indian Penal Code) in Mumbai was 186.2 per 1,00,000 population, which was slightly higher than the national average of 175.1, but much lower than the average crime rate of 312.3 in cities with more than one million population in the country. The city's main jail is the Arthur Road Jail. People and culture Residents of Mumbai call themselves Mumbaikar, Mumbaiite or Bombayite. Many residents live in close proximity to either of the Mumbai's transport systems: train or bus, although Mumbai's suburban residents spend significant time travelling to the main commercial district located in the south. Some of the unique delicacies here include Dhansak, Khichri, Bombli Batata Bhaji, Kamag Kakri, Solachi Kadhi, Min Vela Curry and Curried Bombay Duck. Local fast food available at roadside eateries includes Vada pav, Panipuri, Pav Bhaji, and Bhelpuri. The city is dotted with several small restaurants that serve South Indian, Punjabi and Chinese dishes. Mumbai is the birthplace of Indian cinema—Dadasaheb Phalke laid the foundations with silent movies followed by Marathi talkies—and the oldest film broadcast here in the early 20th century. Mumbai also has a large number of cinema halls that feature Bollywood, Marathi and Hollywood movies. The world's largest IMAX dome theater is in the Wadala neighbourhood. The Mumbai International Film Festival and the award ceremony of the Filmfare Awards, the oldest and prominent film awards given for Hindi film industry in India, are held in Mumbai. Despite most of the professional theater groups that formed during the British Raj having disbanded by the 1950s, Mumbai has developed a thriving "theater movement" tradition in Marathi, Hindi, English and other regional languages. Contemporary art is well-represented in both government-funded art spaces and private commercial galleries. The government-funded art galleries include The Jehangir Art Gallery and The National Gallery of Modern Art. Built in 1833, the Asiatic Society of Bombay is the oldest public library in the city. The Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Vastu Sangrahalaya (formerly The Prince of Wales Museum) is a renowned museum in South Mumbai which houses rare ancient exhibits of Indian history. Mumbai has a zoo named Jijamata Udyaan, which also harbours a garden. Ganesh Chaturthi, a popular festival in Mumbai Mumbai has two UNESCO World Heritage Sites, the Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus and the Elephanta Caves. Popular tourist attractions in the city are Nariman Point, Girgaum Chowpatti, Juhu Beach, and Marine Drive. Essel World is an theme park and amusement centre situated close to Gorai Beach. Asia's largest theme water park, Water Kingdom, is within. Mumbai residents celebrate both Western and Indian festivals. Diwali, Holi, Eid, Christmas, Navratri, Good Friday, Dussera, Moharram, Ganesh Chaturthi, Durga Puja and Maha Shivratri are some of the popular festivals in the city. The Kala Ghoda Arts Festival is an exhibition of a world of arts that encapsulates works of artists in the fields of music, dance, theater, and films. A week long fair known as Bandra Fair is celebrated by people of all faiths. The Banganga Festival is a two-day music festival, held annually in the month of January, which is organised by the Maharashtra Tourism Development Corporation (MTDC) at the historic Banganga Tank in Mumbai. The Elephanta Festival which is celebrated every February on the Elephanta Islands, is dedicated to classical Indian dance and music with artists from across the country arriving on the island. Mumbai has sister city agreements with the following cities: Yokohama, Japan. Los Angeles, United States. London, United Kingdom. Berlin, Germany. Stuttgart, Germany. Saint Petersburg, Russia. Media Bollywood is based in Mumbai Mumbai has numerous newspaper publications, television and radio stations. Popular English language newspapers published and sold in Mumbai include the Times of India, Mid-day, Hindustan Times, DNA, and Indian Express. Marathi newspapers include Loksatta, Lokmat and Maharashtra Times. Newspapers are also printed in other Indian languages. Mumbai is home to Asia's oldest newspaper, Bombay Samachar, which has been published in Gujarati since 1822. Bombay Durpan—the first Marathi newspaper—was started by Balshastri Jambhekar in Mumbai in 1832. Numerous Indian and international television channels can be watched in Mumbai through one of the Pay TV companies or the local cable television provider. The metropolis is also the hub of many international media corporations, with many news channels and print publications having a major presence. The national television broadcaster, Doordarshan, provides two free terrestrial channels, while three main cable networks serve most households. ESPN, Star Sports, Zee Marathi, ETV Marathi, DD Sahyadri, Mee Marathi, Zee Talkies, Zee TV, STAR Plus and news channels like Star Majha are popular. News channels entirely dedicated to Mumbai and Maharashtra include Star Majha, Zee 24 Taas, and Sahara Samay Mumbai. Satellite television (DTH) has yet to gain mass acceptance, due to high installation costs. Prominent DTH entertainment services in Mumbai include Dish TV and Tata Sky. There are twelve radio stations in Mumbai, with nine broadcasting on the FM band, and three All India Radio stations broadcasting on the AM band. Mumbai also has access to Commercial radio providers like WorldSpace, Sirius and XM. The Conditional Access System (CAS) started by the Union Government in 2006 met a poor response in Mumbai due to the arduous competition from its sister technology Direct-to-Home (DTH) transmission service. Bollywood, the Hindi film industry based in Mumbai, produces around 150–200 films every year. The name Bollywood is a portmanteau of Bombay and Hollywood. The 2000s saw a growth in Bollywood's popularity overseas. This led filmmaking to new heights in terms of quality, cinematography and innovative story lines as well as technical advances such as special effects and animation. Studios in Goregaon, including Film City, are the location for most movie sets. The Marathi film industry is also based in Mumbai. Education Schools in Mumbai are either "municipal schools" (run by the BMC) or private schools (run by trusts or individuals), which in some cases receive financial aid from the government. The schools are affiliated either with the Maharashtra State Board (MSBSHSE), the all-India Council for the Indian School Certificate Examinations (CISCE) or the Central Board for Secondary Education (CBSE) boards. Marathi or English is the usual language of instruction. The government run public schools lack many facilities, but are the only option for poorer residents who cannot afford the more expensive private schools. Under the 10+2+3/4 plan, students complete ten years of schooling, and then enroll for two years in Junior College, where they select one of three streams: arts, commerce, or science. This is followed by either a general degree course in a chosen field of study, or a professional degree course, such as law, engineering and medicine. Most colleges in the city are affiliated with the University of Mumbai, one of the largest universities in the world in terms of the number of graduates. The Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay, Veermata Jijabai Technological Institute and University Institute of Chemical Technology, which are India's premier engineering and technology schools, and SNDT Women's University are the other universities in Mumbai. Mumbai is also home to Jamnalal Bajaj Institute of Management Studies (JBIMS), K. J. Somaiya Institute of Management Studies and Research (SIMSR), S P Jain Institute of Management and Research and several other management schools. Government Law College and Sydenham College, respectively the oldest law and commerce colleges in India, are based in Mumbai. The Sir J. J. School of Art is Mumbai's oldest art institution. Mumbai is home to two prominent research institutions: the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR), and the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC). The BARC operates CIRUS, a 40 MW nuclear research reactor at their facility in Trombay. Sports Cricket is the most popular sport in the city (and the country). Due to a shortage of grounds, various modified versions (generically referred to as galli cricket) are played everywhere. Mumbai is home to the Board of Control for Cricket in India (BCCI). The Mumbai cricket team represents the city in the Ranji Trophy and has won the most titles. The city is also represented by the Mumbai Indians in the Indian Premier League and by the Mumbai Champs in the Indian Cricket League. The city has two international cricket grounds, the Wankhede Stadium and the Brabourne Stadium. The Wankhede Stadium is currently undergoing expansion and renovation in preparation for the final of 2011 Cricket World Cup. Eminent cricketers from Mumbai include Sachin Tendulkar and Sunil Gavaskar. Football (soccer) is one of the other popular sports in the city, with the FIFA World Cup being one of the widely watched television events in Mumbai. In the I-League, Mumbai is represented by three teams, Mumbai FC, Mahindra United and Air-India. Field hockey has declined in popularity, due to the rise of cricket. Mumbai is home to the Maratha Warriors, one of the few teams from Maharashtra competing for the Premier Hockey League (PHL). Every February, Mumbai holds derby races at the Mahalaxmi Racecourse. Mcdowell's Derby is held in February at the Turf club in Mumbai. Interest in Formula 1 racing has been rising in recent years, and in 2008, the Force India F1 team car was unveiled in Mumbai. In March 2004, the Mumbai Grand Prix was part of the F1 powerboat world championship. In 2004, the annual Mumbai Marathon was established in a bid to bring the sports discipline to the Indian public. Since 2006, Mumbai has also played host to the Kingfisher Airlines Tennis Open, an International Series tournament of the ATP World Tour. Citations References Further reading Agarwal, Jagdish; Bombay — Mumbai: A Picture Book (1998) — Wilco Publishing House, ISBN 81-87288-35-3. Chaudhari, K.K; History of Bombay (1987) — Modern Period Gazetteers Dept., Govt. of Maharashtra. Contractor, Behram; From Bombay to Mumbai (1998) — Oriana Books. Dwivedi, Sharada & Mehrotra, Rahul; Bombay, The Cities Within (1995) — India Book House Pvt. Ltd. ISBN 81-85028-80-X. Fox, Edmund A; Short History of Bombay Presidency (1887) — Thacker & Co — No ISBN. Imperial Gazetteer of India: vol. vii, Behrampore to Bombay. Oxford at the Clarendon Press. 1908. 421 pages. Katiyar, Arun & Bhojani, Namas; Bombay, A Contemporary Account (1996) — Harper Collins ISBN 81-7223-216-0. MacLean, James Mackenzie; A Guide to Bombay (1875 & 1902) — Various editions; No ISBN. Mappls — Satellite based comprehensive maps of Mumbai (1999) — CE Info Systems Ltd. ISBN 81-901108-0-2. Our Greater Bombay (1990) — Maharashtra State Bureau of Textbook Production and Curriculum Research. Mehta, Suketu ; Maximum City: Bombay Lost and Found (2004) — Knopf ISBN 0-375-40372-8. Patel, Sujata & Thorner, Alice; Bombay, Metaphor for Modern India (1995) — Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-563688-0. The Oxford School Atlas; 28th Revised Edition (1991) — Oxford University Press ISBN 0-19-563316-4. Tindall, Gillian; City of Gold (1992) — Penguin, ISBN 0-14-009500-4, Virani, Pinki; Once was Bombay (1999) — Viking, ISBN 0-670-88869-9. Sharada Dwivedi,Goddess Island Indian Express, June 6, 2005. External links Official site of the Municipal Corporation of Greater Mumbai Official City Report be-x-old:Мумбаі | Mumbai |@lemmatized mumbai:144 marathi:20 म:1 बई:1 ipa:1 formerly:4 bombay:62 capital:11 indian:31 state:30 maharashtra:23 along:2 neighbour:2 suburb:7 navi:5 thane:8 form:12 world:16 large:20 urban:1 agglomeration:1 around:2 million:5 people:11 lie:3 west:1 coast:4 india:51 deep:1 natural:4 harbour:3 port:4 handle:2 half:1 maritime:2 cargo:2 third:2 century:15 bce:3 maurya:2 empire:3 transform:1 seven:9 island:28 centre:7 hindu:4 buddhist:3 culture:4 come:5 control:3 successive:2 indigenous:2 cede:2 portuguese:17 settler:2 subsequently:3 british:6 east:9 company:7 merge:2 city:75 name:13 mid:3 emerge:1 significant:3 trading:2 town:2 economic:3 educational:2 development:2 characterise:1 become:5 strong:1 base:10 independence:3 movement:8 early:4 epicentre:1 rowlatt:1 satyagraha:1 royal:3 navy:3 mutiny:2 independent:3 incorporate:1 follow:5 samyukta:3 new:3 create:1 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5,369 | Aphasia | Dysphasia () is a language disorder in which there is an impairment (but not loss) of speech and of comprehension of speech. The term dysphasia has been eclipsed by the modern usage of the term aphasia particularly in the field of speech and language pathology so as not to confuse with the swallowing disorder dysphagia. Depending on the area and extent of the damage, someone suffering from aphasia may be able to speak but not write, or vice versa, or display any of a wide variety of other deficiencies in language comprehension and production, such as being able to sing but not speak. Aphasia may co-occur with speech disorders such as dysarthria or apraxia of speech, which also result from brain damage. Aphasia can be assessed in a variety of ways, from quick clinical screening at the bedside to several-hour-long batteries of tasks that examine the key components of language and communication. The prognosis of those with aphasia varies widely, and is dependent upon age of the patient, site and size of lesion, and type of aphasia. Causes Aphasia usually results from lesions to the language centres of the brain, such as Broca's area. These areas are almost always located in the left hemisphere, and in most people this is where the ability to produce and comprehend language is found. However, in a very small number of people, language ability is found in the right hemisphere. In either case, damage to these language areas can be caused by a stroke, traumatic brain injury, or other brain injury. Aphasia may also develop slowly, as in the case of a brain tumor or progressive neurological disease, e.g., Alzheimer's or Parkinson's disease. It may also be caused by a sudden hemorrhagic event within the brain. Certain chronic neurological disorders, such as epilepsy or migraine, can also include transient aphasia as a prodromal or episodic symptom. Aphasia is also listed as a rare side effect of the fentanyl patch, an opioid used to control chronic pain. http://www.drugs.com/pro/fentanyl-transdermal.html#A02A9CB6-35CF-4F01-A980-C3733E0F861A Symptoms Any of the following may be considered symptoms of aphasia: inability to comprehend language inability to pronounce, not due to muscle paralysis or weakness inability to speak spontaneously inability to form words inability to name objects poor enunciation excessive creation and use of personal neologisms inability to repeat a phrase persistent repetition of phrases paraphasia (substituting letters, syllables or words) agrammatism (inability to speak in a grammatically correct fashion) dysprosody (alterations in inflexion, stress, and rhythm) incompleted sentences inability to read inability to write Types The following table summarizes some major characteristics of different types of aphasia: Type of aphasia Repetition Naming Auditory comprehension Fluency Presentation Wernicke's aphasia mild–mod mild–severe defective fluent paraphasic Individuals with Wernicke's aphasia may speak in long sentences that have no meaning, add unnecessary words, and even create new "words" (neologisms). For example, someone with Wernicke's aphasia may say, "You know that smoodle pinkered and that I want to get him round and take care of him like you want before", meaning "The dog needs to go out so I will take him for a walk". They have poor auditory and reading comprehension, and fluent, but nonsensical, oral and written expression. Individuals with Wernicke's aphasia usually have great difficulty understanding the speech of both themselves and others and are therefore often unaware of their mistakes. They are also often unaware of their surroundings, and may present a risk to themselves and others around them. Transcortical sensory aphasia good mod–severe poor fluent Similar deficits as in Wernicke's aphasia, but repetition ability remains intact. Conduction aphasia poor poor relatively good fluent Conduction aphasia is caused by deficits in the connections between the speech-comprehension and speech-production areas. This might be damage to the arcuate fasciculus, the structure that transmits information between Wernicke's area and Broca's area. Similar symptoms, however, can be present after damage to the insula or to the auditory cortex. Auditory comprehension is near normal, and oral expression is fluent with occasional paraphasic errors. Repetition ability is poor. Nominal aphasia mild mod–severe mild fluent Anomic aphasia, is essentially a difficulty with naming. The patient may have difficulties naming certain words, linked by their grammatical type (e.g. difficulty naming verbs and not nouns) or by their semantic category (e.g. difficulty naming words relating to photography but nothing else) or a more general naming difficulty. Patients tend to produce grammatic, yet empty, speech. Auditory comprehension tends to be preserved. Broca's aphasia mod–severe mod–severe mild difficulty non-fluent, effortful, slow Individuals with Broca's aphasia frequently speak short, meaningful phrases that are produced with great effort. Broca's aphasia is thus characterized as a nonfluent aphasia. Affected people often omit small words such as "is", "and", and "the". For example, a person with Broca's aphasia may say, "Walk dog" meaning, "I will take the dog for a walk". The same sentence could also mean "You take the dog for a walk", or "The dog walked out of the yard", depending on the circumstances. Individuals with Broca's aphasia are able to understand the speech of others to varying degrees. Because of this, they are often aware of their difficulties and can become easily frustrated by their speaking problems. It is associated with right hemiparesis, meaning that there can be paralysis of the patient's right face and arm. Transcortical motor aphasia good mild–severe mild non-fluent Similar deficits as Broca's aphasia, except repetition ability remains intact. Auditory comprehension is generally fine for simple conversations, but declines rapidly for more complex conversations. It is associated with right hemiparesis, meaning that there can be paralysis of the patient's right face and arm. Global aphasia poor poor poor non-fluent Individuals with global aphasia have severe communication difficulties and will be extremely limited in their ability to speak or comprehend language. They may be totally nonverbal, and/or only use facial expressions and gestures to communicate. It is associated with right hemiparesis, meaning that there can be paralysis of the patient's right face and arm. Transcortical mixed aphasia moderate poor poor non-fluent Similar deficits as in global aphasia, but repetition ability remains intact. Subcortical aphasias Characteristics and symptoms depend upon the site and size of subcortical lesion. Possible sites of lesions include the thalamus, internal capsule, and basal ganglia. Acquired childhood aphasia Acquired childhood aphasia (ACA) is a language impairment resulting from some kind of brain damage. This brain damage can have different causes, such as head trauma, tumors, cerebrovascular accidents, or seizure disorders. Most, but not all authors state that ACA is preceded by a period of normal language development. B.E. Murdoch: Acquired Neurological Speech/Language Disorders in Childhood: Language Disorders in Childhood (1990) Age of onset is usually defined as from infancy until but not including adolescence. ACA should be distinguished from developmental aphasia or developmental dysphasia, which is a primary delay or failure in language acquisition. B.T. Woods: Acquired Childhood Aphasia, in: H.S. Kirshner: Handbook of neurological speech and language disorders (1994). An important difference between ACA and developmental childhood aphasia is that in the latter there is no apparent neurological basis for the language deficit. P.F. Paquier & H.R. van Dongen: Is Acquired Childhood Aphasia Atypical? In: P. Coppens et al.: Aphasia in Atypical Populations (1998) ACA is one of the more rare language problems in children and is notable because of its contribution to theories on language and the brain. Because there are so few children with ACA, not much is known about what types of linguistic problems these children have. However, many authors report a marked decrease in the use of all expressive language. Children can just stop talking for a period of weeks or even years, and when they start to talk again, they need a lot of encouragement. Problems with language comprehension are less common in ACA, and don't last as long. D.P: Cantwell: Developmental Speech and Language Disorders (1987) Classification Classifying the different subtypes of aphasia is difficult and has led to disagreements among experts. The localizationist model is the original model, but modern anatomical techniques and analyses have shown that precise connections between brain regions and symptom classification don't exist. The neural organization of language is complicated; language is a comprehensive and complex behavior and it makes sense that it isn't the product of some small, circumscribed region of the brain. No classification of patients in subtypes and groups of subtypes is adequate. Only about 60% of patients will fit in a classification scheme such as fluent/nonfluent/pure aphasias. There is a huge variation among patients with the same diagnosis, and aphasias can be highly selective. For instance, patients with naming deficits (anomic aphasia) might show an inability only for naming buildings, or people, or colors. Kolb & Whishaw: Fundamentals of Human Neuropsychology (2003), page 502, 505, 511. Localizationist model Cortex The localizationist model attempts to classify the aphasia by major characteristics and then link these to areas of the brain in which the damage has been caused. The initial two categories here were devised by early neurologists working in the field, namely Paul Broca and Carl Wernicke. Other researchers have added to the model, resulting in it often being referred to as the "Boston-Neoclassical Model". The most prominent writers on this topic have been Harold Goodglass and Edith Kaplan. Individuals with Broca's aphasia (also termed expressive aphasia) were once thought to have ventral temporal damage, though more recent work by Nina Dronkers using imaging and 'lesion analysis' has revealed that patients with Broca's aphasia have lesions to the medial insular cortex. Broca missed these lesions because his studies did not dissect the brains of diseased patients, so only the more temporal damage was visible. Individuals with Broca's aphasia often have right-sided weakness or paralysis of the arm and leg, because the frontal lobe is also important for body movement. In contrast to Broca's aphasia, damage to the temporal lobe may result in a fluent aphasia that is called Wernicke's aphasia (also termed sensory aphasia). These individuals usually have no body weakness, because their brain injury is not near the parts of the brain that control movement. Working from Wernicke's model of aphasia, Ludwig Lichtheim proposed five other types of aphasia, but these were not tested against real patients until modern imaging made more indepth studies available. The other five types of aphasia in the localizationist model are: Pure word deafness Conduction aphasia Apraxia of speech, which is now considered a separate disorder in itself. Transcortical motor aphasia Transcortical sensory aphasia Anomia is another type of aphasia proposed under what is commonly known as the Boston-Neoclassical model, which is essentially a difficulty with naming. A final type of aphasia, global aphasia, results from damage to extensive portions of the language areas of the brain. Fluent, non-fluent and "pure" aphasias The different types of aphasia can be divided into three categories: fluent, non-fluent and "pure" aphasias. Kolb & Whishaw: Fundamentals of Human Neuropsychology (2003), pages 502-504. The whole paragraph "fluent, non-fluent and pure aphasias" is written with help of this reference. Fluent aphasias, also called receptive aphasias, are impairments related mostly to the input or reception of language, with difficulties either in auditory verbal comprehension or in the repetition of words, phrases, or sentences spoken by others. Speech is easy and fluent, but there are difficulties related to the output of language as well, such as paraphasia. Examples of fluent aphasias are: Wernicke's aphasia, Transcortical sensory aphasia, Conduction aphasia, Anomic aphasia Nonfluent aphasias, also called expressive aphasias are difficulties in articulating, but in most cases there is relatively good auditory verbal comprehension. Examples of nonfluent aphasias are: Broca's aphasia, Transcortical motor aphasia, Global aphasia "Pure" aphasias are selective impairments in reading, writing, or the recognition of words. These disorders may be quite selective. For example, a person is able to read but not write, or is able to write but not read. Examples of pure aphasias are: Alexia, Agraphia, Pure word deafness Cognitive neuropsychological model The cognitive neuropsychological model builds on cognitive neuropsychology. It assumes that language processing can be broken down into a number of modules, each of which has a specific function. Hence there is a module which recognises phonemes as they are spoken and a module which stores formulated phonemes before they are spoken. Use of this model clinically involves conducting a battery of assessments (usually from the PALPA), each of which tests one or a number of these modules. Once a diagnosis is reached as to where the impairment lies, therapy can proceed to treat the individual module. A few less common subtypes include: Subcortical motor aphasia Subcortical sensory aphasia Mixed transcortical aphasia Acquired epileptiform aphasia (Landau Kleffner Syndrome) A combination of subtypes is possible. Primary and secondary aphasia Aphasia can be divided into primary and secondary aphasia. http://christofflab.psych.ubc.ca/psych260/docs/L12-Language.pdf Primary aphasia is due to problems with language-processing mechanisms. Secondary aphasia is the result of other problems, like memory impairments, attention disorders, or perceptual problems. History The first recorded case of aphasia is from an Egyptian papyrus, the Edwin Smith Papyrus, which details speech problems in a person with a traumatic brain injury to the temporal lobe. Paul R. McCrory and Samuel F. Berkovic (2001). Concussion: The history of clinical and pathophysiological concepts and misconceptions. Neurology, 57(12): 2283-2289. PMID 11756611. Famous sufferers Maurice Ravel Vissarion Shebalin Jan Berry of Jan and Dean Sven Nykvist Ralph Waldo Emerson Richardson, Robert D. Jr. Emerson: The Mind on Fire. Berkeley, California: University of California Press, 1995: 569. ISBN 0-520-08808-5. Robert E. Lee Joseph Chaikin Antony Flew Bob Woodruff Kevin Ryder of The Kevin and Bean Show Toggle (Doonesbury character), Iraq war veteran injured by IED See also Aphasiology Speech disorder Dysnomia disorder Aprosodia Dysprosody Sources Handbooks Primary Progressive Aphasia (PPA) Handbook (Northwestern University) Handbook of Speech-Language, Pathology, and Audiology Reference manual for communicative sciences and disorders: speech and language Bibliographic Databases MLA International Bibliography Linguistics Abstracts Online Linguistics and Language Behavior Abstracts Encyclopedia of the Human Brain PsycINFO Specialized Bibliographies MD Consult Psychology and Behavioral Sciences Collection Health Reference Complete (Academic) Academic references R. Chapey (Ed.) (2001). Language Intervention Strategies in Aphasia and Related Neurogenic Communication Disorders (Fourth Edition). Philadelphia: Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins. Goodglass, H. & Kaplan, E. (1972). Assessment of Aphasia and Related Disorders. Philadelphia: Lea and Febinger. Kay, J., Lesser, R., & Coltheart, M. (1992). Psycholinguistic Assessments of Language Processing in Aphasia (PALPA). Hove: Erlbaum. Spreen, O. & Risser, A.H. (2003). Assessment of Aphasia. New York: Oxford University Press. Tesak, Jürgen. Milestones in the history of aphasia: theories and protagonists. Hove, New York. Psychology Press: 2008. LaPointe, Leonard L. Aphasia and related neurogenic language disorders. New York: Thieme: 2005 Duchan, Judith Felson. Byng, Sally. Challenging Aphasia Therapies: Broadening the Discourse and Extending the Boundaries. Hove, New York. Psychology Press: 2004. Papathanasiou, Ilias. De Bleser, Ria. The sciences of aphasia : from therapy to theory. Amsterdam/Boston. Pergamon: 2003 Personal experiences of aphasia Hale, S (2003), The Man Who Lost His Language, Penguin. Paul E. Berger and Stephanie Mensh, How to Conquer the World With One Hand...And an Attitude, 2nd Ed., ISBN 0-9668378-7-8 Cindy Greatrex (2005) Aphasia in the Deaf Community. Dardick, Geeta (1991), Prisoner of Silence, Reader's Digest, June issue References External links American Speech-Language-Hearing Association Description of aphasia and the role of the speech-language pathologist in assessment and treatment. University of Michigan Aphasia Program in Ann Arbor, MI, U.S. Aphasia Center of California in Oakland, CA, U.S. Aphasia Center of West Texas in Midland, TX, U.S. The Aphasia Institute Pat Arato Aphasia Center Aphasia Centre of Ottawa Ottawa, Canada NIDCD health information: Aphasia (public domain source) "In So Many Words" Radio documentary broadcast on the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation's "The Sunday Edition" program on Sunday, December 15, 2002 "Picturing Aphasia" Documentary film about aphasia that uses drawings to help bridge the gap between hearing, seeing, and comprehending. Directed by Mores McWreath. Description of four types of aphasia: auditory, afferent, efferent, and semantic at University of Washington National Aphasia Association (U.S.) Aphasia Project: Research into assistive devices for people with aphasia (Princeton University) UK Based advice on aphasia and a forum for aphasics Linguish - a play about aphasia British Aphasiology Society Eleanor M. 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5,370 | Fundamental_group | In mathematics, more specifically algebraic topology, the fundamental group or Poincaré group is a group associated to any given pointed topological space that provides a way of determining when two paths, starting and ending at a fixed base point, can be continuously deformed into each other. Intuitively, it records information about the basic shape, or holes, of the topological space. The fundamental group is the first and simplest of the homotopy groups. Fundamental groups can be studied using the theory of covering spaces, since a fundamental group coincides with the group of deck transformations of the associated universal covering space. Its abelianisation can be identified with the first homology group of the space. When the topological space is homeomorphic to a simplicial complex, its fundamental group can be described explicitly in terms of generators and relations. Historically, the concept of fundamental group first emerged in the theory of Riemann surfaces, in the work of Bernhard Riemann, Henri Poincaré and Felix Klein, where it describes the monodromy properties of complex functions, as well as providing a complete topological classification of closed surfaces. Intuition and definition Before giving a precise definition of the fundamental group, we try to describe the general idea in non-mathematical terms. Take some space, and some point in it, and consider all the loops both starting and ending at this point — paths which start at this point, wander around as much as they like and eventually return to the starting point. Two loops can be combined together in an obvious way: travel along the first loop, then along the second. The set of all the loops with this method of combining them is the fundamental group, except that for technical reasons it is necessary to consider two loops to be the same if one can be deformed into the other without breaking. For the precise definition, let X be a topological space, and let x0 be a point of X. We are interested in the set of continuous functions f : [0,1] → X with the property that f(0) = x0 = f(1). These functions are called loops with base point x0. Any two such loops, say f and g, are considered equivalent if there is a continuous function h : [0,1] × [0,1] → X with the property that, for all 0 ≤ t ≤ 1, h(t,0) = f(t), h(t,1) = g(t) and h(0,t) = x0 = h(1,t). Such an h is called a homotopy from f to g, and the corresponding equivalence classes are called homotopy classes. The product f ∗ g of two loops f and g is defined by setting (f ∗ g)(t) := f(2t) if 0 ≤ t ≤ 1/2 and (f ∗ g)(t) := g(2t − 1) if 1/2 ≤ t ≤ 1. Thus the loop f ∗ g first follows the loop f with "twice the speed" and then follows g with twice the speed. The product of two homotopy classes of loops [f] and [g] is then defined as [f ∗ g], and it can be shown that this product does not depend on the choice of representatives. With the above product, the set of all homotopy classes of loops with base point x0 forms the fundamental group of X at the point x0 and is denoted or simply π(X,x0). The identity element is the constant map at the basepoint, and the inverse of a loop f is the loop g defined by g(t) = f(1 − t). That is, g follows f backwards. Although the fundamental group in general depends on the choice of base point, it turns out that, up to isomorphism, this choice makes no difference so long as the space X is path-connected. For path-connected spaces, therefore, we can write π1(X) instead of π1(X,x0) without ambiguity whenever we care about the isomorphism class only. Examples In many spaces, such as Rn, or any convex subset of Rn, there is only one homotopy class of loops, and the fundamental group is therefore trivial, i.e. ({0},+). A path-connected space with a trivial fundamental group is said to be simply connected. A more interesting example is provided by the circle. It turns out that each homotopy class consists of all loops which wind around the circle a given number of times (which can be positive or negative, depending on the direction of winding). The product of a loop which winds around m times and another that winds around n times is a loop which winds around m + n times. So the fundamental group of the circle is isomorphic to , the additive group of integers. This fact can be used to give proofs of the Brouwer fixed point theorem and the Borsuk–Ulam theorem in dimension 2. Since the fundamental group is a homotopy invariant, the theory of the winding number for the complex plane minus one point is the same as for the circle. Unlike the homology groups and higher homotopy groups associated to a topological space, the fundamental group need not be abelian. For example, the fundamental group of the figure eight is the free group on two letters. More generally, the fundamental group of any graph G is a free group. Here the rank of the free group is equal to 1 − χ(G): one minus the Euler characteristic of G, when G is connected. A somewhat more sophisticated example of a space with a non-abelian fundamental group is the complement of a trefoil knot in R3. Functoriality If f : X → Y is a continuous map, x0∈X and y0∈Y with f(x0) = y0, then every loop in X with base point x0 can be composed with f to yield a loop in Y with base point y0. This operation is compatible with the homotopy equivalence relation and with composition of loops. The resulting group homomorphism, called the induced homomorphism, is written as π(f) or, more commonly, We thus obtain a functor from the category of topological spaces with base point to the category of groups. It turns out that this functor cannot distinguish maps which are homotopic relative the base point: if f and g : X → Y are continuous maps with f(x0) = g(x0) = y0, and f and g are homotopic relative to {x0}, then f* = g*. As a consequence, two homotopy equivalent path-connected spaces have isomorphic fundamental groups: The fundamental group functor takes products to products and coproducts to coproducts. That is, if X and Y are path connected, then and (In the latter formula, denotes the wedge sum of topological spaces, and * the free product of groups.) Both formulas generalize to arbitrary products. Furthermore the latter formula is a special case of the Seifert–van Kampen theorem which states that the fundamental group functor takes pushouts along inclusions to pushouts. Fibrations A generalization of a product of spaces is given by a fibration, Here the total space E is a sort of "twisted product" of the base space B and the fiber F. In general the fundamental groups of B, E and F are terms in a long exact sequence involving higher homotopy groups. When all the spaces are connected, this has the following consequences for the fundamental groups: π1(B) and π1(E) are isomorphic if F is simply connected πn+1(B) and πn(F) are isomorphic if E is contractible The latter is often applied to the situation E = path space of B, F = loop space of B or B = classifying space BG of a topological group G, B = universal G-bundle EG. Relationship to first homology group The fundamental groups of a topological space X are related to its first singular homology group, because a loop is also a singular 1-cycle. Mapping the homotopy class of each loop at a base point x0 to the homology class of the loop gives a homomorphism from the fundamental group π(X,x0) to the homology group H1(X). If X is path-connected, then this homomorphism is surjective and its kernel is the commutator subgroup of π(X,x0), and H1(X) is therefore isomorphic to the abelianization of π(X,x0). This is a special case of the Hurewicz theorem of algebraic topology. Universal covering space If X is a topological space that is path connected, locally path connected and locally simply connected, then it has a simply connected universal covering space on which the fundamental group π(X,x0) acts freely by deck transformations with quotient space X. This space can be constructed analogously to the fundamental group by taking pairs (x,γ), where x is a point in X and γ is a homotopy class of paths from x0 to x and the action of π(X,x0) is by concatenation of paths. It is uniquely determined as a covering space. Examples Let G be a connected, simply connected compact Lie group, for example the special unitary group SUn, and let Γ be a finite subgroup of G. Then the homogeneous space X=G/Γ has fundamental group Γ, which acts by right multiplication on the universal covering space G. Among the many variants of this construction, one of the most important is given by locally symmetric spaces X=Γ\G/K, where G is a non-compact simply connected, connected Lie group (often semisimple), K is a maximal compact subgroup of G Γ is a discrete countable torsion-free subgroup of G. In this case the fundamental group is Γ and the universal covering space G/K is actually contractible (by the Cartan decomposition for Lie groups). As an example take G=SL2(R), K=SO2 and Γ any torsion-free congruence subgroup of the modular group SL2(Z). An even simpler example is given by G=R (so that K is trivial) and Γ =Z: in this case X=R/Z =S1. From the explicit realization, it also follows that the universal covering space of a path connected topological group H is again a path connected topological group G. Moreover the covering map is a continuous open homomorphism of G onto H with kernel Γ, a closed discrete normal subgroup of G: Since G is a connected group with a continuous action by conjugation on a discrete group Γ, it must act trivially, so that Γ has to be a subgroup of the center of G. In particular π1(H) = Γ is an Abelian group; this can also easily be seen directly without using covering spaces. The group G is called the universal covering group of H. As the universal covering group suggests, there is an analogy between the fundamental group of a topological group and the center of a group; this is elaborated at Lattice of covering groups. Edge-path group of a simplicial complex If X is a connected simplicial complex, an edge-path in X is defined to be a chain of vertices connected by edges in X. Two edge-paths are said to be edge-equivalent if one can be obtained from the other by successively switching between an edge and the two opposite edges of a triangle in X. If v is a fixed vertex in X, an edge-loop at v is an edge-path starting and ending at v. The edge-path group E(X,v) is defined to be the set of edge-equivalence classes of edge-loops at v, with product and inverse defined by concatenation and reversal of edge-loops. The edge-path group is naturally isomorphic to π1(|X|,v), the fundamental group of the geometric realisation |X| of X. Since it depends only on the 2-skeleton X2 of X (i.e. the vertices, edges and triangles of X), the groups π1(|X|,v) and π1(|X2|,v) are isomorphic. The edge-path group can be described explicitly in terms of generators and relations. If T is a maximal spanning tree in the 1-skeleton of X, then E(X,v) is canonically isomorphic to the group with generators the oriented edges of X not occurring in T and relations the edge-equivalences corresponding to triangles in X containing one or more edge not in T. A similar result holds if T is replaced by any simply connected—in particular contractible—subcomplex of X. This often gives a practical way of computing fundamental groups and can be used to show that every finitely presented group arises as the fundamental group of a finite simplicial complex. It is also one of the classical methods used for topological surfaces, which are classified by their fundamental groups. The universal covering space of a finite connected simplicial complex X can also be described directly as a simplicial complex using edge-paths. Its vertices are pairs (w,γ) where w is a vertex of X and γ is an edge-equivalence class of paths from v to w. The k-simplices containing (w,γ) correspond naturally to the k-simplices containing w. Each new vertex u of the k-simplex gives an edge wu and hence, by concatenation, a new path γu from v to u. The points (w,γ) and (u, γu) are the vertices of the "transported" simplex in the universal covering space. The edge-path group acts naturally by concatenation, preserving the simplicial structure, and the quotient space is just X. It is well-known that this method can also be used to compute the fundamental group of an arbitrary topological space. This was doubtless known to Čech and Leray and explicitly appeared as a remark in a paper by ; various other authors such as L. Calabi, W-T. Wu and N. Berikashvili have also published proofs. In the simplest case of a compact space X with a finite open covering in which all non-empty finite intersections of open sets in the covering are contractible, the fundamental group can be identified with the edge-path group of the simplicial complex corresponding to the nerve of the covering. Realizability Every group can be realized as the fundamental group of a connected CW-complex of dimension 2 (or higher). As noted above, though, only free groups can occur as fundamental groups of 1-dimensional CW-complexes (that is, graphs). Every finitely presented group can be realized as the fundamental group of a compact, connected, smooth manifold of dimension 4 (or higher). But there are severe restrictions on which groups occur as fundamental groups of low-dimensional manifolds. For example, no free abelian group of rank 4 or higher can be realized as the fundamental group of a manifold of dimension 3 or less. Related concepts The fundamental group measures the 1-dimensional hole structure of a space. For studying "higher-dimensional holes", the homotopy groups are used. The elements of the n-th homotopy group of X are homotopy classes of (basepoint-preserving) maps from Sn to X. The set of loops at a particular base point can be studied without regarding homotopic loops as equivalent. This larger object is the loop space. For topological groups, a different group multiplication may be assigned to the set of loops in the space, with pointwise multiplication rather than concatenation. The resulting group is the loop group. Fundamental groupoid Rather than singling out one point and considering the loops based at that point up to homotopy, one can also consider all paths in the space up to homotopy (fixing the initial and final point). This yields not a group but a groupoid, the fundamental groupoid of the space. See also Homotopy group, generalization of fundamental group There are also similar notions of fundamental group for algebraic varieties (the étale fundamental group) and for orbifolds (the orbifold fundamental group). References Joseph J. Rotman, An Introduction to Algebraic Topology, Springer-Verlag, ISBN 0-387-96678-1 Isadore Singer and John A. Thorpe, Lecture Notes on Elementary Geometry and Topology, Springer-Verlag (1967) ISBN 0-387-90202-3 Allen Hatcher, Algebraic Topology, Cambridge University Press (2002) ISBN 0-521-79540-0 Peter Hilton and Shaun Wylie, Homology Theory, Cambridge University Press (1967) [warning: these authors use contrahomology for cohomology] Richard Maunder, Algebraic Topology, Dover (1996) ISBN 0486691314 Deane Montgomery and Leo Zippin, Topological Transformation Groups, Interscience Publishers (1955) James Munkres, Topology, Prentice Hall (2000) ISBN 0131816292 Herbert Seifert and William Threlfall, A Textbook of Topology (translated from German by Wofgang Heil), Academic Press (1980), ISBN 0126348502 Edwin Spanier, Algebraic Topology, Springer-Verlag (1966) ISBN 0-387-94426-5 André Weil, On discrete subgroups of Lie groups, Ann. of Math. 72 (1960), 369-384. External links Dylan G.L. Allegretti, Simplicial Sets and van Kampen's Theorem (An elementary discussion of the fundamental groupoid of a topological space and the fundamental groupoid of a simplicial set). Animations to introduce to the fundamental group by Nicolas Delanoue | Fundamental_group |@lemmatized mathematics:1 specifically:1 algebraic:7 topology:9 fundamental:51 group:106 poincaré:2 associate:3 give:10 point:24 topological:19 space:48 provide:3 way:3 determine:2 two:10 path:28 start:4 end:3 fixed:2 base:12 continuously:1 deform:2 intuitively:1 record:1 information:1 basic:1 shape:1 hole:3 first:7 simple:3 homotopy:20 study:3 use:9 theory:4 cover:15 since:4 coincides:1 deck:2 transformation:3 universal:11 abelianisation:1 identify:2 homology:7 homeomorphic:1 simplicial:10 complex:11 describe:5 explicitly:3 term:4 generator:3 relation:4 historically:1 concept:1 emerge:1 riemann:2 surface:3 work:1 bernhard:1 henri:1 felix:1 klein:1 monodromy:1 property:3 function:4 well:2 complete:1 classification:1 closed:2 intuition:1 definition:3 precise:2 try:1 general:3 idea:1 non:4 mathematical:1 take:5 consider:5 loop:34 wander:1 around:5 much:1 like:1 eventually:1 return:1 combine:2 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5,371 | Rage_Hard | "Rage Hard" is the fifth single by Frankie Goes to Hollywood. It was released in August 1986. Background Having topped the charts around the world with Welcome to the Pleasuredome and its accompanying singles, Frankie Goes to Hollywood took off to Amsterdam to record the follow up album, Liverpool. Taking on a rockier edge, "Rage Hard" was the first single culled from the disc. The single's title came from the Dylan Thomas poem "Do not go gentle into that good night". Of note, "Rage Hard" was a testament to the changing musical landscape in Britain at the time. It was not only the first Frankie single to be featured on CD single, it was also the first single to not feature a cassette release - new rules limited the number items that could count toward the official charts, following the earlier ZTT excesses. "Rage Hard" eventually hit Number 4 in the UK singles charts and Number 1 in Germany (for two weeks), #5 in Switzerland, #7 in the Netherlands, #12 in Austria, #19 in Sweden and #32 in France. B-sides The b-sides to "Rage Hard" were, for the most part, straight forward cover songs. Firstly there was a cover of David Bowie's 1972 glam-rock classic "Suffragette City", slightly renamed to "SufferRAGEette City" to fit in with the "Rage Hard" promotion. The second cover song was "Roadhouse Blues" by The Doors which featured on the 2nd 12". A shorter version features on the CD single. The original b-side is an odd composition entitled "(Don't Lose What's Left) Of Your Little Mind". It was released in two versions, a 4 minute mix and a 6 minute mix and featured Holly Johnson & Brian (Nasher) Nash imitating 'The Count' Vampire ("Ha ha ha/I am the count") from the Children's TV show 'Sesame Street'. This was complimented by sampled burps and belches over a backing track. Tracklisting Full Rage Hard releases(All discographical information pertains to UK releases only) 7": ZTT / ZTAS 22 United Kingdom "rage rage" "Rage Hard" (7" mix) - 5:05 "(Don't Lose What's Left) Of Your Little Mind" - 4:03 The standard release features all five coloured fists on the cover 7": ZTT / ZTAX 22 United Kingdom "Rage Hard" (dance mix) - 4:55 "(Don't Lose What's Left) Of Your Little Mind" - 4:03 The dance mix of Rage Hard was an edit of the "Broad Mix" from the 2nd 12" (sleeve featured the Blue fist) ZTAX7 came in a pop-up gatefold sleeve (with the Rage Hard fists being the pop-up) (sleeve featured the Orange fist) (ZTD22) 12": ZTT / 12 ZTAS 22 United Kingdom "Slam Bam" "Rage Hard" - 12:08 "SufferRAGEette City" (David Bowie) - 3:31 "(Don't Lose What's Left) Of Your Little Mind" - 6:15 "['always note the sequencer...']" -0:22 This mix is also known as "Young Person's Guide To The 12-inch" This 12" was also released with a 12" x 24" poster (12 ZTAQ 22) Also released on German CD (Island / 658 434) 12": ZTT / 12 ZTAX 22 United Kingdom "Rage Hard" (Broad Mix) - 8:36 "Roadhouse Blues" (the full version) - 4:03 "(Don't Lose What's Left) Of Your Little Mind" ('suffer brother') - 6:15 "['always note the sequencer...']" -0:22 (sleeve featured the Yellow fist) Note: 12ZTAX22 also came as a limited edition with a box designed to contain all the Rage Hard UK issues (box featured the Red fist) CD: ZTT / CD ZCID 22 United Kingdom "['we have begun']" - 0:07 "Rage Hard" (Broad Mix edited) - 5:08 "Rage Hard" (compacted) - 11:58 "SufferRAGEette City" - 3:31 "(Don't Lose What's Left) Of Your Little Mind" (excerpt) - 0:18 "Roadhouse Blues" (the short version) - 3:37 (sleeve featured the Purple fist) (Compacted is an combined edit of the Young Persons Guide and Broad.) 12": Island / DMD 987 United States "Rage Hard" (Freddie Bastone Vocal Remix) - 7:00 "Rage Hard" (Freddie Bastone Remix Edit) - 4:03 "Rage Hard" (Freddie Bastone Remix Dub) - 5:30 US Promo 12" | Rage_Hard |@lemmatized rage:21 hard:19 fifth:1 single:9 frankie:3 go:3 hollywood:2 release:8 august:1 background:1 top:1 chart:3 around:1 world:1 welcome:1 pleasuredome:1 accompanying:1 take:2 amsterdam:1 record:1 follow:2 album:1 liverpool:1 rockier:1 edge:1 first:3 cull:1 disc:1 title:1 come:3 dylan:1 thomas:1 poem:1 gentle:1 good:1 night:1 note:4 testament:1 change:1 musical:1 landscape:1 britain:1 time:1 feature:11 cd:5 also:5 cassette:1 new:1 rule:1 limit:1 number:3 item:1 could:1 count:3 toward:1 official:1 early:1 ztt:6 excess:1 eventually:1 hit:1 uk:3 germany:1 two:2 week:1 switzerland:1 netherlands:1 austria:1 sweden:1 france:1 b:3 side:3 part:1 straight:1 forward:1 cover:4 song:2 firstly:1 david:2 bowie:2 glam:1 rock:1 classic:1 suffragette:1 city:4 slightly:1 rename:1 sufferrageette:3 fit:1 promotion:1 second:1 roadhouse:3 blue:4 door:1 short:2 version:4 original:1 odd:1 composition:1 entitle:1 lose:6 leave:6 little:6 mind:6 minute:2 mix:9 holly:1 johnson:1 brian:1 nasher:1 nash:1 imitate:1 vampire:1 ha:3 child:1 tv:1 show:1 sesame:1 street:1 compliment:1 sampled:1 burp:1 belch:1 backing:1 track:1 tracklisting:1 full:2 discographical:1 information:1 pertains:1 ztas:2 united:6 kingdom:5 standard:1 five:1 colour:1 fist:7 ztax:2 dance:2 edit:4 broad:4 sleeve:5 pop:2 gatefold:1 orange:1 slam:1 bam:1 always:2 sequencer:2 know:1 young:2 person:2 guide:2 inch:1 x:1 poster:1 ztaq:1 german:1 island:2 suffer:1 brother:1 yellow:1 limited:1 edition:1 box:2 design:1 contain:1 issue:1 red:1 zcid:1 begin:1 compact:2 excerpt:1 purple:1 combined:1 dmd:1 state:1 freddie:3 bastone:3 vocal:1 remix:3 dub:1 u:1 promo:1 |@bigram rage_hard:19 welcome_pleasuredome:1 david_bowie:2 glam_rock:1 roadhouse_blue:3 holly_johnson:1 ha_ha:2 sesame_street:1 ztt_ztas:2 |
5,372 | Argument_from_morality | The argument from morality is one of several arguments for the existence of God. This argument comes in different forms, all aiming to demonstrate God’s existence from some observations about morality in the world. General form All forms of the moral argument begin with the premise of moral normativity, that is, that well-functioning human beings are typically aware of actions as being right and wrong. Furthermore, this awareness binds them to certain obligations, regardless of their personal goals and ends. In this sense, moral qualities have the appearance of objectivity; under this view, when someone says "I ought to do something" they do not mean the same as "I would like to do something". Another aspect of this is that an assertion such as "torturing babies for fun is wrong" is generally intended as a statement of fact and not preference see eg the Beale and Howson Debate:God and Science Prospect May 1998 Prospect website In its most general form, the moral argument is that: Some aspect of Morality (e.g., its objective force) is observed. Belief in God provides a better explanation of this feature than various alternatives. Therefore, to the extent that (1) is accepted, belief in God is preferable to these alternatives Variations What follows are some of the more common variations of the moral argument. Moral sanctions Moral norms exist and have authority beyond the socially mediated. It is, for example, perfectly coherent for someone like Wilberforce to say "slavery may be approved of by society, but it is morally wrong". If they truly have such authority, there should be a rational argument why human beings should act in accordance with moral norms, over and above the reaction of society. The existence of God, who is wholly just, observes everything relevant about human actions and can attach appropriate long-term sanctions to behavior provides such a rational argument, better than alternatives. Therefore, to the extent that (1), (2) and (3) are accepted, belief in God is more reasonable than alternative worldviews that do not offer such explanations. One may ask why the required recognition and upholding of moral norms must be carried out by divine intelligence, as opposed to human intelligence. A. E. Taylor explains that the moral law holds everywhen and everywhere, whereas the human mind is limited in its comprehension and scope. Only a sovereign God could properly detect infringements of the moral law and apply sanctions. In his Letter concerning Toleration, John Locke contends that one of the few religious stances that the commonwealth cannot tolerate is atheism, for atheists have no motive to act upon their promises and oaths when doing so is against their self-interest. Criticism The argument is formally valid but each of (1), (2) and (3) may be disputed. Some thinkers, such as Thomas Hobbes in Leviathan, suggest that moral norms are entirely socially mediated, through, for example, a social contract. Others, such as Plato's character Socrates Euthydemus and Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics suggest that true happiness lies in following moral norms, irrespective of possible divine sanctions. Transcendentality of morality Moral facts exist. Moral facts are transcendental in nature. The best explanation of there being transcendental moral facts is provided by theism. Therefore the existence of moral facts provides good grounds for thinking theism is true. Here, a transcendental fact is one that cannot be stated entirely in the language of the natural sciences, and that is true irrespective of human opinion. Theism provides the most intelligible explanation for such moral facts via the notion that rightness is one and the same property as the property of being commanded by God (wrongness consists in being forbidden by God). In order for this argument to work, it should be shown that a non-theistic worldview cannot adequately account for transcendental normative facts. Criticism Critics suggest that this argument appeals to a divine command theory of ethics. Objections to divine command theories of ethics are numerous, most stemming from forms of the Euthyphro dilemma. Is an action good because God commanded it, or did God command it because it is good? The first horn would imply that what is good is arbitrary; God decides what is right and wrong in the same way that a government decides which side of the street cars should drive on. This seems unreasonable. The second horn could imply that God made his commands in accordance with transcendental facts that exist apart from God — exactly the types of facts that the theist is asking the non-theist to provide an account for. The argument is thus turned over on its head: the theist must account for the existence of these transcendental facts without invoking God. The non-theist can thus recognize the transcendentality of moral facts and yet still reject premise (3) on the basis that a theistic hypothesis still leaves transcendental moral facts unexplained. Proponents of the argument maintain that the Euthyphro dilemma can be adequately resolved. Thomas Aquinas, for example, explains that God indeed commands something because it is good, but the reason it is good is that good is an essential part of God's nature. Friedrich Nietzsche presented examples of how he believed morality could develop without reference or need of God. Friedrich Nietzsche suggests elaborate explanations of how initially amoral social practices became artificially colored with moral significance. Some suggest that similar explanations of the phenomenon of morality are given through fields like Evolutionary dynamics. Moral order (Kant) The summum bonum (Highest Good) is where moral virtue and happiness coincide. We are rationally obliged to attain the summum bonum. What we are obliged to attain, it must be possible for us to attain. If there is no god or afterlife, it is not possible to attain the summum bonum. God (or the afterlife) must exist. Immanuel Kant developed his own version of the argument from morality. Premises (1) and (2) reflect Immanuel Kant's belief that behaving morally should lead to happiness. Premise (3) tells us that "ought implies can". It cannot be true that we ought to seek an end if there is no chance of our attaining it. Premise (4) points to the fact that the world as it appears to us is governed by morally blind causes. These causes give no hope whatsoever that pursuit of moral virtue will lead to happiness. They do not even give hope that we can become morally virtuous. Agency is beset by weaknesses that make the attainment of virtue — in the absence of external aid — seem impossible. The being postulated in (5) has omniscience and omnipotence combined with perfect goodness. Thus it will ensure that the pursuit of a virtuous state is possible through external aid (as in grace) and will promise an immortality where the moral journey can be completed. It will also ensure that in the long run happiness will result from virtue. Its existence would mean that there is a perfect moral causality at work in the world. Criticism Kant himself asserts that if the summum bonum cannot be attained, then the moral law that bids us to seek it "must be fantastic and directed to imaginary ends and must therefore in itself be false". Critics point out a certain type of circularity: Kant's argument presupposes that both the pursuit of moral virtue and the pursuit of happiness must be rational enterprises; however, this is precisely the sort of thing that may not be true in a non-theistic universe. Kant's conception of God arises as an attempt to harmonize these two conflicting goals, but critics assert that practical reason is not committed to the pursuit of two ends that apparently conflict. Notes and references External links Moral Arguments at the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy "Kant's 'Appropriation' of Lampe's God", Harvard Theological Review 85:1 (January 1992), pp.85-108; revised and reprinted as Chapter IV in Stephen Palmquist, Kant's Critical Religion (Ashgate, 2000). | Argument_from_morality |@lemmatized argument:16 morality:7 one:5 several:1 existence:6 god:23 come:1 different:1 form:5 aim:1 demonstrate:1 observation:1 world:3 general:2 moral:29 begin:1 premise:5 normativity:1 well:1 function:1 human:6 typically:1 aware:1 action:3 right:2 wrong:4 furthermore:1 awareness:1 bind:1 certain:2 obligation:1 regardless:1 personal:1 goal:2 end:4 sense:1 quality:1 appearance:1 objectivity:1 view:1 someone:2 say:2 ought:3 something:3 mean:2 would:3 like:3 another:1 aspect:2 assertion:1 torture:1 baby:1 fun:1 generally:1 intend:1 statement:1 fact:14 preference:1 see:1 eg:1 beale:1 howson:1 debate:1 science:2 prospect:2 may:5 website:1 e:2 g:1 objective:1 force:1 observe:2 belief:4 provide:6 good:10 explanation:6 feature:1 various:1 alternative:4 therefore:4 extent:2 accept:2 preferable:1 variation:2 follow:2 common:1 sanction:4 norm:5 exist:4 authority:2 beyond:1 socially:2 mediate:2 example:4 perfectly:1 coherent:1 wilberforce:1 slavery:1 approve:1 society:2 morally:4 truly:1 rational:3 act:2 accordance:2 reaction:1 wholly:1 everything:1 relevant:1 attach:1 appropriate:1 long:2 term:1 behavior:1 reasonable:1 worldviews:1 offer:1 ask:2 required:1 recognition:1 upholding:1 must:7 carry:1 divine:4 intelligence:2 oppose:1 taylor:1 explain:2 law:3 hold:1 everywhen:1 everywhere:1 whereas:1 mind:1 limit:1 comprehension:1 scope:1 sovereign:1 could:3 properly:1 detect:1 infringement:1 apply:1 letter:1 concern:1 toleration:1 john:1 locke:1 contend:1 religious:1 stance:1 commonwealth:1 cannot:5 tolerate:1 atheism:1 atheist:1 motive:1 upon:1 promise:2 oath:1 self:1 interest:1 criticism:3 formally:1 valid:1 dispute:1 thinker:1 thomas:2 hobbes:1 leviathan:1 suggest:5 entirely:2 social:2 contract:1 others:1 plato:1 character:1 socrates:1 euthydemus:1 aristotle:1 nicomachean:1 ethic:3 true:5 happiness:6 lie:1 irrespective:2 possible:4 transcendentality:2 transcendental:7 nature:2 best:1 theism:3 ground:1 think:1 state:2 language:1 natural:1 opinion:1 intelligible:1 via:1 notion:1 rightness:1 property:2 command:7 wrongness:1 consist:1 forbid:1 order:2 work:2 show:1 non:4 theistic:3 worldview:1 adequately:2 account:3 normative:1 critic:3 appeal:1 theory:2 objection:1 numerous:1 stem:1 euthyphro:2 dilemma:2 first:1 horn:2 imply:2 arbitrary:1 decide:2 way:1 government:1 side:1 street:1 car:1 drive:1 seem:2 unreasonable:1 second:1 make:2 apart:1 exactly:1 type:2 theist:4 thus:3 turn:1 head:1 without:2 invoke:1 recognize:1 yet:1 still:2 reject:1 basis:1 hypothesis:1 leave:1 unexplained:1 proponent:1 maintain:1 resolve:1 aquinas:1 indeed:1 reason:2 essential:1 part:1 friedrich:2 nietzsche:2 present:1 believe:1 develop:2 reference:2 need:1 elaborate:1 initially:1 amoral:1 practice:1 become:2 artificially:1 color:1 significance:1 similar:1 phenomenon:1 give:3 field:1 evolutionary:1 dynamic:1 kant:8 summum:4 bonum:4 high:1 virtue:5 coincide:1 rationally:1 oblige:2 attain:6 u:4 afterlife:2 immanuel:2 version:1 reflect:1 behave:1 lead:2 tell:1 implies:1 seek:2 chance:1 point:2 appear:1 govern:1 blind:1 cause:2 hope:2 whatsoever:1 pursuit:5 even:1 virtuous:2 agency:1 beset:1 weakness:1 attainment:1 absence:1 external:3 aid:2 impossible:1 postulate:1 omniscience:1 omnipotence:1 combine:1 perfect:2 goodness:1 ensure:2 grace:1 immortality:1 journey:1 complete:1 also:1 run:1 result:1 causality:1 assert:2 bid:1 fantastic:1 direct:1 imaginary:1 false:1 circularity:1 presuppose:1 enterprise:1 however:1 precisely:1 sort:1 thing:1 universe:1 conception:1 arises:1 attempt:1 harmonize:1 two:2 conflicting:1 practical:1 commit:1 apparently:1 conflict:1 note:1 link:1 stanford:1 encyclopedia:1 philosophy:1 appropriation:1 lampe:1 harvard:1 theological:1 review:1 january:1 pp:1 revise:1 reprint:1 chapter:1 iv:1 stephen:1 palmquist:1 critical:1 religion:1 ashgate:1 |@bigram morally_wrong:1 thomas_hobbes:1 aristotle_nicomachean:1 nicomachean_ethic:1 thomas_aquinas:1 friedrich_nietzsche:2 summum_bonum:4 immanuel_kant:2 pursuit_happiness:1 external_link:1 stanford_encyclopedia:1 |
5,373 | Jean-François_Millet | Jean-François Millet (October 4, 1814 – January 20, 1875) was a French painter and one of the founders of the Barbizon school in rural France. Millet is noted for his scenes of peasant farmers; he can be categorized as part of the naturalism and realism movements. Life and work Youth Millet was the first child of Jean-Louis-Nicolas and Aimée-Henriette-Adélaïde Henry Millet, members of the peasant community in the village of Gruchy, in Gréville-Hague (Normandy). Murphy, p.xix. Under the guidance of two village priests, Millet acquired a knowledge of Latin and modern authors, before being sent to Cherbourg in 1833 to study with a portrait painter named Paul Dumouchel. By 1835 he was studying full-time with Lucien-Théophile Langlois, a pupil of Baron Gros, in Cherbourg. A stipend provided by Langlois and others enabled Millet to move to Paris in 1837, where he studied at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts with Paul Delaroche. In 1839 his scholarship was terminated, and his first submission to the Salon was rejected. Paris After his first painting, a portrait, was accepted at the Salon of 1840, Millet returned to Cherbourg to begin a career as a portrait painter. However, the following year he married Pauline-Virginie Ono, and they moved to Paris. After rejections at the Salon of 1843 and Pauline's death by consumption, Millet returned again to Cherbourg. In 1845 Millet moved to Le Havre with Catherine Lemaire, whom he would marry in a civil ceremony in 1853; they would have nine children, and remain together for the rest of Millet's life. Murphy, p.21. In Le Havre he painted portraits and small genre pieces for several months, before moving back to Paris. It was in Paris in the middle 1840s that Millet befriended Constant Troyon, Narcisse Diaz, Charles Jacque, and Théodore Rousseau, artists who, like Millet, would become associated with the Barbizon school; Honoré Daumier, whose figure draftsmanship would influence Millet's subsequent rendering of peasant subjects; and Alfred Sensier, a government bureaucrat who would become a lifelong supporter and eventually the artist's biographer. Champa, p.183. In 1847 his first Salon success came with the exhibition of a painting Oedipus Taken down from the Tree, and in 1848 his Winnower was bought by the government. Barbizon In 1849 Millet painted Harvesters, a commission for the state. In the Salon of that year he exhibited Shepherdess Sitting at the Edge of the Forest, a very small oil which marked a turning away from previous idealized pastoral subjects, in favor of a more realistic and personal approach. Murphy, p.23. In June of that year he settled in Barbizon with Catherine and their children. The Sower, 1850. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. In 1850 Millet entered into an arrangement with Sensier, who provided the artist with materials and money in return for drawings and paintings, while Millet simultaneously was free to continue selling work to other buyers as well. Murphy, p. xix. At that year's Salon he exhibited Haymakers and The Sower, his first major masterpiece and the earliest of the iconic trio of paintings that would include The Gleaners and The Angelus. Murphy, p.31. From 1850 to 1853 Millet worked on Harvesters Resting (Ruth and Boaz), a painting he would consider his most important, and on which he worked the longest. Conceived to rival his heroes Michelangelo and Poussin, it was also the painting that marked his transition from the depiction of symbolic imagery of peasant life to that of contemporary social conditions. It was the only painting he ever dated, and was the first work to garner him official recognition, a second-class medal at the 1853 salon. Murphy, p. 60. The Gleaners The Gleaners, 1857. Musée d'Orsay, Paris. This is one of the most well known of Millet's paintings, The Gleaners(1857), Walking the fields around Barbizon one theme returned to Millet's pencil and brush for seven years—gleaning—the centuries old right of poor women and children to remove the bits grain left in the fields following the harvest. He found the theme an eternal one, linked to stories from the Old Testament. In 1857, he submitted the painting The Gleaners to the Salon to an unenthusiastic even hostile public. (Earlier versions include a vertical composition painted in 1854, an etching of 1855-56 which directly presaged the horizontal format of the painting now in the Musée d'Orsay. Murphy, p. 103. ) A warm golden light suggests something sacred and eternal in this daily scene where the struggle to survive takes place. During his years of preparatory studies Millet contemplated how to best convey the sense of repetition and fatigue in the peasant's daily lives. Lines traced over each woman’s back lead to the ground and then back up in a repetitive motion identical to their unending, backbreaking labor. Along the horizon, the setting sun silhouettes the farm with its abundant stacks of grain, in contrast to the large shadowy figures in the foreground. The dark homespun dresses of the gleaners cut robust forms against the golden field, giving each woman a noble, monumental strength. The Angelus The Angelus, 1857–59. Musée d'Orsay, Paris. Commissioned by a wealthy American, Thomas G. Appleton, and completed during the summer of 1857, Millet added a steeple and changed the initial title of the work, Prayer for the Potato Crop to The Angelus when the purchaser failed to take possession in 1859. Displayed to the public for the first time in 1865, the painting changed hands several times, increasing only modestly in value, since some considered the artist's political sympathies suspect. Upon Millet's death a decade later, a bidding war between the US and France ensued, ending some years later with a price tag of 800,000 gold francs. The disparity between the apparent value of the painting and the poor estate of Millet's surviving family was a major impetus in the invention of the droit de suite, intended to compensate artists or their heirs when works are resold. Stokes, p. 77. Later years Despite mixed reviews of the paintings he exhibited at the Salon, Millet's reputation and success grew through the 1860s. At the beginning of the decade he contracted to paint 25 works in return for a monthly stipend for the next three years, and in 1865 another patron, Emile Gavet, began commissioning pastels for a collection that would eventually include 90 works. Murphy, p. xx. In 1867 the Exposition Universelle hosted a major showing of his work, with the Gleaners, Angelus, and Potato Planters among the paintings exhibited. The following year Frédéric Hartmann commissioned Four Seasons for 25,000 francs, and Millet was named Chevalier de la Légion d'Honneur. Woman Baking Bread, 1854. Kröller-Müller Museum, Otterlo. In 1870 Millet was elected to the Salon jury. Later that year he and his family fled the Franco-Prussian War, moving to Cherbourg and Gréville, and did not return to Barbizon until late in 1871. His last years were marked by financial success and increased official recognition, but he was unable to fulfill government commissions due to failing health. On January 3, 1875 he married Catherine in a religious ceremony. Millet died on January 20, 1875. Legacy Millet was an important source of inspiration for Vincent van Gogh, particularly during his early period. Millet and his work are mentioned many times in Vincent's letters to his brother Theo. Millet's late landscapes would serve as influential points of reference to Claude Monet's paintings of the coast of Normandy; his structural and symbolic content influenced Georges Seurat as well. Champa, p. 184. Millet is the main protagonist of Mark Twain's play Is He Dead? (1898), in which he is depicted as a struggling young artist who fakes his death to score fame and fortune. Most of the details about Millet in the play are fictional. Millet's painting L'homme à la houe inspired the famous poem "The Man With the Hoe" (1898) by Edwin Markham. The Angelus was reproduced frequently in the 19th and 20th centuries. Salvador Dalí was fascinated by this work, and wrote an analysis of it, The Tragic Myth of The Angelus of Millet. Rather than seeing it as a work of spiritual peace, Dalí believed it held messages of repressed sexual aggression. Dalí was also of the opinion that the two figures were praying over their buried child, rather than to the Angelus. Dalí was so insistent on this fact that eventually an X-ray was done of the canvas, confirming his suspicions: the painting contains a painted-over geometric shape strikingly similar to a coffin. Néret, 2000 However, it is unclear whether Millet changed his mind on the meaning of the painting, or even if the shape actually is a coffin. Notes References Champa, Kermit S. The Rise of Landscape Painting in France: Corot to Monet. Harry N. Abrams, Inc., 1991. ISBN 0-8109-3757-3 Murphy, Alexandra R. Jean-François Millet. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, 1984. ISBN 0-87846-237-6 Stokes, Simon. Art and Copyright. Hart Publishing, 2001. ISBN 184113225X External links www.atelier-millet.frOfficial website of the workshop of Jean-François Millet, Barbizon in France] www.jeanmillet.org 125 works by Jean-François Millet Maura Coughlin's article on Millet's Norman milkmaids Influence on Van Gogh Influence on Dali - grieving parents or praying peasants in The Angelus? | Jean-François_Millet |@lemmatized jean:5 françois:4 millet:40 october:1 january:3 french:1 painter:3 one:4 founder:1 barbizon:7 school:2 rural:1 france:4 note:2 scene:2 peasant:6 farmer:1 categorize:1 part:1 naturalism:1 realism:1 movement:1 life:4 work:14 youth:1 first:7 child:5 louis:1 nicolas:1 aimée:1 henriette:1 adélaïde:1 henry:1 member:1 community:1 village:2 gruchy:1 gréville:2 hague:1 normandy:2 murphy:9 p:11 xix:2 guidance:1 two:2 priest:1 acquire:1 knowledge:1 latin:1 modern:1 author:1 send:1 cherbourg:5 study:4 portrait:4 name:2 paul:2 dumouchel:1 full:1 time:4 lucien:1 théophile:1 langlois:2 pupil:1 baron:1 gros:1 stipend:2 provide:2 others:1 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5,374 | Bock | Paulaner Salvator, a doppelbock Bock is a type of strong lager beer, first brewed in the 14th century in the Hanseatic town of Einbeck, Germany, from which it gets its name (originally "Einbeck" / "Einbock"). The original Bocks were dark beers, brewed from high-colored malts. Modern Bocks can be dark, amber or pale in color. Bock was traditionally brewed for special occasions, often religious festivals such as Christmas, Easter or Lent. Bocks have a long history of being brewed and consumed by Roman Catholic monks in Germany. During the spring religious season of Lent, monks were required to fast. High-gravity Bock beers are higher in food energy and nutrients than lighter lagers, thus providing sustenance during this period. Similar high-gravity Lenten beers of various styles were brewed by Monks in other lands as well (see Trappist beer). Variants Traditional bock Bock beer originated in the Northern German city of Einbeck in the 14th century, and was recreated in Munich in the 17th century. History of Bock Beer Its alcohol content ranges from 6.3% to 7.2% by volume. The beer has a complex malty flavor dominated by the richness of Munich and Vienna malts, which contribute toasty flavors. It has a low hop bitterness, usually enough to not overwhelm the malt flavors, allowing a slight sweetness to linger into the finish. Bock is light copper to brown in color with reddish highlights, with good clarity despite the dark color. It has a large, creamy, persistent off-white head, and moderate to moderately low carbonation. Examples include Einbecker Ur-Bock Dunkel, Lakefront Bock, Aass Bock, Great Lakes Rockefeller Bock, Huber Bock, and Berghoff Bock. Maibock or Hellerbock The Maibock style is a pale version of a traditional bock. It is a fairly recent development compared to other styles of bock beers, frequently associated with springtime and the month of May. Alcohol content ranges from 6.3% to 7.4% by volume. The flavor is typically less malty than a traditional bock, and may be drier, hoppier, and more bitter, but still with a relatively low hop flavor, with a mild spicy or peppery quality from the hops or alcohol content. It is a clear lager, deep gold to light amber in color, with a large, creamy, persistent white head, and moderate to moderately high carbonation. There is some dispute as to whether the Heller ("pale") bock and the Mai ("May") bocks are the same style, but they are generally agreed to be the same. Examples include Hubertus Bock, Einbecker Mai-Urbock, Augustiner Hellerbock, Hofbräu Maibock, Gordon Biersch Blonde Bock, and Abita Mardi Gras Bock. Doppelbock Ayinger Celebrator Doppelbock. Doppelbock or double bock is a Bavarian speciality beer that was first brewed by the monks of St. Francis of Paula. Alcohol content ranges from 6% to over 10% by volume. Historic versions had lower alcohol content and higher sweetness, and were considered "liquid bread" by the monks. Most versions are dark colored, but pale versions do exist. The color ranges from deep gold to dark brown, with a large, creamy, persistent head ranging from white for pale versions to off-white for darker versions, although doppelbocks with higher alcohol content may not display good head retention. It has a very strong malty aroma, with some toasty aromas. Some alcohol aroma may be present, and darker versions may have a chocolate-like or fruity aroma. The flavor is very rich and malty, with toasty flavors and noticeable alcoholic strength. Most versions are fairly sweet, due to little or no hop flavor. Paler versions may have a drier finish. Examples include Spaten Optimator, Tucher Bajuvator, Troeg's Troegenator, Augustiner Maximator, Weihenstephan Korbinian, Weltenburger Kloster Asam-Bock, EKU 28°, Eggenberg Urbock 23, Samichlaus, Abita Andygator, and Birra Moretti La Rossa. The Minim monks who originally brewed Doppelbock named their beer "Salvator", which today is trademarked by Paulaner. In homage to the original, it is traditional for breweries to give their Doppelbocks names that end in "-ator". In Estonia, "Double Bock", which has 8% alcohol by volume, is especially popular among the youth. Eisbock Eisbock beer originally discovered by removing ice from partially frozen barrels of beer. It has a higher ethanol concentration (12%) than regular beer. Eisbock is a traditional Kulmbach specialty beer that is made by freeze distilling a doppelbock and removing the ice to concentrate the flavor and alcohol content. Alcohol content ranges from 9% to over 14% by volume. It is deep copper to dark brown in color, often with ruby highlights. Head retention is frequently impaired by the higher alcohol content. It has a rich, sweet malty flavor, balanced by a significant alcohol presence. It has a clean, lager character with no hop flavor. Examples include Schneider Aventinus Eisbock, Kulmbacher Reichelbrau Eisbock, Eggenberg Urbock Dunkel Eisbock, Niagara Eisbock, and Southampton Eisbock. International variations Austria In Austria, Bockbier is traditionally brewed only around Christmas and Easter, when nearly every brewery brews its own bock. Italy The Italian Birra Moretti Doppio Malto (also known as Moretti La Rossa) is very similar to the Bock style, and some consider it intermediate between a light Maibock and a dark bock. Bulgaria Stolichno is the only Bulgarian Bock Beer, made by the original recipe of Zagorka SA with 6.5% abv. Canada In the province of British Columbia, the Vancouver Island Brewery produces an Eisbock known locally as the Hermannator, which is only seasonally available in December. It has a higher alcohol content (9.5%) compared to most Canadian beers, but is very popular among locals during the winter. The Creemore Springs Brewery of Creemore, Ontario produces urBock, a special Christmas beer only available for a limited time and in limited amounts over the festive winter season. Mexico Bock beer is produced in Mexico around Christmas season, under the Noche Buena label. United States Shiner Bock is the flagship beer of Spoetzl Brewery in Shiner, Texas. They formerly held an annual Bocktoberfest in Shiner, Texas to celebrate the German history of Bock beers. The city of Cincinnati, Ohio, USA has hosted a Bockfest celebration since 1992 celebrating its German-style brewing history,the German culture of its Over-the-Rhine neighborhood, and the coming of Spring. The festival was started by a collaboration between the neighborhood groups Merchants of Main and the Over-the-Rhine Foundation and Cincinnati's Hudepohl-Schoenling Brewery. Today, Hudepohl is owned by the Christian Moerlein Brewing Company and the company produces doppelbocks under both brands. Moerlein's Emancipator Doppelbock is available in bottles and draft from February through March. Hudepohl Bock is only available at Bockfest. A home brewing competition is held at Bockfest Hall during the festival. The competition winner's recipe is then used to produce Hudepohl Bock the following year. Bockfest officially begins with the Bockfest Parade, a non-traditional procession always lead by a goat pulling a keg of bock, a "Sausage Queen" and a motorized bathtub. The festival also includes tours of Cincinnati's pre-prohibition brewery buildings Bockfest usually occurs during the first weekend in March. Bell's Brewery in Kalamazoo, MI produces Consecrator Bock, a traditional dopplebock, which is brewed for a Fat Tuesday release and available through November. Norway Bocks are also brewed in Norway, where they are known as "bokkøl" (bockbeers) and available during the whole year. Notable examples of bock brands are Aass, Borg, Frydenlund and Mack. Dutch A variation of bock called 'bokbier' is also brewed extensively in the Netherlands and occasionally in Belgium. Most larger Dutch breweries, such as Heineken International, Grolsch, Amstel, Brand and Dommelsch, market at least one variety. Most bokbiers tend to be seasonal beers (traditionally autumn, although there are currently also spring, summer and winter boks). They are among the only few specialty beers that existed besides lager for a long time. Microbreweries may prefer to seasonally brew a bokbier, such as the eco-beer biobok, made in autumn by Brouwerij 't IJ in Amsterdam. The city of Amsterdam also hosts a well known festival in honour of bokbier in its former stock exchange organised by P.I.N.T European Beer Guide on the Bokbierfest . Belgium-based InBev produces Artois Bock ''Real Beer' on Artois Bock , which is exported internationally and can be found in areas where bock is not traditionally available. Notes External links Description of German Lenten Beer History | Bock |@lemmatized paulaner:2 salvator:2 doppelbock:7 bock:44 type:1 strong:2 lager:5 beer:27 first:3 brew:13 century:3 hanseatic:1 town:1 einbeck:3 germany:2 get:1 name:3 originally:3 einbock:1 original:3 dark:7 high:10 color:7 malt:3 modern:1 amber:2 pale:5 traditionally:4 special:2 occasion:1 often:2 religious:2 festival:5 christmas:4 easter:2 lent:2 long:2 history:5 consume:1 roman:1 catholic:1 monk:6 spring:4 season:3 require:1 fast:1 gravity:2 food:1 energy:1 nutrient:1 light:4 thus:1 provide:1 sustenance:1 period:1 similar:2 lenten:2 various:1 style:6 land:1 well:2 see:1 trappist:1 variant:1 traditional:7 originate:1 northern:1 german:5 city:3 recreate:1 munich:2 alcohol:13 content:10 range:6 volume:5 complex:1 malty:5 flavor:11 dominate:1 richness:1 vienna:1 contribute:1 toasty:3 low:4 hop:5 bitterness:1 usually:2 enough:1 overwhelm:1 allow:1 slight:1 sweetness:2 linger:1 finish:2 copper:2 brown:3 reddish:1 highlight:2 good:2 clarity:1 despite:1 large:4 creamy:3 persistent:3 white:4 head:5 moderate:2 moderately:2 carbonation:2 example:5 include:5 einbecker:2 ur:1 dunkel:2 lakefront:1 aas:2 great:1 lake:1 rockefeller:1 huber:1 berghoff:1 maibock:4 hellerbock:2 version:9 fairly:2 recent:1 development:1 compare:2 frequently:2 associate:1 springtime:1 month:1 may:8 typically:1 less:1 dry:2 hoppier:1 bitter:1 still:1 relatively:1 mild:1 spicy:1 peppery:1 quality:1 clear:1 deep:3 gold:2 dispute:1 whether:1 heller:1 mai:2 generally:1 agree:1 hubertus:1 urbock:4 augustiner:2 hofbräu:1 gordon:1 biersch:1 blonde:1 abita:2 mardi:1 gras:1 ayinger:1 celebrator:1 double:2 bavarian:1 speciality:1 st:1 francis:1 paula:1 historic:1 consider:2 liquid:1 bread:1 colored:1 exist:2 darker:2 although:2 doppelbocks:3 display:1 retention:2 aroma:4 present:1 chocolate:1 like:1 fruity:1 rich:2 noticeable:1 alcoholic:1 strength:1 sweet:2 due:1 little:1 paler:1 spaten:1 optimator:1 tucher:1 bajuvator:1 troeg:1 troegenator:1 maximator:1 weihenstephan:1 korbinian:1 weltenburger:1 kloster:1 asam:1 eku:1 eggenberg:2 samichlaus:1 andygator:1 birra:2 moretti:3 la:2 rossa:2 minim:1 today:2 trademark:1 homage:1 brewery:9 give:1 end:1 ator:1 estonia:1 especially:1 popular:2 among:3 youth:1 eisbock:9 discover:1 remove:2 ice:2 partially:1 frozen:1 barrel:1 ethanol:1 concentration:1 regular:1 kulmbach:1 specialty:2 make:3 freeze:1 distil:1 concentrate:1 ruby:1 impair:1 balance:1 significant:1 presence:1 clean:1 character:1 schneider:1 aventinus:1 kulmbacher:1 reichelbrau:1 niagara:1 southampton:1 international:2 variation:2 austria:2 bockbier:1 around:2 nearly:1 every:1 italy:1 italian:1 doppio:1 malto:1 also:6 know:4 intermediate:1 bulgaria:1 stolichno:1 bulgarian:1 recipe:2 zagorka:1 sa:1 abv:1 canada:1 province:1 british:1 columbia:1 vancouver:1 island:1 produce:7 locally:1 hermannator:1 seasonally:2 available:7 december:1 canadian:1 local:1 winter:3 creemore:2 ontario:1 limited:2 time:2 amount:1 festive:1 mexico:2 noche:1 buena:1 label:1 united:1 state:1 shiner:3 flagship:1 spoetzl:1 texas:2 formerly:1 hold:2 annual:1 bocktoberfest:1 celebrate:2 cincinnati:3 ohio:1 usa:1 host:2 bockfest:6 celebration:1 since:1 brewing:3 culture:1 rhine:2 neighborhood:2 come:1 start:1 collaboration:1 group:1 merchant:1 main:1 foundation:1 hudepohl:4 schoenling:1 christian:1 moerlein:2 company:2 brand:3 emancipator:1 bottle:1 draft:1 february:1 march:2 home:1 competition:2 hall:1 winner:1 use:1 following:1 year:2 officially:1 begin:1 parade:1 non:1 procession:1 always:1 lead:1 goat:1 pull:1 keg:1 sausage:1 queen:1 motorized:1 bathtub:1 tour:1 pre:1 prohibition:1 building:1 occur:1 weekend:1 bell:1 kalamazoo:1 mi:1 consecrator:1 dopplebock:1 fat:1 tuesday:1 release:1 november:1 norway:2 bokkøl:1 bockbeers:1 whole:1 notable:1 borg:1 frydenlund:1 mack:1 dutch:2 call:1 bokbier:3 extensively:1 netherlands:1 occasionally:1 belgium:2 heineken:1 grolsch:1 amstel:1 dommelsch:1 market:1 least:1 one:1 variety:1 bokbiers:1 tend:1 seasonal:1 autumn:2 currently:1 summer:1 boks:1 besides:1 microbrewery:1 prefer:1 eco:1 biobok:1 brouwerij:1 ij:1 amsterdam:2 honour:1 former:1 stock:1 exchange:1 organise:1 p:1 n:1 european:1 guide:1 bokbierfest:1 base:1 inbev:1 artois:2 real:1 export:1 internationally:1 find:1 area:1 note:1 external:1 link:1 description:1 |@bigram lager_beer:1 beer_brew:1 bock_beer:7 mardi_gras:1 aroma_flavor:1 cincinnati_ohio:1 stock_exchange:1 external_link:1 |
5,375 | Nation_state | For the online game, see Jennifer Government: NationStates. The nation-state is a certain form of state that derives its legitimacy from serving as a sovereign entity for a nation as a sovereign territorial unit. The state is a political and geopolitical entity; the nation is a cultural and/or ethnic entity. The term "nation-state" implies that the two geographically coincide, and this distinguishes the nation state from the other types of state, which historically preceded it. Due to ambiguities in the word state especially as in United States of America, the term nation-state is now frequently misused to mean any sovereign state, whether or not its political boundaries coincide with ethnic and cultural ones. The usage appears to arise from an attempt to distinguish a sovereign nation-state from a federal state—that is a subordinate member of a federal system—such as a state in the United States. Ambiguities in the usage of terms such as nation, international, state, and country, are discussed at Nation. The nation-state in practice In some cases, the geographic boundaries of an ethnic population and a political state largely coincide. In these cases, there is little immigration or emigration, few members of ethnic minorities, and few members of the "home" ethnicity living in other countries. Clear examples of nation states include: Iceland: although the inhabitants are ethnically related to other Scandinavian groups, the national culture and language are found only in Iceland. There are no cross-border minorities— the nearest land is too far away. North and South Korea. There are small groups of Chinese Korean in South Korea. In the North, no minority groups appear to exist. Japan: Japan is also traditionally seen as an example of a nation-state and also the largest of a nation state with population in excess of 120 million. It should be noted that Japan has a small number of minorities such as Ryūkyū peoples, Koreans, and Chinese, and on the northern island of Hokkaidō, the indigenous Ainu minority. However, they are either numerically insignificant (Ainu), their difference is not as pronounced (though Ryukyuan culture is closely related to Japanese culture, is nonetheless distinctive in that it historically received much more influence from China and has separate political and religious traditions) or well assimilated (Zainichi population is collapsing due to assimilation/naturalisation). ;see also Japanese Demographics and Ethnic issues in Japan. Poland, after World War II (After the Expulsion of Germans after World War II) and the extermination of the Jews executed by the invading German Nazis. Several Polynesian countries such as Tonga, Tuvalu, etc. Portugal: although surrounded by other lands and people, the Portuguese nation has occupied the same territory for almost 800 years. The modern Portuguese nation is a very old amalgam of formerly distinct historical populations that passed through and settled in the territory of modern Portugal: native Iberian peoples, Celts, ancient Mediterraneans (Greeks, Phoenicians, Romans), Germanic peoples like the Suebi and the Visigoths, invading Berbers and Arabs, and Jews. The creation of a new ethnicity from disparate elements is discussed at ethnogenesis. The notion of a unifying "national identity" also extends to countries which host multiple ethnic or language groups, such as India, after its independence in 1947 or Australia. For example, Switzerland is constitutionally a confederation of cantons, and has four official languages, but it has also a 'Swiss' national identity, a national history, and a classic national hero, Wilhelm Tell. Thomas Riklin, 2005. Worin unterscheidet sich die schweizerische "Nation" von der Französischen bzw. Deutschen "Nation"? Innumerable conflicts have arisen where political boundaries did not correspond with ethnic or cultural boundaries. For one example, the Hatay Province was transferred to Turkey from Syria after the majority-Turkey population complained of mistreatment. The traditional homeland of the Kurdish people extends between northern Iraq and eastern Turkey, and western Iran. Some of its inhabitants call for the creation of an independent Kurdistan, citing mistreatment by the Turkish and Iraqi governments. An armed conflict between the Kurdistan Workers Party and the Turkish government over this issue has been ongoing since 1984. Belgium is a classic example of a disputed nation-state. The state was formed by secession from the United Kingdom of the Netherlands in 1830, protected by the Treaty of London 1839; the Flemish population in the north speaks Dutch. The Flemish identity is also ethnic and cultural, and there is a strong separatist movement, Vlaams Belang. The Francophone Walloon identity of Belgium is linguistically distinct and regionalist. There is also a unitary Belgian nationalism, several versions of a Greater Netherlands ideal, and a German-speaking community of Belgium annexed from Prussia in 1920, and re-annexed by Germany in 1940–1944. Denmark contains virtually all ethnic Danes and has relatively few foreign nationals within it. However, it exercises sovereignty over the Faroe Islands and Greenland. China covers a large geographic area and uses the concept of "Zhonghua minzu" — "a Chinese people" — although it also officially recognizes the majority Han ethnic group, and no fewer than 55 ethnic national minorities. Minorities and dependencies Where part of the national group lives in a neighbouring nation-state, it is usually called a national minority. In some cases states have reciprocal national minorities, for instance the Slovaks in Hungary and the Magyars (ethnic Hungarians) in Slovakia. National minorities should not be confused with a national diaspora, which is typically located far from the national border. Most modern diasporas result from economic migration, for example the Irish diaspora. The possession of dependent territories does influence the status of a nation-state. A state with large colonial possessions is obviously inhabited by many ethnic groups, and is not a mono-ethnic state. However, in most cases, the colonies were not considered an integral part of the motherland, and were separately administered. Some European nation states, like Denmark, have dependent territories in Europe. History and origins The origins and early history of nation-states are disputed. A major theoretical issue is: "which came first— the nation or the nation state?" For nationalists themselves, the answer is that the nation existed first, nationalist movements arose to present its legitimate demand for sovereignty, and the nation-state met that demand. Some "modernisation theories" of nationalism see the national identity largely as a product of government policy, to unify and modernise an already existing state. Most theories see the nation state as a 19th-century European phenomenon, facilitated by developments such as mass literacy and the early mass media. However, historians also note the early emergence of a relatively unified state, and a sense of common identity, in Portugal and the Dutch Republic. In France, Eric Hobsbawm argues, the French state preceded the formation of the French people. Hobsbawm considers that the state made the French nation, and not French nationalism, which emerged at the end of the 19th century, the time of the Dreyfus Affair. At the time of the 1789 French Revolution, only half of the French people spoke some French, and between 12% to 13% spoke it "fairly", according to Hobsbawm. During Italian unification, the number of people speaking the Italian language was even lower. The French state promoted the unification of various dialects and languages into the French language. The introduction of conscription, and the Third Republic's 1880s laws on public instruction, facilitated the creation of a national identity, under this theory. The theorist Benedict Anderson argues that nations are "imagined communities" (the members cannot possibly know each other), and that the main causes of nationalism and the creation of an imagined community are the reduction of privileged access to particular script languages (e.g. Latin), the movement to abolish the ideas of divine rule and monarchy, as well as the emergence of the printing press under a system of capitalism (or, as Anderson calls it, "print-capitalism"). The "state-driven" theories of the origin of nation-states tend to emphasise a few specific states, such as France and its rival England. These states expanded from core regions, and developed a national consciousness and sense of national identity ("Frenchness" and "Englishness"). Both assimilated peripheral regions (Wales, Brittany, Aquitaine and Occitania); these areas experienced a revival of interest in the regional culture in the 19th century, leading to the creation of autonomist movements in the 20th century. Some nation-states, such as Germany or Italy, came into existence at least partly as a result of political campaigns by nationalists, during the nineteenth century. In both cases, the territory was previously divided among other states, some of them very small. The sense of common identity was at first a cultural movement, such as in the Völkisch movement in German-speaking states, which rapidly acquired a political significance. In these cases, the nationalist sentiment and the nationalist movement clearly precede the unification of the German and Italian nation-states. Historians Hans Kohn, Liah Greenfeld, Philip White, and others have classified nations such as Germany or Italy- where cultural unification preceded state unification- as ethnic nations, or ethnic nationalities. Whereas 'state-driven' national unifications, such as in France, England, or China, are more likely to flourish in multiethnic societies, producing a traditional national heritage of civic nations, or territory-based nationalities. Kohn, Hans (1955). Nationalism: Its Meaning & History Greenfeld, Liah (1992). Nationalism: Five Roads to Modernity White, Philip L. (2006). 'Globalization and the Mythology of the Nation State', In A.G.Hopkins, ed. Global History: Interactions Between the Universal and the Local Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 257-284 The idea of a nation-state is associated with the rise of the modern system of states— often called the "Westphalian system" in reference to the Treaty of Westphalia (1648). The balance of power, which characterises that system, depends for its effectiveness upon clearly defined, centrally controlled, independent entities, whether empires or nation states, which recognise each other's sovereignty and territory. The Westphalian system did not create the nation state, but the nation state meets the criteria for its component states (assuming that there is no disputed territory). The nation-state received a philosophical underpinning in the era of Romanticism, at first as the 'natural' expression of the individual peoples (romantic nationalism — see Fichte's conception of the Volk, which would be later opposed by Ernest Renan). The increasing emphasis during the 19th century, on the ethnic and racial origins of the nation, led to a redefinition of the nation-state in these terms. Racism, which in Boulainvilliers's theories was inherently antipatriotic and antinationalist, joined itself with colonialist imperialism and "continental imperialism", most notably in pan-Germanic and pan-Slavic movements. See Hannah Arendt's The Origins of Totalitarianism (1951) This relation between racism and ethnic nationalism reached its height in the fascist and Nazi movements of the 20th century. The specific combination of 'nation' ('people') and 'state' expressed in such terms as the Völkische Staat and implemented in laws such as the 1935 Nuremberg laws made fascist states such as early Nazi Germany qualitatively different from non-fascist nation-states. Obviously, minorities, who are not part of the Volk, have no authentic or legitimate role in such a state. In Germany, neither Jews nor the Roma were considered part of the Volk, and specifically targeted for persecution. However German nationality law defined 'German' on the basis of German ancestry, excluding all non-Germans from the 'Volk'. In recent years, the nation-state's claim to absolute sovereignty within its borders has been much criticised. A global political system based on international agreements, and supra-national blocs characterized the post-war era. Non-state actors, such as international corporations and non-governmental organizations, are widely seen as eroding the economic and political power of nation-states, leading to their eventual disappearance. Before nation-states Division of the Austro-Hungarian Empire into nation states in 1918 In Europe, in the eighteenth century, the classic non-national states were the multi-ethnic empires, (the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Russian Empire, the Ottoman Empire, the French Empire, the British Empire), and smaller states at what would now be called sub-national level. The multi-ethnic empire was a monarchy ruled by a king, emperor, or Sultan. The population belonged to many ethnic groups, and they spoke many languages. The empire was dominated by one ethnic group, and their language was usually the language of public administration. The ruling dynasty was usually, but not always, from that group. This type of state is not specifically European: such empires existed on all continents. Some of the smaller European states were not so ethnically diverse, but were also dynastic states, ruled by a royal house. Their territory could expand by royal intermarriage, or merge with another state when the dynasty merged. In some parts of Europe, notably Germany, very small territorial units existed. They were recognised by their neighbours as independent, and had their own government and laws. Some were ruled by princes or other hereditary rulers, some were governed by bishops or abbots. Because they were so small, however, they had no separate language or culture: the inhabitants shared the language of the surrounding region. In some cases these states were simply overthrown by nationalist uprisings in the 19th century. Some older nation-states, such as England and France seem to have grown by accretion of smaller entities, such as city states, before the 19th century, or chiefdoms earlier in history. Liberal ideas of free trade played a role in German unification, which was preceded by a customs union, the Zollverein. However, the Austro-Prussian War, and the German alliances in the Franco-Prussian War, were decisive in the unification. The Austro-Hungarian Empire and the Ottoman Empire broke up after the First World War, the Russian Empire became the Soviet Union, after the long Russian Civil War. Some of the smaller states survived: the independent principalities of Liechtenstein, Andorra, and Monaco, and the republic of San Marino. The Vatican City is not a survival, although there was a larger Papal State. In its present form, it was created by the 1929 Lateran treaties between Italy and the Roman Catholic Church. Characteristics of the nation-state Nation states have their own characteristics, differing from those of the pre-national states. For a start, they have a different attitude to their territory, compared to the dynastic monarchies: it is semi-sacred, and non-transferable. No nation would swap territory with other states simply, for example, because the king's daughter got married. They have a different type of border, in principle defined only by the area of settlement of the national group, although many nation states also sought natural borders (rivers, mountain ranges). The most noticeable characteristic is the degree to which nation-states use the state as an instrument of national unity, in economic, social and cultural life. The nation-state promoted economic unity, first by abolishing internal customs and tolls. In Germany this process- the creation of the Zollverein- preceded formal national unity. Nation states typically have a policy to create and maintain a national transportation infrastructure, facilitating trade and travel. In 19th century Europe, the expansion of the rail transport networks was at first largely a matter for private railway companies, but gradually came under control of the national governments. The French rail network, with its main lines radiating from Paris to all corners of France, is often seen as a reflection of the centralised French nation-state, which directed its construction. Nation states continue to build, for instance, specifically national motorway networks. Specifically trans-national infrastructure programmes, such as the Trans-European Networks, are a recent innovation. The nation-states typically had a more centralised and uniform public administration than its imperial predecessors: they were smaller, and the population less diverse. (The internal diversity of, for instance, the Ottoman Empire was very great). After the 19th century triumph of the nation-state in Europe, regional identity was subordinate to national identity, in regions such as Alsace-Lorraine, Catalonia, Brittany, Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica. In many cases, the regional administration was also subordinated to central (national) government. This process was partially reversed from the 1970s onward, with the introduction of various forms of regional autonomy, in formerly centralised states such as France. However, the most obvious impact of the nation-state, as compared to its non-national predecessors, is the creation of a uniform national culture, through state policy. The model of the nation-state implies that its population constitutes a nation, united by a common descent, a common language, and many forms of shared culture. When the implied unity was absent, the nation-state often tried to create it. It promoted a uniform national language, through language policy. The creation of national systems of compulsory primary education and a relatively uniform curriculum in secondary schools, was the most effective instrument in the spread of the national languages. The schools also taught the national history, often in a propagandistic and mythologised version, and (especially during conflicts) some nation-states still teach this kind of history. Council of Europe, Committee of Ministers Recommendation Rec(2001)15 on history teaching in twenty-first-century Europe (Adopted by the Committee of Ministers on 31 October 2001 at the 771st meeting of the Ministers’ Deputies) and UNITED for Intercultural Action History Interpretation as a Cause of Conflicts in Europe and Eric Hobsbawm, Terence Ranger (1992). The Invention of Tradition. Cambridge University Press, 1992. Billie Melman Claiming the Nation's Past: The Invention of an Anglo-Saxon Tradition. Journal of Contemporary History, Vol. 26, No. 3/4, The Impact of Western Nationalisms: Essays Dedicated to Walter Z. Laqueur on the Occasion of His 70th Birthday (September, 1991), pp. 575-595. Christopher Hughes, Robert Stone Nation-Building and Curriculum Reform in Hong Kong and Taiwan. China Quarterly, No. 160 (December, 1999), pp. 977-991. Language and cultural policy was sometimes negative, aimed at the suppression of non-national elements. Language prohibitions were sometimes used to accelerate the adoption of national languages, and the decline of minority languages, see Germanisation. In some cases these policies triggered bitter conflicts and further ethnic separatism. But where it worked, the cultural uniformity and homogeneity of the population increased. Conversely, the cultural divergence at the border became sharper: in theory, a uniform French identity extends from the Atlantic coast to the Rhine, and on the other bank of the Rhine, a uniform German identity begins. To enforce that model, both sides have divergent language policy and educational systems, although the linguistic boundary is in fact well inside France, and the Alsace region changed hands four times between 1870 and 1945. The United Kingdom The United Kingdom is a difficult state to classify: it was formed initially by the merger of two nation-states, (the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of Scotland), but the Treaty of Union that set out the agreed terms has ensured the continuation of distinct features of each nation, including separate legal systems and separate national churches. 300 years later, some regard the UK as a nation state State or Nation countrywatch.com, accessed 14 December 2008 but others regard it as a multi-national state. The UK Government itself describes the United Kingdom as "countries within a country." countries within a country number10.gov.uk, accessed 14 December 2008 Minorities The most obvious deviation from the ideal of 'one nation, one state', is the presence of minorities, especially ethnic minorities, which are clearly not members of the majority nation. An ethnic nationalist definition of a nation is necessarily exclusive: ethnic nations typically do not have open membership. In most cases, there is a clear idea that surrounding nations are different, and that includes members of those nations who live on the 'wrong side' of the border. Historical examples of groups, who have been specifically singled out as outsiders, are the Roma and Jews in Europe. Negative responses to minorities within the nation-state have ranged from state-enforced cultural assimilation, to expulsion, persecution, violence, and extermination. The assimilation policies are usually state-enforced, but violence against minorities is not always state initiated: it can occur in the form of mob violence such as lynching or pogroms. Nation-states are responsible for some of the worst historical examples of violence against minorities—that is, minorities which were not considered part of the nation. However, many nation-states do accept specific minorities as being part of the nation, and the term national minority is often used in this sense. The Sorbs in Germany are an example: for centuries they have lived in German-speaking states, surrounded by a much larger ethnic German population, and they have no other historical territory. They are now generally considered to be part of the German nation, and are accepted as such by the Federal Republic of Germany, which constitutionally guarantees their cultural rights. Of the thousands of ethnic and cultural minorities in nation states across the world, only a few have this level of acceptance and protection. Multiculturalism is an official policy in many states, establishing the ideal of peaceful existence among multiple ethnic, cultural, and linguistic groups. Many nations have laws protecting minority rights. Irredentism Ideally, the border of a nation-state extends far enough to include all the members of the nation, and all of the national homeland. Again, in practice some of them always live on the 'wrong side' of the border. Part of the national homeland may be there too, and it may be inhabited by the 'wrong' nation. The response to the non-inclusion of territory and population may take the form of irredentism- demands to annex unredeemed territory and incorporate it into the nation-state. Irredentist claims are usually based on the fact that an identifiable part of the national group lives across the border. However, they can include claims to territory where no members of that nation live at present, either because they lived there in the past, or because the national language is spoken in that region, or because the national culture has influenced it, or because of geographical unity with the existing territory, or for a wide variety of other reasons. Past grievances are usually involved (see Revanchism). It is sometimes difficult to distinguish irredentism from pan-nationalism, since both claim that all members of an ethnic and cultural nation belong in one specific state. Pan-nationalism is less likely to ethnically specify the nation. For instance, variants of Pan-Germanism have different ideas about what constituted Greater Germany, including the confusing term Grossdeutschland- which in fact implied the inclusion of huge Slavic minorities from the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Typically, irredentist demands are at first made by members of non-state nationalist movements. When they are adopted by a state, they typically result in tensions, and actual attempts at annexation are always considered a casus belli, a cause for . In many cases, such claims result in long-term hostile relations between neighbouring states. Irredentist movements typically circulate maps of the claimed national territory, the greater nation-state. That territory, which is often much larger than the existing state, plays a central role in their propaganda. For examples, see below (See Also). Irredentism should not be confused with claims to overseas colonies, which are not generally considered part of the national homeland. Some French overseas colonies would be an exception: French rule in Algeria did indeed treat the colony legally as a département of France, unsuccessfully. Future It has been observed by both proponents of globalization and various future fiction writers that the concept of a nation-state may disappear with the ever-increasingly interconnected nature of the world. This falls into line with the concept of Internationalism, which states that sovereignty is an outdated concept and a barrier to achieving peace and harmony in the world, thus also stating that nation-states are also a similar outdated concept. If the nation-state does begin to disappear, then it may well be the direct or indirect result of globalisation and Internationalism. The two concepts state that sovereignty is an outdated concept and, as the concept and existence of a nation-state depends on 'untouchable' sovereignty, it is therefore reasonable to assume that. Globalisation especially has helped to bring about the discussion about the disappearance of nation states, as global trade and the rise of the concepts of a 'global citizen' and a common identity have helped to reduce differences and 'distances' between individual nation states, especially with regards to the internet . See also Bioregionalism - as an alternative to Nation States. City-state Cultural identity Ethnic group Expansionism Historiography and nationalism Nation National personification Nationalism Neo-medievalism Non-intervention Primordialism Secession Sovereignty Sovereign state Irredentist movements Greater Albania Greater Balochistan Greater China Greater Croatia Greater Finland Greater Germany, an expression of pan-Germanism; compare pan-Slavism Greater Hungary Greater India Greater Indonesia Greater Israel Greater Iran Greater Macedonia Greater Mongolia Greater Morocco Greater Netherlands Greater Portugal Greater Romania Greater Serbia Greater Somalia Greater Syria Megali Idea (Greece) Pan-Turkism References External links From Paris to Cairo: Resistance of the Unacculturated (Identity and the Nation state) Further reading Anderson, Benedict. 1991. Imagined Communities. ISBN 0-86091-329-5 . Gellner, Ernest (1983). Nations and Nationalism. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-1662-0 . Hobsbawm, Eric J. (1992). Nations and Nationalism Since 1780: Programme, Myth, Reality. 2nd ed. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-43961-2. Khan, Ali (1992). The Extinction of Nation states Renan, Ernest. 1882. "Qu'est-ce qu'une nation?" Smith, Anthony D. (1986). The Ethnic Origins of Nations London: Basil Blackwell. pp 6–18. ISBN 0-631-15205-9. White, Philip L. (2006). "Globalization and the Mythology of the Nation State," In A.G.Hopkins, ed. 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5,376 | Anarchism | Anarchism is a political philosophy encompassing theories and attitudes which consider the state, as compulsory government, to be unnecessary, harmful, and/or undesirable, and promote the elimination of the state or anarchy. *Errico Malatesta, "Towards Anarchism", MAN!. Los Angeles: International Group of San Francisco. . "Anarchism." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2006. Encyclopædia Britannica Premium Service. 29 August 2006 "Anarchism." The Shorter Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 2005. P. 14 "Anarchism is the view that a society without the state, or government, is both possible and desirable." Slevin, Carl. "Anarchism." The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics. Ed. Iain McLean and Alistair McMillan. Oxford University Press, 2003. Specific anarchists may have additional criteria for what constitutes anarchism, and they often disagree with each other on what these criteria are. According to The Oxford Companion to Philosophy, "there is no single defining position that all anarchists hold, and those considered anarchists at best share a certain family resemblance." "Anarchism." The Oxford Companion to Philosophy, Oxford University Press, 2007, p. 31 There are many types and traditions of anarchism, not all of which are mutually exclusive. Anarchism is usually considered to be a radical left-wing ideology, and much of anarchist economics and anarchist legal philosophy reflect anti-statist interpretations of communism, collectivism, syndicalism or participatory economics; however, anarchism has always included an economic and legal individualist strain, with that strain supporting an anarchist free-market economy and private property (like classical mutualism or today's anarcho-capitalism and agorism). Brooks, Frank H. 1994. The Individualist Anarchists: An Anthology of Liberty (1881–1908). Transaction Publishers. p. xi Others, such as panarchists and anarchists without adjectives, neither advocate nor object to any particular form of organization as long as it is not compulsory. Some anarchist schools of thought differ fundamentally, supporting anything from extreme individualism to complete collectivism. The central tendency of anarchism as a social movement is represented by communist anarchism, with anarcho-individualism being primarily a philosophical/literary phenomenon. Skirda, Alexandre. Facing the Enemy: A History of Anarchist Organization from Proudhon to May 1968. AK Press, 2002, page 191 Some anarchists fundamentally oppose all forms of coercion, while others have supported the use of some coercive measures, including violent revolution and terrorism, on the path to anarchy. Fowler, R.B. "The Anarchist Tradition of Political Thought." The Western Political Quarterly, Vol. 25, No. 4. (Dec., 1972), pp. 743–744 The term anarchism derives from the Greek ἀναρχος, anarchos, meaning "without rulers", Anarchy. Merriam-Webster online. Liddell, Henry George, & Scott, Robert, "A Greek-English Lexicon" from the prefix ἀν- (an-, "without") + ἄρχή (archê, "sovereignty, realm, magistracy") + -ισμός (-ismos, from a stem -ιζειν, -izein). There is some ambiguity with the use of the terms "libertarianism" and "libertarian" in writings about anarchism. Since the 1890s from France, the term "libertarianism" has often been used as a synonym for anarchism and was used almost exclusively in this sense until the 1950s in the United States; Russell, Dean. Who is a Libertarian?, Foundation for Economic Education, "Ideas on Liberty," May, 1955. its use as a synonym is still common outside the U.S.<ref>Ward, Colin. Anarchism: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press 2004 p. 62 Goodway, David. Anarchists Seed Beneath the Snow. Liverpool Press. 2006, p. 4 MacDonald, Dwight & Wreszin, Michael. Interviews with Dwight Macdonald. University Press of Mississippi, 2003. p. 82 Bufe, Charles. The Heretic's Handbook of Quotations. See Sharp Press, 1992. p. iv Gay, Kathlyn. Encyclopedia of Political Anarchy. ABC-CLIO / University of Michigan, 2006, p. 126 Woodcock, George. Anarchism: A History of Libertarian Ideas and Movements. Broadview Press, 2004. (Uses the terms interchangeably, such as on page 10) Skirda, Alexandre. Facing the Enemy: A History of Anarchist Organization from Proudhon to May 1968. AK Press 2002. p. 183. Fernandez, Frank. Cuban Anarchism. The History of a Movement. See Sharp Press, 2001, page 9. Note: the term "libertarianism" has other meanings as well.</ref> Accordingly, "libertarian socialism" (a term that also includes non-anarchist philosophies) is sometimes used as a synonym for socialist anarchism, Noam Chomsky, Carlos Peregrín Otero. Language and Politics. AK Press, 2004, p. 739 to delineate it from "individualist libertarianism" (individualist anarchism). On the other hand, some use "libertarianism" to refer to individualistic free-market philosophy only, referring to free-market anarchism as "libertarian anarchism." Morris, Christopher. 1992. An Essay on the Modern State. Cambridge University Press. p. 61. Origins Some claim anarchist themes can be found in the works of Taoist sages Laozi Peter Kropotkin, "Anarchism", Encyclopædia Britannica 1910 and Zhuangzi. The latter has been translated, "There has been such a thing as letting mankind alone; there has never been such a thing as governing mankind [with success]," and "A petty thief is put in jail. A great brigand becomes a ruler of a State." Diogenes of Sinope and the Cynics, and their contemporary Zeno of Citium, the founder of Stoicism, also introduced similar topics. Modern anarchism, however, sprang from the secular or religious thought of the Enlightenment, particularly Jean-Jacques Rousseau's arguments for the moral centrality of freedom. "Anarchism", Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2006 (UK version) Although by the turn of the 19th century the term "anarchist" had an entirely positive connotation, it first entered the English language in 1642 during the English Civil War as a term of abuse used by Royalists to damn those who were fomenting disorder. By the time of the French Revolution some, such as the Enragés, began to use the term positively, Sheehan, Sean. Anarchism, London: Reaktion Books Ltd., 2004. pg. 85 in opposition to Jacobin centralisation of power, seeing "revolutionary government" as oxymoronic. From this climate William Godwin developed what many consider the first expression of modern anarchist thought. Godwin was, according to Peter Kropotkin, "the first to formulate the political and economical conceptions of anarchism, even though he did not give that name to the ideas developed in his work", while Godwin attached his anarchist ideas to an early Edmund Burke. Godwin himself attributed the first anarchist writing to Edmund Burke's A Vindication of Natural Society. "Most of the above arguments may be found much more at large in Burke's Vindication of Natural Society; a treatise in which the evils of the existing political institutions are displayed with incomparable force of reasoning and lustre of eloquence…" – footnote, Ch. 2 Political Justice by William Godwin. The first to describe himself as an anarchist was Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, "Anarchism", BBC Radio 4 program, In Our Time, Thursday 7 December 2006. Hosted by Melvyn Bragg of the BBC, with John Keane, Professor of Politics at University of Westminster, Ruth Kinna, Senior Lecturer in Politics at Loughborough University, and Peter Marshall, philosopher and historian. which led some to call him the founder of modern anarchist theory. Daniel Guerin, Anarchism: From Theory to Practice (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1970). Proudhon proposed spontaneous order, whereby organization emerges without central authority, a "positive anarchy" where order arises when everybody does “what he wishes and only what he wishes" Proudhon, Solution to the Social Problem, ed. H. Cohen (New York: Vanguard Press, 1927), p.45. and where "business transactions alone produce the social order." Like Godwin, Proudhon opposed violent revolutionary action. He saw anarchy as "a form of government or constitution in which public and private consciousness, formed through the development of science and law, is alone sufficient to maintain order and guarantee all liberties. In it, as a consequence, the institutions of the police, preventive and repressive methods, officialdom, taxation, etc., are reduced to a minimum. In it, more especially, the forms of monarchy and intensive centralization disappear, to be replaced by federal institutions and a pattern of life based on the commune." By "commune", Proudhon meant local self-government or according to literal translation, "municipality", rather than a communist arrangement. Bernstein, Samuel. 1985. French Political and Intellectual. History. Transaction Publishers. p. 174 Schools of thought William Godwin, usually considered an individualist anarchist, is often regarded as producing the first philosophical expression of anarchism Individualist anarchism Individualist anarchism comprises several traditions Ward, Colin. Anarchism: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press, 2004, p. 2 which hold that "individual conscience and the pursuit of self-interest should not be constrained by any collective body or public authority." Heywood, Andrew, Key Concepts in Politics, Palgrave, ISBN 0-312-23381-7, 2000, p. 46 Individualist anarchism is supportive of property being held privately, unlike the social/socialist/collectivist/communitarian wing which advocates common ownership. Freeden, Michael. Ideologies and Political Theory: A Conceptual Approach. Oxford University Press. ISBN 019829414X. pp. 314 Individualist anarchism has been espoused by individuals such as Max Stirner, William Godwin, Woodcock, George. 2004. Anarchism: A History Of Libertarian Ideas And Movements. Broadview Press. p. 20 Henry David Thoreau, Johnson, Ellwood. The Goodly Word: The Puritan Influence in America Literature, Clements Publishing, 2005, p. 138.Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences, edited by Edwin Robert Anderson Seligman, Alvin Saunders Johnson, 1937, p. 12. Josiah Warren and Murray Rothbard. Brooks, Frank H. 1994. The Individualist Anarchists: An Anthology of Liberty (1881–1908). Transaction Publishers. p. xi Gerard Radnitzky, Hardy Bouillon. Libertarians and Liberalism. Avebury, 1996. p. 49 Edward Craig. Rutledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Taylor & Francis, 1998. p. 248. William Godwin In 1793, Godwin who has often Everhart, Robert B. The Public School Monopoly: A Critical Analysis of Education and the State in American Society. Pacific Institute for Public Policy Research, 1982. p. 115 been cited as the first anarchist, wrote Political Justice, which some consider to be the first expression of anarchism. Adams, Ian. Political Ideology Today. Manchester University Press, 2001. p. 116 Godwin, a philosophical anarchist, opposed revolutionary action and saw a minimal state as a present "necessary evil" that would become increasingly irrelevant and powerless by the gradual spread of knowledge. Godwin advocated extreme individualism, proposing that all cooperation in labor be eliminated on the premise that this would be most conducive with the general good. Britannica Concise Encyclopedia. Retrieved 7 December 2006, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online Paul McLaughlin. Anarchism and Authority: A Philosophical Introduction to Classical Anarchism. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2007. p. 119 Godwin was a utilitarian who believed that all individuals are not of equal value, with some of us "of more worth and importance' than others depending on our utility in bringing about social good. Therefore he does not believe in equal rights, but the person's life that should be favored that is most conducive to the general good. Godwin opposed government because he saw it as infringing on the individual's right to "private judgement" to determine which actions most maximize utility, but also makes a critique of all authority over the individual's judgement. This aspect of Godwin's philosophy, stripped of utilitarian motivations, was developed into a more extreme form later by Stirner. Paul McLaughlin. Anarchism and Authority: A Philosophical Introduction to Classical Anarchism. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2007. p. 123 19th century philosopher Max Stirner, a prominent early individualist anarchist (sketch by Friedrich Engels). Egoism The most extreme Goodway, David. Anarchist Seeds Beneath the Snow. Liverpool University Press, 2006, page 99 form of individualist anarchism, called "egoism," Goodway, David. Anarchist Seeds Beneath the Snow. Liverpool University Press, 2006, page 99 was expounded by one of the earliest and best-known proponents of individualist anarchism, Max Stirner. Stirner's The Ego and Its Own, published in 1844, is a founding text of the philosophy. According to Stirner's conception, the only limitation on the rights of the individual is their power to obtain what they desire, The Encyclopedia Americana: A Library of Universal Knowledge. Encyclopedia Corporation. p. 176 without regard for God, state, or moral rules. Miller, David. "Anarchism." 1987. The Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Political Thought. Blackwell Publishing. p 11 To Stirner, rights were spooks in the mind, and he held that society does not exist but "the individuals are its reality" he supported a concept of property held by force of might rather than moral right. "What my might reaches is my property; and let me claim as property everything I feel myself strong enough to attain, and let me extend my actual property as fas as I entitle, that is, empower myself to take…" In Ossar, Michael. 1980. Anarchism in the Dramas of Ernst Toller. SUNY Press. p. 27 By "property" he is not referring only to things but to other people as well. Moggach, Douglas. The New Hegelians. Cambridge University Press, 2006 p. 194 Stirner advocated self-assertion and foresaw "associations of egoists" where respect for ruthlessness drew people together. Even murder is permissible "if it is right for me." Moggach, Douglas. The New Hegelians. Cambridge University Press, 2006 p. 191 Stirner saw the state as illegitimate but did not see individuals as having a duty to eliminate it nor does he recommend that they try to eliminate it; rather, he advocates that they disregard the state when it conflicts with their autonomous choices and go along with it when doing so is conducive to their interests. Moggach, Douglas. The New Hegelians. Cambridge University Press, 2006 p. 190 However, while he thought there was no duty to eliminate state, he does think it will eventually collapse as a result of the spread of egoism. "Max Stirner". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy In Russia, individualist anarchism inspired by Stirner combined with an appreciation for Friedrich Nietzsche attracted a small following of bohemian artists and intellectuals such as Lev Chernyi, as well as a few lone wolves who found self-expression in crime and violence. Levy, Carl. "Anarchism." Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2007. They rejected organizing, believing that only unorganized individuals were safe from coercion and domination, believing this kept them true to the ideals of anarchism. Avrich, Paul. "The Anarchists in the Russian Revolution." Russian Review, Vol. 26, No. 4. (Oct., 1967). p. 343 This type of individualist anarchism inspired anarcho-feminist Emma Goldman. Though Stirner's egoism is individualist, it has also influenced some anarcho-communists. "For Ourselves Council for Generalized Self-Management" discusses Stirner and speaks of a "communist egoism," which is said to be a "synthesis of individualism and collectivism," and says that "greed in its fullest sense is the only possible basis of communist society."For Ourselves, The Right to Be Greedy: Theses On The Practical Necessity Of Demanding Everything, 1974. Forms of libertarian communism such that developed by the Situationist International are strongly egoist in nature. Christopher Gray, Leaving the Twentieth Century, p. 88. Lysander Spooner, one of the biggest exponents of classic American anarchism. He supported natural law and market economy. The American tradition Another form of individualist anarchism was advocated by the "Boston anarchists," American individualists who supported private property exchangeable in a free market. "Anarchism is a word without meaning, unless it includes the liberty of the individual to control his product or whatever his product has brought him through exchange in a free market – that is, private property. Whoever denies private property is of necessity an Archist." "Anarchism and Property", by Benjamin Tucker in The New Freewoman, 15 November 1913 They advocated the protection of liberty and property by private contractors, and endorsed exchange of labor for wages. Tucker, Benjamin. "Labor and Its Pay", from Individual Liberty: Selections from the Writings of Benjamin T. Tucker They did not have a problem that "one man employ another" or that "he direct him," in his labor but demanded that "all natural opportunities requisite to the production of wealth be accessible to all on equal terms and that monopolies arising from special privileges created by law be abolished." Madison, Charles A. "Anarchism in the United States." Journal of the History of Ideas, Vol 6, No 1, January 1945, p. 53. They believed state monopoly capitalism (defined as a state-sponsored monopoly) Schwartzman, Jack. "Ingalls, Hanson, and Tucker: Nineteenth-Century American Anarchists." American Journal of Economics and Sociology, Vol. 62, No. 5 (November, 2003). p. 325 prevented labor from being fully rewarded. Even among the nineteenth century American individualists, there was not a monolithic doctrine, as they disagreed amongst each other on various issues including intellectual property rights and possession versus property in land. Spooner, Lysander. The Law of Intellectual Property Watner, Carl (1977). . Journal of Libertarian Studies, Vol. 1, No. 4, p. 308 Watner, Carl. " in The Libertarian Forum. March 1975. Volume VII, No 3. ISSN 0047–4517. pp. 5–6. A major cleft occurred later in the 19th century when Tucker and some others abandoned natural rights and converted to an "egoism" modeled upon Stirner's philosophy. Some "Boston anarchists", like Tucker, identified themselves as "socialist" – a term which at the time denoted a broad concept – by which he meant a commitment to solving "the labor problem" by radical economic reform. Brooks, Frank H. 1994. The Individualist Anarchists: An Anthology of Liberty (1881–1908). Transaction Publishers. p. 75. By the turn of the 20th century, the heyday of individualist anarchism had passed, Avrich, Paul. 2006. Anarchist Voices: An Oral History of Anarchism in America. AK Press. p. 6 although it was later revived with modifications by Murray Rothbard and the anarcho-capitalists in the mid-twentieth century, as a current of the broader libertarian movement, Miller, David. "Anarchism." The Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Political Thought 1987. p. 11 and the anti-capitalist strain by intellectuals such as Kevin Carson. Mutualist Pierre-Joseph Proudhon (1809–1865) was the first self-described anarchist. Mutualism Mutualism began in 18th century English and French labor movements before taking an anarchist form associated with Pierre-Joseph Proudhon in France and others in the United States. "A member of a community," The Mutualist; this 1826 series criticized Robert Owen's proposals, and has been attributed to a dissident Owenite, possibly from the Friendly Association for Mutual Interests of Valley Forge; Wilbur, Shawn, 2006, "More from the 1826 "Mutualist"?" Proudhon's ideas were introduced by Charles A. Dana, Dana, Charles A. Proudhon and his "Bank of the People" (1848). to individualist anarchists in the United States including Benjamin Tucker and William Batchelder Greene. Tucker, Benjamin R., "On Picket Duty", Liberty (Not the Daughter but the Mother of Order) (1881–1908); 5 January 1889; 6, 10; APS Online pg. 1 Mutualist anarchism is concerned with reciprocity, free association, voluntary contract, federation, and credit and currency reform. According to Greene, in the mutualist system each worker would receive "just and exact pay for his work; services equivalent in cost being exchangeable for services equivalent in cost, without profit or discount." "Communism versus Mutualism", Socialistic, Communistic, Mutualistic and Financial Fragments. (Boston: Lee & Shepard, 1875) William Batchelder Greene: "Under the mutual system, each individual will receive the just and exact pay for his work; services equivalent in cost being exchangeable for services equivalent in cost, without profit or discount; and so much as the individual laborer will then get over and above what he has earned will come to him as his share in the general prosperity of the community of which he is an individual member." Mutualism has been retrospectively characterized sometimes as being economic individualism, Carson, Kevin A. Studies in Mutualist Polical Economy Preface. and other times as ideologically situated between individualist and collectivist forms of anarchism. Avrich, Paul. Anarchist Voices: An Oral History of Anarchism in America, Princeton University Press 1996 ISBN 0-69-04494-5, p.6Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Political Thought, Blackwell Publishing 1991 ISBN 0-631-17944-5, p.11 Proudhon first characterized his goal as a "third form of society, the synthesis of communism and property." Pierre-Joseph Proudhon. What Is Property? Princeton, MA: Benjamin R. Tucker, 1876. p. 281. Social anarchism Social anarchism is one of two different broad categories of anarchism, the other category being individualist anarchism. The term social anarchism is often used to identify communitarian forms of anarchism that emphasize cooperation and mutual aid. Social anarchism includes anarcho-collectivism, anarcho-communism, libertarian socialism, anarcho-syndicalism, social ecology and sometimes mutualism. Collectivist anarchism Collectivist anarchism, also referred to as revolutionary socialism or a form of such Morris, Brian. Bakunin: The Philosophy of Freedom. Black Rose Books Ltd., 1993. p. 76 Rae, John. Contemporary Socialism. C. Scribner's sons, 1901, Original from Harvard University. p. 261 , is a revolutionary form of anarchism, commonly associated with Mikhail Bakunin and Johann Most. Patsouras, Louis. 2005. Marx in Context. iUniverse. p. 54 Avrich, Paul. 2006. Anarchist Voices: An Oral History of Anarchism in America. AK Press. p. 5 It is a specific tendency, not to be confused with the broad category sometimes called collectivist or communitarian anarchism. Morris, Christopher W. 1998. An Essay on the Modern State. Cambridge University Press. p 50. The collectivist category is also sometimes known as social, socialist, or communitarian anarchism category. Unlike mutualists, collectivist anarchists oppose all private ownership of the means of production, instead advocating that ownership be collectivized. This was to be achieved through violent revolution, first starting with a small cohesive group through acts of violence, or "propaganda by the deed," which would inspire the workers as a whole to revolt and forcibly collectivize the means of production. However, collectivization was not to be extended to the distribution of income, as workers would be paid according to time worked, rather than receiving goods being distributed "according to need" as in anarcho-communism. This position was criticised by later anarcho-communists as effectively "uphold[ing] the wages system". Anarchist communist and collectivist ideas were not mutually exclusive; although the collectivist anarchists advocated compensation for labor, some held out the possibility of a post-revolutionary transition to a communist system of distribution according to need. Collectivist anarchism arose contemporaneously with Marxism but opposed the Marxist dictatorship of the proletariat, despite the stated Marxist goal of a collectivist stateless society. Anarcho-communist Peter Kropotkin believed that in anarchy, workers would spontaneously self-organize to produce goods in common for all society. Anarchist communism Anarchist communists propose that the freest form of social organisation would be a society composed of self-governing communes with collective use of the means of production, organized by direct democracy, and related to other communes through federation. Puente, Isaac."Libertarian Communism". The Cienfuegos Press Anarchist Review. Issue 6 Orkney 1982 However, some anarchist communists oppose the majoritarian nature of direct democracy, feeling that it can impede individual liberty and favor consensus democracy. Graeber, David and Grubacic, Andrej. Anarchism, Or The Revolutionary Movement Of The Twenty-first Century In anarchist communism, as money would be abolished, individuals would not receive direct compensation for labour (through sharing of profits or payment) but would have free access to the resources and surplus of the commune. Miller. Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Political Thought, Blackwell Publishing (1991) ISBN 0-631-17944-5, p. 12 According to anarchist communist Peter Kropotkin and later Murray Bookchin, the members of such a society would spontaneously perform all necessary labour because they would recognize the benefits of communal enterprise and mutual aid. Kropotkin, Peter Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution, 1998 paperback, London: Freedom Press. ISBN 0-900384-36-0, also at Project Gutenberg Kropotkin, Peter The Conquest of Bread, first published 1892, also at Anarchy Archives Kropotkin, Peter Fields, Factories and Workshops, available at Anarchy Archives Bookchin, Murray Post Scarcity Anarchism (1971 and 2004) ISBN 1–904859–06–2. Kropotkin believed that private property was one of the causes of oppression and exploitation and called for its abolition, Kropotkin, Peter. Words of a Rebel, p99. advocating instead common ownership. Kropotkin said that "houses, fields, and factories will no longer be private property, and that they will belong to the commune or the nation and money, wages, and trade would be abolished." Peter Kropotkin, The Conquest of Bread In response to those criticizing Kropotkin for supporting expropriation of homes and means of production from those who did not wish to take part in anarcho-communism, he replied that if someone did not want to join the commune they would be left alone as long as they are a "peasant who is in possession of just the amount of land he can cultivate," or "a family inhabiting a house which affords them just enough space... considered necessary for that number of people" or an artisan "working with their own tools or handloom." Kropotkin Act for yourselves. N.Walter and H. Becker, eds. (London: Freedom Press 1985) [p. 104-5] arguing that "[t]he landlord owes his riches to the poverty of the peasants, and the wealth of the capitalist comes from the same source." The status of anarchist communism within anarchism is disputed, because most individualist anarchists consider communitarianism incompatible with political freedom. Yarros, Victor S. "A Princely Paradox", Liberty, Vol 4. No. 19, Saturday, 9 April 1887, Whole Number 97; Tucker, Benjamin. "Labor and Its Pay"; Appleton, Henry. "Anarchism, True and False", Liberty 2.24, no. 50, 6 September 1884, p. 4; Swartz, Clarence Lee. What is Mutualism? However Anarcho communism does not always have a communitarian philosophy, Some forms of anarchist communism are strongly Egoist, Christopher Gray, Leaving the Twentieth Century, p. 88. and are strongly influenced by radical individualist philosophy, believing that anarcho-communism does not require a communitarian nature at all. Anarchist communist Emma Goldman blended the philosophies of both Max Stirner and Kropotkin in her own. Emma Goldman, Anarchism and Other Essays, p. 50. More recently hardline activist Nigel Downey has been reworking the philosophical work of Kropotkin and preparing a 'blueprint for revolution' for the 21st century. Platformism is an anarchist communist tendency in the tradition of Nestor Makhno, who argued for the "vital need of an organization which, having attracted most of the participants in the anarchist movement, would establish a common tactical and political line for anarchism and thereby serve as a guide for the whole movement." Anarcho-syndicalism A common Anarcho-Syndicalist flag. In the early 20th century, anarcho-syndicalism arose as a distinct school of thought within anarchism. Berry, David, A History of the French Anarchist Movement, 1917–1945 p.134 With greater focus on the labour movement than previous forms of anarchism, syndicalism posits radical trade unions as a potential force for revolutionary social change, replacing capitalism and the state with a new society, democratically self-managed by the workers. Anarcho-syndicalists seek to abolish the wage system and private ownership of the means of production, which they believe lead to class divisions. Important principles include workers' solidarity, direct action (such as general strikes and workplace recuperations), and workers' self-management. This is compatible with other branches of anarchism, and anarcho-syndicalists often subscribe to anarchist communist or collectivist anarchist economic systems. Its advocates propose labour organization as a means to create the foundations of a non-hierarchical anarchist society within the current system and bring about social revolution. An early leading anarcho-syndicalist thinker was Rudolf Rocker, whose 1938 pamphlet Anarchosyndicalism outlined a view of the movement's origin, aims and importance to the future of labour. [http://www.spunk.org/library/writers/rocker/sp001495/rocker_as1.html Anarchosyndicalism] by Rudolf Rocker, retrieved 7 September 2006 Although more often associated with labor struggles of the early 20th century (particularly in France and Spain), many syndicalist organizations are active today, united across national borders by membership in the International Workers Association, including the Central Organisation of the Workers of Sweden (SAC) in Sweden, the Unione Sindacale Italiana (USI) in Italy, the CNT in Spain, the Workers' Solidarity Movement (WSM) of Ireland, and the Industrial Workers of the World in the United States. Anarchism without adjectives "Anarchism without adjectives", in the words of historian George Richard Esenwein, "referred to an unhyphenated form of anarchism, that is, a doctrine without any qualifying labels such as communist, collectivist, mutualist, or individualist. For others,…[it] was simply understood as an attitude that tolerated the coexistence of different anarchist schools." Esenwein, George Richard "Anarchist Ideology and the Working Class Movement in Spain, 1868–1898" [p. 135] "Anarchism without adjectives" emphasizes harmony among various anarchist factions and attempts to unite them around their shared anti-authoritarian beliefs. The position was first adopted in 1889 by Fernando Tarrida del Mármol as a call for toleration, after being troubled by the "bitter debates" among the different anarchist movements. Avrich, Paul. Anarchist Voices: An Oral History of Anarchism in America. Princeton University Press, 1996, p. 6 Voltairine de Cleyre, Voltairine De Cleyre, "Why I Am an Anarchist" Errico Malatesta, Nettlau, Max. A Short History of Anarchism [p. 198–9] and Fred Woodworth are noteworthy exponents of the view. Anarchist Voices: An Oral History of Anarchism in America, Paul Avrich (2006). p. 475 Post-classical schools of thought Temporary Autonomous Zone theorist Hakim Bey is an influential figure in contemporary anarchist circles. Anarchism continues to generate many eclectic and syncretic philosophies and movements; since the revival of anarchism in the U.S. in the 1960s, a number of new movements and schools have emerged. Anarcho-capitalism developed from radical anti-state libertarianism as a rejuvenated form of individualist anarchism, while the burgeoning feminist and environmentalist movements also produced anarchist offshoots. Post-left anarchy is a tendency which seeks to distance itself from the traditional "Left" and to escape the confines of ideology in general. Post-leftists argue that anarchism has been weakened by its long attachment to contrary "leftist" movements, single issue causes and calls for a synthesis of anarchist thought, and a specifically anti-authoritarian revolutionary movement outside the leftist milieu. Post-anarchism is a theoretical move towards a synthesis of classical anarchist theory and poststructuralist thought developed by Saul Newman and associated with thinkers such as Todd May, Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattari. It draws from a wide range of ideas including post-modernism, autonomism, post-left anarchy, situationism, postcolonialism and Zapatismo. Another recent form of anarchism critical of formal anarchist movements is insurrectionary anarchism, which advocates informal organization and active resistance to the state; its proponents include Wolfi Landstreicher and Alfredo M. Bonanno. Murray Rothbard (1926–1995), 20th century progenitor of anarcho-capitalism who asserted that "capitalism is the fullest expression of anarchism, and anarchism is the fullest expression of capitalism." "Exclusive Interview With Murray Rothbard" The New Banner: A Fortnightly Libertarian Journal. 25 February 1972. Anarcho-capitalism Anarcho-capitalism (or "free market anarchism") "This volume honors the foremost contemporary exponent of market anarchism. One contributor describes Murray Rothbard as 'the most ideologically committed zero-State academic economist on earth'." Review by Lawrence H. White of "Man, Economy, and Liberty: Essays in honor of Murray N. Rothbard", published in Journal of Economic Literature, Vol XXVIII, June 1990, page 664 is "based on a belief in the freedom to own private property, a rejection of any form of governmental authority or intervention, and the upholding of the competitive free market as the main mechanism for social interaction." "Anarcho-capitalism." Oxford English Dictionary. 2004. Oxford University Press. Because of the historically anti-capitalist nature of much of anarchist thought, the status of anarcho-capitalism within anarchism is disputed particularly by communist anarchists. Jainendra, Jha. 2002. "Anarchism." Encyclopedia of Teaching of Civics and Political Science. p. 52. Anmol Publications. Anarcho-capitalists distinguish between free market capitalism – peaceful voluntary exchange Rothbard, Murray N. "A Future of Peace and Capitalism." Modern Political Economy. James H. Weaver (ed.). pp 419. Allyn and Bacon. – from "state capitalism" which Murray Rothbard defined as a collusive partnership between big business and government that uses coercion to subvert the free market. Murray Rothbard, A Future of Peace and Capitalism; Murray Rothbard, Left and Right: The Prospects for Liberty. Whether in its natural rights-based, contractarian, or utilitarian formulations, anarcho-capitalism has a theory of legitimacy that supports private property as long as it was obtained by labor, trade, or gift. Rothbard, Murray (1969) The Libertarian Forum Vol. I, No. VI (15 June 1969) Retrieved 5 August 2006 In an anarcho-capitalist society, its proponents hold, voluntary market processes would result in the provision of social institutions such as law enforcement, defence and infrastructure by competing for-profit firms, charities or voluntary associations rather than the state. Hess, Karl. "The Death of Politics." Playboy Magazine, March 1969 In Rothbardian anarcho-capitalism, law (the non-aggression principle) is enforced by the market but not created by it, while according to David D. Friedman's utilitarian version, the law itself is produced by the market. A yellow and black flag is often used to represent Anarcho-capitalism. While the term "anarcho-capitalism" was coined by Rothbard and its origin is attributed to 1960s United States, some historians, including Rothbard himself, trace the school as far back as the mid-19th century to market theorists such as Gustave de Molinari. Raico, Ralph (2004) Authentic German Liberalism of the 19th Century Ecole Polytechnique, Centre de Recherce en Epistemologie Appliquee, Unité associée au CNRS Rothbard, Murray. Preface. The Production of Security. By Gustave Molinari. 1849, 1977. Anarcho-capitalism has drawn influence from pro-market theorists such as Molinari, Frédéric Bastiat, and Robert Nozick, as well as American individualist thinkers such as Benjamin Tucker and Lysander Spooner. DeLeon, David. The American as Anarchist: Reflections on Indigenous Radicalism. Johns Hopkins University Press, 1978, p. 127 Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Political Thought, 1987, ISBN 0-631-17944-5, p. 290: "A student and disciple of the Austrian economist Ludwig von Mises, Rothbard combined the laissez-faire economics of his teacher with the absolutist views of human rights and rejection of the state he had absorbed from studying the individualist American anarchists of the 19th century, such as Lysander Spooner and Benjamin Tucker. (Rothbard himself is on the anarchist wing of the movement.)" Considered a form of individualist anarchism, Adams, Ian. 2002. Political Ideology Today. p. 135. Manchester University Press; Ostergaard, Geoffrey. 2003. "Anarchism." The Blackwell Dictionary of Modern Social Thought. W. Outwaite ed. Blackwell Publishing. p. 14. it differs from the individualism of the "Boston anarchists" of the 19th century in its rejection of the labor theory of value (and its normative implications) in favor of the neoclassical or Austrian School marginalist view. Anarcho-capitalist ideas have in turn contributed to the development of agorism, autarchism, and crypto-anarchism. Vernor Vinge, James Frankel. True Names: And the Opening of the Cyberspace Frontier (2001), Tor Books, p.44 Anarcha-feminism A purple and black flag is often used to represent Anarcha-feminism. Anarcha-feminism is a synthesis of radical feminism and anarchism that views patriarchy (male domination over women) as a fundamental manifestation of involuntary hierarchy – to which anarchists are opposed. Anarcha-feminism was inspired in the late 19th century by the writings of early feminist anarchists such as Lucy Parsons, Emma Goldman and Voltairine de Cleyre. Anarcha-feminists, like other radical feminists, criticize and advocate the abolition of traditional conceptions of family, education and gender roles. Many anarcha-feminists are especially critical of marriage. For instance, Emma Goldman has argued that marriage is a purely economic arrangement and that "…[woman] pays for it with her name, her privacy, her self-respect, her very life." Goldman, "Marriage and Love", Red Emma Speaks, p. 205 Anarcha-feminists view patriarchy as a fundamental problem in society and believe that the feminist struggle against sexism and patriarchy is an essential component of the anarchist struggle against the state and capitalism. Susan Brown expressed the sentiment that "as anarchism is a political philosophy that opposes all relationships of power, it is inherently feminist." Brown, Susan. "Beyond Feminism: Anarchism and Human Freedom" Anarchist Papers 3 Black Rose Books (1990) p. 208 There have been several male anarcha-feminists, such as the Anarcho-communist Joseph Déjacque who opposed Proudhon's anti-feminist views." Anarchist-Communism by Alain Pengam Green anarchism Green and black flag of Green Anarchism. Green anarchism is an anarchist school of thought which places an emphasis on environmental issues. Some green anarchists, identifying themselves as primitivists, advocate a process of 'rewilding' and a return to nomadic hunter-gatherer lifestyles while many green anarchists only wish to see an end to industrial society and do not necessarily oppose domestication or agriculture. Key theorists in the former category include Derrick Jensen and John Zerzan while the 'Unabomber' Theodore Kaczynski belongs in the latter, though the boundaries are blurred at times, both Jensen and Zerzan making positive references to some forms of permaculture. Anarcho-primitivism is a form of green anarchism that believes agriculture and division of labour inevitably lead to inequality and are incompatible with anarchism and in effect must be abolished. Anarcho-primitivists often criticize traditional anarchism for supporting civilization and modern technology which they believe are inherently based on domination and exploitation. They instead advocate the process of rewilding or reconnecting with the natural environment. Non-primitivist green anarchists, such as anthropologist Brian Morris, often draw influence from the social ecology of Murray Bookchin. Veganarchism is the political philosophy of veganism (more specifically animal liberation) and green anarchism, creating a combined praxis as a means for social revolution. Dominick, Brian. Animal Liberation and Social Revolution: A vegan perspective on anarchism or an anarchist perspective on veganism, third edition, Firestarter Press, 1997, page 6. This encompasses viewing the state as unnecessary and harmful to animals, both human and non-human, whilst practising a vegan diet. Veganarchists either see the ideology as a combined theory, or perceive both philosophies to be essentially the same. Dominick, Brian. Animal Liberation and Social Revolution: A vegan perspective on anarchism or an anarchist perspective on veganism, third edition, Firestarter Press, 1997, page 1. It is further described as an anti-speciesist perspective on green anarchism, or an anarchist perspective on animal liberation. Dominick, Brian. Animal Liberation and Social Revolution: A vegan perspective on anarchism or an anarchist perspective on veganism, third edition, Firestarter Press, 1997, page 5. As a social movement Anarchism as a social movement has regularly endured fluctuations in popularity. Its classical period, which scholars demarcate as from 1860 to 1939, is associated with the working-class movements of the nineteenth century and the Spanish Civil War-era struggles against fascism. Jonathan Purkis and James Bowen, "Introduction: Why Anarchism Still Matters", in Jonathan Purkis and James Bowen (eds), Changing Anarchism: Anarchist Theory and Practice in a Global Age (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2004), p.3. The First International Collectivist anarchist Mikhail Bakunin opposed the Marxist aim of dictatorship of the proletariat in favour of universal rebellion, and allied himself with the federalists in the First International before his expulsion by the Marxists. In Europe, harsh reaction followed the revolutions of 1848, wherein ten countries experienced brief or long-term social upheaval as groups carried out nationalist revolutions. After most of these attempts at systematic change ended in failure, conservative elements took advantage of the divided groups of socialists, anarchists, liberals, and nationalists, to prevent further revolt. In 1864 the International Workingmen's Association (sometimes called the "First International") united diverse revolutionary currents including French followers of Proudhon, Blanquists, Philadelphes, English trade unionists, socialists and social democrats. Due to its links to active workers' movements, the International became a significant organization. Karl Marx became a leading figure in the International and a member of its General Council. Proudhon's followers, the mutualists, opposed Marx's state socialism, advocating political abstentionism and small property holdings. In 1868, following their unsuccessful participation in the League of Peace and Freedom (LPF), Mikhail Bakunin and his associates joined the First International – which had decided not to get involved with the LPF. They allied themselves with the federalist socialist sections of the International, who advocated the revolutionary overthrow of the state and the collectivization of property. At first, the collectivists worked with the Marxists to push the First International in a more revolutionary socialist direction. Subsequently, the International became polarized into two camps, with Marx and Bakunin as their respective figureheads. Bakunin characterised Marx's ideas as centralist and predicted that, if a Marxist party came to power, its leaders would simply take the place of the ruling class they had fought against. In 1872, the conflict climaxed with a final split between the two groups at the Hague Congress, where Bakunin and James Guillaume were expelled from the International and its headquarters were transferred to New York. In response, the federalist sections formed their own International at the St. Imier Congress, adopting a revolutionary anarchist program.<ref name=Graham-05>Graham, Robert '[http://www.blackrosebooks.net/anarism1.htm 'Anarchism] (Montreal: Black Rose Books 2005) ISBN 1–55164–251–4</ref> Organized labor The anti-authoritarian sections of the First International were the precursors of the anarcho-syndicalists, seeking to "replace the privilege and authority of the State" with the "free and spontaneous organization of labor." Resolutions from the St. Imier Congress, in Anarchism: A Documentary History of Libertarian Ideas, Vol. 1, p.100 In 1886, the Federation of Organized Trades and Labor Unions (FOTLU) of the United States and Canada unanimously set 1 May 1886, as the date by which the eight-hour work day would become standard. In response, unions across America prepared a general strike in support of the event. Upon 3 May, in Chicago, a fight broke out when replacement workers attempted to cross the picket line. Police intervention led to the deaths of four men, enraging the workers of the city. The next day, 4 May, anarchists staged a rally at Chicago's Haymarket Square. A bomb was thrown by an unknown party near the conclusion of the rally, killing an officer. In the ensuing panic, police opened fire on the crowd and each other. Chicago Tribune, 27 June 1886, quoted in Seven police officers and at least four workers were killed. Eight anarchists directly and indirectly related to the organizers of the rally were arrested and charged with the murder of the deceased officer. The men became international political celebrities among the labor movement. Four of the men were executed and a fifth committed suicide prior to his own execution. The incident became known as the Haymarket affair, and was a setback for the labor movement and the struggle for the eight hour day. In 1890 a second attempt, this time international in scope, to organize for the eight hour day was made. The event also had the secondary purpose of memorializing workers killed as a result of the Haymarket affair. The celebration of International Workers' Day on May Day became an annual event the following year. In 1907, the International Anarchist Congress of Amsterdam gathered delegates from 14 different countries, among which important figures of the anarchist movement, including Errico Malatesta, Pierre Monatte, Luigi Fabbri, Benoît Broutchoux, Emma Goldman, Rudolf Rocker, Christiaan Cornelissen, etc. Various themes were treated during the Congress, in particular concerning the organisation of the anarchist movement, popular education issues, the general strike or antimilitarism. A central debate concerned the relation between anarchism and syndicalism (or trade unionism). Malatesta and Monatte in particular opposed themselves on this issue, as the latter thought that syndicalism was revolutionary and would create the conditions of a social revolution, while Malatesta did not consider syndicalism by itself sufficient. Extract of Malatesta's declaration Malatesta thought that trade-unions were reformist, and could even be, at times, conservative. Along with Cornelissen, he cited as example US trade-unions, where trade-unions composed of qualified workers sometimes opposed themselves to non-qualified workers in order to defend their relatively privileged position. The Spanish Workers Federation in 1881 was the first major anarcho-syndicalist movement; anarchist trade union federations were of special importance in Spain. The most successful was the Confederación Nacional del Trabajo (National Confederation of Labour: CNT), founded in 1910. Before the 1940s, the CNT was the major force in Spanish working class politics and played a major role in the Spanish Civil War. The CNT was affiliated with the International Workers Association, a federation of anarcho-syndicalist trade unions founded in 1922, with delegates representing two million workers from 15 countries in Europe and Latin America. The largest organised anarchist movement today is in Spain, in the form of the Confederación General del Trabajo (CGT) and the CNT. CGT membership was estimated to be around 100,000 for the year 2003. Carley, Mark "Trade union membership 1993–2003" (International:SPIRE Associates 2004) Other active syndicalist movements include the US Workers Solidarity Alliance and the UK Solidarity Federation. The revolutionary industrial unionist Industrial Workers of the World, claiming 2,000 paying members, and the International Workers Association, an anarcho-syndicalist successor to the First International, also remain active. Russian Revolution Anarchists Emma Goldman and Alexander Berkman opposed Bolshevik consolidation of power following the Russian Revolution (1917). Anarchists participated alongside the Bolsheviks in both February and October revolutions, many anarchists initially supporting the Bolshevik coup. However, the Bolsheviks soon turned against the anarchists and other left-wing opposition, a conflict that culminated in the 1921 Kronstadt rebellion. Anarchists in central Russia were either imprisoned, driven underground or joined the victorious Bolsheviks. In the Ukraine, anarchists fought in the civil war against Whites and then the Bolsheviks as part of the Revolutionary Insurrectionary Army of Ukraine led by Nestor Makhno, who attempted to establish an anarchist society in the region for a number of months. Expelled American anarchists Emma Goldman and Alexander Berkman were amongst those agitating in response to Bolshevik policy and the suppression of the Kronstadt uprising, before they left Russia. Both wrote accounts of their experiences in Russia, criticizing the amount of control the Bolsheviks exercised. For them, Bakunin's predictions about the consequences of Marxist rule that the rulers of the new "socialist” Marxist state would become a new elite "On the International Workingmen's Association and Karl Marx" in Bakunin on Anarchy, translated and edited by Sam Dolgoff, 1971 had proved all too true. The victory of the Bolsheviks in the October Revolution and the resulting Russian Civil War did serious damage to anarchist movements internationally. Many workers and activists saw Bolshevik success as setting an example; Communist parties grew at the expense of anarchism and other socialist movements. In France and the US, for example, certain members of the major syndicalist movements of the CGT and IWW left the organizations and joined the Communist International. In Paris, the Dielo Truda group of Russian anarchist exiles, which included Nestor Makhno, concluded that anarchists needed to develop new forms of organisation in response to the structures of Bolshevism. Their 1926 manifesto, called the Organizational Platform of the General Union of Anarchists (Draft), was supported. Platformist groups active today include the Workers Solidarity Movement in Ireland and the North Eastern Federation of Anarchist Communists of North America. Anti-fascist Maquis, who resisted Nazi and Francoist rule in Europe. Fight against fascism In the 1920s and 1930s, the rise of fascism in Europe transformed anarchism's conflict with the state. Italy saw the first struggles between anarchists and fascists. Italian anarchists played a key role in the anti-fascist organisation Arditi del Popolo, which was strongest in areas with anarchist traditions and marked up numerous successful victories, including repelling Blackshirts in the anarchist stronghold of Parma in August 1922. Holbrow, Marnie, "Daring but Divided" (Socialist Review November 2002) In France, where the far right leagues came close to insurrection in the February 1934 riots, anarchists divided over a united front policy. Berry, David. "Fascism or Revolution." Le Libertaire. August 1936) In Spain, the CNT initially refused to join a popular front electoral alliance, and abstention by CNT supporters led to a right wing election victory. But in 1936, the CNT changed its policy and anarchist votes helped bring the popular front back to power. Months later, the former ruling class responded with an attempted coup causing the Spanish Civil War (1936–1939). In response to the army rebellion, an anarchist-inspired movement of peasants and workers, supported by armed militias, took control of Barcelona and of large areas of rural Spain where they collectivized the land. But even before the fascist victory in 1939, the anarchists were losing ground in a bitter struggle with the Stalinists, who controlled the distribution of military aid to the Republican cause from the Soviet Union. According to George Orwell and other foreign observers, Stalinist-led troops suppressed the collectives and persecuted both dissident Marxists and anarchists. Internal issues and debates Anarchism is a philosophy which embodies many diverse attitudes, tendencies and schools of thought; as such, disagreement over questions of values, ideology and tactics is common. The compatibility of capitalism (which anarchists usually reject, according to the Oxford Companion to Philosophy), nationalism and religion with anarchism is widely disputed. Similarly, anarchism enjoys a complex relationship with ideologies such as Marxism, communism and capitalism. Anarchists may be motivated by humanism, divine authority, enlightened self-interest or any number of alternative ethical doctrines. Phenomena such as civilization, technology (e.g. within anarcho-primitivism and insurrectionary anarchism), and the democratic process may be sharply criticized within some anarchist tendencies and simultaneously lauded in others. Anarchist attitudes towards race, gender and the environment have changed significantly since the modern origin of the philosophy in the 18th century. On a tactical level, while propaganda of the deed was a tactic used by anarchists in the 19th century (e.g. the Nihilist movement), contemporary anarchists espouse alternative methods such as nonviolence, counter-economics and anti-state cryptography to bring about an anarchist society. The diversity in anarchism has led to widely different use of identical terms among different anarchist traditions, which has led to many definitional concerns in anarchist theory. See also Anarchist symbolism Non-voting Outline of anarchism Footnotes Further reading Anarchism. A Documentary History of Libertarian Ideas. Robert Graham, editor. Volume One: From Anarchy to Anarchism (300CE to 1939) Black Rose Books, Montréal and London 2005. ISBN 1551642506. Volume Two: The Anarchist Current (1939–2006) Black Rose Books, Montréal 2007. ISBN 9781551643113. Anarchism, George Woodcock (Penguin Books, 1962). . Anarchy: A Graphic Guide, Clifford Harper (Camden Press, 1987): An overview, updating Woodcock's classic, and illustrated throughout by Harper's woodcut-style artwork. The Anarchist Reader, George Woodcock (ed.) (Fontana/Collins 1977; ISBN 0006340113): An anthology of writings from anarchist thinkers and activists including Proudhon, Kropotkin, Bakunin, Malatesta, Bookchin, Goldman, and many others. Anarchy and the Law: The Political Economy of Choice, Edward Stringham (Transaction Publishers, 2007; ISBN 1412805791): An overview of the major arguments and historical studies about private property anarchism. Anarchy as Order: The History and Future of Civic Humanity'', Mohammed Bamyeh (Rowan & Littlefield, 2009). External links General resources "An Anarchist FAQ Webpage"An Anarchist FAQ Anarchist Theory FAQby Bryan Caplan Anarchism Pagefaqs, library, resources Infoshop.orgInfoshop.org; anarchist news, information, and online library. Anarchism.neta pluralist resource on anarchism Biographical and bibliographical Daily Bleed's Anarchist Encyclopedia700+ entries, with short bios, links and dedicated pages. Anarchy ArchivesAnarchy Archives; information relating to famous anarchists including their writings. KateSharpleyLibrary.netwebsite of the Kate Sharpley Library, containing many historical documents pertaining to anarchism They Lie We Dieanarchist virtual library containing 768 books, booklets and texts about socialist anarchism. 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5,377 | Jeffrey_Archer | Jeffrey Howard Archer, Baron Archer of Weston-super-Mare (born 15 April 1940) is an English author, actor, playwright and former politician. He was a Member of Parliament and deputy chairman of the Conservative Party, and became a life peer in 1992. His political career, having suffered several controversies, ended after a conviction for perverting the course of justice and his subsequent imprisonment. He is married to Mary Archer, a scientist specialising in solar power. Early life and background Jeffrey Howard Archer was born in the City of London Maternity Hospital. He was two weeks old when his family moved to the seaside town of Weston-super-Mare, Somerset, where he spent most of his early life. His father, William, was sixty-four when Archer was born. He died when Archer was fifteen. In 1951 he won a scholarship to Wellington School, in Somerset (not to be confused with the public school Wellington College, which is possible from the ambiguous biography in Archer's earlier books). At this time his mother, Lola, contributed a column "Over the teacups" to the local press in Weston-super-Mare and wrote about the adventures of her son 'Tuppence'; this caused Archer to be the victim of bullying while at Wellington School. Caroline Davies "He lied his way to the top", Daily Telegraph, 20 July 2001 [website p1]. Retrieved on 20 April 2007. After Archer left school passing O-levels in English Literature, Art, and History, he worked in a number of jobs, including training with the army and for the police. This lasted only for a few months, but he fared better as a Physical Education teacher; first at Vicar's Hill School in Hampshire, and later at the more prestigious Dover College in Kent. As a teacher he was popular with pupils and reported by some to have had good motivational skills. Oxford He gained a place at Brasenose College, Oxford to study for a one-year diploma in education, though he stayed for three years, gaining an academic qualification in teaching awarded by the Oxford Department for Education. There have been claims that Archer provided false evidence of his academic qualifications, for instance the apparent citing of an American institution which was actually a bodybuilding club, in gaining admission to Oxford University. "Author of his own Demise", ninemsn, 22 July 2001. Retrieved on 20 April 2007. His website is careful to omit whether he was a full undergraduate at Oxford (he was not) and drops in casual references to his Oxford 'Principal' to sustain this illusion. While at Oxford he was moderately successful in athletics, competing in sprinting and hurdling. His athletic abilities also translated well to the sport of rowing and he was part of Oxford's unsuccessful crew in the 1962 University Boat Race. He also made a name raising money for the then little-known charity Oxfam, obtaining the support of The Beatles in a charity fundraising drive. The band accepted his invitation to visit the senior common room of Brasenose College, where they were photographed with Archer and dons of the college, although they didn't play there. The critic Sheridan Morley, then a student at Merton, was present and recalled the occasion: It was during this period that he met his wife, Mary. They married in July 1966. Early career After leaving Oxford, he continued as a charity fundraiser, working for the National Birthday Trust, a medical charity. He also began a career in politics, serving as a Conservative councillor on the Greater London Council from 1967-1970. One organisation Archer worked for, the United Nations Association, alleged discrepancies in his claims for expenses, and details appeared in the press in a scrambled form. Archer brought a defamation action against the former Conservative member of parliament Humphry Berkeley, chairman of the UNA, as the source of the allegations. The case was settled out of court after three years. Berkeley tried to persuade Conservative Central Office that Archer was unsuitable as a parliamentary candidate, but a selection meeting at Louth disregarded any doubts. Archer set up his own fund-raising company, Arrow Enterprises, in 1969. That same year he opened an art gallery, the Archer Gallery, in Mayfair. The gallery specialised in modern art, including pieces by the acclaimed sculptor and painter Leon Underwood. The gallery ultimately lost money, however, and Archer sold it two years later. Member of Parliament At 29, he was elected as Member of Parliament (MP) for the Lincolnshire constituency of Louth, holding the seat for the Conservative Party in a by-election on 4 December 1969. Archer beat Ian Gow to the selection after winning over a substantial proportion of younger members at the selection meeting. Archer's campaign colour was a dayglo orange/pink with a blue arrow; the political parties in Lincolnshire had not yet abandoned local colours, which were different from the party national colours. Louth constituency had three key areas: Louth, Cleethorpes, and Immingham. During his time as a Member of Parliament, Archer was a regular at the Immingham Conservative Club in the most working-class part of the constituency. Membership and activity within the local Conservative Party increased with Archer as MP, due to his energy and campaigning skills. His personality and professionalism (he always drank orange juice) won him friends in the town and the local party. In Parliament, Archer was on the left of the Conservative Party, rebelling against some of his party's policies. He urged free TV licences for the elderly and was against museum charges. Archer voted against restoring capital punishment, saying it was barbaric and obscene. In 1971 he employed David Mellor, then needing money for his bar finals, to deal with his correspondence. He tipped Mellor to reach the cabinet. In an interview Archer said "I hope we don't return to extremes. I'm what you might call centre-right but I've always disliked the right wing as much as I've disliked the left wing." In 1974, he was a casualty of a fraudulent investment scheme involving Aquablast, a Canadian company, a debacle which lost Archer his first fortune. Fearing imminent bankruptcy, he stood down as an MP at the October 1974 general election. By this time the Archers were living in a large five-bedroom house in The Boltons, an exclusive street in South Kensington. As a result of the Aquablast affair, they were forced to sell the house and move into more modest accommodation for a while. Archer remained president of Immingham Conservative Party until he withdrew from the 2000 election for Mayor of London in 1999. Archer is considered a local celebrity by people of Immingham who were around when he was their Member of Parliament (although Archer has no family or business connection with the area). His rare visits to northern Lincolnshire attract considerable local public interest. Politics and writing His first book, Not a Penny More, Not a Penny Less, was picked up by the literary agent Deborah Owen and published first in the US, then eventually in Britain in the Autumn of 1976. The book was an instant success and Archer avoided bankruptcy, never being legally declared bankrupt. A BBC Television adaptation of the book was broadcast in 1990, and a radio adaptation was aired on BBC Radio 4 in the early 1980s. While he was a witness in the Aquablast case in Toronto in 1977, Archer was accused of taking three suits from a department store, an accusation he denied for many years. However, in the late 1990s, Archer finally acknowledged that he had indeed taken the suits, although he claimed that at the time he hadn't realised he had left the shop. No charges were brought. Kane and Abel proved to be his best-selling work, reaching number one on the New York Times bestsellers list. It was made into a television mini-series by CBS in 1985, starring Peter Strauss and Sam Neill. The following year, Granada TV screened a ten-part adaptation of another Archer bestseller, First Among Equals, which told the story of four men and their quest to become Prime Minister. Archer claims to spend considerable time writing and re-writing each book. He goes abroad to write the first draft, working in blocks of two-hours at a time, then writes anything up to seventeen further drafts. It has been suggested that his books require extensive editing by others to make them readable. Paul Kelso "Mendacious, ambitious, generous and naive", The Guardian, 20 July 2001. Retrieved on 9 May 2007. "The Fall of Jeffrey Archer: The Man and the Myths: His was a life...", The Independent by Chris Blackhurst. 20 July 2007 [page 2. Retrieved on 9 May 2007. In 1979, Archer purchased the Old Vicarage, Grantchester, a house associated with the poet Rupert Brooke. He also began to hold shepherd's pie and Krug parties for prominent people at his London apartment, which overlooks the Houses of Parliament. Archer's political career revived once he became known for his novels and as a popular speaker among the Conservative grassroots. He was made deputy chairman of the Conservative Party by Margaret Thatcher in September 1985. Norman Tebbit, party chairman, had misgivings over the appointment, as did other prominent members of the party, including William Whitelaw and Ted Heath. During his tenure as deputy chairman, Archer was responsible for a number of embarrassing gaffes, including his claim, made during a live radio interview, that many young, unemployed people were simply unwilling to find work. At the time of Archer's comment, unemployment in the UK stood at a record 3.4 million. Archer was later forced to apologize for the remark, suggesting that his words had been "taken out of context". Another scandal arose leading to his resignation in October 1986, when The News of the World led on the story "Tory boss Archer pays vice-girl". The article claimed Archer had paid Monica Coghlan, a prostitute, £2000 through an intermediary at Victoria Station to go abroad. Unlike the Daily Star, the newspaper did not allege that Archer had slept with Coghlan. Archer sued the Daily Star. Peerage In 1992, after having been previously rejected, Archer was made a life peer as Baron Archer of Weston-super-Mare, of Mark in the County of Somerset by the Queen on the advice of the Prime Minister John Major. In a speech at the 1993 Conservative conference, Archer urged the Home Secretary Michael Howard, to "Stand and deliver" saying: "Michael, I am sick and tired of being told by old people that they are frightened to open the door, they're frightened to go out at night, frightened to use the parks and byways where their parents and grandparents walked with freedom ... We say to you: stand and deliver!". He then attacked violent films and urged tougher prison conditions to prevent criminals from re-offending. He criticised the role of do-gooders and finished off the speech by denouncing the opposition party's Law and Order policies. The Times newspaper - Thursday 7 October 1993 . On Question Time in February 1994, Archer stated that 18 should be the age of consent for homosexuality, as opposed to 21, which it was at the time, or 16, which it was to be made in 1999. Archer has also consistently been an opponent of a return to capital punishment. Controversies Daily Star libel case In July 1987, the libel case over the allegation that Archer had had sex with Monica Coghlan came to court. The payment to Coghlan was explained as the action of a philanthropist rather than that of a guilty man. He won the case and was awarded £500,000 damages. Archer stated he would donate the money to charity. This case would ultimately result in Archer's final exit from front-line politics some years later. There was astonishment at the description the judge (Mr Justice Caulfield) gave of Mrs Archer in his jury instructions: "Remember Mary Archer in the witness-box. Your vision of her probably will never disappear. Has she elegance? Has she fragrance? Would she have, without the strain of this trial, radiance? How would she appeal? Has she had a happy married life? Has she been able to enjoy, rather than endure, her husband Jeffrey?" The judge then went on to say of Jeffrey Archer, "Is he in need of cold, unloving, rubber-insulated sex in a seedy hotel round about quarter to one on a Tuesday morning after an evening at the Caprice?" By this time, according to the journalist Adam Raphael, Jeffrey and Mary Archer were, in fact, living largely separate lives. The editor of the Daily Star, Lloyd Turner, was sacked six weeks after the trial by the paper's owner Lord Stevens of Ludgate. Share dealings In January 1994, Mary Archer, then a director of Anglia Television, attended a directors' meeting at which an impending takeover of Anglia Television by MAI, which owned Meridian Broadcasting, was discussed. The following day, Jeffrey Archer bought 50,000 shares in Anglia Television, acting on behalf of a friend, Broosk Saib. Shortly after this, it was announced publicly that Anglia Television would be taken over by MAI. As a result the shares jumped in value, whereupon Archer sold them on behalf of his friend for a profit of £77,219. The arrangements he made with the stockbrokers, which he had never used before, meant he did not have to pay at the time of buying the shares. An inquiry was launched by the Stock Exchange into possible insider trading. The Department of Trade and Industry, headed by Michael Heseltine, announced that Archer would not be prosecuted. Archer later claimed that he had been "exonerated", but the DTI inquiry had merely stated that there was insufficient evidence to bring a prosecution. Missing Kurdish aid In July 2001, Scotland Yard began investigating allegations that millions of pounds had disappeared from Simple Truth, a fundraising campaign run by Archer. He set up a charity with the Red Cross. He employed two Kurdish aides, Broosk Saib and Nadhim Zahawi, whom he nicknamed "Lemon Kurd and Bean Kurd." In May 1991, Archer organised a charity pop concert in aid of the Kurds of Iraq, starring Rod Stewart, Paul Simon, Sting and Gloria Estefan, who all performed for free. On 19 June 1991, Archer held up a cheque for £57,042,000, around £3 million came from the Simple Truth concert and appeal, £10m from the UK government, and the remaining £43 million from overseas governments' aid projects, with significant amounts pledged before the concert. The campaign led John Major to recommend Archer for his peerage. In 1992 the Kurdish Disaster Fund wrote to Archer, complaining: "You must be concerned that the Kurdish refugees have seen hardly any of the huge sums raised in the west in their name," Kurdish groups claimed little more than £250,000 had been received by groups in Iraq. Former Conservative Party vice chairman Lady Nicholson said "practically nothing" of the £57 million Archer said he collected had reached the Kurdish people. Archer then went to Iraq on a fact-finding mission, where his chant of "Long Live Kurdistan" was unfortunately mis-translated as "Bastard, Devilish Kurdistan." A British Red Cross-commissioned KPMG audit of the cash showed no donations were handled by Archer and any misappropriation was "unlikely". But KPMG could find no evidence to support Archer's claims to have raised £31.5 million from overseas governments. The police said they would launch a "preliminary assessment of the facts" from the audit but were not investigating the Simple Truth fund. Perjury and downfall Archer had been selected by the Conservative Party as candidate for the London mayoral election of 2000. He was forced to withdraw when it was revealed that he was facing a charge of perjury. In November 1999 Ted Francis, a friend (who claimed Archer owed him money) and Archer's former personal assistant Angela Peppiatt claimed he had fabricated an alibi in the 1987 trial. They were concerned that Archer was standing as Mayor of London and doubted that he was suitable. Peppiatt had kept a diary of Archer's movements, which contradicted evidence given during the 1987 trial. This formed the basis of the case against Archer. The News of the World published the allegations on 21 November 1999 and Archer withdrew his candidacy the following day. Conservative leader William Hague said "This is the end of politics for Jeffrey Archer. I will not tolerate such behaviour in my party". On 8 October he had described Archer as a candidate of "probity and integrity. I'm going to back him all the way" at the Conservative party conference. On 4 February 2000 Archer was expelled from the Conservative Party for five years. On 26 September 2000 he was charged with perjury and perverting the course of justice during the 1987 libel trial. A few months before the beginning of the perjury trial, Archer began in the star role in a courtroom play (which he also wrote) called The Accused. The play was staged at London's Theatre Royal Haymarket and concerned the court trial of an alleged murderer from beginning to end. The play used the technique of assigning the role of jury in the trial to the audience, theatre-goers voting on whether Archer's character was guilty at the end of each performance. Archer would attend his real trial during the day and be judged in his fictional trial in the evening. The real trial began on 30 May 2001, a month after Monica Coghlan's death. On 19 July 2001, Archer was found guilty of perjury and perverting the course of justice at the 1987 trial. He was sentenced to four years' imprisonment by Mr Justice Potts. Archer never spoke during the trial, though his wife Mary again gave evidence as she had done during the 1987 trial. Ted Francis was found not guilty of perverting the course of justice. Archer's mother died on 11 July 2001 aged 87, and he was released for the day on 21 July to attend the funeral. Archer was sent to Belmarsh Prison, but was moved to the category "C" Wayland Prison in Norfolk on 9 August 2001, and to HMP North Sea Camp, an open prison in October 2001. From there he was let out to work at the Theatre Royal in Lincoln, England, and was allowed occasional home visits. Reports in the media claimed he had been abusing this privilege by attending lunches with friends, including former Education Secretary Gillian Shephard and in September 2002 he was transferred to Lincoln Prison for a month. While in prison, he wrote the three-volume memoir A Prison Diary. During his time in prison, he was visited by a number of high-profile friends, including the actor Donald Sinden and the performer Barry Humphries. In October 2002 Archer repaid the Daily Star the £500,000 damages he had received in 1987, as well as legal costs and interest of £1.3 million. That month, he was suspended from Marylebone Cricket Club for seven years. On 21 July 2003 he was released on licence, after serving half of his sentence, from HMP Hollesley Bay, Suffolk. Many of Archer's friends remained loyal. He and Lady Archer were guests at the memorial service for Norris McWhirter at Saint Martin-in-the-Fields on Thursday, 7 October 2004 where they sat in the same pew as former head of the Conservative Monday Club, Gregory Lauder-Frost, and in front of Lady Thatcher, who embraced Lady Archer. On 26 February 2006 on Andrew Marr's Sunday AM programme, Archer said he had no interest in returning to front-line politics: he would pursue his writing instead. Equatorial Guinea coup d'état attempt In 2004, the Equatorial Guinea government alleged that Archer was one of the financiers of the failed 2004 coup d'état attempt against them, citing bank details and telephone records as evidence. Archer in fiction Archer was satirically portrayed as a misunderstood secret agent, saviour of Britain and mankind and "overall thoroughly good chap", by actor Damian Lewis in the BBC drama Jeffrey Archer: The Truth (2002), which received strong reviews. Script writer Guy Jenkin explained that "my Jeffrey Archer is the man who has frequently saved Britain over the last 30 years. He's beloved of all women he comes across, all men, all dogs - he's a superhero". In There's No Place Like a Home, a comedy play by Paul Elliot, the residents of a retirement home for actors and actresses, trying to prevent its closure, kidnap Archer to use the ransom money to keep their home open. Further reading References External links Anglia shares at BBC News Jeffrey Archer's official Web site Jeffrey Archer in DTI shares inquiry at The Guardian Jeffrey Archer: Special Report at The Guardian Filmed interview from March 2008at Access Interviews Interview about becoming Mayor of London at BBC News News In Depth: The Archer trial at BBC News The Archer trial coverage at The Guardian Review of Jeffrey Archer's 2000 courtroom play, The Accused at Curtain Up The Times - "Activists demand tough line on crime - Conservative Party conference" - 7 October 1993. 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5,378 | Marcus_Aurelius | Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus (often referred to as "the wise"; April 26, 121 Augustan History, "Marcus Aurelius" – March 17, 180) was Roman Emperor from 161 to his death in 180. He was the last of the "Five Good Emperors", and is also considered one of the most important Stoic philosophers. His tenure was marked by wars in Asia against a revitalized Parthian Empire, and with Germanic tribes along the Limes Germanicus into Gaul and across the Danube. A revolt in the East, led by Avidius Cassius who previously fought alongside Lucius Verus against the Parthians, failed. Marcus Aurelius' work Meditations, written in Greek while on campaign between 170 and 180, is still revered as a literary monument to a government of service and duty and has been praised for its "exquisite accent and its infinite tenderness." John Stuart Mill in his Utility of Religion, compared Meditations to the Sermon on the Mount. Early life Family He was originally named Marcus Annius Catilius Severus. When he married he took the name Marcus Annius Verus, Historia Augusta, Marcus Aurelius, 1 Cassius Dio, lxix, 21 and when he was named Emperor, he was given the name Marcus Aurelius Antoninus. Marcus Aurelius was the only son to Marcus Annius Verus and Domitia Lucilla. Marcus Aurelius' father was of Romano-Spanish origin, and served as a praetor and died when Marcus was three years old. Marcus Aurelius credits him with teaching him "manliness without ostentation". 1964 Maxwell Staniforth translation. His mother was of Italian ancestry. His only natural sibling was his younger sister Annia Cornificia Faustina, who was about 2 years younger than he. Domitia Lucilla came from a wealthy family who were of consular rank. His grandmother Rupilia Faustina was perhaps the daughter of Salonina Matidia (niece of the Roman Emperor Trajan) and half-sister of Sabina, wife of Hadrian. His father's sister was Faustina the Elder a Roman Empress who married the Roman Emperor Antoninus Pius. After his father's death, Aurelius was adopted and raised by his mother and paternal grandfather Marcus Annius Verus. His paternal grandfather died in 138; he was almost ninety years old. Heir to the Empire Bust of Marcus Aurelius as a young boy, Capitoline Museum, Rome. In 137, Hadrian had announced that his eventual successor would be Lucius Ceionius Commodus, renamed L. Aelius Caesar. Marcus had already attracted the attention of Hadrian (who had nicknamed him verissimus, which translates as "truest") and had been made a member of the equestrian order when he was six; he was subsequently engaged to Ceionia Fabia, Commodus' daughter. The engagement, however, was annulled later after the death of Commodus, as Marcus was betrothed to Antoninus' daughter. Therefore, on the death of Hadrian's first adopted son L. Aelius Verus, Hadrian made it a precondition of making Antoninus his successor that Antoninus would adopt Marcus (then called Marcus Aelius Aurelius Verus) and Lucius Ceionius Commodus (Lucius Aelius' son, ten years junior than Marcus, renamed Lucius Aurelius Verus), and arrange for them to be next in the line. This Antoninus did, adopting and designating them as his successors on February 25 138, when Marcus was only seventeen years of age. He would become emperor at 40. It has been suggested that Commodus and Antoninus Pius were designed by Hadrian only as "place warmers" for the young Marcus and Verus. Marcus received an education from some of the greatest scholars of his day: Euphorion for literature, Geminus for drama, Andron for geometry, Caninius Celer and Herodes Atticus in Greek oratory, Alexander of Cotiaeum for Greek, and Marcus Cornelius Fronto for Latin. It is through Marcus' correspondence with Fronto that we have many of the details of his life during the reign of Antoninus. Through these letters Marcus appears as an intelligent, serious-minded and hardworking youth. They also show the growing importance of philosophy for the future emperor: showing impatience for the unending exercises with Greek and Latin declamations, he later became fond of the Diatribai ("Discourses") of Epictetus, an important moral philosopher of the Stoic school. Marcus also started to have an increasing public role at the side of Antoninus, holding the place of consul in 140, 145 and 161 and increasing collaboration in decisions. In 147 he received the proconsular imperium outside Rome and the tribunicia potestas, the main formal powers of emperorship. In 145, Marcus married Annia Galeria Faustina or Faustina the Younger, who was Antoninus' daughter and his paternal cousin. Emperor Joint emperorship Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius on Capitoline Hill. When Antoninus Pius died (March 7 161), Marcus accepted the throne on the condition that he and Verus were made joint emperors (Augusti). Though formally equal from the constitutional point of view, Verus, younger and probably less popular, looks to have been subordinate in practice. Cassius Dio, Roman History, 71.1 Marcus' insistence to have Verus elected with him was motivated by his loyalty towards the will of their adoptive father. The joint succession may have also been motivated by military experiences, since, during his reign, Marcus Aurelius was almost constantly at war with various peoples outside the empire. A highly authoritative figure was needed to command the troops, yet the emperor himself could not defend both the German and Parthian fronts at the same time. Neither could he simply appoint a general to lead the legions; earlier popular military leaders like Julius Caesar and Vespasian had used the military to overthrow the existing government and install themselves as supreme leaders. Marcus Aurelius solved the problem by sending Verus to command the legions in the east. Verus was authoritative enough to command the full loyalty of the troops, but already powerful enough that he had little incentive to overthrow Marcus. Verus remained loyal until his death in 169. This joint emperorship was reminiscent of the political system of the Roman Republic, which functioned according to the principle of collegiality and did not allow a single person to hold supreme power. Joint rule was revived by Diocletian's establishment of the Tetrarchy in the late 3rd century. Immediately at the beginning of his reign, Marcus continued on the path of his predecessors by issuing numerous law reforms, mainly to clear away abuses and anomalies in the civil jurisprudence. In particular he promoted favourable measures towards categories like slaves, widows and minors; recognition to blood relationships in the field of succession was given. In the criminal law a distinction of class, with different punishments, was made between honestiores and humiliores ("The more distinguished" and "the more lowly", respectively). Under Marcus' reign, the status of Christians remained the same since the time of Trajan. They were legally punishable, though in fact rarely persecuted. In 177 a group of Christians were executed at Lyon, for example, but the act is mainly attributable to the initiative of the local governor. Challenges faced War with Parthia Marcus Aurelius Arch in Tripoli, built to commemorate the emperor. In Asia, a revitalized Parthian Empire renewed its assault in 161, defeating two Roman armies and invading Armenia and Syria. Marcus Aurelius sent his joint emperor Verus to command the legions in the east to face this threat. The war ended successfully in 166, although the merit must be mostly ascribed to subordinate generals like Gaius Avidius Cassius. On the return from the campaign, Verus was awarded with a triumph; the parade was unusual because it included the two emperors, their sons and unmarried daughters as a big family celebration. Marcus Aurelius' two sons, Commodus five years old and Annius Verus of three, were elevated to the status of Caesar for the occasion. The returning army carried with them a plague, afterwards known as the Antonine Plague, or the Plague of Galen, which spread through the Roman Empire between 165 and 180. The disease was a pandemic believed to be either of smallpox or measles, and would ultimately claim the lives of two Roman emperors—Lucius Verus, who died in 169, and Marcus Aurelius, whose family name, Antoninus, was given to the epidemic. The disease broke out again nine years later, according to the Roman historian Dio Cassius, and caused up to 2,000 deaths a day at Rome, one quarter of those infected. Total deaths have been estimated at five million. A possible contact with Han China occurred in 166 AD when a Roman traveller visited the Han court, claiming to be an ambassador representing a certain Andun (Chinese: 安敦), who can be identified either with Marcus Aurelius or his predecessor Antoninus Pius. Edwin G. Pulleyblank: "The Roman Empire as Known to Han China", Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 119, No. 1 (1999), pp. 71-79 Germania and the Danube Bust of Marcus Aurelius, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. Starting from the 160s, Germanic tribes and other nomadic people launched raids along the Northern border, particularly into Gaul and across the Danube. This new impetus westwards was probably due to attacks from tribes farther east. A first invasion of the Chatti in the province of Germania Superior was repulsed in 162. Far more dangerous was the invasion of 166, when the Marcomanni of Bohemia, clients of the Roman Empire since 19, crossed the Danube together with the Lombards and other German tribes. At the same time, the Iranian Sarmatians attacked between the Danube and the Theiss rivers. Due to the situation in the East, only a punitive expedition could be launched in 167. Both Marcus and Verus led the troops. After the death of Verus (169), Marcus led personally the struggle against the Germans for the great part of his remaining life. The Romans suffered at least two serious defeats by the Quadi and Marcomanni, who could cross the Alps, ravage Opitergium (Oderzo) and besiege Aquileia, the Roman main city of north-east Italy. At the same time the Costoboci, coming from the Carpathian area, invaded Moesia, Macedonia and Greece. After a long struggle, Marcus Aurelius managed to push back the invaders. Numerous Germans settled in frontier regions like Dacia, Pannonia, Germany and Italy itself. This was not a new thing, but this time the numbers of settlers required the creation of two new frontier provinces on the left shore of the Danube, Sarmatia and Marcomannia, including today's Bohemia and Hungary. The emperor's plans were, however, prevented by a revolt in East, led by Avidius Cassius, which was prompted by false news of the death of Marcus after an illness. Of the eastern provinces, only Cappadocia and Bithynia did not side with the rebels. When it became clear that Marcus Aurelius was still alive, Cassius' fortunes declined quickly and he was killed by his troops after only 100 days of power. Together with his wife Faustina, Marcus Aurelius toured the eastern provinces until 173. He visited Athens, declaring himself a protector of philosophy. After a triumph in Rome, the following year he marched again to the Danubian frontier. After a decisive victory in 178, the plan to annex Bohemia seemed poised for success but was abandoned after Marcus Aurelius again fell ill in 180. Death and succession Marcus Aurelius died on March 17 180, in the city of Vindobona (modern Vienna), his son and successor Commodus accompanying him. He was immediately deified and his ashes were returned to Rome, and rested in Hadrian's mausoleum (modern Castel Sant'Angelo) until the Visigoth sack of the city in 410. His campaigns against Germans and Sarmatians were also commemorated by a column and a temple in Rome. Marcus Aurelius was able to secure the succession for Commodus, whom he had named Caesar in 166 and made co-emperor in 177, though the choice may have been unknowingly unfortunate. This decision, which put an end to the fortunate series of "adoptive emperors", was highly criticized by later historians since Commodus was a political and military outsider, as well as an extreme egotist with neurotic problems. For this reason, Marcus Aurelius' death is often held to have been the end of the Pax Romana. It is possible that he chose Commodus simply in the absence of other candidates, or as a result of the fear of succession issues and the possibility of civil war. Historian Michael Grant, in The Climax of Rome (1968), states about Commodus: Marriage and issue Bust of Faustina the Younger, Louvre, Paris. Aurelius married Faustina the Younger in 145. During their 30-year marriage Faustina bore 13 children. Only one son and four daughters outlived their father: Annia Aurelia Galeria Faustina (147-after 165) Gemellus Lucillae (died around 150), twin brother of Lucilla Annia Aurelia Galeria Lucilla (148/50-182), twin sister of Gemellus, married her father's co-ruler Lucius Verus Titus Aelius Antoninus (born after 150, died before 7 March 161) Titus Aelius Aurelius (born after 150, died before 7 March 161) Hadrianus (152-157) Domitia Faustina (born after 150, died before 7 March 161) Fadilla (159-after 211) Annia Cornificia Faustina Minor (160-after 211) Titus Aurelius Fulvus Antoninus (161-165), twin brother of Commodus Lucius Aurelius Commodus Antoninus(Commodus) (161-192), twin brother of Titus Aurelius Fulvus Antoninus, later emperor Marcus Annius Verus Caesar (162-169) Vibia Aurelia Sabina (170-died before 217) Writings Original bronze statue of Marcus Aurelius, now preserved in the Capitoline Museums, Rome. While on campaign between 170 and 180, Aurelius wrote his Meditations in Greek as a source for his own guidance and self-improvement. He had been a priest at the sacrificial altars of Roman service and was an eager patriot. He had a logical mind and his notes were representative of Stoic philosophy and spirituality. Meditations is still revered as a literary monument to a government of service and duty. It has been praised for its "exquisite accent and its infinite tenderness" and "saintliness", and has also been called the "gospel of his life." John Stuart Mill, in his Utility of Religion, compared the Meditations to the Sermon on the Mount. The book itself was first published in 1558 in Zurich, from a manuscript copy that is now lost. The only other surviving complete copy of the manuscript is in the Vatican library. Marcus Aurelius wrote Meditations in Greek at his base in Sirmium in modern-day Serbia and also while positioned at Aquincum on campaign in Pannonia in modern-day Hungary. The significance of death was very important in the philosophy of Marcus Aurelius. He wrote, "And as for death, if there be any gods, it is no grievous thing to leave the society of men. The gods will do thee no hurt, thou mayest be sure. But if it be so that there be no gods, or that they take no care of the world, why should I desire to live in a world void of gods, and of all divine providence? But gods there be certainly, and they take care for the world;" He believed that life was a gift from the gods. He wrote "Remember how long thou hast been putting off these things, and how often thou hast received an opportunity from the gods, and yet dost not use it." Death, to him was a reminder to not chase the vanities of the world. He wrote: 'We live for an instant, only to be swallowed in "complete forgetfulness and the void of infinite time on this side of us." "Think how many ere now, after passing their life in implacable enmity, suspicion, hatred... are now dead and burnt to ashes." According to Marcus Aurelius everything will be turned in absolute oblivion, even legends. "Of the life of man the duration is but a point, its substance streaming away, its perception dim, the fabric of the entire body prone to decay, and the soul a vortex, and fortune incalculable, and fame uncertain. In a word all things of the body are as a river, and the things of the soul as a dream and a vapour; and life is a warfare and a pilgrim's sojourn, and fame after death is only forgetfulness." 'Everything existing "is already disintegrating and changing... everything is by nature made but to die." 'The length of one's life is irrelevant, "for look at the yawning gulf of time behind thee and before thee at another infinity to come. In this eternity the life of a baby of three days and the life of a Nestor of three centuries are as one." 'To desire is to be permanently disappointed and disturbed, since everything we desire in this world is "empty and corrupt and paltry." For Marcus Aurelius, death was a release, among other things, from "the swaying of desire." Jonathan Dollimore, Death, Desire and Loss in Western Culture (London 1998) 32–34. Marcus Aurelius reminds himself not to fear death. He wrote, "....waiting for death with a cheerful mind, as being nothing else than a dissolution of the elements of which every living being is compounded. But if there is no harm to the elements themselves in each continually changing into another, why should a man have any apprehension about the change and dissolution of all the elements? For it is according to nature, and nothing is evil which is according to nature. " Marcus Aurelius in later arts Literature Marcus Aurelius appears as a minor character and is mentioned extensively in Marius the Epicurean by Walter Pater. John Steinbeck in East of Eden has the character Lee read often from Meditations as a sage-like character. A Man in Full, a 1998 novel by Tom Wolfe. One of the characters reads Marcus Aurelius while in jail and is heavily influenced by his Stoicism. It helps him deal with his suffering and the injustice of his incarceration. However, Wolfe more strongly uses Epictetus. Mémoires d'Hadrien (1951), a fictitious but plausible autobiography (in form of a series of letters directed to his adoptive grandson "Marcus") of one of his predecessors, Hadrian, by Marguerite Yourcenar. It is one of the best-selling European novels of the 20th century. Household Gods, a 1999 novel by Judith Tarr and Harry Turtledove. John Irving in "The World According to Garp" has the character Garp reflect on a quote of Marcus Aurelius from "Meditations". Silence of the Lambs Hannibal Lecter referral whilst talking to Agent Clarice Starling: "First principles, Clarice. Simplicity. Read Marcus Aurelius. Of each particular thing ask: what is it in itself? What is its nature? What does he do, this man you seek?" "The Most Dangerous Game" by Richard Connell features the wicked General Zaroff reading Marcus Aurelius after his unsuccessful hunting of Sanger Rainsford. "Mr Biswas" in A House For Mr Biswas by V S Naipaul often refers to Marcus Aurelius to show that he (Mr Biswas) is wiser and better read than his brothers-in-law. Upamanyu Chatterjee in "English, August" has the protagonist Agastya Sen often quote Marcus Aurelius while spending a year as a trainee civil services officer in the village of Madna. A Marcus Aurelius book is burned in Fahrenheit 451. In the Babylon 5 book To Dream in the City of Sorrows, Jeffrey Sinclair (who is also the spiritual leader Valen) frequently mentions the Meditations of Marcus Aurelius. Sinclair/Valen calls Meditations one of "the best books ever on leadership." Film The Fall of the Roman Empire (1964), played by Alec Guinness Gladiator (2000), starring Russell Crowe See also Epictetus Stoicism Socrates Zeno of Citium Notes External links Huge statue of Roman ruler found Primary sources Cassius Dio, Roman History. See original text on LacusCurtius. Marcus Aurelius, Meditations. Scriptores Historiae Augustae, Augustan History. See original text on LacusCurtius. English Translation by George Long (1862) Latin Version by J. M. Schulz (1802) Henry Dwight Sedgwick, Life of Marcus Aurelius, Yale University Press, 1922. Partial statue of Marcus Aurelius recently unearthed in Turkey (25 AUG 08) Greek Version Secondary material Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry Marcus Aurelius entry at De Imperatoribus Romanis Marcuss Aurelius free access article at Encyclopaedia Britannica Marcus Aurelius entry at livius.org A Man in Full: The Teachings of Marcus Aurelius and Epictetus A discussion and comparison of Meditations and its influence on Tom Wolfe and modern culture. Marcus Aurelius: The Philosopher-Emperor of Rome — Essay looking at Marcus Aurelius from the perspective of his leadership. 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5,379 | Halophile | Halophiles are extremophile organisms that thrive in environments with very high concentrations of salt. The name comes from Greek for "salt-loving". While the term is perhaps most often applied to some halophiles classified into the Archaea domain, there are also bacterial halophiles and some eukaryota, such as the alga Dunaliella salina. Some well-known species give off a red color from carotenoid compounds. Such species contain the photosynthetic pigment bacteriorhodopsin. Halophiles are categorized slight, moderate or extreme, by the extent of their halotolerance. Halophiles can be found anywhere with a concentration of salt five times greater than the salt concentration of the ocean, such as the Great Salt Lake in Utah, Owens Lake in California, the Dead Sea, and in evaporation ponds. What halophiles do and how they work High salinity represents an extreme environment that relatively few organisms have been able to adapt to and occupy. Most halophilic and all halotolerant organisms expend energy to exclude salt from their cytoplasm to avoid protein aggregation (‘salting out’). In order to survive the high salinities, halophiles employ two differing strategies to prevent desiccation through osmotic movement of water out of their cytoplasm. Both strategies work by increasing the internal osmolarity of the cell. In the first, that is employed by the majority of bacteria, some archaea, yeasts, algae and fungi, organic compounds are accumulated in the cytoplasm – these osmoprotectants are known as compatible solutes. These can be synthesised or accumulated from the environment. Santos, H., and da Costa, M.S. (2002) Compatible solutes of organisms that live in hot saline environments. Environmental Microbiology 4: 501-509. The most common compatible solutes are neutral or zwitterionic and include amino acids, sugars, polyols, betaines and ectoines, as well as derivatives of some of these compounds. The second, more radical, adaptation involves the selective influx of potassium (K+) ions into the cytoplasm. This adaptation is restricted to the moderately halophilic bacterial Order Halanerobiales, the extremely halophilic archaeal Family Halobacteriaceae and the extremely halophilic bacterium Salinibacter ruber. The presence of this adaptation in three distinct evolutionary lineages suggests convergent evolution of this strategy, it being unlikely to be an ancient characteristic retained in only scattered groups or through massive lateral gene transfer . The primary reason for this is that the entire intracellular machinery (enzymes, structural proteins, etc.) must be adapted to high salt levels, whereas in the compatible solute adaptation little or no adjustment is required to intracellular macromolecules – in fact, the compatible solutes often act as more general stress protectants as well as just osmoprotectants. Of particular note are the extreme halophiles or haloarchaea (often known as halobacteria), a group of archaea, which require at least a 2 M salt concentration and are usually found in saturated solutions (about 36% w/v salts). These are the primary inhabitants of salt lakes, inland seas, and evaporating ponds of seawater, such as the Dead Sea and solar salterns, where they tint the water column and sediments bright colors. In other words, they will most likely perish if they are exposed to anything other than a very high concentration salt-conditioned environment. These prokaryotes require salt for growth. The high concentration of NaCl in their environment limits the availability of oxygen for respiration. Their cellular machinery is adapted to high salt concentrations by having charged amino acids on their surfaces, allowing the retention of water molecules around these components. They are heterotrophs that normally respire by aerobic means. Most halophiles are unable to survive outside their high-salt native environment. Indeed, many cells are so fragile that when placed in distilled water they immediately lyse from the change in osmotic conditions. Haloarchaea, and particularly, the family Halobacteriaceae are members of the domain Archaea, and comprise the majority of the prokaryotic population in hypersaline environments. Oren, A. (2002) Molecular ecology of extremely halophilic Archaea and Bacteria. FEMS Microbiology Ecology: 1-7. There are currently 15 recognised genera in the family. Gutierrez, M.C., Kamekura, M., Holmes, M.L., Dyall-Smith, M.L., and Ventosa, A. (2002) Taxonomic characterisation of Haloferax sp. ("H. alicantei") strain Aa 2.2: description of Haloferax lucentensis sp. nov. Extremophiles. 2002 December;6(6):479-83 The domain Bacteria (mainly Salinibacter ruber) can comprise up to 25% of the prokaryotic community, but is more commonly a much lower percentage of the overall population. Anton, J., Rossello-Mora, R., Rodriguez-Valera, F., and Amann, R. (2000) Extremely halophilic bacteria in crystallizer ponds from solar salterns. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 66: 3052-3057. At times, the alga Dunaliella salina can also proliferate in this environment. Casamayor, E.O., Massana, R., Benlloch, S., Ovreas, L., Diez, B., Goddard, V.J., Gasol, J.M., Joint, I., Rodriguez-Valera, F., and Pedros-Alio, C. (2002) Changes in archaeal, bacterial and eukaryal assemblages along a salinity gradient by comparison of genetic fingerprinting methods in a multipond solar saltern. Environmental Microbiology 4: 338-348. A comparatively wide range of taxa have been isolated from saltern crystalliser ponds, including members of the following genera: Haloferax, Halogeometricum, Halococcus, Haloterrigena, Halorubrum, Haloarcula and Halobacterium families (Oren 2002). However, the viable counts in these cultivation studies have been small when compared to total counts, and the numerical significance of these isolates has been unclear. Only recently has it become possible to determine the identities and relative abundances of organisms in natural populations, typically using PCR-based strategies that target 16S small subunit ribosomal ribonucleic acid (16S rRNA) genes. While comparatively few studies of this type have been performed, results from these suggest that some of the most readily isolated and studied genera may not in fact be significant in the in-situ community. This is seen in cases such as the genus Haloarcula, which is estimated to make up less than 0.1% of the in situ community Anton, J., Llobet-Brossa, E., Rodriguez-Valera, F., and Amann, R. (1999) Fluorescence in situ hybridization analysis of the prokaryotic community inhabiting crystallizer ponds. Environmental Microbiology 1: 517-523. but commonly appears in isolation studies. In astrobiology It has been proposed that halophiles may be representative of life forms that may be present in niche ecologies on other planets. Geoffrey A. Landis of NASA Glenn Research Center, for example, has argued that liquid water, at the low temperature and pressures characteristic of the surface of Mars, is likely to be highly saline, and hence any extant lifeforms will be likely to be similar to terrestrial halophiles. Landis, G. A., "Martian Water: Are there Extant Halobacteria on Mars?" Astrobiology, Vol. 1, No. 2, 161-164 (2001). Extremophiles are currently being extensively studied by the astrobiology program both as possible ancient forms of terrestrial life, and hence as clues about the origin and early forms of life, and also as possible analogues for extraterrestrial life. The panspermia-hypothesis proposes that life on earth originates from extraterrestial extremophiles, that have survived some sort of journey through space. Genomic and proteomic signature of halophiles The comparative genomic and proteomic analysis revealed that there is a distinct molecular signatures for environmental adaptation of halophiles. At the protein level, the halophilic species are characterized by low hydrophobicity, overrepresentation of acidic residues, underrepresentation of Cys, lower propensities for helix formation and higher propensities for coil structure. It is also evident that the core of these proteins is less hydrophobic, such as DHFR, that was found to have narrower β-strands Kastritis, P.L., Papandreou, N.C., Hamodrakas S.J. (2007) Haloadaptation: insights from comparative modeling studies of halophilic archaeal DHFRs. Int J Biol Mac 2007, 41(4):447-453. At the DNA level, the halophiles exhibit distinct dinucleotide and codon usage. Paul, S., Bag, S.K., Das, S., Harvill, E.T., Dutta, C.(2008) Molecular Signature of Hypersaline Adaptation: Insights from Genome and Proteome Composition of Halophilic Prokaryotes. Genome Biology 2008, 9:R70. Halophile can be found in the Great Salt Lake in Utah, or in the Dead Sea of Israel. Examples Halobacterium NCBI taxonomy resources (2007) NCBI webpage on Halobacterium is a group of Archaea that have a high tolerance for elevated levels of salinity. Some species of halobacteria have acidic proteins that resist the denaturing effects of salts. Halococcus is a specific genus of the family Halobacterium. Some hypersaline lakes are a habitat to numerous families of halophiles. For example, the Makgadikgadi Pans in Botswana is a vast seasonal high salinity water body that manifests halophilic species within the diatom genus Nitzschia in the family Bacillariaceae as well as species within the genus Lovenula in the family Diaptomidae. Hogan, C. Michael (2008) The Megalithic Portal, ed. A. Burnham Owens lake in California also contains a large population of the halophilic bacteria Halobacterium halobium. See also Biosalinity Halotolerance References General references DasSarma, S. and P. DasSarma 2006. Halophiles, Encyclopedia of Life Sciences, Wiley, London. Madigan, Michael T., and Barry L. Narrs, "Extremophiles" Scientific American, April 1997: 82-88. 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5,380 | Claude_Monet | Claude Monet (French ) also known as Oscar-Claude Monet or Claude Oscar Monet (14 November 1840 – 5 December 1926) Biography of Claude Monet giverny.org. Retrieved 6 January 2007. was a founder of French impressionist painting, and the most consistent and prolific practitioner of the movement's philosophy of expressing one's perceptions before nature, especially as applied to plein-air landscape painting. House, John, et al.: Monet in the 20th Century, page 2. Yale University Press, 1998. The term Impressionism is derived from the title of his painting Impression, Sunrise. Early life Claude Monet was born on 14 November 1840 on the fifth floor of 45 rue Laffitte, in the ninth arrondissement of Paris. P. Tucker Claude Monet: Life and Art, p.5 He was the second son of Claude-Adolphe and Louise-Justine Aubrée Monet, both of them second-generation Parisians. On 20 May 1841, he was baptised in the local parish church, Notre-Dame-de-Lorette, as Oscar-Claude. In 1845, his family moved to Le Havre in Normandy. His father wanted him to go into the family grocery business, but Monet wanted to become an artist. His mother was a singer. On the first of April 1851, Monet entered the Le Havre secondary school of the arts. He first became known locally for his charcoal caricatures, which he would sell for ten to twenty francs. Monet also undertook his first drawing lessons from Jacques-François Ochard, a former student of Jacques-Louis David. On the beaches of Normandy in about 1856/1857 he met fellow artist Eugène Boudin, who became his mentor and taught him to use oil paints. Boudin taught Monet "en plein air" (outdoor) techniques for painting. Biography for Claude Monet Guggenheim Collection. Retrieved 6 January 2007. On 28 January 1857 his mother died. He was 16 years old when he left school and went to live with his widowed childless aunt, Marie-Jeanne Lecadre. Paris When Monet traveled to Paris to visit the Louvre, he witnessed painters copying from the old masters. Monet, having brought his paints and other tools with him, would instead go and sit by a window and paint what he saw. Monet was in Paris for several years and met several painters who would become friends and fellow impressionists. One of those friends was Édouard Manet. In June 1861 Monet joined the First Regiment of African Light Cavalry in Algeria for two years of a seven-year commitment, but upon his contracting typhoid his aunt Marie-Jeanne Lecadre intervened to get him out of the army if he agreed to complete an art course at a university. It is possible that the Dutch painter Johan Barthold Jongkind, whom Monet knew, may have prompted his aunt on this matter. Disillusioned with the traditional art taught at universities, in 1862 Monet became a student of Charles Gleyre in Paris, where he met Pierre-Auguste Renoir, Frédéric Bazille and Alfred Sisley. Together they shared new approaches to art, painting the effects of light en plein air with broken color and rapid brushstrokes, in what later came to be known as Impressionism. Monet's Camille or The Woman in the Green Dress (La Femme à la Robe Verte), painted in 1866, brought him recognition and was one of many works featuring his future wife, Camille Doncieux; she was the model for the figures in The Woman in the Garden of the following year, as well as for On the Bank of the Seine, Bennecourt, 1868, pictured here. Shortly thereafter Doncieux became pregnant and gave birth to their first child, Jean. In 1868, due to financial pressures, Monet attempted suicide by throwing himself into the Seine. Franco-Prussian War, Impressionism, and Argenteuil After the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War (19 July 1870), Monet took refuge in England in September 1870. Monet, Claude Nicolas Pioch, www.ibiblio.org, 19 September 2002. Retrieved 6 January 2007. While there, he studied the works of John Constable and Joseph Mallord William Turner, both of whose landscapes would serve to inspire Monet's innovations in the study of color. In the Spring of 1871, Monet's works were refused authorisation to be included in the Royal Academy exhibition. Charles Stuckey "Monet, a Retrospective", Hugh Lauter Levin Associates, 195 In May 1871 he left London to live in Zaandam, where he made 25 paintings (and the police suspected him of revolutionary activities). The texts of seven police reports, written on 2 June – 9 October 1871 are included in Monet in Holland, the catalog of an exhibition in the Amsterdam Van Gogh Museum (1986). He also paid a first visit to nearby Amsterdam. In October or November 1871 he returned to France. Monet lived from December 1871 to 1878 at Argenteuil, a village on the Seine near Paris, and here he painted some of his best known works. In 1874, he briefly returned to Holland. His paintings are shown and discussed here. In 1872 (or 1873), he painted Impression, Sunrise (Impression: soleil levant) depicting a Le Havre landscape. It hung in the first Impressionist exhibition in 1874 and is now displayed in the Musée Marmottan Monet, Paris. From the painting's title, art critic Louis Leroy coined the term "Impressionism", which he intended as disparagement but which the Impressionists appropriated for themselves. Impressionism — Overview ARTinthePICTURE.com. Retrieved 6 January 2007. Monet and Camille Doncieux had married just before the war (28 June 1870) and, after their excursion to London and Zaandam, they had moved into a house in Argenteuil near the Seine in December 1871. It was during this time that Monet painted various works of modern life in this popular suburb. Camille became ill in 1876. They had a second son, Michel, on 17 March 1878, (Jean was born in 1867). This second child weakened her already fading health. In that same year, he moved to the village of Vétheuil. At the age of thirty-two, Madame Monet died on 5 September 1879 of tuberculosis; Monet painted her on her death bed. http://www.artelino.com/articles/la_japonaise.asp accessed 25 September 2007 http://members.aol.com/wwjohnston/camille.htm accessed 25 September 2007 Gallery of early paintings Later life After several difficult months following the death of Camille on 5 September 1879, a grief-stricken Monet (resolving never to be mired in poverty again) began in earnest to create some of his best paintings of the 19th century. During the early 1880s Monet painted several groups of landscapes and seascapes in what he considered to be campaigns to document the French countryside. His extensive campaigns evolved into his series' paintings. Camille Monet had become ill with tuberculosis in 1876. Pregnant with her second child she gave birth to Michel Monet in March 1878. In 1878 the Monets temporarily moved into the home of Ernest Hoschedé, (1837-1891), a wealthy department store owner and patron of the arts. Both families then shared a house in Vétheuil during the summer. After her husband (Ernest Hoschedé) became bankrupt, and left in 1878 for Belgium, in September 1879, and while Monet continued to live in the house in Vétheuil; Alice Hoschedé helped Monet to raise his two sons, Jean and Michel, by taking them to Paris to live alongside her own six children. online biography retrieved 28 December 2007 They were Blanche, Germaine, Suzanne, Marthe, Jean-Pierre, and Jacques. In the spring of 1880 Alice Hoschedé and all the children left Paris and rejoined Monet still living in the house in Vétheuil. Charles Merrill Mount, Monet a biography, Simon and Schuster publisher, copyright 1966, pp.309-322. In 1881 all of them moved to Poissy which Monet hated. From the doorway of the little train between Vernon and Gasny he discovered Giverny. In April 1883 they moved to Vernon, then to a house in Giverny, Eure, in Upper Normandy, where he planted a large garden where he painted for much of the rest of his life. Following the death of her estranged husband, Alice Hoschedé married Claude Monet in 1892. Giverny At the beginning of May 1883, Monet and his large family rented a house and from a local landowner. The house was situated near the main road between the towns of Vernon and Gasny at Giverny. There was a barn that doubled as a painting studio, orchards and a small garden. The house was close enough to the local schools for the children to attend and the surrounding landscape offered an endless array of suitable motifs for Monet's work. The family worked and built up the gardens and Monet's fortunes began to change for the better as his dealer Paul Durand-Ruel had increasing success in selling his paintings. By November 1890 Monet was prosperous enough to buy the house, the surrounding buildings and the land for his gardens. During the 1890s Monet built a greenhouse and a second studio, a spacious building well lit with skylights. Beginning in the 1880s and 1890s, through the end of his life in 1926, Monet worked on "series" paintings, in which a subject was depicted in varying light and weather conditions. His first series exhibited as such was of Haystacks, painted from different points of view and at different times of the day. Fifteen of the paintings were exhibited at the Galerie Durand-Ruel in 1891. He later produced several series of paintings including: Rouen Cathedral, Poplars, the Parliament, Mornings on the Seine, and the Water Lilies that were painted on his property at Giverny. Monet was exceptionally fond of painting controlled nature: his own gardens in Giverny, with its water lilies, pond, and bridge. He also painted up and down the banks of the Seine, producing paintings such as Break-up of the ice on the Seine. He wrote daily instructions to his gardening staff, precise designs and layouts for plantings, and invoices for his floral purchases and his collection of botany books. As Monet's wealth grew, his garden evolved. He remained its architect, even after he hired seven gardeners. He built a greenhouse and a second studio, a spacious building, well lit with skylights. Between 1883 and 1908, Monet traveled to the Mediterranean, where he painted landmarks, landscapes, and seascapes, such as Bordighera. He painted an important series of paintings in Venice, Italy, and in London he painted two important series—views of Parliament and views of Charing Cross Bridge. His second wife Alice died in 1911 and his oldest son Jean, who had married Alice's daughter Blanche, Monet's particular favourite, died in 1914. After his wife died, Blanche looked after and cared for him. It was during this time that Monet began to develop the first signs of cataracts. Forge, Andrew, and Gordon, Robert, Monet, page 224. Harry N. Abrams, 1989. During World War I, in which his younger son Michel served and his friend and admirer Clemenceau led the French nation, Monet painted a series of Weeping Willow trees as homage to the French fallen soldiers. Cataracts formed on Monet's eyes, for which he underwent two operations in 1923. The paintings done while the cataracts affected his vision have a general reddish tone, which is characteristic of the vision of cataract victims. It may also be that after surgery he was able to see certain ultraviolet wavelengths of light that are normally excluded by the lens of the eye, this may have had an effect on the colors he perceived. After his operations he even repainted some of these paintings, with bluer water lilies than before the operation. Let the light shine in Guardian News, 30 May 2002. Retrieved 6 January 2007. Gallery of later paintings Death Monet died of lung cancer on 5 December 1926 at the age of 86 and is buried in the Giverny church cemetery. The village of Giverny giverny.org. Retrieved 6 January 2007. Monet had insisted that the occasion be simple; thus about fifty people attended the ceremony. P. Tucker Claude Monet: Life and Art, p.224 His famous home and garden with its waterlily pond were bequeathed by his heirs to the French Academy of Fine Arts (part of the Institut de France) in 1966. Through the Fondation Claude Monet, the home and gardens were opened for visit in 1980, following refurbishment. In addition to souvenirs of Monet and other objects of his life, the home contains his collection of Japanese woodcut prints. The home is one of the two main attractions of Giverny, which hosts tourists from all over the world. Posthumous sales In 2004, London, the Parliament, Effects of Sun in the Fog (Londres, le Parlement, trouée de soleil dans le brouillard) (1904), sold for U.S. $20.1 million. Monet's masterpiece reaches record high bid newsfromrussia.com, 5 November 2004. Retrieved 6 January 2007. In 2006, the journal Proceedings of the Royal Society published a paper providing evidence that these were painted in situ at St Thomas' Hospital over the river Thames. Guardian Unlimited Falaises près de Dieppe (Cliffs near Dieppe) has been stolen on two separate occasions. Once in 1998 (in which the museum's curator was convicted of the theft and jailed for five years along with two accomplices) and most recently in August 2007. It has yet to be recovered. Retrieved 8 August 2007 Monet's Le Pont du chemin de fer à Argenteuil, an 1873 painting of a railway bridge spanning the Seine near Paris, was bought by an anonymous telephone bidder for a record $ 41.4 million at Christie's auction in New York on 6 May 2008. The previous record for his painting stood at $ 36.5 million. Afp.google.com, Monet fetches record price at New York auction Le bassin aux nymphéas (from the water lilies series) sold at Christie's 24 June 2008, lot 19, for £36,500,000 ($71,892,376.34) (hammer price) or £40,921,250 ($80,451,178) with fees, setting a new auction record for the artist. Nympheas - Water Lilies sold for GBP £16,500,000 (US $32,670,000). This was one of the highest prices paid for Monet's work. Auction Result: Monet's Nympheas - Water Lilies See also Étretat History of painting List of works by Claude Monet Western painting References Cited General A Monet biography Biography at Musee Claude Monet à Giverny Biography of Claude Monet Monet in Amsterdam ed. Richard Kendall, Monet by Himself, (Macdonald & Co 1989, updated Time Warner Books 2004), ISBN 0316728012 Michael Howard, The Treasures of Monet. (Musee Marmottan Monet, Paris, 2007). Paul Hayes Tucker, Monet in the 20th Century. (Royal Academy of Arts, London, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston and Yale University press. 1998). Paul Hayes Tucker, Monet in the '90s. (Museum of Fine Arts in association with Yale University Press, New Haven and London, 1989). External links Claude Monet by himself Claude Monet paintings, media & interactive timeline Claude Monet's cataract Comparison of reproductions of Monet Life of Monet a timeline of Monet's life Monet at Giverny Photos of Monet's grave The Unknown Monet exhibition - view sketchbooks Union List of Artist Names, Getty Vocabularies. ULAN Full Record Display for Claude Monet. Getty Vocabulary Program, Getty Research Institute. 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5,381 | Bubble_tea | Bubble tea, also called Boba tea or simply Boba, is a tea beverage containing tapioca balls. It originated in Taiwan in the 1980s, spread to nearby East Asian countries, and migrated to Canada before spreading to Chinatown in New York City, then to various spots throughout the West Coast of the United States . The literal translation from Chinese is pearl milk tea (). The word "bubble" refers to "bubbling", the process by which certain types of bubble tea are made, and not the actual tapioca balls (mixture of tapioca and carrageenan powder). The balls are often called "pearls." Drinks with large pearls are consumed along with the beverage through wide straws; while drinks with small pearls are consumed through normal straws. Bubble tea is especially popular in many East Asian and Southeast Asian regions such as Taiwan, Mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau, Brunei, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, South Korea, Thailand, Indonesia, Vietnam, and more recently popularized in the United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand and Perú and even Belgium. Description Bubble teas are generally of two distinct types: fruit-flavored teas, and milk teas. However, some shops offer a hybrid "fruit milk tea." Milk teas may use dairy or non-dairy creamers. Some healthier offers are 100% crushed fruit smoothies with pearls and signature ice cream shakes made from local ice cream sources. Some small cafes offer ultimate customer service with milk and sweetener substitutes such as honey, agave, stevia, and aspartame upon special request. The original bubble tea consisted of a hot mixture of Taiwanese black tea, brown large pearl tapioca, condensed milk, and honey. As this drink became more popular, variations were created. Iced versions appeared soon, and then came along green bubble tea which uses jasmine-infused green tea instead of black tea. Peach or plum flavoring began to appear, then more fruit flavors were added until, in some variations, the tea was removed entirely in favor of real fruit. These fruit versions usually contain colored pearls (and/or "jelly cubes" as in the related drink taho), the color chosen to match whatever fruit juice is used. Flavors may be added in the form of powder, fruit juice, pulp, or syrup to hot black or green tea, which is shaken in a cocktail shaker or mixed in a blender with ice until chilled. Cooked tapioca pearls and other mix-ins are added at the end. Today one can find shops entirely devoted to bubble tea, similar to juice bars of the early 1990s. Bubble tea bars often serve bubble tea using a machine to seal the top of the cup with plastic cellophane. This allows the tea to be shaken in the serving cup. The cellophane is then pierced with a straw. The straw may be brightly colored, and is oversized, large enough for the pearls to pass through. Other cafés use plastic dome-shaped lids. Variants Each of the ingredients of bubble tea can have many variations depending on the tea house. Typically, different types of black tea, green tea, or even coffee can form the basis of this beverage. The most common black tea varieties are Oolong and Earl Grey while jasmine green tea is a mainstay at almost all tea houses. Another variation called 鸳鸯 (yuanyang, literally translated to "mandarin duck") originated in Hong Kong and consists of half black tea and half coffee. Decaffeinated versions of teas are sometimes available when the tea house fresh brews the tea base. The milk in bubble tea is optional, though many tea houses use milk. Some cafes use a non-dairy creamer milk substitute instead of milk because many East Asians are lactose intolerant. Soy milk options are widely available for those who avoid dairy products for various reasons. This adds a distinct flavor and consistency to the drink. Different flavorings can be added to bubble tea. Some widely available fruit flavors include strawberry, green apple, passion fruit, mango, lemon, grape, lychee, peach, pineapple, cantaloupe, honeydew, banana, and kiwi. Other popular non-fruit flavors include taro, pudding, coconut, chocolate, coffee, mocha, barley, sesame, almond, ginger, lavender, rose, violet. Some of the sour fruit flavors are usually only available in bubble tea without milk as the acidity will curdle the milk. Tapioca balls of big and small sizes are of course the prevailing chewy tidbit in bubble tea, but a wide range of other options can add equally tantalizing texture to the drink. Green pearls have a small hint of green tea flavor, and are chewier than the traditional tapioca balls. Jelly is also used in small cubes, stars, or rectangular strips, with flavors like coconut jelly, konjac, lychee, grass, mango, green tea, or rainbow (a fruit mix), has a pliant, almost crispy consistency. Red bean or mung bean mush, also typical toppings for Taiwanese shaved ice, give the drink an added subtle flavor as well as texture. Aloe, egg pudding, sago, taro balls can also be found in most tea houses to complete the perfect cup of tea. "Instant Boba Milk Tea" mixes in individual serving packets are now widely available in Asian and Thai grocery stores. In keeping with modern marketing practices, while the illustration shows a translucent cup with large purple boba pearls showing through, in very small letters are the words "serving suggestion" and "Just add Boba". There is no mention of the time-consuming process of preparing the tapioca pearls that is noted elsewhere in this article. Bubble tea cafes will also almost always serve drinks without coffee or tea in them. The base for these drinks is flavoring blended with ice, often called Snow Bubble. All mix-ins that can be added to the bubble tea can also be added to these slushie-like drinks. One drawback to Snow Bubble is that the coldness of the iced drink may cause the tapioca balls to harden, making them difficult to suck up through a straw and chew. To prevent this from happening, Snow Bubble tea must be consumed faster than regular bubble tea. Occasionally, nata de coco is used in mass-produced bubble tea drinks as a healthier alternative to tapioca. Nata de coco is high in dietary fiber and low in cholesterol and fat. The nata de coco is sliced into thin strips to make it easier to pass through a straw. History There are two shops that claim to be the first creator of bubble tea. One is Liu Han Chie who worked in Chun Shui Tang teahouse (春水堂)Taichung City, Taiwan in the early 1980s, and experimented with cold milk tea by adding fruit, syrup, candied yams, and tapioca balls. Although the drink was not popular at first, a Japanese television show generated interest among businessmen. The drink became well-known in most parts of East and Southeast Asia during the 1990s. An alternative origin is the Hanlin (翰林)Teahouse in Tainan City, Taiwan, owned by Tu Tsong He Hanlin. Bubble tea is made by adding traditional white fenyuan which have an appearance of pearls, supposedly resulting in the so-called "pearl tea." Shortly after, Hanlin changed the white fenyuan (粉圓) to the black, as it is today. In the late 1990s, bubble tea began to gain popularity in the major North American cities with large Asian populations, especially those on the West Coast and East Coast and in Texas. The beverage has received much attention from mainstream American media, including covers on National Public Radio show Morning Edition and the Los Angeles Times. In the U.S., national and local chains are expanding into suburban areas, particularly those with large Asian populations. Bubble tea shops can now be found in shopping malls and shopping centers in the suburbs. It can also be found in a number of Chinese and Thai restaurants in and around large cities and college towns. Los Angeles and Orange County currently has one of the highest concentration of "boba" bars in the U.S., due to the region's large number of Asian residents. Bubble tea has spread internationally through Chinatowns and other overseas Asian communities. It can be found in major European cities such as London and Paris. Bubble tea is also gaining popularity in Canada, particularly in and around the cities of Kamloops, British Columbia; Vancouver, British Columbia; Victoria, British Columbia; Winnipeg, Manitoba; Toronto, Ontario; Edmonton, Calgary; Alberta; and Montreal, Quebec where there are large Asian-Canadian communities. It is also gaining popularity in Australia, especially in Sydney, Brisbane and Melbourne where Asian immigrants and descendants are highly populated. More recently, bubble tea has quickly spread in the Mexican city of Monterrey, and the "Chinatown" neighbourhood in Buenos Aires, Argentina, where Taiwanese communities have introduced it. Names Bubble tea has many other names, including: Chinese 泡沫紅茶 (): "bubble black tea", used mainly in Taiwan 泡沫奶茶 (): "bubble milk tea", used mainly in Taiwan 珍珠奶茶 or 珍奶) (): "pearl milk tea," in Taiwanese Minnan and Mandarin Chinese usage 波霸奶茶 (): "large pearls milk tea," used mainly in southern Taiwan for the large-pearl kind; tea with smaller pearls is called "pearl milk tea" 黑珍珠奶茶 (): "black pearl milk tea" (less common) (奶)茶珍珠 (): "(milk) tea pearl" (less common) English pearl (milk) tea or drink tapioca milk tea drink milk pearl tea or drink black pearl (milk) tea or drink (milk) tea pearl boba (milk) tea or drink tapioca (milk) tea or drink bubble tea bubble milk Others 보바 드링크, 보바 티, 버블티 (Korean): transliterated "boba drink," "boba tea," "bubble tea" タピオカティー (Japanese): transliterated tapiokatii translated "tapioca tea" Trà sữa trân châu (Vietnamese): literally "pearl milk tea" ชาไข่มุก, ชานมไข่มุก (Thai): literally "pearl tea" Ságo at Guláman (Tagalog): literally "tapioca pearls and agar" Teh Mutiara (Indonesian): literally "Pearl Tea" Té de burbujas (Spanish): translated "bubbles tea" Suco de Pobá (Portuguese): transliterated "Poba juice" - from interpretation of Boba References See also Taho Taiwanese tea culture Cuisine of Taiwan External links Home Made Bubble Tea Recipe More Bubble Tea Recipes | Bubble_tea |@lemmatized bubble:39 tea:85 also:10 call:6 boba:10 simply:1 beverage:4 contain:2 tapioca:15 ball:8 originate:2 taiwan:8 spread:4 nearby:1 east:5 asian:11 country:1 migrate:1 canada:3 chinatown:2 new:2 york:1 city:8 various:2 spot:1 throughout:1 west:2 coast:3 united:2 state:2 literal:1 translation:1 chinese:4 pearl:28 milk:30 word:2 refers:1 process:2 certain:1 type:3 make:6 actual:1 mixture:2 carrageenan:1 powder:2 often:3 pearls:1 drink:21 large:11 consume:4 along:2 wide:2 straw:6 small:7 normal:1 especially:3 popular:4 many:5 southeast:2 region:2 mainland:1 china:1 hong:2 kong:2 macau:1 brunei:1 malaysia:1 philippine:1 singapore:1 south:1 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5,382 | Drinking_game | Drinking games are games which involve the drinking of alcoholic beverages. History Ancient Greece Symposium, with scene of Kottabos - fresco from the Tomb of the Diver in Paestum, 475 BC Wager cup, maker's mark of Joseph Walker (Dublin, Ireland) According to Rupert Thompson of the University of Cambridge, the earliest reference to drinking games in Western literature is from Plato's Symposium The Drinking Party. The game was simple: fill a bowl with wine, drink it, slap it, and pass it on to the next person. Kottabos is one of the earliest known drinking games from ancient Greece, dated to the 5th to 4th centuries BC. Players would use dregs to hit targets across the room with their wine. Often, there were special prizes and penalties for one's performance in the game. Kottabos Ancient China Drinking games were enjoyed in ancient China, usually incorporating the use of dice or verbal exchange of riddles. Benn, 145. During the Tang Dynasty (618-907), the Chinese used a silver canister where written lots could be drawn that designated which player had to drink and specifically how much; for example, from 1, 5, 7, or 10 measures of drink that the youngest player, or the last player to join the game, or the most talkative player, or the host, or the player with the greatest alcohol tolerance, etc. had to drink Benn, 145-146. There were even drinking game referee officials, including a 'registrar of the rules' who knew all the rules to the game, a 'registrar of the horn' who tossed a silver flag down on calling out second offenses, and a 'governor' who decided one's third call of offense. These referees were used mainly for maintaining order (as drinking games often became rowdy) and for reviewing faults that could be punished with a player drinking a penalty cup. Benn, 146. If a guest was considered a 'coward' for dropping out of the game, he could be branded as a 'deserter' and not invited back to further drinking bouts. There was another game where little puppets and dolls dressed as western foreigners with blue eyes (Iranian peoples) were set up and when one fell over, the person it pointed to had to empty his cup of wine. Schafer, 23. Types of games Endurance games The simplest drinking games are endurance games in which players compete to out-drink each other. Players take turns taking shots, and the last person standing is the winner. Some games have rules involving the "cascade", "fountain" or "waterfall", which encourages each player to drink constantly from their cup so long as the player before him does not stop drinking. Such games can also favor speed over quantity, in which case players race to drink a beer the fastest. One such game is called Wizard Sticks. Speed games Many pub or bar games involve competitive drinking for speed and not necessarily for the quantity consumed. The object of these games may not be inebriation, but may simply involve "bragging rights" or wagers of cash which benefit the fastest drinker. Examples of such drinking games are Edward Fortyhands, boat races, case races, beer bonging, shotgunning, and yard. World records for speed beer drinking Steven Petrosino, during his successful June 1977 Guinness World record attempt at the Gingerbreadman Pub in Carlisle, Pennsylvania. He established records for ¼ litre (0.137 seconds), and for ½ litre (0.4 seconds), but Guinness accepted only the record for 1 litre. The Guinness Book of Records began to list world records for speed drinking in this category in the early 1960s. These early drinking records involved drinking beer from challenging vessels such as the yard of ale glass, which, if not correctly mastered, resulted in the user receiving a blast of beer in his or her face. The 1969 edition of the Guinness Book lists The Broom (age 20) of The Bantry as having consumed a 2.5 pint yard of ale in 6.5 seconds on December 17, 1964. The 1974 edition lists Jack Boyle, age 52, of Barrow-in-Furness as having consumed a 3 pint yard of ale in 10.15 seconds on May 14, 1971. In the mid 1970s, Guinness began to list speed records achieved using any drinking vessel. The 1977 edition dropped the earlier records established by Hill and Boyle, and listed a 2.5 pint yard record by the RAF at Upper Heyford, Oxfordshire in 5.0 seconds and a three pint yard record established at Corby Town F.C. on January 23, 1976 in 5.5 seconds". The 1977 edition listed the new world record established at the Gingerbreadman Pub by Steven Petrosino, (age 25) of New Cumberland, Pennsylvania on June 22 1977. Petrosino drank 1 litre of beer in 1.3 seconds. Video: ¼ litre in 0.18 seconds Petrosino approached the challenge scientifically, and used two specially designed half-litre drinking vessels to establish this world beer record. Guinness World Beer Drinking Record set in 1977: What were the techniques used to set the record? The 1977 edition also lists Peter G. Dowdeswell of Earls Barton for drinking two pints of beer from a single vessel in 2.3 seconds on June 11, 1975 and two litres in 6.0 seconds on 7 February, 1975. These records were all dropped from the Guinness book in 1991 due to concerns about litigation. Missing Alcohol Records from the Guinness Book of World Records Guinness World Beer Drinking Record set in 1977 Thinking games Thinking games rely on the players' powers of observation, recollection, logic and articulation. Such games are not difficult at the onset, but become much more challenging as the game continues as players become inebriated and their coordination and memory deteriorate. Numerous types of thinking games exist. In memory games, each player must repeat a series of events, add to it, and when a player forgets, he or she must take a drink. Thinking games include 21, beer checkers, bizz buzz, buffalo, bullshit, caps, tourettes, Captain Paf, matchboxes, one fat hen, roman numerals, fuzzy duck, and zoom schwartz profigliano. Trivia games, such as Trivial Pursuit, are sometimes played as drinking games. Skill games Several games involve a skill such as scoring a ping-pong or darts. Players must have good aim throughout the entire game, even as they become increasingly inebriated. Examples of these games include Beirut, Pong, Beerdarts, and Corners. Card games Several popular drinking games involving cards are asshole, connections, fuck the dealer, horserace, Circle of Death, Kings, liar's poker, Drawbridge Drinking Game, pyramid, King of Fire, ride the bus and Up the River, (Down the River) and artichoke. Dice games Dice games include 7-11-doubles, beer die, dudo, kinito, kranen, liar's dice, Mexico, mia, pounce!, ship, captain, and crew, tablero da Gucci, three man, and die of death. Tolerance games Tolerance games are about seeing which player can last the longest. It can be as simple as going shot for shot until one person passes out. Power Hour and its variant, Century Club, fall under this category. King Of The Pirates is a group-tolerance game. Movie games Movie drinking games are played while watching a movie (sometimes a TV show or a sporting event) and have a set of rules for who drinks when and how much based on on-screen events and dialogue. The rules may be the same for all players, or alternatively players may each be assigned rules related to particular characters. The rules are designed so that rarer events require larger drinks. Rule sets for such games are usually arbitrary and local, although they are sometimes published by fan clubs. There are popular drinking games associated with the film Withnail and I and the song "Roxanne" by the Police. Another popular game is associated with the movie Top Gun, where players drink whenever a call sign (Maverick, Goose, Iceman), is said. Another variation is Thunderdrunk, where, while listening to "Thunderstruck" by AC/DC, a group of players alternate drinking each time the word "thunder" or "thunderstruck" or both (depending on the number of players or how drunk you want to get) is said and must continue drinking until "Thunderstruck" or "Thunder" is said again or until the song is over. A game popular in Southern California is The Big Lebowski drinking game, in which a drink is taken every time the word fuck is said on screen. Another one can be played while watching Dazed and Confused. Whenever the character Mitch Kramer touches his face everybody drinks. A variant on this is "survivor", when watching the movie Scarface a drink is had every time the word "shit" is said. The drink of choice when attempting this is a shot of beer, as a regular shot would incapacitate everyone very quickly. Object Games Object games are usually simple games that involve using a random object in order to administer drinking "fines". Some good examples of object games are Pennying and the The Golf Ball Game. The Game of The Slap The participants should slap each other in turns until one quits and has to drink a considerably strong and big drink. This game has been invented in Portugal. Beat The Barman This is a bar/pub based game and the objective, as the name suggests, is to beat the barman. The player must order a drink from the bar, pay for it and then finish the drink before the barman returns with their change. If they succeed then they have "Beaten The Barman". To make the game more interesting another drink can be purchased when the Barman returns with the players change and this process can be completed until the player can drink no more and the Barman wins. Miscellaneous games There are many other drinking games that cannot be categorized any certain way, such as never have I ever and the Vegetable Game. Another game involving external interaction uses a busy roadway and a lawn sign labeled "Honk = Drink" or something similar. Whenever a passing driver honks their horn, the participants drink. References Notes Resources Benn, Charles (2002). China's Golden Age: Everyday Life in the Tang Dynasty. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-517665-0. Schafer, Edward H. (1963). The Golden Peaches of Samarkand: A study of T’ang Exotics. University of California Press. Berkeley and Los Angeles. 1st paperback edition: 1985. ISBN 0-520-05462-8. External links Lazydork's Movie Drinking Games | Drinking_game |@lemmatized drinking:22 game:66 involve:9 alcoholic:1 beverage:1 history:1 ancient:4 greece:2 symposium:2 scene:1 kottabos:3 fresco:1 tomb:1 diver:1 paestum:1 bc:2 wager:2 cup:4 maker:1 mark:1 joseph:1 walker:1 dublin:1 ireland:1 accord:1 rupert:1 thompson:1 university:3 cambridge:1 early:5 reference:2 drink:36 western:2 literature:1 plato:1 party:1 simple:4 fill:1 bowl:1 wine:3 slap:3 pass:2 next:1 person:4 one:9 known:1 date:1 century:2 player:26 would:2 use:9 dreg:1 hit:1 target:1 across:1 room:1 often:2 special:1 prize:1 penalty:2 performance:1 china:3 enjoy:1 usually:3 incorporate:1 dice:4 verbal:1 exchange:1 riddle:1 benn:4 tang:2 dynasty:2 chinese:1 silver:2 canister:1 write:1 lot:1 could:3 draw:1 designate:1 specifically:1 much:3 example:4 measure:1 young:1 last:3 join:1 talkative:1 host:1 great:1 alcohol:2 tolerance:4 etc:1 even:2 referee:2 official:1 include:4 registrar:2 rule:8 know:1 horn:2 toss:1 flag:1 call:4 second:11 offense:2 governor:1 decide:1 third:1 mainly:1 maintain:1 order:3 become:4 rowdy:1 review:1 fault:1 punish:1 guest:1 consider:1 coward:1 drop:3 brand:1 deserter:1 invite:1 back:1 far:1 bout:1 another:6 little:1 puppet:1 doll:1 dress:1 foreigner:1 blue:1 eye:1 iranian:1 people:1 set:6 fell:1 point:1 empty:1 schafer:2 type:2 endurance:2 compete:1 take:4 turn:2 shot:5 stand:1 winner:1 cascade:1 fountain:1 waterfall:1 encourage:1 constantly:1 long:2 stop:1 also:2 favor:1 speed:6 quantity:2 case:2 race:3 beer:13 fast:2 wizard:1 stick:1 many:2 pub:4 bar:3 competitive:1 necessarily:1 consume:3 object:5 may:5 inebriation:1 simply:1 brag:1 right:1 cash:1 benefit:1 drinker:1 edward:2 fortyhands:1 boat:1 bonging:1 shotgunning:1 yard:6 world:8 record:19 steven:2 petrosino:4 successful:1 june:3 guinness:9 attempt:2 gingerbreadman:2 carlisle:1 pennsylvania:2 establish:5 litre:7 accept:1 book:4 begin:2 list:7 category:2 challenge:2 vessel:4 ale:3 glass:1 correctly:1 master:1 result:1 user:1 receive:1 blast:1 face:2 edition:6 broom:1 age:4 bantry:1 pint:5 december:1 jack:1 boyle:2 barrow:1 furness:1 mid:1 achieve:1 hill:1 raf:1 upper:1 heyford:1 oxfordshire:1 three:2 corby:1 town:1 f:1 c:1 january:1 new:2 cumberland:1 video:1 approach:1 scientifically:1 two:3 specially:1 design:2 half:1 technique:1 peter:1 g:1 dowdeswell:1 earls:1 barton:1 single:1 february:1 due:1 concern:1 litigation:1 miss:1 think:4 rely:1 power:2 observation:1 recollection:1 logic:1 articulation:1 difficult:1 onset:1 challenging:1 continue:2 inebriated:2 coordination:1 memory:2 deteriorate:1 numerous:1 exist:1 must:5 repeat:1 series:1 event:4 add:1 forgets:1 checker:1 bizz:1 buzz:1 buffalo:1 bullshit:1 cap:1 tourette:1 captain:2 paf:1 matchbox:1 fat:1 hen:1 roman:1 numeral:1 fuzzy:1 duck:1 zoom:1 schwartz:1 profigliano:1 trivia:1 trivial:1 pursuit:1 sometimes:3 play:3 skill:2 several:2 score:1 ping:1 pong:2 dart:1 good:2 aim:1 throughout:1 entire:1 increasingly:1 beirut:1 beerdarts:1 corner:1 card:2 popular:4 asshole:1 connection:1 fuck:2 dealer:1 horserace:1 circle:1 death:2 king:3 liar:2 poker:1 drawbridge:1 pyramid:1 fire:1 ride:1 bus:1 river:2 artichoke:1 double:1 die:2 dudo:1 kinito:1 kranen:1 mexico:1 mia:1 pounce:1 ship:1 crew:1 tablero:1 da:1 gucci:1 man:1 see:1 go:1 hour:1 variant:2 club:2 fall:1 pirate:1 group:2 movie:6 watch:3 tv:1 show:1 sporting:1 base:2 screen:2 dialogue:1 alternatively:1 assign:1 relate:1 particular:1 character:2 rarer:1 require:1 large:1 arbitrary:1 local:1 although:1 publish:1 fan:1 associate:2 film:1 withnail:1 song:2 roxanne:1 police:1 top:1 gun:1 whenever:3 sign:2 maverick:1 goose:1 iceman:1 say:5 variation:1 thunderdrunk:1 listen:1 thunderstruck:3 ac:1 dc:1 alternate:1 time:3 word:3 thunder:2 depend:1 number:1 drunk:1 want:1 get:1 southern:1 california:2 big:2 lebowski:1 every:2 daze:1 confuse:1 mitch:1 kramer:1 touch:1 everybody:1 survivor:1 scarface:1 shit:1 choice:1 regular:1 incapacitate:1 everyone:1 quickly:1 random:1 administer:1 fine:1 pennying:1 golf:1 ball:1 participant:2 quits:1 considerably:1 strong:1 invent:1 portugal:1 beat:2 barman:6 objective:1 name:1 suggest:1 pay:1 finish:1 return:2 change:2 succeed:1 beaten:1 make:1 interesting:1 purchase:1 process:1 complete:1 win:1 miscellaneous:1 cannot:1 categorize:1 certain:1 way:1 never:1 ever:1 vegetable:1 external:2 interaction:1 busy:1 roadway:1 lawn:1 label:1 honk:2 something:1 similar:1 passing:1 driver:1 note:1 resource:1 charles:1 golden:2 everyday:1 life:1 oxford:2 press:2 isbn:2 h:1 peach:1 samarkand:1 study:1 ang:1 exotics:1 berkeley:1 los:1 angeles:1 paperback:1 link:1 lazydork:1 |@bigram alcoholic_beverage:1 plato_symposium:1 tang_dynasty:2 pint_beer:1 trivial_pursuit:1 ping_pong:1 sporting_event:1 ac_dc:1 big_lebowski:1 daze_confuse:1 los_angeles:1 external_link:1 |
5,383 | CamelCase | CamelCase (also spelled "camel case") or medial capitals is the practice of writing compound words or phrases in which the elements are joined without spaces and are capitalized within the compound—as in LaBelle, BackColor, MacGyver, or iPod. The name comes from the uppercase "bumps" in the middle of the compound word, suggestive of the humps of a camel. The practice is known by many other names. Camel case is a standard identifier naming convention for several programming languages, and has become fashionable in marketing for names of products and companies. However, camel case is rarely used in formal written English, and most style guides recommend against its use. Variations and synonyms The first letter of a camel-case compound may or may not be capitalized. For clarity, this article calls the two alternatives upper camel case and lower camel case. Some people and organizations use the term camel case only for the latter, and refer to upper camel case as Pascal case. Brad Abrams : History around Pascal Casing and Camel Casing Pascal Case In some contexts, however, the term camel case does not discriminate between the two. Other synonyms include: BumpyCaps Brian Hayes, "The Semicolon Wars,"American Scientist Online: The Magazine of Sigma XI, the Scientific Research Society July-August 2006, art. pg. 2. or BumpyCase CamelBack (or camel-back) notation C# Coding Standards and Guidelines at Purdue University College of Technology CamelCaps CapitalizedWords or CapWords (for upper camel case) in Python Style Guide for Python Code at www.python.org ClCl (Capital-lower Capital-lower) and sometimes ClC compoundNames compoundName, discussion thread at alt.folklore.computers (Mar 29 1990) HumpBack (or hump-back) notation ASP Naming Conventions, by Nannette Thacker (05/01/1999) InterCaps or intercapping InternalCapitalization LeadingCaps (implies that the first letter is capitalized) mixedCase (for lower camel case) in Python NerdCaps WikiWord or WikiCase (especially in wikis) The StudlyCaps style is similar (but not necessarily identical) to camel case. It is sometimes used in reference to camel case but can also refer to random mixed capitalisation (as in "MiXeD CaPitALiZaTioN"), popularly used in online culture. Camel case is also distinct from title case, which is traditionally used for book titles and headlines. Title case capitalizes most of the words yet retains the spaces between the words. Title Case in PHP at SitePoint Blogs WordTips: Intelligent Title Case How to: Change casing in Text to TitleCase - Jan Schreuder on .Net Camel case is also distinct from Tall Man lettering, which uses capitals to emphasize the differences between similar-looking words. History Early uses The advertisement for the 1953 film The Robe debuted CinemaScope, one of the earliest product trademarks to use medial capitals. Camel case has always been used (albeit sporadically) in English, for example, as a traditional spelling style for certain surnames, such as in Scottish MacLean (originally, "son of Gillean") and Hiberno-Norman FitzGerald ("son of Gerald"). This same convention is sometimes used in English for surnames of foreign origin which include prepositions or other particles, e.g., DuPont (from French Dupont or du Pont), DiCaprio (from Italian Di Caprio), and VanDyke (from Dutch van Dijk). The actress ZaSu Pitts, whose fame peaked in the 1930s and 1940s, sometimes spelled her given name in CamelCase, emphasizing its derivation from two other names. From the mid-20th century, it has occasionally been used for corporate names and product trademarks, such as CinemaScope and VistaVision, rival widescreen movie formats (1953) ShopKo (1962) MisteRogers, the Canadian version of Mister Rogers' Neighborhood (1962) "MisteRogers" (1962) AstroTurf (1967) ConAgra, formerly Consolidated Mills (1971). Internal capitalization has also been traditionally used to indicate element boundaries in chemical formulas like NaCl (early 19th century Jöns Jacob Berzelius. Essay on the Cause of Chemical Proportions, and on Some Circumstances Relating to Them: Together with a Short and Easy Method of Expressing Them. Annals of Philosophy 2, 443-454 (1813), 3, 51-2, 93-106, 244-255, 353-364 (1814) from Henry M. Leicester & Herbert S. Klickstein, eds., A Source Book in Chemistry, 1400-1900 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard, 1952) ) and other technical codes like HeLa (1983). Origins of use in computing The use of camel case became widespread only in the 1970s and 1980s, when it was adopted as a standard or alternative naming convention for multi-word identifiers in several programming languages. The origin of this convention has not yet been settled. Background: multi-word identifiers Computer programmers often feel the need to write descriptive (hence multi-word) identifiers, like "previous balance" or "end of file", in order to improve the readability of their code. However, most popular programming languages forbid the use of spaces inside identifiers, since they are interpreted as delimiters between tokens. The alternative of writing the words together as in "endoffile" is not satisfactory, since the word boundaries may be quite difficult to discern in the result. Some early programming languages, notably Lisp (1958) and COBOL (1959), addressed this problem by allowing a hyphen ("-") to be used between words of compound identifiers, as in "END-OF-FILE". However, this solution was not adequate for algebraic-oriented languages such as FORTRAN (1955) and ALGOL (1958), which used the hyphen as a intuitively-obvious subtraction operator. (FORTRAN also restricted identifiers to six characters or fewer at the time, preventing multi-word identifiers except those made of very short words.) Since the common punched card character sets of the time had no lower-case letters and no other special character that would be adequate for the purpose, those early languages had to do without multi-word identifiers. It was only in the late 1960s that the widespread adoption of the ASCII character set made both lower case and the underscore character "_" universally available. Some languages, notably C, promptly adopted underscores as word separators; and underscore-separated compounds like "end_of_file" are still prevalent in C programs and libraries. Yet, some languages and programmers chose to avoid underscores and adopted camel case instead. Two accounts are commonly given for the origin of this convention. The "Lazy Programmer" theory One theory for the origin of the camel case convention holds that C programmers and hackers simply found it more convenient than the standard underscore-based style. The underscore key is inconveniently placed on QWERTY keyboards. Additionally, in some fonts the underscore character can be confused with a minus sign; it can be overlooked because it falls below the string of characters, or it can be lost entirely when displayed or printed underlined, or when printed on a dot-matrix printer with a defective pin or misaligned ribbon. Moreover, early compilers severely restricted the length of identifiers (e.g., to 8 or 14 letters), or silently truncated all identifiers to that length. Finally, the small size of computer displays available in the 1970s encouraged the use of short identifiers. It was for these reasons, some claim, that many C programmers opted to use camel case instead of underscores, for it yielded legible compound names with fewer keystrokes and fewer characters. The "Alto Keyboard" theory Another account claims that the camel case style first became popular at Xerox PARC around 1978, with the Mesa programming language developed for the Xerox Alto computer. This machine lacked an underscore key, and the hyphen and space characters were not permitted in identifiers, leaving CamelCase as the only viable scheme for readable multiword names. The PARC Mesa Language Manual (1979) included a coding standard with specific rules for Upper- and lowerCamelCase which was strictly followed by the Mesa libraries and the Alto operating system. The Smalltalk language, which was developed originally on the Alto and became quite popular in the early 1980s, may have been instrumental in spreading the style outside PARC. Camel case was also used by convention for many names in the PostScript page description language (invented by Adobe Systems founder and ex-PARC scientist John Warnock), as well as for the language itself. A further boost was provided by Niklaus Wirth—the inventor of Pascal—who acquired a taste for camel case during a sabbatical at PARC, and used it in Modula, his next programming language. Spread to mainstream usage Whatever its origins within the computing world, camel case spread to a wider audience in the 1980s and 1990s, when the advent of the personal computer exposed hacker culture to the world. Camel case then became fashionable for corporate trade names, first in computer-related fields but later expanding further into the mainstream. Examples ranging from the 1970s to the 2000s give a history of the spread of the usage: (1977) CompuServe, UnitedHealthCare (now UnitedHealthcare United Healthcare ) (1979) MasterCard, SportsCenter, VisiCalc (1980) EchoStar (1982) MicroProse, WordPerfect (1983) NetWare (1984) BellSouth, LaserJet, MacWorks, iDEN (1985) PageMaker, EastEnders (1986) SpaceCamp (1987) ClarisWorks, HyperCard, PowerPoint (1990) HarperCollins, SeaTac (1991) SuperAmerica (1992) OutKast, ThinkPad (1993) AmeriCorps, EcoPark, ValuJet (now AirTran Airways), SolidWorks (1994) PlayStation, easyJet (an early use of CamelCase with lowercase first letter) (1995) WorldCom (now MCI), eBay (1996) RadioShack (formerly Radio Shack) (1997) TiVo (1998) DaimlerChrysler, PricewaterhouseCoopers, http://www.pwcglobal.com/images/topnav/pwc.gif iMac (1999) BlackBerry, DragonForce, SpongeBob SquarePants, jetBlue, ExxonMobil (2000) FedEx (formerly Federal Express), GlaxoSmithKline, PayPal (2001) AmerisourceBergen, Nintendo GameCube (2003) MySpace (2004) Pokémon FireRed and LeafGreen (2005) YouTube, PetSmart (formerly PETsMART) (2008) Fort Wayne TinCaps, Empire Cinemas MoviEmail During the dot-com bubble of the late 1990s, the lowercase prefixes "e" (for "electronic") and "i" (for "Internet", "information", or perhaps "intelligent") became quite common, giving rise to some camel case names like iPod and eBox. In 1998, Dave Yost suggested that chemists do what software engineers had done for years: introduce internal capital letters into long names to aid readability for long chemical names such as AmidoPhosphoRibosylTransferase. Feedback, 20 June 1998 Vol 158 No 2139 New Scientist 20 June 1998 History of the name The original name of the practice, used in media studies, grammars, and the Oxford English Dictionary, was "medial capitals". The fancier names such as "InterCaps", "CamelCase", and variations thereof are relatively recent, and seem more common in computer-related communities. The earliest known occurrence of the term InterCaps on Usenet is in an April 1990 post to the group alt.folklore.computers by Avi Rappoport, with BiCapitalization appearing slightly later in a 1991 post by Eric S. Raymond to the same group. The earliest use of the name "CamelCase" occurs in 1995, in a post by Newton Love. "With the advent of programming languages having these sorts of constructs, the humpiness of the style made me call it HumpyCase at first, before I settled on CamelCase. I had been calling it CamelCase for years," said Newton, "The citation above was just the first time I had used the name on USENET." Newton Love The name CamelCase is not related to the "Camel Book" (Programming Perl), which uses all-lowercase identifiers with underscores in its sample code. Current usage in computing Programming and coding The use of medial caps for compound identifiers is recommended by the coding style guidelines of many organizations or software projects. For some languages (such as Mesa, Pascal, Modula, Java, Python, and Microsoft's .NET) this practice is recommended by the language developers or by authoritative manuals, and has therefore become part of the language's "culture". Style guidelines often distinguish between upper and lower camel case, typically specifying which variety should be used for specific kinds of entities: variables, record fields, methods, procedures, types, etc. These rules are sometimes supported by static analysis tools that check source code for adherence. The original Hungarian notation for programming, for example, specifies that a lowercase abbreviation for the "usage type" (not data type) should prefix all variable names, with the remainder of the name in upper camel case; as such it is a form of lower camel case. Programming identifiers often need to contain acronyms and initialisms which are already in upper case, such as "old HTML file". By analogy with the title case rules, the natural camel case rendering would have the abbreviation all in upper case, namely "oldHTMLFile". However, this approach is problematic when two acronyms occur together (e.g., "parse DBM XML" would become "parseDBMXML") or when the standard mandates lower camel case but the name begins with an abbreviation (e.g. "SQL server" would become "sQLServer"). For this reason, some programmers prefer to treat abbreviations as if they were lower case words, and write "oldHtmlFile", "parseDbmXml", or "sqlServer". Camel case is by no means universal in computing. In some programming languages, notably Lisp and Forth, compound names are usually separated by hyphens, which are claimed to be more readable and more convenient to type. Camel case is also inappropriate when the language ignores capitalization in identifiers, as is the case of Common Lisp. Wiki link markup Camel case is used in some wiki markup languages for terms that should be automatically linked to other wiki pages. This convention was originally used in Ward Cunningham's original wiki software, the WikiWikiWeb, and is still used by some other wikis, such as JSPWiki, TiddlyWiki, Trac, and PMWiki. Wikipedia formerly used camel case linking as well, but switched to explicit link markup using square brackets, and many other wiki sites have done the same. Some that default to a different link markup may have an option (sometimes with a plugin) to enable camel case links. Some wikis which do not use camel case linking may still use the camel case as a naming convention, such as AboutUs. Other uses The NIEM registry requires that XML data elements use upper camel case and XML attributes use lower camel case. Camel case is also the official convention for file names in Java and for the Amiga personal computer. In some Unix-like operating systems, such as Linux and Solaris, the most popular command-line interfaces and scripting languages cannot easily handle file names that contain embedded spaces. Therefore, users of those systems often resort to camel case (or underscores, hyphens, and other "safe" characters) for compound file names like MyJobResume.pdf. Current usage in natural languages CamelCase has been used in languages other than English for a variety of purposes, including the ones below: Orthographic markings Camel case is sometimes used in the transcription of certain scripts, to differentiate letters or markings. An example is the rendering of Tibetan proper names like rLobsang: the "r" here stands for a prefix glyph in the original script that functions as tone marker rather than a normal letter. Inflection prefixes Camel case may also be used when writing proper names in languages that inflect words by attaching prefixes to them. In some of those languages, the custom is to leave the prefix in lower case, and capitalize the root. This convention is used in Irish orthography as well as Scots Gaelic orthography; e.g., ("in Galway"), from ("Galway"); ("the Scottish person"), from ("Scottish person"); ("to Ireland"), from ("Ireland). Several Bantu languages also use this convention, e.g., kiSwahili ("Swahili language" in Swahili) and isiZulu ("Zulu language" in Zulu). In abbreviations and acronyms In French, CamelCase acronyms such as OuLiPo (1960) were favored for a time as alternatives to initialisms. CamelCase is often used to transliterate initialisms into alphabets where two letters may be required to represent a single character of the original alphabet, e.g., DShK from Cyrillic ДШК. Honorifics within compound words In several languages, including English, pronouns and possessives may be capitalized to indicate respect, e.g., when referring to the reader of a formal letter or to God. In some of those languages, the capitalization is customarily retained even when those words occur within compound words or suffixed to a verb. For example, in Italian one would write ("offering to You respectful salutations") or ("adore Him"). Other uses In German, all nouns carry a grammatical gender -- which, for roles or job titles, is usually masculine. Since the feminist movement of the 80s, some writers and publishers have been using the feminine title suffixes -in (singular) and -innen (plural) to emphasize the inclusion of females; but written with a capital 'I', to indicate that males are not excluded. Example: ("letters from [male or] female readers") instead of ("letters from readers") or ("letters from female readers"). See also All caps References External links Examples and history of CamelCase, also WordsSmashedTogetherLikeSo .NET Framework General Reference Capitalization Styles What's in a nAME(cq)?, by Bill Walsh, at The Slot The Science of Word Recognition, by Kevin Larson, Advanced Reading Technology, Microsoft Corporation evolution of underscores in C++ OASIS Cover Pages: CamelCase for Naming XML-Related Components | CamelCase |@lemmatized camelcase:14 also:13 spell:2 camel:48 case:60 medial:4 capital:8 practice:4 write:8 compound:12 word:21 phrase:1 element:3 join:1 without:2 space:5 capitalize:6 within:4 labelle:1 backcolor:1 macgyver:1 ipod:2 name:32 come:1 uppercase:1 bump:1 middle:1 suggestive:1 hump:2 know:1 many:5 standard:6 identifier:17 convention:13 several:4 programming:9 language:29 become:9 fashionable:2 market:1 product:3 company:1 however:5 rarely:1 use:46 formal:2 english:6 style:11 guide:2 recommend:3 variation:2 synonyms:2 first:7 letter:13 may:9 clarity:1 article:1 call:3 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5,384 | Dravidian_languages | The Dravidian family of languages includes approximately 73 languages Ethnologue (including the four literary languages of Kannada, Malayalam, Tamil and Telugu) and are mainly spoken in southern India and northeastern Sri Lanka, as well as certain areas in Pakistan, Nepal, Bangladesh, and eastern and central India, as well as in parts of Afghanistan, Iran, and overseas in other countries such as Malaysia and Singapore. It has been epigraphically attested since the 6th century BC. Origins of the word Dravidian The English word Dravidian was first employed by Robert Caldwell in his book of comparative Dravidian grammar based on the usage of the Sanskrit word in the work Tantravārttika by (Zvelebil 1990:xx). As for the origin of the Sanskrit word itself there have been various theories proposed. Basically the theories are about the direction of derivation between and . There is no definite philological and linguistic basis for asserting unilaterally that the name Dravida also forms the origin of the word Tamil (Dravida -> Dramila -> Tamizha or Tamil). Zvelebil cites the forms such as dramila (in 's Sanskrit work Avanisundarīkathā) (found in Ceylonese chronicle Mahavamsa) and then goes on to say (ibid. page xxi): "The forms damiḷa/damila almost certainly provide a connection of " and "... < ...whereby the further development might have been * > * > - / damila- and further, with the intrusive, 'hypercorrect' (or perhaps analogical) -r-, into . The -m-/-v- alternation is a common enough phenomenon in Dravidian phonology" (Zvelebil 1990:xxi) Zvelebil in his earlier treatise (Zvelebil 1975: p53) states: "It is obvious that the Sanskrit , Pali damila, and Prakrit are all etymologically connected with " and further remarks "The r in > is a hypercorrect insertion, cf. an analogical case of DED 1033 Ta. kamuku, Tu.kangu "areca nut": Skt. kramu(ka).". Further, another eminent Dravidian linguist Bhadriraju Krishnamurti in his book Dravidian Languages (Krishnamurti 2003: p. 2, footnote 2) states: "Joseph (1989: IJDL 18.2:134-42) gives extensive references to the use of the term , dramila first as the name of a people, then of a country. Sinhala inscriptions of BCE [Before Common Era] cite -, damela- denoting Tamil merchants. Early Buddhist and Jaina sources used - to refer to a people of south India (presumably Tamil); - was a southern non-Aryan country; -, , and - were used as variants to designate a country in the south (, Kādambarī, Daśakumāracarita-, fourth to seventh centuries CE) (1989: 134-8). It appears that - was older than - which could be its Sanskritization." Based on what Krishnamurti states referring to a scholarly paper published in the International Journal of Dravidian Linguistics, the Sanskrit word itself is later than since the dates for the forms with -r- are centuries later than the dates for the forms without -r- (, -, damela- etc.). So it is clear that it is difficult to maintain Dravida -> Dramila -> Tamizha or Tamil. The Monier-Williams Sanskrit Dictionary Sanskrit, Tamil and Pahlavi Dictionaries lists for the Sanskrit word dravia a meaning of "collective Name for 5 peoples, viz. the Āndhras, Karāakas, Gurjaras, Tailagas, and Mahārāras". History The origins of the Dravidian languages, as well as their subsequent development and the period of their differentiation are unclear, partially due to the lack of comparative linguistic research into the Dravidian languages. The Dravidian languages have remained an isolated family to the present day and have defied all of the attempts to show a connection with the Indo-European tongues, Mitanni, Basque, Sumerian, or Korean. Rasmus K. Rask (1787-1832) considered Dravidian as belonging to the "Scythian" languages referring to Scythians as non-Semitic and non-Indo-European peoples and languages of Eastern Europe and Western Asia sometimes also termed "Hyperborean" . The most promising and plausible hypothesis is that of a linguistic relationship with the Uralic (Hungarian, Finnish) and Altaic (Turkish, Mongol) language groups "Dravidian languages." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 30 Jun. 2008 . The theory that the Dravidian languages display similarities with the Uralic language group, suggesting a prolonged period of contact in the past, Tyler, Stephen (1968), "Dravidian and Uralian: the lexical evidence". Language 44:4. 798-812 is popular amongst Dravidian linguists and has been supported by a number of scholars, including Robert Caldwell, Webb, Edward (1860), "Evidences of the Scythian Affinities of the Dravidian Languages, Condensed and Arranged from Rev. R. Caldwell's Comparative Dravidian Grammar", Journal of the American Oriental Society Vol. 7. 271-298. Thomas Burrow, Burrow, T. (1944) "Dravidian Studies IV: The Body in Dravidian and Uralian". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 11:2. 328-356. Kamil Zvelebil, Zvelebil, Kamal (2006). Dravidian Languages. In Encyclopædia Britannica (DVD edition). and Mikhail Andronov Andronov, Mikhail S. (1971), "Comparative Studies on the Nature of Dravidian-Uralian Parallels: A Peep into the Prehistory of Language Families". Proceedings of the Second International Conference of Tamil Studies Madras. 267-277. This theory has, however, been rejected by some specialists in Uralic languages, Zvelebil, Kamal (1970), Comparative Dravidian Phonology Mouton, The Hauge. at p. 22 contains a bibliography of articles supporting and opposing the theory and has in recent times also been criticised by other Dravidian linguists like Bhadriraju Krishnamurti. Krishnamurti, Bhadriraju (2003) The Dravidian Languages Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. ISBN 0-521-77111-0 at p. 43. . Although in modern times speakers of the various Dravidian languages have mainly occupied the southern portion of India, nothing definite is known about the ancient domain of the Dravidian parent speech. It is, however, a well-established and well-supported hypothesis that Dravidian speakers must have been widespread throughout India, including the northwest region. "Dravidian languages." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 5 June 2008 before the arrival of Indo-European speakers. Proto-Dravidian is thought to have differentiated into Proto-North Dravidian, Proto-Central Dravidian, Proto South-Central Dravidian and Proto-South Dravidian around 500 BC, although some linguists have argued that the degree of differentiation between the sub-families points to an earlier split. The existence of the Dravidian language family was first suggested in 1816 by Alexander D. Campbell in his Grammar of the Teloogoo Language, in which he and Francis W. Ellis argued that Tamil and Telugu were descended from a common, non-Indo-European ancestor. However, it was not until 1856 that Robert Caldwell published his Comparative grammar of the Dravidian or South-Indian family of languages, which considerably expanded the Dravidian umbrella and established it as one of the major language groups of the world. Caldwell coined the term "Dravidian" from the Sanskrit drāvida, which was used in a 7th century text to refer to the Tamil language of the south of India. The publication of the Dravidian etymological dictionary by T. Burrow and M. B. Emeneau was a landmark event in Dravidian linguistics. Recent studies of the distribution of alleles on the Y chromosome, microsatellite DNA, and mitochondrial DNA in India have cast overwhelmingly strong doubt for a biological Dravidian "race" distinct from non-Dravidians in the Indian subcontinent. The only distinct ethnic groups present in South Asia, according to genetic analysis, are the Naga, Bodo, Tripura, Balochi, Brahui, Burusho, Hazara, Kalash and Pathan peoples, all of which are found in the northwest and northeastern extremes of south Asia respectively . Human Genome Diversity Project Classification Dravidian is a close-knit family. The languages are much more closely related than, say, the Indo-European languages. There is a fair degree of agreement on how they are related to each other. The following classification divides Dravidian into three branches. Other classifications use four: Either dividing Central Dravidian into Central (Kolami-Parji) and South-Central (Telugu-Kui), or dividing Northern Dravidian into Northeast (Kurukh-Malto) and Northwest (Brahui). The latter view has been largely abandoned since it has been demonstrated that Brahui is not an ancient language of Pakistan, but arrived from the southeast less than a millennium ago. There are in addition as-yet unclassified Dravidian languages such as Allar. The languages recognized as Official languages of India are in boldface. The Brahui, Kurukh and Malto have myths about external origins. P. 83 The Quest for the Origins of Vedic Culture: The Indo-Aryan Migration Debate By Edwin Bryant The Kurukh have traditionally claimed to be from the Deccan Peninsula, P. 18 The Orāons of Chōtā Nāgpur: their history, economic life, and social organization. by Sarat Chandra Roy, Rai Bahadur; Alfred C Haddon more specifically Karnataka. The same tradition has existed of the Brahui. P. 12 Origin and Spread of the Tamils By V. R. Ramachandra Dikshitar P. 32 Ideology and status of Sanskrit : contributions to the history of the Sanskrit language by Jan E M Houben They call themselves immigrants. P. 45 The Brahui language, an old Dravidian language spoken in parts of Baluchistan and Sind by Denys Bray Many scholars hold this same view of the Brahui Ancient India; Culture and Thought By M. L. Bhagi such as L. H. Horace Perera and M. Ratnasabapathy. P. 23 Ceylon & Indian History from Early Times to 1505 A. D. By L. H. Horace Perera, M. Ratnasabapathy Relationship to other language families The Dravidian languages have not been shown to be related to any other language family. Comparisons have been made not just with the other language families of the Subcontinent (Indo-European, Austro-Asiatic, Tibeto-Burman, and Kalto, also called Nihali), but with all typologically similar language families of the Old World. Dravidian is one of the primary linguistic groups in the proposed Nostratic proposal, which would link most languages in North Africa, Europe and Western Asia into a family with its origins in the Fertile Crescent sometime between the last Ice Age and the emergence of proto-Indo-European 4-6 thousand years BCE. However, the general consensus is that such deep connections are not (yet) demonstrable. On a less ambitious scale, several scholars have proposed linking Dravidian languages with the ancient Elamite language of what is now south-western Iran. However, despite decades of research, this Elamo-Dravidian language family has not been demonstrated to the satisfaction of many historical linguists. Nonetheless, while there are no readily detectable genealogical connections, there are strong areal features linking Dravidian with the Indo-Aryan languages. Dravidian languages show extensive lexical (vocabulary) borrowing, but only a few traits of structural (either phonological or grammatical) borrowing, from Indo-Aryan, whereas the Indo-Aryan shows more structural features than lexical borrowings from the Dravidian languages. The Dravidian impact on the syntax of Indo-Aryan languages is considered far greater than the Indo-Aryan impact on Dravidian grammar. Some linguists explain this asymmetry by arguing that Middle Indo-Aryan languages were built on a Dravidian substratum. Krishnamurti, Bhadriraju (2003) The Dravidian Languages Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. ISBN 0-521-77111-0 at p. 40-41. Grammar The most characteristic features of Dravidian languages are: Dravidian languages are agglutinative. Dravidian languages exhibit the inclusive and exclusive we feature. The major word classes are nouns (substantives, numerals, pronouns), adjectives, verbs, and indeclinables (particles, enclitics, adverbs, interjections, onomatopoetic words, echo words). Proto-Dravidian used only suffixes, never prefixes or infixes, in the construction of inflected forms. Hence, the roots of words always occurred at the beginning. Nouns, verbs, and indeclinable words constituted the original word classes. There are two numbers and four different gender systems, the “original” probably having “male: non-male” in the singular and “person:non-person” in the plural. In a sentence, however complex, only one finite verb occurs, normally at the end, preceded if necessary by a number of gerunds. Word order follows certain basic rules but is relatively free. The main (and probably original) dichotomy in tense is past:non-past. Present tense developed later and independently in each language or subgroup. Verbs are intransitive, transitive, and causative; there are also active and passive forms. All of the positive verb forms have their corresponding negative counterparts, negative verbs. Phonology Historical Phonology Vowels: Proto-Dravidian had ten vowels: a, ā, e, ē, u, ū, i, ī, o, ō. There was contrast between short and long vowels. There were no diphthongs. ai and au are treated as *ay and *av (or *aw) (Subrahmanyam 1983, Zvelebil 1990, Krishnamurti 2003). Consonants: Proto-Dravidian is reconstructible with the following consonantal phonemes (Subrahmanyam 1983:p40, Zvelebil 1990, Krishnamurti 2003) : Labial Dental Alveolar Retroflex Palatal Velar Glottal Plosive p t c k Nasal m n (??) ñ Flap r Fricative (, ) Lateral l Approximant v y Alveolar stop in many daughter languages developed into an alveolar trill . It still retains the stop sound in Kota and Toda (Subrahmanyam 1983). Malayalam still retains the original (alveolar) stop sound in gemination. (ibid). In Old Tamil it takes the enunciative vowel like the other stops. In other words, (or ) does not occur word-finally without the enunciative vowel (ibid). Velar nasal occurs only before k in Proto-Dravidian as in many of its daughter languages. Therefore it is not considered a separate phoneme in Proto-Dravidian. However, it attained phonemic status in languages like Malayalam, Gondi, Konda and Pengo due to the simplification of the original sequence * to . (Subrahmanyam 1983) The glottal fricative H has been proposed by Bhadriraju Krishnamurti to account for the Old Tamil Aytam (Āytam) and other Dravidian comparative phonological phenomena (Krishnamurti 2003). Dravidian languages are noted for the lack of distinction between aspirated and unaspirated stops. While some Dravidian languages (especially Malayalam, Kannada and Telugu) have accepted large numbers of loan words from Sanskrit and other Indo-European languages in addition to their already vast vocabulary, in which the orthography shows distinctions in voice and aspiration, the words are pronounced in Dravidian according to different rules of phonology and phonotactics: aspiration of plosives is generally absent, regardless of the spelling of the word. This is not a universal phenomenon and is generally avoided in formal or careful speech, especially when reciting. For instance, Tamil, like Finnish, Korean, Ainu, and most indigenous Australian languages, does not distinguish between voiced and unvoiced stops. In fact, the Tamil alphabet lacks symbols for voiced and aspirated stops. Dravidian languages are also characterized by a three-way distinction between dental, alveolar, and retroflex places of articulation as well as large numbers of liquids. Words starting with vowels A substantial number of words also begin and end with vowels, which helps the languages' agglutinative property. karanu (cry), elumbu (bone), adu (that), awade (there), idu (this), illai (no, absent) adu-idil-illai (adu = that, idu = this, il= suffix form of "in", so => that-this-in-absent => that-in this-absent => that is absent in this) Numerals The numerals from 1 to 10 in various Dravidian languages. Number Tamil Telugu Kannada Tulu Malayalam Kurukh Kolami Brahui Proto-Dravidian 1 onru okai ondu onji onnu oa okkod asi *oru(1) 2 irau renu erau rau rau indi irā irā *iru(2) 3 mū<u>n<u><u>r<u>u mūu mū<u>r<u>u mūji mūnnu mūnd mūndi musi *muC 4 nālu, nālku, nā<u>n<u>ku nālugu nālku nālu nālu nā<u>k<u><u>h<u> nāli čār (II) *nāl 5 aintu ayidu aidu ainu añcu pancē (II) ayd 3 panč (II) *cayN 6 ā<u>r<u>u ā<u>r<u>u ā<u>r<u>u āji ā<u>r<u>u soyyē (II) ār 3 šaš (II) *ca<u>r<u>u 7 ēu ēu ēlu ēlu ēu sattē (II) ē 3 haft (II) *eu 8 eu enimidi eu ēma eu ahē (II) enumadī 3 hašt (II) *eu 9 o<u>n<u>patu tommidi ombattu ormba onpatu naiyē (II) tomdī 3 nōh (II) *to 10 pattu padi hattu pattu pattu dassē (II) padī 3 dah (II) *pat(tu) This is the same as the word for another form of the number one in Tamil and Malayalam. This is used as an indefinite article meaning "a" and also when the number is an adjective followed by a noun (as in "one person") as opposed to when it is a noun (as in "How many are there?" "One"). This is still found in compound words, and has taken on a meaning of "double" in Tamil and Malayalam. For example, irupatu (20, literally meaning "double-ten") or "irai" ("double") or Iruvar (meaning two people). Kolami numbers 5-10 are borrowed from Telugu Words indicated (II) are borrowings from Indo-Iranian languages. Stability and Continuity of Dravidian The Dravidian language family has been considered remarkably stable. Some aspects of its stability are: Relative stability of root vowels seems to have been the rule (Zvelebil) Dravidian languages - Britannica Online Encyclopedia A tendency toward structural and systemic balance and stability is characteristic of the Dravidian group (Zvelebil, ibid) Dravidian substratum influence on Sanskrit Dravidian and Sanskrit have influenced each other in various ways from very early times, hence it is an interesting field for linguistic research. Well-known Indologist and linguist (Zvelebil 1975: pp50-51): "... the period of the high water mark of Tamil classical literature was one in which the two great Sanskrit epics were already completed, but the Sanskrit classical poetry was barely emerging with ." More importantly he continues: "No stylistic feature or convention could have been borrowed by the Tamils (though of course there are borrowings of stories" (emphasis added). Zvelebil remarks:"Though the dominance of Sanskrit was exaggerated in some Brahmanic circles of Tamilnadu, and Tamil was given unduly underestimated by a few Sanskrit-oriented scholars, the Tamil and Sanskrit cultures were not generally in rivalry". However more recent research has shown that Sanskrit has been influenced in certain more fundamental ways than Dravidian languages have been by it: It is by way of phonology and even more significantly here via grammatical constructs. This has been the case from the earliest language available (ca. 1200 B.C.) of Sanskrit: the Vedic speech. Basically, Dravidian languages show extensive lexical (vocabulary) borrowing, but only a few traits of structural (either phonological or grammatical) borrowing, from the Indo-Aryan tongues. On the other hand, Indo-Aryan shows rather large-scale structural borrowing from Dravidian, but relatively few loanwords. Dravidian languages." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 30 Jun. 2008 The Vedic language has retroflex consonants even though it is well known that the Indo European family and the Indo-Iranian subfamily to which Sanskrit belongs lack retroflex consonants (/, ) with about 88 words in the Veda having unconditioned retroflexes (Kuiper 1991, Witzel 1999). Some sample words are: (, ,, , , ) This is cited as a serious evidence of substrate influence from close contact of the Vedic speakers with speakers of a foreign language family rich in retroflex phonemes (Kuiper 1991, Witzel 1999). Obviously the Dravidian family would be a serious candidate here (ibid as well as Krishnamurti 2003: p36) since it is rich in retroflex phonemes reconstructible back to the Proto-Dravidian stage[See Subrahmanyam 1983:p40, Zvelebil 1990, Krishnamurti 2003]. A more serious influence on Vedic Sanskrit is the extensive grammatical influence attested by the usage of the quotative marker iti and the occurrence of gerunds of verbs, a grammatical feature not found even in the Avestan language, a sister language of the Vedic Sanskrit. As Krishnamurti states: "Besides, the Veda has used the gerund, not found in Avestan, with the same grammatical function as in Dravidian, as a non-finite verb for 'incomplete' action. Vedic language also attests the use of iti as a quotative clause complementizer. All these features are not a consequence of simple borrowing but they indicate substratum influence (Kuiper 1991: ch 2)". The Brahui population of Balochistan has been taken by some as the linguistic equivalent of a relict population, perhaps indicating that Dravidian languages were formerly much more widespread and were supplanted by the incoming Indo-Aryan languages. state that there is strong evidence that Dravidian influenced Indic through "shift", that is, native Dravidian speakers learning and adopting Indic languages. claims that the presence of the Brahui language, similarities between Elamite and Harappan script as well as similarities between Indo-Aryan and Dravidian indicate that these languages may have interacted prior to the spread of Indo-Aryans southwards and the resultant intermixing of languages. states that the most plausible explanation for the presence of Dravidian structural features in Old Indo-Aryan is that the majority of early Old Indo-Aryan speakers had a Dravidian mother tongue which they gradually abandoned. Even though the innovative traits in Indic could be explained by multiple internal explanations, early Dravidian influence is the only explanation that can account for all of the innovations at once – it becomes a question of explanatory parsimony; moreover, early Dravidian influence accounts for the several of the innovative traits in Indic better than any internal explanation that has been proposed. The noted Indologist Zvelebil remarks: "Several scholars have demonstrated that pre-Indo-Aryan and pre-Dravidian bilingualism in India provided conditions for the far-reaching influence of Dravidian on the Indo-Aryan tongues in the spheres of phonology (e.g., the retroflex consonants, made with the tongue curled upward toward the palate), syntax (e.g., the frequent use of gerunds, which are nonfinite verb forms of nominal character, as in “by the falling of the rain”), and vocabulary (a number of Dravidian loanwords apparently appearing in the Rigveda itself)" Notes References Caldwell, R., A comparative grammar of the Dravidian, or, South-Indian family of languages, London: Harrison, 1856.; Reprinted London, K. Paul, Trench, Trubner & co., ltd., 1913; rev. ed. by J.L. Wyatt and T. Ramakrishna Pillai, Madras, University of Madras, 1961, reprint Asian Educational Services, 1998. ISBN 81-206-0117-3 Campbell, A.D., A grammar of the Teloogoo language, commonly termed the Gentoo, peculiar to the Hindoos inhabiting the northeastern provinces of the Indian peninsula, 3d ed. Madras, Printed at the Hindu Press, 1849. Krishnamurti, B., The Dravidian Languages, Cambridge University Press, 2003. ISBN 0-521-77111-0 Subrahmanyam, P.S., Dravidian Comparative Phonology, Annamalai University, 1983. Zvelebil, Kamil., Dravidian Linguistics: An Introduction", PILC (Pondicherry Institute of Linguistics and Culture), 1990 Zvelebil, Kamil., Tamil Literature, E.J. Brill, Leiden, 1975, ISBN 90-04-04190-7 Kuiper, F.B.J., Aryans in the Rig Veda], Rodopi, 1991, ISBN 90-5183-307-5 (CIP) Witzel, Michael, Early Sources for South Asian Substrate Languages.Boston'', "Mother Tongue", extra number 1999 External links Dravidian Etymological Dictionary. The complete dravidian etymological dictionary in a searchable online form. Dravidian languages page in SIL Ethnologue. Dravidian from Etruscan Paper claiming a relationship between Dravidian and Etruscan. Dravidian origin of the Guanches. A paper claiming a Dravidian origin for the language of the Guanches. Tamil and Japanese http://www.brahui.tk A site by Shafique-Ur-Rehman, Its all about Brahui People live mostly in Balochistan, Pakistan. A subsection of the "Languages of the World" Site maintained by the National Virtual Translation Center in Washington DC. See also Susumu Kuno, Professor Emeritus of Linguistics (Harvard University), author of numerous books on Dravidian and other languages Official languages of India Nostratic languages | Dravidian_languages |@lemmatized dravidian:110 family:18 language:85 include:4 approximately:1 ethnologue:2 four:3 literary:1 kannada:3 malayalam:7 tamil:24 telugu:6 mainly:2 speak:2 southern:3 india:11 northeastern:3 sri:1 lanka:1 well:10 certain:3 area:1 pakistan:3 nepal:1 bangladesh:1 eastern:2 central:6 part:2 afghanistan:1 iran:2 overseas:1 country:4 malaysia:1 singapore:1 epigraphically:1 attest:3 since:4 century:4 bc:2 origin:10 word:26 english:1 first:3 employ:1 robert:3 caldwell:6 book:3 comparative:9 grammar:8 base:2 usage:2 sanskrit:24 work:2 tantravārttika:1 zvelebil:18 xx:1 various:4 theory:5 propose:5 basically:2 direction:1 derivation:1 definite:2 philological:1 linguistic:6 basis:1 assert:1 unilaterally:1 name:3 dravida:3 also:10 form:12 dramila:4 tamizha:2 cite:3 avanisundarīkathā:1 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5,385 | Geography_of_the_Republic_of_Macedonia | Republic of Macedonia. With a total area of 25,333 km², the Republic of Macedonia is a country in Southeastern Europe with geographic coordinates . The Republic has some 748 km of boundaries, shared with Serbia (62 km) to the North, Kosovo (159 km) to the northwest, Bulgaria (148 km) to the east, Greece (228 km) to the south, and Albania (151 km) to the west. The country represents a major transportation corridor from Western and Central Europe to Aegean Sea and Southern Europe to Western Europe. The country is part of the wider region of Macedonia, from which carries its own name. It is a landlocked country, but has three natural lakes: Ohrid Lake, Prespa Lake and Dojran Lake. Therefore, it has a water area of 477 km². The land area is 24,856 km². Map references Europe Climate The Republic of Macedonia has warm, dry summers and autumns compared to the cold winters with heavy snowfall. Terrain The country is situated on a mountainous territory covered with deep basins and valleys; three large lakes, each divided by a frontier line. The Republic of Macedonia is bisected by the Vardar River. The Republic's terrain is mostly rugged, located between the Šar Mountains and Osogovo, which frame the valley of the Vardar river. Three large lakes — Lake Ohrid, Lake Prespa and Dojran Lake — lie on the southern borders of the Republic, bisected by the frontiers with Albania and Greece. Ohrid is considered to be one of the oldest lakes and biotopes in the world . The region is seismically active and has been the site of destructive earthquakes in the past, most recently in 1963 when Skopje was heavily damaged by a major earthquake, killing over 1,000. The Republic of Macedonia also has scenic mountains. They belong to two different ranges: Dinarska and Rodopska. The Dinarska range is the oldest with subsequent erosion; the Rodopska range is younger offering rugged, alpine scenery. The ten highest mountains in the Republic of Macedonia are: Mount Korab 2,764 m 9,396 ft Šar Mountains 2,747 m 9,012 ft Baba Mountain 2,601 m 8,533 ft Jakupica 2,540 m 8,333 ft Nidze 2,521 m 8,271 ft Deshat 2,373 m 7,785 ft Galichica 2,288 m 7,507 ft Stogovo 2,273 m 7,457 ft Jablanica 2,257 m 7,405 ft Osogovo 2,251 m 7,383 ft Mount Bistra 2,163 m 7,096 ft Plachkovica 1,754 m 5,754 ft Elevation extremes The lowest point is Vardar River (50 m) near Gevgelija, and the highest point is Golem Korab (2,764 m). Natural resources Nature preservation Macedonia has three national parks and a few national nature reserves. National parks: Pelister National Park Galičica Mavrovo Special nature reservations: Ezerani Jasen Minerals and ores Macedonia is rich in chromium, lead, zinc, manganese, tungsten, nickel, low-grade iron ore, asbestos, sulfur, timber. Also it's one of possibly two places in the world where the Lorandite mineral is found. Land use 24% of the country's territory is arable land. 2% of permanent crops 25% of permanent pastures 39% of forests and woodland 10% - other. (1993 est.). According to 1993 estimates, there are 830 km² of irrigated land. Natural hazards There are high seismic risks. Ecology Air pollution from metallurgical plants is the main problem for the environment. Environment - international agreements Macedonia had taken party to agreements on air pollution, biodiversity, climate change, hazardous wastes, law of the sea, ozone layer protection, and wetlands. Notes See also Republic of Macedonia | Geography_of_the_Republic_of_Macedonia |@lemmatized republic:10 macedonia:11 total:1 area:3 country:6 southeastern:1 europe:5 geographic:1 coordinate:1 km:6 boundary:1 share:1 serbia:1 north:1 kosovo:1 northwest:1 bulgaria:1 east:1 greece:2 south:1 albania:2 west:1 represent:1 major:2 transportation:1 corridor:1 western:2 central:1 aegean:1 sea:2 southern:2 part:1 wide:1 region:2 carry:1 name:1 landlocked:1 three:4 natural:3 lake:10 ohrid:3 prespa:2 dojran:2 therefore:1 water:1 land:4 map:1 reference:1 climate:2 warm:1 dry:1 summer:1 autumn:1 compare:1 cold:1 winter:1 heavy:1 snowfall:1 terrain:2 situate:1 mountainous:1 territory:2 cover:1 deep:1 basin:1 valley:2 large:2 divide:1 frontier:2 line:1 bisect:2 vardar:3 river:3 mostly:1 rugged:2 locate:1 šar:2 mountain:4 osogovo:2 frame:1 lie:1 border:1 consider:1 one:2 old:2 biotopes:1 world:2 seismically:1 active:1 site:1 destructive:1 earthquake:2 past:1 recently:1 skopje:1 heavily:1 damage:1 kill:1 also:3 scenic:1 belong:1 two:2 different:1 range:3 dinarska:2 rodopska:2 subsequent:1 erosion:1 young:1 offer:1 alpine:1 scenery:1 ten:1 high:3 mount:2 korab:2 ft:12 mountains:1 baba:1 jakupica:1 nidze:1 deshat:1 galichica:1 stogovo:1 jablanica:1 bistra:1 plachkovica:1 elevation:1 extremes:1 low:2 point:2 near:1 gevgelija:1 golem:1 resource:1 nature:3 preservation:1 national:4 park:3 reserve:1 pelister:1 galičica:1 mavrovo:1 special:1 reservation:1 ezerani:1 jasen:1 mineral:2 ore:2 rich:1 chromium:1 lead:1 zinc:1 manganese:1 tungsten:1 nickel:1 grade:1 iron:1 asbestos:1 sulfur:1 timber:1 possibly:1 place:1 lorandite:1 find:1 use:1 arable:1 permanent:2 crop:1 pasture:1 forest:1 woodland:1 est:1 accord:1 estimate:1 irrigated:1 hazard:1 seismic:1 risk:1 ecology:1 air:2 pollution:2 metallurgical:1 plant:1 main:1 problem:1 environment:2 international:1 agreement:2 take:1 party:1 biodiversity:1 change:1 hazardous:1 waste:1 law:1 ozone:1 layer:1 protection:1 wetland:1 note:1 see:1 |@bigram republic_macedonia:7 geographic_coordinate:1 aegean_sea:1 lake_prespa:2 destructive_earthquake:1 elevation_extremes:1 extremes_low:1 iron_ore:1 arable_land:1 permanent_crop:1 permanent_pasture:1 pasture_forest:1 forest_woodland:1 woodland_est:1 irrigated_land:1 biodiversity_climate:1 hazardous_waste:1 ozone_layer:1 protection_wetland:1 |
5,386 | Cyberpunk | William Gibson's Sprawl trilogy novels are famous early cyberpunk novels. Cyberpunk is a science fiction genre noted for its focus on "high tech and low life". The name is a portmanteau of cybernetics and punk and was originally coined by Bruce Bethke as the title of his short story "Cyberpunk," published in 1983. The Etymology of "Cyberpunk" It features advanced science, such as information technology and cybernetics, coupled with a degree of breakdown or radical change in the social order. According to Lawrence Person, Classic cyberpunk characters were marginalized, alienated loners who lived on the edge of society in generally dystopic futures where daily life was impacted by rapid technological change, an ubiquitous datasphere of computerized information, and invasive modification of the human body. Notes Toward a Postcyberpunk Manifesto - Person, Lawrence first published in Nova Express issue 16, 1998, later posted to Slashdot Cyberpunk plots often center on a conflict among hackers, artificial intelligences, and megacorporations, and tend to be set in a near-future Earth, rather than the far-future settings or galactic vistas found in novels such as Isaac Asimov's Foundation or Frank Herbert's Dune. The settings are usually post-industrial dystopias but tend to be marked by extraordinary cultural ferment and the use of technology in ways never anticipated by its creators ("the street finds its own uses for things"). Gibson, William from Burning Chrome published in 1981 Much of the genre's atmosphere echoes film noir, and written works in the genre often use techniques from detective fiction. Style and ethos Primary exponents of the cyberpunk field include William Gibson, Neal Stephenson, Bruce Sterling, Pat Cadigan, Rudy Rucker, and John Shirley. Many influential films, such as Blade Runner and the Matrix trilogy can be seen as prominent examples of the cyberpunk style and theme. Computer games, board games, and role-playing games, such as Shadowrun, often feature storylines that are heavily influenced by cyberpunk writing and movies. Beginning in the early 1990s, some trends in fashion and music were also labeled as cyberpunk. Cyberpunk is also featured prominently in anime, Akira, and Ghost in the Shell being among the most notable. Setting Shibuya, described as a "futuristic Times Square" by New York Times. Hidden Tokyo Of Japan's influence on the genre William Gibson said, "Modern Japan simply was cyberpunk." How did Japan become the favored default setting for so many cyberpunk writers? Cyberpunk is often set in urbanized, artificial landscapes, and "city lights, receding" was used by Gibson as one of the genre's first metaphors for cyberspace. Cyberpunk writers tend to use elements from the hard-boiled detective novel, film noir, and postmodernist prose to describe the often nihilistic underground side of an electronic society. The genre's vision of a troubled future is often called the antithesis of the generally utopian visions of the future popular in the 1940s and 1950s. Gibson defined cyberpunk's antipathy towards utopian SF in his 1981 short story "The Gernsback Continuum," which pokes fun at and, to a certain extent, condemns utopian science fiction. In some cyberpunk writing, much of the action takes place online, in cyberspace, blurring the border between actual and virtual reality. A typical trope in such work is a direct connection between the human brain and computer systems. Cyberpunk depicts the world as a dark, sinister place with networked computers dominating every aspect of life. Giant, multinational corporations have for the most part replaced governments as centers of political, economic, and even military power. Protagonists Protagonists in cyberpunk writing usually include computer hackers, who are often patterned on the idea of the lone hero fighting injustice, such as Robin Hood. One of the cyberpunk genre's prototype characters is Case, from Gibson's Neuromancer. Case is a "console cowboy," a brilliant hacker who betrays his organized criminal partners. Robbed of his talent through a crippling injury inflicted by the vengeful partners, Case unexpectedly receives a once-in-a-lifetime opportunity to be healed by expert medical care but only if he participates in another criminal enterprise with a new crew. Like Case, many cyberpunk protagonists are manipulated, placed in situations where they have little or no choice, and although they might see things through, they do not necessarily come out any further ahead than they previously were. These anti-heroes—"criminals, outcasts, visionaries, dissenters and misfits" FAQ file (from the alt.cyberpunk Usenet group) call to mind the private eye of detective novels. This emphasis on the misfits and the malcontents is the "punk" component of cyberpunk. Society and government Cyberpunk can be intended to disquiet readers and call them to action. It often expresses a sense of rebellion, suggesting that one could describe it as a type of culture revolution in science fiction. In the words of author and critic David Brin: …a closer look [at cyberpunk authors] reveals that they nearly always portray future societies in which governments have become wimpy and pathetic …Popular science fiction tales by Gibson, Williams, Cadigan and others do depict Orwellian accumulations of power in the next century, but nearly always clutched in the secretive hands of a wealthy or corporate elite. Brin, David The Transparent Society, Basic Books, 1998 Book link Cyberpunk stories have also been seen as fictional forecasts of the evolution of the Internet. The earliest descriptions of a global communications network came long before the World Wide Web entered popular awareness, though not before traditional science-fiction writers such as Arthur C. Clarke and some social commentators such as James Burke began predicting that such networks would eventually form. Clarke, Arthur C. "The Last Question," Science Fiction Quarterly, 1956 Literature See also: List of cyberpunk print media Overview The science-fiction editor Gardner Dozois is generally acknowledged as the person who popularized the use of the term "cyberpunk" as a kind of literature, although Minnesota writer Bruce Bethke coined the term in 1980 for his short story "Cyberpunk," which was published in the November 1983 issue of Amazing Science Fiction Stories. Bethke, Bruce. "Cyberpunk"Amazing Science Fiction Stories, Vol. 57, No. 4; November 1983 Link The term was quickly appropriated as a label to be applied to the works of William Gibson, Bruce Sterling, Pat Cadigan and others. Of these, Sterling became the movement's chief ideologue, thanks to his fanzine Cheap Truth. John Shirley wrote articles on Sterling and Rucker's significance. John Shirley. Two Cyberpunks: Sterling and Rucker 1999 Link William Gibson with his novel Neuromancer (1984) is likely the most famous writer connected with the term cyberpunk. He emphasized style, a fascination with surfaces, and atmosphere over traditional science-fiction tropes. Regarded as ground-breaking and sometimes as "the archetypal cyberpunk work," Neuromancer was awarded the Hugo, Nebula, and Philip K. Dick Awards. After Gibson's popular debut novel, Count Zero (1986) and Mona Lisa Overdrive (1988) followed. According to the Jargon File, "Gibson's near-total ignorance of computers and the present-day hacker culture enabled him to speculate about the role of computers and hackers in the future in ways hackers have since found both irritatingly naïve and tremendously stimulating." Jargon File definition; see also "Cyberpunk" at the Jargon Wiki. Early on, cyberpunk was hailed as a radical departure from science-fiction standards and a new manifestation of vitality. Brians, Paul. “Study Guide for William Gibson: Neuromancer (1984)” Washington State University, Shortly thereafter, however, many critics arose to challenge its status as a revolutionary movement. These critics said that the SF "New Wave" of the 1960s was much more innovative as far as narrative techniques and styles were concerned. James, Edward. Science Fiction in the 20th Century, Oxford University Press, Oxford & New York, 1994. p. 197 Furthermore, while Neuromancer's narrator may have had an unusual "voice" for science fiction, much older examples can be found: Gibson's narrative voice, for example, resembles that of an updated Raymond Chandler, as in his novel The Big Sleep (1939). Brians, Paul. “Study Guide for William Gibson: Neuromancer (1984)” Washington State University, Others noted that almost all traits claimed to be uniquely cyberpunk could in fact be found in older writers' works—often citing J. G. Ballard, Philip K. Dick, Harlan Ellison, Stanislaw Lem, Samuel R. Delany, and even William S. Burroughs. Brians, Paul. “Study Guide for William Gibson: Neuromancer (1984)” Washington State University, For example, Philip K. Dick's works contain recurring themes of social decay, artificial intelligence, paranoia, and blurred lines between objective and subjective realities, and the influential cyberpunk movie Blade Runner is based on one of his books. Humans linked to machines are found in Pohl and Kornbluth's Wolfbane (1959) and Roger Zelazny's Creatures of Light and Darkness (1968). In 1994, scholar Brian Stonehill suggested that Thomas Pynchon's 1973 novel Gravity's Rainbow "not only curses but precurses what we now glibly dub cyberspace." Brian Stonehill, "Pynchon's Prophecies of Cyberspace". Delivered at the first international conference on Pynchon, the University of Warwick, England, November 1994. Other important predecessors include Alfred Bester's two most celebrated novels, The Demolished Man and The Stars My Destination, as well as Vernor Vinge's novella True Names. Science-fiction writer David Brin describes cyberpunk as "the finest free promotion campaign ever waged on behalf of science fiction." It may not have attracted the "real punks," but it did ensnare many new readers, and it provided the sort of movement that postmodern literary critics found alluring. Cyberpunk made science fiction more attractive to academics, argues Brin; in addition, it made science fiction more profitable to Hollywood and to the visual arts generally. Although the "self-important rhetoric and whines of persecution" on the part of cyberpunk fans were irritating at worst and humorous at best, Brin declares that the "rebels did shake things up. We owe them a debt." David Brin, Review of The Matrix. Cyberpunk further inspired many professional writers who were not among the "original" cyberpunks to incorporate cyberpunk ideas into their own works, such as George Alec Effinger's When Gravity Fails. Wired magazine, created by Louis Rossetto and Jane Metcalfe, mixes new technology, art, literature, and current topics in order to interest today’s cyberpunk fans, which Paula Yoo claims "proves that hardcore hackers, multimedia junkies, cyberpunks and cellular freaks are poised to take over the world." Yoo, Paula. “CYBERPUNK - IN PRINT -- HACKER GENERATION GETS PLUGGED INTO NEW MAGAZINE” Seattle Times. Seattle, Wash.: Feb 18, 1993. pg. G.3 Subgenres and connected genres As a wider variety of writers began to work with cyberpunk concepts, new sub-genres of science fiction emerged, playing off the cyberpunk label, and focusing on technology and its social effects in different ways. A prominent subgenre is steampunk, which is set in an alternate history Victorian era that combines anachronistic techonology with cyberpunk's bleak film noir world view. The term was originally coined around 1987 as a joke to describe some of the novels of Tim Powers, James P. Blaylock, and K.W. Jeter, but by the time Gibson and Sterling entered the subgenre with their collaborative novel The Difference Engine the term was being used earnestly as well. Michael Berry, "Wacko Victorian Fantasy Follows 'Cyberpunk' Mold," The San Francisco Chronicle, 25 June, 1987; quoted online by Wordspy. Another subgenre is biopunk (cyberpunk themes dominated by biotechnology) from the early 1990s, a derivative style building on biotechnology rather than informational technology. In these stories, people are changed in some way not by mechanical means, but by genetic manipulation. Paul Di Filippo is seen as the most prominent biopunk writer, including his half-serious ribofunk. Bruce Sterling's Shaper/Mechanist cycle is also seen as a major influence. In addition, some people consider works such as Neal Stephenson's The Diamond Age to be postcyberpunk. Film and televisionSee also: List of cyberpunk films, List of cyberpunk documentary films, and List of cyberpunk television seriessmall|A futuristic Los Angeles in Blade Runner. The film Blade Runner (1982), adapted from Philip K. Dick's Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?, is set in 2019 in a dystopian future in which manufactured beings called replicants are slaves used on space colonies and are legal prey on Earth to various bounty hunters who "retire" (kill) them. Although Blade Runner was largely unsuccessful in its first theatrical release, it found a viewership in the home video market and became a cult film. Since the movie omits the religious and mythical elements of Dick's original novel (e.g. empathy boxes and Wilbur Mercer), it falls more strictly within the cyberpunk genre than the novel does. William Gibson would later reveal that upon first viewing the film, he was surprised at how the look of this film matched his vision when he was working on Neuromancer. The film's tone has since been the staple of many cyberpunk movies, such as The Matrix (1999), which uses a wide variety of cyberpunk elements. The number of films in the genre or at least using a few genre elements has grown steadily since Blade Runner. Several of Philip K. Dick's works have been adapted to the silver screen. Unfortunately for cyberpunk's arguable originator, the films Johnny Mnemonic (1995) and New Rose Hotel (1998) flopped, commercially and critically. MusicSee also: List of cyberpunk music Some musicians and acts have been classified as cyberpunk due to their aesthetic style and musical content. Often dealing with dystopian visions of the future or biomechanical themes, some fit more squarely in the category than others. Most people would view a lot of industrial music as cyberpunk, as well as various Electronic body music acts. Anime and manga The hacker as hero: Lain from the cyberpunk anime series Serial Experiments Lain. See also: List of cyberpunk anime works Cyberpunk themes are widely visible in anime and manga. In Japan, where “cosplay” is popular and not only teenagers display such fashion styles, cyberpunk has been accepted and its influence is widespread. William Gibson’s Neuromancer, whose influence dominated the early cyberpunk movement, was also set in Chiba, one of Japan’s largest industrial areas, although at the time of writing the novel Gibson did not know the location of Chiba and had no idea how perfectly it fit his vision in some ways. The exposure to cyberpunk ideas and fiction in the time mid 1980s has allowed it to seep into the Japanese culture. Even though most anime and manga is written in Japan, the cyberpunk anime and manga have a more futuristic and therefore international feel to them so they are widely accepted by all. “The conceptualization involved in cyberpunk is more of forging ahead, looking at the new global culture. It is a culture that does not exist right now, so the Japanese concept of a cyberpunk future, seems just as valid as a Western one, especially as Western cyberpunk often incorporates many Japanese elements.” Ruh, Brian (2000), "Liberating Cels: Forms of the Female in Japanese Cyberpunk Animation". AnimeResearch.com December 2000. William Gibson is now a frequent visitor to Japan, and he came to see that many of his visions of Japan have become a reality: Modern Japan simply was cyberpunk. The Japanese themselves knew it and delighted in it. I remember my first glimpse of Shibuya, when one of the young Tokyo journalists who had taken me there, his face drenched with the light of a thousand media-suns — all that towering, animated crawl of commercial information — said, "You see? You see? It is Blade Runner town." And it was. It so evidently was. Gibson, William. "The Future Perfect: How Did Japan Become the Favored Default Setting for So Many Cyberpunk Writers?", Time International, 30 April 2001:48. Cyberpunk has influenced many anime and manga including the ground-breaking Akira. Games See also: List of cyberpunk computer and video games Several role-playing games (RPGs) called Cyberpunk exist: Cyberpunk, Cyberpunk 2020 and Cyberpunk v3 , by R. Talsorian Games, and GURPS Cyberpunk, published by Steve Jackson Games as a module of the GURPS family of RPGs. Cyberpunk 2020 was designed with the settings of William Gibson's writings in mind, and to some extent with his approval, unlike the approach taken by FASA in producing the transgenre Shadowrun game. Both are set in the near future, in a world where cybernetics are prominent. In addition, Iron Crown Enterprises released an RPG named Cyberspace, which was out of print for several years until recently being re-released in online PDF form. In 1990, in an odd convergence of cyberpunk art and reality, the U.S. Secret Service raided Steve Jackson Games's headquarters and confiscated all their computers. This was allegedly because the GURPS Cyberpunk sourcebook could be used to perpetrate computer crime. That was, in fact, not the main reason for the raid, but after the event it was too late to correct the public's impression. SJ Games Raided - Jackson, Steve, Steve Jackson Games website, Friday 19 April 1990 Steve Jackson Games later won a lawsuit against the Secret Service, aided by the freshly minted Electronic Frontier Foundation. This event has achieved a sort of notoriety, which has extended to the book itself as well. All published editions of GURPS Cyberpunk have a tagline on the front cover, which reads "The book that was seized by the U.S. Secret Service!" Inside, the book provides a summary of the raid and its aftermath. Cyberpunk has also inspired several tabletop, miniature and board games. Netrunner is a collectible card game introduced in 1996, based on the Cyberpunk 2020 role-playing game. Computer games have frequently used cyberpunk as a source of inspiration. Other games, like Blade Runner and The Matrix games, are based upon genre movies. Real life Berlin's Sony Center Some places in real life have been described as cyberpunk: Japan Sony Center in the Potsdamer Platz public square of Berlin, Germany See also Cyberculture Simulated reality Transhumanism Nanopunk References External links Cyberpunk R.I.P. - Saffo, Paul, Wired Magazine, Issue 1.04 - Sep/Oct 1993 On Books: Movements - Spinrad, Norman, Asimov's Science Fiction, October/November 2002. Cyberpunk Review (comprehensive cyberpunk movie reviews and video clips resource, discussion forum about related topics) The Cyberpunk Project (comprehensive cyberpunk links and resources) Cyberpunks Gaming Podcast (featuring discussion about Video Games, Technology, and "hi-tech and lo-life" issues) | Cyberpunk |@lemmatized william:15 gibson:23 sprawl:1 trilogy:2 novel:15 famous:2 early:6 cyberpunk:95 science:20 fiction:21 genre:13 note:3 focus:2 high:1 tech:2 low:1 life:6 name:2 portmanteau:1 cybernetics:3 punk:3 originally:2 coin:3 bruce:6 bethke:3 title:1 short:3 story:7 publish:5 etymology:1 feature:3 advanced:1 information:3 technology:6 couple:1 degree:1 breakdown:1 radical:2 change:3 social:4 order:2 accord:2 lawrence:2 person:3 classic:1 character:2 marginalize:1 alienated:1 loner:1 live:1 edge:1 society:5 generally:4 dystopic:1 future:12 daily:1 impact:1 rapid:1 technological:1 ubiquitous:1 datasphere:1 computerized:1 invasive:1 modification:1 human:3 body:2 toward:1 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5,387 | Belgian_Blue | Belgian Blue cow (note the scars from caesarean sections) Belgian Blue cattle are a beef breed from Belgium, known in French as Race de la Moyenne et Haute Belgique. Alternative names include Belgian Blue-White, Belgian White and Blue Pied, Belgian White Blue, Blue and Blue Belgian. Oklahoma State University breed profile The sculpted, heavily muscled appearance is known as "double muscling", and is a trait shared by the Piedmontese breed. They are named for their typically blue-grey mottled hair colour, although it can vary from white to black. The Belgian Blue has a natural mutation of the gene that codes for myostatin, a protein that counteracts muscle growth. The truncated myostatin is unable to function in this capacity, resulting in accelerated lean muscle growth, due primarily to hyperplasia rather than hypertrophy. The defect in the breed's myostatin gene is maintained through linebreeding. This mutation also interferes with fat deposition, resulting in very lean meat. Cows bred to double-muscled bulls are often unable to give birth naturally, requiring a caesarean section. Double-muscled cows also can experience dystocia, even when bred to normal beef bulls, or even dairy bulls, because of narrowing of the birth canal. The breed originated in central and upper Belgium in the nineteenth century, from crossing local cattle with Shorthorn cattle from the United Kingdom and probably with Charolais cattle. At first there were milking strains and beef strains of the breed. The modern beef breed was developed in the 1950s by Professor Hanset, working at an Artificial insemination centre in Liege province. Critics call Belgian blues "monster cows" and some countries, including Denmark, have advocated eliminating the strain. The Copenhagen Post References External links Photos of double muscled Myostatin inhibited Belgian Blue Bulls Video - "Meet the Super Cow" | Belgian_Blue |@lemmatized belgian:9 blue:11 cow:5 note:1 scar:1 caesarean:2 section:2 cattle:4 beef:4 breed:9 belgium:2 know:2 french:1 race:1 de:1 la:1 moyenne:1 et:1 haute:1 belgique:1 alternative:1 name:2 include:2 white:4 pied:1 oklahoma:1 state:1 university:1 profile:1 sculpt:1 heavily:1 muscle:6 appearance:1 double:4 trait:1 share:1 piedmontese:1 typically:1 grey:1 mottle:1 hair:1 colour:1 although:1 vary:1 black:1 natural:1 mutation:2 gene:2 cod:1 myostatin:4 protein:1 counteract:1 growth:2 truncated:1 unable:2 function:1 capacity:1 result:2 accelerated:1 lean:2 due:1 primarily:1 hyperplasia:1 rather:1 hypertrophy:1 defect:1 maintain:1 linebreeding:1 also:2 interfere:1 fat:1 deposition:1 meat:1 bull:4 often:1 give:1 birth:2 naturally:1 require:1 muscled:1 experience:1 dystocia:1 even:2 normal:1 dairy:1 narrowing:1 canal:1 originate:1 central:1 upper:1 nineteenth:1 century:1 cross:1 local:1 shorthorn:1 united:1 kingdom:1 probably:1 charolais:1 first:1 milk:1 strain:3 modern:1 develop:1 professor:1 hanset:1 work:1 artificial:1 insemination:1 centre:1 liege:1 province:1 critic:1 call:1 monster:1 country:1 denmark:1 advocate:1 eliminate:1 copenhagen:1 post:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 photo:1 inhibited:1 video:1 meet:1 super:1 |@bigram caesarean_section:2 nineteenth_century:1 artificial_insemination:1 external_link:1 |
5,388 | Off_spin | Animation of a typical off spin (finger spin) delivery. Off spin is a type of bowling in the sport of cricket which is bowled by an off spinner, a right-handed spin bowler who uses his or her fingers and/or wrist to spin the ball from a right-handed batsman's off side to the leg side (that is, towards the right-handed batsman, or away from a left-handed batsman). This contrasts with leg spin, in which the ball spins from leg to off and which is bowled with a very different action. A left-handed bowler who bowls with the same action as an off spinner is known as a left-arm orthodox spinner. Keep in mind, that while the orthodox spinner has the same action as an off-spinner, the ball itself spins in the opposite direction (akin to a right arm leg spinner). Off spin is generally considered less difficult to play than leg spin, as off breaks typically spin less than leg breaks, and do not generally possess the same loopy, potentially deceptive flight. In addition, off spinners tend to have a smaller repertoire of deliveries to choose from. However, the off spinner often bowls faster and more accurately than a leg spinner, and can therefore deceive the batsman with changes in the pace of the ball. Direction of spin for right hand off-spiner Notable contemporary off spinners include, Muttiah Muralitharan of Sri Lanka, who has the most wickets in both ODI's and Test matches, Harbhajan Singh of India and Saqlain Mushtaq of Pakistan. Saqlain has been credited with the invention of the "doosra", which is bowled with a similar-looking action to the off break but spins the opposite way, just as the leg spinner's googly turns the opposite way from his stock ball. Another common weapon of the off spinner is the arm ball, which doesn't spin but goes straight on "with the arm". More skilled offspinners also have the topspinner. Aside from these variations in spin, varying the speed, length and flight of the ball are also important for the off spinner. Although rare now, in the past there were bowlers who used the off-break action who deliberately did not impart any considerable spin on the ball but relied on line and length to frustrate batsmen. They endeavoured to pitch the ball in an area that the batsman was unable to play a scoring shot, even making last moment adjustments to "follow" a batsman should they move within the crease to negate the bowlers tactics. Whilst this is primarily a defensive style, wickets were achieved by forcing a batsman to make a rash stroke or even bowling at the stumps instead of the retreating batsman. Another wicket taking method was to impart more spin on the ball than usual, and surprise the batsman. An exponent of this style of bowling was "Flat" Jack Simmons who played for Lancashire in the 1970's and 80's. With the advent of limited overs cricket promoting more adventurous batting styles and the use of ever heavier bats this style of bowling has declined, although some off-spinners will still use this tactic when the pitch is offering very little or no turn. Some notable off spinners Harbhajan Singh bowling off spin. Kevin Pietersen bowls off-spin in the Adelaide Oval nets Ian Johnson Ashley Mallett Tim May Colin Miller Monty Noble Peter Taylor Hugh Trumble Tom Veivers Bruce Yardley Nathan Hauritz Jason Krejza David Allen Geoff Cope Robert Croft John Emburey Ray Illingworth Jim Laker Geoff Miller John Mortimore Pat Pocock Graeme Swann Roy Tattersall Fred Titmus Harbhajan Singh Erapalli Prasanna Srinivasaraghavan Venkataraghavan Shivlal Yadav Vijay Bharadwaj Monish parmar Ravichandran Ashwin John Bracewell Jeetan Patel Paul Wiseman Arshad Khan Saqlain Mushtaq Shoaib Malik Tauseef Ahmed Hugh Tayfield Pat Symcox John Traicos Kumar Dharmasena Muttiah Muralitharan — classified as an off spinner because of the behaviour of his stock delivery; however, his action is unique and much closer to that of a leg spinner Ajantha Mendis Lance Gibbs Carl Hooper Jack Noreiga Sonny Ramadhin John Traicos See also Cricket terminology References | Off_spin |@lemmatized animation:1 typical:1 spin:19 finger:2 delivery:3 type:1 bowling:4 sport:1 cricket:3 bowl:7 spinner:17 right:5 hand:6 bowler:4 use:4 wrist:1 ball:10 batsman:10 side:2 leg:9 towards:1 away:1 leave:1 contrast:1 different:1 action:6 left:2 know:1 arm:4 orthodox:2 keep:1 mind:1 opposite:3 direction:2 akin:1 generally:2 consider:1 less:2 difficult:1 play:3 break:4 typically:1 possess:1 loopy:1 potentially:1 deceptive:1 flight:2 addition:1 tend:1 small:1 repertoire:1 choose:1 however:2 often:1 faster:1 accurately:1 therefore:1 deceive:1 change:1 pace:1 spiner:1 notable:2 contemporary:1 include:1 muttiah:2 muralitharan:2 sri:1 lanka:1 wicket:3 odi:1 test:1 match:1 harbhajan:3 singh:3 india:1 saqlain:3 mushtaq:2 pakistan:1 credit:1 invention:1 doosra:1 similar:1 look:1 way:2 googly:1 turn:2 stock:2 another:2 common:1 weapon:1 go:1 straight:1 skilled:1 offspinners:1 also:3 topspinner:1 aside:1 variation:1 vary:1 speed:1 length:2 important:1 although:2 rare:1 past:1 deliberately:1 impart:2 considerable:1 rely:1 line:1 frustrate:1 endeavour:1 pitch:2 area:1 unable:1 scoring:1 shot:1 even:2 make:2 last:1 moment:1 adjustment:1 follow:1 move:1 within:1 crease:1 negate:1 tactic:2 whilst:1 primarily:1 defensive:1 style:4 achieve:1 force:1 rash:1 stroke:1 stump:1 instead:1 retreat:1 take:1 method:1 usual:1 surprise:1 exponent:1 flat:1 jack:2 simmons:1 lancashire:1 advent:1 limited:1 promote:1 adventurous:1 batting:1 ever:1 heavy:1 bat:1 decline:1 still:1 offer:1 little:1 kevin:1 pietersen:1 adelaide:1 oval:1 net:1 ian:1 johnson:1 ashley:1 mallett:1 tim:1 may:1 colin:1 miller:2 monty:1 noble:1 peter:1 taylor:1 hugh:2 trumble:1 tom:1 veivers:1 bruce:1 yardley:1 nathan:1 hauritz:1 jason:1 krejza:1 david:1 allen:1 geoff:2 cope:1 robert:1 croft:1 john:5 emburey:1 ray:1 illingworth:1 jim:1 laker:1 mortimore:1 pat:2 pocock:1 graeme:1 swann:1 roy:1 tattersall:1 fred:1 titmus:1 erapalli:1 prasanna:1 srinivasaraghavan:1 venkataraghavan:1 shivlal:1 yadav:1 vijay:1 bharadwaj:1 monish:1 parmar:1 ravichandran:1 ashwin:1 bracewell:1 jeetan:1 patel:1 paul:1 wiseman:1 arshad:1 khan:1 shoaib:1 malik:1 tauseef:1 ahmed:1 tayfield:1 symcox:1 traicos:2 kumar:1 dharmasena:1 classify:1 behaviour:1 unique:1 much:1 close:1 ajantha:1 mendis:1 lance:1 gibbs:1 carl:1 hooper:1 noreiga:1 sonny:1 ramadhin:1 see:1 terminology:1 reference:1 |@bigram spin_bowler:1 hand_batsman:3 leg_spinner:4 muttiah_muralitharan:2 sri_lanka:1 adelaide_oval:1 |
5,389 | Diesel_cycle | The Diesel cycle is the thermodynamic cycle which approximates the pressure and volume of the combustion chamber of the Diesel engine, invented by Rudolph Diesel in 1897. It is assumed to have constant pressure during the first part of the "combustion" phase , v2 to v3 in the diagram . This is mostly a mathematical model: real physical diesels do have an increase in pressure during this period, but it is less pronounced than in the Otto cycle. The idealized Otto cycle of a gasoline engine approximates constant volume during that phase, generating more of a spike in a p/v diagram. The Idealized Diesel Cycle P-v Diagram for the Ideal Diesel cycle. The cycle follows the numbers 1-4 in clockwise direction. The image on the left shows a P-v diagram for the ideal diesel cycle; where P is pressure and v is specific volume. The ideal diesel cycle follows the following four distinct processes (The color references refer to the color of the line on the diagram.): Process 1 to 2 is isentropic compression (blue) Process 2 to 3 is reversible constant pressure heating (red) Process 3 to 4 is isentropic expansion (yellow) Process 4 to 1 is reversible constant volume cooling (green) Eastop & McConkey 1993, Applied Thermodynamics for Engineering Technologists, Pearson Education Limited, Fifth Edition, p.137 The diesel is a heat engine: it converts heat into work. Work in (Win) is done by the piston compressing the working fluid Heat in (Qin) is done by the combustion of the fuel Work out (Wout) is done by the working fluid expanding on to the piston, this produces usable torque Heat out (Qout) is done by venting the air Maximum thermal efficiency The maximum thermal efficiency of a diesel cycle is dependent on the compression ratio and the cut-off ratio. It has the following formula: Where is thermal efficiency is the cut-off ratio (ratio between the end and start volume for the combustion phase) r is the compression ratio is ratio of specific heats (Cp/Cv) The Diesel Engine The cut-off ratio can be expressed in terms of temperature as shown below: can be approximated to the flame temperature of the fuel used. The flame temperature can be approximated to the adiabatic flame temperature of the fuel with corresponding air-to-fuel ratio and compression pressure, . can be approximated to the inlet air temperature. This formula only gives the ideal thermal efficiency. The actual thermal efficiency will be significantly lower due to heat and friction losses. The formula is more complex than the Otto cycle (petrol/gasoline engine) relation that has the following formula; The additional complexity for the diesel formula comes around since the heat addition is at constant pressure and the heat rejection is at constant volume. The Otto cycle by comparison has both the heat addition and rejection at constant volume. Comparing the two formulae it can be seen that for a given compression ratio (r), the ideal Otto cycle will be more efficient. However, a diesel engine will be more efficient overall since it will have the ability to operate at higher compression ratios. If a petrol engine were to have the same compression ratio, then knocking (self-ignition) would occur and this would severely reduce the efficiency, whereas in a diesel engine, the self ignition is the desired behavior. Additionally, both of these cycles are only idealizations, and the actual behavior does not divide as clearly or sharply. And the ideal Otto cycle formula stated above does not include throttling losses, which do not apply to diesel engines. The Diesel cycle is a combustion process of a reciprocating internal combustion engine. In it, fuel is ignited by heat generated by compressing air in the combustion chamber, into which fuel is injected. This is in contrast to igniting it with a spark plug as in the Otto cycle (four-stroke/petrol) engine. Diesel engines (heat engines using the Diesel cycle) are used in automobiles, power generation, diesel-electric locomotives, and submarines. General information It should be noted that theoretical simplified approaches are common in engineering due to the complexity of real physical processes, and does not detract the value to realize more optimum solutions. The diesel engine has the lowest specific fuel consumption of any large internal combustion engine, 0.26 lb/hp.h (0.16 kg/kWh) for very large marine engines. In fact, two-stroke diesels with high pressure forced induction, particularly turbocharging, make up a large percentage of the very largest diesel engines. In North America, diesel engines are primarily used in large trucks, where the low-stress, high-efficiency cycle leads to much longer engine life and lower operational costs. These advantages also make the diesel engine ideal for use in the heavy-haul railroad environment. Other internal combustion engines without spark plugs Many model airplanes use very simple "glow" and "diesel" engines. Glow engines use glow plugs. "Diesel" model airplane engines have variable compression ratios. Both types depend on special fuels (easily obtainable in such limited quantities) for their ignition timing. Some 19th century or earlier experimental engines used external flames, exposed by valves, for ignition, but this becomes less attractive with increasing compression. (It was not until Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot that the thermodynamic value of compression was known.) A historical implication of this is that the diesel engine would eventually have been invented without the aid of electricity. See the development of the hot bulb engine and indirect injection for historical significance. References See also Diesel engine hot bulb engine | Diesel_cycle |@lemmatized diesel:28 cycle:19 thermodynamic:2 approximate:5 pressure:8 volume:7 combustion:9 chamber:2 engine:29 invent:2 rudolph:1 assume:1 constant:7 first:1 part:1 phase:3 diagram:5 mostly:1 mathematical:1 model:3 real:2 physical:2 increase:2 period:1 less:2 pronounced:1 otto:7 idealized:2 gasoline:2 generate:2 spike:1 p:5 v:4 ideal:7 follow:2 number:1 clockwise:1 direction:1 image:1 left:1 show:2 specific:3 following:3 four:2 distinct:1 process:7 color:2 reference:2 refer:1 line:1 isentropic:2 compression:10 blue:1 reversible:2 heating:1 red:1 expansion:1 yellow:1 cooling:1 green:1 eastop:1 mcconkey:1 apply:2 thermodynamics:1 engineering:2 technologist:1 pearson:1 education:1 limit:1 fifth:1 edition:1 heat:11 convert:1 work:5 win:1 piston:2 compress:2 fluid:2 qin:1 fuel:8 wout:1 expand:1 produce:1 usable:1 torque:1 qout:1 vent:1 air:4 maximum:2 thermal:5 efficiency:7 dependent:1 ratio:12 cut:3 formula:6 end:1 start:1 r:2 cp:1 cv:1 express:1 term:1 temperature:5 flame:4 use:8 adiabatic:1 correspond:1 inlet:1 give:2 actual:2 significantly:1 low:4 due:2 friction:1 loss:2 complex:1 petrol:3 relation:1 additional:1 complexity:2 come:1 around:1 since:2 addition:2 rejection:2 comparison:1 compare:1 two:2 formulae:1 see:3 efficient:2 however:1 overall:1 ability:1 operate:1 high:3 knock:1 self:2 ignition:4 would:3 occur:1 severely:1 reduce:1 whereas:1 desired:1 behavior:2 additionally:1 idealization:1 divide:1 clearly:1 sharply:1 state:1 include:1 throttle:1 reciprocate:1 internal:3 ignite:2 inject:1 contrast:1 spark:2 plug:3 stroke:2 automobile:1 power:1 generation:1 electric:1 locomotive:1 submarine:1 general:1 information:1 note:1 theoretical:1 simplify:1 approach:1 common:1 detract:1 value:2 realize:1 optimum:1 solution:1 consumption:1 large:5 lb:1 hp:1 h:1 kg:1 kwh:1 marine:1 fact:1 force:1 induction:1 particularly:1 turbocharging:1 make:2 percentage:1 north:1 america:1 primarily:1 truck:1 stress:1 lead:1 much:1 long:1 life:1 operational:1 cost:1 advantage:1 also:2 heavy:1 haul:1 railroad:1 environment:1 without:2 many:1 airplane:2 simple:1 glow:3 variable:1 type:1 depend:1 special:1 easily:1 obtainable:1 limited:1 quantity:1 timing:1 century:1 early:1 experimental:1 external:1 expose:1 valve:1 become:1 attractive:1 nicolas:1 léonard:1 sadi:1 carnot:1 know:1 historical:2 implication:1 eventually:1 aid:1 electricity:1 development:1 hot:2 bulb:2 indirect:1 injection:1 significance:1 |@bigram combustion_chamber:2 diesel_engine:13 gasoline_engine:2 compression_ratio:6 petrol_gasoline:1 petrol_engine:2 internal_combustion:3 combustion_engine:3 spark_plug:2 ignition_timing:1 sadi_carnot:1 indirect_injection:1 |
5,390 | Lake_Toba | Lake Toba () is a lake and supervolcano, 100 kilometres long and 30 kilometres wide, and 505 metres (1,666 ft) at its deepest point. Located in the middle of the northern part of the Indonesian island of Sumatra with a surface elevation of about 900 m (3,000 ft), the lake stretches from to . It is the largest volcanic lake in the world. Worldlakes.org In addition, it is the site of a supervolcanic eruption that occurred 75,000 years before the present, a massive climate-changing event. The eruption is believed to have a VEI intensity of 8. This eruption, believed to have been the largest anywhere on Earth in the last 25 million years, may have had global catastrophic consequences; some scientists believe that this eruption may have wiped out much of humanity and may have created a population bottleneck that affected the genetic inheritance of all human survivors. Geology The Toba caldera complex in Northern Sumatra, Indonesia consists of four overlapping volcanic craters that adjoin the Sumatran "volcanic front". The youngest and fourth caldera is the world’s largest Quaternary caldera (100 by 30 kilometres) and intercepts the three older calderas. An estimate of 2500-3000 cubic kilometres of dense-rock equivalent pyroclastic material, known the Youngest Toba tuff, was blasted from the youngest caldera during one of the largest single eruptions in geologic history. Following the "Youngest Toba tuff eruption", a typical resurgent dome formed within the new caldera, joining two half-domes separated by a longitudinal graben. There are at least four cones, four stratovolcanoes and three craters visible in the lake. The Tandukbenua cone on the NW edge of the caldera is relatively lacking in vegetation, suggesting a young age of only several hundred years. Also, the Pusubukit volcano on the south edge of the caldera is solfatarically active. The Eruption Location of Lake Toba shown in red on map. The Toba eruption (the Toba event) occurred at what is now Lake Toba about 67,500 to 75,500 years ago. It had an estimated Volcanic Explosivity Index of 8 (described as "mega-colossal"), making it possibly the largest explosive volcanic eruption within the last twenty-five million years. It had a volume 300 cubic km greater than the Island Park Caldera supereruption (2500 cubic km) of 2.1 million years BP. Bill Rose and Craig Chesner of Michigan Technological University have deduced that the total amount of erupted material was about 2800 cubic km (670 cubic miles) — around 2000 cubic km of ignimbrite that flowed over the ground, and around 800 cubic km that fell as ash, with the wind blowing most of it to the west. The pyroclastic flows of the eruption destroyed an area of 20,000 square km (7700 square miles), with ash deposits as thick as 600 metres (2000 feet) by the main vent. By contrast, the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens ejected around 1.2 cubic km of material, whilst the largest volcanic eruption in historic times, at Mount Tambora in 1815, emitted the equivalent of around 100 cubic km of dense rock and created the "Year Without a Summer" as far away as North America. The eruption was also about three times the size of the latest Yellowstone eruption of Lava Creek 630,000 years ago. The Toba eruption was the latest of a series of at least three caldera-forming eruptions which have occurred at the volcano. Earlier calderas were formed around 700,000 and 840,000 years ago. To give an idea of its magnitude, consider that although the eruption took place in Indonesia, it deposited an ash layer approximately 15 cm (6 inch) thick over the entire Indian subcontinent; at one site in central India, the Toba ash layer today is up to 6 m (20 ft) thick Acharyya S.K., and Basu P.K. 1992. "Toba ash on the Indian subcontinent and its implications for correlation of late pleistocene alluvium." Quaternary Research 40:10-19 and parts of Malaysia were covered with 9 m of ashfall. Scrivenor, J.B. 1931. The Geology of Malaya (London: MacMillan), noted by Weber. In addition it has been calculated that 1010 metric tons of sulphuric acid was ejected into the atmosphere by the event, causing acid rain fallout. Huang C.Y., Zhao M.X., Wang C.C., and Wei G.J. 2001. "Cooling of the South China Sea by the Toba eruption and correlation with other climate proxies ca. 71,000 years ago." Geophysical Research Letters 28:3915-3918, noted by Weber. Landsat photo of Sumatra surrounding Lake Toba The subsequent collapse formed a caldera that, after filling with water, created Lake Toba. The island in the center of the lake is formed by a resurgent dome. Though the year may never be precisely determined, the season can: only the summer monsoon could have deposited Toba ashfall in the South China Sea, implying that the eruption took place sometime during the northern summer. Bühring C., and Sarnthein M. 2000. "Toba ash layers in the South China Sea: evidence of contrasting wind directions during eruption ca. 74 ka." Geology 28:275-278. The eruption lasted perhaps two weeks, but the ensuing "volcanic winter" resulted in a decrease in average global temperatures by 3 to 3.5 degrees Celsius for several years. Greenland ice cores record a pulse of starkly reduced levels of organic carbon sequestration. Very few plants or animals in southeast Asia would have survived, and it is possible that the eruption caused a planet-wide die-off. There is some evidence, based on mitochondrial DNA, that the human race may have passed through a genetic bottleneck around this time, reducing genetic diversity below what would be expected from the age of the species. According to the Toba catastrophe theory proposed by Stanley H. Ambrose of the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign in 1998, human populations may have been reduced to only a few tens of thousands of individuals by the Toba eruption. More recent activity Children playing in Lake Toba Smaller eruptions have occurred at Toba since. The small cone of Pusukbukit has formed on the southwestern margin of the caldera and lava domes. The most recent eruption may have been at Tandukbenua on the northwestern caldera edge, since the present lack of vegetation could be due to an eruption within the last few hundred years. Some parts of the caldera have experienced uplift due to partial refilling of the magma chamber, for example pushing Samosir Island and the Uluan Peninsula above the surface of the lake. The lake sediments on Samosir Island show that it has been uplifted by at least 450 metres since the cataclysmic eruption. Such uplifts are common in very large calderas, apparently due to the upward pressure of unerupted magma. Toba is probably the largest resurgent caldera on Earth. Large earthquakes have occurred in the vicinity of the volcano more recently, notably in 1987 along the southern shore of the lake at a depth of 11 km. Other earthquakes have occurred in the area in 1892, 1916, and 1920-1922. ] Lake Toba lies near the Great Sumatran fault which runs along the centre of Sumatra called the Sumatra Fracture Zone. The volcanoes of Sumatra and Java are part of the Sunda Arc, a result of the northeasterly movement of the Indo-Australian Plate which is sliding under the eastward-moving Eurasian Plate. The subduction zone in this area is very active: the seabed near the west coast of Sumatra has had several major earthquakes since 1995, including the 9.3 2004 Indian Ocean Earthquake and the 8.7 2005 Sumatra earthquake, the epicenters of which were around 300 km from Toba. On September 12, 2007, a magnitude 8.5 Earthquake shook the ground by Sumatra and was felt in the Indonesian capital, Jakarta. The epicenter for this earthquake was not as close as the previous two earthquakes, but it was in the same vicinity. A view of Lake Toba from the island of Prapat Batak House at Lake Toba People Most of the people who live around Lake Toba are ethnically Bataks. Traditional Batak houses are noted for their distinctive roofs (which curve upwards at each end, as a boat's hull does) and their colorful decor. Flora and fauna Lake Toba offers a nurturing environment for fish such as the tilapia mossambica, aplocheilus pachax, lebistes reticulatus, osphronemus goramy, trichogaster trichopterus, channa striata, chana gachua, clarias batrachus, clarias nieuhofi, clarias. sp., nemachilus fasciatus, cyprinus carpio, puntius javanicus, puntius binotatus, osteochilus nasselti, lissochilus sp., labeobarbus sora, and rasbora sp. Many other types of plants and animals live within the boundaries of Lake Toba. Flora organisms include various types of phytoplankton, emerged macrophytes, floating macrophytes, and submerged macrophytes. Fauna include several variations of zooplankton and benthos. See also Supervolcano List of lakes in Indonesia List of volcanoes in Indonesia References Notes Sources External links Toba, Sumatra, Indonesia - Volcano.umd.edu Accessed 11 December 2005 Stanley H. Ambrose, Volcanic Winter, and Differentiation of Modern Humans Accessed 11 December 2005 Joel Achenbach, Who Knew, National Geographic Accessed 11 December 2005 George Weber, Toba Volcano | Lake_Toba |@lemmatized lake:21 toba:30 supervolcano:2 kilometre:4 long:1 wide:2 metre:3 ft:3 deep:1 point:1 locate:1 middle:1 northern:3 part:4 indonesian:2 island:6 sumatra:10 surface:2 elevation:1 stretch:1 large:9 volcanic:8 world:2 worldlakes:1 org:1 addition:2 site:2 supervolcanic:1 eruption:27 occur:6 year:13 present:2 massive:1 climate:2 change:1 event:3 believe:3 vei:1 intensity:1 anywhere:1 earth:2 last:4 million:3 may:7 global:2 catastrophic:1 consequence:1 scientist:1 wipe:1 much:1 humanity:1 create:3 population:2 bottleneck:2 affect:1 genetic:3 inheritance:1 human:4 survivor:1 geology:3 caldera:17 complex:1 indonesia:5 consists:1 four:3 overlap:1 crater:2 adjoin:1 sumatran:2 front:1 young:5 fourth:1 quaternary:2 intercept:1 three:4 old:1 estimate:2 cubic:9 dense:2 rock:2 equivalent:2 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5,391 | Chris_Sarandon | Christopher Sarandon (born July 24, 1942) is an Academy Award-nominated American actor. He is best known for his role as Prince Humperdinck in the film The Princess Bride, as the speaking voice of Jack Skellington from Tim Burton's The Nightmare Before Christmas and its spin-offs, and for his Oscar-nominated performance as Leon in Dog Day Afternoon. Personal life Sarandon was born and raised in Beckley, West Virginia, the son of Greek immigrant restaurateurs Mary and Christopher Sarandon. Chris Sarandon Biography (1942-) In his teens, he played drums and sang back-up with a local band called The Teen Tones which later went on to tour with such musical legends as Bobby Darin and Gene Vincent. He graduated from Woodrow Wilson High School in Beckley. He earned his master's degree in theater from The Catholic University of America in Washington, DC, where he met his first wife, actress Susan Sarandon; they divorced in 1979. Sarandon then married and divorced model Lisa Ann Cooper during the 1980s; they have three children. Career After graduation, he toured with numerous improv companies and became heavily involved in regional theatre, making his professional debut in The Rose Tattoo in 1965. In 1968, Sarandon moved to New York, where he landed his first television role as Dr. Tom Halverson on The Guiding Light (1969-1973). He also appeared in the primetime TV movies The Satan Murders (1974) and Thursday's Game before landing the role of Al Pacino's overwrought transsexual wife in Dog Day Afternoon (1975), a performance which earned him nominations for Best New Male Star of the Year at the Golden Globes and the Best Supporting Actor Academy Award. In spite of his recent success in film and television, Sarandon chose to focus on stage work for most of the next decade, appearing in The Rothschilds and The Two Gentlemen of Verona on Broadway, as well making regular appearances at numerous Shakespeare and George Bernard Shaw festivals in the United States and Canada. He also appeared in a series of television roles, some of which (such as A Tale of Two Cities in 1980) mirrored his affinity for the classics. He also took roles in horror films, this time in co-leads, opposite the late Margaux Hemingway in the thriller Lipstick (1976) and as a demon in the shocker The Sentinel (1977). To avoid being type cast as creepy characters, Chris took on various roles in the years to come, portraying the title role in the made for television movie The Day Christ Died (1980). He received accolades for his portrayal of Sydney Carton in a made for television version of A Tale of Two Cities (1980), co-starred with Dennis Hopper in The Osterman Weekend (1983), which was based on the Robert Ludlum novel of the same name and co-starred with Goldie Hawn in Protocol (1984). These were followed by another mainstream success as the hypnotic vampire-next-door in the teen horror classic Fright Night (1985). He is best known in the film industry for his role as Prince Humperdinck in Rob Reiner's 1987 film The Princess Bride, though he also has had supporting parts in some other successful films such as the original Child's Play (1988). He also provided the voice of Jack Skellington, the main character in Tim Burton's animated film The Nightmare Before Christmas (1993), and has since reprised the role in many other spinoff productions, including the Squaresoft/Disney video games Kingdom Hearts and Kingdom Hearts II and the Capcom sequel to the original film, Oogie's Revenge. Sarandon also reprised his role as Jack Skellington for "Haunted Mansion Holiday", a three-month overlay of the Haunted Mansion at Disneyland, where Jack and his friends take over the Mansion in an attempt to take over Christmas, much as his character did in the film. Sarandon would later find work on television again with a recurring role as Dr. Burke on NBC's long-running medical drama ER. In recent years Chris has been seen on stage, film and TV but with fewer roles and without leading roles. In 1991 he performed on Broadway in the short-lived musical Nick and Nora (based on the Thin Man film) with Joanna Gleason, the daughter of Monty Hall. Sarandon married Gleason in 1994. They have appeared together in a number of films, including American Perfekt (1997), Edie & Pen (1996) and Let the Devil Wear Black (1999). In the 2000s he has done a bit of TV work by making guest appearances on quite a few series, notably as superior court judge Barry Krumble and love interest for Judge Amy Gray in six episodes of the hit television show "Judging Amy". He returned to Broadway in 2006 playing "Signor Naccarelli" in the six-time Tony award-winning Broadway musical The Light in the Piazza at Lincoln Center. Most recently he appeared in Cyrano de Bergerac as Antoine de Guiche, alongside Kevin Kline, Jennifer Garner and Daniel Sunjata. He is on the Advisory Board for the Greenbrier Valley Theatre in Lewisburg, West Virginia. Credits Filmography Cyrano de Bergerac (2008) (TV) - De Guiche Multiple Sarcasms (2008) - Larry The Chosen One (2008) - Zebulon 'Zeb' Kirk (voice) Kingdom Hearts II (2006) - Jack Skellington (voice) Loggerheads (2005) - Rev. Robert Austin The Nightmare Before Christmas: Oogie's Revenge (2005) - Jack Skellington (voice) Kingdom Hearts (2002) - Jack Skellington (voice) Perfume (2001) - Gary Packer Reaper (2000) - Luke Sinclair Let the Devil Wear Black (1999) - Jack's father Road Ends (1997) - Esteban Maceda, Co-producer American Perfekt (1997) - Deputy Sammy Little Men (1997) - Fritz Bhaer Bordello of Blood (1996) - Rev. 'J.C.' Current Edie and Pen (1996) - Max No Greater Love (1996) - Sam Horowitz Just Cause (1995) - Lyle Morgan Terminal Justice (1995) - Reginald Matthews Temptress (1994) - Matt Christianson The Nightmare Before Christmas (1993) - Jack Skellington (voice) Dark Tide (1993) - Tim A Murderous Affair: The Carolyn Warmus Story (1992) - Paul Solomon The Resurrected (1992) - Charles Dexter Ward/Joseph Curwen Child's Play 2 (1990) - Mike Norris Forced March (1989) - Ben Kline/Miklos Radnoti Collision Course (1989) - Philip Madras Slaves of New York (1989) - Victor Okrent Whispers (1989) - Tony Child's Play (1988) - Mike Norris The Princess Bride (1987) - Prince Humperdinck Fright Night (1985) - Jerry Dandridge Nausicaa of the Valley of the Wind (1984) - Kurotowa (voice) Protocol (1984) - Michael Ransome The Osterman Weekend (1983) - Joseph Cardone Cuba (1979) - Juan Pulido The Sentinel (1977) - Michael Lerman Lipstick (1976) - Gordon Stuart Dog Day Afternoon (1975) - Leon Shermer Television Star Trek: Deep Space Nine - "Rivals" Charmed- "Necromancer/Armand" Law & Order: Special Victims Unit in episode: "Choreographed" (episode # 8009) The Outer Limits in episode: "Corner of the Eye" as Dr. Pallas (episode # 1x10) A Tale of Two Cities as "Sydney Carton/Charles Darnay" Theme Park Attraction Haunted Mansion Holiday - Jack Skellington References External links Chris Sarandon - Downstage Center interview at American Theatre Wing.org | Chris_Sarandon |@lemmatized christopher:2 sarandon:12 bear:2 july:1 academy:2 award:3 nominated:2 american:4 actor:2 best:4 know:2 role:13 prince:3 humperdinck:3 film:12 princess:3 bride:3 speaking:1 voice:8 jack:10 skellington:8 tim:3 burton:2 nightmare:4 christmas:5 spin:1 offs:1 oscar:1 performance:2 leon:2 dog:3 day:4 afternoon:3 personal:1 life:1 raise:1 beckley:2 west:2 virginia:2 son:1 greek:1 immigrant:1 restaurateur:1 mary:1 chris:4 biography:1 teen:3 play:5 drum:1 sing:1 back:1 local:1 band:1 call:1 tone:1 later:2 go:1 tour:2 musical:3 legend:1 bobby:1 darin:1 gene:1 vincent:1 graduate:1 woodrow:1 wilson:1 high:1 school:1 earn:2 master:1 degree:1 theater:1 catholic:1 university:1 america:1 washington:1 dc:1 meet:1 first:2 wife:2 actress:1 susan:1 divorce:2 marry:1 model:1 lisa:1 ann:1 cooper:1 three:2 child:4 career:1 graduation:1 numerous:2 improv:1 company:1 become:1 heavily:1 involve:1 regional:1 theatre:3 make:4 professional:1 debut:1 rise:1 tattoo:1 move:1 new:3 york:2 land:2 television:8 dr:3 tom:1 halverson:1 guiding:1 light:2 also:6 appear:5 primetime:1 tv:4 movie:2 satan:1 murder:1 thursday:1 game:2 al:1 pacino:1 overwrought:1 transsexual:1 nomination:1 male:1 star:4 year:3 golden:1 globe:1 supporting:1 spite:1 recent:2 success:2 chose:1 focus:1 stage:2 work:3 next:2 decade:1 rothschild:1 two:4 gentleman:1 verona:1 broadway:4 well:1 regular:1 appearance:2 shakespeare:1 george:1 bernard:1 shaw:1 festival:1 united:1 state:1 canada:1 series:2 tale:3 city:3 mirror:1 affinity:1 classic:2 take:4 horror:2 time:2 co:4 lead:2 opposite:1 late:1 margaux:1 hemingway:1 thriller:1 lipstick:2 demon:1 shocker:1 sentinel:2 avoid:1 type:1 cast:1 creepy:1 character:3 various:1 come:1 portray:1 title:1 made:1 christ:1 die:1 receive:1 accolade:1 portrayal:1 sydney:2 carton:2 version:1 dennis:1 hopper:1 osterman:2 weekend:2 base:2 robert:2 ludlum:1 novel:1 name:1 goldie:1 hawn:1 protocol:2 follow:1 another:1 mainstream:1 hypnotic:1 vampire:1 door:1 fright:2 night:2 industry:1 rob:1 reiner:1 though:1 support:1 part:1 successful:1 original:2 provide:1 main:1 animate:1 since:1 reprise:2 many:1 spinoff:1 production:1 include:2 squaresoft:1 disney:1 video:1 kingdom:4 heart:4 ii:2 capcom:1 sequel:1 oogie:2 revenge:2 haunt:3 mansion:4 holiday:2 month:1 overlay:1 disneyland:1 friend:1 attempt:1 much:1 would:1 find:1 recur:1 burke:1 nbc:1 long:1 run:1 medical:1 drama:1 er:1 see:1 without:1 perform:1 short:1 live:1 nick:1 nora:1 thin:1 man:1 joanna:1 gleason:2 daughter:1 monty:1 hall:1 married:1 together:1 number:1 perfekt:2 edie:2 pen:2 let:2 devil:2 wear:2 black:2 bit:1 guest:1 quite:1 notably:1 superior:1 court:1 judge:3 barry:1 krumble:1 love:2 interest:1 amy:2 gray:1 six:2 episode:5 hit:1 show:1 return:1 signor:1 naccarelli:1 tony:2 win:1 piazza:1 lincoln:1 center:2 recently:1 cyrano:2 de:4 bergerac:2 antoine:1 guiche:2 alongside:1 kevin:1 kline:2 jennifer:1 garner:1 daniel:1 sunjata:1 advisory:1 board:1 greenbrier:1 valley:2 lewisburg:1 credit:1 filmography:1 multiple:1 sarcasm:1 larry:1 chosen:1 one:1 zebulon:1 zeb:1 kirk:1 loggerheads:1 rev:2 austin:1 perfume:1 gary:1 packer:1 reaper:1 luke:1 sinclair:1 father:1 road:1 end:1 esteban:1 maceda:1 producer:1 deputy:1 sammy:1 little:1 men:1 fritz:1 bhaer:1 bordello:1 blood:1 j:1 c:1 current:1 max:1 great:1 sam:1 horowitz:1 cause:1 lyle:1 morgan:1 terminal:1 justice:1 reginald:1 matthew:1 temptress:1 matt:1 christianson:1 dark:1 tide:1 murderous:1 affair:1 carolyn:1 warmus:1 story:1 paul:1 solomon:1 resurrect:1 charles:2 dexter:1 ward:1 joseph:2 curwen:1 mike:2 norris:2 force:1 march:1 ben:1 miklos:1 radnoti:1 collision:1 course:1 philip:1 madras:1 slave:1 victor:1 okrent:1 whisper:1 jerry:1 dandridge:1 nausicaa:1 wind:1 kurotowa:1 michael:2 ransome:1 cardone:1 cuba:1 juan:1 pulido:1 lerman:1 gordon:1 stuart:1 shermer:1 trek:1 deep:1 space:1 nine:1 rival:1 charm:1 necromancer:1 armand:1 law:1 order:1 special:1 victim:1 unit:1 choreograph:1 outer:1 limit:1 corner:1 eye:1 pallas:1 darnay:1 theme:1 park:1 attraction:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 downstage:1 interview:1 wing:1 org:1 |@bigram princess_bride:3 jack_skellington:8 tim_burton:2 nightmare_christmas:4 spin_offs:1 woodrow_wilson:1 washington_dc:1 susan_sarandon:1 al_pacino:1 golden_globe:1 bernard_shaw:1 receive_accolade:1 dennis_hopper:1 goldie_hawn:1 rob_reiner:1 reprise_role:2 haunt_mansion:3 cyrano_de:2 de_bergerac:2 kevin_kline:1 advisory_board:1 dexter_ward:1 star_trek:1 external_link:1 |
5,392 | Jim_Bakker | James Orsen Bakker (born January 2, 1940, in Muskegon, Michigan) is an American televangelist, a former Assemblies of God minister, and a former host (with his then-wife Tammy Faye Bakker) of The PTL Club, a popular evangelical Christian television program. A sex scandal led to his resignation from the ministry. Subsequent revelations of accounting fraud brought about his imprisonment and divorce and effectively ended his time in the larger public eye. Personal life In 1960, Bakker met Tammy Faye LaValley while both were students at North Central University in Minneapolis, Minnesota. Tammy Faye worked in a boutique for a time while Jim found work in a restaurant inside a department store in Minneapolis. They were married on April 1, 1961, and left the Bible College to become itinerant evangelists. They had two children: daughter Tammy Sue (Sissy) Bakker Chapman (born March 2, 1970) and son Jamie Charles ("Jay") Bakker (born December 18, 1975). Jim and Tammy Bakker divorced on March 13, 1992, and he married Lori Graham Bakker in 1998. Early career In 1966, the Bakkers began working at Pat Robertson's Christian Broadcasting Network, which at the time barely reached an audience of thousands. The Bakkers greatly contributed to the growth of the network, and their success with a variety show format (including interviews and puppets) helped make The 700 Club one of the longest-running and most successful televangelism programs. Jay Bakker, Son of a Preacher Man. New York: Harper Collins, 2001 (ISBN 0-06-251698-1). The "Jim and Tammy Show" was broadcast for a few years from their Portsmouth, Virginia, studio. It was aimed at young children, whom they entertained with such films as "Davey and Goliath", a claymation Bible-story series. The Bakkers then left for California in the early 1970s. Teaming with their former youth pastors Paul and Jan Crouch, the Bakkers created the "Praise the Lord" show for the Crouches' new Trinity Broadcasting Network in California. While that relationship lasted only about a year, this time the Bakkers retained the rights to use the initials PTL and traveled east to Charlotte, North Carolina, to begin their own show, The PTL Club. Their show grew quickly until it was carried by close to a hundred stations, with average viewers numbering over twelve million, and the Bakkers had established their own network, The PTL Television Network (also known as PTL-The Inspirational Network). They attributed much of their success to decisions early on to accept all denominations and to refuse no one regardless of race, creed, sexual orientation, or criminal record. By the early 1980s the Bakkers had built Heritage USA in Fort Mill, South Carolina, (south of Charlotte), then the third most successful theme park in the U.S., and a satellite system to distribute their network 24 hours a day across the country. Contributions requested from viewers were estimated to exceed $1 million a week, with proceeds to go to expanding the theme park and mission of PTL. In justifying his use of the mass media, Bakker responded to inquiries by likening his use of television to Jesus's use of the amphitheater of the time. "I believe that if Jesus were alive today he would be on TV," Bakker said. In their success, the Bakkers took conspicuous consumption to an unusual level for a non-profit organization. According to Frances FitzGerald in an April 1987 New Yorker article, "They epitomized the excesses of the 1980s; the greed, the love of glitz, and the shamelessness; which in their case was so pure as to almost amount to a kind of innocence." Scandals PTL's fund raising activities between 1984–1987 underwent scrutiny by The Charlotte Observer newspaper, eventually leading to criminal charges against Jim Bakker. From 1984 to 1987, Bakker and his PTL associates sold $1,000 "lifetime memberships", which entitled buyers to a three-night stay annually at a luxury hotel at Heritage USA. According to the prosecution at Bakker's later fraud trial, tens of thousands of memberships had been sold, but only one 500-room hotel was ever completed. Bakker "sold" more "exclusive partnerships" than could be accommodated, while raising more than twice the money needed to build the actual hotel. A good deal of the money went into Heritage USA's operating expenses, and Bakker kept $3.4 million in bonuses for himself. The $279,000 payoff for the silence of Jessica Hahn, a woman who was mistakenly supposed to be a Bakker staff member, was paid by Tammy Faye's later husband, Roe Messner. Hahn was actually a one time acquaintance of Bakker, set up by a "friend" in 1980. Bakker, who apparently made all of the financial decisions for the PTL organization, allegedly kept two sets of books to conceal the accounting irregularities. Reporters from The Charlotte Observer, led by Charles Shepard, investigated and published a series of articles regarding the PTL organization's finances. On March 19, 1987, following the revelation of a payoff to Jessica Hahn, whom Heritage's chief builder had paid $279,000 from his own funds to keep secret her allegation that he had raped her, Bakker resigned from PTL. Bakker acknowledges he met Hahn at a hotel room in Clearwater Beach, Florida, but denies raping her. Following Bakker's resignation as PTL head, he was succeeded in late March, 1987, by Jerry Falwell. Later that summer, as donations sharply declined in the wake of Bakker's resignation and the end of the Bakkers' popular PTL Club TV show, Falwell raised $20 million to help keep the Heritage USA Theme Park solvent, including a well-publicized waterslide plunge there. Falwell called Bakker a liar, an embezzler, a sexual deviant, and "the greatest scab and cancer on the face of Christianity in 2,000 years of church history." Tammy Faye Bakker - Obituary In 1988, Falwell said that the Bakker scandal had "strengthened broadcast evangelism and made Christianity stronger, more mature and more committed". Bakker's son, Jay, wrote in 2001 that the Bakkers felt betrayed by Falwell, whom they thought, at the time of Bakker's resignation, intended to help in Bakker's eventual restoration as head of the PTL ministry organization. Legal problems Following a 16-month Federal grand jury probe, Bakker was indicted in 1988 on eight counts of mail fraud, 15 counts of wire fraud and one count of conspiracy. U.S. v. Bakker, (C.A.4, 1991), 925 F.2d 728, 740, case no. 89-5687 In 1989, after a brief five week trial which began on August 28 in Charlotte, the jury found him guilty on all 24 counts, and Judge Robert Potter sentenced him to 45 years in federal prison and a $500,000 fine. He served time in the Federal Medical Center, Rochester in Rochester, Minnesota, sharing a cell with activist Lyndon LaRouche and skydiver Roger Nelson. In early 1991, a federal appeals court upheld Bakker's conviction on the fraud and conspiracy charges, but voided Bakker's 45-year sentence, as well as the $500,000 fine, and ordered that a new sentencing hearing be held. On November 16, 1992, a sentence reduction hearing was held and Bakker's sentence was reduced to eight years. In August 1993, Bakker was transferred to a minimum security federal prison in Jesup, Georgia, and was subsequently granted parole in July 1994, after serving almost five years of his sentence. Bakker's son, Jay, spearheaded a letter-writing campaign to the parole board on his father's behalf, urging leniency. A federal jury subsequently ruled that PTL was not selling securities by offering Lifetime Partnerships at Heritage USA, as Bakker had contended. On July 23, 1996, a North Carolina jury threw out a class action suit brought on behalf of more than 160,000 onetime supporters who contributed as much as $7,000 each to Bakker's coffers in the 1980s. The Charlotte Observer reported that the Internal Revenue Service still holds Bakker and Roe Messner, Tammy Faye's husband from 1993 until her death in 2007, liable for personal income taxes owed from the 1980s when they were building the PTL empire, taxes assessed after the IRS revoked the PTL ministry's nonprofit status. Tammy Faye Messner's new husband said that the original tax amount was about $500,000, with penalties and interest accounting for the rest. Notices stating the IRS liens list still identify "James O. and Tamara F. Bakker" as owing $6,000,000, liens on which Jim Bakker still pays. Philosophy Bakker has renounced his past teachings on prosperity theology, saying they were wrong. In his 1996 book, I Was Wrong, he admitted that the first time he actually read the Bible all the way through was in prison, and that it made him realize he had taken certain passages out of context - passages which he had used as "proof texts" to back up his prosperity teachings. He wrote: In 1998, Bakker released another book, Prosperity and the Coming Apocalypse, and, in 2000, he published The Refuge: The Joy of Christian Community in a Torn-Apart World. His son, Jay, who is now a minister at Revolution Church in New York City, wrote of the PTL years in his book, Son of a Preacher Man: "The world at large has focused on my parents' preaching of prosperity, but...I heard a different message — one of forgiveness and the abundance of God's love. I remember my dad always seating a mentally handicapped man in the front row and hugging him. And when vandals burned an African American church down, Dad made sure its parishioners got the funds to rebuild. His goal was to make PTL a place where anyone with a need could walk in off the streets and have that need met." Later career In January 2003, Bakker began broadcasting the daily Jim Bakker Show at Studio City Cafe in Branson, Missouri, with his second wife, Lori Bakker. It is carried on the DISH and DirecTV satellite networks and the CTN cable network. He and his wife Lori have since adopted and/or taken in 5 children from the Phoenix, AZ inner-city neighborhoods Lori once frequented as a part of the Master's Commission, a worldwide discipleship program now based out of Relevant Church in the Dallas Metro area. In January 2008, Bakker's ministry moved into a new television studio near Branson. The studio is housed within a development that resembles Bakker's former location, Heritage USA. Most or all of the property in the new development (named Morningside) is owned by associates of Bakker, rather than Bakker himself. The St. Louis Post-Dispatch reported that Bakker is still in debt to the IRS for about $6 million. STLtoday - Jim Bakker, with the PTL and prison behind him, dreams big in Missouri See also Christian evangelist scandals References External links Jim Bakker Show | Jim_Bakker |@lemmatized james:2 orsen:1 bakker:52 born:2 january:3 muskegon:1 michigan:1 american:2 televangelist:1 former:4 assembly:1 god:2 minister:2 host:1 wife:3 tammy:10 faye:7 ptl:20 club:4 popular:2 evangelical:1 christian:4 television:4 program:3 sex:1 scandal:4 lead:3 resignation:4 ministry:4 subsequent:1 revelation:2 accounting:3 fraud:5 bring:2 imprisonment:1 divorce:2 effectively:1 end:2 time:9 large:2 public:1 eye:1 personal:2 life:1 meet:3 lavalley:1 student:1 north:3 central:1 university:1 minneapolis:2 minnesota:2 work:3 boutique:1 jim:8 find:2 restaurant:1 inside:1 department:1 store:1 marry:2 april:2 leave:2 bible:3 college:1 become:1 itinerant:1 evangelist:2 two:2 child:3 daughter:1 sue:1 sissy:1 chapman:1 bear:1 march:4 son:6 jamie:1 charles:2 jay:5 december:1 lori:4 graham:1 early:5 career:2 bakkers:10 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husband:3 roe:2 messner:3 actually:2 acquaintance:1 set:2 friend:1 apparently:1 financial:1 allegedly:1 book:4 conceal:1 irregularity:1 reporter:1 shepard:1 investigate:1 publish:2 regard:1 finance:1 follow:3 chief:1 builder:1 secret:1 allegation:1 rap:2 resign:1 acknowledge:1 clearwater:1 beach:1 florida:1 deny:1 head:2 succeed:1 late:1 jerry:1 falwell:5 summer:1 donation:1 sharply:1 decline:1 wake:1 solvent:1 well:2 publicize:1 waterslide:1 plunge:1 call:1 liar:1 embezzler:1 deviant:1 great:1 scab:1 cancer:1 face:1 christianity:2 church:4 history:1 obituary:1 strengthen:1 evangelism:1 strong:1 mature:1 committed:1 write:3 felt:1 betray:1 think:1 intend:1 eventual:1 restoration:1 legal:1 problem:1 month:1 federal:6 grand:1 jury:4 probe:1 indict:1 eight:2 count:4 mail:1 wire:1 conspiracy:2 v:1 c:1 f:2 brief:1 five:2 august:2 guilty:1 judge:1 robert:1 potter:1 sentence:6 prison:4 fine:2 serve:2 medical:1 center:1 rochester:2 share:1 cell:1 activist:1 lyndon:1 larouche:1 skydiver:1 roger:1 nelson:1 appeal:1 court:1 upheld:1 conviction:1 void:1 order:1 hearing:2 hold:3 november:1 reduction:1 reduce:1 transfer:1 minimum:1 security:2 jesup:1 georgia:1 subsequently:2 grant:1 parole:2 july:2 spearhead:1 letter:1 writing:1 campaign:1 board:1 father:1 behalf:2 urge:1 leniency:1 rule:1 offer:1 contend:1 throw:1 class:1 action:1 suit:1 onetime:1 supporter:1 coffer:1 report:2 internal:1 revenue:1 service:1 still:4 death:1 liable:1 income:1 tax:3 owe:2 empire:1 assess:1 irs:3 revoke:1 nonprofit:1 status:1 original:1 penalty:1 interest:1 rest:1 notice:1 state:1 liens:1 list:1 identify:1 tamara:1 lien:1 philosophy:1 renounce:1 past:1 teaching:2 prosperity:4 theology:1 wrong:2 admit:1 first:1 read:1 way:1 realize:1 certain:1 passage:2 context:1 proof:1 text:1 back:1 release:1 another:1 come:1 apocalypse:1 refuge:1 joy:1 community:1 torn:1 apart:1 world:2 revolution:1 city:3 focus:1 parent:1 preaching:1 hear:1 different:1 message:1 forgiveness:1 abundance:1 remember:1 dad:2 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5,393 | Equation_of_state | In physics and thermodynamics, an equation of state is a relation between state variables. More specifically, an equation of state is a thermodynamic equation describing the state of matter under a given set of physical conditions. It is a constitutive equation which provides a mathematical relationship between two or more state functions associated with the matter, such as its temperature, pressure, volume, or internal energy. Equations of state are useful in describing the properties of fluids, mixtures of fluids, solids, and even the interior of stars. Overview The most prominent use of an equation of state is to predict the state of gases and liquids. One of the simplest equations of state for this purpose is the ideal gas law, which is roughly accurate for gases at low pressures and moderate temperatures. However, this equation becomes increasingly inaccurate at higher pressures and lower temperatures, and fails to predict condensation from a gas to a liquid. Therefore, a number of much more accurate equations of state have been developed for gases and liquids. At present, there is no single equation of state that accurately predicts the properties of all substances under all conditions. In addition to predicting the behavior of gases and liquids, there are also equations of state for predicting the volume of solids, including the transition of solids from one crystalline state to another. There are equations that model the interior of stars, including neutron stars. A related concept is the perfect fluid equation of state used in cosmology. Historical Boyle's law (1662) Boyle's Law was perhaps the first expression of an equation of state. In 1662, the noted Irish physicist and chemist Robert Boyle performed a series of experiments employing a J-shaped glass tube, which was sealed on one end. Mercury was added to the tube, trapping a fixed quantity of air in the short, sealed end of the tube. Then the volume of gas was carefully measured as additional mercury was added to the tube. The pressure of the gas could be determined by the difference between the mercury level in the short end of the tube and that in the long, open end. Through these experiments, Boyle noted that the gas volume varied inversely with the pressure. In mathematical form, this can be stated as: The above relationship has also been attributed to Edme Mariotte and is sometimes referred to as Mariotte's law. However, Mariotte's work was not published until 1676. Charles's law or Law of Charles and Gay-Lussac (1787) In 1787 the French physicist Jacques Charles found that oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, carbon dioxide, and air expand to the same extent over the same 80 kelvin interval. Later, in 1802, Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac published results of similar experiments, indicating a linear relationship between volume and temperature: Dalton's law of partial pressures (1801) Dalton's Law of Partial Pressure: The pressure of a mixture of gases is equal to the sum of the pressures of all of the constituent gases alone. Mathematically, this can be represented for n species as: The ideal gas law (1834) In 1834 Émile Clapeyron combined Boyle's Law and Charles' law into the first statement of the ideal gas law. Initially the law was formulated as pVm=R(TC+267) (with temperature expressed in degrees Celsius), where R is the gas constant. However, later work revealed that the number should actually be closer to 273.2, and then the Celsius scale was defined with 0 °C = 273.15 K, giving: Van der Waals equation of state In 1873, J. D. van der Waals introduced the first equation of state derived by the assumption of a finite volume occupied by the constituent molecules. His new formula revolutionized the study of equations of state, and was most famously continued via the Redlich–Kwong equation of state and the Soave modification of Redlich-Kwong. Major equations of state For a given amount of substance contained in a system, the temperature, volume, and pressure are not independent quantities; they are connected by a relationship of the general form: . In the following equations the variables are defined as follows. Any consistent set of units may be used, although SI units are preferred. Absolute temperature refers to use of the Kelvin (K) or Rankine (°R) temperature scales, with zero being absolute zero. = pressure (absolute) = volume = number of moles of a substance = = molar volume, the volume of 1 mole of gas or liquid = absolute temperature = ideal gas constant (8.314472 J/(mol·K)) = pressure at the critical point = molar volume at the critical point = absolute temperature at the critical point Classical ideal gas law The classical ideal gas law may be written: The ideal gas law may also be expressed as follows where is the density, is the adiabatic index (ratio of specific heats), is the internal energy per unit mass (the "specific internal energy"), is the specific heat at constant volume, and is the specific heat at constant pressure. Cubic equations of state Van der Waals equation of state The Van der Waals equation of state may be written: where is molar volume, and and are substance-specific constants. They can be calculated from the critical properties and (noting that is a the molar volume at the critical point) as: Also written as Proposed in 1873, the van der Waals equation of state was one of the first to perform markedly better than the ideal gas law. In this landmark equation is called the attraction parameter and the repulsion parameter or the effective molecular volume. While the equation is definitely superior to the ideal gas law and does predict the formation of a liquid phase, the agreement with experimental data is limited for conditions where the liquid forms. While the van der Waals equation is commonly referenced in text-books and papers for historical reasons, it is now obsolete. Other modern equations of only slightly greater complexity are much more accurate. The van der Waals equation may be considered as the ideal gas law, “improved” due to two independent reasons: Molecules are thought as particles with volume, not material points. Thus cannot be too little, less than some constant. So we get () instead of . While ideal gas molecules do not interact, we consider molecules attracting others within a distance of several molecules' radii. It makes no effect inside the material, but surface molecules are attracted into the material from the surface. We see this as diminishing of pressure on the outer shell (which is used in the ideal gas law), so we write ( something) instead of . To evaluate this ‘something’, let's examine an additional force acting on an element of gas surface. While the force acting on each surface molecule is ~, the force acting on the whole element is ~~. Redlich–Kwong equation of state Introduced in 1949 the Redlich–Kwong equation of state was a considerable improvement over other equations of the time. It is still of interest primarily due to its relatively simple form. While superior to the van der Waals equation of state, it performs poorly with respect to the liquid phase and thus cannot be used for accurately calculating vapor-liquid equilibria. However, it can be used in conjunction with separate liquid-phase correlations for this purpose. The Redlich–Kwong equation is adequate for calculation of gas phase properties when the ratio of the pressure to the critical pressure (reduced pressure) is less than about one-half of the ratio of the temperature to the critical temperature (reduced temperature): Soave modification of Redlich-Kwong Where ω is the acentric factor for the species. for hydrogen: In 1972 Soave replaced the a/√(T) term of the Redlich-Kwong equation with a function α(T,ω) involving the temperature and the acentric factor. The α function was devised to fit the vapor pressure data of hydrocarbons and the equation does fairly well for these materials. Note especially that this replacement changes the definition of a slightly, as the is now to the second power. Peng-Robinson equation of state In polynomial form: where, is the acentric factor of the species and is the universal gas constant. The Peng-Robinson equation was developed in 1976 in order to satisfy the following goals: The parameters should be expressible in terms of the critical properties and the acentric factor. The model should provide reasonable accuracy near the critical point, particularly for calculations of the compressibility factor and liquid density. The mixing rules should not employ more than a single binary interaction parameter, which should be independent of temperature pressure and composition. The equation should be applicable to all calculations of all fluid properties in natural gas processes. For the most part the Peng-Robinson equation exhibits performance similar to the Soave equation, although it is generally superior in predicting the liquid densities of many materials, especially nonpolar ones. The departure functions of the Peng-Robinson equation are given on a separate article. Elliott, Suresh, Donohue equation of state The Elliott, Suresh, and Donohue (ESD) equation of state was proposed in 1990. The equation seeks to correct a shortcoming in the Peng-Robinson EOS in that there was an inaccuracy in the van der Waals repulsive term. The EOS accounts for the effect of the shape of a non-polar molecule and can be extended to polymers with the addition of an extra term (not shown). The EOS itself was developed through modeling computer simulations and should capture the essential physics of the size, shape, and hydrogen bonding. where: and id a "shape factor", with for spherical molecules is 'reduced number density' is the characteristic size parameter is the number of molecules is the volume of the container (is hence alse equal to 1 for spherical molecules). is a constant in the equation of state, for spherical molecules (c=1) is a constant in the equation of state, for spherical molecules (c=1) is a constant in the equation of state, for spherical molecules (c=1) is a constant in the equation of state Non-cubic equations of state Dieterici equation of state Where a is associated with the interaction between molecules and b takes into account the finite size of the molecules, similarly to the Van der Waals equation. The reduced coordinates are: Virial equations of state Virial equation of state Although usually not the most convenient equation of state, the virial equation is important because it can be derived directly from statistical mechanics. If appropriate assumptions are made about the mathematical form of intermolecular forces, theoretical expressions can be developed for each of the coefficients. In this case B corresponds to interactions between pairs of molecules, C to triplets, and so on. Accuracy can be increased indefinitely by considering higher order terms. It can also be used to work out the Boyle Temperature (the temperature at which B = 0 and ideal gas laws apply) from a and b from the Van der Waals equation of state. If you use the value for B shown below; The BWRS equation of state where p = pressure ρ = the molar density Values of the various parameters for 15 substances can be found in: K.E. Starling, Fluid Properties for Light Petroleum Systems. Gulf Publishing Company (1973). Other equations of state of interest Stiffened equation of state When considering water under very high pressures (typical applications are underwater nuclear explosions, sonic shock lithotripsy, and sonoluminescence) the stiffened equation of state is often used: where is the internal energy per unit mass, is an empirically determined constant typically taken to be about 6.1, and is another constant, representing the molecular attraction between water molecules. The magnitude of the correction is about 2 gigapascals (20000 atmospheres). The equation is stated in this form because the speed of sound in water is given by . Thus water behaves as though it is an ideal gas that is already under about 20000 atmospheres (2 GPa) pressure, and explains why water is commonly assumed to be incompressible: when the external pressure changes from 1 atmosphere to 2 atmospheres (100 kPa to 200 kPa), the water behaves as an ideal gas would when changing from 20001 to 20002 atmospheres (2000.1 MPa to 2000.2 MPa). This equation mispredicts the specific heat capacity of water but few simple alternatives are available for severely nonisentropic processes such as strong shocks. Ultrarelativistic equation of state An ultrarelativistic fluid has equation of state where is the pressure, is the energy density, and is the speed of sound. Ideal Bose equation of state The equation of state for an ideal Bose gas is where α is an exponent specific to the system (e.g. in the absence of a potential field, α=3/2), z is exp(μ/kT) where μ is the chemical potential, Li is the polylogarithm, ζ is the Riemann zeta function, and Tc is the critical temperature at which a Bose-Einstein condensate begins to form. Equations of state for solids Johnson Holmquist Equation of State See also Gas laws Departure function Table of thermodynamic equations Real gas Cluster Expansion References Bibliography Elliot & Lira, (1999). Introductory Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics, Prentice Hall. 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5,394 | Naked_News | Naked News, billing itself as "the program with nothing to hide", is a subscription website featuring a real television newscast. The show is prepared in Toronto and runs daily, with six 25-minute episodes per week. The female anchors read the news fully nude or strip as they present their news segments. Naked News TV is its offshoot pay-per-view or subscription service. Regardless of the gender of the anchor, most viewers are men. The male version ceased production on 31 October, 2007. Naked News also aired briefly as a late night television series on Citytv Toronto. History Naked News was conceived by Fernando Pereira and Kirby Stasyna and debuted in June 2000 whois, whois. waybackmachine, wayback. as a web-based news service featuring an all-female cast. It began with only one anchor, Victoria Sinclair, who is still with the program which has currently grown to eight female anchors, plus guest anchors. The website was popularized entirely by word of mouth, and quickly became an internet meme. During the height of its popularity, the website was receiving over 6 million hits per month. Part of the large amounts of web traffic in the site's early days was because the entire newscast could be viewed for free and supported by advertising. By 2002, after the crash of Internet advertising, only one news segment could be viewed freely, and by 2004, no free content remained on the website. Beginning in 2005, a nudity-free version of Naked News was available to non-subscribers. Beginning in June 2008, two news segments could be viewed freely. The UK channel Sumo TV briefly showed episodes of Naked News, while Playboy One, a free-to-view channel in the UK, currently broadcasts the show at 10:00pm Mondays-Thursdays. A male version of the show was created in 2001 to parallel the female version, but has ceased production as it did not enjoy the female version's popularity and fame. Although it was originally targeted towards female viewers (at one point said to be 30% of the website's audience), the male show later promoted itself as news from a gay perspective. In January 2006, Naked News Japan was launched as a joint venture between Naked News owner eGalaxy and Sunrise Corp, a seller of goods and services over the Internet. Due to Japanese broadcasting laws, the presenters currently only strip to their underwear, although the producers have indicated they hope to go further in the future. In January 2008 eGalaxy announced another expansion, of which the centerpiece was Naked News Italia (which debuted in March). Cast Most of the show's announcers have been recruited through classified ads in alternative newspapers in Toronto. As such, most of the show's crew comes from the Toronto area. The show features occasional on-the-street interviews by topless newscasters, which are made possible by Ontario's Topfree equality laws. Since the show's inception in 2000, there has been much turnover among the newscasters, and many guest anchors. The female announcers have been featured in almost every medium including television (CBS Sunday Morning, The Today Show, The View, Sally Jessy Raphaël, and numerous appearances on Entertainment Tonight and ET Insider) newspapers and magazines, (TV Guide, Playboy) and as guests on multiple radio shows including Howard Stern. The female anchors as of April 2009 are: Ariella Banks (2009-present) Katherine Curtis (2008-present) Christine Kerr (2005-present) Whitney St. John (2006–2007, 2009-present) Victoria Sinclair (1999–2001, 2002-present) – The first NN reporter, she originally performed solo before additional news anchors were added. Valentina Taylor (2007-present) April Torres (2003-present) Roxanne West (2001-present) Past female anchors are: Lisa Benton (2006) Devon Calwell (2000–2001) – At age 19, she was the youngest cast member. Lynn Colson (2002-2004) Diane Foster (2000–2001) She is unrelated to the Canadian track and field athlete. Gretchen Frazier (2001–2002) Gia Gomez (2003, 2005–2006) Kelli Graham (2002–2003) Kaye Grant (2001–2002) Elizabeth Jansen (2001-2005) Ashley Jenning (2003–2005) Alyson Jones (2001-2004) Athena King (2001–2003, 2005) – a.k.a. "Athena the Greek". Yukiko Kimura (2005–2007) Elle Kingsley (2008-2009) Lily Kwan (2001-??) -- "Naked in the Streets" and "Lily in the UK" segments re-air periodically. Samantha Page (2003–2005) Michelle Pantoliano (2002-2006) – Former TV broadcaster from New York City. Her previously aired "Locker Talk" segments appear every Sunday on Naked News Magazine Alex Pantos (2006–2007) Sandrine Renard (2001-2008) Brooke Roberts (2001–2002) Carmen Russo (2000–2002, 2004) – At age 42, she was the oldest cast member. She is unrelated to the Italian model Carmen Russo. Erin Sherwood (2000–2003) Cameron Shore (2005–2006) Erica Stevens (2002–2006, 2007-2008) Holly Weston (1999–2001, 2002–2004) – She continued on the show throughout her pregnancy. Sarah Winters (2002–2003) Naked News at Toronto Pride Parade 2007 Past male anchors are: Enza Anderson Pedro Cavallo Jeremy Chase (since 2004) Dale Danforth Billy Prescott Lucas Tyler (since 2001) – The first male anchor of the show, now also producer and director, said to bear a strong resemblance to NBC newsman Matt Lauer. Matt Waterman Joshua Holt (2001–2004) – Recently announced he was gay in the pages of The Advocate magazine. Jack Lange (2004) Malcolm Matisse Cole McQuade (2004) Warren Michaels (2001) Robert Milan (2001–2002) Raoul Santos (2001–2004) Johnny Saputo Derek Shaw Brock Stern (2003–2004) Brendan Tanner (2002–2004) Current writers are: Greg Preece Basil Papademos Katherine Curtis Similar shows The initial success of the show's concept spawned several imitators, mostly on the internet, but also including The Daily Flash, a news program on Playboy Channel. Among the imitators on the internet: Comédie! – In 2001, this French cable TV network ran a series promos featuring males and females casually undressing as they read jokes. In 2006 they copied the NN format in its entirety in a striptease newscast called Les Nuz, except the anchors keep their bottom underwear on. Radio Tango – Oslo, Norway radio station once featured stripping female weather readers on their website. A comedic "precursor" to this concept occurred in an episode of Monty Python's Flying Circus, in which Terry Jones began performing a striptease while giving a fast-paced rundown of economic news. A very similar phenomenon by the name "Noodie News" appears in Canadian Margaret Atwood's 2003 novel Oryx and Crake. Počasíčko (diminutive of "weather") was Czech TV Nova's past-10PM featurette launched in January 1998 where a nude woman (or occasionally, a man) got dressed in clothing appropriate for the next day's weather forecast. Jan Čulík: More Moribund Manoeuvering, Central Europe Review 1999 This was discontinued after several years and returned as web-only in February 2007. When Nova launched a new online portal in May 2008, it included a "Red News" section causing controversy; asked about the Naked News, they denied securing license and stressed Počasíčko's primacy. Parodies A 2005 episode of the satirical New Zealand news show Eating Media Lunch depicted newsreaders fornicating in a parody of Naked News called "Fuck News". See also Barely Cooking References External links http://www.nakednews.com Naked News Daily Male Naked News Japan Naked News Italia | Naked_News |@lemmatized naked:17 news:29 bill:1 program:3 nothing:1 hide:1 subscription:2 website:6 feature:6 real:1 television:3 newscast:3 show:16 prepare:1 toronto:5 run:2 daily:3 six:1 minute:1 episode:4 per:3 week:1 female:11 anchor:12 read:2 fully:1 nude:2 strip:3 present:9 segment:5 tv:6 offshoot:1 pay:1 view:6 service:3 regardless:1 gender:1 viewer:2 men:1 male:7 version:5 cease:2 production:2 october:1 also:4 air:3 briefly:2 late:1 night:1 series:2 citytv:1 history:1 conceive:1 fernando:1 pereira:1 kirby:1 stasyna:1 debut:2 june:2 whois:2 waybackmachine:1 wayback:1 web:3 base:1 cast:4 begin:4 one:4 victoria:2 sinclair:2 still:1 currently:3 grow:1 eight:1 plus:1 guest:3 popularize:1 entirely:1 word:1 mouth:1 quickly:1 become:1 internet:5 meme:1 height:1 popularity:2 receive:1 million:1 hit:1 month:1 part:1 large:1 amount:1 traffic:1 site:1 early:1 day:2 entire:1 could:3 free:4 support:1 advertising:2 crash:1 freely:2 content:1 remain:1 nudity:1 available:1 non:1 subscriber:1 two:1 uk:3 channel:3 sumo:1 playboy:3 broadcast:1 monday:1 thursday:1 create:1 parallel:1 enjoy:1 fame:1 although:2 originally:2 target:1 towards:1 point:1 say:2 audience:1 later:1 promote:1 gay:2 perspective:1 january:3 japan:2 launch:3 joint:1 venture:1 owner:1 egalaxy:2 sunrise:1 corp:1 seller:1 good:1 due:1 japanese:1 broadcasting:1 law:2 presenter:1 underwear:2 producer:2 indicate:1 hope:1 go:1 far:1 future:1 announce:2 another:1 expansion:1 centerpiece:1 italia:2 march:1 announcer:2 recruit:1 classified:1 ad:1 alternative:1 newspaper:2 crew:1 come:1 area:1 occasional:1 street:2 interview:1 topless:1 newscaster:2 make:1 possible:1 ontario:1 topfree:1 equality:1 since:3 inception:1 much:1 turnover:1 among:2 many:1 almost:1 every:2 medium:2 include:4 cbs:1 sunday:2 morning:1 today:1 sally:1 jessy:1 raphaël:1 numerous:1 appearance:1 entertainment:1 tonight:1 et:1 insider:1 magazine:3 guide:1 multiple:1 radio:3 howard:1 stern:2 april:2 ariella:1 bank:1 katherine:2 curtis:2 christine:1 kerr:1 whitney:1 st:1 john:1 first:2 nn:2 reporter:1 perform:2 solo:1 additional:1 add:1 valentina:1 taylor:1 torres:1 roxanne:1 west:1 past:3 lisa:1 benton:1 devon:1 calwell:1 age:2 young:1 member:2 lynn:1 colson:1 diane:1 foster:1 unrelated:2 canadian:2 track:1 field:1 athlete:1 gretchen:1 frazier:1 gia:1 gomez:1 kelli:1 graham:1 kaye:1 grant:1 elizabeth:1 jansen:1 ashley:1 jenning:1 alyson:1 jones:2 athena:2 king:1 k:1 greek:1 yukiko:1 kimura:1 elle:1 kingsley:1 lily:2 kwan:1 periodically:1 samantha:1 page:2 michelle:1 pantoliano:1 former:1 broadcaster:1 new:3 york:1 city:1 previously:1 locker:1 talk:1 appear:2 alex:1 panto:1 sandrine:1 renard:1 brooke:1 robert:2 carmen:2 russo:2 old:1 italian:1 model:1 erin:1 sherwood:1 cameron:1 shore:1 erica:1 stevens:1 holly:1 weston:1 continue:1 throughout:1 pregnancy:1 sarah:1 winter:1 pride:1 parade:1 enza:1 anderson:1 pedro:1 cavallo:1 jeremy:1 chase:1 dale:1 danforth:1 billy:1 prescott:1 lucas:1 tyler:1 director:1 bear:1 strong:1 resemblance:1 nbc:1 newsman:1 matt:2 lauer:1 waterman:1 joshua:1 holt:1 recently:1 advocate:1 jack:1 lange:1 malcolm:1 matisse:1 cole:1 mcquade:1 warren:1 michael:1 milan:1 raoul:1 santos:1 johnny:1 saputo:1 derek:1 shaw:1 brock:1 brendan:1 tanner:1 current:1 writer:1 greg:1 preece:1 basil:1 papademos:1 similar:2 initial:1 success:1 concept:2 spawn:1 several:2 imitator:2 mostly:1 flash:1 comédie:1 french:1 cable:1 network:1 promos:1 casually:1 undress:1 joke:1 copy:1 format:1 entirety:1 striptease:2 call:2 le:1 nuz:1 except:1 keep:1 bottom:1 tango:1 oslo:1 norway:1 station:1 weather:3 reader:1 comedic:1 precursor:1 occur:1 monty:1 python:1 fly:1 circus:1 terry:1 give:1 fast:1 pace:1 rundown:1 economic:1 phenomenon:1 name:1 noodie:1 margaret:1 atwood:1 novel:1 oryx:1 crake:1 počasíčko:2 diminutive:1 czech:1 nova:2 featurette:1 woman:1 occasionally:1 man:1 get:1 dress:1 clothing:1 appropriate:1 next:1 forecast:1 jan:1 čulík:1 moribund:1 manoeuvering:1 central:1 europe:1 review:1 discontinue:1 year:1 return:1 february:1 online:1 portal:1 may:1 red:1 section:1 cause:1 controversy:1 ask:1 deny:1 secure:1 license:1 stress:1 primacy:1 parody:2 satirical:1 zealand:1 eat:1 lunch:1 depict:1 newsreader:1 fornicate:1 fuck:1 see:1 barely:1 cook:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 http:1 www:1 nakednews:1 com:1 |@bigram joint_venture:1 howard_stern:1 male_female:1 oslo_norway:1 monty_python:1 fly_circus:1 terry_jones:1 margaret_atwood:1 weather_forecast:1 external_link:1 http_www:1 |
5,395 | Old_Glory | This article is about the flag. For King of the Hill episode of the same title, see Old Glory (King of the Hill episode). and for the Merrie Melodies Short see Old Glory (Merrie Melodies) Old Glory is a common nickname for the flag of the United States, bestowed by William Driver, an early nineteenth century American sea captain. However, it also refers specifically to the flag owned by Driver, which has become one of the U.S.'s most treasured historical artifacts. Early history This original Old Glory was made and presented to the young Captain Driver by his mother and some young ladies of his native Salem, Massachusetts. The year is uncertain, but it was probably sometime in the 1820s. It is a large flag, measuring 10 feet by 17 feet, heavily constructed and designed to be flown from a ship's mast. It originally had 24 stars and, symbolic of its nautical purpose, includes a small anchor sewn in the corner of its blue canton. The captain was very pleased with his gift, and kept it with him always. By most accounts, he first hailed the flag as "Old Glory," when he left harbor for a trip around the world in 1831-1832, as commander of the whaling vessel Charles Doggett. Old Glory served as the ship's official flag throughout the voyage. Some weathering and fraying almost certainly occurred during this severe service, and the flag shows evidence of patching on more than one occasion. Civil War Driver retired from the sea in 1837 and moved to Nashville, Tennessee. He flew his beloved flag on all patriotic occasions, using a rope suspended across the street, and Old Glory became well known to the citizenry. By 1861, it was modified to show 34 stars (the number of states then in the Union). When the Civil War broke out and Tennessee seceded from the union in 1861, Driver knew or feared that the rebel government would attempt to destroy the locally famous Old Glory. He had the flag sewn inside a comforter to conceal it. One curious point, never explained, is that he seems to have had this done by some neighbor girls named Bailey, rather than by his own family. Accounts differ as to whether and how hard the Confederate authorities searched for the flag, but in any event it survived. When Union forces retook Nashville the following year, Driver was able to bring out his flag and hoist it from the state capitol spire, the last time it flew from a flagpole. A unit of Federal troops, the Sixth Ohio Regiment, was present, and adopted "Old Glory" as their motto. These dramatic events were reported by many newspapers, and Old Glory became nationally famous. Nashville exhibit In 2006 , the Smithsonian acceded to a request from the Tennessee State Museum to display Old Glory in Nashville once again. Coupled with other Old Glory-related artifacts and memorabilia from the state library and archives, it was shown from March to November, in an exhibit entitled Old Glory: An American Treasure Comes Home. Due to its age and fragility, officials of the Smithsonian stated that after the Nashville exhibit, it will never be permitted to travel again. External links usflag.org Old Glory page Warren County, Ohio Old Glory page Smithsonian Old Glory page Old Glory exhibit at the Tennessee State Museum References Bostick, Alan (March 19 2006). "See the flag that flew around the world". The Tennessean, Life section, p. 5. | Old_Glory |@lemmatized article:1 flag:12 king:2 hill:2 episode:2 title:1 see:3 old:17 glory:17 merrie:2 melody:2 short:1 common:1 nickname:1 united:1 state:7 bestow:1 william:1 driver:6 early:2 nineteenth:1 century:1 american:2 sea:2 captain:3 however:1 also:1 refer:1 specifically:1 become:3 one:3 u:1 treasured:1 historical:1 artifact:2 history:1 original:1 make:1 present:2 young:2 mother:1 lady:1 native:1 salem:1 massachusetts:1 year:2 uncertain:1 probably:1 sometime:1 large:1 measure:1 foot:2 heavily:1 construct:1 design:1 fly:4 ship:2 mast:1 originally:1 star:2 symbolic:1 nautical:1 purpose:1 include:1 small:1 anchor:1 sewn:2 corner:1 blue:1 canton:1 pleased:1 gift:1 keep:1 always:1 account:2 first:1 hail:1 leave:1 harbor:1 trip:1 around:2 world:2 commander:1 whale:1 vessel:1 charles:1 doggett:1 serve:1 official:2 throughout:1 voyage:1 weathering:1 fray:1 almost:1 certainly:1 occur:1 severe:1 service:1 show:3 evidence:1 patch:1 occasion:2 civil:2 war:2 retire:1 move:1 nashville:5 tennessee:4 beloved:1 patriotic:1 use:1 rope:1 suspend:1 across:1 street:1 well:1 know:2 citizenry:1 modify:1 number:1 union:3 break:1 secede:1 fear:1 rebel:1 government:1 would:1 attempt:1 destroy:1 locally:1 famous:2 inside:1 comforter:1 conceal:1 curious:1 point:1 never:2 explain:1 seem:1 neighbor:1 girl:1 name:1 bailey:1 rather:1 family:1 differ:1 whether:1 hard:1 confederate:1 authority:1 search:1 event:2 survive:1 force:1 retake:1 following:1 able:1 bring:1 hoist:1 capitol:1 spire:1 last:1 time:1 flagpole:1 unit:1 federal:1 troop:1 sixth:1 ohio:2 regiment:1 adopt:1 motto:1 dramatic:1 report:1 many:1 newspaper:1 nationally:1 exhibit:4 smithsonian:3 accede:1 request:1 museum:2 display:1 couple:1 related:1 memorabilia:1 library:1 archive:1 march:2 november:1 entitle:1 treasure:1 come:1 home:1 due:1 age:1 fragility:1 permit:1 travel:1 external:1 link:1 usflag:1 org:1 page:3 warren:1 county:1 reference:1 bostick:1 alan:1 tennessean:1 life:1 section:1 p:1 |@bigram merrie_melody:2 nineteenth_century:1 salem_massachusetts:1 nashville_tennessee:1 flag_hoist:1 external_link:1 |
5,396 | Drosophila | Drosophila is a genus of small flies, belonging to the family Drosophilidae, whose members are often called "fruit flies" or more appropriately (though less frequently) pomace flies, vinegar flies, or wine flies, a reference to the characteristic of many species to linger around overripe or rotting fruit. They should not be confused with the Tephritidae, a related family, which are also called fruit flies (sometimes referred to as "true fruit flies"); these feed primarily on unripe or ripe fruit, with many species being regarded as destructive agricultural pests, especially the Mediterranean fruit fly. One species of Drosophila in particular, D. melanogaster, has been heavily used in research in genetics and is a common model organism in developmental biology. Indeed, the terms "fruit fly" and "Drosophila" are often used synonymously with D. melanogaster in modern biological literature. The entire genus, however, contains more than 1,500 species Bächli, G. 1999-2006. TaxoDros: The database on Taxonomy of Drosophilidae. and is very diverse in appearance, behavior, and breeding habitat. Name The term "Drosophila", meaning "dew-loving", is a modern scientific Latin adaptation from Greek words δρόσος, drósos, "dew", and φίλος, phílos, "loving" with the Latin feminine suffix -a. On occasion, the name is misspelled as "drosophilia". Morphology Side view of head showing characteristic bristles above the eye.D. setosimentum, a species of Hawaiian picture-wing fly. Drosophila are small flies, typically pale yellow to reddish brown to black, with red eyes. Many species, including the noted Hawaiian picture-wings, have distinct black patterns on the wings. The plumose (feathery) arista, bristling of the head and thorax, and wing venation are characters used to diagnose the family. Most are small, about 2–4 millimetres long, but some, especially many of the Hawaiian species, are larger than a house fly. Life cycle and ecology Habitat Drosophila are found all around the world, with more species in the tropical regions. They can be found in deserts, tropical rainforest, cities, swamps, and alpine zones. Some northern species hibernate. Most species breed in various kinds of decaying plant and fungal material, including fruit, bark, slime fluxes, flowers, and mushrooms. A few species have switched to being parasites or predators. Many species can be attracted to baits of fermented bananas or mushrooms, but others are not attracted to any kind of baits. Males may congregate at patches of suitable breeding substrate to compete for the females, or form leks, conducting courtship in an area separate from breeding sites. Several Drosophila species, including D. melanogaster, D. immigrans, and D. simulans, are closely associated with humans, and are often referred to as domestic species. These and other species (D. subobscura, Zaprionus indianus Vilela CR (1999) Is Zaprionus indianus Gupta, 1970 (Diptera, Drosophilidae) currently colonizing the Neotropical region? Drosophila Information Service 82:37–39. van der Linde K, Steck GJ, Hibbard K, Birdsley JS, Alonso LM, Houle D (2006) First records of Zaprionus indianus (Diptera, Drosophilidae), a pest species on commercial fruits, from Panama and the United States of America. Florida Entomologist 89:402–404. Castrezana S (2007) New records of Zaprionus indianus Gupta, 1970 (Diptera, Drosophilidae) in North America and a key to identify some Zaprionus species deposited in the Drosophila Tucson Stock Center. Drosophila Information Service 90:34-36. World distribution map for Zaprionus indianus ) have been accidentally introduced around the world by human activities such as fruit transports. Reproduction Drosophila melanogaster egg Drosophila eggs inserted deep in bark, showing the long respiratory filaments. Drosophila larva Drosophila pupae – the white ones are young pupae while the brown ones are older. Males of this genus are known to have the longest sperm cells of any organism on Earth, including one species, Drosophila bifurca, that have sperm that are 5.8 centimetres long. Pitnick, S., G.S. Spicer, T.A. Markow (1995). How long is a giant sperm? Nature 375:109. PMID 7753164 The cells are mostly tail, and are delivered to the females in tangled coils. The other members of the genus Drosophila also make relatively few giant sperm cells, with D. bifurca's being the longest. Joly, D., N. Luck, B. Dejonghe (2007). Adaptation to Long Sperm in Drosophila: Correlated Development of the Sperm Roller and Sperm Packaging. Journal of Experimental Zoology (Molecular and Developmental Evolution) 308B:DOI: 10.1002/jez.b.21167. PMID 17377954 D. melanogaster sperm cells are a more modest 1.8 millimetres long, although this is still about 300 times as long as a human sperm. Drosophila vary widely in their reproductive capacity. Those such as D. melanogaster that breed in large, relatively rare resources have ovaries that mature 10–20 eggs at a time, so that they can be laid together on one site. Others that breed in more-abundant but less nutritious substrates, such as leaves, may only lay one egg per day. The eggs have one or more respiratory filaments near the anterior end; the tips of these extend above the surface and allow oxygen to reach the embryo. Larvae feed not on the vegetable matter itself but on the yeasts and microorganisms present on the decaying breeding substrate. Development time varies widely between species (between 7 and more than 60 days) and depends on the environmental factors such as temperature, breeding substrate, and crowding. Laboratory–cultured animals Drosophila melanogaster types. Eye colors (clockwise): brown, cinnabar, sepia, vermilion, white, wild. Also, the wild-eyed fly has a yellow body, the sepia-eyed fly has an ebony body, and the brown-eyed fly has a black body. Drosophila melanogaster is a popular experimental animal because it is easily cultured in mass out of the wild, has a short generation time, and mutant animals are readily obtainable. In 1906 Thomas Hunt Morgan began his work on D. melanogaster and reported his first finding of a white (eyed) mutant in 1910 to the academic community. He was in search of a model organism to study genetic heredity and required a species that could randomly acquire genetic mutation that would visibly manifest as morphological changes in the adult animal. His work on Drosophila earned him the 1933 Nobel Prize in Medicine for identifying chromosomes as the vector of inheritance for genes. However, some species of Drosophila are difficult to culture in the laboratory, often because they breed on a single specific host in the wild. For some it can be done with particular recipes for rearing media, or by introducing chemicals such as sterols that are found in the natural host; for others it is (so far) impossible. In some cases, the larvae can develop on normal Drosophila lab medium but the female will not lay eggs; for these it is often simply a matter of putting in a small piece of the natural host to receive the eggs. The Drosophila Stock Center in San Diego maintains cultures of hundreds of species for researchers. Predators Drosophila are prey for many generalist predators such as robber flies. In Hawaii, the introduction of yellowjackets from the mainland United States has led to the decline of many of the large species. The larvae are preyed on by other fly larvae, staphylinid beetles, and ants. Systematics The genus Drosophila as currently defined is paraphyletic (see below) and contains 1450 described species, Bächli, G. 1999-2006. TaxoDros: The database on Taxonomy of Drosophilidae. Markow, T. A. and P. M. O'Grady (2006). Drosophila: A guide to species identification and use. London, , Elsevier Inc. while the estimated total number of species is estimated at thousands. The majority of the species are members of two subgenera: Drosophila (~1,100 species) and Sophophora (including D. (S.) melanogaster; ~330 species). The Hawaiian species of Drosophila (estimated to be more than 500, with ~380 species described) are sometimes recognized as a separate genus or subgenus, Idiomyia, but this is not widely accepted. About 250 species are part of the genus Scaptomyza, which arose from the Hawaiian Drosophila and later re-colonized continental areas. Evidence from phylogenetic studies suggests that the following genera arose from within the genus Drosophila O'Grady, P. and R. DeSalle (2008). Out of Hawaii: the origin and biogeography of the genus Scaptomyza (Diptera: Drosophilidae). Biology Letters 4:195-199. DOI: 10.1098/rsbl.2007.0575 Remsen, J. and P. O'Grady (2002). Phylogeny of Drosophilinae (Diptera: Drosophilidae), with comments on combined analysis and character support. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 24:249-264. : Liodrosophila Duda, 1922 Mycodrosophila Oldenburg, 1914 Samoaia Malloch, 1934 Scaptomyza Hardy, 1849 Zaprionus Coquillett, 1901 Zygothrica Wiedemann, 1830 Hirtodrosophila Duda, 1923 (position uncertain) Several of the subgeneric and generic names are based on anagrams of Drosophila. These include: Dorsilopha Lordiphosa Siphlodora Phloridosa Psilodorha Drosophila species genome project Drosophila are extensively used as a model organism in genetics (including population genetics), cell-biology, biochemistry, and especially developmental biology. Therefore, extensive efforts are made to sequence drosphilid genomes. The genomes of the following species have been fully or partially sequenced so far: Drosophila (Sophophora) melanogaster Drosophila (Sophophora) melanogaster genome Drosophila (Sophophora) simulans Drosophila (Sophophora) simulans genome Drosophila (Sophophora) sechellia Drosophila (Sophophora) sechellia genome Drosophila (Sophophora) yakuba Drosophila (Sophophora) yakuba genome Drosophila (Sophophora) erecta Drosophila (Sophophora) erecta genome Drosophila (Sophophora) ananassae Drosophila (Sophophora) ananassae genome Drosophila (Sophophora) pseudoobscura Drosophila (Sophophora) pseudoobscura genome Drosophila (Sophophora) persimilis Drosophila (Sophophora) persimilis genome Drosophila (Sophophora) willistoni Drosophila (Sophophora) willistoni genome Drosophila (Drosophila) mojavensis Drosophila (Drosophila) mojavensis genome Drosophila (Drosophila) virilis Drosophila (Drosophila) virilis genome Drosophila (Drosophila) grimshawi Drosophila (Drosophila) grimshawi genome The data will be used for many purposes, including evolutionary genome comparisons. D. simulans and D. sechellia are sister species, and provide viable offspring when crossed, while D. melanogaster and D. simulans produce infertile hybrid offspring. The Drosophila genome is often compared with the genomes of more distantly related species such as the honeybee Apis mellifera or the mosquito Anopheles gambiae. Curated data are available at FlyBase. See also Drosophila embryogenesis Insect Habitat References External links Fly Base FlyBase is a comprehensive database for information on the genetics and molecular biology of Drosophila. It includes data from the Drosophila Genome Projects and data curated from the literature. Berkeley Drosophila Genome Project AAA: Assembly, Alignment and Annotation of 12 Drosophila species UCSC Genome browser TaxoDros: The database on Taxonomy of Drosophilidae UC San Diego Drosophila Stock Center breeds hundreds of species and supplies them to researchers FlyMine is an integrated database of genomic, expression and protein data for Drosophila The Drosophila Virtual library is library of Drosophila on web | Drosophila |@lemmatized drosophila:74 genus:10 small:4 fly:18 belong:1 family:3 drosophilidae:9 whose:1 member:3 often:6 call:2 fruit:10 appropriately:1 though:1 less:2 frequently:1 pomace:1 vinegar:1 wine:1 reference:2 characteristic:2 many:8 specie:36 linger:1 around:3 overripe:1 rot:1 confuse:1 tephritidae:1 related:2 also:4 sometimes:2 refer:2 true:1 fee:2 primarily:1 unripe:1 ripe:1 regard:1 destructive:1 agricultural:1 pest:2 especially:3 mediterranean:1 one:7 particular:2 melanogaster:13 heavily:1 use:6 research:1 genetics:4 common:1 model:3 organism:4 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5,397 | Continental_drift | Plates in the crust of the earth, according to the plate tectonics theory Continental drift is the movement of the Earth's continents relative to each other. The hypothesis that continents 'drift' was first put forward by Abraham Ortelius in 1596 and was fully developed by Alfred Wegener in 1912. However, it was not until the development of the theory of plate tectonics in the 1960s, that a sufficient geological explanation of that movement was found. History Early history Antonio Snider-Pellegrini's Illustration of the closed and opened Atlantic Ocean (1858). Abraham Ortelius (1596), Francis Bacon (1625), Benjamin Franklin, Antonio Snider-Pellegrini (1858), and others had noted earlier that the shapes of continents on opposite sides of the Atlantic Ocean (most notably, Africa and South America) seem to fit together. W. J. Kious described Ortelius' thoughts in this way: Wegener and his predecessors The hypothesis that the continents had once formed a single landmass before breaking apart and drifting to their present locations was fully formulated by Alfred Wegener in 1912. Although Wegener's theory was formed independently and was more complete than those of his predecessors, Wegener later credited a number of past authors with similar ideas: Franklin Coxworthy (between 1848 and 1890), Roberto Mantovani (between 1889 and 1909), William Henry Pickering (1907) and Frank Bursley Taylor (1908). For example: the similarity of southern continent geological formations had led Roberto Mantovani to conjecture in 1889 and 1909 that all the continents had once been joined into a supercontinent (now known as Pangaea); Wegener noted the similarity of Mantovani's and his own maps of the former positions of the southern continents. Through volcanic activity due to thermal expansion this continent broke and the new continents drifted away from each other because of further expansion of the rip-zones, where now the oceans lie. This led Mantovani to propose an Expanding Earth theory which has since been shown to be incorrect. Some sort of continental drift without expansion was proposed by Frank Bursley Taylor, who suggested in 1908 (published in 1910) that the continents were dragged towards the equator by increased lunar gravity during the Cretaceous, thus forming the Himalayas and Alps on the southern faces. Wegener said that of all those theories, Taylor's, although not fully developed, had the most similarities to his own. Wegener was the first to use the phrase "continental drift" (1912, 1915) (in German "die Verschiebung der Kontinente" - since Wegener presented and published in German, his ideas did not reach the majority of scientists until 1922, when his book was translated into English) and formally publish the hypothesis that the continents had somehow "drifted" apart. Although he presented much evidence for continental drift, he was unable to provide a convincing explanation for the physical processes which might have caused this drift. His suggestion that the continents had been pulled apart by the centrifugal pseudoforce of the Earth's rotation was rejected as calculations showed that the force was not sufficient. Plate Tectonics: The Rocky History of an Idea Controversial years During Wegener's lifetime, his theory of continental drift was severely attacked by leading geologists, who viewed him as an outsider meddling in their field. His hypothesis received support from South African geologist Alexander Du Toit as well as from Arthur Holmes, but was not generally supported due to the lack of a known driving force and the absence of evidence beyond the coastline shapes and fossil records. The possibility of continental drift gradually became accepted by the late 1950s. By the 1960s, geological research conducted by Robert S. Dietz, Bruce Heezen, and Harry Hess, along with a revision of the theory including a mechanism by J. Tuzo Wilson, led to widespread acceptance of the theory among geologists. Evidence Note: This section contains evidence available to Wegener's contemporaries and predecessors Fossil patterns across continents. Pangaea separation animation The notion that continents have not always been at their present positions was suggested as early as 1596 by the Dutch map maker Abraham Ortelius in the third edition of his work Thesaurus Geographicus. Ortelius suggested that the Americas, Eurasia and Africa were once joined and have since drifted apart "by earthquakes and floods", creating the modern Atlantic Ocean. For evidence, he wrote: "The vestiges of the rupture reveal themselves, if someone brings forward a map of the world and considers carefully the coasts of the three continents." Francis Bacon commented on Ortelius' idea in 1620, as did Benjamin Franklin and Alexander von Humboldt in later centuries. Evidence for continental drift is now extensive. Similar plant and animal fossils are found around different continent shores, suggesting that they were once joined. The fossils of Mesosaurus, a freshwater reptile rather like a small crocodile, found both in Brazil and South Africa, are one example; another is the discovery of fossils of the land reptile Lystrosaurus from rocks of the same age from locations in South America, Africa, and Antarctica. There is also living evidence — the same animals being found on two continents. An example of this is a particular earthworm found in South America and South Africa. The complementary arrangement of the facing sides of South America and Africa is obvious, but is a temporary coincidence. In millions of years, seafloor spreading, continental drift, and other forces of tectonophysics will further separate and rotate those two continents. It was this temporary feature which inspired Wegener to study what he defined as continental drift, although he did not live to see his hypothesis become generally accepted. Widespread distribution of Permo-Carboniferous glacial sediments in South America, Africa, Madagascar, Arabia, India, Antarctica and Australia was one of the major pieces of evidence for the theory of continental drift. The continuity of glaciers, inferred from oriented glacial striations and deposits called tillites, suggested the existence of the supercontinent of Gondwana, which became a central element of the concept of continental drift. Striations indicated glacial flow away from the equator and toward the poles, in modern coordinates, and supported the idea that the southern continents had previously been in dramatically different locations, as well as contiguous with each other. The debate Before geophysical evidence started accumulating after World War II, the idea of continental drift caused sharp disagreement among geologists. Wegener had introduced his theory in 1912 at a meeting of the German Geological Association. His paper was published that year and expanded into a book in 1915. In 1921 the Berlin Geological Society held a symposium on the theory. In 1922 Wegener's book was translated into English and then it received a wider audience. In 1923 the theory was discussed at conferences by Geological Society of France, the Geological Section of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, and the Royal Geological Society. The theory was carefully but critically reviewed in the journal Nature by Philip Lake. P. Lake, 'Wegener's Hypothesis of Continental Drift', Nature CXI, 1923a, pp. 226-228 On November 15, 1926, the American Association of Petroleum Geologists (AAPG) held a symposium at which the continental drift hypothesis was vigorously debated. The resulting papers were published in 1928 under the title Theory of continental drift. Wegener himself contributed a paper to this volume. Friedlander, Michael W. (1995) At the Fringes of Science, pages 21-27, Westview, ISBN 0-8133-2200-6, 1998 edition with new epilog: ISBN 0-8133-9060-5 One of the main problems with Wegener's theory was that he believed that the continents "plowed" through the rocks of the ocean basins. Most geologists did not believe that this could be possible. In fact, the biggest objection to Wegener was that he did not have an acceptable theory of the forces that caused the continents to drift. He also ignored counter-arguments and evidence contrary to his theory and seemed too willing to interpret ambiguous evidence as being favorable to his theory. William F. Williams, editor (2000) Encyclopedia of Pseudoscience: From Alien Abductions to Zone Therapy Facts on File p. 59 ISBN 0-8160-3351-X For their part, the geologists ignored Wegener's copious body of evidence as it contradicted their assumptions. Plate tectonics, a modern update of the old ideas of Wegener about "plowing" continents, accommodates continental motion through the mechanism of seafloor spreading. New rock is created by volcanism at mid-ocean ridges and returned to the Earth's mantle at ocean trenches. Remarkably, in the 1928 AAPG volume, G. A. F. Molengraaf of the Delft Institute (now University) of Technology proposed a recognizable form of seafloor spreading in order to account for the opening of the Atlantic Ocean as well as the East Africa Rift. Arthur Holmes (an early supporter of Wegener) suggested that the movement of continents was the result of convection currents driven by the heat of the interior of the Earth, rather than the continents floating on the mantle. According to Carl Sagan, Sagan, Carl. (1997) The Demon-Haunted World, Science As a Candle in the Dark, Ballantine Books, ISBN 0-345-40946-9. 1996 hardback edition: Random House, ISBN 0-394-53512-X pp. 302-03 it is more like the continents being carried on a conveyor belt than floating or drifting. The ideas of Molengraaf and of Holmes led to the theory of plate tectonics, which replaced the theory of continental drift, and became the accepted theory in the 1960s (based on data that started to accumulate in the late 1950s). However, acceptance was gradual. Nowadays it is universally supported; but even in 1977 a textbook could write the relatively weak: "a poll of geologists now would probably show a substantial majority who favor the idea of drift" and devote a section to a serious consideration of the objections to the theory. Davis, Richard A. (1977) Principles of Oceanography, 2nd edition, Addison-Wesley, ISBN 0-201-01464-5 Notes References External links A brief introduction to Plate Tectonics, based on the work of Alfred Wegener. 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5,398 | Dictionary | A dictionary is a book or collection of words in a specific language, often listed alphabetically, with definitions, etymologies, pronunciations, and other information; Webster's New World College Dictionary, Fourth Edition, 2002 or a book of words in one language with their equivalents in another, also known as a lexicon. According to Nielsen 2008 a dictionary may be regarded as a lexicographical product that is characterised by three significant features: (1) it has been prepared for one or more functions; (2) it contains data that have been selected for the purpose of fulfilling those functions; and (3) its lexicographic structures link and establish relationships between the data so that they can meet the needs of users and fulfil the functions of the dictionary. In many languages, words can appear in many different forms, but only the undeclined or unconjugated form appears as the headword in most dictionaries. Dictionaries are most commonly found in the form of a book, but some newer dictionaries, like StarDict and the New Oxford American Dictionary are dictionary software running on PDAs or computers. There are also many online dictionaries accessible via the Internet. A multi-volume Latin dictionary in the University Library of Graz. History The oldest known dictionaries were Akkadian empire cuneiform tablets with bilingual Sumerian-Akkadian wordlists, discovered in Ebla (modern Syria) and dated roughly 2300 BCE. Dictionary - MSN Encarta The early 2nd millennium BCE Urra=hubullu glossary is the canonical Babylonian version of such bilingual Sumerian wordlists. A Chinese dictionary, the ca. 3rd century BCE Erya, was the earliest surviving monolingual dictionary, although some sources cite the ca. 800 BCE Shizhoupian as a "dictionary", modern scholarship considers it a calligraphic compendium of Chinese characters from Zhou dynasty bronzes. Philitas of Cos (fl. 4th century BCE) wrote a pioneering vocabulary Disorderly Words (Ἄτακτοι γλῶσσαι, ) which explained the meanings of rare Homeric and other literary words, words from local dialects, and technical terms. Apollonius the Sophist (fl. 1st century CE) wrote the oldest surviving Homeric lexicon. The first Sanskrit dictionary, the Amarakośa, was written by Amara Sinha ca. 4th century CE. Written in verse, it listed around 10,000 words. According to the Nihon Shoki, the first Japanese dictionary was the long-lost 682 CE Niina glossary of Chinese characters. The oldest existing Japanese dictionary, the ca. 835 CE Tenrei Banshō Meigi, was also a glossary of written Chinese. Arabic dictionaries were compiled between the 8th and 14th centuries CE, organizing words in rhyme order (by the last syllable), by alphabetical order of the radicals, or according to the alphabetical order of the first letter (the system used in modern European language dictionaries). The modern system was mainly used in specialist dictionaries, such as those of terms from the Qur'an and hadith, while most general use dictionaries, such as the Lisan al-`Arab (13th c., still the best-known large-scale dictionary of Arabic) and al-Qamus al-Muhit (14th c.) listed words in the alphabetical order of the radicals. The Qamus al-Muhit is the first handy dictionary in Arabic, which includes only words and their definitions, eliminating the supporting examples used in such dictionaries as the Lisan and the Oxford English Dictionary. "Ḳāmūs," J. Eckmann, Encyclopaedia of Islam, 2nd ed., Brill The earliest modern European dictionaries were bilingual dictionaries. The earliest in the English language were glossaries of French, Italian or Latin words along with definitions of the foreign words in English. An early non-alphabetical list of 8000 English words was the Elementarie created by Richard Mulcaster in 1592. 1582 - Mulcaster's Elementarie, Learning Dictionaries and Meaning, The British Library A Brief History of English Lexicography, Peter Erdmann and See-Young Cho, Technische Universität Berlin, 1999. The first purely English alphabetical dictionary was A Table Alphabeticall, written by English schoolteacher Robert Cawdrey in 1604. The only surviving copy is found at the Bodleian Library in Oxford. Yet this early effort, as well as the many imitators which followed it, was seen as unreliable and nowhere near definitive. Philip Stanhope, 4th Earl of Chesterfield was still lamenting in 1754, 150 years after Cawdrey's publication, that it is "a sort of disgrace to our nation, that hitherto we have had no… standard of our language; our dictionaries at present being more properly what our neighbors the Dutch and the Germans call theirs, word-books, than dictionaries in the superior sense of that title." Jack Lynch, “How Johnson's Dictionary Became the First Dictionary” (delivered 25 August 2005 at the Johnson and the English Language conference, Birmingham) Retrieved July 12, 2008 It was not until Samuel Johnson's A Dictionary of the English Language (1755) that a truly noteworthy, reliable English Dictionary was deemed to have been produced, and the fact that today many people still mistakenly believe Johnson to have written the first English Dictionary is a testament to this legacy. Lynch, "How Johnson's Dictionary Became the First Dictionary" By this stage, dictionaries had evolved to contain textual references for most words, and were arranged alphabetically, rather than by topic (a previously popular form of arrangement, which meant all animals would be grouped together, etc.). Johnson's masterwork could be judged as the first to bring all these elements together, creating the first 'modern' dictionary. Johnson's Dictionary remained the English-language standard for over 150 years, until the Oxford University Press began writing and releasing the Oxford English Dictionary in short fascicles from 1884 onwards. It took nearly 50 years to finally complete the huge work, and they finally released the complete OED in twelve volumes in 1928. It remains the most comprehensive and trusted English language dictionary to this day, with revisions and updates added by a dedicated team every three months. One of the main contributors to this modern day dictionary was an ex-army surgeon, William Chester Minor, a convicted murderer who was confined to an asylum for the criminally insane. Simon Winchester, author of The Surgeon of Crowthorne. Specialized dictionaries According to the Manual of Specialized Lexicographies a specialized dictionary (also referred to as a technical dictionary) is a lexicon that focuses upon a specific subject field. Following the description in The Bilingual LSP Dictionary lexicographers categorize specialized dictionaries into three types. A multi-field dictionary broadly covers several subject fields (e.g., a business dictionary), a single-field dictionary narrowly covers one particular subject field (e.g., law), and a sub-field dictionary covers a singular field (e.g., constitutional law). For example, the 23-language Inter-Active Terminology for Europe is a multi-field dictionary, the American National Biography is a single-field, and the African American National Biography Project is a sub-field dictionary. In terms of the above coverage distinction between "minimizing dictionaries" and "maximizing dictionaries", multi-field dictionaries tend to minimize coverage across subject fields (for instance, Oxford Dictionary of World Religions) whereas single-field and sub-field dictionaries tend to maximize coverage within a limited subject field (The Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology). See also LSP dictionary. Glossaries Another variant is the glossary, an alphabetical list of defined terms in a specialised field, such as medicine or science. The simplest dictionary, a defining dictionary, provides a core glossary of the simplest meanings of the simplest concepts. From these, other concepts can be explained and defined, in particular for those who are first learning a language. In English, the commercial defining dictionaries typically include only one or two meanings of under 2000 words. With these, the rest of English, and even the 4000 most common English idioms and metaphors, can be defined. Pronunciation Dictionaries for languages for which the pronunciation of words is not apparent from their spelling, such as the English language, usually provide the pronunciation, often using the International Phonetic Alphabet. For example, the definition for the word dictionary might be followed by the (American English) phonemic spelling: . American dictionaries, however, often use their own pronunciation spelling systems, for example dictionary [dĭkʹshə-nârʹē] while the IPA is more commonly used within the British Commonwealth countries. Yet others use an ad hoc notation; for example, dictionary may become [DIK-shuh-nair-ee]. Some on-line or electronic dictionaries provide recordings of words being spoken. Variations between dictionaries Prescription and description Lexicographers apply two basic philosophies to the defining of words: prescriptive or descriptive. Noah Webster, intent on forging a distinct identity for the American language, altered spellings and accentuated differences in meaning and pronunciation of some words. This is why American English now uses the spelling color while the rest of the English-speaking world prefers colour. (Similarly, British English subsequently underwent a few spelling changes that did not affect American English; see further at American and British English spelling differences.) Large 20th-century dictionaries such as the Oxford English Dictionary (OED) and Webster's Third are descriptive, and attempt to describe the actual use of words. A dictionary open at the word "Internet", viewed through a lens While descriptivists argue that prescriptivism is an unnatural attempt to dictate usage or curtail change, prescriptivists argue that to indiscriminately document "improper" or "inferior" usages sanctions those usages by default and causes language to "deteriorate". Although the debate can become very heated, only a small number of controversial words are usually affected. But the softening of usage notations, from the previous edition, for two words, ain't and irregardless, out of over 450,000 in Webster's Third in 1961, was enough to provoke outrage among many with prescriptivist leanings, who branded the dictionary as "permissive." The prescriptive/descriptive issue has been given so much consideration in modern times that most dictionaries of English apply the descriptive method to definitions, while additionally informing readers of attitudes which may influence their choices on words often considered vulgar, offensive, erroneous, or easily confused. Merriam-Webster is subtle, only adding italicized notations such as, sometimes offensive or nonstand (nonstandard.) [[American Heritage Dictionary|American Heritage]] goes further, discussing issues separately in numerous "usage notes." [[Encarta Webster's Dictionary|Encarta]] provides similar notes, but is more prescriptive, offering warnings and admonitions against the use of certain words considered by many to be offensive or illiterate, such as, "an offensive term for..." or "a taboo term meaning..." Because of the broad use of dictionaries, and their acceptance by many as language authorities, their treatment of the language does affect usage to some degree, even the most descriptive dictionaries providing conservative continuity. In the long run, however, usage primarily determines the meanings of words in English, and the language is being changed and created every day. As Jorge Luis Borges says in the prologue to "El otro, el mismo": "It is often forgotten that (dictionaries) are artificial repositories, put together well after the languages they define. The roots of language are irrational and of a magical nature." Science Dictionary Science Dictionaries have existed from the 6th century BCE when the Chinese started organizing all of their scientifically important knowledge, and combining them into scrolls. The amount and type of information ranged from theories, species, experiments, essays, research, and various other forms of knowledge. However it wasn't until the first century BCE when they started organizing each and every scroll to form a dictionary of scientific knowledge. The dictionaries were ordered from "most important" to "least important" by Chinese standards, and reached up to 8,000 entries long. Some versions have been found where the dragon (one of the most ancient and powerful creatures of Chinese legend) was the first entry Science Bucket Science Bucket in the science dictionaries. However, that since the notion of searching up entries one by one based on importance, was too much of a confusion (also because, the Chinese scientists couldn't agree upon a good definition for each article) they abandoned the task, and it had never gained momentum to be a worldwide success. The Science Dictionary Science Dictionary Major English dictionaries A Dictionary of the English Language by Samuel Johnson (prescriptive) The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language Black's Law Dictionary, a law dictionary Brewer's Dictionary of Phrase and Fable Chambers Dictionary Canadian Oxford Dictionary The Century Dictionary Concise Oxford Dictionary HarperCollins Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English Macquarie Dictionary, a dictionary of Australian English New Oxford American Dictionary New Oxford Dictionary of English Oxford English Dictionary (descriptive) The Penguin English Dictionary Random House Dictionary of the English Language Merriam-Webster Noah Webster's An American Dictionary of the English Language (prescriptive) Webster's New World Dictionary Webster's Third New International Dictionary (descriptive) Webster's New Universal Unabridged Dictionary For languages other than modern English, see the article about that language. See also articles such as Japanese dictionaries. Others Double-Tongued Dictionary Free On-line Dictionary of Computing LEO (website) Logos Dictionary Pseudodictionary Reference.com Urban Dictionary WWWJDIC See also Bilingual dictionary Centre for Lexicography COBUILD, a large corpus of English text Corpus linguistics DICT, the dictionary server protocol Dictionary Society of North America Electronic dictionary Encyclopedic dictionary Fictitious entry Lexicographic error Lexicography Lexigraf List of online encyclopedias Machine-readable dictionary Medical dictionary Monolingual learners' dictionaries OED (Oxford English Dictionary) Reverse dictionary Rhyming dictionary Thesaurus Translation dictionary Visual dictionary Wiktionary WordNet References Relevant literature Bergenholtz, Henning & Tarp, Sven (eds.) (1955) Manual of Specialised Lexicography, Benjamins Publishing Co. Landau, Sidney I. (1998) Dictionaries, The Art and Craft of Lexicography, Simon & Schuster, hardcover, ISBN 0-684-18096-0. Nielsen, Sandro (1994) The Bilingual LSP Dictionary, Gunter Narr Verlag. Nielsen, Sandro (2008) "The effect of lexicographical information costs on dictionary making and use", Lexikos 18, 170-189. Winchester, Simon (1998) The Professor and the Madman. A Tale of Murder, Insanity, and the Making of the Oxford English Dictionary, HarperPerennial, New York, trade paperback, ISBN 0-06-017596-6 (published in the UK as The Surgeon of Crowthorne). 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5,399 | Gulag | Meeting in a prison cell, Eufrosinia Kersnovskaya. The Gulag was the government agency that administered the penal labour camps of the Soviet Union. Gulag is the Russian acronym for The Chief Administration of Corrective Labor Camps and Colonies (лавное Управление Исправительно-Трудовых Лагерей и колоний; Glavnoye Upravlyeniye Ispravityel'no-Trudovih Lagyeryey i koloniy) of the NKVD. Eventually, by metonymy, the usage of "Gulag" began generally denoting the entire penal labor system in the USSR, then any such penal system. In Russian, Gulag is pronounced: (, ) Gulag: A History, by Anne Applebaum, explains: "It was the branch of the State Security that operated the penal system of forced labour camps and associated detention and transit camps and prisons. While these camps housed criminals of all types, the Gulag system has become primarily known as a place for political prisoners and as a mechanism for repressing political opposition to the Soviet state. Though it imprisoned millions, the name became familiar in the West only with the publication of Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn's 1973 The Gulag Archipelago, which likened the scattered camps to a chain of islands." There were at least 476 separate camps, some of them comprising hundreds, even thousands of camp units. Anne Applebaum — Inside the Gulag Gulag The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. The most infamous complexes were those at arctic or subarctic regions. Today's major industrial cities of the Russian Arctic such as Norilsk, Vorkuta, Kolyma and Magadan, were camps originally built by prisoners and run by ex-prisoners. More than 14 million (with some authors like Solzhenitsyn estimating the total at more than 40 million) people passed through the Gulag from 1929 to 1953, with a further 6 to 7 million being deported and exiled to remote areas of the USSR. According to Conquest, between 1939 and 1953, there was, in the work camps, a 10% death rate per year, rising to 20% in 1938. Robert Conquest in Victims of Stalinism: A Comment. Europe-Asia Studies, Vol. 49, No. 7 (Nov., 1997), pp. 1317-1319 states:"We are all inclined to accept the Zemskov totals (even if not as complete) with their 14 million intake to Gulag 'camps' alone, to which must be added 4-5 million going to Gulag 'colonies', to say nothing of the 3.5 million already in, or sent to, 'labour settlements'. However taken, these are surely 'high' figures." According to Soviet data, a total of 1,053,829 people died in the GULAG from 1934 to 1953, not counting those who died in labor colonies. Getty, Rittersporn, Zemskov. Victims of the Soviet Penal System in the Pre-War Years: A First Approach on the Basis of Archival Evidence. The American Historical Review, Vol. 98, No. 4 (Oct., 1993), pp. 1017-1049, see also http://www.etext.org/Politics/Staljin/Staljin/articles/AHR/AHR.html Politics Stalin, Mario Sousa - This project is intended to reveal the lies of propaganda concerning Stalin and the USSR The total population of the camps varied from 510,307 (in 1934) to 1,727,970 (in 1953). Getty, Rittersporn, Zemskov, op. cit. . Most Gulag inmates were not political prisoners, although the political prisoner population was always significant. People could be imprisoned in a Gulag camp for crimes such as unexcused absences from work, petty theft, or anti-government jokes. About half of the political prisoners were sent to Gulag prison camps without trial; per official data, there were more than 2.6 million imprisonment sentences in cases investigated by the secret police, 1921-1953. While the Gulag was radically reduced in size following Stalin’s death in 1953, political prisoners continued to exist in the Soviet Union right up to the Gorbachev era. News Release: Forced labor camp artifacts from Soviet era on display at NWTC The camps in Siberia still house a work force of about a million prisoners. Carl De Keyzer, Zona at the Impressions Gallery, BBC Modern usage and other terminology Entering Gulag (a leaf from Eufrosinia Kersnovskaya's notebook) Although Gulag originally was the name of a government agency, the acronym acquired the qualities of a noun, denoting: the Soviet system of prison-based, unfree labor — including specific labor, punishment, criminal, political, and transit camps for men, women, and children. Even more broadly, "Gulag" has come to mean the Soviet repressive system itself, the set of procedures that prisoners once called the "meat-grinder": the arrests, the interrogations, the transport in unheated cattle cars, the forced labor, the destruction of families, the years spent in exile, the early and unnecessary deaths. Other authors use gulag as denoting all the prisons and internment camps in Soviet history (1917–1991) with the plural gulags. The term's contemporary usage is notably unrelated to the USSR, such as in the expression "North Korea's Gulag". The word Gulag was not often used in Russian — either officially or colloquially; the predominant terms were the camps () and the zone (), always singular — for the labor camp system and for the individual camps. The official term, "corrective labor camp", was suggested for official politburo of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union use in the session of July 27, 1929. History Early Soviet period GPU poster|Soviet poster of the 1920s: The GPU strikes the counter-revolutionary saboteur on the head From 1918, camp-type detention facilities were set up, as a reformed analogy of the earlier system of penal labor (katorgas), operated in Siberia in Imperial Russia. The two main types were "Vechecka Special-purpose Camps" () and forced labor camps (). They were installed for various categories of people deemed dangerous for the state: for common criminals, for prisoners of the Russian Civil War, for officials accused of corruption, sabotage and embezzlement, various political enemies and dissidents, as well as former aristocrats, businessmen and large land owners. These camps, however, were not on the same scale as those in the Stalin era. In 1928 there were 30,000 prisoners in camps, and the authorities were opposed to compelling them to work. In 1927 the official in charge of prison administration wrote that: "The exploitation of prison labour, the system of squeezing ‘golden sweat’ from them, the organization of production in places of confinement, which while profitable from a commercial point of view is fundamentally lacking in corrective significance – these are entirely inadmissible in Soviet places of confinement.” D.J. Dallin and B.I. Nicolayesky, Forced Labour in Soviet Russia, London 1948, p. 153. The legal base and the guidance for the creation of the system of "corrective labor camps" (), the backbone of what is commonly referred to as the "Gulag", was a secret decree of Sovnarkom of July 11 1929 about the use of penal labor that duplicated the corresponding appendix to the minutes of Politburo meeting of June 27, 1929. As an all-Union institution and a main administration with the OGPU (the Soviet secret police), the GULAG was officially established on April 25, 1930 as the "ULAG" by the OGPU order 130/63 in accordance with the Sovnarkom order 22 p. 248 dated April 7, 1930, and was renamed into GULAG in November. Expansion under Stalin Prisoner labour at the construction of Belomorkanal, 1931–33 In the early 1930s a drastic tightening of Soviet penal policy caused a significant growth of the prison camp population. During the period of the Great Purge (1937–38) mass arrests caused another upsurge in inmate numbers. During these years hundreds of thousands of individuals were arrested and sentenced to long prison terms on the grounds of one of the multiple passages of the notorious Article 58 of the Criminal Codes of the Union republics, which defined punishment for various forms of "counterrevolutionary activities." Under NKVD Order № 00447 tens of thousands of GULAG inmates who were accused of "continuing anti-Soviet activity in imprisonment" were executed in 1937-38. The hypothesis that economic considerations were responsible for mass arrests during the period of Stalinism has been refuted on the grounds of former Soviet archives that have become accessible since the 1990s, although some archival sources also tend to support an economic hypothesis. See, e.g. Michael Jakobson, Origins of the GULag: The Soviet Prison Camp System 1917–34, Lexington, KY: University Press of Kentucky, 1993, p. 88. See, e.g. Galina M. Ivanova, Labor Camp Socialism: The Gulag in the Totalitarian System, Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 2000, Chapter 2. In any case the development of the camp system followed economic lines. The growth of the camp system coincided with the peak of the Soviet industrialization campaign. Most of the camps established to accommodate the masses of incoming prisoners were assigned distinct economic tasks. These included the exploitation of natural resources and the colonization of remote areas as well as the realization of enormous infrastructural facilities and industrial construction projects. In 1931–32 the Gulag had approximately 200,000 prisoners in the camps; in 1935 — approximately 800,000 in camps and 300,000 in colonies (annual averages), and in 1939 — about 1.3 millions in camps and 350,000 in colonies. Cf, e.g., Istorija stalinskogo Gulaga: konec 1920-kh - pervaia polovina 1950-kh godov; sobranie dokumentov v 7 tomakh, ed. by V. P. Kozlov et al., Moskva: ROSSPEN 2004, vol. 4: Naselenie GULAGa . All data about the numbers of prisoners here and below are however taken from documents produced by the NKVD) and are significantly lower than estimates made by historians See for example Conquest, op. cit, or Davies, op. cit. GULAG during World War II After the German invasion of Poland that marked the start of World War II in 1939, the Soviet Union invaded and annexed eastern parts of the Second Polish Republic. In 1940 the Soviet Union occupied Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Bessarabia and Bukovina. Hundreds of thousands of Polish citizens Franciszek Proch, Poland's Way of the Cross, New York 1987 P.146 Project In Posterum and inhabitants of the other annexed lands, regardless of their ethnic origin, were arrested and sent to the GULAG camps. Approximately 300,000 Polish prisoners of war were captured by the USSR during and after the Polish Defensive War. Encyklopedia PWN 'KAMPANIA WRZEŚNIOWA 1939', last retrieved on 10 December 2005, Polish language Almost all of the captured officers and a large number of ordinary soldiers were then murdered (see Katyn massacre) or sent to GULAG. Of the 10,000-12,000 Poles sent to Kolyma in 1940-1941, most POWs, only 583 men survived, released in 1942 to join the Polish Armed Forces in the East. Out of Anders' 80,000 evacuees from Soviet Union gathered in Great Britain only 310 volunteered to return to Soviet-controlled Poland in 1947. According to the official data, the total number of sentences for political crimes in USSR in 1939-41 was 211,106. During the war, Gulag populations declined sharply, as a consequence of the mass releases of hundreds of thousands of prisoners who were conscripted and sent directly to the front lines and a steep rise in mortality in 1942–43. In the winter of 1941 a quarter of the Gulag's population died of starvation. GULAG: a History, Anne Applebaum 516,841 prisoners died in prison camps in 1941-43. Zemskov, Gulag, Sociologičeskije issledovanija, 1991, No. 6, pp. 14-15. In 1943, the term katorga works (каторжные работы) was reintroduced. They were initially intended for Nazi collaborators, but then other categories of political prisoners (for example, members of deported peoples who fled from exile) were also sentenced to "katorga works". Prisoners sentenced to "katorga works" were sent to Gulag prison camps with the most harsh regime and many of them perished. Other gulag inmates were sentenced to Red Army penal battalions, where they performed extremely hazardous duties such as spearheading Russian offensives, often serving as tramplers, persons who marched or ran over German minefields to clear them for successive Red Army infantry formations. A total of 427,910 served in penal units from September 1942 to May 1945. G.F. Krivosheev, ‘Soviet Casualties and Combat Losses in the twentieth century’, London, Greenhill Books, 1997, ISBN 1853672807 (ISBN13 9781853672804). These totals should be viewed in comparison to the nearly 34.5 million men and women who served in the Soviet armed forces during the entire period of the war. GULAG after World War II After World War II the number of inmates in prison camps and colonies again rose sharply, reaching approximately 2.5 million people by the early 1950s (about 1.7 million of whom were in camps). When the war ended in May 1945, as many as two million former Russian citizens were forcefully repatriated (against their will) into the USSR. Mark Elliott. "The United States and Forced Repatriation of Soviet Citizens, 1944-47," Political Science Quarterly, Vol. 88, No. 2 (June, 1973), pp. 253-275. On 11 February 1945, at the conclusion of the Yalta Conference, the United States and United Kingdom signed a Repatriation Agreement with the Soviet Union. One interpretation of this agreement resulted in the forcible repatriation of all Soviets. British and U.S. civilian authorities ordered their military forces in Europe to deport to the Soviet Union up to two million former residents of the Soviet Union, including persons who had left Russia and established different citizenship years before. The forced repatriation operations took place from 1945-1947. Often, one finds statements that Soviet POWs on their return to the Soviet Union were often treated as traitors (see Order No. 270). According to some sources, over 1.5 million surviving Red Army soldiers imprisoned by the Germans were sent to the Gulag. However, that is a confusion with two other types of camps. During and after World War II freed PoWs went to special "filtration" camps. Of these, by 1944, more than 90 per cent were cleared, and about 8 per cent were arrested or condemned to penal battalions. In 1944, they were sent directly to reserve military formations to be cleared by the NKVD. Further, in 1945, about 100 filtration camps were set for repatriated Ostarbeiter, PoWs, and other displaced persons, which processed more than 4,000,000 people. By 1946, 80 per cent civilians and 20 per cent of PoWs were freed, 5 per cent of civilians, and 43 per cent of PoWs re-drafted, 10 per cent of civilians and 22 per cent of PoWs were sent to labor battalions, and 2 per cent of civilians and 15 per cent of the PoWs (226,127 out of 1,539,475 total) transferred to the NKVD, i.e. the Gulag. (“Военно-исторический журнал” (“Military-Historical Magazine”), 1997, №5. page 32) Земское В.Н. К вопросу о репатриации советских граждан. 1944-1951 годы // История СССР. 1990. № 4 (Zemskov V.N. On repatriation of Soviet citizens. Istoriya SSSR., 1990, No.4 After Nazi Germany's defeat, ten NKVD-run "special camps" subordinate to the GULAG were set up in the Soviet Occupation Zone of post-war Germany. These "special camps" were former Stalags, prisons, or Nazi concentration camps such as Sachsenhausen (special camp number 7) and Buchenwald (special camp number 2). According to German government estimates "65,000 people died in those Soviet-run camps or in transportation to them." Germans Find Mass Graves at an Ex-Soviet Camp New York Times, September 24, 1992 According to German researchers Sachsenhausen, where 12,500 Soviet era victims have been uncovered, should be seen as an integral part of the Gulag system. Ex-Death Camp Tells Story Of Nazi and Soviet Horrors New York Times, December 17, 2001 For years after World War II, a significant minority of the inmates were Ukrainians, Belarusians, Lithuanians, Latvians and Estonians from lands newly incorporated into the Soviet Union, as well as Finns, Poles, Romanians and others. POWs, in contrast, were kept in a separate camp system (see POW labor in the Soviet Union), which was managed by GUPVI, a separate main administration with the NKVD/MVD. Yet the major reason for the post-war increase in the number of prisoners was the tightening of legislation on property offences in summer 1947 (at this time there was a famine in some parts of the Soviet Union, claiming about 1 million lives), which resulted in hundreds of thousands of convictions to lengthy prison terms, sometimes on the basis of cases of petty theft or embezzlement. At the beginning of 1953 the total number of prisoners in prison camps was more than 2.4 million of which more than 465 thousand were political prisoners. The state continued to maintain the extensive camp system for a while after Stalin's death in March 1953, although the period saw the grip of the camp authorities weaken and a number of conflicts and uprisings occur (see Bitch Wars; Kengir uprising; Vorkuta uprising). The amnesty in March 1953 was limited to non-political prisoners and for political prisoners sentenced to not more than 5 years, therefore mostly those convicted for common crimes were then freed. The release of political prisoners started in 1954 and became widespread, and also coupled with mass rehabilitations, after Nikita Khrushchev's denunciation of Stalinism in his Secret Speech at the 20th Congress of the CPSU in February 1956. By the end of the 1950s, virtually all "corrective labor camps" were dissolved. Colonies, however, continued to exist. Officially the GULAG was liquidated by the MVD order 20 of January 25, 1960. Conditions Gulag prisoner population statistics from 1934 to 1953 http://www.etext.org/Politics/Staljin/Staljin/articles/AHR/AHR.html http://demoscope.ru/weekly/2007/0313/tema06.php Living and working conditions in the camps varied significantly across time and place, depending, among other things, on the impact of broader events (World War II, countrywide famines and shortages, waves of terror, sudden influx or release of large numbers of prisoners). However, to one degree or another, the large majority of prisoners at most times faced meagre food rations, inadequate clothing, overcrowding, poorly insulated housing; poor hygiene, and inadequate health care. The overwhelming majority of prisoners were compelled to perform harsh physical labor. The Gulag Collection: Paintings of Nikolai Getman In most periods and economic branches, the degree of mechanization of work processes was significantly lower than in the civilian industry: tools were often primitive and machinery, if existent, short in supply. Officially established work hours were in most periods longer and days off were fewer than for civilian workers. Often official work time regulations were extended by local camp administrators. In general, the central administrative bodies showed a discernible interest in maintaining the labor force of prisoners in a condition allowing the fulfillment of construction and production plans handed down from above. Besides a wide array of punishments for prisoners refusing to work (which, in practice, were sometimes applied to prisoners that were too enfeebled to meet production quota), they instituted a number of positive incentives intended to boost productivity. These included monetary bonuses (since the early 1930s) and wage payments (from 1950 onwards), cuts of sentences on an individual basis, general early release schemes for norm fulfillment and overfulfillment (until 1939, again in selected camps from 1946 onwards), preferential treatment and privileges for the most productive workers (shock workers or Stakhanovites in Soviet parlance). Leonid Borodkin and Simon Ertz 'Forced Labour and the Need for Motivation: Wages and Bonuses in the Stalinist Camp System', Comparative Economic Studies, June 2005, Vol.47, Iss. 2, pp. 418–436. A distinctive incentive scheme that included both coercive and motivational elements and was applied universally in all camps consisted in standardized "nourishment scales": the size of the inmates’ ration depended on the percentage of the work quota delivered. Naftaly Frenkel is credited for the introduction of this policy. While it was effective in compelling many prisoners to make serious work efforts, for many a prisoner it had the adverse effect, accelerating the exhaustion and sometimes causing the death of persons unable to fulfill high production quota. Immediately after the German attack on the Soviet Union in June 1941 the conditions in camps worsened drastically: quotas were increased, rations cut, and medical supplies came close to none, all of which led to a sharp increase in mortality. The situation slowly improved in the final period and after the end of the war. Considering the overall conditions and their influence on inmates, it is important to distinguish three major strata of Gulag inmates: people used to physical labor: "kulaks", osadniks, "ukazniks" (people sentenced for violation of various ukases, such as Law of Spikelets, decree about work discipline, etc.), occasional violators of criminal law dedicated criminals people unused to physical labour sentenced for various political and religious reasons. Mortality in GULAG camps in 1934-40 was 4-6 times higher than average in Russia. The estimated total number of those who died in imprisonment in 1930-1953 is 1.76 million, about half of which occurred between 1941-1943 following the German invasion. "Demographic Losses Due to Repressions", by Anatoly Vishnevsky, Director of the Center for Human Demography and Ecology, Russian Academy of Sciences, "The History of the GULAG", by Oleg V.Khlevniuk Geography Part of 'Project 503' to build a railroad from Salekhard to Igarka near Turukhansk on the Yenisey In the early days of Gulag, the locations for the camps were chosen primarily for the ease of isolation of prisoners. Remote monasteries in particular were frequently reused as sites for new camps. The site on the Solovetsky Islands in the White Sea is one of the earliest and also most noteworthy, taking root soon after the Revolution in 1918. The colloquial name for the islands, "Solovki", entered the vernacular as a synonym for the labor camp in general. It was being presented to the world as an example of the new Soviet way of "re-education of class enemies" and reintegrating them through labor into the Soviet society. Initially the inmates, the significant part being Russian intelligentsia, enjoyed relative freedom (within the natural confinement of the islands). Local newspapers and magazines were edited and even some scientific research was carried out (e.g., a local botanical garden was maintained, but unfortunately later lost completely). Eventually it turned into an ordinary Gulag camp; in fact some historians maintain that Solovki was a pilot camp of this type. See Solovki for more detail. Maxim Gorky visited the camp in 1929 and published an apology of it. With the new emphasis on Gulag as the means of concentrating cheap labour, new camps were then constructed throughout the Soviet sphere of influence, wherever the economic task at hand dictated their existence (or was designed specifically to avail itself of them, such as Belomorkanal or Baikal Amur Mainline), including facilities in big cities — parts of the famous Moscow Metro and the Moscow State University new campus were built by forced labor. Many more projects during the rapid industrialization of the 1930s, war-time and post-war periods were fulfilled on the backs of convicts, and the activity of Gulag camps spanned a wide cross-section of Soviet industry. The majority of Gulag camps were positioned in extremely remote areas of north-eastern Siberia (the best known clusters are Sevvostlag (The North-East Camps) along Kolyma river and Norillag near Norilsk) and in the south-eastern parts of the Soviet Union, mainly in the steppes of Kazakhstan (Luglag, Steplag, Peschanlag). These were vast and sparsely inhabited regions with no roads (in fact, the construction of the roads themselves was assigned to the inmates of specialized railroad camps) or sources of food, but rich in minerals and other natural resources (such as timber). However, camps were generally spread throughout the entire Soviet Union, including the European parts of Russia, Byelorussia, and Ukraine. There were also several camps located outside of the Soviet Union, in Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Poland, and Mongolia, which were under the direct control of the Gulag. Not all camps were fortified; in fact some in Siberia were marked only by posts. Escape was deterred by the harsh elements, as well as tracking dogs that were assigned to each camp. While during the 1920s and 1930s native tribes often aided escapees, many of the tribes were also victimized by escaped thieves. Tantalized by large rewards as well, they began aiding authorities in the capture of Gulag inmates. Camp guards were also given stern incentive to keep their inmates in line at all costs; if a prisoner escaped under a guard's watch, the guard would often be stripped of his uniform and become a Gulag inmate himself. Further, if an escaping prisoner was shot, guards could be fined amounts that were often equivalent to one or two weeks wages. In some cases, teams of inmates were dropped to a new territory with a limited supply of resources and left to set up a new camp or die. Sometimes it took several attempts before the next wave of colonists could survive the elements. The area along the Indigirka river was known as the Gulag inside the Gulag. In 1926, the Oimiakon (Оймякон) village in this region registered the record low temperature of −71.2 °C (−96 °F). Under the supervision of Lavrenty Beria who headed both NKVD and the Soviet Atom bomb program until his demise in 1953, thousands of zeks were used to mine uranium ore and prepare test facilities on Novaya Zemlya, Vaygach Island, Semipalatinsk, among other sites. Throughout the period of Stalinism, at least 476 separate camp administrations existed. Since many of these existed only for short periods of time, the number of camp administrations at any given point was lower. It peaked in the early 1950s, when there were more than a hundred different camp administrations across the Soviet Union. Most camp administrations oversaw not just one, but several single camp units, some as many as dozens or even hundreds. The infamous complexes were those at Kolyma, Norilsk, and Vorkuta, all in arctic or subarctic regions. However, prisoner mortality in Norilsk in most periods was actually lower than across the camp system as a whole. Special institutions Special camps or zones for children (Gulag jargon: , underaged), for disabled (in Spassk), and for mothers () with babies. Camps for "wives of traitors of Motherland" — there was a special category of repression: "Traitor of Motherland Family Member" (). Sharashka (, the goofing-off place) were in fact secret research laboratories, where the arrested and convicted scientists, some of them prominent, were anonymously developing new technologies, and also conducting basic research. Influence Culture The Gulag spanned nearly four decades of Soviet and East European history and affected millions of individuals. Its cultural impact was enormous. The Gulag has become a major influence on contemporary Russian thinking, and an important part of modern Russian folklore. Many songs by the authors-performers known as the bards, most notably Vladimir Vysotsky and Alexander Galich, neither of whom ever served time in the camps, describe life inside the Gulag and glorified the life of "Zeks". Words and phrases which originated in the labor camps became part of the Russian/Soviet vernacular in the 1960s and 1970s. The memoirs of Alexander Dolgun, Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, Varlam Shalamov and Yevgenia Ginzburg, among others, became a symbol of defiance in Soviet society. These writings, particularly those of Solzhenitsyn, harshly chastised the Soviet people for their tolerance and apathy regarding the Gulag, but at the same time provided a testament to the courage and resolve of those who were imprisoned. Another cultural phenomenon in the Soviet Union linked with the Gulag was the forced migration of many artists and other people of culture to Siberia. This resulted in a Renaissance of sorts in places like Magadan, where, for example, the quality of theatre production was comparable to Moscow's. Literature Many eyewitness accounts of Gulag prisoners were published before World War II. Julius Margolin's book A Travel to the Land Ze-Ka was finished in 1947, but it was impossible to publish such a book about the Soviet Union at the time, immediately after World War II. Gustaw Herling-Grudziński wrote A World Apart, which was translated into English by Andrzej Ciolkosz and published with an introduction by Bertrand Russell in 1951. By describing life in the gulag in a harrowing personal account, it provides an in-depth, original analysis of the nature of the Soviet communist system. Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn's book The Gulag Archipelago was not the first literary work about labour camps. His previous book on the subject, "One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich", about a typical day of the GULAG inmate, was originally published in the most prestigious Soviet monthly, Novy Mir, (New World), in November 1962, but was soon banned and withdrawn from all libraries. It was the first work to demonstrate the Gulag as an instrument of governmental repression against its own citizens on a massive scale. The First Circle, an account of three days in the lives of prisoners in the Marfino sharashka or special prison was submitted for publication to the Soviet authorities shortly after One Day in the Life but was rejected and later published abroad in 1968. János Rózsás, Hungarian writer, often referred to as the Hungarian Solzhenitsyn, wrote a lot of books and articles on the issue of GULAG. Zoltan Szalkai, Hungarian documentary filmmaker made several films of gulag camps. Karlo Štajner, an Austrian communist active in the former Kingdom of Yugoslavia and manager of Comintern Publishing House in Moscow from 1932–39, was arrested one night and taken from his Moscow home under accusation of anti-revolutionary activities. He spent the following 20 years in camps from Solovki to Norilsk. After USSR–Yugoslavian political normalization he was re-tried and quickly found innocent. He left the Soviet Union with his wife, who had been waiting for him for 20 years, in 1956 and spent the rest of his life in Zagreb, Croatia. He wrote an impressive book entitled 7000 days in Siberia. Dancing Under the Red Star by Karl Tobien (ISBN 1-4000-7078-3) tells the story of Margaret Werner, a young athletic girl who moves to Russia right before the start of Stalin's terror. She faces many hardships, as her father is taken away from her and imprisoned. Werner is the only American woman who survived the Gulag to tell about it. "Alexander Dolgun's Story: An American in the Gulag." (ISBN 0-394-49497-0), of a member of the US Embassy, and "I Was a Slave in Russia" (ISBN 0-815-95800-5), an American factory owner's son, were two more American citizens interned who wrote of their ordeal. Both were interned due to their American citizenship for about 8 years circa 1946–55. Colonization Soviet state documents show that among the goals of the GULAG was colonization of sparsely populated remote areas. To this end, the notion of "free settlement" was introduced. When well-behaved persons had served the majority of their terms, they could be released for "free settlement" (вольное поселение, volnoye poseleniye) outside the confinement of the camp. They were known as "free settlers" (вольнопоселенцы, volnoposelentsy, not to be confused with the term ссыльнопоселенцы,ssyl'noposelentsy, "exile settlers"). In addition, for persons who served full term, but who were denied the free choice of place of residence, it was recommended to assign them for "free settlement" and give them land in the general vicinity of the place of confinement. This implement was also inherited from the katorga system. Life after term served Persons who served a term in a camp or in a prison were restricted from taking a wide range of jobs. Concealment of a previous imprisonment was a triable offence. Persons who served terms as "politicals" were nuisances for "First Departments" (, outlets of the secret police at all enterprises and institutions), because former "politicals" had to be monitored. Many people released from camps were restricted from settling in larger cities. Lack of prosecution It has often been asked why there has been nothing along the lines of the Nuremberg Trials for those guilty of atrocities at the Gulag camps. Two recent books, reviewed by Peter Rollberg in the Moscow Times, Prosecuting the Gulag, Moscow Times, January 21, 2005, retrieved 18 January 2007. cast some light on this. Tomasz Kizny's Gulag: Life and Death Inside the Soviet Concentration Camps 1917-1990 details the history of the labour camps over the years while Oleg Khlevniuk's The History of the Gulag: From Collectivization to the Great Terror presents records of confidential memos, official resolutions, individual testimonies and tabulated statistics. Rollberg explains how both books contribute to our understanding of why there were no post-Communism trials. "The gulag had already killed tens of thousands of its own most ardent killers. Again and again, yesterday's judges were declared today's criminals, so that Soviet society never had to own up to its millions of state-backed murders." Gulag memorials The Gulag Memorial The Memorial pictured below in Moscow is made of a boulder from the Solovki camp — the first prison camp in the Gulag system. People gather here every year on the Day of Victims of the Repression (October 30). See also List of Gulag camps List of uprisings in the Gulag Kolyma 101st kilometre Article 58 (RSFSR Penal Code) Population transfer in the Soviet Union Involuntary settlements in the Soviet Union Mass graves in the Soviet Union Soviet political repressions Memorial (society) Kengir uprising Norilsk uprising, an uprising in Norilsk "Gorlag" (mining camp), 1953 Punitive psychiatry in the Soviet Union Persecution of Christians in the Soviet Union Forced labor camps elsewhere Devil's Island (France) The Vietnamese Gulag Extermination through labour (Nazi Germany) Danube-Black Sea Canal (Communist Romania) Katorga (Russian Empire) Laogai (China) References Literature Orlando Figes, The Whisperers: Private Life in Stalin's Russia, Allen Lane, 2007, hardcover, 740 pp., ISBN 0141013516. Anne Applebaum, Gulag: A History, Broadway Books, 2003, hardcover, 720 pp., ISBN 0-7679-0056-1. Walter Ciszek, With God in Russia, Ignatius Press, 1997, 433 pp., ISBN 0-8987-0574-6. Nicolas Werth, "A State Against Its People: Violence, Repression, and Terror in the Soviet Union, in Stephane Courtois et al., eds., The Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression, Harvard University Press, 1999, ISBN 0-674-07608-7, pp. 33-260. Simon Ertz, Zwangsarbeit im stalinistischen Lagersystem: Eine Untersuchung der Methoden, Strategien und Ziele ihrer Ausnutzung am Beispiel Norilsk, 1935-1953, Duncker & Humblot, 2006, 273 pp., ISBN 9783428118632. J. Arch Getty, Oleg V. Naumov, The Road to Terror: Stalin and the Self-Destruction of the Bolsheviks, 1932-1939, Yale University Press, 1999, 635 pp., ISBN 0-300-07772-6. Gustaw Herling-Grudzinski, A World Apart: Imprisonment in a Soviet Labor Camp During World War II, Penguin, 1996, 284 pp., ISBN 0-14-025184-7. Paul R. Gregory, Valery Lazarev, eds, The Economics of Forced Labour: The Soviet Gulag, Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, 2003, ISBN 0-8179-3942-3, full text available online at "Hoover Books Online" Adam Hochschild, The Unquiet Ghost: Russians Remember Stalin (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2003), 304 pp., paperback: ISBN 0-618-25747-0. Oleg V. Khlevniuk, The History of the Gulag: From Collectivization to the Great Terror, Yale University Press, 2004, hardcover, 464 pp., ISBN 0-300-09284-9. Tomasz Kizny, Gulag: Life and Death Inside the Soviet Concentration Camps 1917-1990, Firefly Books Ltd., 2004, 496 pp., ISBN 1-55297-964-4. Jacques Rossi, The Gulag Handbook: An Encyclopedia Dictionary of Soviet Penitentiary Institutions and Terms Related to the Forced Labour Camps, 1989, ISBN 1-55778-024-2. Istorija stalinskogo Gulaga: konec 1920-kh - pervaia polovina 1950-kh godov; sobranie dokumentov v 7 tomach, ed. by V. P. Kozlov et al., Moskva: ROSSPEN 2004-5, 7 vols. ISBN 5-8243-0604-4 Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn The Gulag Archipelago, Harper & Row, 660 pp., ISBN 0-06-080332-0. The Gulag Archipelago: Two, Harper & Row, 712 pp., ISBN 0-06-080345-2. "The Literature of Stalin's Repressions" in Azerbaijan International, Vol 14:1 (Spring 2006) Memoirs Ayyub Baghirov (1906-1973), Bitter Days of Kolyma Murtuz Sadikhli (1927-1997), Memory of Blood Ummugulsum Sadigzade (died 1944), Prison Diary: Tears Are My Only Companions Ummugulsum Sadigzade (died 1944), Letters from Prison to her Young Children Remembering Stalin - Azerbaijan International 13.4 (Winter 2005) Alexander Dolgun, Patrick Watson, "Alexander Dolgun's story: An American in the Gulag", NY, Knopf, 1975, 370 pp., ISBN 978-0394494975. Eugenia Ginzburg, Journey into the whirlwind, Harvest/HBJ Book, 2002, 432 pp., ISBN 0156027518. Eugenia Ginzburg, Within the Whirlwind, Harvest/HBJ Book, 1982, 448 pp., ISBN 0156976498. Julius Margolin, ПУТЕШЕСТВИЕ В СТРАНУ ЗЭ-КА A Travel to the Land Ze-Ka, 2005, full text, according to the original manuscript John H. Noble, I Was a Slave in Russia, Broadview, Illinois: Cicero Bible Press, 1961). Varlam Shalamov, Kolyma Tales, Penguin Books, 1995, 528 pp., ISBN 0-14-018695-6. Danylo Shumuk, Life sentence: Memoirs of a Ukrainian political prisoner, Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Study, 1984, 401 pp., ISBN 978-0920862179. Za Chidnim Obriyam -(Beyond The Eastern Horizon),Paris, Baltimore: Smoloskyp, 1974, 447 pp. Solzhenitsyn's, Shalamov's, Ginzburg's works at Lib.ru (in original Russian) Fiction Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich, Signet Classic, 158 pp., ISBN 0-451-52310-5. The First Circle, Northwestern University Press, 580 pp., ISBN 978-0810115903. Chabua Amirejibi, Gora Mborgali. Tbilisi, Georgia: Chabua, 2001, 650 pp., ISBN 99940-734-1-9. Mehdi Husein (1905-1965), "Underground Rivers Flow Into the Sea" (Excerpts - First Novel About Exile to the Gulag by an Azerbaijani Writer) External links GULAG: Many Days, Many Lives, Online Exhibit, Center for History and New Media, George Mason University Gulag: Forced Labor Camps, Online Exhibition, Open Society Archives Map of labour camps all over the USSR Virtual Gulag Museum Gulag prisoners at work, 1936-1937 Photoalbum at NYPL Digital Gallery The GULAG, Revelations from the Russian Archives at Library of Congress GULAG 113, Canadian documentary film about Estonians in the GULAG, website includes photos video. Gulag Photo album (prisoners of Kolyma and Chukotka labour camps, 1951-55) Pages about the Kolyma camps and the evolution of GULAG The Soviet Gulag Era in Pictures - 1927 through 1953 | Gulag |@lemmatized meeting:2 prison:21 cell:1 eufrosinia:2 kersnovskaya:2 gulag:107 government:4 agency:2 administer:1 penal:12 labour:16 camp:113 soviet:78 union:29 russian:16 acronym:2 chief:1 administration:8 corrective:5 labor:27 colony:7 лавное:1 управление:1 исправительно:1 трудовых:1 лагерей:1 и:1 колоний:1 glavnoye:1 upravlyeniye:1 ispravityel:1 trudovih:1 lagyeryey:1 koloniy:1 nkvd:8 eventually:2 metonymy:1 usage:3 begin:2 generally:2 denote:2 entire:3 system:23 ussr:9 pronounce:1 history:11 anne:4 applebaum:4 explain:2 branch:2 state:11 security:1 operate:2 force:14 associate:1 detention:2 transit:2 house:3 criminal:7 type:5 become:8 primarily:2 know:4 place:9 political:19 prisoner:44 mechanism:1 repress:1 opposition:1 though:1 imprison:5 million:21 name:3 familiar:1 west:1 publication:2 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