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5,100 | Esperanto_grammar | Esperanto is a constructed auxiliary language. A highly regular grammar makes Esperanto much easier to learn than most other languages of the world, though particular features may be more or less advantageous or difficult depending on the language background of the speaker. Parts of speech are immediately obvious, for example: Τhe suffix -o indicates a noun, -a an adjective, -as a present-tense verb, and so on for other grammatical functions. An extensive system of affixes may be freely combined with roots to generate vocabulary; and the rules of word formation are straightforward, allowing speakers to communicate with a much smaller root vocabulary than in most other languages. It is possible to communicate effectively with a vocabulary built upon 400 to 500 roots, though there are numerous specialized vocabularies for sciences, professions, and other activities. Reference grammars of the language include the Plena Analiza Gramatiko (Complete Analytical Grammar) by Kálmán Kalocsay and Gaston Waringhien, and the Plena Manlibro de Esperanta Gramatiko (Complete Handbook of Esperanto Grammar) by Bertilo Wennergren. Grammatical summary Esperanto has an agglutinative morphology, no grammatical gender, and simple verbal and nominal inflections. Verbal suffixes indicate four moods, of which the indicative has three tenses, and are derived for several aspects, but do not agree with the grammatical person or number of their subjects. Nouns and adjectives have two cases, nominative/oblique and accusative/allative, and two numbers, singular and plural; the adjectival form of personal pronouns behaves like a genitive case. Adjectives generally agree with nouns in case and number. In addition to indicating direct objects, the accusative/allative case is used with nouns, adjectives and adverbs to show the destination of a motion, or to replace certain prepositions; the nominative/oblique is used in all other situations. The case system allows for a flexible word order that reflects information flow and other pragmatic concerns, as in Russian, Greek, and Latin. These concepts are illustrated below. Script and pronunciation Esperanto uses the Latin alphabet. The orthography utilizes diacritics, which make digraphs such as English ch and sh unnecessary. (Alternatively, Esperanto may be written with English-like digraphs in h rather than with diacritics, but this is seldom seen outside email.) Over all, the Esperanto alphabet resembles the Czech alphabet, but with circumflexes rather than háčeks on the letters ĉ, ŝ; Western-based ĝ, ĵ in place of Czech dž, ž; and ĥ for Czech ch. These letters are unique to Esperanto, though it also has a letter ŭ that is shared with the Belarusian Łacinka alphabet. Zamenhof suggested Italian as a model for Esperanto pronunciation. The article Esperanto has a single definite article, la, which is invariable. It is similar to English the. La is used: For identifiable, countable objects: Mi trovis botelon kaj deprenis la fermilon. "I found a bottle and took off the lid." For representative individuals: La gepardo estas la plej rapida de la bestoj. "The cheetah is the fastest of the animals." La abeloj havas felon, sed ili ne taŭgas por karesi. "Bees have fur, but they're no good for petting." For adjectives used as nouns, such as ethnic adjectives used as the names of languages: la blua "the blue one" la angla "English" (i.e. "the English language") For possessive pronouns, when definite: La mia bluas, la via ruĝas. "Mine is blue, yours is red". The article is also used for inalienable possession of body parts and kin terms, where English would use a possessive adjective: Ili tranĉis la manon. "They cut their hands." [one hand each] The article la, like the demonstrative adjective tiu (this, that), nearly always occurs at the beginning of the noun phrase, but this is not required by the grammar, and exceptions occur in poetry. There is no grammatically required indefinite article: homo means either "human being" or "a human being", depending on the context, and similarly the plural homoj means "human beings" or "some human beings". The words iu and unu (or their plurals iuj and unuj) may be used somewhat like indefinite articles, but they're closer in meaning to "some" and "a certain" than to English "a". Parts of speech The suffixes -o, -a, -e, and -i indicate that a word is a noun, adjective, adverb, and infinitive verb, respectively. Many new words can be derived simply by changing these suffixes, just as -ly derives adverbs from adjectives in English: From vidi (to see), we get vida (visual), vide (visually), and vido (sight). Each root word has an inherent part of speech: nominal, adjectival, verbal, or adverbial. These must be memorized explicitly and affect the use of the part-of-speech suffixes. With an adjectival or verbal root, the nominal suffix -o indicates an abstraction: parolo (an act of speech, one's word) from the verbal root paroli (to speak); belo (beauty) from the adjectival root bela (beautiful); whereas with a noun, the nominal suffix simply indicates the noun. Nominal or verbal roots may likewise be modified with the adjectival suffix -a: reĝa (royal), from the nominal root reĝo (a king); parola (spoken). The various verbal endings mean to be when added to an adjectival root: beli (to be beautiful); and with a nominal root they mean to act as the noun, to use the noun, etc., depending on the semantics of the root: reĝi (to reign). There are relatively few adverbial roots, so most words ending in -e are derived: bele (beautifully). Often with a nominal or verbal root, the English equivalent is a prepositional phrase: parole (by speech, orally); vide (visually, by sight); reĝe (like a king, royally). A suffix -j following the noun or adjective suffixes -o or -a makes a word plural. Without this suffix, a countable noun is understood to be singular. Direct objects take an accusative case suffix -n, which goes after any plural suffix. (The resulting sequence -ojn rhymes with English coin, and -ajn rhymes with fine.) Adjectives agree with nouns. That is, they are plural if the nouns they modify are plural, and accusative if the nouns they modify are accusative. Compare bona tago; bonaj tagoj; bonan tagon; bonajn tagojn (good day/days). This requirement allows for free word orders of adjective-noun and noun-adjective, even when two noun phrases are adjacent in subject-object-verb or verb-subject-object clauses: la knabino feliĉan knabon kisis (the girl kissed a happy boy) la knabino feliĉa knabon kisis (the happy girl kissed a boy). Agreement clarifies the syntax in other ways as well. Adjectives take the plural suffix when they modify more than one noun, even if those nouns are all singular: ruĝaj domo kaj aŭto (a red house and [a red] car) ruĝa domo kaj aŭto (a red house and a car). A predicative adjective does not take the accusative case suffix even when the noun it modifies does: mi farbis la pordon ruĝan (I painted the red door) mi farbis la pordon ruĝa (I painted the door red). The meanings of part-of-speech affixes depend on the inherent part of speech of the root they are applied to. For example, brosi (to brush) is based on a nominal root (and therefore listed in modern dictionaries under the entry broso), whereas kombi (to comb) is based on a verbal root (and therefore listed under kombi). Change the suffix to -o, and the similar meanings of brosi and kombi diverge: broso is a brush, the name of an instrument, whereas kombo is a combing, the name of an action. That is, changing verbal kombi (to comb) to a noun simply creates the name for the action; for the name of the tool, the suffix -ilo is used, which derives words for instruments from verbal roots: kombilo (a comb). On the other hand, changing the nominal root broso (a brush) to a verb gives the action associated with that noun, brosi (to brush). For the name of the action, the suffix -ado will change a derived verb back to a noun: brosado (a brushing). Similarly, an abstraction of a nominal root (changing it to an adjective and then back to a noun) requires the suffix -eco, as in infaneco (childhood), but an abstraction of an adjectival or verbal root merely requires the nominal -o: belo (beauty). Nevertheless, redundantly affixed forms such as beleco are acceptable and widely used. In addition, most verbs are inherently transitive or intransitive. As with the inherent part of speech, this is not apparent from the shape of the verb and must simply be memorized. Transitivity is changed with the suffixes -igi (the transitivizer/causative) and -iĝi (the intransitivizer/middle voice): akvo bolas je cent gradoj (water boils at 100 degrees) ni boligas la akvon (we boil the water). A limited number of basic adverbs do not end with -e, but with an undefined part-of-speech ending -aŭ. Not all words ending in -aŭ are adverbs, and most of the adverbs that end in -aŭ have other functions, such as hodiaŭ "today" [noun or adverb] or ankoraŭ "yet, still" [conjunction or adverb]. About a dozen other adverbs are bare roots, such as nun "now", tro "too, too much", not counting the adverbs among the correlatives. (See special Esperanto adverbs.) Other parts of speech occur as bare roots, without special suffixes. These are the pronouns (mi "I"), prepositions (al "to"), conjunctions (kaj "and"), interjections (ho "oh"), and numerals (du "two"). (The final -i found on pronouns is not a suffix, but part of the root.) There are also several "grammatical particles" which don't fit neatly into any category, and which must generally precede the words they modify, such as ne (not), ankaŭ (also), nur (only), eĉ (even). Pronouns There are three types of pronouns in Esperanto: personal (vi "you"), demonstrative (tio "that", iu "someone"), and relative/interrogative (kio "what"). Personal pronouns The Esperanto personal pronoun system is similar to that of English, but with the addition of a reflexive pronoun. + Personal pronouns singular plural first person mi (I) ni (we) second person vi (you) thirdperson masculine li (he) ili (they) feminine ŝi (she) epicene ĝi (it, s/he) indefinite oni (one)* reflexive si (self) *In colloquial English, generally translated "they" or "you". Personal pronouns take the accusative suffix -n like nouns do: min (me), lin (him), ŝin (her). Possessive adjectives are formed with the adjectival suffix -a: mia (my), ĝia (its), nia (our). These agree with their noun like any other adjective: ni salutis liajn amikojn (we greeted his friends). Esperanto does not have separate forms for the possessive pronouns; this sense is generally (though not always) indicated with the definite article: la mia (mine). The reflexive pronoun is used, in non-subject phrases only, to refer to back to the subject, usually only in the third and indefinite persons: li lavis sin "he washed" (himself) ili lavis sin "they washed" (themselves or each other) li lavis lin "he washed him" (someone else) li manĝis sian panon "he ate his bread" (his own bread) li manĝis lian panon "he ate his bread" (someone else's bread). The indefinite pronoun is used when making general statements, and is often used where English would have the subject it with a passive verb, oni diras, ke ... "they say that ..." or "it's said that ..." Zamenhof created an informal second-person singular pronoun ci (thou), and capitalized the formal singular pronoun Vi, following usage in most European languages, but these forms are rarely seen today. Ĝi is used principally with animals and objects. Zamenhof also prescribed it to be the epicene (gender-neutral) third-person singular pronoun, for use when the sex of an individual is unknown, or to refer to an epicene noun such as persono (person). However, it is generally only used for children: La infano ploras, ĉar ĝi volas manĝi "the child is crying, because it wants to eat". When speaking of adults or people in general, it is much more common for the demonstrative adjective and pronoun tiu (that one) to be used in such situations. However, this remedy is not always available. For example, the sentence, Iu ĵus diris, ke tiu malsatas "Someone just said that tiu is hungry", the pronoun tiu is understood to refer only to someone other than the person speaking, and so cannot be used in place of li or ŝi. Other pronouns The demonstrative and relative pronouns form part of the correlative system, and are described in that article. The pronouns are the forms ending in -o (simple pronouns) and -u (adjectival pronouns). Their accusative case is formed in -n, but the genitive case ends in -es, which is the same for singular and plural and does not take accusative marking. Compare the nominative phases lia domo (his house) and ties domo (that one's house, those ones' house) with the plural liaj domoj (his houses) and ties domoj (that one's houses, those ones' houses), and with the accusative genitive lian domon and ties domon. An unofficial but widely recognized accusative preposition na has become popular with some Esperantists on the internet and may be used in such situations (ties or na ties), especially when there is no following noun. The purposefully ambiguous preposition je may be so used as well, though normally the -es words are simply not inflected for case. Prepositions Although Esperanto word order is fairly free, prepositions must come at the beginning of a noun phrase. Whereas in languages such as German, prepositions may require a noun to be in various cases (accusative, dative, etc.), in Esperanto all prepositions govern the nominative: por Johano (for John). The only exception is when there are two or more prepositions and one is replaced by the accusative. Prepositions should be used with a definite meaning. When no one preposition is clearly correct, the indefinite preposition je should be used: ili iros je la tria de majo (they'll go on the third of May: the "on" isn't literally true). Alternatively, the accusative may be used without a preposition: ili iros la trian de majo. Note that although la trian (the third) is in the accusative, de majo (of May) is still a prepositional phrase, and so the noun majo remains in the nominative case. A frequent use of the accusative is in place of al (to) to indicate the direction or goal of motion (allative construction). It is especially common when there would otherwise be a double preposition: la kato ĉasis la muson en la domo (the cat chased the mouse in [inside of] the house) la kato ĉasis la muson en la domon (the cat chased the mouse into the house). The accusative/allative may stand in for other prepositions as well, especially when they have vague meanings that don't add much to the clause. Adverbs, with or without the case suffix, are frequently used in place of prepositional phrases: li iris al sia hejmo (he went to his home) li iris hejmen (he went home) Occasionally a new preposition is coined. As a bare root may indicate a preposition or interjection, removing the grammatical suffix from another part of speech can be used to derive a preposition or interjection. For example, from fari (to do, to make) we get the preposition far (done by), a more precise substitute for de (of, by, from). Verbs All verbs are regular. Three tenses together form what is called the indicative mood. The other moods are the infinitive, conditional, and jussive. No aspectual distinctions are required by the grammar, but derivational expressions of Aktionsart are common. Verbs do not change form according to their subject. I am, we are, and he is are simply mi estas, ni estas, and li estas, respectively. Impersonal subjects are not used: pluvas (it is raining); estas muso en la domo (there's a mouse in the house). The verbal paradigm The tenses have characteristic vowels. A indicates the present tense, i the past, and o the future. IndicativeActive participlePassive participleInfinitiveJussiveConditionalPast-is-inta-ita-i-u-usPresent-as-anta-ataFuture-os-onta-ota The verbal forms may be illustrated with the root esper- (hope): esperi (to hope) esperas (hopes, is hoping) esperis (hoped, was hoping) esperos (shall hope, will hope) esperu (hope!) esperus (were to hope, would hope) A verb can be made emphatic with the particle ja (indeed): mi ja esperas (I do hope), mi ja esperis (I did hope). Mood The conditional mood is used for such expressions as se mi povus, mi irus (if I could, I would go) and se mi estus vi, mi irus (if I were you, I'd go). The jussive mood, called the volitive in Esperanto, is used for wishing and requesting, and serves as the imperative. It covers some of the uses of the subjunctive in European languages: Iru! (Go!) Mi petis, ke li venu. (I asked him to come.) Li parolu. (Let him speak.) Ni iru. (Let's go.) Benu ĉi tiun domaĉon (Bless this mess.) Mia filino belu! (May my daughter be beautiful!) Aspect Verbal aspect is not grammatically required in Esperanto. However, aspectual distinctions may be expressed via participles (see below), and the Slavic aspectual system survives in two aktionsart affixes, perfective (often inceptive) ek- and imperfective -adi. Compare: Tiu ĉi ekinteresis min kaj montris al mi, ke ... (This caught my interest and showed me that ...) and: Tiu ĉi interesis min (This interested me). Various prepositions may also be used as aktionsart prefixes, such as el (out of), used to indicate that an action is performed to completion or at least to a considerable degree. In, Germanan kaj francan lingvojn mi ellernadis en infaneco (I learned French and German in childhood), the verb el-lern-ad-is is past tense (-is), on-going/imperfective (-ad-), and performed to significant completion (el-). Such distinctions are notoriously difficult to render in English, but perhaps a circumlocution may help: In childhood, I spent time soaking up German and French. Here spend time —ing corresponds roughly to -adi, and the up of soak up [originally also a preposition] conveys some of the meaning of el-. The copula The verb esti (to be) is both the copula and the existential ("there is") verb. As a copula linking two noun phrases, it does not cause either to take the accusative case. Therefore, unlike the situation with other verbs, word order with esti can be semantically important: compare hundoj estas personoj (dogs are people) and personoj estas hundoj (people are dogs). It is becoming increasingly common to replace esti-plus-adjective with a verb: la ĉielo estas blua or la ĉielo bluas (the sky is blue). This is a stylistic rather than grammatical change in the language, as the more economical verbal forms were always found in poetry. However, the reverse is not true, as this does not change the inherent part of speech: Morti (to die) does not have the same meaning as esti morta (to be dead). Participles Participles are verbal derivatives. In Esperanto, there are half a dozen forms, which retain the vowel of the related verbal tense. In addition to carrying aspect, participles are the principal means of conveying voice, with two paradigms, active (performing an action) and passive (receiving an action). Adjectival participles The basic principle of the participles may be illustrated with the verb fali (to fall). Picture Wile E. Coyote running off a cliff. Before gravity kicks in (after all, this is a cartoon), he is falonta (about to fall). As he drops, he is falanta (falling). After he impacts the desert floor, he is falinta (fallen). Active and passive pairs can be illustrated with the transitive verb haki (to chop). Picture a woodsman approaching a tree with an axe, intending to chop it down. He is hakonta (about to chop) and the tree is hakota (about to be chopped). While swinging the axe, he is hakanta (chopping) and the tree hakata (being chopped). After the tree has fallen, he is hakinta (having chopped) and the tree hakita (chopped). Adjectival participles agree with nouns in number and case, just as other adjectives do: ili ŝparis la arbojn hakotajn (they spared the trees that were to be chopped down). Compound tense Compound tenses are formed with the adjectival participles plus esti (to be) as the auxiliary verb. The participle reflects aspect and voice, while the verb carries tense: Present progressive: mi estas kaptanta (I am catching [something]), mi estas kaptata (I am being caught) Present perfect: mi estas kaptinta (I have caught [something]), mi estas kaptita (I have been caught) Present prospective: mi estas kaptonta (I am going to/about to catch), mi estas kaptota (I am going to be/about to be caught) These are not used as often as their English equivalents. For "I am going to the store", you would normally use the simple present mi iras in Esperanto. The tense and mood of esti can be changed in these compound tenses: mi estis kaptinta (I had caught) mi estus kaptonta (I would be about to catch) mi estos kaptanta (I will be catching). Although such periphrastic constructions are familiar to speakers of most European languages, the option of contracting [esti + adjective] into a verb is often seen for adjectival participles: mi estas kaptinta or mi kaptintas (I have caught) mi estis kaptinta or mi kaptintis (I had caught) The most common of these synthetic forms are: +Synthetic compound tenses (active voice) Simple verb Progressive aspect Perfect aspect Prospective aspect Present tense mi kaptas (I catch) mi kaptantas (I am catching) mi kaptintas (I have caught) mi kaptontas (I am about to catch) Past tense mi kaptis (I caught) mi kaptantis (I was catching) mi kaptintis (I had caught) mi kaptontis (I was about to catch) Future tense mi kaptos (I will catch) mi kaptantos (I will be catching) mi kaptintos (I will have caught) mi kaptontos (I will be about to catch) Conditional mood mi kaptus (I would catch) mi kaptantus (I would be catching) mi kaptintus (I would have caught) mi kaptontus (I would be about to catch) Infinitive and jussive forms are also found. There is a parallel passive paradigm. Nominal participles Participles may be turned into adverbs or nouns by replacing the adjectival suffix -a with -e or -o. This means that, in Esperanto, some nouns may be inflected for tense. A nominal participle indicates one who participates in the action specified by the verbal root. For example, esperinto is a "hoper" (past tense), or one who had been hoping. (In the early years of the language, such forms were assumed to be masculine, but that is no longer the case.) Adverbial participles Adverbial participles are used with subjectless clauses: Kaptinte la pilkon, li ekkuris golen (Having caught the ball, he ran for the goal). Conditional and tenseless participles (unofficial) Occasionally, the participle paradigm will be extended to include conditional participles, with the vowel u (-unt-, -ut-). If, for example, in our tree-chopping example, the woodsman found that the tree had been spiked and so couldn't be cut down after all, he would be hakunta and the tree hakuta. (These don't translate well into English.) This can also be illustrated with the verb prezidi (to preside). Just after the recount of the 2000 United States presidential election: then-president Bill Clinton was still prezidanto (current president) of the United States, president-elect George W. Bush was declared prezidonto (president-to-be), the previous president George H. W. Bush was a prezidinto (former president), and the contending candidate Al Gore was prezidunto (would-be president – that is, if the recount had gone differently). Note that this example is somewhat artificial, since the customary word for 'president' (of a country) is the tense-neutral word prezidento, which is officially a separate root, not a derivative of the verb prezidi. However, prezidanto is typically used for the presidents of organizations other than sovereign countries, and prezidinto is used for former presidents in such contexts. The conditional forms are infrequent, but their regular derivation ensures that they can be readily understood, even if rarely needed. No European language has conditional participles; in English, words like prezidunto must be expressed periphrastically. Likewise, some Esperantists have proposed a tenseless participle, though only for active-participle role. The element -ento is not officially a participle or even a separate morpheme, but it is very common and is sometimes regarded as a suffix. It frequently occurs in words for occupations where one would not wish to specify tense, such as prezidento or studento (student). Since there is often a verb derived from the same Latin root, in these cases prezidi (to preside) and studi (to study), this -ento has occasionally been proposed as a tense-neutral active participle by analogy with the temporal participles -anto, -into, -onto. However, even if the participial paradigm were to be extended in this way, it would be asymmetric in that there can be no direct passive counterpart to *-ento because the expected -eto already exists as the diminutive suffix. The nearest equivalent is the middle voice suffix -iĝi, which is commonly used as a generic passive. Unlike the active case, where a few new nouns like prezidento were sufficient to avoid making the language overly specific, a need for a neutral passive participle was felt in the verbs. For example, there was heated debate for several decades as to whether "I was born in 19xx" should be mi estis naskita (I had been born) or mi estis naskata (literally 'I was being born'), with the French and Germans generally holding opposite opinions deriving from usage in their native languages. Today, people sidestep the issue with the temporally neutral mi naskiĝis (I was born). Negatives A statement is made negative by using ne or one of the negative (neni-) correlatives. Only one negative word is allowed per clause: Mi ne faris ion ajn. I didn't do anything. *Mi ne faris nenion ajn (I didn't do nothing) is considered ungrammatical. The word ne comes before the word it negates, with the default position being before the verb: Mi ne skribis tion (I didn't write that) Ne mi skribis tion (It wasn't me who wrote that) Mi skribis ne tion (It wasn't that that I wrote) The latter will frequently be reordered as ne tion mi skribis depending on the flow of information. Questions Main article: Interrogatives in Esperanto "Wh" questions are asked with one of the interrogative/relative (ki-) correlatives. They are commonly placed at the beginning of the sentence, but different word orders are allowed for stress: Li scias, kion vi faris (He knows what you did.) Kion vi faris? (What did you do?) Vi faris kion? (You did what?) Yes/no questions are marked with the conjunction ĉu (whether): Mi ne scias, ĉu li venos (I don't know whether he'll come) Ĉu li venos? (Will he come?) Such questions can be answered jes (yes) or ne (no) in the European fashion of aligning with the polarity of the answer, or ĝuste (correct) or malĝuste (incorrect) in the Japanese fashion of aligning with the polarity of the question: Ĉu vi ne iris? (Did you not go?) — Ne, mi ne iris (No, I didn't go); — Jes, mi iris (Yes, I went) — Ĝuste, mi ne iris (Correct, I didn't go); — Malĝuste, mi iris (Incorrect, I did go) Note that Esperanto questions may have the same word order as statements. Conjunctions Basic Esperanto conjunctions are kaj (both/and), aŭ (either/or), nek (neither/nor), se (if), ĉu (whether/or), sed (but), anstataŭ (instead of), krom (besides, in addition to), kiel (like, as), ke (that). Like prepositions, they precede the phrase or clause they modify: Mi vidis kaj lin kaj lian amikon (I saw both him and his friend) Estis nek hele nek agrable (it was neither clear [sunny] nor pleasant) ĉu pro kaprico, ĉu pro natura lingvo-evoluo (whether by whim, or by natural language development) Li volus, ke ni iru (he would like us to go) However, unlike prepositions, they allow the accusative case, as in the following example from Don Harlow: Li traktis min kiel princon (He treated me like a prince: that is, as he would treat a prince) Li traktis min kiel princo (He treated me like a prince: that is, as a prince would treat me) Interjections Interjections may be derived from bare affixes or roots: ek! (get going!), from the perfective prefix; um (um, er), from the indefinite/undefined suffix; fek! (shit!), from feki (to defecate). Word formation Main article: Esperanto word formation Esperanto derivational morphology uses a large number of lexical and grammatical affixes (prefixes and suffixes). These, along with compounding, decrease the memory load of the language, as they allow for the expansion of a relatively small number of basic roots into a large vocabulary. For example, the Esperanto root vid- (see) regularly corresponds to several dozen English words: see (saw, seen), sight, blind, vision, visual, visible, nonvisual, invisible, unsightly, glance, view, vista, panorama, observant etc., though there are also separate Esperanto roots for a couple of these concepts. Numbers Numerals The cardinal numerals are: nul (zero) unu (one) du (two) tri (three) kvar (four) kvin (five) ses (six) sep (seven) ok (eight) naŭ (nine) dek (ten) cent (one hundred) mil (one thousand) These are grammatically numerals, not nouns, and as such do not take the accusative case suffix. However, unu (and only unu) is sometimes used adjectivally or demonstratively, meaning "a certain", and in such cases it may take the plural affix -j, just as the demonstrative pronoun tiu does: unuj homoj "certain people"; ili kuris unuj post la aliaj "they ran some after others". In such use unu is irregular in that it doesn't take the accusative affix -n in the singular, but does in the plural: ian unu ideon "some particular idea", but unuj objektoj venis en unujn manojn, aliaj en aliajn manojn "some objects come into certain hands, others into other hands". Additionally, when counting off, the final u of unu may be dropped, as if it were a part-of-speech suffix: Un'! Du! Tri! Kvar! Higher numbers At numbers beyond the thousands, the international roots miliono (million) and miliardo (milliard) are used. Beyond this there are two systems: A billion in most English-speaking countries is different from a billion in most other countries (109 vs. 1012 respectively; that is, a thousand million vs. a million million). The international root biliono is likewise ambiguous in Esperanto, and is deprecated for this reason. An unambiguous system based on adding the Esperanto suffix -iliono to numerals is generally used instead, sometimes supplemented by a second suffix -iliardo: "biliono" at ReVo 106: miliono 109: miliardo (or mil milionoj) 1012: duiliono 1015: duiliardo (or mil duilionoj) 1018: triiliono 1021: triiliardo (or mil triilionoj) etc. Note that these forms are grammatically nouns, not numerals. An unambiguous international system is also provided by the metric prefixes, and the nonce numerals meg (miliono) and gig (miliardo) are occasionally derived from them. For example, Don Harlow commenting on them here. Compound numbers and derivatives Numerals are written together as one word when their values are multiplied, and separately when their values are added (dudek 20, dek du 12, dudek du 22). Ordinals are formed with the adjectival suffix -a, quantities with the nominal suffix -o, multiples with -obl-, fractions with -on-, collectives with -op-, and repetitions with the root -foj-. sescent sepdek kvin (675) tria (third [as in first, second, third]) trie (thirdly) dudeko (a score) duobla (double) kvarono (one fourth, a quarter) duope (by twos) dufoje (twice) The particle po is used to mark distributive numbers, that is, the idea of distributing a certain number of items to each member of a group. Consequently the logogram @ is not used (except in email addresses, of course): mi donis al ili po tri pomojn or pomojn mi donis al ili po tri (I gave them three apples each). Note that particle po forms a phrase with the numeral tri and is not a preposition for the noun phrase tri pomojn, so it does not prevent a grammatical object from taking the accusative case. Comparisons Comparisons are made with the adverbial correlatives tiel ... kiel (as ... as), the adverbial roots pli (more) and plej (most), the antonym prefix mal-, and the preposition ol (than): mi skribas tiel bone kiel vi (I write as well as you) tiu estas pli bona ol tiu (this one is better than that one) tio estas la plej bona (that's the best) la mia estas malpli multekosta ol la via (mine is less expensive than yours) Implied comparisons are made with tre (very) and tro (too [much]). Phrases like "The more people, the smaller the portions" and "All the better!" are translated using ju and des in place of "the": Ju pli da homoj, des malpli grandaj la porcioj (The more people, the smaller the portions) Des pli bone! (All the better!) Non-(Indo-)European aspects There is very little about Esperanto that is not European in origin. Although it is billed as a neutral international language, its vocabulary, syntax, and semantics derive predominantly from European national languages. Roots are typically Romance or Germanic in origin, with a bit of Slavic and Classical Greek. The semantics shows a heavier Slavic influence. It is often claimed that there are elements of the grammar which are not found in these language families. Frequently mentioned is Esperanto's agglutinative morphology based on invariant morphemes, and the subsequent lack of ablaut (internal inflection of its roots), which Zamenhof himself thought would prove alien to European speakers. Ablaut is an element of all the source languages; an English example is song sing sang sung. However, the majority of words in all European languages inflect without ablaut, as cat, cats and walk, walked do in English. (This is the so-called strong-weak dichotomy.) Historically, many European languages have expanded the range of their 'weak' inflections, and Esperanto has merely taken this development closer to its logical conclusion, with the only remaining ablaut being frozen in a few sets of semantically related roots such as pli, plej, plu (more, most, further), tre, tro (very, too much), and in the verbal morphemes -as, -anta, -ata; -is, -inta, -ita; -os, -onta, -ota; and -us. (This system can be extended further, with conditional participles -unta and -uta derived from the conditional mood in -us.) Other features often cited as being nonstandard for a European language, such as the dedicated suffixes for different parts of speech, or the -o suffix for singular nouns, actually do occur in European languages such as Russian. For example, Russian neuter and feminine nouns end in singular -o and -a, adjectives in -oje and -aja, adverbs in -o and -e, etc.; cf. also Provençal/Esperanto la fenestro (the window), etc. More pertinent is the accusative plural in -jn, which is derived through leveling of standard European grammatical structures. The Esperanto nominal-adjectival paradigm as a whole is taken from Greek: Esperanto nominative singular muso (mouse) vs. Greek mousa (muse), nominative plural musoj vs. Greek mousai, and accusative singular muson vs. Greek mousan. (Latin and Lithuanian had very similar setups, with [j] in the plural and a nasal in the accusative.) However, Esperanto does not have a portmanteau accusative plural suffix analogous with Greek mous-ās; rather, it compounds the simple accusative and plural suffixes: mus-o-j-n. This morphology does not occur as more than a marginal element in any of Esperanto's source language families, Lithuanian, which Zamenhof identified with, does have an analogous setup in one declension. Didelė upė "a big river", for example, is plural didelės upės , accusative didelę upę , and plural accusative dideles upes . That is, disregarding vowel length, the accusative is marked by a change from to (historically nasal) in both singular and plural, and the plural is marked by an in both nominative and accusative. and is formally similar to European but not Indo-European Hungarian and Turkish—that is, it is similar in its mechanics, but not in use. None of these proposed "non-European" elements of the original Esperanto proposal were actually taken from non-European or non-Indo-European languages, and any similarities with those languages are accidental. Perhaps the best candidate for a "non-European" feature is the blurred distinction between roots and affixes. Esperanto derivational affixes may be used as independent root words and inflect for part of speech like other roots. This occurs only sporadically in other languages of the world, Indo-European or not. For example, ismo has an English equivalent in "an ism", but English has no adjectival form ("ismic"?) equivalent to Esperanto isma. For most such affixes, natural languages familiar to Europeans must use a separate root, such as English "member" for Esperanto ano, "quality" for eco, "tendency" for emo, etc. East Asian languages may have had some influence on the development of Esperanto grammar after its creation. The principally cited candidate is the replacement of predicate adjectives with verbs, such as la ĉielo bluas (the sky is blue) for la ĉielo estas blua and mia filino belu! (may my daughter be beautiful!) for the mia filino estu bela! mentioned above. This is a regularization of existing grammatical forms and was always found in poetry; if there has been an Asian influence, it has only been in the spread of such forms, not in their origin. Sample text The Pater noster, from the first Esperanto publication in 1887, illustrates many of the grammatical points presented above, and should be readable to those familiar with it without translation: Patro nia, kiu estas en la ĉieloj, sanktigata estu Via nomo. Venu Via regno, fariĝu Via volo, kiel en la ĉielo, tiel ankaŭ sur la tero. Nian panon ĉiutagan donu al ni hodiaǔ. Kaj pardonu al ni niajn ŝuldojn, kiel ankaǔ ni pardonas al niaj ŝuldantoj. Kaj ne konduku nin en tenton, sed liberigu nin de la malbono. (Ĉar Via estas la regno kaj la potenco kaj la gloro eterne.) Amen. The morphologically complex words (see Esperanto word formation) are: {| class=wikitable |colspan=4 |sanktigata |- |sankt-||-ig-||-at-||-a |- |holy||causative||passiveparticiple||adjective |- |colspan=4|"made holy" |} {| class=wikitable |colspan=3 |fariĝu |- |far-||-iĝ-||-u |- |do||middlevoice||jussive |- |colspan=3|"be done" |} {| class=wikitable |colspan=4 |ĉiutagan |- |ĉiu-||tag-||-a||-n |- |every||day||adjective||accusative |- |colspan=4|"daily" |} {| class=wikitable |colspan=4 |ŝuldantoj |- |ŝuld-||-ant-||-o||-j |- |owe||activeparticiple||noun||plural |- |colspan=4|"debtors" |} {| class=wikitable |colspan=5 |liberigu nin |- |liber-||-ig-||-u||ni||-n |- |free||causative||jussive||we||accusative |- |colspan=5|"free us" |} {| class=wikitable |colspan=4 |la malbono |- |la||mal-||bon-||-o |- |genericarticle||antonym||good||noun |- |colspan=4|"evil" |} Notes External links A fairly good overview of Esperanto's grammar and word-building system can be gained by viewing: "The Sixteen Rules of Esperanto" "The Esperanto Correlatives" "Word Building With Esperanto Affixes" "Esperanto Grammar", by Jirka Hana The Esperanto Teacher by Helen Fryer (on Project Gutenberg) An Elementary Esperanto Primer (by Daniel M. Albro) and Grammar and Dictionary at MIT [http://bertilow.com/pmeg/elshutebla/pmeg_14.0.pdf Plena Manlibro de Esperanta Gramatiko] ("A Complete Handbook of Esperanto Grammar"), by Bertilo Wennergren Dr. Esperanto's international language introduction and complete grammar, by L. L. 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5,101 | Henri_Chopin | Henri Chopin (June 18, 1922 – January 3, 2008) was an avant-garde poet and musician. Henri Chopin was a little-known but key figure of the French avant-garde during the second half of the 20th century. Known primarily as a concrete and sound poet, he created a large body of pioneering recordings using early tape recorders, studio technologies and the sounds of the manipulated human voice. His emphasis on sound is a reminder that language stems as much from oral traditions as from classic literature, of the relationship of balance between order and chaos. Chopin is significant above all for his diverse spread of creative achievement, as well as for his position as a focal point of contact for the international arts. As poet, painter, graphic artist and designer, typographer, independent publisher, film-maker, broadcaster and arts promoter, Chopin's work is a barometer of the shifts in European media between the 1950s and the 1970s. His publication and design of the classic audio-visual magazines Cinquième Saison and OU between 1958 and 1974, each issue containing recordings as well as texts, images, screenprints and multiples, brought together international contemporary writers and artists such as members of Lettrisme and Fluxus, Jiri Kolar, Ian Hamilton Finlay, Tom Phillips, Brion Gysin, William S. Burroughs and many others, as well as bringing the work of survivors from earlier generations such as Raoul Hausmann and Marcel Janco to a fresh audience. External links Sound and video on erratum.org Listening UbuWeb Sound: Henri Chopin. References | Henri_Chopin |@lemmatized henri:3 chopin:5 june:1 january:1 avant:2 garde:2 poet:3 musician:1 little:1 know:2 key:1 figure:1 french:1 second:1 half:1 century:1 primarily:1 concrete:1 sound:5 create:1 large:1 body:1 pioneer:1 recording:2 use:1 early:2 tape:1 recorder:1 studio:1 technology:1 manipulated:1 human:1 voice:1 emphasis:1 reminder:1 language:1 stem:1 much:1 oral:1 tradition:1 classic:2 literature:1 relationship:1 balance:1 order:1 chaos:1 significant:1 diverse:1 spread:1 creative:1 achievement:1 well:3 position:1 focal:1 point:1 contact:1 international:2 art:2 painter:1 graphic:1 artist:2 designer:1 typographer:1 independent:1 publisher:1 film:1 maker:1 broadcaster:1 promoter:1 work:2 barometer:1 shift:1 european:1 medium:1 publication:1 design:1 audio:1 visual:1 magazine:1 cinquième:1 saison:1 ou:1 issue:1 contain:1 text:1 image:1 screenprints:1 multiple:1 bring:2 together:1 contemporary:1 writer:1 member:1 lettrisme:1 fluxus:1 jiri:1 kolar:1 ian:1 hamilton:1 finlay:1 tom:1 phillips:1 brion:1 gysin:1 william:1 burroughs:1 many:1 others:1 survivor:1 generation:1 raoul:1 hausmann:1 marcel:1 janco:1 fresh:1 audience:1 external:1 link:1 video:1 erratum:1 org:1 listen:1 ubuweb:1 reference:1 |@bigram avant_garde:2 tape_recorder:1 william_burroughs:1 raoul_hausmann:1 marcel_janco:1 external_link:1 |
5,102 | Horses_(album) | Horses is the debut album by American musician Patti Smith, released in 1975 on Arista Records. The record was a key factor and major influence on the New York punk rock scene. A member of the Mercer Arts Center crowd and a friend of Richard Hell, Patti Smith came to CBGB for the first time to see The Voidoids perform. A veteran of independent theater and performance poetry, Smith was developing an intellectual, feminist take on rock 'n' roll when she released Horses. Inspiration At the time she recorded Horses, Patti Smith and her band were favorites in the New York club scene along with Blondie and The Ramones. Smith was a rabid fan of many 60's rock musicians such as Jimi Hendrix, Little Richard, Brian Jones of The Rolling Stones and Jim Morrison as well as favorites of Motown and jazz such as Smokey Robinson and John Coltrane. The former's influence can be best heard in the track "Gloria", a radical retake on the Them garage rock classic. "Birdland"'s music, in particular, owed more to the jazz music Smith's mother enjoyed than to the influence of punk. When recording this song, which was improvised by the band in Electric Lady Studios, Smith has said she imagined the spirit of Hendrix watching her. The lyrics of "Birdland" are based upon A Book of Dreams, a 1973 memoir of Wilhelm Reich by his son Peter. Several of the album's songs—"Redondo Beach", "Free Money", "Kimberly"—were inspired by moments with members of Smith's family, while others—"Break It Up", "Elegie"—were written about her idols. "Land" was already a live favorite and featured the first verse of Chris Kenner's "Land of a Thousand Dances" and contains a tribute to her long-time idol Arthur Rimbaud." Guest musicians included Tom Verlaine of Television and Allen Lanier of Blue Öyster Cult. Influence In 2003, the album was ranked number 44 on Rolling Stone magazine's list of the 500 greatest albums of all time. NME named the album number 1 in its list "20 Near-as-Damn-It Perfect Initial Efforts". According to a list released by Time magazine in 2006, Horses is one of the All-Time 100 Greatest Albums. Smith has been called an early pioneer of punk rock. Allmusic'''s William Ruhlman said that it "isn't hard to make the case for Patti Smith as a punk rock progenitor based on Horses" while David Antrobus from PopMatters chose Horses as his favorite album and considered it a life-changing classic. Michael Stipe bought the album as a high school student and says it "tore my limbs off and put them back on in a whole different order." Morrissey and Johnny Marr shared an appreciation for the record, and one of their early compositions for The Smiths, "The Hand That Rocks the Cradle", is a reworking of "Kimberly". The Libertines' song "The Boy Looked at Johnny" is named after the line in the title track of the album. In 1977, Sammy Hagar released a cover of "Free Money" on his self-titled second album. An episode of Millennium'', "The Time Is Now", would later use the song "Land" in a bizarre "music video" sequence depicting a character's descent into madness. In the Toy Machine Skateboards video "Good and Evil", Johnny Layton used the song "Free Money" in his part. Artwork The cover photo was taken by Robert Mapplethorpe using natural light in a penthouse in Greenwich Village. The triangle of light on the wall was the product of the afternoon sun. The record company wanted to make various changes to the photo including airbrushing out Patti Smith's moustache but Smith overruled such attempts. Track listing Side one "Gloria: In Excelsis Deo / Gloria (version)" (Patti Smith, Van Morrison) – 5:57 "Redondo Beach" (Smith, Richard Sohl, Lenny Kaye) – 3:26 "Birdland" (Smith, Sohl, Kaye, Ivan Kral) – 9:15 "Free Money" (Smith, Kaye) – 3:52 Side two "Kimberly" (Smith, Allen Lanier, Kral) – 4:27 "Break It Up" (Smith, Tom Verlaine) – 4:04 "Land: Horses / Land of a Thousand Dances / La Mer (De)" (Smith, Chris Kenner) – 9:25 "Elegie" (Smith, Lanier) – 2:57 Bonus track (CD reissue) "My Generation" (Live) (Pete Townshend) – 3:16 Legacy edition The live album was recorded as part of the "30th Anniversary" on June 25, 2005 in Royal Festival Hall at the Meltdown festival, which Smith curated. It follows the same running order as the original release of Horses, and features Tom Verlaine on guitar and Flea on bass guitar. Released November 8, 2005 under the title Horses/Horses this is a double CD, with the digitally remastered version of the original 1975 album (with the bonus track "My Generation") on the first disc, and a live recording of the entire album on the second disc: "Gloria: In Excelsis Deo/Gloria (version)" –7:01 "Redondo Beach" – 4:29 "Birdland" – 9:52 "Free Money" – 5:29 "Kimberly" – 5:28 "Break It Up" – 5:24 "Land: Horses/Land of a Thousand Dances/La Mer (De)" – 17:35 "Elegie" – 5:08 "My Generation" – 6:59 Personnel Original release Band Patti Smith – vocals, guitar Jay Dee Daugherty – drums, consultant Lenny Kaye – guitar, bass guitar, vocals Ivan Kral – bass guitar, guitar, vocals Richard Sohl – keyboards Additional personnel Richard Aaron – photography Vic Anesini – mastering Edie Baskin – photography Frank d'Augusta – assistant engineer Danny Fields – photography Bob Gruen – photography Bob Heimall – design Bob Irwin – mastering Bernie Kirsh – engineering, mastering Chuck Krall – photography Allen Lanier – production, guitar, keyboards Bob Ludwig – mastering Robert Mapplethorpe – photography Tom Verlaine – guitar Sherri Whitmarsh – design Sales chart performance Year Chart Position 1976 U.S. Billboard 200 47 2007 UK Albums Chart157 Release history Date Label Format CatalogDecember 13, 1975AristaLP40661996AristaCD18827November 8, 2005Sony BMGCD6714452007Sony BMGCD37927 References External links | Horses_(album) |@lemmatized horse:11 debut:1 album:14 american:1 musician:3 patti:7 smith:23 release:8 arista:1 record:7 key:1 factor:1 major:1 influence:4 new:2 york:2 punk:4 rock:7 scene:2 member:2 mercer:1 art:1 center:1 crowd:1 friend:1 richard:5 hell:1 come:1 cbgb:1 first:3 time:7 see:1 voidoids:1 perform:1 veteran:1 independent:1 theater:1 performance:2 poetry:1 develop:1 intellectual:1 feminist:1 take:2 n:1 roll:2 inspiration:1 band:3 favorite:4 club:1 along:1 blondie:1 ramones:1 rabid:1 fan:1 many:1 jimi:1 hendrix:2 little:1 brian:1 jones:1 rolling:1 stone:2 jim:1 morrison:2 well:1 motown:1 jazz:2 smokey:1 robinson:1 john:1 coltrane:1 former:1 best:1 heard:1 track:5 gloria:5 radical:1 retake:1 garage:1 classic:2 birdland:4 music:3 particular:1 owe:1 mother:1 enjoy:1 song:5 improvise:1 electric:1 lady:1 studio:1 say:3 imagine:1 spirit:1 watch:1 lyric:1 base:2 upon:1 book:1 dream:1 memoir:1 wilhelm:1 reich:1 son:1 peter:1 several:1 redondo:3 beach:3 free:5 money:5 kimberly:4 inspire:1 moment:1 family:1 others:1 break:3 elegie:3 write:1 idol:2 land:7 already:1 live:4 feature:2 verse:1 chris:2 kenner:2 thousand:3 dance:3 contain:1 tribute:1 long:1 arthur:1 rimbaud:1 guest:1 include:2 tom:4 verlaine:4 television:1 allen:3 lanier:4 blue:1 öyster:1 cult:1 rank:1 number:2 magazine:2 list:4 great:2 nme:1 name:2 near:1 damn:1 perfect:1 initial:1 effort:1 accord:1 one:3 call:1 early:2 pioneer:1 allmusic:1 william:1 ruhlman:1 hard:1 make:2 case:1 progenitor:1 david:1 antrobus:1 popmatters:1 chose:1 consider:1 life:1 change:2 michael:1 stipe:1 buy:1 high:1 school:1 student:1 tore:1 limb:1 put:1 back:1 whole:1 different:1 order:2 morrissey:1 johnny:3 marr:1 share:1 appreciation:1 composition:1 hand:1 cradle:1 reworking:1 libertine:1 boy:1 look:1 line:1 title:3 sammy:1 hagar:1 cover:2 self:1 second:2 episode:1 millennium:1 would:1 later:1 use:3 bizarre:1 video:2 sequence:1 depict:1 character:1 descent:1 madness:1 toy:1 machine:1 skateboard:1 good:1 evil:1 layton:1 part:2 artwork:1 photo:2 robert:2 mapplethorpe:2 natural:1 light:2 penthouse:1 greenwich:1 village:1 triangle:1 wall:1 product:1 afternoon:1 sun:1 company:1 want:1 various:1 airbrush:1 moustache:1 overrule:1 attempt:1 side:2 excelsis:2 deo:2 version:3 van:1 sohl:3 lenny:2 kaye:4 ivan:2 kral:3 two:1 la:2 mer:2 de:2 bonus:2 cd:2 reissue:1 generation:3 pete:1 townshend:1 legacy:1 edition:1 anniversary:1 june:1 royal:1 festival:2 hall:1 meltdown:1 curated:1 follow:1 run:1 original:3 guitar:9 flea:1 bass:3 november:1 double:1 digitally:1 remastered:1 disc:2 recording:1 entire:1 personnel:2 vocal:3 jay:1 dee:1 daugherty:1 drum:1 consultant:1 keyboard:2 additional:1 aaron:1 photography:6 vic:1 anesini:1 mastering:2 edie:1 baskin:1 frank:1 augusta:1 assistant:1 engineer:1 danny:1 field:1 bob:4 gruen:1 heimall:1 design:2 irwin:1 master:2 bernie:1 kirsh:1 engineering:1 chuck:1 krall:1 production:1 ludwig:1 sherri:1 whitmarsh:1 sale:1 chart:2 year:1 position:1 u:1 billboard:1 uk:1 history:1 date:1 label:1 format:1 catalogdecember:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram patti_smith:7 arista_record:1 punk_rock:3 jimi_hendrix:1 rolling_stone:1 jim_morrison:1 smokey_robinson:1 redondo_beach:3 arthur_rimbaud:1 tom_verlaine:4 allen_lanier:3 blue_öyster:1 öyster_cult:1 roll_stone:1 johnny_marr:1 greenwich_village:1 richard_sohl:2 lenny_kaye:2 ivan_kral:2 la_mer:2 bonus_track:2 pete_townshend:1 bass_guitar:3 digitally_remastered:1 jay_dee:1 dee_daugherty:1 daugherty_drum:1 external_link:1 |
5,103 | Database_normalization | In the field of relational database design, normalization is a systematic way of ensuring that a database structure is suitable for general-purpose querying and free of certain undesirable characteristics—insertion, update, and deletion anomalies—that could lead to a loss of data integrity. Codd, E.F. The Relational Model for Database Management: Version 2. Addison-Wesley (1990), p. 271 E.F. Codd, the inventor of the relational model, introduced the concept of normalization and what we now know as the first normal form in 1970. Codd went on to define the second and third normal forms in 1971, Codd, E.F. "Further Normalization of the Data Base Relational Model." (Presented at Courant Computer Science Symposia Series 6, "Data Base Systems," New York City, May 24th-25th, 1971.) IBM Research Report RJ909 (August 31st, 1971). Republished in Randall J. Rustin (ed.), Data Base Systems: Courant Computer Science Symposia Series 6. Prentice-Hall, 1972. and Codd and Raymond F. Boyce defined the Boyce-Codd normal form in 1974. Codd, E. F. "Recent Investigations into Relational Data Base Systems." IBM Research Report RJ1385 (April 23rd, 1974). Republished in Proc. 1974 Congress (Stockholm, Sweden, 1974). New York, N.Y.: North-Holland (1974). Higher normal forms were defined by other theorists in subsequent years, the most recent being the sixth normal form introduced by Chris Date, Hugh Darwen, and Nikos Lorentzos in 2002. C.J. Date, Hugh Darwen, Nikos Lorentzos. Temporal Data and the Relational Model. Morgan Kaufmann (2002), p. 176 Informally, a relational database table (the computerized representation of a relation) is often described as "normalized" if it is in the third normal form (3NF). C.J. Date. An Introduction to Database Systems. Addison-Wesley (1999), p. 290 Most 3NF tables are free of insertion, update, and deletion anomalies, i.e. in most cases 3NF tables adhere to BCNF, 4NF, and 5NF (but typically not 6NF). A standard piece of database design guidance is that the designer should begin by fully normalizing the design, and selectively denormalize only in places where doing so is absolutely necessary to address performance issues. Chris Date, for example, writes: "I believe firmly that anything less than a fully normalized design is strongly contraindicated ... [Y]ou should "denormalize" only as a last resort. That is, you should back off from a fully normalized design only if all other strategies for improving performance have somehow failed to meet requirements." Date, C.J. Database in Depth: Relational Theory for Practitioners. O'Reilly (2005), p. 152. However, some modeling disciplines, such as the dimensional modeling approach to data warehouse design, explicitly recommend non-normalized designs, i.e. designs that in large part do not adhere to 3NF. Ralph Kimball, for example, writes: "The use of normalized modeling in the data warehouse presentation area defeats the whole purpose of data warehousing, namely, intuitive and high-performance retrieval of data." Kimball, Ralph. The Data Warehouse Toolkit, 2nd Ed.. Wiley Computer Publishing (2002), p. 11. Objectives of normalization A basic objective of the first normal form defined by Codd in 1970 was to permit data to be queried and manipulated using a "universal data sub-language" grounded in first-order logic. "The adoption of a relational model of data ... permits the development of a universal data sub-language based on an applied predicate calculus. A first-order predicate calculus suffices if the collection of relations is in [first] normal form. Such a language would provide a yardstick of linguistic power for all other proposed data languages, and would itself be a strong candidate for embedding (with appropriate syntactic modification) in a variety of host Ianguages (programming, command- or problem-oriented)." Codd, "A Relational Model of Data for Large Shared Data Banks", p. 381 (SQL is an example of such a data sub-language, albeit one that Codd regarded as seriously flawed.) Codd, E.F. Chapter 23, "Serious Flaws in SQL", in The Relational Model for Database Management: Version 2. Addison-Wesley (1990), p. 371-389 Querying and manipulating the data within an unnormalized data structure, such as the following non-1NF representation of customers' credit card transactions, involves more complexity than is really necessary: Customer Transactions __Tr. ID____Date______Amt._ Jones 12890 14-Oct-2003 -87 12904 15-Oct-2003 -50 Wilkins 12898 14-Oct-2003 -21 Stevens 12907 15-Oct-2003 -18 14920 20-Nov-2003 -70 15003 27-Nov-2003 -60 To each customer there corresponds a repeating group of transactions. The automated evaluation of any query relating to customers' transactions therefore would broadly involve two stages: Unpacking one or more customers' groups of transactions allowing the individual transactions in a group to be examined, and Deriving a query result based on the results of the first stage For example, in order to find out the monetary sum of all transactions that occurred in October 2003 for all customers, the system would have to know that it must first unpack the Transactions group of each customer, then sum the Amounts of all transactions thus obtained where the Date of the transaction falls in October 2003. One of Codd's important insights was that this structural complexity could always be removed completely, leading to much greater power and flexibility in the way queries could be formulated (by users and applications) and evaluated (by the DBMS). The normalized equivalent of the structure above would look like this: Customer Tr. ID Date Amount Jones 12890 14-Oct-2003 -87 Jones 12904 15-Oct-2003 -50 Wilkins 12898 14-Oct-2003 -21 Stevens 12907 15-Oct-2003 -18 Stevens 14920 20-Nov-2003 -70 Stevens 15003 27-Nov-2003 -60 Now each row represents an individual credit card transaction, and the DBMS can obtain the answer of interest, simply by finding all rows with a Date falling in October, and summing their Amounts. All of the values in the data structure are on an equal footing: they are all exposed to the DBMS directly, and can directly participate in queries, whereas in the previous situation some values were embedded in lower-level structures that had to be handled specially. Accordingly, the normalized design lends itself to general-purpose query processing, whereas the unnormalized design does not. The objectives of normalization beyond 1NF were stated as follows by Codd: The sections below give details of each of these objectives. Free the database of modification anomalies An update anomaly. Employee 519 is shown as having different addresses on different records. An insertion anomaly. Until the new faculty member, Dr. Newsome, is assigned to teach at least one course, his details cannot be recorded. A deletion anomaly. All information about Dr. Giddens is lost when he temporarily ceases to be assigned to any courses. When an attempt is made to modify (update, insert into, or delete from) a table, undesired side-effects may follow. Not all tables can suffer from these side-effects; rather, the side-effects can only arise in tables that have not been sufficiently normalized. An insufficiently normalized table might have one or more of the following characteristics: The same information can be expressed on multiple rows; therefore updates to the table may result in logical inconsistencies. For example, each record in an "Employees' Skills" table might contain an Employee ID, Employee Address, and Skill; thus a change of address for a particular employee will potentially need to be applied to multiple records (one for each of his skills). If the update is not carried through successfully—if, that is, the employee's address is updated on some records but not others—then the table is left in an inconsistent state. Specifically, the table provides conflicting answers to the question of what this particular employee's address is. This phenomenon is known as an update anomaly. There are circumstances in which certain facts cannot be recorded at all. For example, each record in a "Faculty and Their Courses" table might contain a Faculty ID, Faculty Name, Faculty Hire Date, and Course Code—thus we can record the details of any faculty member who teaches at least one course, but we cannot record the details of a newly-hired faculty member who has not yet been assigned to teach any courses. This phenomenon is known as an insertion anomaly. There are circumstances in which the deletion of data representing certain facts necessitates the deletion of data representing completely different facts. The "Faculty and Their Courses" table described in the previous example suffers from this type of anomaly, for if a faculty member temporarily ceases to be assigned to any courses, we must delete the last of the records on which that faculty member appears. This phenomenon is known as a deletion anomaly. Minimize redesign when extending the database structure When a fully normalized database structure is extended to allow it to accommodate new types of data, the pre-existing aspects of the database structure can remain largely or entirely unchanged. As a result, applications interacting with the database are minimally affected. Make the data model more informative to users Normalized tables, and the relationship between one normalized table and another, mirror real-world concepts and their interrelationships. Avoid bias towards any particular pattern of querying Normalized tables are suitable for general-purpose querying. This means any queries against these tables, including future queries whose details cannot be anticipated, are supported. In contrast, tables that are not normalized lend themselves to some types of queries, but not others. Background to normalization: definitions Functional dependency: Attribute B has a functional dependency on attribute A (i.e., A → B) if, for each value of attribute A, there is exactly one value of attribute B. If value of A is repeating in tuples then value of B will also repeat. In our example, Employee Address has a functional dependency on Employee ID, because a particular Employee ID value corresponds to one and only one Employee Address value. (Note that the reverse need not be true: several employees could live at the same address and therefore one Employee Address value could correspond to more than one Employee ID. Employee ID is therefore not functionally dependent on Employee Address.) An attribute may be functionally dependent either on a single attribute or on a combination of attributes. It is not possible to determine the extent to which a design is normalized without understanding what functional dependencies apply to the attributes within its tables; understanding this, in turn, requires knowledge of the problem domain. For example, an Employer may require certain employees to split their time between two locations, such as New York City and London, and therefore want to allow Employees to have more than one Employee Address. In this case, Employee Address would no longer be functionally dependent on Employee ID. Another way to look at the above is by reviewing basic mathematical functions: Let F(x) be a mathematical function of one independent variable. The independent variable is analogous to the attribute A. The dependent variable (or the dependent attribute using the lingo above), and hence the term functional dependency, is the value of F(A); A is an independent attribute. As we know, mathematical functions can have only one output. Notationally speaking, it is common to express this relationship in mathematics as F(A) = B; or, B → F(A). There are also functions of more than one independent variable—commonly, this is referred to as multivariable functions. This idea represents an attribute being functionally dependent on a combination of attributes. Hence, F(x,y,z) contains three independent variables, or independent attributes, and one dependent attribute, namely, F(x,y,z). In multivariable functions, there can only be one output, or one dependent variable, or attribute. Trivial functional dependency A trivial functional dependency is a functional dependency of an attribute on a superset of itself. {Employee ID, Employee Address} → {Employee Address} is trivial, as is {Employee Address} → {Employee Address}. Full functional dependency An attribute is fully functionally dependent on a set of attributes X if it is functionally dependent on X, and not functionally dependent on any proper subset of X. {Employee Address} has a functional dependency on {Employee ID, Skill}, but not a full functional dependency, because it is also dependent on {Employee ID}. Transitive dependency A transitive dependency is an indirect functional dependency, one in which X→Z only by virtue of X→Y and Y→Z. Multivalued dependency A multivalued dependency is a constraint according to which the presence of certain rows in a table implies the presence of certain other rows. Join dependency A table T is subject to a join dependency if T can always be recreated by joining multiple tables each having a subset of the attributes of T. Superkey A superkey is an attribute or set of attributes that uniquely identifies rows within a table; in other words, two distinct rows are always guaranteed to have distinct superkeys. {Employee ID, Employee Address, Skill} would be a superkey for the "Employees' Skills" table; {Employee ID, Skill} would also be a superkey. Candidate key A candidate key is a minimal superkey, that is, a superkey for which we can say that no proper subset of it is also a superkey. {Employee Id, Skill} would be a candidate key for the "Employees' Skills" table. Non-prime attribute A non-prime attribute is an attribute that does not occur in any candidate key. Employee Address would be a non-prime attribute in the "Employees' Skills" table. Primary key Most DBMSs require a table to be defined as having a single unique key, rather than a number of possible unique keys. A primary key is a key which the database designer has designated for this purpose. Normal forms The normal forms (abbrev. NF) of relational database theory provide criteria for determining a table's degree of vulnerability to logical inconsistencies and anomalies. The higher the normal form applicable to a table, the less vulnerable it is to inconsistencies and anomalies. Each table has a "highest normal form" (HNF): by definition, a table always meets the requirements of its HNF and of all normal forms lower than its HNF; also by definition, a table fails to meet the requirements of any normal form higher than its HNF. The normal forms are applicable to individual tables; to say that an entire database is in normal form n is to say that all of its tables are in normal form n. Newcomers to database design sometimes suppose that normalization proceeds in an iterative fashion, i.e. a 1NF design is first normalized to 2NF, then to 3NF, and so on. This is not an accurate description of how normalization typically works. A sensibly designed table is likely to be in 3NF on the first attempt; furthermore, if it is 3NF, it is overwhelmingly likely to have an HNF of 5NF. Achieving the "higher" normal forms (above 3NF) does not usually require an extra expenditure of effort on the part of the designer, because 3NF tables usually need no modification to meet the requirements of these higher normal forms. The main normal forms are summarized below. Normal form Defined by Brief definition First normal form (1NF) Two versions: E.F. Codd (1970), C.J. Date (2003) Date, C. J. "What First Normal Form Really Means" in Date on Database: Writings 2000-2006 (Springer-Verlag, 2006), pp. 127-128. Table faithfully represents a relation and has no "repeating groups" Second normal form (2NF) E.F. Codd (1971) Codd, E.F. "Further Normalization of the Data Base Relational Model." (Presented at Courant Computer Science Symposia Series 6, "Data Base Systems," New York City, May 24-25, 1971.) IBM Research Report RJ909 (August 31st, 1971). Republished in Randall J. Rustin (ed.), Data Base Systems: Courant Computer Science Symposia Series 6. Prentice-Hall, 1972. No non-prime attribute in the table is functionally dependent on a part (proper subset) of a candidate key Third normal form (3NF) E.F. Codd (1971) Codd, E.F. "Further Normalization of the Data Base Relational Model." (Presented at Courant Computer Science Symposia Series 6, "Data Base Systems," New York City, May 24-25, 1971.) IBM Research Report RJ909 (August 31, 1971). Republished in Randall J. Rustin (ed.), Data Base Systems: Courant Computer Science Symposia Series 6. Prentice-Hall, 1972. ; see also Carlo Zaniolo's equivalent but differently-expressed definition (1982) Zaniolo, Carlo. "A New Normal Form for the Design of Relational Database Schemata." ACM Transactions on Database Systems 7(3), September 1982. Every non-prime attribute is non-transitively dependent on every key of the table Boyce-Codd normal form (BCNF) Raymond F. Boyce and E.F. Codd (1974) Codd, E. F. "Recent Investigations into Relational Data Base Systems." IBM Research Report RJ1385 (April 23, 1974). Republished in Proc. 1974 Congress (Stockholm, Sweden, 1974). New York, N.Y.: North-Holland (1974). Every non-trivial functional dependency in the table is a dependency on a superkey Fourth normal form (4NF) Ronald Fagin (1977) Every non-trivial multivalued dependency in the table is a dependency on a superkey Fifth normal form (5NF) Ronald Fagin (1979) Ronald Fagin. "Normal Forms and Relational Database Operators". ACM SIGMOD International Conference on Management of Data, May 31-June 1, 1979, Boston, Mass. Also IBM Research Report RJ2471, Feb. 1979. Every non-trivial join dependency in the table is implied by the superkeys of the table Domain/key normal form (DKNF) Ronald Fagin (1981) Ronald Fagin (1981) A Normal Form for Relational Databases That Is Based on Domains and Keys, Communications of the ACM, vol. 6, pp. 387-415 Every constraint on the table is a logical consequence of the table's domain constraints and key constraints Sixth normal form (6NF) Chris Date, Hugh Darwen, and Nikos Lorentzos (2002) Table features no non-trivial join dependencies at all (with reference to generalized join operator) Denormalization Databases intended for Online Transaction Processing (OLTP) are typically more normalized than databases intended for Online Analytical Processing (OLAP). OLTP Applications are characterized by a high volume of small transactions such as updating a sales record at a super market checkout counter. The expectation is that each transaction will leave the database in a consistent state. By contrast, databases intended for OLAP operations are primarily "read mostly" databases. OLAP applications tend to extract historical data that has accumulated over a long period of time. For such databases, redundant or "denormalized" data may facilitate business intelligence applications. Specifically, dimensional tables in a star schema often contain denormalized data. The denormalized or redundant data must be carefully controlled during ETL processing, and users should not be permitted to see the data until it is in a consistent state. The normalized alternative to the star schema is the snowflake schema. It has never been proven that this denormalization itself provides any increase in performance, or if the concurrent removal of data constraints is what increases the performance. In many cases, the need for denormalization has waned as computers and RDBMS software have become more powerful, but since data volumes have generally increased along with hardware and software performance, OLAP databases often still use denormalized schemas. Denormalization is also used to improve performance on smaller computers as in computerized cash-registers and mobile devices, since these may use the data for look-up only (e.g. price lookups). Denormalization may also be used when no RDBMS exists for a platform (such as Palm), or no changes are to be made to the data and a swift response is crucial. Non-first normal form (NF² or N1NF) In recognition that denormalization can be deliberate and useful, the non-first normal form is a definition of database designs which do not conform to the first normal form, by allowing "sets and sets of sets to be attribute domains" (Schek 1982). This extension is a (non-optimal) way of implementing hierarchies in relations. Some academics have dubbed this practitioner developed method, "First Ab-normal Form"; Codd defined a relational database as using relations, so any table not in 1NF could not be considered to be relational. Consider the following table: + Non-First Normal Form Person Favorite Colors Bob blue, redJane green, yellow, red Assume a person has several favorite colors. Obviously, favorite colors consist of a set of colors modeled by the given table. To transform this NF² table into a 1NF an "unnest" operator is required which extends the relational algebra of the higher normal forms (one would allow "colors" to be its own table). The reverse operator is called "nest" which is not always the mathematical inverse of "unnest", although "unnest" is the mathematical inverse to "nest". Another constraint required is for the operators to be bijective, which is covered by the Partitioned Normal Form (PNF). Further reading Litt's Tips: Normalization Date, C. J. (1999), An Introduction to Database Systems (8th ed.). Addison-Wesley Longman. ISBN 0-321-19784-4. Kent, W. (1983) A Simple Guide to Five Normal Forms in Relational Database Theory, Communications of the ACM, vol. 26, pp. 120–125 Date, C.J., & Darwen, H., & Pascal, F. Database Debunkings H.-J. Schek, P. Pistor Data Structures for an Integrated Data Base Management and Information Retrieval System Notes and references Paper: "Non First Normal Form Relations" by G. Jaeschke, H. -J Schek ; IBM Heidelberg Scientific Center. -> Paper studying normalization and denormalization operators nest and unnest as mildly described at the end of this wiki page. The paper contains the Formalization through Set Theory of 1NF and NF^2 relations. See also Canonical form Optimization Refactoring Business rules Aspect (computer science) Cross-cutting concern External links Database Normalization Basics by Mike Chapple (About.com) Database Normalization Intro, Part 2 An Introduction to Database Normalization by Mike Hillyer. Normalization by ITS, University of Texas. Rules of Data Normalization by Data Model.org A tutorial on the first 3 normal forms by Fred Coulson DB Normalization Examples Description of the database normalization basics by Microsoft Database Normalization and Design Techniques by Barry Wise, recommended reading for the Harvard MIS. | Database_normalization |@lemmatized field:1 relational:22 database:38 design:17 normalization:20 systematic:1 way:4 ensure:1 structure:9 suitable:2 general:3 purpose:5 querying:2 free:3 certain:6 undesirable:1 characteristic:2 insertion:4 update:9 deletion:6 anomaly:12 could:6 lead:2 loss:1 data:47 integrity:1 codd:22 e:17 f:21 model:12 management:4 version:3 addison:4 wesley:4 p:8 inventor:1 introduce:2 concept:2 know:6 first:18 normal:43 form:44 go:1 define:7 second:2 third:3 base:15 present:3 courant:6 computer:10 science:7 symposia:6 series:6 system:13 new:9 york:6 city:4 may:11 ibm:7 research:6 report:6 august:3 republish:5 randall:3 j:12 rustin:3 ed:5 prentice:3 hall:3 raymond:2 boyce:4 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5,104 | Fernando_Pessoa | Pessoa's statue in front of famous Lisbon café "A Brasileira". Fernando António Nogueira Pessoa (; b. June 13, 1888 in Lisbon, Portugal — d. November 30, 1935 in the same city) was a Portuguese poet and writer. He was also a literary critic and translator. The critic Harold Bloom referred to him in the book The Western Canon as the most representative poet of the twentieth century, along with Pablo Neruda. He was bilingual in Portuguese and English, and fluent in French. Early years in Durban In 1893, when Pessoa was five, his father died of tuberculosis. The following year his younger brother, aged only one, died too and his mother married again in 1895. In the beginning of 1896, he moved with his mother to Durban, capital of the former British Colony of Natal, where his stepfather was appointed Portuguese consul. The young Pessoa received his early education at Durban High School, becoming fluent in English and developing an appreciation for English literature. In the "Intermediate Examination in Arts", for admission to the Cape Town University, he was awarded the Queen Victoria Memorial Prize, recently created, for the best paper in English. At the age of sixteen, The Natal Mercury (July 9, 1904 edition) published his poem "Hillier did first usurp the realms of rhyme...", under the name of Charles Robert Anon, along with a small introductory text: "I read with great amusement...". In December, The Durban High School Magazine published his essay «Macaulay» Monteiro, Maria da Encarnação (1961), Incidências Inglesas na Poesia de Fernando Pessoa, Coimbra: author ed. . From February to June, 1905, in the section "The Man in the Moon", The Natal Mercury also published at least four sonnets by Fernando Pessoa: "Joseph Chamberlain", "To England I", "To England II" and "Liberty" Jennings, H.D. (1984), Os Dois Exilios, Porto: Centro de Estudos Pessoanos . Joking with the name Anon, short for anonymous author, the young Pessoa revealed a fine sense of humour that he would keep during his lifetime. In 1905, at the age of seventeen, he sailed for Lisbon via the Suez Canal on board the "Herzog", leaving Durban for good. This journey inspired the poems "Opiario" (dedicated to Mario de Sa-Carneiro) publishd in March, 1915, in Orpheu nr.1 http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/23620 Orpheu nr.1 and "Ode Maritima" (dedicated to the futurist painter Santa Rita Pintor) publishd in June, 1915, in Orpheu nr.2 http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/23621 Orpheu nr.1 by his heteronym Alvaro de Campos. Return to Lisbon While his family remained in South Africa, Pessoa returned to Lisbon to study literature. A student strike soon put an end to his studies and Pessoa chose to study privately at home for a year. His grandmother died in 1907 and left him a small inheritance that he spent on setting up his own publishing house, the Empreza Ibis. The venture was not a success and closed down in 1910. Ibis, the sacred bird in the Ancient Egypt would remain an important symbolic reference for him. Meanwhile, Pessoa found a job working as an assistant to a businessman, writing correspondence and translating documents. In 1915, he and other artists and poets, such as Almada Negreiros and Mário de Sá-Carneiro, created the literary magazine Orpheu Orpheu at the Portuguese National Library , which introduced modernist literature in Portugal. In his early years, Pessoa was influenced by English Classics such as Shakespeare, Milton and Spenser, and Romantics like Wordsworth, Coleridge, Byron, Shelley and Keats. Later on he was influenced by French symbolists Charles Baudelaire and Stephane Mallarme, mainly by Portuguese poets such as Antero de Quental, Camilo Pessanha, Cesário Verde, Antonio Nobre and modernists such as Yeats, Ezra Pound and T. S. Eliot, among many other writers. In 1918 Pessoa published in Lisbon two slim volumes of English verse: Antinous Antinous and 35 Sonnets 35 Sonnets . Along with two associates, he founded a publishing house, Olisipo, which published in 1921 a further two English poetry volumes: English Poems I-II and English Poems III by Fernando Pessoa. He wrote a guidebook to Lisbon in English, but it remained unpublished until 1992: Lisbon - What the Tourist Should See (Shearsman Books, 2008). Pessoa translated a number of English books into Portuguese, and translated the poems "The Raven" and "Annabel Lee" by Edgar Allan Poe which, along with Walt Whitman, strongly influenced him. After his return to Lisbon in 1905, Pessoa barely left his beloved city, which inspired the poems "Lisbon Revisited" (1923 and 1926). If Franz Kafka is the writer of Prague, Fernando Pessoa is certainly the writer of Lisbon. In The Book of Disquiet, his heteronym Bernardo Soares describes some typical places of Lisbon's downtown and its "atmosphere". Bernardo Soares was supposedly an accountant, working at Vasquess office, the boss, in Douradores Street, an world Pessoa knew very well, during his almost 30 year career, as free lance correspondence translator in a number of firms. Pessoa was a frequent client at Martinho da Arcada a centennial coffee house downtown, almost an "office" for his private business and literary issues. He also frequented other coffee shops, bars and restaurants, a number of which no longer exist. The statue of Fernando Pessoa (above) can be seen outside A Brasileira, one of the places where he would meet friends, writers and artists during the period of Orpheu. In the aristocratic district of Chiado, this coffee shop is quite close to Pessoa's birthplace: 4, Largo de Sao Carlos (in front of the Opera House), one of the most elegant quarters of Lisbon Dias, Marina Tavares (2002), Lisboa nos Passos de Pessoa: uma cidade revisitada através da vida e da obra do poeta / Lisbon in Pessoa's footsteps: a Lisbon tour through the life and poetry of Fernando Pessoa. Lisboa: Quimera . His interest in mysticism led Pessoa to correspond with the occultist Aleister Crowley. He later helped Crowley plan an elaborate fake suicide when he visited Portugal in 1930 nthposition online magazine: The magical world of Fernando Pessoa . He translated Crowley's poem "Hymn To Pan" into Portuguese. Pessoa died of cirrhosis in 1935, at the age of forty-seven, almost unknown to the public and with only one book published in Portuguese: "Mensagem" (Message). He left a lifetime of unpublished and unfinished work (over 27,000 pages manuscript and typed that have been housed in the Portuguese National Library since 1986). The heavy burden of editing this huge work is still in progress. In 1988 (the centenary of his birth), Pessoa's remains were moved to the Jerónimos Monastery, in Lisbon, where Vasco da Gama, Luís de Camões, and Alexandre Herculano are also buried. Pessoa's portrait was on the 100-escudo banknote. Heteronyms Pessoa's earliest heteronym, at the age of six, was the Chevalier de Pas. Genesis of heteronyms Other childhood heteronyms included Dr Pancrácio and David Merrick, followed by Charles Robert Anon and Alexander Search; these were eventually succeeded by others, most notably: Alberto Caeiro, Álvaro de Campos, Ricardo Reis and semi-heteronym Bernardo Soares'''. Translator Richard Zenith notes that Pessoa eventually established at least seventy-two heteronyms. The heteronyms possess distinct temperaments, philosophies, appearances and writing styles. According to Pessoa, the heteronym closest to his personality was Bernardo Soares, the author of The Book of Disquiet. For a comprehensive discussion of the genesis of the heteronyms see Genesis of heteronyms Alberto Caeiro Não tenho ambições nem desejos, Ser poeta não é a minha ambição, É apenas a minha maneira de estar só ______________________________________ I have no ambitions and no desires. To be a poet is not my ambition, It's my way of being alone. Alberto Caeiro: "The Keeper of Herds" (O Guardador de Rebanhos) (tr. Richard Zenith) Alberto Caeiro was Pessoa's first great heteronym; summarized by Pessoa, writing: "He sees things with the eyes only, not with the mind. He does not let any thoughts arise when he looks at a flower... the only thing a stone tells him is that it has nothing at all to tell him... this way of looking at a stone may be described as the totally unpoetic way of looking at it. The stupendous fact about Caeiro is that out of this sentiment, or rather, absence of sentiment, he makes poetry." What this means, and what makes Caeiro such an original poet is the way he apprehends existence. He does not question anything whatsoever; he calmly accepts the world as it is. The recurrent themes to be found in nearly all of Caeiro's poems are "wide-eyed child-like wonder at the infinite variety of nature", as noted by a critic. He is free of metaphysical entanglements. Central to his world-view is the idea that in the world around us, all is surface: things are precisely what they seem, there is no hidden meaning anywhere. He manages thus to free himself from the anxieties that batter his peers; for Caeiro, things simply exist and we have no right to credit them with more than that. Our unhappiness, he tells us, springs from our unwillingness to limit our horizons. As such, Caeiro attains happiness by not questioning, and by thus avoiding doubts and uncertainties. He apprehends reality solely through his eyes, through his senses. What he teaches us is that if we want to be happy we ought to do the same. Octavio Paz called him "the innocent poet". Paz made a shrewd remark on the heteronyms: "In each are particles of negation or unreality. Reis believes in form, Campos in sensation, Pessoa in symbols. Caeiro doesn't believe in anything. He exists." Poetry before Caeiro was essentially interpretative; what poets did was to offer an interpretation of their perceived surroundings; Caeiro does not do this. Instead, he attempts to communicate his senses, and his feelings, without any interpretation whatsoever. Caeiro attempts to approach Nature from a qualitatively different mode of apprehension; that of simply perceiving (an approach akin to phenomenological approaches to philosophy). Poets before him would make use of intricate metaphors to describe what was before them; not so Caeiro: his self-appointed task is to bring these objects to the reader's attention, as directly and simply as possible. Caeiro sought a direct experience of the objects before him. As such it is not surprising to find that Caeiro has been called an anti-intellectual, anti-Romantic, anti-subjectivist, anti-metaphysical...an anti-poet, by critics; Caeiro simply—is. He is in this sense very unlike his creator Fernando Pessoa: Pessoa was besieged by metaphysical uncertainties; these were, to a large extent, the cause of his unhappiness; not so Caeiro: his attitude is anti-metaphysical; he avoided uncertainties by adamantly clinging to a certainty: his belief that there is no meaning behind things. Things, for him, simply—are. Caeiro represents a primal vision of reality, of things. He is the pagan incarnate. Indeed Caeiro, Richard Zenith tells us, was not simply a pagan but 'paganism itself'. The critic Jane M. Sheets sees the insurgence of Caeiro—who was Pessoa's first major heteronym—as essential in founding the later poetic personas: "By means of this artless yet affirmative anti-poet, Caeiro, a short-lived but vital member of his coterie, Pessoa acquired the base of an experienced and universal poetic vision. After Caeiro's tenets had been established, the avowedly poetic voices of Campos, Reis and Pessoa himself spoke with greater assurance." Ricardo Reis Desde que sinta a brisa fresca no meu cabelo E ver o sol brilhar forte nas folhas Não irei pedir por mais. Que melhor coisa podia o destino dar-me? Que a passagem sensual da vida em momentos De ignorância como este? ___________________________________________________ As long as I feel the full breeze in my hair And see the sun shining strong on the leaves, I will not ask for more. What better thing could destiny give me Than the sensual passing of life in moments Of ignorance like this? Ricardo Reis Reis sums up his philosophy of life in his own words, admonishing: 'See life from a distance. Never question it. There's nothing it can tell you.' Like Caeiro, whom he admires, Reis defers from questioning life. He is a modern pagan who urges one to seize the day and accept fate with tranquility. 'Wise is the one who does not seek', he says; and continues: 'the seeker will find in all things the abyss, and doubt in himself.' In this sense Reis shares essential affinities with Caeiro. Believing in the Greek gods, yet living in a Christian Europe, Reis feels that his spiritual life is limited, and true happiness cannot be attained. This, added to his belief in Fate as a driving force for all that exists, as such disregarding freedom, leads to his epicureanist philosophy, which entails the avoidance of pain, defending that man should seek tranquility and calm above all else, avoiding emotional extremes. Where Caeiro wrote freely and spontaneously, with joviality, of his basic, meaningless connection to the world, Reis writes in an austere, cerebral manner, with premeditated rhythm and structure and a particular attention to the correct use of the language, when approaching his subjects of, as characterized by Richard Zenith,'the brevity of life, the vanity of wealth and struggle, the joy of simple pleasures, patience in time of trouble, and avoidance of extremes'. In his detached, intellectual approach, he is closer to Fernando Pessoa's constant rationalization, as such representing the ortonym's wish for measure and sobriety and a world free of troubles and respite, in stark contrast to Caeiro's spirit and style. As such, where Caeiro's predominant attitude is that of joviality, his sadness being accepted as natural ('My sadness,' Caeiro says, 'is a comfort for it is natural and right.'), Reis is marked by melancholy, saddened by the impermanence of all things. Ricardo Reis is the main character of José Saramago's 1986 novel The Year of the Death of Ricardo Reis. Álvaro de Campos Não sou nada. Nunca serei nada. Não posso querer ser nada. À parte isso, tenho em mim todos os sonhos do mundo. _____________________________________________________ I'm nothing. I'll always be nothing. I can't want to be nothing. But I have in me all the dreams of the world. Álvaro de Campos: "The Tobacco Shop" (Tabacaria) (tr. Richard Zenith) Álvaro de Campos manifests, in a way, as an hyperbolic version of Pessoa himself. Of the three heteronyms he is the one who feels most strongly, his motto being 'to feel everything in every way.' 'The best way to travel,' he wrote, 'is to feel.' As such, his poetry is the most emotionally intense and varied, constantly juggling two fundamental impulses: on the one hand a feverish desire to be and feel everything and everyone, declaring that 'in every corner of my soul stands an altar to a different god '(alluding to Walt Whitman's desire to 'contain multitudes'), on the other, a wish for a state of isolation and a sense of nothingness. As a result, his mood and principles varied between violent, dynamic exultation, as he fervently wishes to experience the entirety of the universe in himself, in all manners possible (a particularly distinctive trait in this state being his futuristic leanings, including the expression of great enthusiasm as to the meaning of city life and its components) and a state of nostalgic melancholy, where life is viewed as, essentially, empty. One of the poet's constant preoccupations, as part of his dichotomous character, is that of identity: he does not know who he is, or rather, fails at achieving an ideal identity. Wanting to be everything, and inevitably failing, he despairs. Unlike Caeiro, who asks nothing of life, he asks too much. In his poetic meditation 'Tobacco Shop' he asks:How should I know what I'll be, I who don't know what I am? Be what I think? But I think of being so many things! Fernando Pessoa-himself O poeta é um fingidor Finge tão completamente Que chega a fingir que é dor A dor que deveras sente _____________________________ The poet is a faker Who's so good at his act He even fakes the pain Of pain he feels in fact. Fernando Pessoa-himself: "Autopsychography" (Autopsicografia) (tr. Richard Zenith) 'Fernando Pessoa-himself' is not the 'real' Fernando Pessoa. Like Caeiro, Reis and Campos—Pessoa 'himself' embodies only aspects of the poet， Fernando Pessoa's personality is not stamped in any given voice; his personality is diffused through the heteronyms. For this reason 'Fernando Pessoa-himself' stands apart from the poet proper. 'Pessoa' shares many essential affinities with his peers, Caeiro and Campos in particular. Lines crop up in his poems that may as well be ascribed to Campos or Caeiro. It is useful to keep this in mind as we read this exposition. The critic Leland Guyer sums up 'Pessoa': "the poetry of the orthonymic Fernando Pessoa normally possesses a measured, regular form and appreciation of the musicality of verse. It takes on intellectual issues, and it is marked by concern with dreams, the imagination and mystery." Richard Zenith calls 'Pessoa' '[Pessoa's] most intellectual and analytic poetic persona.' Like Álvaro de Campos, Pessoa-himself was afflicted with an acute identity crisis. Pessoa-himself has been described as indecisive and doubt plagued, as restless. Like Campos he can be melancholic, weary, resigned. The strength of Pessoa-himself's poetry rests in his ability to suggest a sense of loss; of sorrow for what can never be. A constant theme in Pessoa's poetry is Tédio, or Tedium. The dictionary defines this word simply as 'a condition of being tedious; tediousness or boredom.' This definition does not sufficiently encompass the peculiar brand of tedium experienced by Pessoa-himself. His is more than simple boredom: it is from a world of weariness and disgust with life; a sense of the finality of failure; of the impossibility of having anything to want. 'The impossibility of having anything to want': this is Tédio for Pessoa-himself. It is one thing to have nothing to do or want, but to be deprived even of this...is tedium. Kierkegaard tells how if asked to choose between the two; between a perpetual state of boredom, or eternal bodily pain; he would choose—eternal bodily pain. Pessoa-himself, it would seem, would concur with the melancholy Dane. Summaries of selected works Mensagem Mensagem (Message), (from the Latin "MENS AGitat molEM", which means, "The Mind moves/commands the Matter) is a very unusual twentieth century book: it is a symbolist epic made up of 44 short poems organized in three parts or Cycles: The first, called "Brasão" (Coat-of-Arms), relates Portuguese historical protagonists to each of the fields and charges in the Portuguese coat-of-arms. The first two poems ("The castles" and "The escutcheons") draw inspiration from the material and spiritual natures of Portugal. Each of the remaining poems associates to each charge a historical personality. Ultimately they all lead to the Goldean Age of Discovery. The second Part, called "Mar Português" (Portuguese Sea), refers the country's Age of Portuguese Exploration and to its seaborne Empire that ended with the death of King Sebastian at El-Ksar el-Kebir (in 1578). Pessoa brings the reader to the present as if he had woken up from a dream of the past, to fall in a dream of the future: he sees King Sebastian returning and still bent on accomplishing a Universal Empire, like King Arthur heading for Avalon... The third Cycle, called "O Encoberto" ("The Hidden One"), is the most disturbing. It refers to Pessoa's vision of a future world of peace and the Fifth Empire. After the Age of Force, (Vis), and Taedium (Otium) will come Science (understanding) through a reawakening of "The Hidden One", or "King Sebastian". The Hidden One represents the fulfillment of the destiny of mankind, designed by God since before Time, and the accomplishment of Portugal. One of the most famous quotes from Mensagem is the first line from O Infante (belonging to the second Part), which is Deus quer, o homem sonha, a obra nasce (which translates roughly to "God wills it, man dreams it, it is born"). That means 'Only by God's will man does', a full comprehension of man's subjection to God's wealth. Another well-known quote from Mensagem is the first line from Ulysses, "O mito é o nada que é tudo" (a possible translation is "The myth is the nothing that is all"). This poem refers Ulysses, king of Ithaca, as Lisbon's founder (recalling an ancient Greek myth History of Lisbon - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia at en.wikipedia.org ). Literary essays In 1912, Fernando Pessoa wrote a set of essays later collected under the designation The New Portuguese Poetry for the literary journal A Águia, (The Eagle), founded in Oporto in December 1910. The first series of two articles engage the issue 'The new Portuguese poetry viewed sociologically' (nos. 4 and 5 ); the second series of three articles is entitled 'The psychological aspect of the new Portuguese poetry' (nos. 9,11 and 12). The articles disclose him as a connoisseur of modern European literature and an expert of recent literary trends. On the other hand, he does not care too much for methodology of analysis and problems of history of ideas. He states his confidence that Portugal would soon produce a great poet -a 'super-Camoens' as he calls him – pledged to make an important contribution for European culture, and indeed, for humanity. Philosophical essays The philosophical notes of young Fernando Pessoa, mostly written between 1905 and 1912, illustrate his debt to the history of Philosophy more through commentators than through a first-hand protracted reading of the Classics, ancient or modern. The issues he engages with pertain to every philosophical discipline and are dealt with a large profusion of concepts, creating a vast semantic spectrum in texts whose length oscillates between half a dozen lines and half a dozen pages and whose density of analysis is extremely variable; simple paraphrasis, expression of assumptions and original speculation. Pessoa sorted the philosophical systems thus: Relative Spiritualism and relative Materialism privilege “Spirit“ or “Matter“ as the main pole that organizes data around Experience. Absolute Spiritualist and Absolute Materialist "deny all objective reality to one of the elements of Experience". The materialistic Pantheism of Spinoza and the spiritualizing Pantheism of Malebranche, “admit that experience is a double manifestation of any thing that in its essence has no matter neither spirit". Considering both elements as an illusory manifestation", of a transcendent and true and alone realities, there is Transcendentalism, inclined into matter with Schopenhauer, or into spirit, a position where Bergson could be emplaced. A terminal system “the limited and summit of metaphysics” would not radicalize - as poles of experience one of the singled categories - matter, relative, absolute, real, illusory, spirit. Instead, matching all categories, it takes contradiction as “the essence of the universe“ and defends that “an affirmation is so more true insofar the more contradiction involves". The transcendent must be conceived beyond categories. There is one only and eternal example of it. It is that cathedral of thought -the philosophy of Hegel. Such pantheist transcendentalism is used by Pessoa to define the project that “encompasses and exceeds all systems“; to characterize the new poetry of Saudosismo where the “typical contradiction of this system“ occurs; to inquire what are the social and politic results of its adoption as the leading cultural paradigm; and, at last, he hints that metaphysics and religiosity strive “to find in everything a beyond“. Bibliography Books Lisbon: What The Tourist Shoud See, Shearsman Books, 2008. ISBN 190570075X Selected English Poems , ed. Tony Frazer, Shearsman Books, 2007. ISBN 1905700261 The Collected Poems of Alberto Caeiro, tr. Chris Daniels, Shearsman Books, 2007. ISBN 1905700245 A Centenary Pessoa, tr. Keith Bosley & L. C. Taylor, foreword by Octavio Paz, Carcanet Press, 2006. ISBN 1857547241 A Little Larger Than the Entire Universe: Selected Poems, tr. Richard Zenith, Penguin Classics, 2006. ISBN 0-14-303955-5 The Education of the Stoic, tr. Richard Zenith, afterword by Antonio Tabucchi, Exact Change, 2004. ISBN 1878972405 The Selected Prose of Fernando Pessoa, tr. Richard Zenith, Grove Press, 2002. ISBN 0-8021-3914-0 Sheep's Vigil by a Fervent Person: A Translation of Alberto Caeiro, tr. Eirin Moure, House of Anansi, 2001. ISBN 0887846602 Selected Poems: with New Supplement tr. Jonathan Griffin, Penguin Classics; 2nd edition, 2000. ISBN 0141184337 Fernando Pessoa & Co: Selected Poems, tr. Richard Zenith, Grove Press, 1999. ISBN 0-8021-3627-3 Poems of Fernando Pessoa, anthology ed. & tr. Edwin Honig & Susan M. Brown, City Lights Publishers, 1998. ISBN 0-87286-342-5 The Keeper of Sheep, bilingual edition, tr. Edwin Honig & Susan M. Brown, Sheep Meadow, 1997. ISBN 1878818457 Message, tr. Jonathan Griffin, introduction by Helder Macedo, Menard Press, 1992. ISBN 190570027X The Book of Disquietude, tr. Richard Zenith, Carcanet Press, 1991. ISBN 0-14-118304-7 The Book of Disquiet, tr. Iain Watson, Quartet Books, 1991. ISBN 0704301539 The Book of Disquiet, tr. Alfred Mac Adam, New York NY, Pantheon Books, 1991. ISBN 0679402349 The Book of Disquiet, tr. Margaret Jull Costa, London, New York NY, Serpent's Tail, 1991, ISBN 1852422041 Fernando Pessoa: Self-Analysis and Thirty Other Poems, tr. George Monteiro, Gavea-Brown Publications, 1989. ISBN 0943722144 Always Astonished, tr. Edwin Honig, San Francisco CA, City Lights, 1988. ISBN 9780872862289 Selected Poems by Fernando Pessoa, tr. Edwin Honig, Swallow Press, 1971. ISBN B000XU4FE4 Essays John Gray: Assault on Authorship Harold Bloom: Fernando Pessoa Jonathan Griffin: Introduction Mendo Castro Henriques: The Philosopher-Poet Jose Augusto Seabra: Overview Fernando Pessoa: Origin of Heteronyms Michael Wood: Mod & Great John Hollander: Quadrophenia Dror Poleg: 'Incredulity towards Postmodernism: Baudrillard, Pessoa, and the Simulacra of Precession' Luis Filipe Teixeira: Pessoa essays in Portuguese Nos Jardins do Ofício: Pessoa e a Alquimia do Verbo Narciso e o Espelho. Virtualidade e Heteronímia ou as viagens pessoanas de Alice Corporeidades heteronímicas do Eu: Breve reflexão em torno da Estética pessoana A Casa e o Mundo Camões/Pessoa: Poetas da Viagem Utópica Criticism Books ''Embodying Pessoa: corporeality, gender, sexuality / Klobucka, Anna. 2007 Portuguese writers (Dictionary of Literary Biography) / Rector, Mónica. 2004 Atlantic Poets: Fernando Pessoa's turn in Anglo-American Modernism / Santos, Maria Irene Ramalho Sousa. 2003 Genius: A Mosaic of One Hundred Exemplary Creative Minds / Bloom, Harold. 2002 Spanish and Portuguese literatures and their times: The Iberian peninsula / Moss, Joyce. 2002 Modernism's Gambit: Poetry Problems and Chess Stratagems in Fernando Pessoa and Jorge Luis Borges / Peña, Karen Patricia. 2000 Fernando Pessoa and nineteenth-century Anglo-American literature / Monteiro, George. 2000 Pessoa's Alberto Caeiro / (University of Massachusetts Dartmouth). 2000 Dreams of dreams: and, The last three days of Fernando Pessoa / Tabucchi, Antonio. 1999 The presence of Pessoa: English, American, and Southern African literary responses / Monteiro, George. 1998 An Introduction to Fernando Pessoa: Modernism and the Paradoxes of Authorship / Sadlier, Darlene. 1998 Modern art in Portugal: 1910-1940 : the artist contemporaries of Fernando Pessoa / Serra, Joao. 1998 A Centenary Pessoa / Pessoa, Fernando. 1997 Fernando Pessoa: photographic documentation and caption / Lancastre, Maria Jose de. 1997 Fernando Pessoa: Voices of a Nomadic Soul / Kotowicz, Zbigniew. 1996 The Western Canon / Bloom, Harold. 1994 The Continuing Presence of Walt Whitman: the Life after the Life / Martin, Robert. 1992 Fernando Pessoa: the Bilingual Portuguese Poet / Terlinden-Villepin, Anne. 1990 Three Persons on One: A Centenary Tribute to Fernando Pessoa / McGuirk, Bernard. 1988 Modern Spanish and Portuguese literatures / Marshall J Schneider. 1988 Fernando Pessoa, a Galaxy of Poets / Carvalho, Maria Helena Rodrigues de. 1985 Fernando Pessoa's The Mad Fiddler: A Critical Study / Terlinden-Villepin, Anne. 1984 The Man Who Never Was: Essays on Fernando Pessoa / Monteiro, George. 1982 Fernando Pessoa: the genesis of the heteronyms / Green, J. C. R. 1982 Spatial Imagery of Enclosure in the Poetry of Fernando Pessoa / Guyer, Leland Robert. 1979 The Role of the Other in the Poetry of Fernando Pessoa / Jones, Marilyn Scarantino. 1974 Selected Poems of Fernando Pessoa / Rickard, Peter. 1972 Studies in modern Portuguese literature / Faria, Almeida. 1971 Three Twentieth-Century Portuguese Poets / Parker M., John. 1960 Articles Riccardi, Mattia, "Dionysus or Apollo? The heteronym Antonio Mora as moment of Nietzsche's reception by Pessoa" in Portuguese Studies 23 (1): 109-+ 2007 Suarez, Jose, "Fernando Pessoa's acknowledged involvement with the occult" in Hispania 90 (2): 245-252 MAY 2007 De Castro, Mariana, "Oscar Wilde, Fernando Pessoa, and the art of lying" in Portuguese Studies 22 (2): 219-+ 2006 Beyer, Bethany, "Borges and Pessoa : Authorial voices and esoteric reflections," M.A. Dissertation, Brigham Young University., 2006 Ribeiro AS, "A tradition of empire: Fernando Pessoa and Germany" in Portuguese Studies 21: 201-209 2005 Hale, Michelle, "Ironic multiplicity: Fernando's "pessoas" suspended in Kierkegaardian irony," M.A. Dissertation, Brigham Young University., 2004 McNeill PODS, "The aesthetic of fragmentation and the use of personae in the poetry of Fernando Pessoa and W.B. Yeats" in Portuguese Studies 19: 110-121 2003 Muldoon P, "In the hall of mirrors: 'Autopsychography' by Fernando Pessoa" in New England Review 23 (4): 38-52 FAL 2002 Bloom, Harold, "Fernando Pessoa," in Genius: a mosaic of one hundred exemplary creative minds: Pub. New York: Warner Books., 2002 Stevens, Dana Shawn, "A local habitation and a name heteronymy and nationalism in Fernando Pessoa," PhD Dissertation, University of California, Berkeley., 2001 Wallace, James, "Camões, Pessoa, Bloom and the poetry of heteronomy as solution for the anxiety of influence," M.A. Dissertation, Brigham Young University., 2000 Bamforth I, "An introduction to Fernando Pessoa: Modernism and the paradoxes of authorship" in Parnassus 24 (1): 286-303 1999 Bamforth I, "The presence of Pessoa: English, American and Southern African literary responses" Parnassus 24 (1): 286-303 1999 Hicks J, "The Fascist imaginary in Pessoa and Pirandello" in Centennial Review 42 (2): 309-332 SPR 1998 Mahr G, "Pessoa, life narrative, and the dissociative process" in Biography 21 (1): 25-35 WIN 1998 Haberly, David T., "Fernando Pessoa: Overview" in Reference Guide to World Literature, second ed., edited by Lesley Henderson, St. James Press, 1995. Lopes JM, "Cubism and intersectionism in Fernando Pessoa's 'Chuva Obliqua" in Texte(15-16): 63-95 1994 Zenith, Richard, "Pessoa, Fernando and the Theater of his Self" in Performing Arts Journal(44): 47-49 MAY 1993 Anderson, RN, "The Static Drama of Pessoa, Fernando" in Hispanofila (104): 89-97 JAN 1992 Brown, SM, "The Whitman Pessoa Connection" in Walt Whitman Quarterly Review 9 (1): 1-14 SUM 1991 Eberstadt, Fernanda, "Proud of His Obscurity," in The New York Times Book Review, Vol 96, September 1, 1991, p.26. Dyer, Geoff, "Heteronyms" in The New Statesman, Vol. 4, December 6, 1991, p. 46. Monteiro G, "The Song of the Reaper-Pessoa and Wordsworth" in Portuguese Studies 5: 71-80 1989 Cruz, Anne J., "Masked Rhetoric: Contextuality in Fernando Pessoa's Poems," in Romance Notes, Vol. XXIX, No. 1, Fall, 1988, pp. 55–60. Hollander, John, "Quadrophenia," in New Republic, September 7, 1987, pp. 33–6. Rosenthal, David H., "Unpredictable Passions," in The New York Times Book Review, December 13, 1987, p. 32. Guyer, Leland, "Fernando Pessoa and the Cubist Perspective," in Hispania, Vol. 70, No. 1, March 1987, pp. 73–8. Bunyan, D, "The South-African Pessoa, Fernando 20th Century Portuguese Poet," in English in Africa 14 (1): 67-105 May 1987 Seabra JA, "Pessoa, Fernando Portuguese Modernist Poet," in Europe 62 (660): 41-53 1984 Severino AP, "Pessoa, Fernando - A Modern Lusiad," in Hispania 67 (1): 52-60 1984 Howes RW, "Pessoa, Fernando, Poet, Publisher, and Translator," in British Library Journal 9 (2): 161-170 1983 Sousa, Ronald W., "The Structure of Pessoa's Mensagem," in Bulletin of Hispanic Studies, Vol. LIX, No. 1, January 1982, pp. 58–66. Severino, Alex, "Fernando Pessoa's Legacy: The Presença and After," in World Literature Today, Vol. 53, No. 1, Winter, 1979, pp. 5–9. Wood, Michael, "Mod and Great" in The New York Review of Books, Vol. XIX, No. 4, September 21, 1972, pp. 19–22. Sheets, Jane M., "Fernando Pessoa as Anti-Poet: Alberto Caeiro," in Bulletin of Hispanic Studies, Vol. XLVI, No. 1, January 1969, pp. 39–47. Cuadrivio: Darío, López Velarde, Pessoa, Cernuda / Paz, Octavio / Mexico: J. Mortiz, 1965 Portuguese Dicionário de Fernando Pessoa e do Modernismo Português : coordenação de Fernando Cabral Martins., 2008 ISBN 978-972-21-1985-6 De Luto por Existir : a melancolia de Bernardo Soares à luz de Walter Benjamin / Ricardina Guerreiro., 2005 ISBN 972-37-0974-0 Esoterismo, mitogenia e realismo político em Fernando Pessoa : uma visão de conjunto / Brunello De Cusatis., 2005 Fernando Pessoa : outramento e heteronimia / António Azevedo., 2005 Pessoa e Nietzsche: subsídios para uma leitura intertextuel de Pessoa e Nietzsche / António Azevedo., 2005 Fernando Pessoa : almoxarifado de mitos / Carlos Felipe Moisés., 2005 Fernando Pessoa : outra vez te revejo / Cleonice Berardinelli., 2004 Realidade e ficção : para uma biografia epistolar de Fernando Pessoa / Manuela Parreira da Silva., 2004 O lugar do anjo : ensaios pessoanos / Eduardo Lourenço., 2004 T.S. Eliot e Fernando Pessoa : diálogos de New Haven : ensaios / Ricardo Daunt Neto., 2004 Fernando Pessoa e os mundos esotéricos / José Manuel Anes., 2004 Fernando Pessoa e a comunicação social / João Alves das Neves., 2003 Fernando Pessoa : resposta à decadência / Haquira Osakabe., 2002 Poesía e metafísica : Camoes, Antero, Pessoa / Eduardo Lourenço., 2002 Dois estudos pessoanos / Ermelinda Ferreira., 2002 Lisboa nos Passos de Pessoa : Lisbon in Pessoa's Footsteps / Marina Tavares Dias. Lisboa : Quimera., 2002 ISBN 972-589-131-7 Pessoa revisitado : leitura estruturante do drama em gente / Eduardo Lourenço., 2000 Actas (IV Congresso Internacional de Estudos Pessoanos) / Almir de Campos Bruneti., 2000 Differença e negação na poesia de Fernando Pessoa / José Gil., 2000 Pessoa / António Carlos Carvalho., 1999 Vôo transverso : poesia, modernidade e fim do século XX / Maria Esther Maciel., 1999 A modernidade da poesia de Fernando Pessoa / Linhares Filho., 1998 Fernando Pessoa, vozes de uma alma nómada / Zbigniew Kotowicz., 1998 O pensamento maçónico de Fernando Pessoa / Jorge de Matos., 1997 Pensar Pessoa / Luís Filipe B Teixeira., 1997 Ensaios : Saramago, Fernando Pessoa e Eça de Queirós / Salma Ferraz., 1997 Para compreender Fernando Pessoa : uma aproximação a Fernando Pessoa e heteronimos / Amélia Pinto Pais., 1996 O coração do texto = Le coeur du texte : novos ensaios pessoanos / José Augusto Seabra., 1996 O esoterismo de Fernando Pessoa / Dalila L Pereira da Costa., 1996 Um Fernando Pessoa / Agostinho da Silva., 1996 Um medo por demais inteligente : autobiografias pessoanas / Américo Lindeza Diogo., 1995 Fernando Pessoa, a biblioteca impossivel / Teresa Rita Lopes., 1995 O espaço interior / José Gil., 1994 Fernando Pessoa, um místico sem fé / Andrés Ordóñez., 1994 O poetar pensante : Fernando Pessoa, Martin Heidegger / Cleonice Berardinelli., 1994 A vivência do tempo em Fernando Pessoa e outros ensaios pessoanos / Maria Vitalina Leal de Matos., 1993 Textos de Crítica e de Intervenção / Fernando Pessoa., 1993 ISBN 972-617-017-6 O nascimento do homem em Pessoa : a heteronímia como jogo da demiurgia divina / Luís Filipe B Teixeira., 1992 Literatura & heteronímia : sobre Fernando Pessoa / Américo António Lindeza Diogo., 1992 Fernando Pessoa : poesia, transgressão, utopia / Fernando Segolin., 1992 Fernando Pessoa, o desconhecido de si mesmo / Octavio Paz., 1992 Literatura portuguesa moderna e contemporânea / Carlos António Alves dos Reis., 1990 O tabuleiro antigo : uma leitura do heterônimo Ricardo Reis / Maria Helena Nery Garcez., 1990 Diversidade e unidade em Fernando Pessoa / Jacinto do Prado Coelho., 1990 Fernando Pessoa : retrato-memória / João Gaspar Simões., 1989 Sob o ramo da bétula : Fernando Pessoa e o erotismo vitoriano / Yara Frateschi Vieira., 1989 Fernando Pessoa : o espelho e a esfinge / Massaud Moisés., 1988 Nos passos de Pessoa : ensaios / David Mourão-Ferreira., 1988 Fernando Pessoa : um detetive-leitor e muitas pistas / Salete de Almeida Cara., 1988 Pessoa, metade de nada / Ernesto Manuel de Melo e Castro., 1988 Mensagem : uma tentativa de reinterpretação / Onésimo Teotónio Almeida., 1987 Microleituras de Alvaro de Campos : e outras investigações pessoanas / Joaquim-Francisco Coêlho., 1987 O alibi infinito : o projeto e a prática na poesia de Fernando Pessoa / Ettore Finazzi-Agrò., 1987 Fernando, rei da nossa Baviera / Eduardo Lourenço., 1986 O heterotexto pessoano / José Augusto Seabra., 1985 A poesia de Fernando Pessoa / Adolfo Casais Monteiro., 1985 Fernando Pessoa, o poeta singular e plural / João Alves das Neves., 1985 Fernando Pessoa e o momento futurista de Alvaro de Campos / Maria de Alcântara., 1985 Eça e Pessoa / Beatriz Berrini., 1985 Os dois exílios : Fernando Pessoa na Africa do Sul / HD Jennings., 1984 Fernando Pessoa, um "interlúdio" intertextual / Maria Heloísa Martins Dias., 1984 Fernando Pessoa—Ricardo Reis : os originais, as edições, o cânone das odes / Silva Bélkior., 1983 Saudade e profetismo em Fernando Pessoa : elementos para uma antropologia filosófica / Alfredo Antunes., 1983 Poesia e metafísica : Camões, Antero, Pessoa / Eduardo Lourenço., 1983 Fernando Pessoa : breve história da sua vida e da sua obra / João Gaspar Simões., 1983 Camões e Pessoa, poetas da Utopia / Jacinto do Prado Coelho., 1983 Fernando Pessoa : aquém do eu, além do outro / Leyla Perrone-Moisés., 1982 A "outra coisa" na poesia de Fernando Pessoa / Linhares Filho., 1982 A metáfora e o fenómeno amoroso nos poemas ingleses de Fernando Pessoa / Catarina T F Edinger., 1982 Fernando Pessoa, cidadão do imaginário / Joel Serrão., 1981 Fernando Pessoa revisitado : leitura estruturante do drama em gente / Eduardo Lourenço., 1981 Estudos sobre Fernando Pessoa / Georg Rudolf Lind., 1981 Vida e Obra de Fernando Pessoa : história duma geração — 4.ª edição novamente revista, acompanhada de um novo esclarecedor prefácio e de uma tábua bibliográfica actualizada — 1.ª ed. 1954, 2.ª ed. 1971, 3.ª ed. 1973, / João Gaspar Simões., 1980 Music based on poetry by Pessoa Leonard Cohen: "Take This Waltz" Klaus Ib Jørgensen: Moon-pain Ulver: "Christmas" Moonspell: "Opium" http://infernet.moonspell.com/#discography References See also António Botto Almada Negreiros Luis Filipe Teixeira Portuguese Poetry Mário de Sá-Carneiro Universidade Fernando Pessoa Machado de Assis Constantine P. Cavafy External links Pessoa's House Kirjasto Biography The Retired Major Fernando Pessoa in English, by himself and Jonathan Griffin Pessoa revisited (intertextuality) Poems of Fernando Pessoa Further reading Poets.org Biography The Lonely Crowd Excerpts from The Book of Disquiet, in English Poem of Pessoa on a fort just off the coast of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil | Fernando_Pessoa |@lemmatized pessoa:199 statue:2 front:2 famous:2 lisbon:20 café:1 brasileira:2 fernando:119 antónio:7 nogueira:1 b:4 june:3 portugal:7 november:1 city:5 portuguese:32 poet:25 writer:6 also:5 literary:9 critic:6 translator:4 harold:5 bloom:6 refer:4 book:23 western:2 canon:2 representative:1 twentieth:3 century:5 along:4 pablo:1 neruda:1 bilingual:3 english:17 fluent:2 french:2 early:4 year:6 durban:5 five:1 father:1 die:4 tuberculosis:1 following:1 young:7 brother:1 age:8 one:20 mother:2 marry:1 beginning:1 move:3 capital:1 former:1 british:2 colony:1 natal:3 stepfather:1 appoint:2 consul:1 receive:1 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5,105 | Michael_Jordan | Michael Jeffrey Jordan (born February 17, 1963) is a retired American professional basketball player and active businessman. His biography on the National Basketball Association (NBA) website states, "By acclamation, Michael Jordan is the greatest basketball player of all time." Michael Jordan, nba.com/history, accessed January 15, 2007. Jordan was one of the most effectively marketed athletes of his generation and was instrumental in popularizing the NBA around the world in the 1980s and 1990s. After a stand-out career at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, where he led the Tar Heels to a National Championship in 1982, Jordan joined the NBA's Chicago Bulls in 1984. He quickly emerged as one of the stars of the league, entertaining crowds with his prolific scoring. His leaping ability, illustrated by performing slam dunks from the free throw line at Slam Dunk Contests, earned him the nicknames "Air Jordan" and "His Airness." He also gained a reputation as one of the best defensive players in basketball. Berkow, Ira. "Sports of The Times; Air Jordan And Just Plain Folks", The New York Times, June 15, 1991, accessed February 11, 2009. In 1991, he won his first NBA championship with the Bulls, and followed that achievement with titles in 1992 and 1993, securing a "three-peat." Though Jordan abruptly retired from basketball at the beginning of the 1993-94 NBA season to pursue a career in baseball, he rejoined the Bulls in 1995 and led them to three additional championships (1996, 1997, and 1998) as well as an NBA-record 72 regular-season wins in the 1995–96 season. Jordan retired for a second time in 1999, but he returned for two more NBA seasons in 2001 as a member of the Washington Wizards. Jordan's individual accolades and accomplishments include five MVP awards, ten All-NBA First Team designations, nine All-Defensive First Team honors, fourteen NBA All-Star Game appearances and three All-Star MVP awards, ten scoring titles, three steals titles, six NBA Finals MVP awards, and the 1988 NBA Defensive Player of the Year Award. He holds the NBA record for highest career regular season scoring average with 30.12 points per game, as well as averaging a record 33.4 points per game in the playoffs. In 1999, he was named the greatest North American athlete of the 20th century by ESPN, and was second to Babe Ruth on the Associated Press's list of athletes of the century. He was elected to the Basketball Hall of Fame on April 6, 2009 and will be inducted in September 2009. Jordan, Robinson lead Hall's 2009 class, espn.com, accessed April 6, 2009. Jordan is also noted for his product endorsements. He fueled the success of Nike's Air Jordan sneakers, which were introduced in 1985 and remain popular today. Skidmore, Sarah. "23 years later, Air Jordans maintain mystique", The Seattle Times, January 10, 2008, accessed February 12, 2009. Jordan also starred in the 1996 feature film Space Jam. He is currently a part-owner and Managing Member of Basketball Operations of the Charlotte Bobcats in North Carolina. Early years Michael Jordan's jersey in the rafters of The Dean Smith Center. Jordan was born in Brooklyn, New York, the son of Deloris (née Peoples), who worked in banking, and James R. Jordan, Sr., an equipment supervisor. Michael Jordan Biography (1963-), filmreference.com, accessed June 23, 2008. His family moved to Wilmington, North Carolina, when he was a toddler. Michael Jordan biography, 23jordan.com, accessed November 23, 2007. Sachare, Alex. The Chicago Bulls Encyclopedia. Chicago: Contemporary Books, 1999. pgs. 172–3. ISBN 0809225158. Jordan attended Emsley A. Laney High School in Wilmington, where he anchored his athletic career by playing baseball, football, and basketball. He tried out for the varsity basketball team during his sophomore year, but at 5'11" (1.80 m), he was deemed too short to play at that level and was cut from the team. The following summer, however, he grew four inches (10 cm) and trained rigorously. Upon earning a spot on the varsity roster, Jordan averaged about 20 points per game over his final two seasons of high school play. Michael Jordan, basketball-reference.com, accessed February 8, 2008. Michael Jordan: The Stats, infoplease.com, accessed March 15, 2007. As a senior, he was selected to the McDonald's All-American Team Williams, Lena. PLUS: Basketball; "A McDonald's Game For Girls, Too", The New York Times, December 7, 2001, accessed January 16, 2007. after averaging a triple-double: 29.2 points, 11.6 rebounds, and 10.1 assists. Sportscenter, ESPN, air date February 2, 2007. Lucas, Adam. Lucas: One Extraordinary Night, tarheelblue.cstv.com, February 10, 2007, accessed on February 5, 2008. In 1981, Jordan earned a basketball scholarship to the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, where he majored in cultural geography. As a freshman in coach Dean Smith's team-oriented system, he was named ACC Freshman of the Year after he averaged 13.4 points per game (ppg) on 53.4% shooting (field goal percentage). He made the game-winning jump shot in the 1982 NCAA Championship game against Georgetown, which was led by future NBA rival Patrick Ewing. Jordan later described this shot as the major turning point in his basketball career. qtd. in Lazenby, Roland. "Michaelangelo: Portrait of a Champion". Michael Jordan: The Ultimate Career Tribute. Bannockburn, IL: H&S Media, 1999. pg. 128. During his three seasons at North Carolina, he averaged 17.7 ppg on 54.0% shooting, and added 5.0 rebounds per game (rpg). After winning the Naismith and the Wooden College Player of the Year awards in 1984, Jordan left North Carolina one year before his scheduled graduation to enter the 1984 NBA Draft. The Chicago Bulls selected Jordan with the third overall pick, after Hakeem Olajuwon (Houston Rockets) and Sam Bowie (Portland Trail Blazers). Jordan returned to North Carolina to complete his degree in 1986. Morris, Mike. "The Legend: A Highlight-Reel History of the NBA's Greatest Player". Michael Jordan: The Ultimate Career Tribute. Bannockburn, IL: H&S Media, 1999. pg. 67. Professional sports career Early career During his first season in the NBA, Jordan averaged 28.2 ppg on 51.5% shooting. He quickly became a fan favorite even in opposing arenas, Gross, Jane. "Jordan Makes People Wonder: Is He the New Dr. J?", The New York Times, October 21, 1984, accessed March 7, 2007. Goldaper, Sam. "Jordan dazzles crowd at Garden", The New York Times, October 19, 1984, accessed March 7, 2007. Johnson, Roy S. "Jordan-Led Bulls Romp Before 19,252", The New York Times, November 9, 1984, accessed March 7, 2007. and appeared on the cover of Sports Illustrated with the heading "A Star is Born" just over a month into his professional career. SI cover search December 10, 1984, si.cnn.com, accessed March 9, 2007. Chicago Bulls 1984–85 Game Log and Scores, databasebasketball.com, accessed March 10, 2007. Jordan was also voted in as an All-Star starter by the fans in his rookie season. Controversy arose before the All-Star game when word surfaced that several veteran players, led by Isiah Thomas, were upset by the amount of attention Jordan was receiving. This led to a so called "freeze-out" on Jordan, where players refused to pass him the ball throughout the game. The controversy left Jordan relatively unaffected when he returned to regular season play, and he would go on to be voted Rookie of the Year. Michael Jordan bio, nba.com, accessed January 20, 2007. The Bulls finished the season 38–44, Chicago Bulls, databasebasketball.com, accessed January 16, 2007. and lost in the first round of the playoffs in four games to the Milwaukee Bucks. Jordan's second season was cut short by a broken foot which caused him to miss 64 games. Despite Jordan's injury and a 30–52 record, the Bulls made the playoffs. Jordan recovered in time to participate in the playoffs and performed well upon his return. Against a 1985–86 Boston Celtics team that is often considered one of the greatest in NBA history, Top 10 Teams in NBA History, nba.com/history, accessed March 6, 2007. Jordan set the still-unbroken record for points in a playoff game with 63 in Game 2. God Disguised as Michael Jordan, nba.com/history, accessed January 17, 2007. The Celtics, however, managed to sweep the series. Jordan had recovered completely by the 1986–87 season, and had one of the most prolific scoring seasons in NBA history. He became the only player other than Wilt Chamberlain to score 3,000 points in a season, averaging a league high 37.1 points on 48.2% shooting. In addition, Jordan demonstrated his defensive prowess, as he became the first player in NBA history to record 200 steals and 100 blocks in a season. Despite Jordan's success, Magic Johnson won the league's Most Valuable Player Award. The Bulls reached 40 wins, and advanced to the playoffs for the third consecutive year. However, they were again swept by the Celtics. Mid-career: Pistons roadblock Jordan led the league in scoring again in the 1987–88 season, averaging 35.0 ppg on 53.5% shooting and won his first league MVP award. He was also named the Defensive Player of the Year—a rarity for a guard—as he had averaged 1.6 blocks and a league high 3.16 steals per game. Michael Jordan statistics, nba.com/history, accessed January 16, 2007. The Bulls finished 50–32, and made it out of the first round of the playoffs for the first time in Jordan's career, as they defeated the Cleveland Cavaliers in five games. Chicago Bulls 1987–88 Game Log and Scores, databasebasketball.com, accessed January 16, 2007. However, the Bulls then lost in five games to the more experienced Detroit Pistons, who were led by Isiah Thomas and a group of physical players known as the "Bad Boys". In the 1988–89 season, Jordan again led the league in scoring, averaging 32.5 ppg on 53.8% shooting from the field, along with 8 rpg and 8 assists per game (apg). The Bulls finished with a 47–35 record, and advanced to the Eastern Conference Finals, defeating the Cleveland Cavaliers and New York Knicks along the way. The Cavaliers series included a career highlight for Jordan when he hit a series winning shot over Craig Ehlo in the closing moments of the deciding fifth game of the series. However, the Pistons again defeated the Bulls, this time in six games, by utilizing their "Jordan Rules" method of guarding Jordan, which consisted of double and triple teaming him every time he touched the ball. The Bulls entered the 1989–90 season as a team on the rise, with their core group of Jordan and young improving players like Scottie Pippen and Horace Grant, and under the guidance of new coach Phil Jackson. Jordan averaged a league leading 33.6 ppg on 52.6% shooting, to go with 6.9 rpg and 6.3 apg in leading the Bulls to a 55–27 record. They again advanced to the Eastern Conference Finals beating the Bucks and Philadelphia 76ers en route. However, despite pushing the series to seven games, the Bulls lost to the Pistons for the third consecutive season. First three-peat In the 1990–91 season, Jordan won his second MVP award after averaging 31.5 ppg on 53.9% shooting, 6.0 rpg, and 5.5 apg for the regular season. The Bulls finished in first place in their division for the first time in 16 years and set a franchise record with 61 wins in the regular season. With Scottie Pippen developing into an All-Star, the Bulls elevated their play. The Bulls defeated the New York Knicks and the Philadelphia 76ers in the opening two rounds of the playoffs. They advanced to the Eastern Conference Finals where their rival, the Detroit Pistons, awaited them. However, this time when the Pistons employed their "Jordan Rules" defense of doubling and triple teaming Jordan, he picked them apart with passing. Finally, the Bulls beat the Detroit Pistons in a surprising sweep. Chicago Bulls 1990–91 Game Log and Scores, databasebasketball.com, accessed March 7, 2007. Brown, Clifton. Basketball; "Bulls Brush Aside Pistons for Eastern Title", The New York Times, May 28, 1991, accessed April 8, 2008. In an unusual ending to the fourth and final game, Isiah Thomas led his team off the court before the final minute had concluded. Most of the Pistons went directly to their locker room instead of shaking hands with the Bulls. Kalb, Elliott. Isiah Thomas: Leader of the Bad Boys, nba.com, accessed January 16, 2007. The Bulls compiled an outstanding 15-2 record during the playoffs, and advanced to the NBA Finals for the first time in franchise history, where they beat the Los Angeles Lakers four games to one. Perhaps the best known moment of the series came in Game 2 when, attempting a dunk, Jordan avoided a potential Sam Perkins block by switching the ball from his right hand to his left in mid-air to lay the shot in. Wilbon, Michael. Great Shot! Jordan's Best Amazingly Goes One Better, Washington Post, June 7, 1991, accessed March 7, 2007. The play was the last in a sequence of 13 consecutive field goals made by Jordan. In his first Finals appearance, Jordan posted per game averages of 31.2 points on 56% shooting from the field, 11.4 assists, 6.6 rebounds, 2.8 steals and 1.4 blocks. 1991 Finals stats, nba.com, accessed March 24, 2008. Jordan won his first NBA Finals MVP award by a unanimous decision, Finals Most Valuable Player, nba.com/history, accessed February 6, 2008. and he cried while holding the NBA Finals trophy. Schwartz, Larry. Michael Jordan transcends hoops, espn.com, accessed January 16, 2007. Jordan and the Bulls continued their dominance in the 1991–92 season, establishing a 67–15 record, topping their franchise record from 1990–91. Jordan won his second consecutive MVP award with a 30.1/6.4/6.1 season on 52% shooting. After winning a physical 7-game series over the burgeoning New York Knicks in the second round of the playoffs and finishing off the Cleveland Cavaliers in the Conference Finals in 6 games, the Bulls met Clyde Drexler and the Portland Trail Blazers in the Finals. The media, hoping to recreate a Magic-Bird rivalry, highlighted the similarities between "Air" Jordan and Clyde "The Glide" during the pre-Finals hype Sport's Illustrated cover, May 11, 1992. sportsillustrated.cnn.com, accessed February 16, 2009 . In the first game, Jordan scored a Finals-record 35 points in the first half, including a record-setting six three-point field goals. Jordan Blazes Away From Long Range, nba.com, accessed March 9, 2007. After the sixth three-pointer, he jogged down the court shrugging as he looked courtside. Marv Albert, who broadcast the game, later stated that it was as if Jordan was saying, "I can't believe I'm doing this." A Stroll Down Memory Lane, nba.com/history, accessed February 23, 2007. The Bulls went on to win Game 1, and defeat the Blazers in six games. Jordan was named Finals MVP for the second year in a row and finished the series averaging 35.8 ppg, 4.8 rpg, and 6.5 apg, while shooting 53% from the floor. In 1992–93, despite a 32.6/6.7/5.5 campaign, Jordan's streak of consecutive MVP seasons ended as he lost the award to his friend Charles Barkley. Fittingly, Jordan and the Bulls met Barkley and his Phoenix Suns in the 1993 NBA Finals. The Bulls captured their third consecutive NBA championship on a game-winning shot by John Paxson and a last-second block by Horace Grant, but Jordan was once again Chicago's catalyst. He averaged a Finals-record 41.0 ppg during the six-game series, Paxson's Trey Propels Bulls Into NBA History, nba.com/history, accessed January 20, 2007. and became the first player in NBA history to win three straight Finals MVP awards. He scored more than 30 points in every game of the series, including 40 or more points in 4 consecutive games. With his third Finals triumph, Jordan capped off a seven-year run where he attained seven scoring titles and three championships, but there were signs that Jordan was tiring of his massive celebrity and all of the non-basketball hassles in his life. McCallum, Jack. "'the Desire Isn't There'", sportsillustrated.cnn.com, October 18, 1993, accessed February 18, 2009. Gambling controversy During the Bulls' playoff run in 1993, controversy arose when Jordan was seen gambling in Atlantic City, New Jersey the night before a game against the New York Knicks. Anderson, Dave. "Sports of The Times; Jordan's Atlantic City Caper", The New York Times, May 27, 1993, accessed April 8, 2008. In that same year, he admitted to having to cover $57,000 in gambling losses, Thomas, Monifa. "Jordan on gambling: 'Very embarrassing'" (scroll down to see article), Chicago Sun-Times, available at winningstreak.com, October 21, 2005, accessed January 17, 2007. and author Richard Esquinas wrote a book claiming he had won $1.25 million from Jordan on the golf course. In 2005, Jordan talked to Ed Bradley of the CBS evening show 60 Minutes about his gambling and admitted that he made some reckless decisions. Jordan stated, "Yeah, I've gotten myself into situations where I would not walk away and I've pushed the envelope. Is that compulsive? Yeah, it depends on how you look at it. If you're willing to jeopardize your livelihood and your family, then yeah." Michael Jordan Still Flying High, cbsnews.com, August 20, 2006, accessed January 15, 2007. When Bradley asked him if his gambling ever got to the level where it jeopardized his livelihood or family, Jordan replied, "No." First retirement On October 6, 1993, Jordan announced his retirement, citing a loss of desire to play the game. Jordan later stated that the murder of his father earlier in the year shaped his decision. Berkow, Ira. "A Humbled Jordan Learns New Truths", The New York Times, April 11, 1994, accessed January 16, 2007. James R. Jordan, Sr. was murdered on July 23, 1993, at a highway rest area in Lumberton, North Carolina, by two teenagers, Daniel Green and Larry Martin Demery. The assailants were traced from calls they made on James Jordan's cellular phone, Mitchell, Alison. The Nation; "So Many Criminals Trip Themselves Up", The New York Times, August 22, 1993, accessed March 24, 2008. caught, convicted, and sentenced to life in prison. Jordan was close to his father; as a child he had imitated his father's proclivity to stick out his tongue while absorbed in work. He later adopted it as his own signature, displaying it each time he drove to the basket. In 1996 he founded a Chicago area Boys & Girls Club and dedicated it to his father. Walsh, Edward. "On the City's West Side, Jordan's Legacy Is Hope", Washington Post, January 14, 1998, accessed January 16, 2007. Michael Jordan, family attend groundbreaking ceremony for James Jordan Center, Jet Magazine, August 14, 1995, available at findarticles.com, accessed April 16, 2008. In his 1998 autobiography For the Love of the Game, Jordan wrote that he had been preparing for retirement as early as the summer of 1992. Jordan, Michael. For the Love of the Game: My Story. New York City: Crown Publishers, 1998. pg. 100. ISBN 0-609-60206-3. The added exhaustion due to the Dream Team run in the 1992 Olympics solidified Jordan's feelings about the game and his ever-growing celebrity status. Jordan's announcement sent shock waves throughout the NBA and appeared on the front pages of newspapers around the world. Thompson, Ian and Ted Rodgers. Europe loses a role model; even in countries where basketball is a minor pursuit, Jordan's profile looms large - includes related article on Jordan's stature in Japan, The Sporting News, October 18, 1993, available at findarticles.com, accessed April 25, 2008. Jordan then further surprised the sports world by signing a minor league baseball contract with the Chicago White Sox. He reported to spring training and was assigned to the team's minor league system on March 31, 1994. Michael Jordan Chronology, sportsillustrated.cnn.com, January 12, 1999, accessed March 15, 2007. Jordan has stated this decision was made to pursue the dream of his late father, who had always envisioned his son as a major league baseball player. Michael Jordan A Tribute, sportsillustrated.cnn.com, accessed March 7, 2007. The White Sox were another team owned by Bulls owner Jerry Reinsdorf, who continued to honor Jordan's basketball contract during the years he played baseball. Araton, Harvey. Basketball; "Jordan Keeping the Basketball World in Suspense", The New York Times, March 10, 1995, accessed March 24, 2008. He had a brief professional baseball career for the Birmingham Barons, a Chicago White Sox farm team, batting .202 with 3 HR, 51 RBI, 30 SB, and 11 errors. He also appeared for the Scottsdale Scorpions in the 1994 Arizona Fall League. "I'm back": return to the NBA In the 1993–94 season, the Jordan-less Bulls notched a 55–27 record, and lost to the New York Knicks in the second round of the playoffs. But the 1994–95 version of the Bulls was a shell of the championship squad of just two years earlier. Struggling at mid-season to ensure a spot in the playoffs, Chicago was 31–31 at one point in mid-March. Taylor, Phil. "What Goes Up...", Sports Illustrated, March 20, 1995, accessed March 25, 2009. The team received a lift, however, when Jordan decided to return to the NBA for the Bulls. On March 18, 1995, Jordan announced his return to the NBA through a two-word press release: "I'm back." The next day, Jordan donned jersey number 45 (his number with the Barons), as his familiar 23 had been retired in his honor following his first retirement. He took to the court with the Bulls to face the Indiana Pacers in Indianapolis, scoring 19 points. "Michael Jordan returns to Bulls in overtime loss to Indiana Pacers - Chicago Bulls", Jet Magazine, April 3, 1995, available at findarticles.com, accessed May 2, 2008. The game had the highest Nielsen rating of a regular season NBA game since 1975. Hausman, Jerry A. and Gregory K. Leonard. "Superstars in the National Basketball Association." Journal of Labor Economics, 15: 587, 1997. Although he had not played in an NBA game in a year and a half, Jordan played well upon his return, making a game-winning jump shot against Atlanta in his fourth game back and scoring 55 points in a game against the Knicks at Madison Square Garden on March 28, 1995. Boosted by Jordan's comeback, the Bulls made the playoffs and advanced to the Eastern Conference Semi-finals against the Orlando Magic. At the end of the first game of the series, though, Orlando's Nick Anderson would strip Jordan from behind, leading to the game-winning basket for the Magic; he would later comment that Jordan "didn't look like the old Michael Jordan", Lawrence, Mitch. Memories of MJ's first two acts, espn.com, September 10, 2001, accessed December 16, 2008. after which Jordan returned to wearing his old number (23). Jordan averaged 31 points per game in that series, but Orlando prevailed in six games. Second three-peat Jordan going in for a slam dunk with his signature exposed tongue. Freshly motivated by the playoff defeat, Jordan trained aggressively for the 1995–96 season. Kerr, Steve. The greatest team in history - day four: Chicago Bulls, bbc.co.uk, accessed March 16, 2007. Strengthened by the addition of rebound specialist Dennis Rodman, the Bulls dominated the league, starting the season 41–3, Chicago Bulls 1995–96 Game Log and Scores, databasebasketball.com, accessed January 20, 2007. and eventually finishing with the best regular season record in NBA history: 72–10. Jordan led the league in scoring with 30.4 ppg, 1995–96 Chicago Bulls, nba.com/history, accessed January 15, 2007. and won the league's regular season and All-Star Game MVP awards. In the playoffs, the Bulls lost only three games in four series, defeating the Seattle SuperSonics in the NBA Finals to win the championship. Jordan was named Finals MVP for a record fourth time, surpassing Magic Johnson's three Finals MVP awards. He also achieved only the second sweep of the MVP Awards in the All-Star Game, regular season and NBA Finals, duplicating Willis Reed's feat during the 1969–70 season. Because this was Jordan's first championship since his father's death, and it was won on Father's Day, Jordan reacted very emotionally upon winning the title, including a memorable scene of him sobbing on the locker room floor with the game ball. In the 1996–97 season the Bulls started out 69–11, but narrowly missed out on a second consecutive 70-win season by losing their final two games to finish 69–13. Chicago Bulls 1996–97 Game Log and Scores, databasebasketball.com, accessed January 16, 2007. However, this year Jordan was beaten for the NBA MVP Award by Karl Malone. The team again advanced to the Finals, where they faced Malone and the Utah Jazz team. The series against the Jazz featured two of the more memorable clutch moments of Jordan's career. He won Game 1 for the Bulls with a buzzer-beating jump shot. In Game 5, with the series tied 2–2, Jordan played despite being feverish and dehydrated from a stomach virus. In what is known as the "flu game", Jordan scored 38 points including the game-deciding three-pointer with less than a minute remaining. Burns, Marty. 23 to remember, sportsillustrated.cnn.com, January 16, 1999, accessed February 23, 2007. The Bulls won 90-88 and went on to win the series in six games. For the fifth time in as many Finals appearances, Jordan received the Finals MVP award. During the 1997 NBA All-Star Game, Jordan posted the only triple double in All-Star Game history in a victorious effort, however he did not receive the MVP award. Jordan and the Bulls compiled a 62–20 record in the 1997–98 season. Jordan led the league with 28.7 points per game, securing his fifth regular-season MVP award, plus honors for All-NBA First Team, First Defensive Team and the All-Star Game MVP. The Bulls captured the Eastern Conference Championship for a third straight season, including surviving a grueling seven-game series with Reggie Miller's Indiana Pacers in the Eastern Conference Finals; it was the first time Jordan had played in a Game 7 since the 1992 series with the Knicks. After prevailing, they moved on for a rematch with the Jazz in the Finals. The Bulls returned to Utah for Game 6 on June 14, 1998 leading the series 3–2. Jordan executed a series of plays, considered to be one of the greatest clutch performances in NBA Finals history. Greatest Finals Moments, nba.com, accessed February 6, 2007. With the Bulls trailing 86–83 with 40 seconds remaining, coach Jackson called a timeout. When play resumed, Jordan received the inbound pass, drove to the basket, and hit a layup over several Jazz defenders. The Jazz brought the ball upcourt and passed the ball to forward Karl Malone, who was set up in the low post and was being guarded by Rodman. Malone jostled with Rodman and caught the pass, but Jordan cut behind him and swatted the ball out of his hands for a steal. Jordan then slowly dribbled upcourt and paused at the top of the key, eyeing his defender, Jazz guard Bryon Russell. With fewer than 10 seconds remaining, Jordan started to dribble right, then crossed over to his left, possibly pushing off Russell, Kerber, Fred. Former NBA Ref Blasts Officiating, New York Post, August 17, 2007, accessed March 24, 2008. Knott, Tom. "Someone has to win Eastern Conference", The Washington Times, December 8, 2006, accessed November 17, 2008. Deveney, Sean. Crying Foul, sportingnews.com, March 14, 2005, accessed April 29, 2007. although the officials did not call a foul. Jordan then released a shot that would be rebroadcast innumerable times in years to come. As the shot found the net, announcer Bob Costas shouted "Chicago with the lead!" The Jordan Phenomenon, pbs.org, June 15, 1998, accessed January 16, 2007. After a desperation three-point shot by John Stockton missed, Jordan and the Bulls claimed their sixth NBA championship, and secured a second three-peat. Once again, Jordan was voted the Finals MVP, having led all scorers by averaging 33.5 points per game, including 45 in the deciding Game 6. Ryan, Jeff. History of the NBA Finals Chicago Bulls vs. Utah Jazz - 1998, sportingnews.com, accessed March 25, 2008. Jordan's six Finals MVPs is a record; Shaquille O'Neal, Magic Johnson, and Tim Duncan are tied for second place with three apiece. The 1998 Finals holds the highest television rating of any Finals series in history, and Game 6 holds the highest television rating of any game in NBA history. Cohen, Rachel. Lakers-Celtics should grab big TV ratings, charleston.net, June 5, 2008, accessed September 19, 2008. NBA Finals Game 6 nets ratings record for NBC, Jet Magazine, July 6, 1998, available at findarticles.com, accessed February 17, 2009. Second retirement Plaque at the United Center chronicling Jordan's career achievements. With Phil Jackson's contract expiring, the pending departures of Scottie Pippen (who stated his desire to be traded during the season) and Dennis Rodman (who would sign with the Los Angeles Lakers as a free agent) looming, and being in the latter stages of an owner-induced lockout of NBA players, Jordan retired for the second time on January 13, 1999. On January 19, 2000, Jordan returned to the NBA not as a player, but as part owner and President of Basketball Operations for the Washington Wizards. Sandomir, Richard. Jordan Sheds Uniform for Suit as a Wizards Owner, The New York Times, January 20, 2000, accessed March 24, 2008. His responsibilities with the club were to be comprehensive, as he was in charge of all aspects of the team, including personnel decisions. Opinions of Jordan as a basketball executive were mixed. Pollin's decision to cut ties leaves Jordan livid, espn.com, May 9, 2003, accessed December 23, 2008. Brady, Erik. "Wizards show Jordan the door", usatoday.com, May 7, 2003, accessed February 23, 2007. He managed to purge the team of several highly paid, unpopular players (such as forward Juwan Howard and point guard Rod Strickland), Associated Press. Making his move, sportsillustrated.cnn.com, February 22, 2001, accessed February 23, 2007. Matthews, Marcus. Losing never looked so good for Wizards, usatoday.com, March 1, 2001, accessed February 23, 2007. but used the first pick in the 2001 NBA Draft to select high schooler Kwame Brown, who did not live up to expectations and was traded away after four seasons. Wilbon, Michael. "So Long, Kwame, Thanks for Nothing", The Washington Post, July 16, 2005, accessed February 23, 2007. Despite his January 1999 claim that he was "99.9% certain" that he would never play another NBA game, in the summer of 2001 Jordan expressed interest in making another comeback, Harvey Araton, "Sports of The Times; Old Coach Rejoins Old Warrior", New York Times, October 2, 2001, accessed February 12, 2009. Joseph White, "Jordan comeback raises questions", cbc.ca, September 23, 2001, accessed February 12, 2009. this time with his new team. Inspired by the NHL comeback of his friend Mario Lemieux the previous winter, Associated Press. Jordan watched Lemieux's comeback very closely, espn.go.com, October 2, 2001, accessed March 7, 2007. Jordan spent much of the spring and summer of 2001 in training, holding several invitation-only camps for NBA players in Chicago. Penny outshines MJ at 'Comeback Camp', CNNSI.com, August 25, 2001, accessed February 12, 2009. In addition, Jordan hired his old Chicago Bulls head coach, Doug Collins, as Washington's coach for the upcoming season, a decision that many saw as foreshadowing another Jordan return. Washington Wizards comeback On September 25, 2001 Jordan announced his return to professional play with the Wizards, indicating his intention to donate his salary as a player to a relief effort for the victims of the September 11, 2001 attacks. Pollin Establishes Education Fund, nba.com, September 9, 2002, accessed January 16, 2007. News Summary, The New York Times, September 26, 2001, accessed April 8, 2008. In an injury-plagued 2001–02 season, he led the team in scoring (22.90 ppg), assists (5.2 apg), and steals (1.42 spg). However, torn cartilage in his right knee ended Jordan's season after only 60 games, the fewest he had played in a regular season since a broken foot cut short his season in 1985–86. Playing in his 14th and final NBA All-Star Game in 2003, Jordan passed Kareem Abdul-Jabbar as the all-time leading scorer in All-Star game history. That year, Jordan was the only Washington player to play in all 82 games, starting in 67 of them. He averaged 20.0 points, 6.1 rebounds, 3.8 assists, and 1.5 steals per game. He also shot 45% from the field, and 82% from the free throw line. Even though he turned 40 during the season, he scored 20 or more points 42 times, 30 or more points nine times, and 40 or more points three times. On February 21, 2003, Jordan became the first 40-year-old to tally 43 points in an NBA game. Jordan Pours in History-Making 43, nba.com, February 21, 2003, accessed January 16, 2007. During his stint with the Wizards, all of Jordan's home games at the MCI Center were sold out, and the Wizards were the second most-watched team in the NBA, averaging 20,172 fans a game at home and 19,311 on the road. NBA Attendance Report - 2003. nba.com, accessed February 12, 2009. However, neither of Jordan's final two seasons resulted in a playoff appearance for the Wizards, and Jordan was often unsatisfied with the play of those around him. Maaddi, Rob. Collins feels Jordan's pain, Associated Press, USA Today, November 29, 2001, accessed March 11, 2007. Associated Press. Bad chemistry left MJ unable to win in Washington, sportsillustrated.cnn.com, April 12, 2003, accessed March 11, 2007. At several points he openly criticized his teammates to the media, citing their lack of focus and intensity, notably that of number one draft pick Kwame Brown. With the recognition that 2002–03 would be Jordan's final season, tributes were paid to him throughout the NBA. In his final game at his old home court, the United Center in Chicago, Jordan received a four-minute standing ovation. Schy, Steve. Michael Jordan Prepares to Wind Down NBA Career, voanews.com, March 6, 2003, accessed February 12, 2009. The Miami Heat retired the number 23 jersey on April 11, 2003, even though Jordan had never played for the team. Heat Retire Jordan's 23, sportsillustrated.cnn.com, April 11, 2003, accessed March 8, 2007. At the 2003 All-Star Game, Jordan was offered a starting spot from Tracy McGrady and Allen Iverson, Associated Press. Thanks, but no thanks: Jordan not interested in ceremonial starting role, sportsillustrated.cnn.com, February 8, 2003, accessed February 12, 2009. but refused both; in the end, however, he accepted the spot of Vince Carter, who decided to give it up under great public pressure. Jordan's final NBA game was on April 16, 2003 in Philadelphia. After scoring only 13 points in the game, Jordan went to the bench with 4 minutes and 13 seconds remaining in the third quarter and with his team trailing the Philadelphia 76ers, 75-56. Just after the start of the fourth quarter, the First Union Center crowd began chanting "We want Mike!". After much encouragement from coach Doug Collins, Jordan finally rose from the bench and re-entered the game for Larry Hughes with 2:35 remaining. At 1:45, Jordan was intentionally fouled by the 76ers' Eric Snow, and stepped to the line to make both free throws. After the second foul shot, the 76ers in-bounded the ball to rookie John Salmons, who in turn was intentionally fouled by Bobby Simmons one second later, stopping time so that Jordan could return to the bench. Jordan received a three-minute standing ovation from his teammates, his opponents, and a crowd of 21,257 fans. Sixers Prevail in Jordan's Final Game, nba.com, April 16, 2003, accessed January 16, 2007. Olympic career Jordan played on two Olympic gold medal-winning American basketball teams. As a college player he participated, and won the gold, in the 1984 Summer Olympics. Jordan led the team in scoring averaging 17.1 ppg for the tournament. In the 1992 Summer Olympics he was a member of the star-studded squad that included Magic Johnson, Larry Bird, and David Robinson and was dubbed the "Dream Team". Playing limited minutes due to the frequent blowouts, Jordan averaged 12.7 ppg, finishing fourth on the team in scoring. Dupree, David. Is this U.S. roster the new Dream Team?, USA Today, August 18, 2006, accessed March 11, 2007. The team cruised to the gold medal, restoring the United States to the top of the basketball world. Jordan, Patrick Ewing, and fellow Dream Team member Chris Mullin are the only American men's basketball players to win Olympic gold as amateurs (all in 1984) and professionals. After retiring as a player Jordan on the golf course in 2007. After his third retirement, Jordan assumed that he would be able to return to his front office position of Director of Basketball Operations with the Wizards. Wise, Mike. "PRO BASKETBALL; Jordan's Strained Ties to Wizards May Be Cut", The New York Times, May 4, 2003, accessed February 12, 2009. However, his previous tenure in the Wizards' front office had produced the aforementioned mixed results and may have also influenced the trade of Richard "Rip" Hamilton for Jerry Stackhouse (although Jordan was not technically Director of Basketball Operations in 2002). On May 7, 2003, Wizards owner Abe Pollin fired Jordan as Washington's President of Basketball Operations. Jordan later stated that he felt betrayed, and that if he knew he would be fired upon retiring he never would have come back to play for the Wizards. Jordan kept busy over the next few years by staying in shape, playing golf in celebrity charity tournaments, spending time with his family in Chicago, promoting his Jordan Brand clothing line, and riding motorcycles. Grass, Ray. "Michael Jordan is now riding superbikes", deseretnews.com, June 22, 2006, accessed October 3, 2008. Since 2004, Jordan has owned the Michael Jordan Motorsports Suzuki, a professional closed-course motorcycle roadracing team that competes in the premier Superbike class sanctioned by the American Motorcyclist Association (AMA). Martin, Chris. AMA SBK: His Airness Speaks: A Conversation with Michael Jordan, moto-racing.speedtv.com, June 25, 2007, accessed November 10, 2008. Jordan and his then-wife Juanita pledged $5 million to Chicago's Hales Franciscan High School in 2006, Meyer, Gregory. Jordans to pledge $5M to Hales Franciscan H.S., chicagobusiness.com, March 13, 2006, accessed July 28, 2008. and the Jordan Brand has made donations to Habitat for Humanity and a Louisiana branch of the Boys & Girls Clubs of America. Jordan Brand Donates $500,000 to Boys and Girls Club in Louisiana, Reuters, February 14, 2008, accessed July 28, 2008. On June 15, 2006, Jordan became a part-owner of the Charlotte Bobcats and was named "Managing Member of Basketball Operations." He has the largest individual holding in the team after majority owner Robert L. Johnson. Michael Jordan to Become Part Owner of the Charlotte Bobcats, nba.com, June 15, 2006, accessed January 15, 2007. Despite Jordan's previous success as an endorser, he has made an effort not to be included in Charlotte's marketing campaigns. Associated Press. Jordan writes state of Bobcats letter to fans, espn.com, June 15, 2006, accessed February 21, 2007. Player profile Jordan was a shooting guard who was also capable of playing small forward (the position he would primarily play during his second comeback with the Washington Wizards). Jordan was known throughout his career for being a strong clutch performer. He decided numerous games with last-second plays (e.g., The Shot) and performed at a high level even under adverse circumstances (e.g., Flu Game). His competitiveness was visible in his prolific trash-talk DeCourcy, Mike. "A suspension for talking trash? Mamma mia!", sportingnews.com, July 21, 2006, accessed January 16, 2007. and well-known work ethic. Jackson, Phil. "Michael and Me", Inside Stuff, June/July 1998, available at nba.com, accessed January 16, 2007. Donnelly, Sally B. "Great Leapin' Lizards! Michael Jordan Can't Actually Fly, But", Time Magazine, January 9, 1989, accessed March 7, 2007. Jordan had a versatile offensive game. He was capable of aggressively driving to the basket and drawing fouls from his opponents at a high rate; his 8,772 free throw attempts are the ninth highest total of all time. Career Leaders for Free Throw Attempts, basketball-reference.com, accessed May 16, 2008. As his career progressed, Jordan also developed the ability to post up his opponents and score with his trademark fadeaway jumpshot, using his leaping ability to "fade away" from block attempts. According to Hubie Brown, this move alone made him nearly unstoppable. Brown, Hubie. Hubie Brown on Jordan, nba.com, accessed January 15, 2007. Despite media criticism as a "selfish" player early in his career, Jordan's 5.3 assists per game also indicate his willingness to defer to his teammates. In later years, the NBA shortened its three-point line to 22 feet (from 23 feet, 9 inches), which coupled with Jordan's extended shooting range to make him a long-range threat as well -- his 3-point stroke developed from a low 9 / 52 rate (.173) in his rookie year into a stellar 111 / 260 (.427) shooter in the 1995–96 season. For a guard, Jordan was also a good rebounder (6.2 per game). In 1988, he was honored with the NBA's Defensive Player of the Year Award and became the first NBA player to win both the Defensive Player of the Year and MVP awards in a career (since equaled by Hakeem Olajuwon, David Robinson, and Kevin Garnett; Olajuwon is the only player other than Jordan to win both during the same season). In addition he set records for blocked shots by a guard, Ladewski, Paul. What Does He Do for an Encore?, Hoop Magazine, December 1987, available at nba.com, accessed January 16, 2007. and combined this with his ball-thieving ability to become a standout defensive player. His 2,514 steals are the second highest total of all-time behind John Stockton, while his steals per game average is third all-time. Career Leaders for Steals, basketball-reference.com, accessed May 23, 2008. Jerry West often stated that he was more impressed with Jordan's defensive contributions than his offensive ones. Michael Jordan: A tribute: Praise from his peers, NBA's 50 greatest sing MJ's praises, sportsillustrated.cnn.com, February 1, 1999, accessed January 15, 2007. Legacy Michael Jordan's basketball talent was clear from his rookie season. In his first game in Madison Square Garden against the New York Knicks, Jordan received a prolonged standing ovation, a rarity for an opposing player. After Jordan scored a playoff record 63 points against the Boston Celtics in 1986, Celtics star Larry Bird described him as "God disguised as Michael Jordan." Jordan led the NBA in scoring in 10 seasons (NBA record) and tied Wilt Chamberlain's record of seven consecutive scoring titles. He was also a fixture on the NBA All-Defensive First Team, making the roster nine times (NBA record). Jordan also holds the top career and playoff scoring averages of 30.1 and 33.4 points per game, respectively. By 1998, the season of his Finals-winning shot against the Jazz, he was well known throughout the league as a clutch performer. In the regular season, Jordan was the Bulls' primary threat in the final seconds of a close game and in the playoffs, Jordan would always demand the ball at crunch time. Sachare, Alex. Go-Two Guys, Hoop Magazine, June 1996, accessed February 12, 2009. Jordan's total of 5,987 points in the playoffs is the highest in NBA history. All-Time Playoffs Individual Career Leaders, nba.com, accessed March 5, 2007. He retired with 32,292 points, Career Points, databasebasketball.com, accessed January 16, 2007. placing him third on the NBA's all-time scoring list behind Kareem Abdul-Jabbar and Karl Malone. With five regular-season MVPs (tied for second place with Bill Russell; only Kareem Abdul-Jabbar has won more, six), six Finals MVPs (NBA record), and three All-Star MVPs, Jordan is the most decorated player ever to play in the NBA. Jordan finished among the top three in regular-season MVP voting a record 10 times, and was named one of the 50 Greatest Players in NBA History in 1996. Many of Jordan's contemporaries label Jordan as the greatest basketball player of all time. An ESPN survey of journalists, athletes and other sports figures ranked Jordan the greatest North American athlete of the 20th century, above icons such as Babe Ruth and Muhammad Ali. Top N. American athletes of the century, espn.com, accessed May 3, 2007. Jordan placed second to Babe Ruth in the Associated Press's list of 20th century athletes. Associated Press. Top 100 athletes of the 20th century, USA Today, December 21, 1999, accessed March 15, 2007. In addition, the Associated Press voted him as the basketball player of the 20th century. AP Basketball Player of the Century, lubbockonline.com, December 11, 1999, accessed January 18, 2008. Jordan has also appeared on the front cover of Sports Illustrated a record 49 times. Gagliano, Rick. Magazine of the Week Sports Illustrated, dtmagazine.com, September 28, 2006, accessed January 16, 2007. In the September 1996 issue of Sport, which was the publication's 50th anniversary issue, Jordan was named the greatest athlete of the past 50 years. "Final Out: 1996", Sport, volume 90, issue 7, July 1999, pg. 96. Jordan's athletic leaping ability, highlighted in his back-to-back slam dunk contest championships in 1987 and 1988, is credited by many with having influenced a generation of young players. Hubbard, Jan. Michael Jordan interview, Hoop Magazine, April 1997, via nba.com, accessed March 6, 2007. Fitzpatrick, Curry. "In An Orbit All His Own", Sports Illustrated, November 9, 1987, accessed March 6, 2007. Several current NBA All-Stars have stated that they considered Jordan their role model while growing up, including LeBron James Associated Press. James says he'll decide his future soon, sportsillustrated.cnn.com, April 16, 2003, accessed April 22, 2007. and Dwyane Wade. Ginsbrug, Steve. Wade scoffs at Jordan comparisons, Reuters, June 21, 2006, accessed May 2, 2007. In addition, commentators have dubbed a number of next-generation players "the next Michael Jordan" upon their entry to the NBA, including Anfernee "Penny" Hardaway, Grant Hill, Kobe Bryant, LeBron James, Vince Carter, and Dwyane Wade. Stein, Mark. Kobe, Hill deal with being the next Michael, espn.com, October 29, 2001, accessed March 6, 2007. Isidore, Chris. The next 'next Jordan', money.cnn.com, June 23, 2006, accessed March 6, 2007. Araton, Harvey. "Sports of The Times; Will James Be the Next Jordan or the Next Carter?", The New York Times, December 28, 2005, accessed April 8, 2008. Although Jordan was a well-rounded player, his "Air Jordan" image is also often credited with inadvertently decreasing the jump shooting skills, defense, and fundamentals of young players, a fact which Jordan himself has lamented. Although Jordan has done much to increase the status of the game, some of his impact on the game's popularity in America appears to be fleeting. Rovell, Darren. NBA could cash in if TV ratings soar with Jordan, espn.com, September 23, 2001, accessed March 10, 2007. Helfand, Lewis. The NBA After Jordan: Is There Hope?, askmen.com, accessed March 10, 2007. Television ratings in particular increased only during his time in the league and have subsequently lowered each time he left the game. Personal life Jordan is the fourth of five children. He has two older brothers, Larry Jordan and James R. Jordan, Jr., one older sister, Deloris, and a younger sister, Roslyn. Jordan's brother James retired in 2006 as the Command Sergeant Major of the 35th Signal Brigade of the XVIII Airborne Corps in the U.S. Army. Associated Press, Michael Jordan's big brother ends Army career, charlotte.com, May 16, 2006, accessed April 18, 2008. He married Juanita Vanoy in September 1989, and they have two sons, Jeffrey Michael and Marcus James, and a daughter, Jasmine. Jordan and Juanita filed for divorce on January 4, 2002, citing irreconcilable differences, but reconciled shortly thereafter. They again filed for divorce and were granted a final decree of dissolution of marriage on December 29, 2006, commenting that the decision was made "mutually and amicably". Associated Press. Jordan, wife end marriage 'mutually, amicably', espn.com, December 30, 2006, accessed January 15, 2007. Michael Jordan, Wife to Divorce After 17 Years, people.com, December 30, 2006, accessed January 15, 2007. It is reported that Juanita received a $168 million settlement, making it the largest celebrity divorce settlement in history on public record. Forbes: Michael Jordan's Divorce Most Costly Ever, foxnews.com, accessed May 24, 2007. On July 21, 2006, a Cook County, Illinois judge determined that Jordan did not owe a former lover, Karla Knafel, $5 million. Associated Press. "Judge says Jordan not obligated to pay ex-lover", usatoday.com, June 12, 2003, accessed January 16, 2007. Jordan had allegedly paid Knafel $250,000 to keep their relationship a secret. Associated Press. "Jordan says woman agreed to $250,000 payment", sportingnews.com, December 17, 2002, accessed February 12, 2009. Jordan's former girlfriend shouldn't get another cent, usatoday.com, November 25, 2002, accessed February 12, 2009. Jordan's Ex-Lover Counters With $5 Million Lawsuit, whiotv.com, November 19, 2002, accessed February 12, 2009. Knafel claimed Jordan promised her that amount for remaining silent and agreeing not to file a paternity suit after Knafel learned she was pregnant in 1991. A DNA test showed Jordan was not the father of the child. As of 2007, Jordan lives in Highland Park, Illinois, and both of his sons attended Loyola Academy, a private Roman Catholic high school located in Wilmette, Illinois. Associated Press. Heir Jordan out to prove he can play like Mike, nbcsports.msnbc.com, July 9, 2005, accessed April 9, 2008. Jeffrey graduated as a member of the 2007 graduating class and played his first collegiate basketball game on November 11, 2007, for the University of Illinois. Marcus transferred to Whitney Young High School after his sophomore year and is set to graduate in 2009. He has chosen to attend the University of Central Florida beginning in the fall of 2009. Cherner, Reid and Tom Weir. "Second Jordan son headed to Division-I, at UCF", USA Today, April 7, 2009, accessed April 11, 2009. Media figure and business interests The "Jumpman" logo is a silhouette of Jordan used by Nike to promote the Air Jordan shoes, among other merchandise. Jordan is one of the most marketed sports figures in history. He has been a major spokesman for such brands as Nike, Coca-Cola, Chevrolet, Gatorade, McDonald's, Ball Park Franks, Rayovac, Wheaties, Hanes, and MCI. Rovell, Darren. "Jordan's 10 greatest commercials ever", espn.com, February 17, 2003, accessed on January 16, 2007. Jordan has had a long relationship with Gatorade, appearing in over 20 commercials for the company since 1991, including the "Like Mike" commercials in which a song was sung by children wishing to be like Jordan. Vancil, Mark. "Michael Jordan: Phenomenon", Hoop Magazine, December 1991, accessed March 7, 2007. Nike created a signature shoe for him, called the Air Jordan. One of Jordan's more popular commercials for the shoe involved Spike Lee playing the part of Mars Blackmon. In the commercials Lee, as Blackmon, attempted to find the source of Jordan's abilities and became convinced that "it's gotta be the shoes". The hype and demand for the shoes even brought on a spate of "shoe-jackings" where people were robbed of their sneakers at gunpoint. Subsequently Nike spun off the Jordan line into its own division named the "Jordan Brand". The company features an impressive list of athletes and celebrities as endorsers. "Michael Jordan", forbes.com, accessed February 23, 2007. Team Jordan, nike.com, accessed June 9, 2008. The brand has also sponsored college sports programs such as those of North Carolina, Cincinnati, Cal, St. John's, Georgetown, and North Carolina A&T. Jordan and the Looney Tunes in Space Jam Jordan also has been connected with the Looney Tunes cartoon characters. A Nike commercial shown during the 1993 Super Bowl XXVII featured Jordan and Bugs Bunny playing basketball against a group of Martian characters. The Super Bowl commercial inspired the 1996 live action/animated movie Space Jam, which starred Jordan and Bugs in a fictional story set during his first retirement. They have subsequently appeared together in several commercials for MCI. Jordan's yearly income from the endorsements is estimated to be over forty million dollars. A Multiple Product Endorser can be a Credible Source, Redenbach, Andrew. Cyber-Journal of Sport Marketing, February 2, 2009 In addition, when Jordan's power at the ticket gates was at its highest point the Bulls regularly sold out every game they played in, whether home or away. Rovell, Darren. "Cashing in on the ultimate cash cow", espn.com, April 15, 2003, accessed January 16, 2007. Due to this, Jordan set records in player salary by signing annual contracts worth in excess of $30 million US dollars per season. "Michael Jordan signs deal with Bulls worth more than $30 million", Jet Magazine, September 15, 1997, available at findarticles.com, accessed May 9, 2008. Most of Jordan's endorsement deals, including the first deal with Nike, were engineered by his agent, David Falk. Powell, Shaun. "Executive privilege - sports agent David Falk", The Sporting News, March 29, 1999, available online at findarticles.com, accessed July 25, 2007. Jordan has said of Falk that "he's the best at what he does", and that "marketing-wise, he's great. He's the one who came up with the concept of 'Air Jordan.'" "Making Millions for NBA Stars: the High-Powered World of Super Agents David Falk, Curtis Polk and Mike Higgins", cigaraficionado.com, accessed June 22, 2007. An academic study found that Jordan’s first NBA comeback resulted in an increase in the market capitalization of his client firms of more than $1 billion. Mathur, Lynette Knowles, Ike Mathur and Nanda Rangan. "The Wealth Effects Associated with a Celebrity Endorser: The Michael Jordan Phenomenon." Journal of Advertising Research, May, 67–73, 1997. Honors and awards Michael Jordan and Dean Smith at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill game honoring the 1957 and 1982 men's basketball teams. Jordan won numerous awards and set many records during his career. The following are some of his achievements: Jordan's Streak Crashes and Burns at Indy, nba.com, December 27, 2002, accessed March 3, 2007. <ref>[http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/features/2000/sportsman/covers/jordan/main/911223/ Cover of December 23, 1991 issue of Sports Illustrated] sportsillustrated.cnn.com, December 23, 1991, accessed January 16, 2007.</ref> 2 Olympic Gold Medals – 1984, 1992 6-time NBA Champion6-time NBA Finals MVP 5-time NBA MVP7-time The Sporting News MVP 10 NBA Scoring Titles14 NBA All-Star Selections 3-time NBA All-Star Game MVP11 All-NBA Selections 9 All-Defensive SelectionsNBA Rookie of the Year – 1984NBA Defensive Player of the Year – 1988NBA Slam Dunk Contest Champion – 1987, 1988ACC Freshman of the Year – 1982ACC Men's Basketball Player of the Year – 1984USBWA College Player of the Year – 1984Naismith College Player of the Year – 1984John R. Wooden Award – 1984Adolph Rupp Trophy – 1984 Sports Illustrated Sportsman of the Year''' – 1991 Named one of the 50 Greatest Players in NBA History in 1996 Ranked #1 by SLAM Magazine's Top 75 Players of All-Time Ranked #1 by ESPN Sportscentury's Top 100 Athletes of the 20th century See also Michael Jordan Steakhouse Michael Jordan's RestaurantMichael Jordan: Chaos in the Windy CityMichael Jordan in Flight'' List of individual National Basketball Association scoring leaders by season List of National Basketball Association players with 60 or more points in a game List of members of the Basketball Hall of Fame References External links NBA History: Jordan bio NBA.com historical playerfile NBA Player Stats Basketball-Reference.com: Michael Jordan | Michael_Jordan |@lemmatized michael:48 jeffrey:3 jordan:304 born:1 february:39 retired:1 american:8 professional:7 basketball:44 player:52 active:1 businessman:1 biography:3 national:5 association:5 nba:111 website:1 state:11 acclamation:1 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5,106 | Abbreviator | Abbreviator, plural Abbreviators in English or Abbreviatores in Latin, also called Breviators, were a body of writers in the papal chancery, whose business was to sketch out and prepare in due form the pope's bulls, briefs and consistorial decrees before these are written out in extenso by the scriptores. They are first mentioned in the papal bulls Extravagantes of Pope John XXII and of Pope Benedict XII. After the protonotaries left the sketching of the minutes to the abbreviators, those de Parco majori, who ranked as prelates, were the most important officers of the apostolic chancery. By the time of Pope Martin V their signature was made essential to the validity of the acts of the chancery; and they obtained in course of time many important privileges. Roman lay origin Abbreviators are those who make an abridgment or abstract of a long writing or discourse by contracting the parts, i.e. the words and sentences; an abbreviated form of writing common among the Romans. Abbreviations were of two kinds: the use of a single letter for a single word, the use of a sign, note, or mark for a word or phrase. The Emperor Justinian forbade the use of abbreviations in the compilation of the "Digest" and afterwards extended his prohibition to all other writings. This prohibition was not universally obeyed. The abbreviators found it to their own convenience and interest to use the abbreviated form, and especially was this the case at Rome. The early Christians practised the abbreviated mode, no doubt as an easy and safe way of communicating with one another and safeguarding their secrets from enemies and false brethren. Ecclesiastical abbreviatores In course of time the Apostolic Chancery adopted this mode of writing as the "curial" style, still further abridging by omitting the diphthongs ae and oe, and likewise all lines and marks of punctuation. The ecclesiastical Abbreviators were officials of the Holy See, among the principal officials of the Apostolic Chancery, which is one of the oldest and most important offices in the Roman Curia. The scope of its labour, as well as the number of its officials, has varied with the times. Up to the twelfth or thirteenth century, the duty of the Apostolic - or Roman Chancery was to prepare and expedite the pontifical letters and writs for collation of church dignities and other matters of grave importance which were discussed and decided in Consistory. About the thirteenth or fourteenth century, the popes, then residing at Avignon in France, began to reserve the collation of a great many benefices, so that all the benefices, especially the greater ones, were to be conferred through the Roman Curia (Lega, Praelectiones Jur. Can., I, ii, 287). As a consequence, the labour was immensely augmented, and the number of Abbreviators necessarily increased. To regulate the proper expedition of these reserved benefices, Pope John XXII instituted the rules of chancery to determine the competency and mode of procedure of the Chancery. Afterwards the establishment of the Dataria and the Secretariate of Briefs lightened the work of the Chancery and led to a reduction in the number of Abbreviators. According to Ciampini (Lib. de Abbreviatorum de parco majore etc., cap. i) the institution of curial abbreviators was very ancient, succeeding after the persecutions to the notaries who recorded the acts of the martyrs. Other authors reject this early institution and ascribe it to Pope John XXII (1316). It is certain that he uses the name Abbreviators, but speaks as if they had existed before his time, and had, by overtaxation for their labour, caused much complaint and protest. He (Extravag. Joan. tit. xiii, "Cum ad Sacrosanctae Romanae Ecclesiae") prescribes their work, determines how much they may charge for their labour, fixes a certain tax for an abstract or abridgment of twenty-five words, or their equivalent, 150 letters, forbids them to charge more, even though the abstract goes over twenty-five words but less than fifty words, enacts that the basis of the tax is the labour employed in writing, expediting, etc., the Bulls, and by no means the emoluments accruing to the recipient of the favour or benefice conferred by the Bull, and declares that whoever shall charge more than the tax fixed by him shall be suspended for six months from office, and upon a second violation of the law, shall be deprived of it altogether, and if the delinquent be an abbreviator, he shall be excommunicated. Should a large letter have to be rewritten, owing to the inexact copy of the abbreviator, the abbreviator and not the receiver of the Bull must pay the extra charge for the extra labour to the apostolic writer. Whatever may be the date of the institution of the office of abbreviator, it is certain that it became of greater importance and more highly privileged upon its erection into a college of prelates. Pope Martin V (Constit. 3 "In Apostolicae", ii and v) fixed the manner for their examination and approbation and also the tax they should demand for their labour and the punishment for overcharge. He also assigned to them certain emoluments. The Abbreviators of the lower, or lesser, were to be promoted to the higher, or greater, bar or presidency. Their offices were compatible with other offices, i.e. they can hold two benefices or offices at one and the same time, some conferred by the Cardinal Vice-Chancellor, others by the Holy Father. Erection into a college of Prelates In the pontificate of Pius II, their number, which had been fixed at twenty-four, had overgrown to such an extent as to diminish considerably the individual remuneration, and, as a consequence, able and competent men no longer sought the office, and hence the old style of writing and expediting the Bulls was no longer used, to the great injury of justice, the interested parties, and the dignity of the Holy See. To remedy this and to restore the old established chancery style, the Pope selected out of the many then living Abbreviators seventy, and formed them into a college of prelates, and decreed that their office should be perpetual, that certain emoluments should be attached to it, and granted certain privileges to the possessors of the same. He ordained further that some should be called "Abbreviators of the Upper Bar" (Abbreviatores de Parco Majori; the name derived from a space in the chancery, surrounded by a grating, in which the officials sat, which is called higher or lower (major or minor) according to the proximity of the seats to that of the vice-chancellor), the others of the Lower Bar (Abbreviatores de Parco Minori); that the former should sit upon a slightly raised portion of the chamber, separated from the rest of the hall or chamber by lattice work, assist the Cardinal Vice-Chancellor, subscribe the letters and have the principal part in examining, revising, and expediting the apostolic letters to be issued with the leaden seal; that the latter, however, should sit among the apostolic writers upon benches in the lower part of the chamber, and their duty was to carry the signed schedules or supplications to the prelates of the upper bar. Then one of the prelates of the upper bar made an abstract, and another prelate of the same bar revised it. Prelates of the upper bar formed a quasi-tribunal, in which as a college they decided all doubts that might arise about the form and quality of the letters, of the clauses and decrees to be adjoined to the apostolic letters, and sometimes about the payment of the emoluments and other contingencies. Their opinion about questions concerning chancery business was held in the highest estimation by all the Roman tribunals. Pope Paul II suppressed this college; but Sixtus IV (Constitutio 16, "Divina") reestablished it. He appointed seventy-two abbreviators, of whom twelve were of the upper, or greater, and twenty-two of the lower, or lesser, presidency (Parco), and thirty-eight examiners on first appearance of letters. They were bound to be in attendance on certain days under penalty of fine, and sign letters and diplomas. Ciampini mentions a decree of the Vice-Chancellor by which absentees were mulcted in the loss of their share of the emoluments of the following chancery session. The same Pope also granted many privileges to the College of Abbreviators, but especially to the members of the greater presidency. Pius VII suppressed many of the chancery offices, and so the Tribunal of Correctors and the Abbreviators of the lower presidency disappeared. Of the Tribunal of Correctors, a substitute-corrector alone remains. Bouix (Curia Romana, edit. 1859) chronicles the suppression of the lower presidency and puts the number of Abbreviators at that date at eleven. The present college consists of seventeen prelates, six substitutes, and one sub-substitute, all of whom, except the prelates, may be clerics or laymen. Although the duty of Abbreviators was originally to make abstracts and abridgments of the apostolic letters, diplomas, etc., using the legal abbreviations, clauses, and formularies, in course of time, as their office grew in importance they delegated that part of their office to their substitute and confined themselves to overseeing the proper expedition of the apostolic letters. Prior to the year 1878, all apostolic letters and briefs requiring for their validity the leaden seal were engrossed upon rough parchment and in Gothic characters (round letters, also called Gallicum and commonly Bollatico, but in Italy today Teutonic) without lines, or diphthongs, or marks of punctuation. Bulls engrossed on a different parchment, or in different characters with lines and punctuation marks, or without the accustomed abbreviations, clauses, and formularies, would be rejected as spurious. Pope Leo XIII (Constitutio Universae Eccles., 29 December 1878) ordained that they should be written henceforth in ordinary Latin characters upon ordinary parchment, and that no abbreviations should be used except those easily understood. Titles and privileges Many great privileges were conferred upon Abbreviators in the past. By decree of pope Leo X they were created papal nobles, ranking as Comes palatinus ('Count Palatine'), familiars and members of the papal household, so that they might enjoy all the privileges of domestic prelates and of prelates in actual attendance on the Pope, as regards plurality of benefices as well as expectives. They and their clerics and their properties were exempt from all jurisdiction except the immediate jurisdiction of the Pope, and they were not subject to the judgments of the Auditor of Causes, or to the Cardinal Vicar. He also empowered them to confer (later within strict limitations) the degree of Doctor, with all university privileges, create notaries (later abrogated), legitimize children so as to make them eligible to receive benefices vacated by their fathers (now revoked), also to ennoble three persons and to make Knights of the Order of St. Sylvester (Militiae Aureae), the same to enjoy and to wear the insignia of nobility. Pope Gregory XVI rescinded this privilege and reserved to the Pope the right of creation of such knights (Acta Pont. Greg. XVI, Vol. III, 178-179-180). Pope Paul V, who in early manhood was a member of the College (Const. 2, "Romani"), made them Referendaries of Favours, and after three years of service, Referendaries of Justice, enjoying the privileges of Referendaries and permitting one to assist in the signatures before the Pope, giving all a right to a portion in the papal palace and exempting them from the registration of favours as required by Pius IV (Const., 98) with regard to matters pertaining to the Apostolic Chamber. They followed immediately after the twelve voting members of the Signature in capella. Abbreviators of the greater presidency were permitted to wear the purple cassock and cappa, as also rochet in capella. Abbreviators of the lower presidency before their suppression were simple clerics, and according to permission granted by Sixtus IV (loc. cit.) might be even married men. These offices becoming vacant by death of the Abbreviator, no matter where the death take place, are reserved in Curia. The prelates could resign their office in favour of others. Formerly these offices as well as those of the other chancery officers from the Regent down were occasions of venality, until popes, especially Benedict XIV and Pius VII, gradually abolish that. Pope Leo XIII (Motu Proprio, 4 July 1898) most solemnly decreed the abolition of all venality in the transfer or Collation of the said offices. As domestic prelates, prelates of the Roman Court, they had personal preeminence in every diocese of the world. They were addressed as "Reverendissimus", "Right Reverend", and "Monsignor". As prelates, and therefore possessing the legal dignity, they were competent to receive and execute papal commands. Benedict XIV (Const. 3, "Maximo") granted prelates of the greater presidency the privilege of wearing a hat with purple band, which right they hold even after they have ceased to be abbreviators. Suppression The college was suppressed in 1908 by Pope Pius X and their duties were transferred to the protonotarii apostolici participantes. 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5,107 | George_Cukor | George Cukor (July 7, 1899 – January 24, 1983) was an Academy Award-winning American film director who mainly concentrated on comedies and literary adaptations. His career flourished at RKO and later MGM, where he directed a string of impressive films including What Price Hollywood? (1932), A Bill of Divorcement (1932), Dinner at Eight (1933), Little Women (1933), David Copperfield (1935), Romeo and Juliet (1936), and Camille (1937). His career suffered a temporary setback when he was replaced as the director of Gone with the Wind (1939), but he continued to direct classic films with The Philadelphia Story (1940), Adam's Rib (1949), Born Yesterday (1950) and A Star Is Born (1954). His last major success was My Fair Lady (1964), but he worked into the 1980s. Early life He was born George Dewey Cukor on the Lower East Side of New York City, the younger child and only son of Hungarian Jewish immigrants Victor, an assistant district attorney, and Helen Ilona (née Gross) Cukor. His parents selected his middle name in honor of Spanish-American War hero George Dewey. The family was not particularly religious; Yiddish was not spoken in the home, pork was a staple on the dinner table, and when he started attending temple as a boy, Cukor learned Hebrew phonetically, with no real understanding of the meaning of the words or what they represented. As a result, he was ambivalent about his faith and dismissive of old world traditions from childhood, and as an adult he embraced Anglophilia to remove himself even further from his roots. McGilligan, Patrick, George Cukor: A Double Life. New York: St. Martin's Press 1991. ISBN 0-312-05419-X, pp. 5-6 As a child, Cukor appeared in several amateur plays and took dance lessons, and at the age of seven he performed in a recital with David O. Selznick, who in later years would become a mentor and friend. McGilligan, p. 11 As a teenager, Cukor frequently was taken to the New York Hippodrome by his uncle. Infatuated with theatre, he often cut classes at De Witt Clinton High School to attend afternoon matinees. McGilligan, p. 10 During his senior year, he worked as a supernumerary with the Metropolitan Opera, earning 50¢ per appearance, and $1 if he was required to perform in blackface. Levy, Emanuel, George Cukor: Master of Elegance. New York: William Morrow & Company, Inc. 1994. ISBN 0-688-11246-3, pp. 26-27 Following his graduation in 1917, Cukor was expected to follow in his father's footsteps and pursue a career in law. He halfheartedly enrolled in the City College of New York, where he entered the Students Army Training Corps in October 1918. His military experience was limited; Germany surrendered in early December, and Cukor's duty ended after only two months. Shortly after he left school. McGilligan, p. 19 Cukor obtained a job as an assistant stage manager and bit player with a touring production of The Better 'Ole, a popular British musical based on Old Bill, a cartoon character created by Bruce Bairnsfather. McGilligan, p. 21 In 1920, he became the stage manager for the Knickerbocker Players, a troupe that shuttled between Syracuse and Rochester, New York, and the following year he was hired as general manager of the newly-formed Lyceum Players, an upstate summer stock company. In 1925 he formed the C.F. and Z. Production Company with Walter Folmer and John Zwicki, which gave him his first opportunity to direct. Levy, pp. 33-34 McGilligan, pp. 34-35 Following their first season, he made his Broadway directorial debut with Antonia by Hungarian playwright Melchior Lengyel, then returned to Rochester, where C.F. and Z. evolved into the Cukor-Kondolf Stock Company, a troupe that included Louis Calhern, Ilka Chase, Phyllis Povah, Frank Morgan, Reginald Owen, Elizabeth Patterson, and Douglass Montgomery, all of whom would work with Cukor in later years in Hollywood. McGilligan, pp. 36-41 Lasting only one season with the company was Bette Davis. Cukor later recalled, "Her talent was apparent, but she did buck at direction. She had her own ideas, and though she only did bits and ingenue roles, she didn't hesitate to express them." For the next several decades, Davis claimed she was fired, and although Cukor never understood why she placed so much importance on an incident he considered so minor, he never worked with her again. Levy, pp. 36-37 For the next few years, Cukor alternated between Rochester in the summer months and Broadway in the winter. His direction of a 1926 stage adaptation of The Great Gatsby by Owen Davis brought him to the attention of the New York critics. Writing in the Brooklyn Eagle, drama critic Arthur Pollock called it "an unusual piece of work by a director not nearly so well-known as he should be." McGilligan, p. 53 Cukor directed six more Broadway productions before departing for Hollywood in 1929. Early Hollywood career When Hollywood began to recruit New York theater talent for sound films, Cukor immediately answered the call. In December 1928, Paramount Pictures signed him to a contract that reimbursed him for his airfare and initially paid him $600 per week with no screen credit during a six-month apprenticeship. He arrived in Hollywood in February 1929, and his first assignment was to coach the cast of River of Romance to speak with an acceptable Southern accent. McGilligan, p. 61 In October, the studio lent him to Universal Pictures to conduct the screen tests and work as a dialogue director for All Quiet on the Western Front. In 1930, he co-directed three films at Paramount, and his weekly salary was increased to $1500. McGilligan, pp. 67-69 In 1931, he made his solo directorial debut with Tarnished Lady starring Tallulah Bankhead. Cukor was then assigned to One Hour With You (1932), an operetta with Maurice Chevalier and Jeanette MacDonald, when original director Ernst Lubitsch opted to concentrate on producing the film instead. At first the two men worked well together, but two weeks into filming Lubitsch began arriving on the set on a regular basis, and he soon began directing scenes with Cukor's consent. Upon the film's completion, Lubitsch approached Paramount general manager B. P. Schulberg and threatened to leave the studio if Cukor's name wasn't removed from the credits. When Schulberg asked him to cooperate, Cukor filed suit. He eventually settled for being billed as dialogue director and then left Paramount to work with David O. Selznick at RKO Studios. McGilligan, pp. 69-71 Cukor quickly earned a reputation as a director who could coax great performances from actresses and he became known as a 'woman's director', a title he resented. Despite this reputation, during his career, he oversaw more performances honored with the Academy Award for Best Actor than any other director: James Stewart in The Philadelphia Story (1940), Ronald Colman in A Double Life (1947), and Rex Harrison in My Fair Lady (1964). One of Cukor's first ingenues was actress Katharine Hepburn, who debuted in A Bill of Divorcement and whose looks and personality left RKO officials at a loss as to how to use her. Cukor directed her in several films, both successful (Little Women, 1933) and disastrous (Sylvia Scarlett, 1935), and they became close friends off the set. Cukor was hired to direct Gone with the Wind by Selznick in 1936, even before the book was published. McGilligan, p. 134 He spent the next two years involved with pre-production duties, including supervision of the numerous screen tests of actresses anxious to portray Scarlett O'Hara. Cukor favored Hepburn for the role, but Selznick, concerned about her reputation as 'box office poison', would not consider her without a screen test, and the actress refused to film one. Of those who did, Cukor preferred Paulette Goddard, but her supposedly illicit relationship with Charles Chaplin (they were, in fact, secretly married) concerned Selznick. McGilligan, pp. 137-38 Between his Wind chores, the director assisted with other projects. He filmed the cave scene for The Adventures of Tom Sawyer (1938) McGilligan, pp. 139-40 and, following the firing of its original director Richard Thorpe, Cukor spent a week on the set of The Wizard of Oz (1939). Although he filmed no footage, he made crucial changes to the look of Dorothy by eliminating Judy Garland's blonde wig and adjusting her makeup and costume. He also encouraged her to act in a more natural manner that greatly contributed to the success of the final film. The Wizard of Oz at Turner Classic Movies McGilligan, p. 145 Cukor spent many hours coaching Vivien Leigh and Olivia de Havilland prior to the start of filming Wind, but Clark Gable resisted his efforts to get him to master a Southern accent. Gable also was uncomfortable with Cukor because he suspected the director was aware of a drunken sexual encounter the actor had with William Haines very early in his career, and he was concerned gossip about it would jeopardize his standing as one of Hollywood's most virile leading men. McGilligan, p. 150 Levy, p. 117 Less than three weeks after shooting began, Gable exploded on the set, calling Cukor a "fairy" and demanding he be directed by a "real man". McGilligan, p. 150 Shortly afterwards, Cukor was relieved of his duties, but he continued to work with Leigh and De Havilland off the set. Various rumors about the reasons behind his dismissal circulated throughout Hollywood. Selznick's friendship with Cukor had crumbled slightly when the director refused other assignments, including A Star is Born (1937) and Intermezzo (1939), McGilligan, p. 139 and Louis B. Mayer was anxious to replace him with an MGM director, and Victor Fleming - Gable's preference from the beginning - took over the reins. Cukor's dismissal from Wind freed him to direct The Women (1939), notable for its all-female cast, followed by The Philadelphia Story (1940), starring Katharine Hepburn. He also directed another of his favorite actresses, Greta Garbo, in Two-Faced Woman (1941), her last film before she retired from the screen. In 1942, at the age of forty-three, Cukor enlisted in the Signal Corps. Following basic training at Fort Monmouth, he was assigned to the old Paramount studios in Astoria, Queens (where he had directed three films in the early 1930s), although he was permitted to lodge at the St. Regis Hotel in Manhattan. Working with Irwin Shaw, John Cheever, and William Saroyan, among others, Cukor produced training and instructional films for army personnel. Because he lacked an officer's commission, he found it difficult to give orders and directions to his superiors. Despite his efforts to rise above the rank of private - he even called upon Frank Capra to intercede on his behalf - he never achieved officer's status or any commendations during his six months of service. In later years Cukor suspected his homosexuality impeded him from receiving any advances or honors, McGilligan, pp. 171-75 although rumors to that effect could not be confirmed. Levy, p. 150 The remainder of the decade was a series of hits and misses for Cukor. Both Two Faced Woman and Her Cardboard Lover (1942) were commercial failures. More successful were A Woman's Face (1941) with Joan Crawford and Gaslight (1944) with Ingrid Bergman and Charles Boyer. During this era, Cukor forged an alliance with screenwriters Garson Kanin and Ruth Gordon, who had met in Cukor's home in 1939 and married three years later. Over the course of seven years, the trio collaborated on seven films, including Adam's Rib (1949), Born Yesterday (1950), The Marrying Kind (1952), and It Should Happen to You (1954), all starring another Cukor favorite, Judy Holliday, who won the Academy Award for Best Actress for Born Yesterday. Later Hollywood career In December 1952, Cukor was approached by Sid Luft, who proposed the director helm a musical remake of the 1937 film A Star is Born with his then-wife Judy Garland in the lead role. Cukor had declined to direct the earlier film because it was too similar to his 1932 What Price Hollywood?, but the opportunity to direct his first Technicolor film, first musical, and work with screenwriter Moss Hart and especially Garland appealed to him, and he accepted. McGilligan, 217-18 Getting the updated A Star Is Born to the screen proved to be a challenge. Cukor wanted Cary Grant for the male lead and went so far as to read the entire script with him, but Grant, while agreeing it was the role of a lifetime, steadfastly refused to do it, and Cukor never forgave him. The director then suggested either Humphrey Bogart or Frank Sinatra tackle the part, but Jack Warner rejected both. Stewart Granger was the front runner for a period of time, but he backed out when he was unable to adjust to Cukor's habit of acting out scenes as a form of direction. McGilligan, p. 219-20 James Mason ultimately was signed, and filming began on October 12, 1953. As the months passed, Cukor was forced to deal not only with constant script changes but a very unstable leading lady, who was plagued by chemical and alcohol dependencies, extreme weight fluctuations, and real and imagined illnesses. In March 1954, a rough cut still missing several musical numbers was assembled, and Cukor had mixed feelings about it. When the last scene finally was filmed in the early morning hours of July 28, 1954, Cukor already had departed the production and was unwinding in Europe. McGilligan, pp. 224-26 The first preview the following month ran 210 minutes and, despite ecstatic feedback from the audience, Cukor and editor Folmar Blangsted trimmed it to 182 minutes for its New York premiere in October. The reviews were the best of Cukor's career, but Warner executives, concerned the running time would limit the number of daily showings, made drastic cuts without Cukor, who had departed for India to scout locations for Bhowani Junction. At its final running time of 154 minutes, the film had lost musical numbers and crucial dramatic scenes, and Cukor called it "very painful." McGilligan, pp. 236-37 He was not included in the film's six Oscar nominations, all of which were lost. Over the next ten years, Cukor directed a handful of films with varying success. Les Girls (1957) won the Golden Globe Award for Best Motion Picture – Musical or Comedy, and Wild Is the Wind (1957) earned Oscar nominations for Anna Magnani and Anthony Quinn, but neither Heller in Pink Tights nor Let's Make Love (both 1960) were box office hits. His most notable project during this period was the ill-fated Something's Got to Give, an updated remake of the 1940 screwball comedy My Favorite Wife. Cukor liked leading lady Marilyn Monroe but found it difficult to deal with her erratic work habits, frequent absences from the set, and the constant presence of her acting coach, Paula Strasberg. After thirty-two days of shooting, the director had only 7½ minutes of usable film. Levy, p.271 Then Monroe went AWOL to appear at a birthday celebration for John F. Kennedy at Madison Square Garden, where she famously serenaded the President. The production came to a halt when Cukor had filmed every scene not involving Monroe and the actress remained unavailable. 20th Century Fox executive Peter Levathes fired her and hired Lee Remick to replace her, prompting co-star Dean Martin to quit, since his contract guaranteed he would be playing opposite Monroe. McGilligan, p. 272 With the production already $2 million over budget Levy, p. 271 and everyone back at the starting gate, the studio pulled the plug on the project. Less than two months later, Monroe was found dead in her home. Two years later, Cukor achieved one of his greatest success with My Fair Lady. Throughout filming there were mounting tensions between the director and designer Cecil Beaton, but Cukor was thrilled with leading lady Audrey Hepburn, although the crew was less enchanted with her diva-like demands. Levy, 289 Although several reviews were critical of the film - Pauline Kael said it "staggers along" and Stanley Kauffmann thought Cukor's direction was like "a rich gravy poured over everything, not remotely as delicately rich as in the Asquith-Howard 1937 Pygmalion" - Levy, p. 293 the film was a box office hit which won him the Academy Award for Best Director, the Golden Globe Award for Best Director, and the Directors Guild of America Award after having been nominated for each several times. Following My Fair Lady, Cukor became less active. He directed Maggie Smith in Travels with My Aunt in 1972 and helmed the critical and commercial flop The Blue Bird, the first joint Soviet-American production, in 1976. He reunited twice with Katherine Hepburn for the television movies Love Among the Ruins (1975) and The Corn Is Green (1979). He directed his final film, Rich and Famous (1981) with Jacqueline Bisset and Candice Bergen, at the age of eighty-two. Personal life It was an open secret in Hollywood that Cukor was homosexual, although he was discreet about his sexual preference and "never carried it as a pin on his lapel", as producer Joseph L. Mankiewicz put it. McGilligan, p. 113 He was a celebrated bon vivant whose luxurious home was the site of weekly Sunday afternoon parties attended by closeted celebrities and the attractive young men they met in bars and gyms and brought with them. McGilligan, pp. 186-87 At least once, in the midst of his reign at MGM, he was arrested on vice charges, but studio executives managed to get the charges dropped and all records of it expunged, and the incident never was publicized by the press. McGilligan, p. 133 In the late 1950s, Cukor became involved with a considerably younger man named George Towers. He financed his education at the Los Angeles State College of Applied Arts and Sciences and the University of Southern California, from which Towers graduated with a law degree in 1967. McGilligan, pp. 277-78 That fall Towers married and his relationship with Cukor evolved into one of father and son, and for the remainder of Cukor's life the two remained very close. McGilligan, pp. 307, 347-48 Cukor's friends were of paramount importance to him and he kept his home filled with their photographs. Regular attendees at his famed soirées included Katharine Hepburn and Spencer Tracy, Joan Crawford and Douglas Fairbanks, Jr. , Lauren Bacall and Humphrey Bogart, Claudette Colbert, Marlene Dietrich, Laurence Olivier and Vivien Leigh, actor Richard Cromwell, Judy Garland, Gene Tierney, Noël Coward, Cole Porter, director James Whale, costume designer Edith Head, and Norma Shearer, especially after the death of her first husband, Irving Thalberg. He often entertained literary figures like Sinclair Lewis, Theodore Dreiser, Aldous Huxley, Ferenc Molnár, and close friend Somerset Maugham, as well. McGilligan, pp. 124-25 Death Cukor died of a heart attack on January 24, 1983 at the age of 83 and was interred in an unmarked grave at the Forest Lawn Memorial Park Cemetery in Glendale, California. Findagrave.com Records in probate court indicated his net worth at the time of his death was $2,377,720. McGilligan, p. 343 Filmography Grumpy (1930) The Virtuous Sin (1930) The Royal Family of Broadway (1930) Tarnished Lady (1931) Girls About Town (1931) A Bill of Divorcement (1932) Rockabye (1932) What Price Hollywood? (1932) Dinner At Eight (1933) Our Betters (1933) Little Women (1933) David Copperfield (1935) No More Ladies (1935) Sylvia Scarlett (1935) Camille (1936) Romeo and Juliet (1936) Holiday (1938) Zaza (1939) Gone with the Wind (1939) (Fired early in production. Replaced by Victor Fleming.) The Women (1939) The Philadelphia Story (1940) Susan and God (1940) Two-Faced Woman (1941) A Woman's Face (1941) Her Cardboard Lover (1942) Keeper of the Flame (1942) Gaslight (1944) Winged Victory (1944) A Double Life (1947) Edward, My Son (1949) Adam's Rib (1949) Born Yesterday (1950) A Life of Her Own (1950) The Model and the Marriage Broker (1951) The Marrying Kind (1952) Pat and Mike (1952) The Actress (1953) A Star Is Born (1954) It Should Happen to You (1954) Bhowani Junction (1956) Les Girls (1957) Wild Is the Wind (1957) Heller in Pink Tights (1960) Let's Make Love (1960) The Chapman Report (1962) My Fair Lady (1964) Justine (1969) Travels with My Aunt (1972) Love Among the Ruins (1975) The Blue Bird (1976) Rich And Famous (1981) References Bibliography Hillstrom, Laurie Collier, International Dictionary of Films and Filmmakers. Detroit: St. James Press 1997. ISBN 1-55862-302-7 Katz, Ephraim, The Film Encyclopedia. New York: HarperCollins 2001. ISBN 0-06-273755-4 Myrick, Susan, White Columns in Hollywood: Reports from the GWTW Sets. Macon, Georgia: Mercer University Press 1982 ISBN 0-86-554044-6 Wakeman, John, World Film Directors. New York: H.W. Wilson Company 1987. ISBN 0-8242-0757-2 External links Cukor bibliography at UC Berkeley Media Resources Center Senses of Cinema: Great Directors Critical Database | George_Cukor |@lemmatized george:6 cukor:68 july:2 january:2 academy:4 award:7 win:4 american:3 film:35 director:24 mainly:1 concentrate:2 comedy:3 literary:2 adaptation:2 career:8 flourish:1 rko:3 later:6 mgm:3 direct:17 string:1 impressive:1 include:7 price:3 hollywood:13 bill:5 divorcement:3 dinner:3 eight:2 little:3 woman:11 david:4 copperfield:2 romeo:2 juliet:2 camille:2 suffer:1 temporary:1 setback:1 replace:4 go:5 wind:8 continue:2 classic:2 philadelphia:4 story:4 adam:3 rib:3 bear:10 yesterday:4 star:9 last:4 major:1 success:4 fair:5 lady:11 work:12 early:8 life:7 dewey:2 low:1 east:1 side:1 new:11 york:11 city:2 young:3 child:2 son:3 hungarian:2 jewish:1 immigrant:1 victor:3 assistant:2 district:1 attorney:1 helen:1 ilona:1 née:1 gross:1 parent:1 select:1 middle:1 name:3 honor:3 spanish:1 war:1 hero:1 family:2 particularly:1 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5,108 | Natural_monopoly | In economics, a natural monopoly occurs when, due to the economies of scale of a particular industry, the maximum efficiency of production and distribution is realized through a single supplier. Natural monopolies arise where the largest supplier in an industry, often the first supplier in a market, has an overwhelming cost advantage over other actual or potential competitors. This tends to be the case in industries where capital costs predominate, creating economies of scale which are large in relation to the size of the market, and hence high barriers to entry; examples include water services and electricity. It is very expensive to build transmission networks (water/gas pipelines, electricity and telephone lines), therefore it is unlikely that a potential competitor would be willing to make the capital investment needed to even enter the monopolist's market. It may also depend on control of a particular natural resource. Companies that grow to take advantage of economies of scale often run into problems of bureaucracy; these factors interact to produce an "ideal" size for a company, at which the company's average cost of production is minimized. If that ideal size is large enough to supply the whole market, then that market is a natural monopoly. Some free-market-oriented economists argue that natural monopolies exist only in theory, and not in practice, or that they exist only as transient states. DiLorenzo, Thomas J. (1996), The Myth of the Natural Monopoly, The Review of Austrian Economics 9(2) Explanation All industries have costs associated with entering them. Often, a large portion of these costs is required for investment. Larger industries, like utilities, require enormous initial investment. This barrier to entry reduces the number of possible entrants into the industry regardless of the earning of the corporations within. Natural monopolies arise where the largest supplier in an industry, often the first supplier in a market, has an overwhelming cost advantage over other actual or potential competitors; this tends to be the case in industries where fixed costs predominate, creating economies of scale which are large in relation to the size of the market - examples include water services and electricity. It is very expensive to build transmission networks (water/gas pipelines, electricity and telephone lines), therefore it is unlikely that a potential competitor would be willing to make the capital investment needed to even enter the monopolists market. Companies that grow to take advantage of economies of scale often run into problems of bureaucracy; these factors interact to produce an "ideal" size for a company, at which the company's average cost of production is minimized. If that ideal size is large enough to supply the whole market, then that market is a natural monopoly. A further discussion and understanding requires more microeconomics: Two different types of cost are important in microeconomics: marginal cost, and fixed cost. The marginal cost is the cost to the company of serving one more customer. In an industry where a natural monopoly does not exist, the vast majority of industries, the marginal cost decreases with economies of scale, then increases as the company has growing pains (overworking its employees, bureaucracy, inefficiencies, etc.). Along with this, the average cost of its products will decrease and then increase again. A natural monopoly has a very different cost structure. A natural monopoly has a high fixed cost for a product that does not depend on output, but its marginal cost of producing one more good is roughly constant, and small. A firm with high fixed costs will require a large number of customers in order to retrieve a meaningful return on their initial investment. This is where economies of scale become important. Since each firm has large initial costs, as the firm gains market share and increases its output the fixed cost (what they initially invested) is divided among a larger number of customers. Therefore, in industries with large initial investment requirements, average total cost declines as output increases over a much larger range of output levels. Once a natural monopoly has been established because of the large initial cost and that, according to the rule of economies of scale, the larger corporation (to a point) has lower average cost and therefore a huge advantage. With this knowledge, no firms attempt to enter the industry and an oligopoly or monopoly develops. Industries with a Natural Monopoly Utilities are often natural monopolies. In industries with a standardized product and economies of scale, a natural monopoly will often arise. In the case of electricity, all companies provide the same product, the infrastructure required is immense, and the cost of adding one more customer is negligible, up to a point. Adding one more customer may increase the company's revenue and lowers the average cost of providing for the company's customer base. So long as the average cost of serving customers is decreasing, the larger firm will more efficiently serve the entire customer base. Of course, this might be circumvented by differentiating the product, making it no longer a pure commodity. For example, firms may gain customers who will pay more by selling "green" power, or non-polluting power, or locally-produced power. Historical example Such a process happened in the water industry in nineteenth century Britain. Up until the mid-nineteenth century, Parliament discouraged municipal involvement in water supply; in 1851, private companies had 60% of the market. Competition amongst the companies in larger industrial towns lowered profit margins, as companies were less able to charge a sufficient price for installation of networks in new areas. In areas with direct competition (with two sets of mains), usually at the edge of companies' territories, profit margins were lowest of all. Such situations resulted in higher costs and lower efficiency, as two networks, neither used to capacity, were used. With a limited number of households that could afford their services, expansion of networks slowed, and many companies were barely profitable. With a lack of water and sanitation claiming thousands of lives in periodic epidemics, municipalisation proceeded rapidly after 1860, and it was municipalities which were able to raise the finance for investment which private companies in many cases could not. A few well-run private companies which worked together with their local towns and cities (gaining legal monopolies and thereby the financial security to invest as required) did survive, providing around 20% of the population with water even today. The rest of the water industry in England and Wales was reprivatised in the form of 10 regional monopolies in 1989. Origins of the term The original concept of natural monopoly is often attributed to John Stuart Mill, who (writing before the marginalist revolution) believed that prices would reflect the costs of production in absence of an artificial or natural monopoly. Principles of Political Economy, Book IV 'Influence of the progress of society on production and distribution', Chapter 2 'Influence of the Progress of Industry and Population on Values and Prices', para. 2 In Principles of Political Economy Mill criticised Smith's neglect Wealth of Nations (1776) Book I, Chapter 10 of an area that could explain wage disparity. Taking up the examples of professionals such as jewellers, physicians and lawyers, he said, Principles of Political Economy Book II, Chapter XIV 'Of the Differences of Wages in different Employments', para. 13-4 "The superiority of reward is not here the consequence of competition, but of its absence: not a compensation for disadvantages inherent in the employment, but an extra advantage; a kind of monopoly price, the effect not of a legal, but of what has been termed a natural monopoly... independently of... artificial monopolies [i.e. grants by government], there is a natural monopoly in favour of skilled labourers against the unskilled, which makes the difference of reward exceed, sometimes in a manifold proportion, what is sufficient merely to equalize their advantages. If unskilled labourers had it in their power to compete with skilled, by merely taking the trouble of learning the trade, the difference of wages might not exceed what would compensate them for that trouble, at the ordinary rate at which labour is remunerated. But the fact that a course of instruction is required, of even a low degree of costliness, or that the labourer must be maintained for a considerable time from other sources, suffices everywhere to exclude the great body of the labouring people from the possibility of any such competition. So Mill's initial use of the term concerned natural abilities, in contrast to the common contemporary usage, which refers solely to market failure in a particular type of industry, such as rail, post or electricity. Mill's development of the idea is that what is true of labour is true of capital. Principles of Political Economy Book II, Chapter XV, 'Of Profits', para. 9 "All the natural monopolies (meaning thereby those which are created by circumstances, and not by law) which produce or aggravate the disparities in the remuneration of different kinds of labour, operate similarly between different employments of capital. If a business can only be advantageously carried on by a large capital, this in most countries limits so narrowly the class of persons who can enter into the employment, that they are enabled to keep their rate of profit above the general level. A trade may also, from the nature of the case, be confined to so few hands, that profits may admit of being kept up by a combination among the dealers. It is well known that even among so numerous a body as the London booksellers, this sort of combination long continued to exist. I have already mentioned the case of the gas and water companies. Mill also used the term in relation to land, for which the natural monopoly could be extracted by virtue of it being the only land like it. Principles of Political Economy, Book II, Chapter XVI, 'Of Rent', para. 2 and 16 Furthermore, Mill referred to network industries, such as electricity and water supply, roads, rail and canals, as "practical monopolies", where "it is the part of the government, either to subject the business to reasonable conditions for the general advantage, or to retain such power over it, that the profits of the monopoly may at least be obtained for the public." Principles of Political Economy, Book V, Chapter XI 'Of the Grounds and Limits of the Laisser-faire or Non-Interference Principle' On subways, see also, So, a legal prohibition against competition is often advocated and rates are not left to the market but are regulated by the government. Regulation As with all monopolies, a monopolist who has gained his position through natural monopoly effects may engage in behavior that abuses his market position, which often to lead to calls from consumers for government regulation. Government regulation may also come about at the request of a business hoping to enter a market otherwise dominated by a natural monopoly. Common arguments in favor of regulation include the desire to control market power, facilitate competition, promote investment or system expansion, or stabilize markets. In general, though, regulation occurs when the government believes that the operator, left to his own devices, would behave in a way that is contrary to the government’s objectives. In some countries an early solution to this perceived problem was government provision of, for example, a utility service. However, this approach raised its own problems. Some governments used the state-provided utility services to pursue political agendas, as a source of cash flow for funding other government activities, or as a means of obtaining hard currency. These and other consequences of state provision of services often resulted in inefficiency and poor service quality. As a result, governments began to seek other solutions, namely regulation and providing services on a commercial basis, often through private participation. Body of Knowledge on Infrastructure Regulation “General Concepts : Introduction.” As a quid pro quo for accepting government oversight, private suppliers may be permitted some monopolistic returns, through stable prices or guaranteed through limited rates of return, and a reduced risk of long-term competition. (See also rate of return pricing). For example, an electric utility may be allowed to sell electricity at price that will give it a 12% return on its capital investment. If not constrained by the public utility commission, the company would likely charge a far higher price and earn an abnormal profit on its capital. Regulatory responses: doing nothing setting legal limits on the firm's behaviour, either directly or through a regulatory agency setting up competition for the market (franchising) setting up common carrier type competition setting up surrogate competition ("yardstick" competition or benchmarking) requiring companies to be (or remain) quoted on the stock market public ownership Since the 1980s there is a global trend towards utility deregulation, in which systems of competition are intended to replace regulation by specifying or limiting firms' behaviour; the telecommunications industry is a leading example globally. Doing nothing Because the existence of a natural monopoly depends on an industry's cost structure, which can change dramatically through new technology (both physical and organizational/institutional), the nature or even existence of natural monopoly may change over time. A classic example is the undermining of the natural monopoly of the canals in eighteenth century Britain by the emergence in the nineteenth century of the new technology of railways. Arguments from public choice suggest that regulatory capture is likely in the case of a regulated private monopoly. Moreover, in some cases the costs to society of overzealous regulation may be higher than the costs of permitting an unregulated private monopoly. (Although the monopolist charges monopoly prices, much of the price increase is a transfer rather than a loss to society.) More fundamentally, the theory of contestable markets developed by Baumol and others argues that monopolists (including natural monopolists) may be forced over time by the mere possibility of competition at some point in the future to limit their monopolistic behaviour, in order to deter entry. In the limit, a monopolist is forced to make the same production decisions as a competitive market would produce. A common example is that of airline flight schedules, where a particular airline may have a monopoly between destinations A and B, but the relative ease with which in many cases competitors could also serve that route limits its monopolistic behaviour. The argument even applies somewhat to government-granted monopolies, as although they are protected from competitors entering the industry, in a democracy excessively monopolistic behaviour may lead to the monopoly being revoked, or given to another party. Nobel economist Milton Friedman, said that in the case of natural monopoly that "there is only a choice among three evils: private unregulated monopoly, private monopoly regulated by the state, and government operation." He said "the least of these evils is private unregulated monopoly where this is tolerable." He reasons that the other alternatives are "exceedingly difficult to reverse," and that the dynamics of the market should be allowed the opportunity to have an effect and are likely to do so (Capitalism and Freedom). In a Wincott Lecture, he said that if the commodity in question is "essential" (for example: water or electricity) and the "monopoly power is sizeable," then "either public regulation or ownership may be a lesser evil." However, he goes on to say that such action by government should not consist of forbidding competition by law. Friedman has taken a stronger laissez-faire stance since, saying that "over time I have gradually come to the conclusion that antitrust laws do far more harm than good and that we would be better off if we didn’t have them at all, if we could get rid of them" (The Business Community's Suicidal Impulse). Advocates of laissez-faire capitalism, such as libertarians, typically say that permanent natural monopolies are merely theoretical. Economists from the Austrian school claim that governments take ownership of the means of production in certain industries and ban competition under the false pretense that they are natural monopolies. Franchising and outsourcing Although competition within a natural monopoly market is costly, it is possible to set up competition for the market. This has been, for example, the dominant organizational method for water services in France, although in this case the resulting degree of competition is limited by contracts often being set for long periods (30 years), and there only being three major competitors in the market. Equally, competition may be used for part of the market (eg IT services), through outsourcing contracts; some water companies outsource a considerable proportion of their operations. The extreme case is Welsh Water, which outsources virtually its entire business operations, running just a skeleton staff to manage these contracts. Franchising different parts of the business on a regional basis (eg parts of a city) can bring in some features of "yardstick" competition (see below), as the performance of different contractors can be compared. See also water privatization. Common carriage competition This involves different firms competing to distribute goods and services via the same infrastructure - for example different electricity companies competing to provide services to customers over the same electricity network. For this to work requires government intervention to break up vertically integrated monopolies, so that for instance in electricity, generation is separated from distribution and possibly from other parts of the industry such as sales. The key element is that access to the network is available to any firm that needs it to supply its service, with the price the infrastructure owner is permitted to charge being regulated. (There are several competing models of network access pricing.) In the British model of electricity liberalization, there is a market for generation capacity, where electricity can be bought on a minute-to-minute basis or through longer-term contracts, by companies with insufficient generation capacity (or sometimes no capacity at all). Such a system may be considered a form of deregulation, but in fact it requires active government creation of a new system of competition rather than simply the removal of existing legal restrictions. The system may also need continuing government finetuning, for example to prevent the development of long-term contracts from reducing the liquidity of the generation market too much, or to ensure the correct incentives for long-term security of supply are present. See also California electricity crisis. Whether such a system is more efficient than possible alternatives is unclear; the cost of the market mechanisms themselves are substantial, and the vertical de-integration required introduces additional risks. This raises the cost of finance - which for a capital intensive industry (as natural monopolies are) is a key issue. Moreover, such competition also raises equity and efficiency issues, as large industrial consumers tend to benefit much more than domestic consumers. Stock market One regulatory response is to require that private companies running natural monopolies be quoted on the stock market. This ensures they are subject to certain financial transparency requirements, and maintains the possibility of a takeover if the company is mismanaged. The latter in theory should help ensure that company is efficiently run. In practice, the notorious short-termism of the stock market may be antithetical to appropriate spending on maintenance and investment in industries with long time horizons, where the failure to do so may only have effects a decade or more hence (which is typically long after current chief executives have left the company). By way of example, the UK's water economic regulator, Ofwat, sees the stock market as an important regulatory instrument for ensuring efficient management of the water companies. Public ownership A traditional solution to the regulation problem, especially in Europe, is public ownership. This 'cuts out the middle man': instead of government regulating a firm's behaviour, it simply takes it over (usually by buy-out), and sets itself limits within which to act. Network effects Network effects are considered separately from natural monopoly status. Natural monopoly effects are a property of the producer's cost curves, whilst network effects arise from the benefit to the consumers of a good from standardization of the good. Many goods have both properties, like operating system software and telephone networks. Notes and References See also Market forms Currency Standardization Public goods Anti-competitive practices Coercive monopoly Tipping point Quasi-rent LoopCo References External links Natural Monopoly Definition | Natural_monopoly |@lemmatized economics:2 natural:37 monopoly:54 occur:2 due:1 economy:15 scale:9 particular:4 industry:26 maximum:1 efficiency:3 production:7 distribution:3 realize:1 single:1 supplier:6 arise:4 large:19 often:13 first:2 market:36 overwhelming:2 cost:35 advantage:8 actual:2 potential:4 competitor:7 tend:3 case:12 capital:9 predominate:2 create:3 relation:3 size:6 hence:2 high:6 barrier:2 entry:3 example:15 include:4 water:18 service:13 electricity:15 expensive:2 build:2 transmission:2 network:13 gas:3 pipeline:2 telephone:3 line:2 therefore:4 unlikely:2 would:8 willing:2 make:5 investment:10 need:4 even:7 enter:7 monopolist:7 may:21 also:12 depend:3 control:2 resource:1 company:29 grow:3 take:7 run:6 problem:5 bureaucracy:3 factor:2 interact:2 produce:5 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5,109 | January_1 | The preceding day is December 31 of the previous year. __TOC__ The ancient Romans began their consular year on January 1, ever since 153 BC. During the Middle Ages under the influence of the Christian Church, many countries moved the start of the year to one of several important Christian festivals — December 25 (the Nativity of Jesus), March 1, March 25 (the Annunciation), or even Easter. Eastern European countries (most of them with populations showing allegiance to the Orthodox Church) began their numbered year on September 1 from about 988. In England January 1 was celebrated as the New Year festival, but from the 12th century to 1752 the year in England began on March 25 (Lady Day). So, for example, the Parliamentary record records the execution of Charles I occurring in 1648 (as the year did not end until March 24), although modern histories adjust the start of the year to January 1 and record the execution as occurring in 1649. Most western European countries changed the start of the year to January 1 before they adopted the Gregorian calendar. For example, Scotland changed the start of the Scottish New Year to January 1 in 1600. England, Ireland and the British colonies changed the start of the year to January 1 in 1752. Later that year in September, the Gregorian calendar was introduced throughout Britain and the British colonies. These two reforms were implemented by the Calendar (New Style) Act 1750. January 1 became the official start of the year as follows: 1522 Venice 1544 Holy Roman Empire (Germany) 1556 Spain, Portugal 1559 Prussia, Sweden 1564 France 1576 Southern Netherlands 1579 Lorraine 1583 United Provinces of the Netherlands (northern) 1600 Scotland 1700 Russia 1721 Tuscany 1752 Great Britain and its colonies Events 153 BC – Roman consuls begin their year in office. 45 BC – The Julian calendar takes effect for the first time. 404 – The last recorded gladiatorial competition in Rome takes place. 630 – The Prophet Muhammad sets out toward Mecca with the army that captures it bloodlessly. 1001 – Grand Prince Stephen I of Hungary is named the first King of Hungary by Pope Silvester II. 1259 – Michael VIII Palaiologos is proclaimed co-emperor of the Empire of Nicaea with his ward John IV Laskaris. 1438 – Albert II of Habsburg is crowned King of Hungary. 1515 – King Francis I of France succeeds to the French throne. 1527 – Croatian nobles elect Ferdinand I of Austria as king of Croatia in the Parliament on Cetin. 1600 – Scotland begins its numbered year on January 1 instead of March 25. 1651 – Charles II is crowned King of Scotland. 1700 – Russia begins using the Anno Domini era and no longer uses the Anno Mundi era of the Byzantine Empire. 1707 – John V is crowned King of Portugal. 1739 – Bouvet Island is discovered by French explorer Jean-Baptiste Charles Bouvet de Lozier. 1772 – The first traveler's cheques, which can be used in 90 European cities, go on sale in London. 1781 – 1,500 soldiers of the 6th Pennsylvania Regiment under General Anthony Wayne's command rebel against the Continental Army's winter camp in Morristown, New Jersey as part of the Pennsylvania (Continentals; Regiment) Mutiny of 1781. 1788 – First edition of The Times of London, previously The Daily Universal Register, is published. 1800 – The Dutch East India Company is dissolved. 1801 – The legislative union of Kingdom of Great Britain and Kingdom of Ireland is completed to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. 1801 – The dwarf planet Ceres is discovered by Giuseppe Piazzi. 1803 – Emperor Gia Long orders all bronze wares of the Tây Sơn Dynasty to be collected and melted into nine cannons for the Royal Citadel in Huế, Vietnam. 1804 – French rule ends in Haiti. Haiti becomes the first black republic and second independent country on the American Continent after the U.S. 1806 – The French Republican Calendar is abolished. 1808 – The importation of slaves into the United States is banned. 1810 – Major-General Lachlan Macquarie CB officially becomes Governor of New South Wales 1822 – The Greek Constitution of 1822 is adopted by the First National Assembly of Epidaurus. 1833 – The United Kingdom claims sovereignty over the Falkland Islands. 1845 – The Cobble Hill Tunnel in Brooklyn is completed. 1861 – Porfirio Díaz conquers Mexico City. 1863 – American Civil War: The Emancipation Proclamation takes effect in Confederate territory. 1863 – The first claim under the Homestead Act is made by Daniel Freeman for a farm in Nebraska. 1873 – Japan begins using the Gregorian calendar. 1876 – The Reichsbank opens in Berlin. 1877 – Queen Victoria of Britain is proclaimed Empress of India. 1880 – Ferdinand de Lesseps begins French construction of the Panama Canal. 1890 – Eritrea is consolidated into a colony by the Italian government. 1892 – Ellis Island opens to begin processing immigrants into the United States. 1894 – The Manchester Ship Canal, England, is officially opened to traffic. 1898 – New York City annexes land from surrounding counties, creating the City of Greater New York. The four initial boroughs, Manhattan, Brooklyn, Queens, and The Bronx, are joined on January 25 by Staten Island to create the modern city of five boroughs. 1899 – Spanish rule ends in Cuba. 1901 – Nigeria becomes a British protectorate. 1901 – The British colonies of New South Wales, Queensland, Victoria, South Australia, Tasmania and Western Australia federate as the Commonwealth of Australia; Edmund Barton is appointed the first Prime Minister. 1902 – The first American college football bowl game, the Rose Bowl between Michigan and Stanford, is held in Pasadena. 1906 – British India officially adopts the Indian Standard Time. 1908 – For the first time, a ball is dropped in New York City's Times Square to signify the start of the New Year at midnight. 1909 – Drilling begins on the Lakeview Gusher. 1910 – Captain David Beatty is promoted to Rear Admiral, and becomes the youngest admiral in the Royal Navy (except for Royal family members), since Horatio Nelson. 1911 – Northern Territory is separated from South Australia and transferred to Commonwealth control. 1912 – The Republic of China is established. 1916 – German troops abandon Yaoundé and their Kamerun colony to British forces and begin the long march to Spanish Guinea. 1919 – Edsel Ford succeeds his father, Henry Ford, as president of the Ford Motor Company. 1920 – The Belorussian Communist Organisation is founded as a separate party. 1923 – Britain's Railways are grouped into the Big Four: LNER, GWR, SR, and LMSR. 1925 – The American astronomer Edwin Hubble announces the discovery of galaxies outside the Milky Way. 1927 – Turkey adopts the Gregorian calendar: December 18, 1926 (Julian), is immediately followed by January 1, 1927 (Gregorian). 1928 – Boris Bazhanov defects through Iran. He was the only assistant of Joseph Stalin's secretariat to have defected from the Eastern Bloc. 1929 – The former municipalities of Point Grey, British Columbia and South Vancouver, British Columbia are amalgamated into Vancouver. 1932 – The United States Post Office Department issues a set of 12 stamps commemorating the 200th anniversary of George Washington's birth. 1934 – Alcatraz Island becomes a United States federal prison. 1934 – Nazi Germany passes the "Law for the Prevention of Genetically Diseased Offspring". 1937 – Safety glass in vehicle windscreens becomes mandatory in Great Britain. 1939 – William Hewlett and David Packard found Hewlett-Packard. 1939 – Sydney, Australia, swelters in 45 ˚C (113 ˚F) heat, a record for the city. 1942 – The Declaration by the United Nations is signed by twenty-six nations. 1945 – World War II: In retaliation for the Malmedy massacre, U.S. troops massacre 30 SS prisoners at Chenogne. 1945 – World War II: The German Luftwaffe launches Unternehmen Bodenplatte, a massive, but failed attempt to knock out Allied air power in northern Europe in a single blow. 1947 – The American and British occupation zones in Germany, after the World War II, merge to form the Bizone, that later became the Federal Republic of Germany. 1948 – The British railway network is nationalised to form British Railways. 1948 – After partition, India declines to pay the agreed share of Rs.550 million in cash balances to Pakistan. 1948 – The Constitution of Italy comes into force. 1949 – United Nations cease-fire takes effect in Kashmir from one minute before midnight. War between India and Pakistan stops accordingly. 1950 – The state of Ajaigarh is ceded to the Government of India. 1954 – NBC makes the first coast-to-coast NTSC color broadcast when it telecast the Tournament of Roses Parade , with public demonstrations given across the United States on prototype color receivers. 1956 – The Republic of the Sudan achieves independence from the Egyptian Republic and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. 1956 – A new year event causes panic and stampedes at Yahiko Shrine, Yahiko, central Niigata, Japan, killing at least 124 people. 1957 – George Town, Penang becomes a city by a royal charter granted by Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II. 1957 – An Irish Republican Army (IRA) unit attacks Brookeborough RUC barracks in one of the most famous incidents of the IRA's Operation Harvest. 1958 – The European Community is established. 1959 – Fulgencio Batista, president of Cuba, is overthrown by Fidel Castro's forces during the Cuban Revolution. 1960 – The Republic of Cameroon achieves independence from France and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. 1962 – Western Samoa achieves independence from New Zealand; its name is changed to the Independent State of Western Samoa. 1962 – United States Navy SEALs established. 1964 – The Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland is divided into the independent republics of Zambia and Malawi, and the British-controlled Rhodesia. 1965 – The People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan is founded in Kabul. 1966 – A twelve-day New York City transit strike begins. 1966 – After a coup, Colonel Jean-Bédel Bokassa assumes power as president of the Central African Republic. 1971 – Cigarette advertisements are banned on American television. 1973 – Denmark, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, and the Republic of Ireland are admitted into the European Community. 1978 – Air India Flight 855 Boeing 747 crashes into the sea, due to instrument failure and pilot disorientation, off the coast of Bombay, killing 213. 1978 – The Constitution of the Northern Mariana Islands becomes effective. 1979 – Formal diplomatic relations are established between the People's Republic of China and the United States of America. 1980 – Victoria is crowned princess of Sweden. 1981 – The Republic of Greece is admitted into the European Community. 1981 – The Republic of Palau achieves self-government though it is not independent from the United States. 1982 – Peruvian Javier Pérez de Cuéllar becomes the first Latin American to hold the title of Secretary General of the United Nations. 1983 – The ARPANET officially changes to using the Internet Protocol, creating the Internet. 1984 – The original American Telephone & Telegraph Company is broken up into twenty-two independent units as a result of the settlement of the 1974 United States Department of Justice antitrust suit against AT&T . 1984 – The Sultanate of Brunei becomes independent of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. 1985 – The Internet's Domain Name System is created. 1985 – The first British mobile phone call is made by Ernie Wise to Vodafone. 1986 – Aruba becomes independent of Curaçao, though it remains in free association with the Kingdom of the Netherlands. 1986 – The Kingdom of Spain and the Portuguese Republic are admitted into the European Community. 1988 – The Evangelical Lutheran Church in America comes into existence, creating the largest Lutheran denomination in the United States. 1989 – The Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer comes into force. 1990 – David Dinkins is sworn in as New York City's first black mayor. 1993 – Dissolution of Czechoslovakia: Czechoslovakia is divided into the Slovak Republic and the Czech Republic. 1993 – A single market within the European Community is introduced. 1994 – The Zapatista Army of National Liberation initiates twelve days of armed conflict in the Mexican State of Chiapas. 1994 – The North American Free Trade Agreement comes into effect. 1994 – The European Economic Area comes into effect. 1994 – The International Tropical Timber Agreement comes into effect. 1995 – The World Trade Organization comes into effect. 1995 – The Kingdom of Sweden and the republics of Austria and Finland are admitted into the European Union. 1995 – The Conference for Security and Co-operation in Europe becomes the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe. 1995 – The Draupner wave in the North Sea in Norway is detected, confirming the existence of freak waves. 1996 – Curaçao gains limited self-government, though it remains within free association with the Kingdom of the Netherlands. 1997 – The Republic of Zaïre officially joins the World Trade Organization, as Zaïre. 1997 – Ghanaian diplomat Kofi Annan is appointed Secretary General of the United Nations. 1998 – Russia begins to circulate new rubles to stem inflation and promote confidence. 1998 – The European Central Bank is established. 1999 – The Euro currency is introduced. 2002 – Euro banknotes and coins become legal tender in twelve of the European Union's member states. 2002 – Taiwan officially joins the World Trade Organization, as Chinese Taipei. 2002 – The Open Skies mutual surveillance treaty, initially signed in 1992, officially comes into force. 2004 – In a vote of confidence, General Pervez Musharraf wins 658 out of 1,170 votes in the Electoral College of Pakistan, and according to Article 41(8) of the Constitution of Pakistan, is "deemed to be elected" to the office of President until October 2007. 2006 – Sydney, Australia swelters through its hottest New Years Day on record. The thermometer peaked at 45 degrees celsius, sparking bushfires and power outages. 2007 – Bulgaria and Romania officially join the European Union. Also, Bulgarian, Romanian, and Irish become official languages of the European Union, joining 20 other official languages. 2007 – Slovenia officially adopts the Euro currency and becomes the thirteenth Eurozone country. 2007 – Adam Air Flight 574 disappears over Indonesia with 102 people on board. 2008 – Malta and Cyprus officially adopt the Euro currency and become the fourteenth and fifteenth Eurozone countries. 2009 – Slovakia officially adopts the Euro currency and becomes the sixteenth Eurozone country. 2009 – 61 die in nightclub fire in Bangkok, Thailand. Births 766 – Ali al-Rida, Shia Imam (d. 818) 1431 – Pope Alexander VI (d. 1503) 1449 – Lorenzo de' Medici, Italian statesman (d. 1492) 1467 – Sigismund I the Old, King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania (d. 1548) 1484 – Huldrych Zwingli, Swiss Protestant leader (d. 1531) 1511 – Henry, Duke of Cornwall (d. 1511) 1516 – Margaret Leijonhufvud, Queen of Gustav I of Sweden (d. 1551) 1557 – István Bocskay, Prince of Transylvania (d. 1606) 1600 – Friedrich Spanheim, Dutch theologian (d. 1649) 1614 – John Wilkins, English Bishop of Chester (d. 1672) 1618 – Bartolomé Estéban Murillo, Spanish painter (baptism) (d. 1682) 1638 – Emperor Go-Sai of Japan (d. 1685) 1648 – Elkanah Settle, English writer (d. 1724) 1655 – Christian Thomasius, German jurist (d. 1728) 1684 – Arnold Drakenborch, Dutch classical scholar (d. 1748) 1704 – Soame Jenyns, English writer (d. 1787) 1711 – Franz Freiherr von der Trenck, Austrian soldier (d. 1749) 1714 – Kristijonas Donelaitis, Lithuanian poet (d. 1780) 1735 – Paul Revere, American patriot (d. 1818) 1745 – Anthony Wayne, American general and statesman (d. 1796) 1750 – Frederick Muhlenberg, American statesman (d. 1801) 1752 – Betsy Ross, American seamstress (d. 1836) 1767 – Maria Edgeworth, Anglo-Irish novelist (d. 1849) 1774 – André Marie Constant Duméril, French zoologist (d. 1860) 1779 – William Clowes, English printer (d. 1847) 1803 – Guglielmo Libri Carucci dalla Sommaja, Italian mathematician (d. 1869) 1814 – Hong Xiuquan, Chinese rebel (d. 1864) 1819 – Arthur Hugh Clough, English poet (d. 1861) 1823 – Sándor Petőfi, Hungarian poet and revolutionary (d. 1849) 1833 – Robert Lawson, New Zealand architect (d. 1902) 1834 – Ludovic Halévy, French playwright (d. 1908) 1848 – John Goff, Irish lawyer (d. 1924) 1852 – Eugène-Anatole Demarçay, French chemist (d. 1904) 1854 – Sir James George Frazer, Scottish anthropologist (d. 1941) 1863 – Pierre de Coubertin, French organizer of the Olympic Games (d. 1937) 1864 – Qi Baishi, Chinese painter (d. 1957) 1864 – Alfred Stieglitz, American photographer (d. 1946) 1868 – Snitz Edwards, American actor (d. 1937) 1873 – Mariano Azuela, Mexican novelist (d. 1952) 1874 – Frank Knox, American Secretary of the Navy (d. 1944) 1874 – Gustave Whitehead, German inventor (d. 1927) 1876 – Harriet Brooks, Canadian physicist (d. 1933) 1878 – Agner Krarup Erlang, Danish scientist and engineer (d. 1929) 1879 – E. M. Forster, English novelist (d. 1970) 1879 – William Fox, Hungarian-born American film producer (d. 1952) 1881 – Vajiravudh, King of Thailand (d. 1925) 1887 – Wilhelm Canaris, German admiral (d. 1945) 1888 – John Garand, American inventor (d. 1974) 1888 – Georgios Stanotas, Greek cavalry officer (d. 1965) 1889 – Charles Bickford, American film actor (d. 1967) 1890 – Anton Melik, Slovenian geographer (d. 1966) 1892 – Artur Rodziński, Croatian conductor (d. 1958) 1892 – Manuel Roxas, 5th President of the Philippines (d. 1948) 1894 – Satyendra Nath Bose, Indian mathematician (d. 1974) 1894 – Shitsu Nakano, Japanese supercentenarian (d. 2007) 1895 – J. Edgar Hoover, American FBI director (d. 1972) 1900 – Xavier Cugat, Spanish musician (d. 1990) 1900 – Chiune Sugihara, Japanese diplomat (d. 1986) 1902 – Buster Nupen, South African cricketer (d. 1977) 1904 – Ethan Allen, American baseball player (d. 1993) 1904 – Fazal Ilahi Chaudhry, Pakistani politician (d. 1982) 1905 – Stanisław Mazur, Polish mathematician (d. 1981) 1906 – Giovanni D'Anzi, Italian songwriter (d. 1974) 1909 – Dana Andrews, American actor (d. 1992) 1909 – Stepan Bandera, Ukrainian nationalist leader (d. 1959) 1909 – Barry Goldwater, American politician (d. 1998) 1911 – Basil Dearden, British film director (d. 1971) 1911 – Hank Greenberg, American baseball player (d. 1986) 1911 – Roman Totenberg, Polish-American violinist 1912 – Boris Vladimirovich Gnedenko, Russian mathematician (d. 1995) 1912 – Kim Philby, British spy (d. 1988) 1914 – Noor Inayat Khan, Indian princess and SOE agent (d. 1944) 1917 – Jule Gregory Charney, American meteorologist (d. 1981) 1917 – Albert Mol, Dutch actor (d. 2004) 1918 – Patrick Anthony Porteous, Scottish Victoria Cross recipient (d. 2000) 1919 – Rocky Graziano, American boxer (d. 1990) 1919 – Carole Landis, American film actress (d. 1948) 1919 – J. D. Salinger, American novelist 1919 – Yoshio Tabata, Japanese singer 1920 – Virgilio Savona, Italian singer (Quartetto Cetra) 1921 – Ismail al-Faruqi, Palestinian philosopher (d. 1986) 1922 – Ernest Hollings, American politician 1923 – Daniel Gorenstein, American mathematician (d. 1992) 1923 – Milt Jackson, American jazz vibraphonist (d. 1999) 1924 – Roberts Blossom, American actor and poet 1925 – Matthew "Stymie" Beard, American actor (d. 1981) 1925 – Valentina Cortese, Italian actress 1925 – Raymond Pellegrin, French actor (d. 2007) 1926 – Richard Verreau, French-Canadian tenor (d. 2005) 1927 – Maurice Béjart, French choreographer (d. 2007) 1927 – Pat Heywood, Scottish actress 1927 – Calum MacKay, Canadian hockey player (d. 2001) 1927 – Vernon L. Smith, American economist, winner 1927 – Doak Walker, American football star (d. 1998) 1928 – Ernest Tidyman, American writer (d. 1984) 1929 – Raymond Chow, Hong Kong film producer 1930 – Gaafar al-Nimeiry, President of Sudan 1971–85 1930 – Ty Hardin, American film actor 1932 – Jackie Parker, American football player (d. 2006) 1932 – Giuseppe Patanè, Italian opera conductor (d. 1989) 1933 – Frederick Lowy, Canadian educator 1933 – Joe Orton, English writer (d. 1967) 1933 – Norman Yemm, Australian actor 1935 – B. Kliban, American cartoonist (d. 1990) 1936 – James Sinegal, American businessman 1937 – Adam Wiśniewski-Snerg, Polish author (d. 1995) 1938 – Clay Cole, American television host and producer 1938 – Robert Jankel, British coachbuilder (d. 2005) 1938 – Frank Langella, American actor 1939 – Michèle Mercier, French actress 1942 – Dennis Archer, American politician 1942 – Martin Frost, American politician 1942 – Country Joe McDonald, American musician (Country Joe and the Fish) 1942 – Alassane Ouattara, Former Prime Minister of Ivory Coast 1942 – Gennadi Sarafanov, Soviet cosmonaut (d. 2005) 1942 – Judy Stone, Australian pop singer 1943 – Larry Clark, American director 1943 – Tony Knowles, 9th Governor of Alaska 1943 – Raghunath Anant Mashelkar, Indian scientist 1943 – Don Novello, American actor 1944 – Jimmy Hart, American wrestling manager 1944 – Zafarullah Khan Jamali, Pakistani politician 1945 – Peter Duncan, Australian politician 1945 – Jim Gordon, former drummer for Derek & The Dominos 1945 – Jacky Ickx, Belgian race car driver 1946 – Carl B. Hamilton, Swedish economist and politician 1946 – Rick Hurst, American actor 1946 – Rivelino, Brazilian football player 1947 – Jon Corzine, American politician 1947 – Paula Tsui, Hong Kong singer 1947 – Frances Yip, Hong Kong singer 1948 – Pavel Grachev, Russian general 1948 – Ashok Saraf, Marathi/Hindi Film Actor 1949 – Daniel E Gawthrop, American composer 1950 – Wayne Bennett, Australian rugby league coach 1950 – Morgan Fisher, English musician (Mott the Hoople) 1950 – Deepa Mehta, Indian-born Canadian film director and screenwriter 1951 – Ashfaq Hussain, Urdu poet 1951 – Nana Patekar, Indian film and stage actor 1951 – Hans-Joachim Stuck, German race car driver 1952 – Stephanie Faracy, American actress 1953 – Greg Carmichael, British guitarist (Acoustic Alchemy) 1954 – Bob Menendez, American politician 1956 – Sergei Avdeyev, Russian cosmonaut 1956 – Mark R. Hughes, American entrepreneur (d. 2000) 1956 – Mike Mitchell, American basketball player 1956 – Kôji Yakusho, Japanese actor 1957 – Ewa Kasprzyk, Polish actress 1957 – Evangelos Venizelos, Greek lawyer, professor and politician 1958 – Grandmaster Flash, Barbadian musician 1959 – Azali Assoumani, Comorian president 1959 – Jennifer Edwards, American actress 1959 – Panagiotis Giannakis, Greek basketball player and coach 1960 – Michael Seibert, American ice dancer 1961 – Sam Backo, Australian rugby league footballer 1961 – Sam Palahnuk, American video game designer 1961 – Fiona Phillips, British television presenter 1961 – Mark Wingett, British actor 1962 – Ari Up, German musician (The Slits) 1963 – Lina Kačiušytė, Lithuanian swimmer 1964 – Juliana Donald, American actress 1964 – Clare Holman, British actress 1964 – Dedee Pfeiffer, American actress 1966 – Anna Burke, Australian politician 1967 – John Digweed, English DJ 1967 – Tim Dog, American rapper 1967 – Derrick Thomas, American football player (d. 2000) 1967 – Juanma Bajo Ulloa, Spanish film director 1968 – Miki Higashino, Japanese composer 1968 – Joey Stefano, American adult actor (d. 1994) 1968 – Davor Šuker, Croatian footballer 1969 – Morris Chestnut, American actor 1969 – Nicolle Dickson, Australian actress 1969 – Paul Lawrie, Scottish professional golfer 1969 – Christi Paul, American news anchor 1969 – Verne Troyer, American actor 1970 – Gabriel Jarret, American actor 1970 – Shelley O'Donnell, Australian netballer 1970 – Kimberly Page, American manager and actress 1971 – Sammie Henson, American wrestler 1971 – Bobby Holik, Czech hockey player 1971 – Chris Potter, American jazz saxophonist 1972 – Neve McIntosh, Scottish actress 1972 – DJ Shadow, American DJ and songwriter 1972 – Lilian Thuram, French footballer 1973 – Danny Lloyd American child actor (The Shining) 1973 – Anwar Mansoor Mangrio, Sindhi poet 1973 – Magnus Sahlgren, Swedish musician (Lake of Tears) 1974 – Catalina Guirado, English model and TV personality 1975 – Sonali Bendre, Indian model and actress 1975 – Joe Cannon, American soccer player 1975 – Eiichiro Oda, Japanese Manga artist 1975 – Fernando Tatis, Dominican born Major League Baseball player 1976 – Georgina Chapman, British fashion designer and actress 1976 – Caleb Wyatt, American motocross rider 1977 – Hasan Salihamidžić, Bosnian footballer 1977 – Robert Roode, Canadian professional wrestler 1978 – Vidya Balan, Indian model and actress 1978 – Nina Bott, German actress 1978 – Phillip Mulryne, Northern Irish footballer 1978 – Paramahamsa Sri Nithyananda, Indian spiritualist 1978 – Tarik O'Regan, British composer 1979 – Brody Dalle, Australian singer (The Distillers) 1979 – Koichi Domoto, Japanese artist 1980 – Elin Nordegren, Swedish model 1981 – Jonas Armstrong, Irish actor 1981 – Zsolt Baumgartner, Hungarian race car driver 1981 – Abdülkadir Koçak, Turkish boxer 1981 – Eden Riegel, American actress 1982 – David Nalbandian, Argentinian tennis player 1983 – Ali Bastian, English actress and model 1983 – Calum Davenport, English footballer 1983 – Emi Kobayashi, Japanese model 1984 – José Paolo Guerrero, Peruvian footballer 1984 – Alok Kapali, Bangladeshi cricketer 1984 – Shareefa, American singer 1984 – Michael Witt, Australian rugby league footballer 1985 – Jeff Carter, Canadian hockey player 1985 – Steven Davis, Northern Irish footballer 1986 – Lee Sungmin, Member of Korean boyband Super Junior 1987 – Gilbert Brule, Canadian professional hockey player 1987 – Meryl Davis, American ice dancer 1987 – Devin Setoguchi, Canadian professional hockey player 1989 – Marvin Austin, American football player 1992 – Oren Williams, American actor 1992 – Jack Wilshere, English footballer 1992 or 1994 – He Kexin, Chinese gymnast 1998 – Marlene Lawston, American child actress Deaths 379 – Saint Basil of Caesarea (b. 330) 404 – Saint Telemachus 874 – Hasan al-Askari, eleventh Shia Imam (b. 846) 898 – Odo, Count of Paris (b. 860) 962 – Baldwin III, Count of Flanders (b. c. 940) 1204 – King Haakon III of Norway (b. c. 1170) 1387 – King Charles II of Navarre (b. 1332) 1515 – King Louis XII of France (b. 1462) 1554 – Pedro de Valdivia, Spanish conquistador (b. 1500) 1559 – Christian III of Denmark and Norway (b. 1503) 1560 – Joachim du Bellay, French poet (b. 1522) 1617 – Hendrik Goltzius, Dutch painter (b. 1558) 1631 – Thomas Hobson, the "Cambridge Carrier", eponym of Hobson's Choice (b. 1544) 1697 – Filippo Baldinucci, Florentine biographer/historian (b. 1624) 1716 – William Wycherley, English dramatist (b. 1640) 1730 – Samuel Sewall, English judge (b. 1652) 1742 – Peregrine Bertie, 2nd Duke of Ancaster and Kesteven, English statesman (b. 1686) 1748 – Johann Bernoulli, Swiss mathematician (b. 1667) 1759 – Jacques-Joachim Trotti, marquis de La Chétardie, French adventurer (b. 1705) 1766 – James Francis Edward Stuart, "The Old Pretender" (b. 1688) 1782 – Johann Christian Bach, German composer (b. 1735) 1789 – Fletcher Norton, 1st Baron Grantley, English politician (b. 1716) 1793 – Francesco Guardi, Venetian painter (b. 1712) 1796 – Alexandre-Théophile Vandermonde, French mathematician (b. 1735) 1800 – Louis-Jean-Marie Daubenton, French naturalist (b. 1716) 1817 – Martin Heinrich Klaproth, German chemist (b. 1743) 1852 – John George Children, British chemist, mineralogist and zoologist (b. 1777) 1853 – Gregory Blaxland, Australian explorer (b. 1778) 1862 – Mikhail Vasilievich Ostrogradsky, Russian physicist (b. 1801) 1869 – Martin W. Bates, American politician (b. 1786) 1881 – Louis Auguste Blanqui, French political activist (b. 1805) 1892 – Roswell B. Mason, Mayor of Chicago (b. 1805) 1894 – Heinrich Rudolf Hertz, German physicist (b. 1857) 1896 – Alfred Ely Beach, American inventor (b. 1826) 1906 – Sir Hugh Nelson, Premier of Queensland (b. 1835) 1919 – Mikhail Drozdovsky, Russian general (b. 1881) 1921 – Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg, Chancellor of Germany (b. 1856) 1931 – Martinus Beijerinck, Dutch microbiologist and botanist (b. 1851) 1932 – C P Scott, British journalist, publisher and politician (b. 1846) 1940 – Panuganti Lakshminarasimha Rao, Indian writer and essayist (b. 1865) 1943 – Colonel Andrew Summers Rowan, U.S. military officer who gave "a message to Garcia" (b. 1857) 1944 – Sir Edward Lutyens, British architect who designed New Delhi (b. 1869) 1944 – Charles Turner, Australian cricketer (b. 1862) 1953 – Hank Williams, American singer (b. 1923) 1954 – Duff Cooper, British diplomat and writer (b. 1890) 1955 – Arthur C. Parker, American archaeologist, folklorist, and historian (b. 1881) 1957 – Seán South and Fergal O'Hanlon are killed in the Brookeborough Raid 1958 – Edward Weston, American photographer (b. 1886) 1960 – Margaret Sullavan, American actress (b. 1909) 1964 – Bechara El Khoury, President of Lebanon (b. 1890) 1966 – Vincent Auriol, French politician (b. 1884) 1969 – Barton MacLane, American actor (b. 1902) 1969 – Bruno Söderström, Swedish athlete (b. 1888) 1971 – Saint Amphilochius of Pochayiv, Ukrainian Orthodox Christian Saint (b. 1894) 1972 – Maurice Chevalier, French actor and singer (b. 1888) 1980 – Adolph Deutsch, American composer and arranger (b. 1897) 1980 – Pietro Nenni, Italian socialist politician (b. 1891) 1981 – Hephzibah Menuhin, American-Jewish concert pianist (b. 1920) 1982 – Victor Buono, American actor (b. 1938) 1984 – Alexis Korner, British blues musician (b. 1928) 1985 – Sigerson Clifford, Irish poet and writer (b. 1913) 1985 – Kamatari Fujiwara, Japanese actor (b. 1905) 1986 – Alfredo Binda, Italian cyclist (b. 1902) 1986 – Bruce Norris, American hockey executive (Detroit Red Wings) (b. 1924) 1991 – Buck Ram, American songwriter and businessman (The Platters) (b. 1907) 1992 – Grace Hopper, American computer pioneer (b. 1906) 1994 – Lord Arthur Porritt, Governor-General of New Zealand (b. 1900) 1994 – Cesar Romero, American actor (b. 1907) 1994 – Edward Arthur Thompson, British historian (b. 1914) 1995 – Fred West, British serial killer (suicide) (b. 1941) 1995 – Eugene Wigner, Hungarian physicist, Nobel laureate (b. 1902) 1996 – Arleigh Burke, American admiral (b. 1901) 1996 – Arthur Rudolph, German engineer (b. 1906) 1997 – Hagood Hardy, Canadian composer and musician (b. 1937) 1997 – Townes Van Zandt, American musician (b. 1944) 1998 – Helen Wills Moody, American tennis player (b. 1905) 2000 – Colin Vaughan, Australian political journalist (b. 1931) 2001 – Ray Walston, American actor (b. 1914) 2002 – Julia Phillips, American film producer (b. 1944) 2003 – Joe Foss, American politician, fighter pilot and AFL Commissioner (b. 1915) 2003 – F. William Free, American advertising executive (b. 1928) 2003 – Cyril Shaps, English actor (b. 1923) 2005 – Shirley Chisholm, American politician (b. 1924) 2005 – Hugh Lawson, 6th Baron Burnham, British newspaperman (b. 1931) 2005 – Eugene J. Martin, American painter, artist (b. 1938) 2005 – Bob Matsui, American politician (b. 1941) 2006 – Bryan Harvey, American musician (House of Freaks) (b. 1956) 2006 – Dawn Lake, Australian TV comedienne (b. 1927) 2006 – Harry Magdoff, American magazine editor (b. 1913) 2006 – Hugh McLaughlin, Irish publisher and inventor (b. 1918) 2007 – A. I. Bezzerides, American novelist and screenwriter (b. 1908) 2007 – Leon Davidson, American scientist known for studying UFOs (b. 1922) 2007 – Leonard Fraser, Australian serial killer (b. 1951) 2007 – Julius Hegyi, American conductor (b. 1923) 2007 – Tad Jones, American jazz music historian (b. 1952) 2007 – Ernie Koy, American baseball player (b. 1909) 2007 – Roland Levinsky, South African medical scientist (b. 1943) 2007 – Tillie Olsen, American writer (b. 1912) 2007 – Del Reeves, American country singer (b. 1932) 2007 – Darrent Williams, American football player (b. 1982) 2008 – Salvatore Bonanno, son of Joseph Bonanno (b. 1932) 2008 – Peter Caffrey, Irish actor (b. 1949) 2008 – Pratap Chandra Chunder, Union minister of India (b. 1919) 2008 – Harold Corsini, American photographer (b. 1919) 2009 – Claiborne Pell, U.S. senator (b. 1918) 2009 – Nizar Rayan, Hamas leader (b. 1962) Holidays and observances New Year's Day for many countries around the world using the Gregorian calendar; often celebrated at midnight with fireworks. United States – Copyright Expiration Day, celebrating the expiration of the copyright of a year's worth of works of authorship into the public domain. Not celebrated from 1978 to 2018 because of repeated copyright term extensions. Last day of Kwanzaa. Christian celebrations: The eighth day of Christmas (and eighth night of the same) in Western Christianity. Anglican and Episcopal churches – Feast of the Holy Name of Jesus. Roman Catholicism – Feast of the Circumcision (Old calendar). Roman Catholicism – Holy Day of Obligation in many countries. Final Day of Octave of Christmas, Solemnity of Mary (New calendar). Feast days of the following: Fulgentius of Ruspe Telemachus St. Basil January 1 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics). Cuba Liberation Day. Czech Republic: Establishment of the Czech Republic. Haiti Independence Day. Slovakia: Establishment of the Slovak Republic. Sudan Independence Day. Republic of China: Establishment of the Republic of China New Year's Day Parade in London, United Kingdom. Vienna New Year's Concert. Pasadena, California – the Tournament of Roses Parade and, traditionally, the Rose Bowl. References External links BBC: On This Day On This Day in Canada be-x-old:1 студзеня | January_1 |@lemmatized preceding:1 day:18 december:3 previous:1 year:22 ancient:1 roman:6 begin:13 consular:1 january:11 ever:1 since:2 bc:3 middle:1 age:1 influence:1 christian:7 church:4 many:3 country:12 move:1 start:7 one:3 several:1 important:1 festival:2 nativity:1 jesus:2 march:6 annunciation:1 even:1 easter:1 eastern:3 european:14 population:1 show:1 allegiance:1 orthodox:3 numbered:2 september:2 england:4 celebrate:4 new:23 century:1 lady:1 example:2 parliamentary:1 record:5 execution:2 charles:6 occur:2 end:3 although:1 modern:2 history:1 adjust:1 western:5 change:5 adopt:7 gregorian:6 calendar:10 scotland:4 scottish:6 ireland:8 british:30 colony:6 later:2 introduce:3 throughout:1 britain:11 two:2 reform:1 implement:1 style:1 act:2 become:15 official:3 follow:2 venice:1 holy:3 empire:3 germany:5 spain:2 portugal:2 prussia:1 sweden:4 france:5 southern:1 netherlands:4 lorraine:1 united:23 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5,110 | Ottawa_Senators | The Ottawa Senators are a professional ice hockey team based in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada. They are members of the Northeast Division of the Eastern Conference of the National Hockey League (NHL). The Senators play their home games at the 20,500 capacity Scotiabank Place (originally named the 'Palladium', and later the 'Corel Centre'). Founded and established by Ottawa real estate developer Bruce Firestone, the team is the second NHL franchise to use the Ottawa Senators nickname. The original Ottawa Senators, founded in 1883, had a famed history, winning 11 Stanley Cups NHL counts 11. Hockey Hall of Fame count is 10. and playing in the NHL from 1917 until 1934. On December 6, 1990, after a two year public campaign by Firestone to return the NHL to Ottawa, the NHL awarded a new franchise, which began play in the 1992–93 season. Finnigan, pg. 201 The team has had two changes of ownership, from Firestone to Rod Bryden in 1993 due to the arena development process and its financing, and subsequently to Eugene Melnyk in 2003. On the ice, the club finished last in the league for its first four seasons. Since then, the club has been among the most successful teams in the league, both in the standings, qualifying for the Stanley Cup playoffs in 11 of the past 12 seasons, and in attendance. The club won the Presidents' Trophy in 2003, and the Prince of Wales Trophy in 2007. Team history Ottawa's first logo 1991–2007 Ottawa had been home to the original Senators, a founding NHL franchise and eleven-time Stanley Cup champions. After the NHL expanded to the United States in the late 1920s, the original Senators were not able to make enough money in Ottawa to offset the increased costs. The club started selling players for cash to survive, but eventually the losses forced the franchise to move to St. Louis in 1934. Fifty-four years later, after the NHL announced its plans to expand by two teams, Ottawa real estate developer Bruce Firestone decided along with colleagues Cyril Leeder and Randy Sexton that Ottawa was now ready for another franchise, and the group proceeded to put a bid together. His firm, Terrace Investments, did not have the liquid assets to finance the expansion fee and the team, but the group conceived a strategy to leverage a land development. In 1989, after finding a suitable site on farmland just west of Ottawa in Kanata on which to construct a new arena, Terrace announced its' intention to win a franchise and launched a successful "Bring Back the Senators" campaign to both woo the public and persuade the NHL that the city could support an NHL franchise. Public support was high and the group would secure over 11,000 season ticket pledges. Finnigan, pp. 196-197 On December 12, 1990, the NHL granted franchises to Firestone's group as well as a group in Tampa, Florida, to start play in 1992. Firestone's group, and hockey fans in the Ottawa area, were ecstatic. 1992–1996: First seasons The new team hired former NHL player Mel Bridgman, who had no previous NHL management experience, as its first General Manager in 1992. The team was initially interested in hiring former Jack Adams Award winner Brian Sutter as its first head coach, but Sutter came with a high price tag and was reluctant to be a part of an expansion team. When Sutter was eventually signed to coach the Boston Bruins, Ottawa signed Rick Bowness, the man Sutter replaced in Boston. The new Senators played their first game on 1992-10-08, in the Ottawa Civic Centre against the Montreal Canadiens with lots of pre-game spectacle. The Senators would defeat the Canadiens 5–3 in one of the few highlights that season. Montreal would eventually finish the season with a Stanley Cup victory. Following the initial excitement of the opening night victory, the club floundered badly and would eventually tie with the San Jose Sharks for the worst record in the league, winning only 10 games with 70 losses and 4 ties for 24 points, three points better than the NHL record for futility. The Senators had aimed low and considered the 1992–93 season a small success, as Firestone had set a goal for the season of not setting a new NHL record for fewest points in a season. The long term plan was to finish low in the standings for its' first few years in order to secure high draft picks and eventually contend for the Stanley Cup. MacGregor(1993), pg. 250 Original General Manager Mel Bridgman was fired after one season and team president Randy Sexton took over GM duties. Firestone himself soon left the team and Rod Bryden emerged as the new owner. The strategy of aiming low and securing a high draft position did not change. The Senators finished last overall for the next three seasons. Although 1993 first overall draft choice Alexandre Daigle wound up being one of the greatest draft busts in NHL history, they chose Radek Bonk in 1994, Bryan Berard (traded for Wade Redden) in 1995, Chris Phillips in 1996, and Marian Hossa in 1997, all of whom would become solid NHL players and formed a strong core of players in years to come. Alexei Yashin, the team's first ever draft selection from 1992, emerged as one of the NHL's brightest young stars. The team traded many of their better veteran players of the era, including 1992–93 leading scorer Norm Maciver, Mike Peluso, and Bob Kudelski, in an effort to stockpile prospects and draft picks. Inside the Senators' arena, Scotiabank Place, their home since January 1996. As the 1995–96 season began, star centre Alexei Yashin refused to honor his contract and did not play. In December, after three straight last-place finishes and a team which was ridiculed throughout the league, fans began to grow restless waiting for the team's long term plan to yield results, and arena attendance began to decline. Rick Bowness was fired in late 1995 and was replaced by Prince Edward Island Senators head coach Dave Allison. Allison would fare no better than his predecessor, and the team would stumble to a 2–22–3 record under him. Sexton himself was fired and replaced by Pierre Gauthier, the former assistant GM of Anaheim. Before the end of January 1996, Gauthier had resolved the team's most pressing issues by settling star player Alexei Yashin's contract dispute, and hiring the highly regarded Jacques Martin as head coach. While Ottawa finished last overall once again, the 1995–96 season ended with renewed optimism, due in part to the upgraded management and coaching, and also to the emergence of an unheralded rookie from Sweden named Daniel Alfredsson, who would win the Calder Memorial Trophy as NHL Rookie of the Year in 1996. Garrioch, pg. 227 1996–2004: Jacques Martin era Martin would impose a "strong defense first" philosophy that led to the team qualifying for the playoffs every season that he coached, but he was criticized for the team's lack of success in the playoffs, notably losing four straight series against the provincial rival Toronto Maple Leafs. Martin outlasted several general managers and a change in ownership. In 1996–97, his first season, the club qualified for the playoffs in the last game of the season, and nearly defeated the Buffalo Sabres in the first round. In 1997–98, the club finished with their first winning record and upset the heavily favoured New Jersey Devils to win their first playoff series. In 1998–99, the Senators jumped from 14th overall in the previous season to 3rd, with 103 points--the first 100-point season in club history, only to be swept in the first round. In 1999–2000 despite the holdout of team captain Alexei Yashin, Martin guided the team to the playoffs, only to lose to the Maple Leafs in the first Battle of Ontario series. Yashin returned for 2000–01 and the team improved to win their division and place second in the Eastern Conference. Yashin played poorly in another playoff loss to the Maple Leafs and on the day of the 2001 NHL Entry Draft, he was traded to the New York Islanders in exchange for Zdeno Chara, Bill Muckalt, and the second overall selection in the draft, which Ottawa promptly used to select centre Jason Spezza. Jason Spezza, now Ottawa's top center, was picked with the draft choice received for Alexei Yashin. Without Yashin, the 2001–02 Senators regular season points total dropped, but in the playoffs, they upset the Philadelphia Flyers for the franchise's second playoff series win. This led to a second round series with Toronto, and the third straight loss to the Maple Leafs. Despite speculation that Martin would be fired, it was GM Marshall Johnston who left, retiring from the team, replaced by John Muckler, the Senators' first with previous GM experience. In 2002–03 off-ice problems dominated the headlines, as the Senators filed for bankruptcy in mid-season, but continued play after getting emergency financing. Despite the off-ice problems, Ottawa had an outstanding season, placing first overall in the NHL to win the President's Trophy. In the playoffs they came within one game of making it into the finals. Prior to the 2003–04 season, pharmaceutical billionaire Eugene Melnyk would purchase the club to bring financial stability. Martin would guide the team to another good regular season but in the first round the Leafs would again defeat the Senators, leading to Martin's dismissal as management felt that a new coach was required for playoff success. 2004–present: Bryan Murray era After the playoff loss, owner Melnyk promised that changes were coming and they came quickly. In June 2004, Anaheim Ducks GM Bryan Murray of nearby Shawville, became head coach. That summer, the team also made substantial personnel changes, trading long-time players Patrick Lalime and Radek Bonk, and signing free agent goaltender Dominik Hasek. The team would not be able to show its new lineup for a year, as the 2004–05 NHL lockout intervened and most players playing in Europe or in the minors. In a final change, just before the 2005–06 season, the team traded long-time player Marian Hossa for Dany Heatley. The media predicted the Senators to be Stanley Cup contenders in 2005–06, as they had a strong core of players returning, played in an up-tempo style fitting the new rule changes and Hasek was expected to provide top-notch goaltending. The team rushed out of the gate, winning 19 of the first 22 games, in the end winning 52 games and 113 points, placing first in the conference, and second overall. The newly-formed 'CASH' line of Alfredsson, Spezza and newly-acquired Dany Heatley established itself as one of the league's top offensive lines. Hasek played well until he was injured during the 2006 Winter Olympics, forcing the team to enter the playoffs with rookie netminder Ray Emery as their starter. Without Hasek, the club bowed out in a second round loss to the Buffalo Sabres. Forward Dany Heatley netted two consecutive 50 goal seasons in 2005–06 and the following year. 2006–07: Trip to the Stanley Cup finals In 2006–07, the Senators reached the Stanley Cup Finals after qualifying for the playoffs in nine consecutive seasons. The Senators had a high turn-over of personnel and the disappointment of 2006 to overcome and started the season poorly. Trade rumours swirled around Daniel Alfredsson for most of the last months of 2006. The team lifted itself out of last place in the division to nearly catch the Buffalo Sabres by season's end, placing fourth in the Eastern Conference. The team finished with 105 points, their fourth straight 100 point season and sixth in the last eight. In the playoffs, Ottawa continued its good play. Led by the 'CASH' line, goaltender Ray Emery, and the strong defense of Chris Phillips and Anton Volchenkov, the club defeated the Pittsburgh Penguins, the second-ranked New Jersey Devils, and the top-ranked Buffalo Sabres to advance to the Stanley Cup Finals. Captain Daniel Alfredsson improved his play in the 2007 playoffs, tallying a playoff leading 22 points First Stanley Cup finals in the capital in 80 years The 2006–07 Senators thus became the first Ottawa team to be in the Stanley Cup final since 1927 and the city was swept up in the excitement. Businesses along all of the main streets posted large hand-drawn 'Go Sens Go' signs, residents put up large displays in front of the their homes or decorated their cars. A large Ottawa Senators flag was draped on the City Hall, along with a large video screen showing the games. A six-story likeness of Daniel Alfredsson was hung on the Corel building. Rallies were held outside of City Hall, car rallies of decorated cars paraded through town and a section of downtown, dubbed the 'Sens Mile', was closed off to traffic during and after games for fans to congregate. In the final, the Senators now faced the Anaheim Ducks, considered the favourite since the start of the season, a team the Senators had last played in 2006, and a team known for its strong defense. The Ducks won the first two games in Anaheim 3-2 and 1–0. Returning home, the Senators won game three 5–3, but lost game four 3–2. The Ducks won game five 6–2 in Anaheim to clinch the series. The Ducks had played outstanding defense, shutting down the 'CASH' line, forcing Murray to split up the line. The Ducks scored timely goals and Ducks' goaltender Giguere out-played Emery. 2007–08: Stanley Cup hangover The Senators made major changes in their hockey staff during the off-season. On June 17, 2007, general manager John Muckler was fired; he had been in the last year of his contract. Head coach Bryan Murray was promoted to GM. On July 5, 2007, he hired his nephew Tim Murray as assistant GM, followed by the promotion of assistant coach John Paddock to head coach on July 6, 2007. On August 15, goaltending coach Ron Low was named as assistant coach and Eli Wilson was named goaltending coach. Assistant coach Greg Carvel retained his duties. On November 5, 2007, the Ottawa Senators set a franchise record eighth straight win with their victory over the Toronto Maple Leafs. On November 6, six Senators were named to the All-Star Game ballot: Daniel Alfredsson, Ray Emery, Dany Heatley, Chris Phillips, Wade Redden and Jason Spezza, the most from any one team in the NHL. The CASH line was named to the All-Star roster in its entirety: Alfredsson to the starting lineup and Dany Heatley and Jason Spezza as reserves. On January 24, 2008, Alfredsson recorded a franchise record 7 points (3 goals, 4 assists) against the Tampa Bay Lightning, taking over the NHL scoring lead momentarily. After the hot start, a prolonged slump through January and February occurred during which the Senators won only 7 of 21 games, and Murray fired head coach Paddock and assistant coach Ron Low on February 27, 2008, taking over the coaching duties himself. After the coaching switch, team performance improved, but did not match the performance of the beginning of the season. A playoff spot was in doubt until the Senators' last game of the season, a loss to Boston, but the team qualified due to Carolina losing. After all other games were played, the team ended up as the 7th seed and faced the Pittsburgh Penguins in the opening round, a repeat of the 2006-2007 Eastern Conference quarter final. The Senators lost the series 4–0, the third time they were swept in a first-round series. The result, after going to the finals the previous season, led to speculation by the media that the team would make a large change in personnel before next season, including the buying out of Ray Emery and the Senators not re-signing their free agents. 2008–09 and beyond After a disappointing 2007–08 season, Senators' management promised change, and in the off-season fulfilled that promise with changes both in coaching and on-ice personnel. On June 13, 2008, the Senators named Craig Hartsburg, who had been head coach of the OHL's Sault Ste. Marie Greyhounds, as the new head coach, signing him to a three-year contract. . Among other notable candidates for the position were Bob Hartley and Peter DeBoer. The Senators also named Curtis Hunt, formerly of the Regina Pats, as assistant coach. On the player side, the first change was the buy-out of troubled goaltender Ray Emery's contract following a difficult season. Long-time Senator Wade Redden left via free-agency, and 2007–08 trade acquisitions Mike Commodore, Cory Stillman, and Martin Lapointe were not re-signed. Brian McGrattan and Andrej Meszaros were traded, Meszaros following a contract dispute. From the free agent market, the Senators signed goaltender Alex Auld, defenseman Jason Smith, and agitating forward Jarkko Ruutu. In exchange for Meszaros, defensemen Filip Kuba, Alexandre Picard, and a 2009 first round pick (later dealt for defenseman Chris Campoli) were acquired from the Tampa Bay Lightning. To start the 2008–09 season, the Senators played their first-ever games in Europe, starting in Gothenburg, Sweden, playing Daniel Alfredsson's former team Frolunda HC. The Senators then began the regular season with two games in Stockholm, Sweden against the Pittsburgh Penguins, splitting the results in a 4-3 overtime loss and a 3–1 win. The Senators struggled throughout the first half of the season having the lowest number of goals scored in the league. Following a disappointing 17-24-7 start, the Senators fired Hartsburg on February 1, 2009, following a 7-4 loss to the Washington Capitals. . He was replaced by Cory Clouston, the head coach of their farm team in Binghamton, NY. The team showed almost immediate improvement under Clouston, playing above .500 for the remainder of the season. Though much improved, the team was unable to make up for its' poor start, and was officially eliminated from playoff contention on March 31. The team continued to play well, winning nine games in a row at home. On April 8, Clouston was rewarded with a two-year deal to continue coaching the Senators. {{cite web |url=http://senators.nhl.com/team/app/?service=page&page=NewsPage&articleid=417229&cmpid=rss-brodie |title=Sens keeping Clouston behind bench |date=April 8, 2009 |accessdate=2009-04-08 |publisher=Ottawa Senators. Team information Logo and jersey design The team colours are red, black and white, with added trim of gold. The team's away jersey is mostly white with red and black trim, while the home jersey is red, with white and black trim. The club logo is officially the head of a Roman general, a member of the Senate of the Roman Empire, projecting from a gold circle. The original, unveiled on May 23, 1991, described the general as a "centurion figure, strong and prominent" according to its designer, Tony Milchard. The current jersey design was unveiled on 2007-08-22, in conjunction with the league-wide adoption of the Rbk EDGE jerseys by Reebok for the 2007–08 season. The jersey incorporates the original Senators' 'O' logo as a shoulder patch. At the same time, the team updated its logos, and switched their usage. The primary logo, which according to team owner Eugene Melnyk, "represents strength and determination" is an update of the old secondary logo. The old primary logo has become the team's secondary logo and only appears on Senators' merchandise. On November 22, 2008, the Senators unveiled a new 'third jersey' in a game versus the New York Rangers. Marketed with the slogan 'Back in Black' in reference to the black "away" jerseys the team wore during its first several seasons, the jersey is primarily black, while the team's other traditional colors of white and red are also integrated. . The Senators' primary "centurion figure" logo moves to the shoulders. . The front features the word 'SENS' in white with red and gold trim, as a new primary logo. Broadcasting On television, home and away games are broadcast on Rogers Sportsnet within the Ottawa River valley and Eastern Ontario. Rogers Sportsnet also broadcasts Senators games in the Maritime provinces and Newfoundland and Labrador as part of its 'Sportsnet East' network. CBC's Hockey Night in Canada and TSN broadcast the Senators nationally in Canada. 'Spartacat' - the team mascot Starting in the 2006–07 seasons, several games were only available in video on pay-per-view or at local movie theatres in the Ottawa area. The "Sens TV" service was suspended as of September 24, 2008, but it may return for 2009–10. On radio, all home and away games are broadcast on a network of local stations in eastern Ontario. The 'flagship' radio station is the Ottawa station Team 1200, which produces the broadcasts and provides the play-by-play announcers. The Team 1200 audio is available over the Internet, and games are simulcast from the NHL main web site. Dean Brown is widely regarded as "the voice of the Ottawa Senators", and he provides play-by-play for most Senators' games broadcast on Rogers Sportsnet, Hockey Night In Canada, and the Team 1200. Attendance and revenues On April 18, 2008, the club announced its final attendance figures for 2007–08. The club had 40 sell-outs out of 41 home dates, a total attendance of 812,665 during the regular season, placing the club 3rd in attendance in the NHL. The number of sell-outs and the total attendance were both club records. The previous attendance records were set during the 2005–06 with a season total of 798,453 and 33 sell-outs. In 2006–07 regular season attendance was 794,271, with 31 sell-outs out of 41 home dates or an average attendance of 19,372. In the 2007 playoffs, the Senators played 9 games with 8 sell-outs and an attendance of 181,272 for an average of 20,141, the highest in team history. On October 29, 2008, a Forbes Magazine report valued the Ottawa Senators Hockey Club at $207 million, (13th highest in NHL) with an operating income of $4.7 million on revenues of $96 million in 2006–07. Revenues were the team's highest in its history, while operating income was down from 2006–07 when the Senators had more playoff games. The gate receipts for the 2006–07 season were $50 million. Forbes estimates that the organization has a debt/value ratio of 63%, including arena debt. Eugene Melnyk bought the team for $92 million in 2003. Arena entertainment At many home games the fans are entertained both outside and inside Scotiabank Place with a myriad of talent - live music, rock bands, giveaways and promotions. The live music includes the traditional Scottish music of the 'Sons of Scotland Pipe Band' of Ottawa along with highland dancers. Before and during games, entertainment is provided by Spartacat, the official mascot of the Senators, an anthropomorphic lion. He made his debut on the Senators' opening night: October 8, 1992. Anthems are usually sung by O.P.P. officer Lyndon Slewidge. Sens Army Elgin Street after the Senators Game 3 win. The fans of the Senators are known as the Sens Army. Like most hockey fanatics, they are known to dress up for games; most in some sort of Roman legionary clothing. For the 2006-2007 playoff run, more fans then ever before would wear red, and fan activities included 'Red Rallies' of decorated cars, fan rallies at Ottawa City Hall Plaza and the 'Sens Mile' along Elgin Street where fans would congregate. Sens Mile Much like the Red Mile in Calgary during the Flames' 2004 cup run and the Blue Mile in Edmonton during the Oilers' 2006 cup run, Ottawa Senators fans took to the streets to celebrate their team's success during the 2006-07 playoffs. The idea to have a 'Sens Mile' on the downtown Elgin Street, a street with numerous restaurants and pubs, began as a grassroots campaign on Facebook by Ottawa residents before Game 4 of the Ottawa-Buffalo Eastern Conference Final series. After the Game 5 win, Ottawa residents closed the street to traffic for a spontaneous celebration. The City of Ottawa then closed Elgin Street for each game of the Final. Team record All-time As of the end of the 2007–08 season. GP W L T OTL All-Time 1200 526 495 115 64 Home 600 284 220 60 36 Away 600 242 275 55 28 Season by season record This is a partial list of the last five seasons completed by the Senators. For the full season-by-season history, see List of Ottawa Senators seasons Note: GD = Games delayed, W = Wins, L = Losses, T = Ties, OTL = Overtime Losses, Pts = Points, GF = Goals for, GA = Goals against, PIM = Penalties in minutes Records as of end of the 2008–09 NHL season. Hockeydb.com, Ottawa Senators season statistics and records. Season GD W L T OTL Pts GF GA PIM Finish Playoffs 2004–05 Season cancelled due to 2004–05 NHL lockout |- bgcolor="#eeeeee" | 2005–061 || 82 || 52 || 21 || - || 9 || 113 || 314 || 211 || 1443 || 1st, Northeast|| align="left" | Lost in Conference Semifinals, 1–4 (Sabres) |- |2006–07 || 82 || 48 || 25 || - || 9 || 105 || 288 || 222 ||1161 || 2nd, Northeast || align="left" | Lost in Finals, 1–4 (Ducks) 2007–08 82 43 31 - 8 94 261 247 1153 2nd, Northeast Lost in Conference Quarterfinals, 0–4 (Penguins)2008–09 82 36 35 - 11 83 213 231 1084 4th, Northeast Did not qualify 1 As of the 2005–06 NHL season, all games will have a winner; the OTL column includes SOL (Shootout losses). Players Current roster Team captains <div style="float:left; width:48%;"> Laurie Boschman, 1992–93 Mark Lamb, Brad Shaw, Gord Dineen, 1993–94 No captain, 1994–95 (lockout) </div style="float:right; width:48%;"> Randy Cunneyworth, 1995–98 Alexei Yashin, 1998–99 Daniel Alfredsson, 1999–present </div> Honoured members Hall of Famers Roger Neilson - Senators assistant coach & head coach (2001–03), was inducted (as a Builder) on November 4, 2002, for his career in coaching. Retired numbers 8 - Frank Finnigan, on opening night, October 8, 1992. Finnigan was honoured for his play from 1923 through 1934 for the original Ottawa Senators (as a right wing, 1923-31 & 1932-34). He was the last surviving Senator from the Stanley Cup winners of 1927 and participated in the 'Bring Back The Senators' campaign. 99 - Wayne Gretzky, on February 6, 2000. Gretzky's sweater number was retired league-wide by the NHL. Source: First-round draft picks Source: 1992: Alexei Yashin (2nd overall) 1993: Alexandre Daigle (1st overall) 1994: Radek Bonk (3rd overall) 1995: Bryan Berard (1st overall) 1996: Chris Phillips (1st overall) 1997: Marian Hossa (12th overall) 1998: Mathieu Chouinard (15th overall) 1999: Martin Havlat (26th overall) 2000: Anton Volchenkov (21st overall) 2001: Jason Spezza (2nd overall) & Tim Gleason (23rd overall) 2002: Jakub Klepis (16th overall) 2003: Patrick Eaves (29th overall) 2004: Andrej Meszaros (23rd overall) 2005: Brian Lee (9th overall) 2006: Nick Foligno (28th overall) 2007: Jim O'Brien (29th overall) 2008: Erik Karlsson (15th overall) Team scoring leaders These are the top-ten point-scorers in franchise history, post-1992, after the 2007–08 season: Note: Pos = Position; GP = Games Played; G = Goals; A = Assists; Pts = Points; P/G = Points per game; Player Pos GP G A Pts P/G Daniel Alfredsson* RW 853 331 516 847 .99 Alexei Yashin † C 504 218 273 491 .97 Jason Spezza* C 404 148 270 418 1.03 Wade Redden † D 689 152 247 410 .58 Marian Hossa † RW 467 188 202 390 .84 Dany Heatley* LW 235 180 182 362 1.23 Shawn McEachern † LW 454 142 162 304 .67 Mike Fisher* C 463 115 124 239 .52 Martin Havlat † LW 294 105 130 235 .79 * current Senators player Figures are updated after each completed NHL regular season. Totals contain only games played for Ottawa. Sources: † A. B. C. D. E. NHL awards and trophies Presidents' Trophy 2002–03 Prince of Wales Trophy 2006–07 Calder Memorial Trophy Daniel Alfredsson: 1995–96 NHL Plus/Minus Award Wade Redden: 2005–06 (shared with Michal Rozsival of the New York Rangers) Jack Adams Award Jacques Martin: 1998–99NHL All-Rookie Team Daniel Alfredsson: 1995–96 Sami Salo: 1998–99 Marian Hossa: 1998–99 Martin Havlat: 2000–01 Andrej Meszaros: 2005–06 NHL First All-Star Team Dany Heatley: 2006–07 NHL Second All-Star Team Alexei Yashin: 1998–99 Dany Heatley: 2005–06 Team records Source: Franchise record Name of player Statistic Year(s)Most goals in a seasonDany Heatley502005–062006–07Most assists in a seasonJason Spezza712005–06Most points in a seasonDany Heatley1052006–07Most points in a season, defensemanNorm MacIver631992–93Most points in a season, rookieAlexei Yashin791993–94Most penalty Minutes in a seasonMike Peluso3181992–93Highest +/- rating in a seasonDaniel Alfredsson+422006–07Most playoff games playedDaniel Alfredsson101(milestone)Most goaltender wins in a seasonPatrick Lalime392002–03Most shutouts in a seasonPatrick Lalime82002–03Lowest G.A.A. in a seasonRon Tugnutt1.791998–99Best save percentage in a seasonRon Tugnutt.9251998–99 See also Battle of Ontario Bell Sensplex List of NHL players List of NHL seasons List of ice hockey teams in Ontario Lyndon Slewidge References Bibliography Notes External links The Official website of the Ottawa Senators Ottawa Senators Foundation be-x-old:Атава Сэнатарз | Ottawa_Senators |@lemmatized ottawa:42 senator:71 professional:1 ice:6 hockey:10 team:70 base:1 ontario:6 canada:4 member:3 northeast:5 division:3 eastern:7 conference:8 national:1 league:9 nhl:40 play:28 home:13 game:43 capacity:1 scotiabank:3 place:10 originally:1 name:9 palladium:1 later:2 corel:2 centre:4 found:2 establish:2 real:2 estate:2 developer:2 bruce:2 firestone:8 second:9 franchise:13 use:2 nickname:1 original:7 famed:1 history:8 win:22 stanley:13 cup:15 count:2 hall:5 fame:1 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5,111 | Imperial_Airways | BOAC Speedbird logo, adopted following the merger of UK airlines in 1939, it was commissioned by Imperial Airways who rarely used it on their own planes prior to 1939. According to Adenair who also used it under their BOAC ownership, it was designed by Theyre Lee-Elliot. Speedbird is now the callsign of British Airways. Imperial Airways was the early British commercial long range air transport company, operating from 1924 to 1939 and serving parts of Europe but especially the Empire routes to South Africa, India and the Far East. There were local partnership companies; Qantas (Queensland and Northern Territory Aerial Services Ltd) in Australia, and TEAL (Tasman Empire Airways Ltd) in New Zealand. Formation Created following the advice of the government Hambling Committee in 1923 — that the main existing aircraft companies should be merged to create a company which would be strong enough to develop Britain's external air services — and offered a £1m subsidy over ten years if they merged. Imperial Airways Limited was formed in March 1924 from the British Marine Air Navigation Company Ltd (three flying boats), the Daimler Airway (five aircraft), Handley Page Transport Ltd (three aircraft) and the Instone Air Line Ltd (two aircraft). The land operations were based at Croydon Airport to the south of London. IAL immediately discontinued the predecessor's service to points north of London, the airline not being interested in serving what they regarded as the 'Provinces'. The first commercial flight was in April 1924, when a daily London-Paris service was opened. Additional services to other European destinations were started throughout the summer. The first new airliner was commissioned by Imperial Airways in November 1924. In the first year of operation the company carried 11,395 passengers and 212,380 letters. In April 1925, The Lost World (a recent blockbuster film) was shown to the passengers on the London-Paris route. This was the first time that a film had been screened for passengers on a plane. Imperial Airways, 1936 Brochure for the airline, illustrated with the first Short Empire flying boat Canopus The extension of service to the British Empire (Empire Services) was not begun until 1927 when, with the addition of six new aircraft, a service was instituted from Cairo to Basra. but the first service from London for Karachi did not start until 1929 using newly purchased Short S.8 Calcutta flying boats, even then the passengers were transported by train from Paris to the Mediterranean where the Short flying boats were. In February 1931 a weekly service between London and Tanganyika was started as part of the proposed route to Cape Town and in April an experimental London-Australia air mail flight took place; the mail was transferred at the Netherlands East Indies, and took 26 days in total to reach Sydney. The purchase of eight Handley Page HP.42 four-engined airliners boosted the range of services, in 1932 the service to Africa was extended to Cape Town. In Australia in 1934 Imperial and Qantas (Queensland and Northern Territory Aerial Services Ltd) formed Qantas Empire Airways Limited to extended services in Southeast Asia. But it was not until 1937 with the Short Empire flying boats that Imperial could offer a real through service from Southampton to the Empire. The journey to the Cape consisted of flights via Marseille, Rome, Brindisi, Athens, Alexandria, Khartoum, Port Bell, Kisumu and onwards by land-based craft to Nairobi, Mbeya and eventually Cape Town. Survey flights were also made across the Atlantic and to New Zealand. By mid-1937 Imperial had completed its thousandth service to the Empire. Air Mail Speed Wings Over the World, statue on a portal above the Empire Terminal's main entrance; by Eric BroadbentIn 1934 the Government began negotiations with Imperial Airways to establish a service to carry mail by air on routes served by the airline. Indirectly these negotiations led to the dismissal of Sir Christopher Bullock, the Permanent Secretary of the Air Ministry, who was found by a Board of Enquiry to have abused his position in seeking a position on the Board of the company while these negotiations were in train. The Empire Air Mail Programme began in July 1937, delivering anywhere for 1½ d./oz. By mid-1938 a hundred tons of mail had been delivered to India and a similar amount to Africa. In the same year, construction was started on the Empire Terminal in Victoria, London, designed by A. Lakeman and with a statue by Eric Broadbent, Speed Wings Over the World gracing the portal above the main entrance. The terminal provided train connections to flying boats at Southampton and to the since closed Croydon Airport. The terminal operated as recently as 1980. Flown cover carried around the world on PAA Boeing 314 Clippers and Imperial Airways Short S23 flying boats June 24-July 28, 1939 (The Cooper Collections)To help promote use of the Air Mail service, in June and July, 1939, Imperial Airways participated with Pan American Airways in providing a special "around the world" service with Imperial carrying the souvenir mail eastbound over the Foynes, Ireland, to Hong Kong portion of the New York to New York route. Pan American provided service from New York (departing on June 24) to Foynes (via the first flight of Northern FAM 18) and Hong Kong to San Francisco (via FAM 14), while United Airlines carried it on the final leg from San Francisco to New York where it arrived on July 28. Captain H.W.C. Alger was the first pilot to fly the inaugural air mail flight carrying mail from England to Australia for the first time on The Castor for Imperial Airways' Empires Air Routes, in 1937. Amalgamation Compared to other operators (Air France, KLM, Lufthansa) it was lagging behind in Europe and it was suggested that all European operations be handed over to its competitor British Airways Ltd (founded in 1935) which had more modern aircraft and better organization. However in November 1939 both Imperial and British Airways Ltd were merged into a new state-owned national carrier: British Overseas Airways Corporation (BOAC). The new carrier adopted the Imperial Speedbird logo, which has evolved into the present British Airways Speedmarque, and the term (Speedbird) continues to be used as BA's call sign. Related lists List of aircraft of Imperial Airways References Budd, Lucy "Global Networks Before Globalisation: Imperial Airways and the Development of Long-Haul Air Routes" Globalization and World Cities (GaWC) Research Bulletin 253, December 5, 2007 Pirie, G.H. Passenger traffic in the 1930s on British imperial air routes: refinement and revision. Journal of Transport History, 25 (2004) 66–84. Pirie, G.H. Incidental tourism: British imperial air travel in the 1930s. Journal of Tourism History, 1 (2009) 49-66. External links Imperial Airways enthusiast website British Airways Archive and Museum Collection | Imperial_Airways |@lemmatized boac:3 speedbird:4 logo:2 adopt:2 follow:2 merger:1 uk:1 airline:5 commission:2 imperial:20 airway:22 rarely:1 use:5 plane:2 prior:1 accord:1 adenair:1 also:2 ownership:1 design:2 theyre:1 lee:1 elliot:1 callsign:1 british:11 early:1 commercial:2 long:2 range:2 air:16 transport:4 company:7 operate:2 serve:3 part:2 europe:2 especially:1 empire:13 rout:2 south:2 africa:3 india:2 far:1 east:2 local:1 partnership:1 qantas:3 queensland:2 northern:3 territory:2 aerial:2 service:20 ltd:8 australia:4 teal:1 tasman:1 new:10 zealand:2 formation:1 create:2 advice:1 government:2 hambling:1 committee:1 main:3 exist:1 aircraft:7 merge:3 would:1 strong:1 enough:1 develop:1 britain:1 external:2 offer:2 subsidy:1 ten:1 year:3 limit:2 form:2 march:1 marine:1 navigation:1 three:2 fly:9 boat:7 daimler:1 five:1 handley:2 page:2 instone:1 line:1 two:1 land:2 operation:3 base:2 croydon:2 airport:2 london:8 ial:1 immediately:1 discontinue:1 predecessor:1 point:1 north:1 interest:1 regard:1 province:1 first:9 flight:6 april:3 daily:1 paris:3 open:1 additional:1 european:2 destination:1 start:4 throughout:1 summer:1 airliner:2 november:2 carry:6 passenger:5 letter:1 lose:1 world:6 recent:1 blockbuster:1 film:2 show:1 route:6 time:2 screen:1 brochure:1 illustrate:1 short:5 canopus:1 extension:1 begin:3 addition:1 six:1 institute:1 cairo:1 basra:1 karachi:1 newly:1 purchase:2 calcutta:1 even:1 train:3 mediterranean:1 february:1 weekly:1 tanganyika:1 propose:1 cape:4 town:3 experimental:1 mail:10 take:2 place:1 transfer:1 netherlands:1 indie:1 day:1 total:1 reach:1 sydney:1 eight:1 hp:1 four:1 engined:1 boost:1 extend:2 southeast:1 asia:1 could:1 real:1 southampton:2 journey:1 consist:1 via:3 marseille:1 rome:1 brindisi:1 athens:1 alexandria:1 khartoum:1 port:1 bell:1 kisumu:1 onwards:1 craft:1 nairobi:1 mbeya:1 eventually:1 survey:1 make:1 across:1 atlantic:1 mid:2 complete:1 thousandth:1 speed:2 wing:2 statue:2 portal:2 terminal:4 entrance:2 eric:2 broadbentin:1 negotiation:3 establish:1 indirectly:1 lead:1 dismissal:1 sir:1 christopher:1 bullock:1 permanent:1 secretary:1 ministry:1 find:1 board:2 enquiry:1 abuse:1 position:2 seek:1 programme:1 july:4 deliver:2 anywhere:1 oz:1 hundred:1 ton:1 similar:1 amount:1 construction:1 victoria:1 lakeman:1 broadbent:1 grace:1 provide:3 connection:1 since:1 closed:1 recently:1 cover:1 around:2 paa:1 boeing:1 clipper:1 june:3 cooper:1 collection:2 help:1 promote:1 participate:1 pan:2 american:2 special:1 souvenir:1 eastbound:1 foynes:2 ireland:1 hong:2 kong:2 portion:1 york:4 depart:1 fam:2 san:2 francisco:2 united:1 final:1 leg:1 arrive:1 captain:1 h:3 w:1 c:1 alger:1 pilot:1 inaugural:1 england:1 castor:1 amalgamation:1 compare:1 operator:1 france:1 klm:1 lufthansa:1 lag:1 behind:1 suggest:1 hand:1 competitor:1 found:1 modern:1 good:1 organization:1 however:1 state:1 national:1 carrier:2 overseas:1 corporation:1 evolve:1 present:1 speedmarque:1 term:1 continue:1 ba:1 call:1 sign:1 related:1 list:2 reference:1 budd:1 lucy:1 global:1 network:1 globalisation:1 development:1 haul:1 globalization:1 city:1 gawc:1 research:1 bulletin:1 december:1 pirie:2 g:2 traffic:1 refinement:1 revision:1 journal:2 history:2 incidental:1 tourism:2 travel:1 link:1 enthusiast:1 website:1 archive:1 museum:1 |@bigram british_airway:5 handley_page:2 southeast_asia:1 hong_kong:2 san_francisco:2 lag_behind:1 external_link:1 |
5,112 | Jazz_guitar | Hollowbody electric guitars are quite common in jazz; the Gibson ES-175 is one of the most popular models. The term jazz guitar may refer to either a type of guitar or to the variety of playing styles used in the various genres which are commonly termed "jazz." The guitar has a long history in jazz music, as both an ensemble and solo instrument. These styles were shaped by some of the genre's influential jazz guitarists. While jazz can be played on any type of guitar, from an acoustic instrument to a solid-bodied electric guitar such as a Fender Stratocaster, the archtop guitar has become known as the prototypical "jazz guitar." Archtop guitars are steel-string acoustic guitars with a big soundbox, arched top, violin-style "F" holes, a "floating bridge" and magnetic or piezoelectric pickups. The earliest guitars used in jazz were acoustic. While acoustic guitars are still sometimes used in jazz, most jazz guitarists since the 1940s have performed on an amplified electric guitar, typically an archtop with a magnetic pickup. Jazz guitar playing styles include "comping" with jazz chord voicings (and in some cases , walking basslines) and "blowing" (improvising) over jazz chord progressions with jazz-style phrasing and ornaments. When jazz guitarists play chords underneath a song's melody or another musician's solo improvisations, it is called "comping", a portmanteau of "accompanying" and complementing. When jazz guitar players improvise, they use the scales, modes, and arpeggios associated with the chords in a tune's chord progression. History 1900-mid-1930s The stringed, chord-playing rhythm instrument typical of jazz ensembles from 1900 until the early 1920s was the banjo, an instrument which was much louder than guitars of the time. The banjo could generate enough sound to be heard in groups which included military band-style instruments such as brass, saxes, clarinets, and drums, such as early jazz groups. As the acoustic guitar became a more popular instrument in the early 20th century, guitar-makers began building louder guitars which would be useful in a wider range of settings. The Gibson L5, an acoustic archtop guitar which was first produced in 1923, was an early “jazz”-style guitar which was used by early jazz guitarists such as Eddie Lang. By the 1930s, the guitar began to displace the banjo as the primary chordal rhythm instrument in jazz music, because the guitar could be used to voice chords of greater harmonic complexity, and it had a somewhat more muted tone that blended well with the upright bass, which, by this time, had almost completely replaced the tuba as the dominant bass instrument in jazz music. The next important development in jazz guitar came in the mid to late-1930s with the advent of electrical amplification. Although Gibson was not the first commercial producer to make an electric guitar, the company made the first successfully-marketed electric guitar, the ES150 in 1936. It was an acoustic archtop fitted with a guitar pickup, which sensed the vibrations in the metal strings so that they could be amplified by a guitar amplifier. When guitarist Charlie Christian used the amplified electric guitar to improvise horn-like, single-line melodies in the jazz context, jazz and blues musicians became interested in the potential of the louder, new electric guitar. His playing was heard by millions in the recordings he cut with Benny Goodman. Late 1930s-1960s During the late 1930s and through the 1940s -the heyday of big band jazz and swing music -the electric guitar was an important rhythm section instrument. Some guitarists, such as Freddie Green of Count Basie’s band, developed a guitar-specific style of accompaniment. Few of the big bands, however, featured amplified guitar solos, which were done instead in the small combo context. The most important jazz guitar soloists of this period included the French Gypsy virtuoso Django Reinhardt, best known for his recordings with Stephane Grappelli, Oscar Moore who was featured with Nat “King” Cole’s trio, and Charlie Christian of Benny Goodman's band and sextet, who was a major influence despite his early death at 25. Duke Ellington's big band had a rhythm section that included a jazz guitarist, a double bass player, and a drummer (not visible). It was not until the large-scale emergence of small combo jazz in the post-WWII period that the guitar took as a versatile instrument, which was used both in the rhythm section and as a featured melodic instrument and solo improviser. In the hands of Kenny Burrell, Herb Ellis, Barney Kessel, Jimmy Raney, and Tal Farlow, who had absorbed the language of bebop, the guitar began to be seen as a “serious” jazz instrument. Improved electric guitars such as Gibson’s ES175 (released in 1949), gave players a larger variety of tonal options. In the 1940s through the 1960s, players such as Wes Montgomery, Joe Pass, and Jim Hall laid the foundation of what is now known as "jazz guitar" playing. 1970s As jazz-rock fusion emerged in the early 1970s, many players switched to the more rock-oriented solid body guitars. Other jazz guitarists, like Grant Green and Wes Montgomery, turned to applying their skills to pop-oriented styles that fused jazz with soul and R&B, such as soul jazz-styled organ trios. Younger jazz musicians rode the surge of electric popular genres such as blues, rock, and funk to reach new audiences. Guitarists in the fusion realm fused the post-bop harmonic and melodic language of musicians such as John Coltrane, McCoy Tyner, Ornette Coleman, and Miles Davis with a hard-edged (and usually very loud) rock tone created by iconic guitarists such as Cream's Eric Clapton who'd redefined the sound of the guitar for those unfamiliar with the black blues players of Chicago and, before that, the Delta region of the Mississippi upon whom his style was based. With John Mayall's Blusbreakers, Clapton turned up the volume on a sound already pioneered by Buddy Guy, Freddie King, B.B. King and others that was fluid, with heavy finger vibratos, string bending, and speed through powerful Marshall amplifiers. Fusion players such as John McLaughlin adopted the fluid, powerful sound of rock guitarists such as Clapton and Jimi Hendrix. McLaughlin was a master innovator, incorporating hard jazz with the new sounds of Clapton, Hendrix, Beck and others. McLaughlin later formed the Mahavisnhu Orchestra, an historically important fusion band that played to sold out venues in the early 70s and as a result, produced an endless progeny of fusion guitarist. Guitarists such as Al Di Meola, Larry Coryell, John Abercrombie, John Scofield and Mike Stern (the latter two both allumni of the Miles Davis band) fashioned a new language for the guitar which introduced jazz to a new generation of fans. Like the rock-blues icons that preceded them, fusion guitarists usually played their solid body instruments through stadium rock-style amplification, and signal processing “effects” such as simulated distortion, wah-wah, octave splitters, compression, and flange pedals. In addition, they also simply turned up to full volume in order to create natural overdrive such as the blues rock players. 1980s-2000s By the early 1980s, the radical experiments of early 1970s-era fusion gave way to a more radio-friendly sounds of smooth jazz. Guitarist Pat Metheny mixed the sounds of blues, country, and “world” music, along with rock and jazz, playing both a flat-top acoustic guitar and an electric guitar with a softer, more mellow tone which was sweetened with a shimmering effect known as as “chorusing". During the 1980s, a neo-traditional school of jazz sought to reconnect with the past. In keeping with such an aesthetic, young guitarists of this era sought a clean and round tone and they often played traditional hollow-body archtop guitars which were played without electronic effects. As players such as Bobby Broom, Peter Bernstein, Howard Alden, Russell Malone, and Mark Whitfield revived the sounds of traditional jazz guitar, there was also a resurgence of archtop luthierie (guitar-making). By the early 1990s many small independent luthiers began making archtop guitars. In the 2000s, jazz guitar playing continues to change. Some guitarists incorporate a Latin jazz influence, acid jazz-style dance club music uses samples from Wes Montgomery, and guitarists such as Bill Frisell continue to defy categorization. Types of guitars While jazz can be played on any type of guitar, from an acoustic instrument to a solid-bodied electric guitar such as a Fender Stratocaster, the archtop guitar has become known as the prototypical "jazz guitar." Archtop guitars are steel-string acoustic guitars with a big soundbox, arched top, violin-style "F" holes, a "floating bridge" and magnetic or piezoelectric pickups. Early makers of jazz guitars included Gibson, Epiphone, D'Angelico and Stromberg. A hollow-bodied Epiphone guitar with violin-style "F" holes. The earliest guitars used in jazz were acoustic. While acoustic guitars are still sometimes used in jazz, most jazz guitarists since the 1940s have performed on an amplified electric guitar, typically an archtop with a magnetic pickup. In the 1990s, there was a resurgence of interest among jazz guitarists in acoustic archtop guitars with floating pickups. Sitka spruce, European spruce, and Engelmann spruce are most often used for the resonant tops of archtop and flattop guitars, although some guitar builders use Adirondack Spruce (Red Spruce), or Western Red Cedar. Archtop guitars often have Curly Maple or Quilted Maple backs. Mass-produced archtop guitars are made by several different manufacturers. There are also a smaller number of handmade archtop and flattop guitars made on a small scale. Builders of handmade guitars take about six months to make each jazz guitar. Builders have to spend time choosing the maples, spruces and exotic woods, building the instrument, adding decorative inlays and purfling, and applying a hand-rubbed lacquer finish. AUGUST-SEPTEMBER 2004 51 50 INSIDE NORTHSIDE http://www.fosterguitars.com/Jimmy-Foster-ISNS.pdf The most expensive archtop guitars may have a range of high-end features, such as "boutique" pickups with hand-wound magnets, wooden volume and tone knobs, and built-in condenser microphones, piezoelectric pickups, and preamplifiers. Playing styles Jazz guitar playing styles include "comping" (accompanying) with jazz chord voicings (and in some cases , walking basslines) and "blowing" (improvising) over jazz chord progressions with jazz-style phrasing and ornaments. Comping When jazz guitarists play chords underneath a song's melody or another musician's solo improvisations, it is called "comping", a portmanteau of "accompanying" and complementing. The accompanying style in most jazz styles differs from the way chordal instruments accompany in many popular styles of music. In many popular styles of music, such as rock and pop, the rhythm guitarist usually performs the chords in rhythmic fashion which sets out the beat or groove of a tune. In contrast, in many modern jazz styles, the guitarist plays much more sparsely, interminging periodic chords and delicate voicings into pauses in the melody or solo, and using periods of silence. Jazz guitarists use their knowledge of harmony and jazz theory to create jazz chord "voicings," which are usually rootless and which emphasize the 3rd and 7th notes of the chord. Some more sophisticated chord voicings also include the 9th, 11th, and 13th notes of the chord. In some modern jazz styles, dominant 7th chords in a tune may contain altered 9ths (either flattened by a semitone, which is called a "flat 9th", or sharpened by a semitone, which is called a "sharp 9th"); 11ths (sharpened by a semitone, which is called a "sharp 11th"); 13ths (typically flattened by a semitone, which is called a "flat 13th"). Jazz guitarists need to learn about a range of different chords, including Major 7th, Major 6th, minor 7th, minor (with Major 7th), dominant 7th, diminished, half-diminished, and augmented chords. As well, they need to learn about chord transformations (e.g., altered chords, such as "alt dominant chords" described above), chord substitutions, and re-harmonization techniques. Some jazz guitarists use their knowledge of jazz scales and chords to provide a walking bass-style accompaniment. Jazz guitarists learn to perform these chords over the range of different chord progressions used in jazz, such as the II-V-I progression, the jazz-style blues progression, the minor jazz-style blues form, the "rhythm changes" progression, and the variety of chord progressions used in jazz ballads, and jazz standards. Guitarists may also learn to use the chord types, strumming styles, and effects pedals (e.g., chorus effect or fuzzbox) used in 1970s-era jazz-latin, jazz-funk, and jazz-rock fusion music. Improvising When jazz guitar players improvise, they use the scales, modes, and arpeggios associated with the chords in a tune's chord progression. The approach to improvising has changed since the earliest eras of jazz guitar. During the Swing era, many soloists improvised "by ear" by embellishing the melody with ornaments and passing notes. However, during the bebop era, the rapid tempo and complicated chord progressions made it increasingly harder to play "by ear." Along with other improvisers, such as saxes and piano players, bebop-era jazz guitarists began to improvise over the chord changes using scales (whole tone scale, chromatic scale, etc.) and arpeggios. Jazzology: The Encyclopedia of Jazz Theory for All Musicians, by Robert Rawlins, Nor Eddine Bahha, Barrett Tagliarino. Hal Leonard Corporation, 2005 ISBN 0634086782, 9780634086786. Page 141 . Jazz guitar players tend to improvise around chord/scale relationships, rather than reworking the melody, possibly due to their familiarity with chords resulting from their comping role. Jazz guitarists integrate the basic building blocks of scales and arpeggio patterns into balanced rhythmic and melodic phrases that make up a cohesive solo. Jazz guitarists often try to imbue their melodic phrasing with the sense of natural breathing and legato phrasing used by horn players such as saxophone players. As well, a jazz guitarists' solo improvisations have to have a rhythmic drive and "timefeel" that creates a sense of "swing" and "groove." The most experienced jazz guitarists learn to play with different "timefeels" such as playing "ahead of the beat" or "behind the beat," to create or release tension. Another aspect of the jazz guitar style is the use of stylistically appropriate ornaments, such as grace notes, slides, and muted notes. Each sub-genre or era of jazz has different ornaments that are part of the style of that sub-genre or era. Jazz guitarists usually learn the appropriate ornamenting styles by listening to prominent recordings from a given style or jazz era. Some jazz guitarists also borrow ornamentation techniques from other jazz instruments, such as Wes Montgomery's borrowing of playing melodies in parallel octaves, which is a jazz piano technique. Jazz guitarists also have to learn how to add in passing tones, use "guide tones" and chord tones from the chord progression to structure their improvisations, and create "chord solos" by adding the song's melody on top of the chord voicings. In the 1970s and 1980s, with jazz-rock fusion guitar playing, jazz guitarists incorporated rock guitar soloing approaches, such as riff-based soloing and usage of pentatonic and blues scale patterns. Some guitarists used Jimi Hendrix-influenced distortion and wah-wah effects to get a sustained, heavy tone, or even used rapid-fire guitar shredding techniques, such as tapping and tremolo bar bending. Guitarist Al Di Meola, who started his career with Return to Forever in 1974, was one of the first guitarists to perform in a "shred" style, a technique later used in rock and heavy metal playing. Di Meola used alternate-picking, to perform very rapid sequences of notes in his solos. References Jaén, Fernando Alonso (Date unknown). “The Archtop Jazz Guitar” http://www.acousticfingerstyle.com/ArchtopGuitars.htm Wilson, Gerald (2005). Personal interview with the author. Yanow, Scott (Date unknown). “Wynton Marsalis.” All-Music Guide. http://www.allmusic.com/cg/amg.dll?p=amg&searchlink=WYNTON|MARSALIS&sql=11:kifoxqqgld6e~T2 Yanow, Scott (Date unknown). “Pat Metheny.” All-Music Guide. http://www.allmusic.com/cg/amg.dll?p=amg&sql=11:difwxqy5ldhe~T1 See also List of jazz guitarists Jazz guitarists Swing (jazz performance style) External links Classic Jazz Guitar: information about the best of the classic jazz guitarists and their music from the 1930s, 1940s, & 1950s. | Jazz_guitar |@lemmatized hollowbody:1 electric:13 guitar:79 quite:1 common:1 jazz:101 gibson:5 e:3 one:2 popular:5 model:1 term:2 may:4 refer:1 either:2 type:5 variety:3 play:18 style:34 use:29 various:1 genre:5 commonly:1 long:1 history:2 music:12 ensemble:2 solo:11 instrument:17 shape:1 influential:1 guitarist:43 acoustic:13 solid:4 body:6 fender:2 stratocaster:2 archtop:18 become:4 know:5 prototypical:2 steel:2 string:5 big:5 soundbox:2 arch:2 top:5 violin:3 f:3 hole:3 float:3 bridge:2 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5,113 | Beta_sheet | Diagram of β-pleated sheet with H-bonding between protein strands The β sheet (also β-pleated sheet) is the second form of regular secondary structure in proteins consisting of beta strands connected laterally by three or more hydrogen bonds, forming a generally twisted, pleated sheet (the most common form of regular secondary structure in proteins is the alpha helix). A beta strand (also β-strand) is a stretch of amino acids typically 5–10 amino acids long whose peptide backbones are almost fully extended. The association of beta sheets has been implicated in the formation of protein aggregates and fibrils observed in many human diseases, notably the amyloidoses. Nomenclature In the most common usage, β strand refers to a single continuous stretch of amino acids adopting an extended conformation and involved in hydrogen bonds; by contrast, a β sheet refers to an assembly of such strands that are hydrogen-bonded to each other. History The first β sheet structure was proposed by William Astbury in the 1930s. He proposed the idea of hydrogen bonding between the peptide bonds of parallel or antiparallel extended β strands. However, Astbury did not have the necessary data on the bond geometry of the amino acids in order to build accurate models, especially since he did not then know that the peptide bond was planar. A refined version was proposed by Linus Pauling and Robert Corey in 1951. Structure and orientation Illustration of the hydrogen bonding patterns, represented by dotted lines, in an antiparallel beta sheet. Oxygen atoms are colored red and nitrogen atoms colored blue. Illustration of the hydrogen bonding patterns, represented by dotted lines, in a parallel beta sheet. Oxygen atoms are colored red and nitrogen atoms colored blue. Geometry The majority of β strands are arranged adjacent to other strands and form an extensive hydrogen bond network with their neighbors in which the N-H groups in the backbone of one strand establish hydrogen bonds with the C=O groups in the backbone of the adjacent strands. In the fully extended β strand, successive side chains point straight up, then straight down, then straight up, etc. Adjacent β strands in a β sheet are aligned so that their Cα atoms are adjacent and their side chains point in the same direction. The "pleated" appearance of β strands arises from tetrahedral chemical bonding at the Cα atom; for example, if a side chain points straight up, then the bond to the must point slightly downwards, since its bond angle is approximately 109.5°. The pleating causes the distance between and to be approximately 6 Å, rather than the 7.6 Å (2 × 3.8 Å) expected from two fully extended trans peptide virtual bonds. The "sideways" distance between adjacent Cα atoms in hydrogen-bonded β strands is roughly 5 Å. However, β strands are rarely perfectly extended; rather, they exhibit a slight twist due to the chirality of their component amino acids. The energetically preferred dihedral angles (φ, ψ) = (–135°, 135°) (broadly, the upper left region of the Ramachandran plot) diverge somewhat from the fully extended conformation (φ, ψ) = (–180°, 180°). The twist is often associated with alternating fluctuations in the dihedral angles to prevent the individual β strands in a larger sheet from splaying apart. A good example of such a twisted β-hairpin can be seen in the protein BPTI. The side chains point outwards from the folds of the pleats, roughly perpendicularly to the plane of the sheet; successive residues point outwards on alternating faces of the sheet. Hydrogen bonding patterns Because peptide chains have a directionality conferred by their N-terminus and C-terminus, β strands too can be said to be directional. They are usually represented in protein topology diagrams by an arrow pointing toward the C-terminus. Adjacent β strands can form hydrogen bonds in antiparallel, parallel, or mixed arrangements. In an antiparallel arrangement, the successive β strands alternate directions so that the N-terminus of one strand is adjacent to the C-terminus of the next. This is the arrangement that produces the strongest inter-strand stability because it allows the inter-strand hydrogen bonds between carbonyls and amines to be planar, which is their preferred orientation. The peptide backbone dihedral angles (φ, ψ) are about (–140°, 135°) in antiparallel sheets. In this case, if two atoms and are adjacent in two hydrogen-bonded β strands, then they form two mutual backbone hydrogen bonds to each other's flanking peptide groups; this is known as a close pair of hydrogen bonds. In a parallel arrangement, all of the N-termini of successive strands are oriented in the same direction; this orientation is slightly less stable because it introduces nonplanarity in the inter-strand hydrogen bonding pattern. The dihedral angles (φ, ψ) are about (–120°, 115°) in parallel sheets. It is rare to find less than five interacting parallel strands in a motif, suggesting that a smaller number of strands may be unstable. In this case, if two atoms and are adjacent in two hydrogen-bonded β strands, then they do not hydrogen bond to each other; rather, one residue forms hydrogen bonds to the residues that flank the other (but not vice versa). For example, residue may form hydrogen bonds to residues and ; this is known as a wide pair of hydrogen bonds. By contrast, residue may hydrogen-bond to different residues altogether, or to none at all. Finally, an individual strand may exhibit a mixed bonding pattern, with a parallel strand on one side and an antiparallel strand on the other. Such arrangements are less common than a random distribution of orientations would suggest, indicating that this pattern is less stable than the antiparallel arrangement. The hydrogen bonding of β strands need not be perfect, but can exhibit localized disruptions known as beta bulges. The hydrogen bonds lie roughly in the plane of the sheet, with the peptide carbonyl groups pointing in alternating directions with successive residues; for comparison, successive carbonyls point in the same direction in the alpha helix. Amino acid propensities Large aromatic residues (Tyr, Phe and Trp) and β-branched amino acids (Thr, Val, Ile) are favored to be found in β strands in the middle of β sheets. Interestingly, different types of residues (such as Pro) are likely to be found in the edge strands in β sheets, presumably to avoid the "edge-to-edge" association between proteins that might lead to aggregation and amyloid formation. It is also suggested that the dipole moments in parallel β-sheets, whose direction is from C-terminal (partially negative) to N-terminal (partially positive) may influence the propensity of certain residues (like Lys and Arg) for the caps of this structure. Common structural motifs Beta-meander motifPortion of outer surface Protein A of Borrelia burgdorferi complexed with a murine monoclonal antibody. Representation of a beta hairpin A very simple structural motif involving β sheets is the β hairpin, in which two antiparallel strands are linked by a short loop of two to five residues, of which one is frequently a glycine or a proline, both of which can assume the unusual dihedral-angle conformations required for a tight turn. However, individual strands can also be linked in more elaborate ways with long loops that may contain alpha helices or even entire protein domains. Greek key motif The Greek key motif consists of four adjacent antiparallel strands and their linking loops. It consists of three antiparallel strands connected by hairpins, while the fourth is adjacent to the first and linked to the third by a longer loop. This type of structure forms easily during the protein folding process. It was named after a pattern common to Greek ornamental artwork. The β-α-β motif Due to the chirality of their component amino acids, all strands exhibit a "right-handed" twist evident in most higher-order β sheet structures. In particular, the linking loop between two parallel strands almost always has a right-handed crossover chirality, which is strongly favored by the inherent twist of the sheet. This linking loop frequently contains a helical region, in which case it is called a β-α-β motif. A closely related motif called a β-α-β-α motif forms the basic component of the most common protein tertiary structure, the TIM barrel. Psi-loop motifPortion of Carboxypeptidase A. β-meander motif A simple supersecondary protein topology composed of 2 or more consecutive antiparallel β-strands linked together by hairpin loops. SCOP: Fold: WW domain-like PPS '96 - Super Secondary Structure This motif is common in β-sheets and can be found in several structural architectures including β-barrels and β-propellers. Psi-loop motif The psi-loop, Ψ-loop, motif consists of two antiparallel strands with one strand in between that is connected to both by hydrogen bonds. There are four possible strand topologies for single Ψ-loops as cited by Hutchinson et al. (1990). This motif is rare as the process resulting in its formation seems unlikely to occur during protein folding. The Ψ-loop was first identified in the aspartic protease family. Structural architectures of proteins with beta-sheets Beta-sheets are present in all-β, α+β and α/β domains according to Structural Classification of Proteins and in many peptides or small proteins with poorly defined overall architecture. All-β domains may form β barrels, β sandwiches, β prisms, β propellers, and β-helices. Structural topology The topology of a β sheet describes the order of hydrogen-bonded β strands along the backbone. For example, the flavodoxin fold has a five-stranded, parallel β sheet with topology 21345; thus, the edge strands are β strand 2 and β strand 5 along the backbone. Spelled out explicitly, β strand 2 is H-bonded to β strand 1, which is H-bonded to β strand 3, which is H-bonded to β strand 4, which is H-bonded to β strand 5, the other edge strand. In the same system, the Greek key motif described above has a 4123 topology. The secondary structure of a β sheet can be described roughly by giving the number of strands, their topology, and whether their hydrogen bonds are parallel or antiparallel. β sheets can be open, meaning that they have two edge strands (as in the flavodoxin fold or the immunoglobulin fold)) or they can be closed beta barrels (such as the TIM barrel). β-Barrels are often described by their stagger or shear. Some open β sheets are very curved and fold over on themselves (as in the SH3 domain) or form horseshoe shapes (as in the ribonuclease inhibitor). Open β sheets can assemble face-to-face (such as the beta-propeller domain or immunoglobulin fold) or edge-to-edge, forming one big β sheet. Parallel β helices A β helix is formed from repeating structural units consisting of two or three short β strands linked by short loops. These units "stack" atop one another in a helical fashion so that successive repetitions of the same strand hydrogen-bond with each other in a parallel orientation. In β helices, the strands themselves are nearly planar; the resulting helical surfaces are nearly flat, forming a triangular prism shape. The two-strand helix is found in the enzyme pectate lyase. Its two loops are each six residues long and bind stabilizing calcium ions to maintain the integrity of the structure. The more complex three-strand helix contains three linking loops, of which one is consistently two residues long and the others are variable. This structure is found in bacteriophage P22 tailspike protein. β sheets in pathology Some proteins that are disordered or helical as monomers, such as amyloid β (see amyloid plaque) can form β-sheet-rich oligomeric structures associated with pathological states. The amyloid β protein's oligomeric form is implicated as a cause of Alzheimer's. Its structure has yet to be determined in full, but recent data suggests that it may resemble an unusual two-strand β helix. The side chains from the amino acid residues found in a β sheet structure may also be arranged such that many of the adjacent sidechains on one side of the sheet are hydrophobic, while many of those adjacent to each other on the alternate side of the sheet are polar or charged (hydrophilic), which can be useful if the sheet is to form a boundary between polar/watery and nonpolar/greasy environments. See also Folding (chemistry) Tertiary structure α helix Collagen helix Foldamers References Further reading Cooper, J. "Super Secondary Structure - Part II", May 31,1996. Accessed May 25,2007. Structural Classification of Proteins (SCOP) "Open-sided Beta-meander", October 20, 2006. Accessed May 31, 2007. External links Interactive model of an anti-parallel β sheet (plug-in required) Interactive model of a parallel β sheet (plug-in required) Animated details of β-pleated sheet | Beta_sheet |@lemmatized diagram:2 β:80 pleated:3 sheet:41 h:6 bonding:8 protein:20 strand:64 also:6 second:1 form:18 regular:2 secondary:5 structure:17 consist:4 beta:13 connect:3 laterally:1 three:5 hydrogen:28 bond:33 generally:1 twist:5 common:7 alpha:3 helix:12 stretch:2 amino:9 acid:9 typically:1 long:5 whose:2 peptide:9 backbone:7 almost:2 fully:4 extend:5 association:2 implicate:2 formation:3 aggregate:1 fibril:1 observe:1 many:4 human:1 disease:1 notably:1 amyloidoses:1 nomenclature:1 usage:1 refers:2 single:2 continuous:1 adopt:1 extended:2 conformation:3 involve:2 contrast:2 assembly:1 history:1 first:3 propose:3 william:1 astbury:2 idea:1 parallel:15 antiparallel:13 however:3 necessary:1 data:2 geometry:2 order:3 build:1 accurate:1 model:3 especially:1 since:2 know:4 planar:3 refined:1 version:1 linus:1 pauling:1 robert:1 corey:1 orientation:5 illustration:2 pattern:7 represent:3 dotted:2 line:2 oxygen:2 atom:9 color:4 red:2 nitrogen:2 blue:2 majority:1 arrange:2 adjacent:13 extensive:1 network:1 neighbor:1 n:5 group:4 one:10 establish:1 c:5 successive:7 side:9 chain:6 point:9 straight:4 etc:1 align:1 cα:3 direction:6 pleat:3 appearance:1 arises:1 tetrahedral:1 chemical:1 example:4 must:1 slightly:2 downwards:1 angle:6 approximately:2 pleating:1 cause:2 distance:2 å:4 rather:3 expect:1 two:16 trans:1 virtual:1 sideways:1 roughly:4 rarely:1 perfectly:1 exhibit:4 slight:1 due:2 chirality:3 component:3 energetically:1 preferred:2 dihedral:5 φ:4 ψ:7 broadly:1 upper:1 left:1 region:2 ramachandran:1 plot:1 diverge:1 somewhat:1 often:2 associate:2 alternate:5 fluctuation:1 prevent:1 individual:3 large:2 splay:1 apart:1 good:1 twisted:1 hairpin:5 see:3 bpti:1 outwards:2 fold:9 perpendicularly:1 plane:2 residue:15 face:3 directionality:1 confer:1 terminus:6 say:1 directional:1 usually:1 topology:8 arrow:1 toward:1 mixed:2 arrangement:6 next:1 produce:1 strong:1 inter:3 stability:1 allow:1 carbonyl:3 amine:1 case:3 mutual:1 flank:2 close:2 pair:2 orient:1 less:4 stable:2 introduce:1 nonplanarity:1 rare:2 find:7 five:3 interact:1 motif:15 suggest:4 small:2 number:2 may:12 unstable:1 vice:1 versa:1 wide:1 different:2 altogether:1 none:1 finally:1 random:1 distribution:1 would:1 indicate:1 need:1 perfect:1 localized:1 disruption:1 bulge:1 lie:1 comparison:1 propensity:2 aromatic:1 tyr:1 phe:1 trp:1 branch:1 thr:1 val:1 ile:1 favor:2 middle:1 interestingly:1 type:2 pro:1 likely:1 edge:8 presumably:1 avoid:1 might:1 lead:1 aggregation:1 amyloid:4 dipole:1 moment:1 terminal:2 partially:2 negative:1 positive:1 influence:1 certain:1 like:2 lys:1 arg:1 cap:1 structural:8 meander:3 motifportion:2 surface:2 borrelia:1 burgdorferi:1 complexed:1 murine:1 monoclonal:1 antibody:1 representation:1 simple:2 link:9 short:3 loop:16 frequently:2 glycine:1 proline:1 assume:1 unusual:2 require:3 tight:1 turn:1 elaborate:1 way:1 contain:2 even:1 entire:1 domain:5 greek:4 key:3 four:2 linking:1 fourth:1 third:1 easily:1 process:2 name:1 ornamental:1 artwork:1 α:7 right:2 hand:2 evident:1 high:1 particular:1 always:1 crossover:1 strongly:1 inherent:1 helical:4 call:2 closely:1 related:1 basic:1 tertiary:2 tim:2 barrel:6 psi:3 carboxypeptidase:1 supersecondary:1 compose:1 consecutive:1 together:1 scop:2 ww:1 pps:1 super:2 several:1 architecture:3 include:1 propeller:3 consists:1 possible:1 cite:1 hutchinson:1 et:1 al:1 result:2 seem:1 unlikely:1 occur:1 folding:1 identify:1 aspartic:1 protease:1 family:1 present:1 domains:1 accord:1 classification:2 poorly:1 define:1 overall:1 sandwich:1 prism:2 describe:4 along:2 flavodoxin:2 thus:1 spell:1 explicitly:1 system:1 give:1 whether:1 open:4 mean:1 immunoglobulin:2 stagger:1 shear:1 curved:1 horseshoe:1 shape:2 ribonuclease:1 inhibitor:1 assemble:1 big:1 repeat:1 unit:2 stack:1 atop:1 another:1 fashion:1 repetition:1 nearly:2 flat:1 triangular:1 enzyme:1 pectate:1 lyase:1 six:1 bind:1 stabilize:1 calcium:1 ion:1 maintain:1 integrity:1 complex:1 contains:1 consistently:1 others:1 variable:1 bacteriophage:1 tailspike:1 pathology:1 disorder:1 monomer:1 plaque:1 rich:1 oligomeric:2 pathological:1 state:1 alzheimer:1 yet:1 determine:1 full:1 recent:1 resemble:1 sidechains:1 hydrophobic:1 polar:2 charge:1 hydrophilic:1 useful:1 boundary:1 watery:1 nonpolar:1 greasy:1 environment:1 chemistry:1 collagen:1 foldamers:1 reference:1 far:1 read:1 cooper:1 j:1 part:1 ii:1 access:2 october:1 external:1 interactive:2 anti:1 plug:2 animate:1 detail:1 |@bigram pleated_sheet:3 β_sheet:22 hydrogen_bond:23 alpha_helix:3 β_strand:27 amino_acid:9 hydrogen_bonding:5 peptide_bond:2 linus_pauling:1 dotted_line:2 dihedral_angle:5 φ_ψ:4 vice_versa:1 antiparallel_strand:5 dipole_moment:1 monoclonal_antibody:1 glycine_proline:1 α_β:5 closely_related:1 hairpin_loop:1 et_al:1 triangular_prism:1 α_helix:1 collagen_helix:1 external_link:1 |
5,114 | North_American_Free_Trade_Agreement | The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA; , ) ( [TLCAN], [ALENA]) is a trilateral trade bloc in North America created by the governments of the United States, Canada, and Mexico. The agreement creating the trade bloc came into force on January 1, 1994. It superseded the Canada-United States Free Trade Agreement between the U.S. and Canada. In terms of combined purchasing power parity GDP of its members, the trade block is the largest in the world and second largest by nominal GDP comparison. The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) has two supplements, the North American Agreement on Environmental Cooperation (NAAEC) and the North American Agreement on Labor Cooperation (NAALC). Background In 1988 Canada and the United States signed the Canada-United States Free Trade Agreement. The American government then entered into negotiations with the Mexican government for a similar treaty, and Canada asked to join the negotiations in order to preserve its perceived "gains" under the 1988 deal. Foreign Affairs and International trade Canada: Canada and the World: A History - 1984-1993: "Leap of Faith The international climate at the time favoured expanding trade blocs, and the Maastricht Treaty which created the European Union was signed in 1992. Negotiation and ratification Seen here are Carlos Salinas, President of Mexico (back left), George H.W. Bush, President of the United States (back centre), and Brian Mulroney, Prime Minister of Canada (back right), and their respective lead negotiators during a signing ceremony for a draft of the agreement in 1992. Following diplomatic negotiations dating back to 1991 between the three nations, the leaders met in San Antonio, Texas, on December 17, 1992, to sign NAFTA. U.S. President George H.W. Bush, Canadian Prime Minister Brian Mulroney and Mexican President Carlos Salinas, each responsible for spearheading and promoting the agreement, ceremonially signed it. Before the negotiations were finalized, Bill Clinton came into office in the U.S. and Kim Campbell in Canada, and before the agreement became law, Jean Chrétien had taken office in Canada. Ratification The agreement needed to be ratified by each nation's legislative or parliamentary branch before it could actually become the law was not approved by the US or Canada and it enede. Canada The earlier 1988 Canada-U.S.trade agreement had been extremely controversial and divisive in Canada, and the 1988 Canadian election was fought almost exclusively on that issue. In that election more Canadians voted for anti-free trade parties (the Liberals and the New Democrats) but more seats in parliament were won by the pro-free trade Progressive Conservatives (PCs). Mulroney and the PCs had a parliamentary majority and were able to easily pass the Canada-U.S. FTA and NAFTA bills. However Mulroney himself had become deeply unpopular and resigned on June 25, 1993. He was replaced as Conservative leader and prime minister by Kim Campbell, who then lead the PC party into the 1993 election where they were decimated by the Liberals under Jean Chrétien. Chrétien had campaigned on a promise to renegotiate or abrogate NAFTA, but instead negotitated the two supplemental agreements with the new U.S. Democratic president, and ideological ally, Bill Clinton. Mexico United States In the U.S., Bush, who had worked to "fast track" the signing prior to the end of his term, ran out of time and had to pass the required ratification and signing into law to incoming president Bill Clinton. Prior to sending it to the House of Representatives, Clinton introduced clauses intended to protect American workers and allay the concerns of many House representatives. It also required U.S. partners to adhere to environmental practices and regulations similar to its own. The ability to enforce these clauses, especially with Mexico, was considered questionable, and with much consternation and emotional discussion the House of Representatives approved NAFTA on November 17, 1993, by a vote of 234 to 200. Remarkably, the agreement's supporters included 132 Republicans and only 102 Democrats. NAFTA did not get the votes needed to pass as a Treaty in the U.S. Senate. That unusual combination reflected the challenges President Clinton faced in convincing Congress that the controversial piece of legislation would truly benefit all Americans. The agreement was signed into law in the U.S. on December 8, 1993, by President Bill Clinton and went into effect on January 1, 1994. http://millercenter.org/academic/americanpresident/events/12_08 here's a link, http://www.fina-nafi.org/eng/integ/chronologie.asp?langue=eng&menu=integ and another one here, http://www.globalohio.org/NAFTA/Nafta.htm one over here too! http://www.texaspolicy.com/printable.php?report_id=244 AND another link here. http://www.pollutionissues.com/Li-Na/NAFTA-North-American-Free-Trade-Agreement.html And this is the last link. Effects The effects of NAFTA, both positive and negative, have been quantified by several economists, whose findings have been reported in publications such as the World Bank's Lessons from NAFTA for Latina America and the Caribbean, Lederman D, W Maloney and L Servén (2005) Lessons from NAFTA for Latin America and the Caribbean: Stanford University Press: Palo Alto, USA NAFTA's Impact on North America, Weintraub S (2004), NAFTA's Impact on North America The Firstyy Decade, CSIS Press: Washington, USA and NAFTA Revisited by the Institute for International Economics. Hufbauer GC and Schott, JJ, NAFTA Revisited, Institute for International Economics, Washington D.C. 2005 Some argue that NAFTA has been positive for Mexico, which has seen its poverty rates fall and real income rise (in the form of lower prices, especially food), even after accounting for the 1994–1995 economic crisis. Others argue that NAFTA has been beneficial to business owners and elites in all three countries, but has had negative impacts on farmers in Mexico who saw food prices fall based on cheap imports from U.S. agribusiness, and negative impacts on U.S. workers in manufacturing and assembly industries who lost jobs. Critics also argue that NAFTA has contributed to the rising levels of inequality in both the U.S. and Mexico. Some economists believe that NAFTA has not been enough (or worked fast enough) to produce an economic convergence, Floudas, Demetrius Andreas & Rojas, Luis Fernando; "Some Thoughts on NAFTA and Trade Integration in the American Continent", 52 (2000) International Problems 371 nor to substantially reduce poverty rates. Some have suggested that in order to fully benefit from the agreement, Mexico must invest more in education and promote innovation in infrastructure and agriculture. Trade According to Issac (2005), overall, NAFTA has not caused trade diversion, aside from a few industries such as textiles and apparel, in which rules of origin negotiated in the agreement were specifically designed to make U.S. firms prefer Mexican manufacturers. The World Bank also showed that the combined percentage growth of NAFTA imports was accompanied by an almost similar increase of non-NAFTA exports. Industry Maquiladoras (Mexican factories which take in imported raw materials and produce goods for export) have become the landmark of trade in Mexico. These are plants that moved to this region from the United States, hence the debate over the loss of American jobs. Hufbauer's (2005) book shows that income in the maquiladora sector has increased 15.5% since the implementation of NAFTA in 1994. Other sectors now benefit from the free trade agreement, and the share of exports from non-border states has increased in the last five years while the share of exports from maquiladora-border states has decreased. This has allowed for the rapid growth of non-border metropolitan areas, such as Toluca, León and Puebla; all three larger in population than Tijuana, Ciudad Juárez, and Reynosa. The main non-maquiladora industry that has benefited from NAFTA is the automobile industry. Environment Securing U.S. congressional approval for NAFTA would have been impossible without addressing public concerns about NAFTA’s environmental impact. The Clinton administration negotiated a side agreement on the environment with Canada and Mexico, the North American Agreement on Environmental Cooperation (NAAEC), which led to the creation of the Commission for Environmental Cooperation (CEC) in 1994. To alleviate concerns that NAFTA, the first regional trade agreement between a developing country and two developed countries, would have negative environmental impacts, the CEC was given a mandate to conduct ongoing ex post environmental assessment of NAFTA. IngentaConnect NAFTA Commission for Environmental Cooperation: ongoing assessmen In response to this mandate, the CEC created a framework for conducting environmental analysis of NAFTA, one of the first ex post frameworks for the environmental assessment of trade liberalization. The framework was designed to produce a focused and systematic body of evidence with respect to the initial hypotheses about NAFTA and the environment, such as the concern that NAFTA would create a “race to the bottom” in environmental regulation among the three countries, or the hope that NAFTA would pressure governments to increase their environmental protection mechanisms. http://www.cec.org/programs_projects/trade_environ_econ/pdfs/frmwrk-e.pdf The CEC has held four symposia using this framework to evaluate the environmental impacts of NAFTA and has commissioned 47 papers on this subject. In keeping with the CEC’s overall strategy of transparency and public involvement, the CEC commissioned these papers from leading independent experts. Overall, none of the initial hypotheses was confirmed. NAFTA did not inherently present a systemic threat to the North American environment, as was originally feared, but NAFTA-related environmental threats instead occurred in specific areas where government environmental policy, infrastructure, or mechanisms, were unprepared for the increasing scale of production under trade liberalization. In some cases, environmental policy was neglected in the wake of trade liberalization; in other cases, NAFTA's measures for investment protection, such as Chapter 11, and measures against non-tariff trade barriers, threatened to discourage more vigorous environmental policy. The most serious overall increases in pollution due to NAFTA were found in the base metals sector, the Mexican petroleum sector, and the transportation equipment sector in the United States and Mexico, but not in Canada. http://www.cec.org/programs_projects/trade_environ_econ/pdfs/Reinert.pdf Agriculture From the earliest negotiation, agriculture was (and still remains) a controversial topic within NAFTA, as it has been with almost all free trade agreements that have been signed within the WTO framework. Agriculture is the only section that was not negotiated trilaterally; instead, three separate agreements were signed between each pair of parties. The Canada–U.S. agreement contains significant restrictions and tariff quotas on agricultural products (mainly sugar, dairy, and poultry products), whereas the Mexico–U.S. pact allows for a wider liberalization within a framework of phase-out periods (it was the first North–South FTA on agriculture to be signed). The overall effect of the Mexico–U.S. agricultural agreement is a matter of dispute. Mexico did not invest in the infrastructure necessary for competition, such as efficient railroads and highways, creating more difficult living conditions for the country's poor. Still, the causes of rural poverty cannot be directly attributed to NAFTA; in fact, Mexico's agricultural exports increased 9.4 percent annually between 1994 and 2001, while imports increased by only 6.9 percent a year during the same period. Greening the Americas, Carolyn L. Deere (editor). MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA Production of corn in Mexico has increased since NAFTA's implementation. However, internal corn demand has increased beyond Mexico's sufficiency, and imports have become necessary, far beyond the quotas Mexico had originally negotiated. p. 4 Zahniser & Coyle have also pointed out that corn prices in Mexico, adjusted for international prices, have drastically decreased, yet through a program of subsidies expanded by former president Vicente Fox, production has remained stable since 2000. U.S.-Mexico Corn Trade During the NAFTA Era: New Twists to an Old Story USDA Economic Research Service The logical result of a lower commodity price is that more use of it is made downstream. Unfortunately, many of the same rural people who would have been likely to produce higher-margin value-added products in Mexico have instead emigrated. The rise in corn prices due to increased ethanol demand may improve the situation of corn farmers in Mexico. In a study published in the August 2008 issue of the American Journal of Agricultural Economics, NAFTA has increased U.S. agricultural exports to Mexico and Canada even though most of this increase occurred a decade after its ratification. The study focused on the effects that gradual "phase-in" periods in regional trade agreements, including NAFTA, have on trade flows. Most of the increase in members’ agricultural trade, which was only recently brought under the purview of the World Trade Organization, was due to very high trade barriers before NAFTA or other regional trade agreements. Newswise: Free Trade Agreement Helped U.S. Farmers Retrieved on June 12, 2008. Mobility of persons According to the Department of Homeland Security Yearbook of Immigration Statistics, during fiscal year 2006 (i.e., October 2005 through September 2006), 74,098 foreign professionals (64,633 Canadians and 9,247 Mexicans) were admitted into the United States for temporary employment under NAFTA (i.e., in the TN status). Additionally, 17,321 of their family members (13,136 Canadians, 2,904 Mexicans, as well as a number of third-country nationals married to Canadians and Mexicans) entered the U.S. in the treaty national's dependent (TD) status. DHS Yearbook 2006. Supplemental Table 1: Nonimmigrant Admissions (I-94 Only) by Class of Admission and Country of Citizenship: Fiscal Year 2006 Because DHS counts the number of the new I-94 arrival records filled at the border, and the TN-1 admission is valid for one year, the number of non-immigrants in TN status present in the U.S. at the end of the fiscal year is approximately equal to the number of admissions during the year. (A discrepancy may be caused by some TN entrants leaving the country or changing status before their one-year admission period expired, while other aliens admitted earlier may change their status to TN or TD, or extend earlier granted TN status). Canadian authorities estimated that, as of December 1, 2006, the total of 24,830 U.S. citizens and 15,219 Mexican citizens were present in Canada as "foreign workers". These numbers include both entrants under the NAFTA agreement and those who have entered under other provisions of the Canadian immigration law. [http://www.cic.gc.ca/english/resources/statistics/facts2006/temporary/04.asp Facts and Figures 2006 Immigration Overview: Temporary Residents] (Citizenship and Immigration Canada) New entries of foreign workers in 2006 were 16,841 (U.S. citizens) and 13,933 (Mexicans). Criticism and controversies Canadian disputes Garmeorkers assemble suits in a Toronto factory in 1901 There is much concern in Canada over the provision that if something is sold even once as a commodity, the government cannot stop its sale in the future. The Council of Canadians: Water This applies to the water from Canada's lakes and rivers, fueling fears over the possible destruction of Canadian ecosystems and water supply. In 1999, Sun Belt Water Inc., a company out of Santa Barbara, California, filed an Arbitration Claim under Chapter 11 of the NAFTA claiming $10.5 billion as a result of Canada's prohibition on the export of bulk water by marine tanker, a move that destroyed the Sun Belt business venture. Sun Belt maintains a website where many documents concerning the Arbitration are posted www.sunbeltwater.com. The claim sent shock waves through Canadian governments that scrambled to update water legislation and remains unresolved. Other fears come from the effects NAFTA has had on Canadian lawmaking. In 1996, the gasoline additive MMT was brought into Canada by an American company. At the time, the Canadian federal government banned the importation of the additive. The American company brought a claim under NAFTA Chapter 11 seeking US$201 million, , 'Ethyl Corporation vs. Government of Canada' and by Canadian provinces under the Agreement on Internal Trade ("AIT"). The American company argued that their additive had not been conclusively linked to any health dangers, and that the prohibition was damaging to their company. Following a finding that the ban was a violation of the AIT, the Canadian federal government repealed the ban and settled with the American company for US$13 million. Dispute Settlement Studies by Health and Welfare Canada (now Health Canada) on the health effects of MMT in fuel found no significant health effects associated with exposure to these exhaust emissions. Other Canadian researchers and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency disagree with Health Canada, and cite studies that include possible nerve damage. MMT: the controversy over this fuel additive continues The United States and Canada had been arguing for years over the United States' decision to impose a 27 percent duty on Canadian softwood lumber imports, until new Canadian Prime Minister Stephen Harper compromised with the United States and reached a settlement on July 1, 2006. U.S., Canada Reach Final Agreement on Lumber Dispute The settlement has not yet been ratified by either country, in part due to domestic opposition in Canada. Coniferous trees reflected on Buntzen Lake in British Columbia Ponderosa Pine logs taken from from Malheur National Forest, Grant County, Oregon Canada had filed numerous motions to have the duty eliminated and the collected duties returned to Canada. softwood Lumber After the United States lost an appeal from a NAFTA panel, it responded by saying "We are, of course, disappointed with the [NAFTA panel's] decision, but it will have no impact on the anti-dumping and countervailing duty orders." (Nick Lifton, spokesman for U.S. Trade Representative Rob Portman) Statement from USTR Spokesperson Neena Moorjani Regarding the NAFTA Extraordinary Challenge Committee decision in Softwood Lumber On July 21, 2006, the U.S. Court of International Trade found that imposition of the duties was contrary to U.S. law. Statement by USTR Spokesman Stephen Norton Regarding CIT Lumber Ruling Canadian government challenged on change in Income trust taxation On October 30, 2007, American citizens Marvin and Elaine Gottlieb filed a Notice of Intent to Submit a Claim to Arbitration under NAFTA. The couple claims thousands of U.S. investors lost a total of $5 billion dollars in the fall-out from the Conservative Government's decision last year to effectively tax income trusts in the energy sector out of existence. Under the NAFTA, Canada is not allowed to target other NAFTA citizens when they impose new measures. Canadian Federal Finance Minister Jim Flaherty is on record that energy trusts were included because of their high U.S. ownership, while Real Estate Investment Trusts, owned mostly by Canadians, were excluded. NAFTA also stipulates that Canada must pay compensation for destroying investment by U.S. investors. The Government of Canada's 2006 Halloween tax changes for income trusts were designed to eliminate the income trust model for investment by U.S. citizens. The NAFTA says that U.S. investors are entitled to rely upon Canadian government promises. Harper repeatedly made a public promise that his Government would not tax trusts, as had the previous Liberal Government. Canada's tax treaty with the United States also says that trust income will not be taxed at more than 15 percent. The Gottliebs maintain a website for American and Mexican citizens interested in filing a NAFTA claim against the Government of Canada. NAFTA Trust Claims U.S. deindustrialization An increase in domestic manufacturing output and a proportionally greater domestic investment in manufacturing does not necessarily mean an increase in domestic manufacturing jobs; this increase may simply reflect greater automation and higher productivity. Although the U.S. total civilian employment may have grown by almost 15 million in between 1993 and 2001, manufacturing jobs only increased by 476,000 in the same time period. Furthermore from 1994 to 2007, net manufacturing employment has declined by 3,654,000, and during this period several other free trade agreements have been concluded or expanded. Impact on Mexican farmers Mexico's Tequila region in Jalisco. At far left, rows of Blue Agave cactus grow in the region's rich volcanic soils. In 2000, U.S. government subsidies to the corn sector totaled $10.1 billion, a figure ten times greater than the total Mexican agricultural budget that year. Other studies reject NAFTA as the force responsible for depressing the incomes of poor corn farmers, citing the trend's existence more than a decade before NAFTA's existence, an increase in maize production after NAFTA went into effect in 1994, and the lack of a measurable impact on the price of Mexican corn due to subsidized corn coming into Mexico from the United States, though they agree that the abolition of U.S. agricultural subsidies would benefit Mexican farmers. According to Graham Purchase in Anarchism and Environmental Survival, NAFTA could cause "the destruction of the ejidos (peasant cooperative village holdings) by corporate interests, and threatens to completely reverse the gains made by rural peoples in the Mexican Revolution." The fact remains that the highly subsidized exports from the USA to Mexico constitute a classic case of dumping and may drive out of business many farm operations in Mexico. Mexico's food self-sufficiency and independence is jeopardized. Chapter 11 Another contentious issue is the impact of the investment obligations contained in Chapter 11 of the NAFTA. NAFTA, Chapter 11 Chapter 11 allows corporations or individuals to sue Mexico, Canada or the United States for compensation when actions taken by those governments (or by those for whom they are responsible at international law, such as provincial, state, or municipal governments) have adversely affected their investments. This chapter has been invoked in cases where governments have passed laws or regulations with intent to protect their constituents and their resident businesses' profits. Language in the chapter defining its scope states that it cannot be used to "prevent a Party from providing a service or performing a function such as law enforcement, correctional services, income security or insurance, social security or insurance, social welfare, public education, public training, health, and child care, in a manner that is not inconsistent with this Chapter." http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext93/naftchap.txt This chapter has been criticized by groups in the U.S., 'North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)', Public Citizen Mexico, and Canada The Council of Canadians for a variety of reasons, including not taking into account important social and environmental The NAFTA environmental agreement: The Intersection of Trade and the Environment considerations. In Canada, several groups, including the Council of Canadians, challenged the constitutionality of Chapter 11. They lost at the trial level, Judge Rebuffs Challenge to NAFTA'S Chapter 11 Investor Claims Process and have subsequently appealed. Methanex, a Canadian corporation, filed a US$970 million suit against the United States, claiming that a California ban on MTBE, a substance that had found its way into many wells in the state, was hurtful to the corporation's sales of methanol. However, the claim was rejected, and the company was ordered to pay US$3 million to the U.S. government in costs. In another case, Metalclad, an American corporation, was awarded US$15.6 million from Mexico after a Mexican municipality refused a construction permit for the hazardous waste landfill it intended to construct in Guadalcázar, San Luis Potosí. The construction had already been approved by the federal government with various environmental requirements imposed (see paragraph 48 of the tribunal decision). The NAFTA panel found that the municipality did not have the authority to ban construction on the basis of the alleged environmental concerns. Chapter 19 Also contentious is NAFTA's Chapter 19, which subjects antidumping and countervailing duty (AD/CVD) determinations with binational panel review instead of, or in addition to, conventional judicial review. For example, in the United States, review of agency decisions imposing antidumping and countervailing duties are normally heard before the U.S. Court of International Trade, an Article III court. NAFTA parties, however, have the option of appealing the decisions to binational panels composed of five citizens from the two relevant NAFTA countries. The panelists are generally lawyers experienced in international trade law. Since the NAFTA does not include substantive provisions concerning AD/CVD, the panel is charged with determining whether final agency determinations involving AD/CVD conform with the country's domestic law. Chapter 19 can be considered as somewhat of an anomaly in international dispute settlement since it does not apply international law, but requires a panel composed of individuals from many countries to reexamine the application of one country's domestic law. A Chapter 19 panel is expected to examine whether the agency's determination is supported by "substantial evidence." This standard assumes significant deference to the domestic agency. Some of the most controversial trade disputes in recent years, such as the U.S.-Canada softwood lumber dispute, have been litigated before Chapter 19 panels. Decisions by Chapter 19 panels can be challenged before a NAFTA extraordinary challenge committee. However, an extraordinary challenge committee does not function as an ordinary appeal. Under the NAFTA, it will only vacate or remand a decision if the decision involves a significant and material error that threatens the integrity of the NAFTA dispute settlement system. , no NAFTA party has successfully challenged a Chapter 19 panel's decision before an extraordinary challenge committee. Chapter 20 Chapter 20 provides a procedure for the interstate resolution of disputes over the application and interpretation of the NAFTA. It was modeled after Chapter 18 of the Canada-United States Free Trade Agreement. Gantz, D.A. 1999. “Dispute Settlement Under the NAFTA and the WTO:Choice of Forum Opportunities and Risks for the NAFTA Parties.” American University International Law Review 14(4):1025–1106. Chapter 14 "This chapter dealing with Financial Services provides for the same procedure as Chapter 20, except that the members of the panel shall be selected from a roster of fifteen persons who "have expertise in financial services law or practice..." The roster has never been made public and no dispute has yet occurred under this chapter." de Mestral, A. 2005. “NAFTA Dispute Settlement: Creative Experiment or Confusion.” Unpublished manuscript, McGill University, Montreal, QC . Indeed this is a chapter that deals with Financial Services, but if one were to actually LOOK at the Chapter 14 text they would find that the above statement: "except that the members of the panel shall be selected from a roster of fifteen persons who "have expertise in financial services law or practice..." " is now where to be found. Article 1412: Financial Services Committee does state however, that Parties can establish a Financial Services Committee made up of representatives from each party (No mention of a roster nor 15 persons.) and that representative must be an official of the authority that is responsible for financial services. NAFTA's naming American intellectual Noam Chomsky has argued that the only true words in the phrase "North American Free Trade Agreement" seem to be "North America", as what is called trade is in reality primarily restricted intra-corporate transfers of products and services. Agreement is lacking as NAFTA was passed with a lack of democratic oversight protocols. World Orders Old and New, Noam Chomsky, Columbia University Press, 1994 , The Masters of Man, Noam Chomsky, The Nation, March, 1993 Furthermore, Adam Smith, a prominent economist, states in The Wealth of Nations that free trade includes the labour component as a factor of production: "... by obstructing the free circulation of labour and stock both from employment to employment, and from place to place, occasions in some cases a very inconvenient inequality in the whole of the advantages and disadvantages of their different employments." The Wealth of Nations, Adam Smith, 1776 Movement of labor is highly restricted within North America, even compared to the highly regulated trade bloc of the European Union. References External links Official NAFTA Secretariat website NaftaNow.org - Jointly developed by the Governments of Canada, Mexico and the United States of America Office of the U.S. Trade Representative - NAFTA TradeAgreements.gov: an interagency effort by the United States Government to provide the public with the latest information on America's trade agreements North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) from UCB Libraries GovPubs Text News & Research Latin Business Chronicle NAFTA Turns 15: Bravo! Studies of the effects of NAFTA after 10 years have been prepared by both the U.S. Government (see NAFTA 10 Years Later) and the Canadian government (see NAFTA @10) The Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, or OECD, publishes annual economic statistics. The results of data mining research concerning NAFTA have been published on Centrerion Canadian Politics' NAFTA pages, the data having been mined from OECD sources. NAFTA at 10: An Economic and Foreign Policy Success by Daniel Griswold (December 17, 2002) (arguing that NAFTA Chapter 11 has more expansive compensation criteria than U.S. takings law, which has the potential to impact and threaten domestic environmental regulation and impact federalism issues) Immigration Flood Unleashed by NAFTA's Disastrous Impact on Mexican Economy David Bacon, "A Knife in the Heart From NAFTA to the SPP from Dollars & Sense magazine, January/February 2008 How Has NAFTA Affected Trade and Employment? from Dollars & Sense magazine, January/February 2003 Websites North American Development Bank Public Citizen's Report on NAFTA Consortium for North American Higher Education Collaboration Border Trade Alliance Details of investor-state cases under NAFTA NAFTA Trust Claims NAFTA and World's hegemony Further reading David Bacon. The Children of NAFTA: Labor wars on the U.S./Mexico Border. Berkeley: University of California Press. 2004. ISBN 0-520-23778-1. 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5,115 | Dispute_resolution | Dispute resolution is the process of resolving disputes between parties. Methods Methods of dispute resolution include: lawsuits (litigation) arbitration collaborative law mediation conciliation many types of negotiation facilitation One could theoretically include violence or even as part of this spectrum, but dispute resolution practitioners do not usually do so; violence rarely ends disputes effectively, and indeed, often only escalates them. Some individuals, notably Joseph Stalin, have stated that all problems emanate from man, and absent man, no problems ensue. Hence, violence could theoretically end disputes, but alongside it, life. Dispute resolution processes fall into two major types: Adjudicative processes, such as litigation or arbitration, in which a judge, jury or arbitrator determines the outcome. Consensual processes, such as collaborative law, mediation, conciliation, or negotiation, in which the parties attempt to reach agreement. Not all disputes, even those in which skilled intervention occurs, end in resolution. Such intractable disputes form a special area in dispute resolution studies. Judicial dispute resolution The legal system provides a necessary structure for the resolution of many disputes. However, some disputants will not reach agreement through a collaborative processes. Some disputes need the coercive power of the state to enforce a resolution. Perhaps more importantly, many people want a professional advocate when they become involved in a dispute, particularly if the dispute involves perceived legal rights, legal wrongdoing, or threat of legal action against them. The most common form of judicial dispute resolution is litigation. Litigation is initiated when one party files suit against another. In the United States, litigation is facilitated by the government within federal, state, and municipal courts. The proceedings are very formal and are governed by rules, such as rules of evidence and procedure, which are established by the legislature. Outcomes are decided by an impartial judge and/or jury, based on the factual questions of the case and the application law. The verdict of the court is binding, not advisory; however, both parties have the right to appeal the judgment to a higher court. Judicial dispute resolution is typically adversarial in nature, e.g., involving antagonistic parties or opposing interests seeking an outcome most favorable to their position. Retired judges or private lawyers often become arbitrators or mediators; however, trained and qualified non-legal dispute resolution specialists form a growing body within the field of ADR. In the United States of America, many states now have mediation or other ADR programs annexed to the courts, to facilitate settlement of lawsuits. Extrajudicial dispute resolution Some use the term dispute resolution to refer only to alternative dispute resolution (ADR), that is, extrajudicial processes such as arbitration, collaborative law, and mediation used to resolve conflict and potential conflict between and among individuals, business entities, governmental agencies, and (in the public international law context) states. ADR generally depends on agreement by the parties to use ADR processes, either before or after a dispute has arisen. ADR has experienced steadily increasing acceptance and utilization because of a perception of greater flexibility, costs below those of traditional litigation, and speedy resolution of disputes, among other perceived advantages. However, some have criticized these methods as taking away the right to seek redress of grievances in the courts, suggesting that extrajudicial dispute resolution may not offer the fairest way for parties not in an equal bargaining relationship, for example in a dispute between a consumer and a large corporation. In addition, in some circumstances, arbitration and other ADR processes may become as expensive as litigation or more so. Online dispute resolution Dispute resolution can also take place on-line or by using technology in certain cases. Online dispute resolution, a growing field of dispute resolution, uses new technologies to solve disputes. Online Dispute Resolution is also called "ODR". Online Dispute Resolution or ODR also involves the application of traditional dispute resolution methods to disputes which arise online. References Further reading Morris, Catherine, ed. Conflict Transformation and Peacebuilding: A Selected Bibliography. Victoria, Canada: Peacemakers Trust. Sherwyn, David, Tracey, Bruce & Zev Eigen, In Defense of Mandatory Arbitration of Employment Disputes: Saving the Baby, Tossing out the Bath Water, and Constructing a New Sink in the Process, 2 U. Pa. J. Lab. & Emp. L. 73 (1999) Ury, William, 2000. The Third Side: Why We Fight and How We Can Stop. Penguin Putnam. New York. ISBN 0-14-029634-4 See also Alternative dispute resolution Collaborative divorce Collaborative law Conflict resolution Conflict resolution research Creative Peacebuilding Diplomacy Party-directed mediation Peacekeeping Restorative justice National Arbitration Forum External links New York State Dispute Resolution Association Resources for dispute resolution practitioners and consumers. City University of New York Dispute Resolution Consortium (CUNY DRC) Peacemakers Trust offers extensive resources in the field of dispute resolution. Straus Institute for Dispute Resolution at Pepperdine University School of Law Peacemakers Trust | Dispute_resolution |@lemmatized dispute:41 resolution:32 process:9 resolve:2 party:8 method:4 include:2 lawsuit:2 litigation:7 arbitration:6 collaborative:6 law:7 mediation:5 conciliation:2 many:4 type:2 negotiation:2 facilitation:1 one:2 could:2 theoretically:2 violence:3 even:2 part:1 spectrum:1 practitioner:2 usually:1 rarely:1 end:3 effectively:1 indeed:1 often:2 escalate:1 individual:2 notably:1 joseph:1 stalin:1 state:8 problem:2 emanate:1 man:2 absent:1 ensue:1 hence:1 alongside:1 life:1 fall:1 two:1 major:1 adjudicative:1 judge:3 jury:2 arbitrator:2 determine:1 outcome:3 consensual:1 attempt:1 reach:2 agreement:3 skilled:1 intervention:1 occurs:1 intractable:1 form:3 special:1 area:1 study:1 judicial:3 legal:5 system:1 provide:1 necessary:1 structure:1 however:4 disputant:1 need:1 coercive:1 power:1 enforce:1 perhaps:1 importantly:1 people:1 want:1 professional:1 advocate:1 become:3 involve:4 particularly:1 perceived:1 right:3 wrongdoing:1 threat:1 action:1 common:1 initiate:1 file:1 suit:1 another:1 united:2 facilitate:2 government:1 within:2 federal:1 municipal:1 court:5 proceeding:1 formal:1 govern:1 rule:2 evidence:1 procedure:1 establish:1 legislature:1 decide:1 impartial:1 base:1 factual:1 question:1 case:2 application:2 verdict:1 bind:1 advisory:1 appeal:1 judgment:1 high:1 typically:1 adversarial:1 nature:1 e:1 g:1 antagonistic:1 oppose:1 interest:1 seek:2 favorable:1 position:1 retired:1 private:1 lawyer:1 mediator:1 train:1 qualify:1 non:1 specialist:1 grow:2 body:1 field:3 adr:7 america:1 program:1 annex:1 settlement:1 extrajudicial:3 use:5 term:1 refer:1 alternative:2 conflict:5 potential:1 among:2 business:1 entity:1 governmental:1 agency:1 public:1 international:1 context:1 generally:1 depend:1 either:1 arise:2 experience:1 steadily:1 increase:1 acceptance:1 utilization:1 perception:1 great:1 flexibility:1 cost:1 traditional:2 speedy:1 perceive:1 advantage:1 criticize:1 take:2 away:1 redress:1 grievance:1 suggest:1 may:2 offer:2 fair:1 way:1 equal:1 bargaining:1 relationship:1 example:1 consumer:2 large:1 corporation:1 addition:1 circumstance:1 expensive:1 online:5 also:4 place:1 line:1 technology:2 certain:1 new:5 solve:1 call:1 odr:2 reference:1 far:1 read:1 morris:1 catherine:1 ed:1 transformation:1 peacebuilding:2 select:1 bibliography:1 victoria:1 canada:1 peacemaker:2 trust:3 sherwyn:1 david:1 tracey:1 bruce:1 zev:1 eigen:1 defense:1 mandatory:1 employment:1 save:1 baby:1 toss:1 bath:1 water:1 construct:1 sink:1 u:1 pa:1 j:1 lab:1 emp:1 l:1 ury:1 william:1 third:1 side:1 fight:1 stop:1 penguin:1 putnam:1 york:3 isbn:1 see:1 divorce:1 research:1 creative:1 diplomacy:1 direct:1 peacekeeping:1 restorative:1 justice:1 national:1 forum:1 external:1 link:1 association:1 resource:2 city:1 university:2 consortium:1 cuny:1 drc:1 peacemakers:1 extensive:1 straus:1 institute:1 pepperdine:1 school:1 |@bigram mediation_conciliation:2 redress_grievance:1 penguin_putnam:1 restorative_justice:1 external_link:1 |
5,116 | The_Muppets | The Muppets are a group of puppet characters created by Jim Henson. Individually, a Muppet is one of the puppets made by Jim Henson or his company's workshop. Although the term is often used erroneously to refer to any puppet that resembles the distinctive style of The Muppet Show the term is both an informal name and legal trademark linked to the characters created by Henson. The word "Muppet" itself was said by Henson to have been created by combining the words "Marionette" and "puppet"; however, Henson was also known to have stated that it was just something he liked the sound of, and he made up the "marionette/puppet" story while talking to a journalist because it sounded plausible. After earlier unsuccessful attempts, The Walt Disney Company bought the Muppets in 2004. findarticles.com "Disney buys Muppets as bid prospect fades" 2/18/04 Exceptions include characters appearing on Sesame Street (as they were previously sold to Sesame Workshop), the Fraggles of Fraggle Rock (which are still owned by The Jim Henson Company). The legal trademark on the term "Muppet" is currently held by The Muppet Holding Co., LLC (now The Muppets Studio, LLC, a division of the Walt Disney Company); although Sesame Workshop and the Jim Henson Company continue to use the term on their characters with certain permissions. After nearly a decade, a new movie is in the works. Disney recently enlisted Jason Segel and Nicholas Stoller to create the next Muppet movie for the studio. Variety, 3/11/08, Segel and Stoller take on Muppets This will be the first Muppet theatrical film since Muppets from Space. The Muppets' latest television special, A Muppets Christmas: Letters to Santa, premiered on NBC on December 17, 2008. Physical appearance A common design for a Jim Henson Muppet is a character with a very wide mouth and large protruding eyes. The puppets are often molded or carved out of various types of foam, and then covered with fleece, fur, or any other material. Muppets may represent humans, anthropomorphic animals, realistic animals, robots, anthromorphic objects, extraterrestrial creatures, mythical beings or other unidentified, newly imagined creatures, monsters, or abstract characters. Muppets are distinguished from ventriloquist "dummies"/"puppets", which are typically animated only in the head and face, in that their arms or other features are also mobile and expressive. Muppets are typically made of softer materials. They are also presented as being independent of the puppeteer, who is usually not visible—hidden behind a set or outside of the camera frame. Using the camera frame as the "stage" was an innovation of the Muppets. Christopher Finch Jim Henson: The Works 1993, ISBN 0679412034 Previously on television, there would typically be a stage hiding the performers, as if in a live presentation. Operation The Muppeteer always holds the puppet above his head or in front of his body, with one hand operating the head and mouth and the other manipulating the hands and arms, either with two separate control rods or by "wearing" the hands like gloves. One consequence of this design is that most Muppets are left-handed as the puppeteer uses his right hand to operate the head while operating the arm rod with his left hand. There are many other common designs and means of operation. In advanced Muppets, several puppeteers may control a single character; the performer who controls the mouth usually provides the voice for the character. As technology has evolved, the Jim Henson team and other puppeteers have developed an enormous variety of means to operate puppets for film and television, including the use of suspended rigs, internal motors, remote radio control, and computer enhanced and superimposed images. Creative use of a mix of technologies has allowed for scenes in which Muppets appear to be riding a bicycle, rowing a boat, and even dancing on-stage with no puppeteer in sight. Muppets characters See also: :Category:Muppet characters Famous Muppets from The Muppet Show and its numerous spin-offs include Kermit the Frog, Miss Piggy, Fozzie Bear, Rizzo the Rat, Gonzo the Great, Rowlf the Dog, Dr. Bunsen Honeydew and Beaker, Scooter, Statler and Waldorf, the Swedish Chef, Sam the Eagle, Sweetums, Pepe the King Prawn, and a band named Dr. Teeth and The Electric Mayhem whose members included Janice, Zoot , Floyd Pepper , and Animal. Other well-known Muppets include Sesame Street characters such as Big Bird, Oscar the Grouch, Elmo, Zoe, Bert and Ernie, Cookie Monster, Grover, Abby Cadabby and The Count, as well as the main characters of Fraggle Rock. The most widely known television shows featuring Muppets have been Sesame Street, The Muppet Show, Fraggle Rock and Bear in the Big Blue House. Other series have included The Jim Henson Hour, The Ghost of Faffner Hall, Dog City, Secret Life of Toys, Muppets Tonight, The Wubbulous World of Dr. Seuss and Statler and Waldorf: From the Balcony. A recurring adult-oriented cast of Muppets (in a setting known as The Land of Gorch) were featured throughout the first season of Saturday Night Live. Guest stars on some of these programs have occasionally had Muppet versions of themselves. It was a regular practice for the first few episodes of The Muppet Show, and ZZ Top, among others, have appeared as Muppet versions of themselves on Sesame Street. The puppet characters of Farscape, The Storyteller, Mother Goose Stories, The Hoobs, Construction Site and Dinosaurs, as well as from the films Labyrinth, Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles, Buddy, The Country Bears and The Dark Crystal, are not considered Muppets, as they were made by Jim Henson's Creature Shop, rather than by Henson's Muppet Workshop. The puppet casts of Puppet Up! and Tinseltown are also not considered Muppets as they were made by The Jim Henson Company after the sale of The Muppets in 2004. The Star Wars character Yoda was voiced by Frank Oz, one of Henson's regular performers, and is often referred to as a Muppet in media and reference works; he is not, however, a Muppet and Henson's organization was not involved in the character's design. The Muppets' popularity has been so expansive that Muppet characters have been treated as celebrities in their own right. The Muppets have presented at the Academy Awards and Emmy Awards; made cameo appearances in such feature films as Rocky III Rocky III (IMDB) , An American Werewolf in London An American Werewolf in London (IMDB) and Mr. Magorium's Wonder Emporium Mr. Magorium's Wonder Emporium (IMDB) ; and have been interviewed on the newsmagazine 60 Minutes. Kermit the Frog was interviewed early on in Jon Stewart's run on The Daily Show, TheDailyShow.com guest hosted The Tonight Show, Jimmy Kimmel Live, Extreme Makeover: Home Edition, America's Funniest Home Videos and an April Fool's Day edition of Larry King Live; and the frog has served as Grand Marshal of the Tournament of Roses Parade. The characters also appeared in-character on such sit-coms and dramas as The Cosby Show, The West Wing and The Torkelsons. The music video for the Weezer song "Keep Fishin'" is premised on the band performing on The Muppet Show and features appearances by several characters. On September 28, 2005, the United States Postal Service released a Jim Henson and the Muppets postage stamp series. United States Postal Service (September 28, 2005). Jim Henson, Muppets, get stamps of approval. Press Release. The Muppets also appeared on Dick Clark's New Year's Rockin' Eve for the 2008 countdown on December 31, 2007. Kermit, Rizzo and others welcomed in the new year with a series of messages to welcome viewers back from the advertising breaks. After one such segment, with Kermit in Time Square, co-host Ryan Seacrest thanked his pal "Kerms" for the help bringing in '08. New Year's Rockin' Eve 2008 (2007) (TV) Miss Piggy has appeared as a guest on The Late Show and Kermit the Frog appeared on Hollywood Squares and as one of the celebrity commentators on VH1's I Love documentary series. On 25 July 2007 the Center for Puppetry Arts in Atlanta announced the opening of a new Jim Henson Wing, which will house anywhere from 500 to 700 retired Muppets, including those from Fraggle Rock and Sesame Street. The new wing will also include films, sketches, and other materials from the Jim Henson Company archives. The wing, which will be a part of the Center's new building, is slated to open in 2010. Discography On September 17, 2002 Rhino released The Muppet Show: Music, Mayhem, and More. In addition to the many Sesame Street and Muppets movie soundtracks available, this collection compiles music from various Muppets sources. It includes the rare song Rainbow Connection which was previously available on CD only on the soundtrack for The Muppet Movie. Filmography Theatrical and telefilms The Muppet Movie (1979) The Great Muppet Caper (1981) The Muppets Take Manhattan (1984) The Muppet Christmas Carol (1992) Muppet Treasure Island (1996) Muppets from Space (1999) It's A Very Merry Muppet Christmas Movie (2002) The Muppets' Wizard of Oz (2005) Television series Sam and Friends (1955-61) Sesame Street (1969-present) The Muppet Show (1976-1981) Fraggle Rock (1983-87) Muppet Babies (1984-1991) The Jim Henson Hour (1989) Secret Life of Toys (1994-1996) Muppets Tonight (1996-1998) Bear in the Big Blue House (1997-2006) Breakfast with Bear (2005-2006) Television specials Hey Cinderella! (1970) The Frog Prince (1971) The Muppet Musicians of Bremen (1972) The Muppets Valentine Show (1974) Emmet Otter's Jug-Band Christmas (1977) The Muppets Go Hollywood (1979) John Denver and the Muppets: A Christmas Together (1979) The Muppets Go To the Movies (1981) Of Muppets and Men (1981) The Fantastic Miss Piggy Show (1982) Rocky Mountain Holiday with John Denver and the Muppets (1983) The Muppets: A Celebration of 30 Years (1985) The Christmas Toy (1986) The Tale of the Bunny Picnic (1986) A Muppet Family Christmas (1987) Song of the Cloud Forest (1989) The Muppets at Walt Disney World (1990) The Muppets Celebrate Jim Henson (1990) Mr. Willowby's Christmas Tree (1995) Studio DC hosted by Dylan and Cole Sprouse (2008) Studio DC hosted by Selena Gomez (2008) A Muppet Christmas: Letters to Santa (2008) Direct to Video Muppet Classic Theater (1994) Elmo Saves Christmas (1996) Kermit's Swamp Years (2002) Abby in Wonderland (2008) Comic book In 2009, BOOM! Studios began publishing The Muppet Show Comic Book based on The Muppet Show and written and drawn by Roger Langridge. Future After the consensus was reached that The Muppets' Wizard of Oz failed to deliver critically, the question hung in the air whether or not another Muppet film would be made. A new film has been confirmed by Jason Segel and Nicholas Stoller, who both plan to produce the next Muppet film. Fleming, Michael. "Segel and Stoller take on Muppets." Variety. Retrieved: April 5, 2008 They have also stated that they will both write the next picture, but only Stoller will direct. On March 31 2008, First Showing revealed details about the new Muppet film. Billington, Alex. Coming Soon reported similar news. Newgen, Heather. After an interview with Jason Segel, First announced, "it's going to be incredibly old-fashioned, with the familiar Muppet characters putting on a show to save an old theater. The danger? An evil character wants to tear the place down to get at the oil underneath." Segel stated that he was the most enthusiastic about the project, also stating, "I just remember being 10 years old and for me Kermit was Tom Hanks. Kermit is like the original Everyman and I remember watching the old Muppets with my parents and seeing Peter Sellers and people like that on. I've always had Muppet pictures and figurines all through my house. Now that I'm getting to write it, I feel like all of my dreams are coming true." The movie will mainly star many of the original Muppets. The movie's title has been tentatively revealed as "The Greatest Muppet Movie of All Time" In an interview on the Today Show, on the comment about Letters to Santa Miss Piggy claimed that "They were doing one every year now", which could mean that the Muppets will star in a Christmas special every year. In popular culture Muppet-like and Muppet-inspired puppets star in the 2004 Tony Award-winning Broadway musical Avenue Q (which disavows any relationship with Sesame Workshop or the Jim Henson Company, possibly to avoid lawsuits from the two companies). Peter Jackson's film, Meet the Feebles is another parody of the Muppets. A vomit-spewing Kermit the Frog was a recurring character on Late Night with Conan O'Brien, and the Muppets were frequently "pre-empted" at the beginning of episodes for the Canadian series You Can't Do That On Television. Many other movies and television shows such as The Simpsons, Family Guy and Robot Chicken'' have referenced The Muppets - for a more comprehensive list, see Muppet Wiki. They also make an appearance in the band Weezer's music video for "Keep Fishin'. See also Jim Henson Sesame Street Fraggle Rock The Dark Crystal Bear in the Big Blue House References External links Muppets.com - Official site on Disney Xtreme Digital Muppet Wiki - fan wiki MuppetCast - fan podcast Muppet Central - fan site The Muppet Newsflash - fan blog | The_Muppets |@lemmatized muppets:54 group:1 puppet:13 character:22 create:4 jim:18 henson:24 individually:1 muppet:46 one:7 make:8 company:9 workshop:5 although:2 term:4 often:3 use:6 erroneously:1 refer:2 resemble:1 distinctive:1 style:1 show:20 informal:1 name:2 legal:2 trademark:2 link:2 word:2 say:1 combine:1 marionette:2 however:2 also:12 know:4 state:6 something:1 like:6 sound:2 story:2 talk:1 journalist:1 plausible:1 early:2 unsuccessful:1 attempt:1 walt:3 disney:6 buy:2 findarticles:1 com:3 bid:1 prospect:1 fade:1 exception:1 include:9 appear:7 sesame:11 street:8 previously:3 sell:1 fraggles:1 fraggle:6 rock:6 still:1 currently:1 hold:3 co:2 llc:2 studio:5 division:1 continue:1 certain:1 permission:1 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5,117 | Ink | Bottles of ink from Germany An ink is a liquid containing various pigments and/or dyes used for coloring a surface to produce an image, text, or design. Ink is used for drawing and/or writing with a pen, brush or quill. Thicker inks, in paste form, are used extensively in letterpress and lithographic printing. Ink is a complex medium consisting of comprising solvents, pigments, dyes, resins, lubricants, solubilizers, surfactants, particulate matter, fluorescers, and other materials. The components of inks serve many purposes; the ink’s carrier, colorants, and other additives are used to control flow, thickness, and appearance of the ink when dry. Types of ink Magnified line drawn by a fountain pen Early varieties include Egyptian ink, various natural dyes made from metals, the husk or outer covering of beans or seeds, and sea creatures like the cuttlefish (known as sepia). India ink is black and originated in Asia. Iron gall ink was used by many of the old masters for drawing. Walnut ink is erroneously thought to have also been used by old masters, however, there is no proof of this. Walnut inks, if they were used, would have faded fairly quickly and would therefore be unsuitable. Pigmented inks Pigmented inks contain other agents that ensure adhesion of the pigment to the surface and prevent it from being removed by mechanical abrasion. These materials are typically referred to as resins (in solvent-based inks) or binding agents (in water-based inks). Because pigmented inks stay on the surface of paper, less ink is needed to create the same intensity of color as with dye-based inks. Pigmented inks also tend to be more resistant to washing out. For this reason these inks are frequently recommended for applications where erasure is undesirable. Gel inks are particularly resistant to erasure and frequently bear recommendations from forgery experts. The particle size of the pigment is very important for the ability to diffuse in the solution inks. Qualities such as hue, saturation, and brightness or lightness are inherent in the ink, and vary depending on the source and type of pigment. Dyes in inks Dye-based inks are generally much stronger than pigment-based inks and can produce much more color of a given density per unit of mass. However, because dyes are dissolved in the liquid phase, they have a tendency to soak into paper, thus making the ink less efficient and also potentially allowing the ink to bleed at the edges of an image, producing poor quality printing. To circumvent this problem, dye-based inks are made with solvents that dry rapidly or are used with quick-drying methods of printing, such as blowing hot air on the fresh print. Other methods include harder paper sizing and more specialized paper coatings. The latter is particularly suited to inks used in non-industrial settings (which must conform to tighter toxicity and emission controls), such as inkjet printer inks. Another technique involves coating the paper with a charged coating. If the dye has the opposite charge, it is attracted to and retained by this coating, while the solvent soaks into the paper. Cellulose, the material that paper is made of, is naturally charged, and so a compound that complexes with both the dye and the paper's surface will aid retention at the surface. Such a compound in common use in ink-jet printing inks is polyvinyl pyrrolidone. An additional advantage of dye-based ink systems is that the dye molecules interact chemically with other ink ingredients. This means that they can benefit more than pigmented ink from optical brighteners and color-enhancing agents designed to increase the intensity and appearance of dyes. Because dyes get their color from the interaction of electrons in their molecules, the way in which the electrons can move is determined by the charge and extent of electron delocalization in the other ink ingredients. The color emerges as a function of the light energy that falls on the dye. Thus, if an optical brightener or color enhancer absorbs light energy and emits it through or with the dye, the appearance changes, as the spectrum of light re-emitted to the observer changes. A more recent development in dye-based inks are dyes that react with cellulose to permanently color the paper. Such inks are not affected by water, alcohol, and other solvents. As such, their use is recommended to prevent frauds that involve removing signatures, such as check washing. Currently this kind of ink is most often offered for use in fountain pens. The most popular manufacturer of this ink is Noodler. History of ink Ink drawing of Ganesha under an umbrella (early 19th century). Ink, called masi, an admixture of several chemical components, has been used in India since at least the 4th century BC. Banerji, page 673 The practice of writing with ink and a sharp pointed needle was common in early South India. Sircar, page 62 Several Jain sutras in India were compiled in ink. Sircar, page 67 Many ancient cultures around the world have independently discovered and formulated inks for the purposes of writing and drawing. The knowledge of the inks, their recipes and the techniques for their production comes from archaeological analysis or from written text itself. History of Chinese inks can be traced back to 12th century BC, with the utilization of natural plant (plant dyes), animal (squid ink), and mineral inks based on such materials as graphite that were ground with water and applied with ink brushes. Evidence for the earliest Chinese inks, similar to modern inksticks, is around 256 BC in the end of the Warring States Period and produced using manual labour from soot and animal glue. The India ink used in ancient India since at least the 4th century BC was called masi which was made of burnt bones, tar, pitch, and other substances. "India ink." in Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008 Encyclopædia Britannica Inc. Banerji, page 673 Indian documents written in Kharosthi with ink have been unearthed in Chinese Turkestan. Sircar, page 206 The practice of writing with ink and a sharp pointed needle was common in early South India. Sircar, page 62 Several Jain sutras in India were compiled in ink. Sircar, page 67 In ancient Rome, atramentum was used. In an article for the Christian Science Monitor, Sharon J. Huntington describes these other historical inks: About 1,600 years ago, a popular ink recipe was created. The recipe was used for centuries. Iron salts, such as ferrous sulfate (made by treating iron with sulfuric acid), were mixed with tannin from gallnuts (they grow on trees) and a thickener. When first put to paper, this ink is bluish-black. Over time it fades to a dull brown. Scribes in medieval Europe (about AD 800 to 1500) wrote principally on parchment or vellum. One 12th century ink recipe called for hawthorn branches to be cut in the spring and left to dry. Then the bark was pounded from the branches and soaked in water for eight days. The water was boiled until it thickened and turned black. Wine was added during boiling. The ink was poured into special bags and hung in the sun. Once dried, the mixture was mixed with wine and iron salt over a fire to make the final ink. The reservoir fountain pen dates back to 953, when Ma'ād al-Mu'izz, the caliph of Egypt, demanded a pen which would not stain his hands or clothes, and was provided with a pen which held ink in a reservoir and delivered it to the nib via gravity and capillary action. Paul Vallely, How Islamic Inventors Changed the World, The Independent, 11 March 2006. Origins of the Fountain Pen, Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation. In the 15th century, a new type of ink had to be developed in Europe for the printing press by Johannes Gutenberg. Two types of ink were prevalent at the time: the Greek and Roman writing ink (soot, glue, and water) and the 12th century variety composed of ferrous sulfate, gall, gum, and water. Many recipes for iron gall inks are featured in A booke of secrets: shewing diuers waies to make and prepare all sorts of inke... tr. out of Dutch into Englishe by W.P. [i.e. William Philip], London, 1596. Neither of these handwriting inks could adhere to printing surfaces without creating blurs. Eventually an oily, varnish-like ink made of soot, turpentine, and walnut oil was created specifically for the printing press. Modern ink applications Up until a few years ago, consumers had very little interest in ink other than refills for their pens. Fountain pens became a novelty as the disposable ball point pen took over the market. The introduction of home computing led to home printing. Today, in developed nations, most residences and businesses have a printing capability. As a result, buying ink in the form of a cartridge has once again become a part of the day-to-day shopping experience, similar to buying a bottle of ink fifty years ago. Ink refilling services for printer cartridges are offered by large, official printing companies as well as smaller, "unofficial" refill companies. Customers can often cut printing costs by using refill services from a refill company, or buying the new non-OEM brands instead of refilling. The refilling of ink cartridges and the use of continuous ink supply systems for inkjet printers is very common in most countries, with the exception of the United States. As printer manufacturers control to a great extent, the type of competition that they on retail shelves, the purchasing of devices to ease the use of refill inks is only available online for the most part. Health and environmental aspects There is a misconception that ink is non-toxic even if swallowed. Once ingested, ink can be hazardous to one's health. Certain inks, such as those used in printers, and even those found in a common pen can be harmful. Though ink will not easily cause death, inappropriate contact can cause effects such as severe headaches, skin irritation, or nervous system damage. These effects can be caused by solvents or by pigment constituents such as p-Anisidine, which is used in the process of creating the ink's color and shine. Three main issues with the environmental impact of inks is the use of volatile organic compounds, heavy metals and non-renewable oils. Standards for the amount of heavy metals in ink have been set by some regulatory bodies. http://www.cpima.org/HeavyMetals.pdf There is a trend toward using vegetable oils rather than petroleum oils in recent years in response to a demand for better environmental sustainability. Writing inks and preservation The two most used black writing inks in history are carbon inks and iron gall inks. Both types create problems for preservationists. Carbon inks Carbon inks were commonly made from lampblack or soot and a binding agent such as gum arabic or animal glue. The binding agent keeps the carbon particles in suspension and adhered to paper. The carbon particles do not fade over time even when in sunlight or bleached. One benefit of carbon ink is that it is not harmful to the paper. Over time, the ink is chemically stable and therefore does not threaten the strength of the paper. Despite these benefits, carbon ink is not the ideal ink for permanence and ease of preservation. The ink has a tendency to smudge in humid environments and can be washed off an item. The best method of preserving documents written in carbon ink is to ensure it is stored in a dry environment (Barrow 1972). Recently, carbon inks made from carbon nanotubes have been successfully created. They are similar in composition to the traditional inks in that they use a polymer to suspend the carbon nanotubes. These inks can be used in inkjet printers and produce electrically conductive patterns. Iron gall inks Iron gall inks became prominent in the early 1100s and were used for centuries and thought to be the best type of ink. However, iron gall ink is corrosive and damages the paper it is on (Waters 1940). Items containing this ink can become brittle and the writing fades to brown. The original scores of Johann Sebastian Bach are threatened by the destructive properties of iron gall ink. The majority of his works are held by the German State Library, and about 25% of those are in advanced stages of decay (American Libraries 2000). The rate at which the writing fades is based on several factors, such as "the proportions of the ink ingredients, the amount deposited on the paper, and the composition of the paper" (Barrow 1972:16). The corrosion is caused by "two major degradation processes: acid catalysed hydrolysis and iron(II)-catalysed oxidation of cellulose" (Rouchon-Quillet 2004:389). Treatment is a controversial subject. There is no treatment that will undo the damage already caused by the acidic ink. Deterioration can only be stopped or slowed for a period of time. There are some people who think it best not to treat the item at all for fear of the consequences. Others believe that non-aqueous procedures are the best solution. And then, there are some that believe an aqueous procedure may provide the answer for preserving items written with iron gall ink. Aqueous treatments include distilled water at different temperatures, calcium hydroxide, calcium bicarbonate, magnesium carbonate, magnesium bicarbonate, and calcium phytate. There are many possible side effects from these treatments. There can be mechanical damage, which would further weaken the paper. The color of the paper or ink may change and ink may bleed. Other consequences that might arise from aqueous treatment are a change of ink texture or the formation of on the surface of the ink (Reibland & de Groot 1999). Iron gall inks are generally stored in a stable environment, because fluctuating relative humidity increases the rate at which formic acid, acetic acid and furan derivatives form in the material on which the ink was used. Sulfuric acid acts as a catalyst to cellulose hydrolysis, and iron (II) sulfate acts as a catalyst to cellulose oxidation. These chemical reactions physically weaken the paper, causing brittleness. Henk J. Porck and René Teygeler, Preservation Science Survey (Washington, D.C.: Council on Library and Information Resources, 2000). Indelible ink The word "indelible" means "cannot be removed". Some types of indelible ink have a very short shelf life because of the solvents used, which evaporate rapidly. India, Philippines, Indonesia and other developing countries have used indelible in the form of electoral stain to prevent electoral fraud. The Election Commission in India has used indelible ink for many elections. Indonesia used it in their last election in Aceh. In Mali, the ink is applied to the fingernail. See also Blue Wool Scale De-inked pulp Dokumental Election ink Ink Eradicator Invisible ink Fountain pen inks Gel pen Preservation of illuminated manuscripts Preservation (library and archival science) Soy ink Stark's ink Tattoo ink References "Think Ink!" by Sharon J. Huntington, Christian Science Monitor, September 21, 2004, retrieved January 17, 2006. "A History of Technology and Invention" by Maurice Audin, page 630. Ainsworth, Mitchell, C., "Inks and Their Composition and Manufacture," Charles Griffin and Company Ltd, 1904. Martín-Gil J, Ramos-Sánchez MC, Martín-Gil FJ and José-Yacamán M. "Chemical composition of a fountain pen ink". Journal of Chemical Education, 2006, 83, 1476-78 Banerji, Sures Chandra (1989). A Companion to Sanskrit Literature. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 812080063X. Sircar, D.C. (1996).Indian epigraphy. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 8120811666. Sources Further reading Cuppers, Christoph (1989). "On the Manufacture of Ink." Ancient Nepal - Journal of the Department of Archaeology, Number 113, August-September 1989, pp. 1–7. [The Tibetan text and translation of a work called, Bzo gnas nyer mkho'i za ma tog by 'Jam-mgon 'Ju Mi-pham-rgya-mtsho (1846-1912) describing various traditional Tibetan techniques of making inks from different sources of soot, and from earth, puffballs, dung, ser-sha - a yellow fungus, and the fruit of tsi dra ka (Ricinus communis).] External links Forty Centuries of Ink (David N. Carvalho); A detailed online textbook Roman ink article by Alexander Allen In Smith's Dictionary Greek and Roman Antiquities (1875), in LacusCurtius Ancient and Modern Ink Recipes (David N. 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5,118 | Dyson_sphere | A cut-away diagram of an idealized Dyson shell, a variant on Dyson's original concept, with a radius of 1 AU. A Dyson sphere (or shell as it appeared in the original paper) is a hypothetical megastructure originally described by Freeman Dyson. Such a "sphere" would be a system of orbiting solar power satellites meant to completely encompass a star and capture most or all of its energy output. Dyson speculated that such structures would be the logical consequence of the long-term survival and escalating energy needs of a technological civilization, and proposed that searching for evidence of the existence of such structures might lead to the detection of advanced intelligent extraterrestrial life. Since then, other variant designs involving building an artificial structure — or a series of structures — to encompass a star have been proposed in exploratory engineering or described in science fiction under the name "Dyson sphere". These later proposals have not been limited to solar power stations — many involve habitation or industrial elements. Most fictional depictions describe a solid shell of matter enclosing a star (see diagram at right), which is considered the least plausible variant of the idea (see below). Origin of concept The concept of the Dyson sphere was the result of a thought experiment by physicist and mathematician Freeman Dyson, where he noted that every human technological civilization has constantly increased its demand for energy. He reasoned that if human civilization were to survive long enough, there would come a time when it required the total energy output of the sun. Thus, he proposed a system of orbiting structures designed to intercept and collect all energy produced by the sun. Dyson's proposal did not detail how such a system would be constructed, but focused only on issues of energy collection. Dyson is credited with being the first to formalize the concept of the Dyson sphere in his 1959 paper "Search for Artificial Stellar Sources of Infra-Red Radiation", published in the journal Science. However, Dyson was inspired by the mention of the concept in the 1937 science fiction novel Star Maker, by Olaf Stapledon, and possibly by the works of J. D. Bernal and Raymond Z. Gallun who seem to have explored similar concepts in their work. Feasibility While it is believed that some of the design variants commonly described – specifically those based on the Dyson shell – are impractical, if not physically impossible, design variants of the sphere based on orbiting satellites or solar sails do not require any major theoretical breakthroughs in our basic scientific understanding for their construction. Deployment of spacecraft and satellites using photovoltaics might be seen as the first small steps towards building a Dyson swarm (see below for differences between these sub-types). However, creating and deploying energy gathering spacecraft and satellites in the numbers needed to create a solar system sized integrated energy gathering system are well beyond our present-day industrial needs or capabilities. It is also likely that there are unforeseen industrial scaling difficulties in such a construction project, and that our current understanding of industrial automation is insufficient to build the self-maintaining systems needed for the sphere's upkeep. Variants In many fictional accounts, the Dyson sphere concept is most often interpreted as an artificial hollow sphere of matter around a star (see diagram at top of page). This perception is a misinterpretation of Dyson's original concept. In response to letters prompted by his original paper, Dyson replied, "A solid shell or ring surrounding a star is mechanically impossible. The form of 'biosphere' which I envisaged consists of a loose collection or swarm of objects traveling on independent orbits around the star." Dyson swarm A Dyson Ring — the simplest form of the Dyson Swarm — to scale. Orbit is 1 AU in radius, collectors are 1.0 km in diameter (~25× the Earth–Moon distance), spaced 3 degrees from center to center around the orbital circle. A relatively simple arrangement of multiple Dyson Rings of the type pictured above, to form a more complex Dyson Swarm. Rings' orbital radii are spaced 1.5 km with regards to one another, but average orbital radius is still 1 AU. Rings are rotated 15 degrees relative to one another, around a common axis of rotation. The variant closest to Dyson's original conception is the "Dyson swarm". It consists of a large number of independent constructs (usually solar power satellites and space habitats) orbiting in a dense formation around the star. This approach to the construction of a Dyson sphere has several advantages: the components making it up could range widely in individual size and design, and such a sphere could be constructed incrementally over a long period of time. Various forms of wireless energy transfer could be used in order to transfer energy between constructs. Such a swarm is not without drawbacks. The nature of orbital mechanics would make the arrangement of the orbits of the swarm extremely complex. The simplest such arrangement is the Dyson ring in which all such structures share the same orbit. More complex patterns with more rings would intercept more of the star's output, but would result in some constructs eclipsing others periodically when their orbits overlap. Another potential problem is the increasing loss of orbital stability as adding more orbiting constructs increases the probability of orbital perturbations of other constructs. As noted below, such a cloud of collectors would alter the light emitted by the star system, but as can be seen here, it is unlikely that such an alteration would be complete, and that some of the star's natural light would still be present in the system's emitted spectrum. Dyson shell The variant of the Dyson sphere most often depicted in fiction is the "Dyson shell": a uniform solid shell of matter around the star (see diagram at top of page). Unlike the Dyson swarm, such a structure would completely alter the emissions of the central star, and would intercept 100% of the star's energy output. Such a structure would also provide an immense surface which many envision being used for habitation, if the surface could be made habitable. A spherical shell Dyson sphere in our solar system with a radius of one astronomical unit, so that the interior surface would receive the same amount of sunlight as Earth does per solid angle, would have a surface area of at least 2.72x1017 km2, or around 550 million times the surface area of the Earth. This would intercept the full 4x1026 watts of the Sun's output; other variant designs would intercept less, but the shell variant represents the maximum possible energy captured for our solar system at this point of the Sun's evolution. To put this figure in perspective, it is approximately 3.3x1013 times the power consumption of humanity in 1998 which was 1.2x1013 W. There are several serious theoretical difficulties with the solid shell variant of the Dyson sphere: Such a shell would have no net gravitational interaction with its englobed sun (see Shell theorem), and could drift in relation to the central star. If such movements went uncorrected, they could eventually result in a collision between the sphere and the star — most likely with disastrous results. Such structures would need either some form of propulsion to counteract any drift, or some way to repel the surface of the sphere away from the star. For the same reason, such a shell would have no net gravitational interaction with anything else inside it. The contents of any biosphere placed on the inner surface of a Dyson shell would not be attracted to the sphere's surface and would simply fall into the star. It has been proposed that a biosphere could be contained between two concentric spheres, placed on the interior of a rotating sphere (in which case, the force of artificial "gravity" is perpendicular to the axis of rotation, causing all matter placed on the interior of the sphere to pool around the equator, effectively rendering the sphere a Niven ring for purposes of habitation, but still fully effective as a radiant energy collector) or placed on the outside of the sphere where it would be held in place by the star's gravity. In such cases, some form of illumination would have to be devised, or the sphere made at least partly transparent, as the star's light would otherwise be completely hidden. If assuming a radius of one AU, then the compressive strength of the material forming the sphere would have to be immense. Any arbitrarily selected point on the surface of the sphere can be viewed as being under the pressure of the base of a dome 1 AU in height under the Sun's gravity at that distance. Indeed it can be viewed as being at the base of an infinite number of arbitrarily selected domes, but as much of the force from any one arbitrary dome is counteracted by those of another, the net force on that point is immense, but finite. No known or theorized material is strong enough to withstand this pressure, and form a rigid, static sphere around a star. It has been proposed by Paul Birch (in relation to smaller "Supra-Jupiter" constructions around a large planet rather than a star) that it may be possible to support a Dyson shell by dynamic means similar to those used in a space fountain. Masses traveling in circular tracks on the inside of the sphere, at velocities significantly greater than orbital velocity, would press outwards due to centrifugal force. For a Dyson shell of 1 AU radius around a star with the same mass as the Sun, mass traveling ten times orbital velocity (297.9 km/s) would support 99 (a=v2/r) times its own mass in additional shell structure. The arrangement of such tracks suffers from the same difficulties as arranging the orbits of a Dyson swarm, and it is unclear how much energy would be consumed ensuring the velocity of the masses was maintained. Also if assuming a radius of one AU, then there may not be sufficient building material in the Solar system to construct a Dyson shell. Dyson's original estimate was that there was enough material in the Solar system for a 1 AU shell 3 meters thick, but this included hydrogen and helium which are unlikely to be much use as building material, although additional building material might be manufactured if elements such as hydrogen and helium could be transmuted into heavier elements through nuclear fusion. Anders Sandberg estimates that there is 1.82 kg of easily usable building material in the Solar system, enough for a 1 AU shell with a mass of 600 kg/m²—about 8–20 cm thick depending on the density of the material. This includes the cores of the gas giants, which may be hard to access; the inner planets alone provide only 11.79 kg, enough for a 1 AU shell with a mass of just 42 kg/m². The shell would be vulnerable to impacts from interstellar bodies, such as comets, meteors, and so forth. Lastly, the shell would be vulnerable to the material in interstellar space that is currently being deflected by the Sun's Bow shock. The Heliosphere, and any protection it theoretically provides, would cease to exist. Dyson bubble A Dyson Bubble: an arrangement of statites around a star, in a non-orbital pattern. Note: so long as a statite has an unobstructed line-of-sight to its star, it can hover at any point in space near its star. This relatively simple arrangement is only one of an infinite number of possible statite configurations, and is meant as a contrast for a Dyson Swarm only. Statites are pictured as the same size as the collectors pictured above, and arranged at a uniform 1 AU distance from the star. A third type of Dyson sphere is the "Dyson bubble". It would be similar to a Dyson swarm, composed of many independent constructs (usually solar power satellites and space habitats) and likewise could be constructed incrementally. Unlike the Dyson swarm, the constructs making it up are not in orbit around the star, but would be statites—satellites suspended by use of enormous light sails using radiation pressure to counteract the star's pull of gravity. Such constructs would not be in danger of collision or of eclipsing one another; they would be totally stationary with regard to the star, and independent of one another. As the ratio of radiation pressure and the force of gravity from a star are constant regardless of the distance (provided the statite has an unobstructed line-of-sight to the surface of its star ), such statites could also vary their distance from their central star. The practicality of this approach is questionable with modern material science, but cannot yet be ruled out. A statite deployed around our own sun would have to have an overall density of 0.78 grams per square meter of sail. To illustrate the low mass of the required materials, consider that the total mass of a bubble of such material 1 AU in radius would be about 2.17 kg, which is about the same mass as the asteroid Pallas. Such a material is currently beyond our ability to produce; the lightest carbon-fiber light sail material currently produced has a density – without payload – of 3 g/m², or about four times heavier than would be needed to construct a solar statite. However, there has been some speculation about the creation of ultra light carbon nanotube meshes through molecular manufacturing techniques whose density would be below 0.1 g/m². If production of such materials on an industrial scale is feasible, and such materials could be used in light sails, the average sail density with rigging might be kept to 0.3 g/m² (a "spin stabilized" light sail requires minimal additional mass in rigging). If such a sail could be constructed at this areal density, a space habitat the size of the L5 Society's proposed O'Neill cylinder – 500 km², with room for over 1 million inhabitants, massing 3 tons – could be supported by a circular light sail 3,000 km in diameter, with a combined sail/habitat mass of 5.4 kg. For comparison, this is just slightly smaller than the diameter of Jupiter's moon Europa (although the sail is a flat disc, not a sphere), or the distance between San Francisco and Kansas City. Such a structure would, however, have a mass quite a lot less than many asteroids. While the construction of such a massive inhabitable statite would be a gigantic undertaking, and the required material science behind it is as yet uncertain, its technical challenges are slight compared to other engineering feats and required materials proposed in other Dyson sphere variants. In theory, if enough statites were created and deployed around their star, they would compose a non-rigid version of the Dyson shell. Such a shell would not suffer from the drawbacks of massive compressive pressure, nor are the mass requirements of such a shell as high as the rigid form. Such a shell would, however, have the same optical and thermal properties as the rigid form, and would be detected by searchers in a similar fashion (see below). Other types Another possibility is the "Dyson net", a web of cables strung about the star which could have power or heat collection units strung between the cables. The Dyson net reduces to a special case of Dyson shell or bubble, however, depending on how the cables are supported against the sun's gravity. The Ringworld, or Niven ring, could be considered a particular kind of Dyson sphere. Larry Niven, who first developed the concept, described it as "an intermediate step between Dyson Spheres and planets". Larry Niven. "Bigger than Worlds", Analog, March 1974. The ringworld could perhaps be described as a slice of a Dyson Sphere (taken through its equator), spun for artificial gravity, and used mainly for habitation as opposed to energy collection. Like the Dyson Shell, the Niven ring is inherently unstable without active measures keeping it in position with regards to its central star – a fact recognized by Larry Niven and addressed in the sequels to his novel on the concept, Ringworld. A bubbleworld is an artificial construct that consists of a shell of living space around a sphere of hydrogen gas. The shell contains air, people, houses, furniture, etc. It was invented to answer the question "what is the largest space colony that can be built". However, most of the volume is not habitable and there is no power source. Theoretically, any gas giant could be enclosed in a solid shell; at a certain radius the surface gravity would be terrestrial, and energy could be provided by tapping the thermal energy of the planet. This concept is explored peripherally in the novel Accelerando (and the short story Curator which is incorporated into the novel as a chapter) by Charles Stross when Saturn is converted into a human habitable world. Stellar engines are a class of hypothetical megastructures, whose purpose is to extract useful energy from a star, sometimes for specific purposes. For example, Matrioshka brains extract energy for purposes of computation; Shkadov thrusters extract energy for purposes of propulsion. Some of the proposed stellar engine designs are based on the Dyson sphere. A black hole could be the power source instead of a star in order to increase energy to matter conversion efficiency. A black hole would also be smaller than a star. This would decrease communication distances which would be important for computer based societies as those described above. Search for extra-terrestrial intelligence In Dyson's original paper, he speculated that sufficiently advanced extraterrestrial civilizations would likely follow a similar power consumption pattern as humans, and would eventually build their own sphere of collectors. Constructing such a system would make such a civilization a Type II Kardashev civilization. Kardashev, Nikolai. "On the Inevitability and the Possible Structures of Supercivilizations", The search for extraterrestrial life: Recent developments; Proceedings of the Symposium, Boston, MA, June 18–21, 1984 (A86-38126 17-88). Dordrecht, D. Reidel Publishing Co., 1985, p. 497–504. The existence of such a system of collectors would alter the light emitted from the star system. Collectors would absorb and re-radiate energy from the star. The wavelength(s) of radiation emitted by the collectors would be determined by the emission spectra of the substances making them up, and the temperature of the collectors. Since it seems most likely that these collectors would be made up of heavy elements not normally found in the emission spectra of their central star – or at least not radiating light at such relatively "low" energies as compared to that which they would be emitting as energetic free nuclei in the stellar atmosphere – there would be atypical wavelengths of light for the star's spectral type in the light spectrum emitted by the star system. If the percentage of the star's output thus filtered or transformed by this absorption and re-radiation was significant, it could be detected at interstellar distances. Given the amount of energy available per square meter at a distance of 1 AU from the Sun, it is possible to calculate that most known substances would be re-radiating energy in the infrared part of the electromagnetic spectrum. Thus, a Dyson Sphere, constructed by life forms not dissimilar to humans, who dwelled in proximity to a Sun-like star, made with materials similar to those available to humans, would most likely cause an increase in the amount of infrared radiation in the star system's emitted spectrum. Hence, Dyson selected the title "Search for Artificial Stellar Sources of Infrared Radiation" for his published paper. SETI has adopted these assumptions in their search, looking for such "infrared heavy" spectra from solar analogs. As of 2005 Fermilab has an ongoing survey for such spectra by analyzing data from the Infrared Astronomical Satellite (IRAS). Fiction As noted above, the Dyson sphere originated in fiction, Olaf Stapledon. Star Maker J. D. Bernal, "The World, the Flesh, and the Devil" and it is a concept that has appeared often in science fiction since then (see Dyson spheres in fiction for listed examples). In fictional accounts, Dyson spheres are most often depicted as a Dyson shell with the gravitational and engineering difficulties noted above with this variant, largely ignored. Fictional Creations An episode of Star Trek: The Next Generation entitled "Relics" finds that Montgomery Scott was on board the ship Jenolin when it crash landed into an unknown Dyson Sphere. In order to save himself until help arrived he placed himself and the other surviving crew member into a repeating loop cycle in the transporter. He is rescued 72 years later by the Enterprise-D. They spend time researching the sphere and find a way inside, only to find that it is uninhabitable due to the star's deterioration. The ship manages to escape and science vessels are sent to the Dyson Sphere for further research. See also Megascale engineering Star lifting Stellar engineering Technological singularity Alderson disk Klemperer rosette Globus Cassus Hollow Earth References External links Dyson Sphere FAQ Dyson Sphere Search for Artificial Stellar Sources of Infra-Red Radiation Dyson Shell Supercomputers as the Dominant "Life Form" in Galaxies Toroidal Dyson Swarms simulations using Java applets Outside Dyson shells | Dyson_sphere |@lemmatized cut:1 away:2 diagram:4 idealized:1 dyson:69 shell:36 variant:13 original:7 concept:12 radius:10 au:13 sphere:45 appear:2 paper:5 hypothetical:2 megastructure:1 originally:1 describe:7 freeman:2 would:61 system:18 orbit:11 solar:13 power:9 satellite:8 mean:3 completely:3 encompass:2 star:51 capture:2 energy:25 output:6 speculate:2 structure:12 logical:1 consequence:1 long:4 term:1 survival:1 escalate:1 need:6 technological:3 civilization:6 propose:8 search:7 evidence:1 existence:2 might:4 lead:1 detection:1 advanced:2 intelligent:1 extraterrestrial:3 life:4 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5,119 | Batman_(1989_film) | Batman is a 1989 superhero film based on the DC Comics character of the same name. Tim Burton directed the film, which stars Michael Keaton, with Jack Nicholson, Kim Basinger, Robert Wuhl and Jack Palance. The film, in which Batman deals with the rise of a powerful villain known as "the Joker", is the first installment of Warner Bros.' Batman film series. With Burton's hiring as director, Steve Englehart and Julie Hickson wrote film treatments before Sam Hamm wrote the first screenplay. Batman was not greenlighted until the success of Burton's Beetlejuice (1988). The role of Batman was considered for numerous A-list actors, while Nicholson accepted the role of the Joker under strict conditions that dictated a high salary, a portion of the box office profits and his shooting schedule. Filming took place at Pinewood Studios from October 1988 to January 1989. The budget escalated from $30 million to $48 million, while the 1988 Writers Guild of America strike forced Hamm to drop out. Uncredited rewrites were performed by Warren Skaaren, Charles McKeown and Jonathan Gems. Batman was a critical and financial success, earning over $400 million in box office totals. The film received numerous nominations at the 62nd Academy Awards, 47th Golden Globe Awards and Saturn Awards. It has also inspired Batman: The Animated Series, a series of films for Warner Bros. and redefined the modern perception of the superhero film genre. Plot As a child, Bruce Wayne (Keaton) saw his parents killed by a young criminal. He grows up, vowing to avenge their death by fighting against the criminals in Gotham City. He takes on the disguise of Batman, while keeping his public image as the wealthy heir to Wayne Enterprises. Years later, Gotham is under control by crime boss Carl Grissom (Palance). Despite the best efforts of newly-elected district attorney Harvey Dent and police commissioner James Gordon, the police department remains corrupted. Reporter Alexander Knox (Wuhl) and photo-journalist Vicki Vale (Basinger) begin investigating the rumors of a shadowy vigilante figure dressed as a bat who has been terrifying criminals throughout the city. Vicki and Knox attend a benefit at Wayne Manor, where Bruce is taken by Vicki's charms. Knox, however, appears somewhat jealous of the chemistry between Bruce and Vicki. That same night, Grissom's second in command, Jack Napier (Nicholson), is sent to raid Axis Chemicals factory. After the police receive a tip-off and arrive to arrest him, Jack realizes he's been set-up by his boss, angered by his affair with Grissom's mistress. In the midst of the shoot-out, Batman arrives and takes out Jack's henchmen. In a bizarre accident caused by his own ricocheting bullet, deflected by Batman's metal-reinforced gauntlet, Jack's face is ripped open. Reeling from the pain, he topples over a platform rail but manages to grab a lower rail with one hand. Batman momentarily clutches Jack's free hand, but the grip is soon broken, and he falls into a large vat containing an unknown chemical solution. Shortly thereafter, he emerges from an adjacent reservoir, his hair and skin permanently discolored. Following a botched surgical attempt to repair his face, Jack is left with a permanent grin, which becomes his most distinguishing feature as "The Joker". After killing Grissom, the Joker takes over his empire and holds the city at his mercy by chemically altering everyday hygiene products so that those using a certain combination of products die. Batman attempts to track down the Joker, who has become romantically interested in Vicki. It is revealed that Joker, as a young criminal, was the man who killed Bruce's parents. The Joker holds a parade through Gotham, luring its citizens on to its streets by dispensing money, intending to kill them with lethal gas. Batman foils his plan, but the Joker kidnaps Vicki and takes her to the top of a cathedral church. After a fight with Batman, the Joker falls to his death from the bell tower. Commissioner Gordon unveils the Bat-Signal along with a note from Batman read by Harvey Dent, promising to defend Gotham whenever crime strikes again. Production Development After the financial success of Pee-wee's Big Adventure (1985), Warner Bros. hired Tim Burton to direct Batman. Burton had then-girlfriend Julie Hickson write a new 30-page film treatment, feeling the previous script by Tom Mankiewicz script was campy. The success of The Dark Knight Returns and The Killing Joke prompted Warner Bros. to give the film a darker, more serious tone for the storyline. Although Burton was never a comic book fan, he was most impressed with The Killing Joke. Warner Bros. enlisted the aid of Steve Englehart to write a new treatment in March 1986. His first treatment included the Joker and Rupert Thorne as the main villains, with a cameo appearance by the Penguin. Silver St. Cloud and Dick Grayson were key supporting roles. It followed the similar storyline from Englehart's own limited series Strange Apparitions (ISBN 1-56389-500-5). Warner Bros. was impressed, but Englehart felt there were too many characters. He removed the Penguin and Dick Grayson in his second treatment, finishing in May 1986. Concept art for the Joker, drawn by Tim Burton. Burton approached Sam Hamm, a comic book fan to write the screenplay. Hamm decided not to use an origin story, feeling that flashbacks would be more suitable and that "unlocking the mystery" would become part of the storyline. He reasoned, "You totally destroy your credibility if you show the literal process by which Bruce Wayne becomes Batman." Hamm replaced Silver St. Cloud with Vicki Vale and Rupert Thorne with his own creation, Carl Grissom. He completed his script in October 1986, which demoted Dick Grayson to a cameo, and not a supporting character. One scene in Hamm's script had James Gordon on duty the night of the murder of Bruce Wayne's parents. In this way, he shares a special bond with the adult Bruce and thus with Batman, similar with a subplot in Batman Begins (2005). When Hamm's script was rewritten, the scene was deleted. Warner Bros. was less willing to move forward on development, despite their enthusiasm for Hamm's script, which Batman co-creator Bob Kane greeted with positive feedback. Hamm's script then became largely bootlegged at various comic book stores across America. Batman was finally given the greenlight to commence pre-production in April 1988, after the surprising success of Burton's Beetlejuice (1988). When comic book fans found out about Burton directing the film and Michael Keaton starring in the lead role, controversy arose over the tone and direction Batman was going in. Hamm explained, "they hear Tim Burton's name and they think of Pee-wee's Big Adventure. They hear Keaton's name and they think of any number of Michael Keaton comedies. You think of the 1980s version of Batman, and it was the complete opposite. We tried to market it with a typical dark and serious tone, but the fans didn't believe us." To combat negative reports on the film's production, Batman co-creator Bob Kane was hired as creative consultant. Casting Mel Gibson, Kevin Costner, Charlie Sheen, Pierce Brosnan, Tom Selleck and Bill Murray were all considered for Batman. Tim Burton was pressured to cast an obvious action movie star. Producer Jon Peters favored Michael Keaton, arguing he had the right "edgy, tormented quality". Having directed Keaton in Beetlejuice, Burton agreed. Keaton's casting caused a controversy amongst comic book fans, with 50,000 protest letters sent to Warner Bros. offices. Tim Burton, Sam Hamm, Mark Canton, Michael Keaton, Shadows of the Bat: The Cinematic Saga of the Dark Knight—The Gathering Storm, 2005, Warner Home Video Bob Kane, Sam Hamm and Michael Uslan also heavily questioned the casting, while Adam West felt himself to be a better choice. Burton acknowledged, "Obviously there was a negative response from the comic book people. I think they thought we were going to make it like the 1960s TV series, and make it campy, because they thought of Michael Keaton from Mr. Mom and Night Shift and stuff like that." Keaton studied The Dark Knight Returns for inspiration. Tim Curry, Willem Dafoe, David Bowie and James Woods were considered for the Joker. Robin Williams lobbied hard for the part. Jack Nicholson was producer Michael Uslan's and Bob Kane's choice since 1980. Peters approached Nicholson as far back as 1986, during filming of The Witches of Eastwick. Nicholson had what was known as an "off-the-clock" agreement. His contract specified the number of hours he was entitled to have off each day, from the time he left the set to the time he reported back for filming. Nicholson demanded to have all of his scenes shot in a three week block, but the schedule lapsed into 106 days. He received a $6 million salary, as well as a large percentage of the box office gross. The fee is reported to be as high as $50 million. Sean Young was originally cast as Vicki Vale but became injured during filming. Burton suggested replacing Young with Michelle Pfeiffer but Keaton, who was in a relationship with Pfeiffer, believed it would be too awkward. She went on to portray Catwoman in Batman Returns. Peters suggested Kim Basinger and she was cast. As a fan of Michael Gough's work in various Hammer Film Productions, Burton cast Gough as Alfred Pennyworth. Tim Burton, DVD audio commentary, 2005, Warner Home Video Robert Wuhl was cast as reporter Alexander Knox. His character was originally supposed to die by the Joker's poison gas in the climax, but the filmmakers "liked [my] character so much," Wuhl said "that they decided to let me live." Robert Wuhl, Billy Dee Williams, Pat Hingle, Batman: The Heroes, 2005, Warner Home Video Billy Dee Williams took the role of Harvey Dent because he was looking forward to portray Two-Face in a sequel. However, Tommy Lee Jones was cast in the role for Batman Forever. Williams was mildly disappointed by the casting decision. Nicholson convinced the filmmakers to cast Tracey Walter as Bob the Goon. In real life, Nicholson and Walter are close friends. Jack Nicholson, Tracey Walter, Batman: The Villains, 2005, Warner Home Video The rest of the cast included Pat Hingle as James Gordon, Jack Palance as Carl Grissom, Jerry Hall as Alicia Hunt and William Hootkins as Max Eckhardt. Filming The filmmakers considered filming Batman entirely in Hollywood, California, but media interest in the film made them change the location to England. It was shot entirely at Pinewood Studios in England from October 1988 to January 1989. 18 sound stages were used, almost the entirety of Pinewood's ninety-five-acre backlot. Knebworth House doubled for Wayne Manor. Hanke, p.87-96 The original production budget escalated from $30 million to $48 million. Filming was highly secretive. The unit publicist was offered and refused £10,000 for the first pictures of Jack Nicholson as the Joker. The police were later called in when two reels of footage (about 20 minutes' worth) were stolen. With various problems during filming, Burton called it "torture. The worst period of my life!" Hamm was not allowed to perform rewrites during the 1988 Writers Guild of America strike. Jonathan Gems, Warren Skaaren and Charles McKeown rewrote the script during filming. Salisbury, Burton, p.145 Hamm criticized the rewrites, but blamed the changes on Warner Bros. Burton explained, "I don't understand why that became such a problem. We started out with a script that everyone liked, although we recognized it needed a little work." Dick Grayson appeared in the shooting script but was deleted as the filmmakers felt he was irrelevant to the plot. Bob Kane supported this decision. Originally in the climax, the Joker was to kill Vicki Vale, sending Batman into a vengeful fury. Jon Peters reworked the climax without telling Burton and commissioned production designer Anton Furst to create a model of the cathedral. This cost $100,000 when the film was already well over budget. Burton disliked the idea, having no clue how the scene would end: "Here were Jack Nicholson and Kim Basinger walking up this cathedral, and halfway up Jack turns around and says, 'Why am I walking up all these stairs? Where am I going?' 'We'll talk about it when you get to the top!' I had to tell him that I didn't know." Design Burton was impressed with Anton Furst's designs in The Company of Wolves, and previously failed to hire Furst as production designer for Beetlejuice. Furst had been too committed on High Spirits, a choice he later regretted. Furst enjoyed working with Burton. "I don't think I've ever felt so naturally in tune with a director," he felt. "Conceptually, spiritually, visually, or artistically. There was never any problem because we never fought over anything. Texture, attitude and feelings are what [Burton] is a master at." Furst and the art department deliberately mixed clashing architectural styles to "make Gotham City the ugliest and bleakest metropolis imaginable." Anton Furst, Derek Meddings, Visualizing Gotham: The Production Design of Batman, 2005, Warner Home Video Furst continued, "we imagined what New York City might have become without a planning commission. A city run by crime, with a riot of architectural styles. An essay in ugliness. As if hell erupted through the pavement and kept on going.'" Derek Meddings served as the visual effects supervisor, while Keith Short helped construct the newly-created 1989 Batmobile, adding two Browning machine guns. Keith Short, Building the Batmobile, 2005, Warner Home Video On designing the Batmobile, Furst explained, "We looked at jet aircraft components, we looked at war machines, we looked at all sorts of things. In the end, we went into pure expressionism, taking the Salt Flat Racers of the 30s and the Stingray macho machines of the 50s." The car was built upon a Chevrolet Impala when previous development with a Jaguar and Ford Mustang failed. Costume designer Bob Ringwood (A.I. Artificial Intelligence, Troy) turned down the chance to work on Licence to Kill in favor of Batman. Ringwood found it difficult designing the Batsuit because "the image of Batman in the comics is this huge, big six-foot-four hunk with a dimpled chin. Michael Keaton is a guy with average build," He stated. "The problem was to make somebody who was average-sized and ordinary looking into this bigger-than-life creature." Burton commented, "Michael is a bit claustrophobic, which made it worse for him. The costume put him in a dark, Batman-like mood though, so he was able to use it to his advantage." Burton's idea was to use an all-black suit, and was met with positive feedback by Bob Kane. Jon Peters wanted to use a Nike product placement with the Batsuit. Bob Ringwood, Tim Burton, Designing the Batsuit, 2005, Warner Home Video Ringwood studied over 200 comic book issues for inspiration. 28 sculpted latex designs were created; 25 different cape looks and 6 different heads were made, accumulating a total cost of $250,000. Comic book fans originally had negative feedback against the Batsuit. Burton opted not to use tights, spandex or underpants as seen in the comic book, feeling it wasn't intimidating. Prosthetic makeup designer Nick Dudman (Harry Potter film series, Legend) used acrylic paint for Nicholson's chalk-white face. Part of Nicholson's contract was approval over prosthetic makeup designer. Music Burton hired Danny Elfman, his collaborator on Pee-wee's Big Adventure and Beetlejuice, to compose the music score. For inspiration Elfman was given The Dark Knight Returns. Elfman was worried, as he never had worked on a production this large in budget and scale. Danny Elfman, Tim Burton, Nocturnal Overtures: The Music of Batman, 2005, Warner Home Video In addition, producer Jon Peters was skeptical of hiring Elfman, but was later convinced when he heard the opening number. Peters and Peter Guber wanted Prince to write music for the Joker and Michael Jackson to do the romance songs. Elfman would then combine the style of Prince and Jackson's songs together for the entire film score. Burton protested the ideas, citing "my movies aren't commercial like Top Gun". Elfman enlisted the help of Oingo Boingo lead guitarist Steve Bartek and Shirley Walker to arrange the compositions for the orchestra. Elfman later was displeased with the audio mixing of his film score. "Batman was done in England by technicians who didn't care, and the non-caring showed," he stated. "I'm not putting down England because they've done gorgeous dubs there, but this particular crew elected not to." Batman was one of the first films to spawn two soundtracks. One of them featured songs written by Prince while the other showcased Elfman's score. Both were successful, and compilations of Elfman's opening credits were used in the title sequence theme for Batman: The Animated Series, also composed by Shirley Walker. Themes "The duel of the freaks" When discussing the central theme of Batman, director Tim Burton explained, "the whole film and mythology of the character is a complete duel of the freaks. It's a fight between two disfigured people." He continued, "the Joker is such a great character because there's a complete freedom to him. Any character who operates on the outside of society and is deemed a freak and an outcast then has the freedom to do what they want." Burton believes "they're deemed disgusting. They are the darker sides of freedom. Insanity is in some scary way the most freedom you can have, because you're not bound by the laws of society." Burton saw Bruce Wayne as two people at one time and a symbol of America. Bruce has pretense of appearing to be one image, while hiding the reality from the world. Burton biographer Ken Hanke wrote that Bruce Wayne, struggling with his alter-ego as Batman, is depicted as a antihero. Hanke felt that Batman has to push the boundaries of civil justice to deal with certain criminals, such as the Joker. Kim Newman theorized that "Burton and the writers saw Batman and the Joker as a dramatic antithesis, and the film deals with their intertwined origins and fates to an even greater extent." A visual motif is present in the scene of Batman's first major act of vigilantism at Axis Chemicals. He is carefully framed so that the single word AXIS, in gigantic red neon letters, looms over him. This parallels his actions and those of the totalitarian governments of World War II. The dangers inherent in these actions include the transformation of Jack Napier into the Joker. Batman also conveys trademarks found in 1930s pulp magazines, notably the design of Gotham City stylized with Art Deco design. Richard Corliss, writing for Time, observed that Gotham' design was a reference to films such as Metropolis (1927) and The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari (1920). "Gotham City, despite being shot on a studio backlot," he continued, "is literally another character in the script. It has the demeaning presence of German Expressionism and fascist architecture, staring down at the citizens." Hanke further addressed the notions of Batman being a period piece. "The citizens, cops, people and the black-and-white television looks like it takes place in 1939." However, Hanke later said. "Had the filmmakers made Vicki Vale a femme fatale rather than a damsel in distress, this could have made Batman as a homage and tribute to classic film noir. Portions of the climax pay homage to Vertigo. Having Napier kill one of his fellow mobsters at the table of a meeting references The Untouchables, as was Grissom's fear of being arrested because of a paper trail of evidence. Release Marketing Production designer Anton Furst designed the poster, which he called "evocative but ubiquitous. Only featuring the Bat-Symbol. Not too much and not too little." Earlier designs "had the word 'Batman' spelled in RoboCop or Conan the Barbarian-type font". Jon Peters unified all the film's tie-ins, even turning down $6 million from General Motors to build the Batmobile because the car company would not relinquish creative control. During production, Peters read in the The Wall Street Journal that comic book fans were unsatisfied with the casting of Michael Keaton. In response, Peters rushed the first film trailer that played in thousands of theaters during Christmas. It was simply an assemblage of scenes without music, but happened to create enormous anticipation for the film. DC Comics allowed screenwriter Sam Hamm to write his own comic book miniseries. Hamm's stories were collected in the graphic novel Batman: Blind Justice (ISBN 978-1563890475). Denys Cowan and Dick Giordano illustrated the artwork. Blind Justice tells the story of Bruce Wayne trying to solve a series of murders connected to Wayne Enterprises. It also marks the first appearance of Henri Ducard, who was later used in the rebooted Batman Begins. In the months pre-dating Batman'''s release in June 1989, a popular culture phenomenon rose known as "Batmania". Over $750 million worth of merchandise was sold. Cult filmmaker and comic book writer Kevin Smith remembered, "That summer was huge. You couldn't turn around without seeing the Bat-Signal somewhere. People were cutting it into their fucking heads. It was just the summer of Batman and if you were a comic book fan it was pretty hot." Kevin Smith, An Evening with Kevin Smith, 2002, Sony Pictures Home Entertainment Hachette Book Group USA published a novelization, written by Craig Shaw Gardner. It remained on the New York Times Best Seller list throughout June 1989. Burton admitted he was annoyed by the publicity. David Handelman of The New York Observer categorized Batman as a high concept film. He believed "it is less movie than a corporate behemoth". ReactionBatman opened on June 23, 1989, grossing $43.6 million in 2,194 theaters during its opening weekend. This broke the opening weekend record, set by Ghostbusters II one week earlier, with $29.4 million. Batman would eventually gross $251.2 million in North America and $160.15 million internationally, totaling $411.35 million. Batman was the first film to earn $100 million in its first ten days of release, and was the highest grossing film based on a DC comic book, until 2008's The Dark Knight. The film is 42nd highest ever in North American ranks. Although Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade made the most money worldwide in 1989, Batman was able to beat The Last Crusade in North America, and made a further $150 million in home video sales. Jeffrey Resner (August 1992). "Three Go Mad in Gotham", Empire, pp. 44-52. Retrieved on 2008-08-14. Batman was criticized in some quarters for being "too dark". Many observed that Burton was more interested in the Joker rather than Batman in terms of characterization and screentime. Comic book fans reacted negatively over the Joker murdering Thomas and Martha Wayne. In the comic book, Joe Chill is responsible. Writer Sam Hamm, who is a comic book fan, said it was Burton's idea to have the Joker murder Wayne's parents. "The Writer's Strike was going on," Hamm continued, "and Tim had the other writers do that. I also hold innocent to Alfred letting Vicki Vale into the Batcave," he reasoned. "Fans were ticked off with that, and I agree. That would have been Alfred's last day of employment at Wayne Manor." Tim Burton, Sam Hamm, Danny Elfman, Shadows of the Bat: The Cinematic Saga of the Dark Knight—The Legend Reborn, 2005, Warner Home Video The songs written by Prince were criticized for being "too out of place". While Burton has stated he had no problem with the Prince songs, he was less enthusiastic with their use in the film. On the film, Burton remarked "I liked parts of it, but the whole movie is mainly boring to me. It's OK, but it was more of a cultural phenomenon than a great movie." Nonetheless, the film received generally favorable reviews from critics. Based on 49 reviews collected by Rotten Tomatoes, 69% of reviewers have enjoyed Batman. By comparison, Metacritic has collected an average score of 66, based on 17 reviews. Burton biographer Alison McMahan wrote, "fans of the Batman franchise complained when they heard of Michael Keaton's casting. However, no one complained when they saw his performance." James Berardinelli called the film entertaining, with the highlight being the production design. However, he concluded, "the best thing that can be said about Batman is that it led to Batman Returns, which was a far superior effort." Variety felt "Jack Nicholson stole every scene" but still greeted the film with positive feedback. Roger Ebert was highly impressed with the production design, but claimed "Batman is a triumph of design over story, style over substance, a great-looking movie with a plot you can't care much about." His reviewing partner, Gene Siskel, disagreed, however, describing the film as having a 'refreshingly adult' approach with performances, direction and set design that 'draws you into a psychological world'. Jonathan Rosenbaum of the Chicago Reader called it "watchable enough". Legacy Anton Furst and Peter Young won the Academy Award for Best Art Direction, while Nicholson was nominated the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor (Musical or Comedy). The British Academy of Film and Television Arts nominated Batman in six categories (Production Design, Visual Effects, Costume Design, Makeup, Sound and Actor in a Supporting Role for Nicholson), but it won none of the categories. Nicholson, Basinger, the make-up department and costume designer Bob Ringwood all received nominations at the Saturn Awards. The film was nominated the Saturn Award for Best Fantasy Film and the Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation. The success of Batman prompted Warner Bros. Animation to create the Emmy Award-winning Batman: The Animated Series, as a result beginning the long-running DC Animated Universe. Series co-creator Bruce Timm stated the television show's Art Deco design was inspired from the film. Timm commented, "our show would never have gotten made if it hadn't been for that first Batman movie." Batman initiated the original Batman film series and helped establish the modern day superhero film genre. Burton joked, "ever since I did Batman, it was like the first dark comic book movie. Now everyone wants to do a dark and serious superhero movie. I guess I'm the one responsible for that trend." Producers Michael Uslan and Benjamin Melniker filed a breach of contract lawsuit in Los Angeles County Superior Court on March 26, 1992. Uslan and Melniker claimed to be "the victims of a sinister campaign of fraud and coercion that has cheated them out of continuing involvement in the production of Batman and its sequels. We were denied proper credits, and deprived of any financial rewards for our indispensable creative contribution to the success of Batman." A superior court judge rejected the lawsuit. Total revenues of Batman have topped $2 billion, with Uslan claiming to have "not seen a penny more than that since our net profit participation has proved worthless." Warner Bros. offered the pair a out-of-court pay-off, a sum described by Uslan and Melniker's attorney as "two popcorns and two Cokes". Olly Richards (September 1992). "Trouble in Gotham", Empire, pp. 21-23. Retrieved on 2008-08-14. Home Video Many versions of the film have been released. Included are VHS, LaserDisc, single disc DVD, Special Edition DVD and an Anthology set. The Batman: The Motion Picture Anthology released in 2005 included 2-Disc DVD Special Editions of the Burton/Schumacher Batman films. This Anthology set was re-released on Blu-Ray on March 10, 2009. On May 19, 2009 a 20th Anniversary stand-alone edition was released. This stand-alone version contains the exact same special features as it's Anthology set (both DVD and Blu-Ray versions) counterparts. There are 2 differences, this version includes a 50-page booklet guide to the film and a slight variation in packaging from normal Blu-Ray cases (Warner Bros. *Digibook*). References Further reading External links Script review of The Batman IGN reviews Tom Mankiewicz's unproduced script Sam Hamm's Batman script draft 1986 Behind-the-scenes photos ScreenshotsBatman'' at Metacritic | Batman_(1989_film) |@lemmatized batman:77 superhero:4 film:51 base:4 dc:4 comic:21 character:9 name:3 tim:13 burton:47 direct:4 star:4 michael:15 keaton:15 jack:16 nicholson:18 kim:4 basinger:5 robert:3 wuhl:5 palance:3 deal:3 rise:2 powerful:1 villain:3 know:4 joker:23 first:12 installment:1 warner:21 bros:12 series:11 hiring:1 director:3 steve:3 englehart:4 julie:2 hickson:2 write:13 treatment:5 sam:8 hamm:20 screenplay:2 greenlighted:1 success:7 beetlejuice:5 role:7 consider:4 numerous:2 list:2 actor:3 accept:1 strict:1 condition:1 dictate:1 high:6 salary:2 portion:2 box:3 office:4 profit:2 shooting:2 schedule:2 take:9 place:3 pinewood:3 studio:3 october:3 january:2 budget:4 escalate:2 million:16 writer:7 guild:2 america:6 strike:4 force:1 drop:1 uncredited:1 rewrite:5 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5,120 | Auger_effect | The Auger effect ( ) is a phenomenon in physics in which the transition of an electron in an atom filling in an inner-shell vacancy causes the emission of another electron. When an electron is removed from a core level of an atom, leaving a vacancy, an electron from a higher energy level may fall into the vacancy, resulting in a release of energy. Although sometimes this energy is released in the form of an emitted photon, the energy can also be transferred to another electron, which is ejected from the atom. This second ejected electron is called an Auger electron. Upon ejection the kinetic energy of the Auger electron corresponds to the difference between the energy of the initial electronic transition and the ionization energy for the electron shell from which the Auger electron was ejected. These energy levels depend on the type of atom and the chemical environment in which the atom was located. Auger electron spectroscopy involves the emission of Auger electrons by bombarding a sample with either X-rays or energetic electrons and measures the intensity of Auger electrons as a function of the Auger electron energy. The resulting spectra can be used to determine the identity of the emitting atoms and some information about their environment. Auger recombination is a similar Auger effect which occurs in semiconductors. An electron and electron hole (electron-hole pair) can recombine giving up their energy to an electron in the conduction band, increasing its energy. The reverse effect is known as impact ionization. The name "Auger effect" comes from one of its discoverers, Pierre Victor Auger, and not from the similarly-named device, the auger. Discovery The Auger emission process was discovered in the 1920s by Lise Meitner, an Austrian physicist. The Auger effect was discovered in 1925 by Pierre Victor Auger upon analysis of a Wilson cloud chamber experiment. High energy X-rays were applied to ionize gas particles and observe photoelectric electrons. Observation of electron tracks independent of the frequency of the incident photon energy suggested a mechanism for electron ionization that was caused from an internal conversion of energy from a radiationless transition. Further investigation and theoretical work showed that the effect was a radiationless effect more than an internal conversion effect by use of elementary quantum mechanics and transition rate and transition probability calculations. (ref 1) See also Charge carrier generation and recombination Auger electron spectroscopy References "The Auger Effect and Other Radiationless Transitions". Burhop, E.H.S., Cambridge Monographs on Physics, 1952 | Auger_effect |@lemmatized auger:18 effect:9 phenomenon:1 physic:2 transition:6 electron:23 atom:6 filling:1 inner:1 shell:2 vacancy:3 cause:2 emission:3 another:2 remove:1 core:1 level:3 leave:1 high:2 energy:14 may:1 fall:1 result:2 release:2 although:1 sometimes:1 form:1 emitted:1 photon:2 also:2 transfer:1 eject:2 second:1 ejected:1 call:1 upon:2 ejection:1 kinetic:1 corresponds:1 difference:1 initial:1 electronic:1 ionization:3 depend:1 type:1 chemical:1 environment:2 locate:1 spectroscopy:2 involve:1 bombard:1 sample:1 either:1 x:2 ray:2 energetic:1 measure:1 intensity:1 function:1 spectrum:1 use:2 determine:1 identity:1 emitting:1 information:1 recombination:2 similar:1 occur:1 semiconductor:1 hole:2 pair:1 recombine:1 give:1 conduction:1 band:1 increase:1 reverse:1 know:1 impact:1 name:2 come:1 one:1 discoverer:1 pierre:2 victor:2 similarly:1 device:1 discovery:1 process:1 discover:2 lise:1 meitner:1 austrian:1 physicist:1 analysis:1 wilson:1 cloud:1 chamber:1 experiment:1 apply:1 ionize:1 gas:1 particle:1 observe:1 photoelectric:1 observation:1 track:1 independent:1 frequency:1 incident:1 suggest:1 mechanism:1 internal:2 conversion:2 radiationless:3 investigation:1 theoretical:1 work:1 show:1 elementary:1 quantum:1 mechanic:1 rate:1 probability:1 calculation:1 ref:1 see:1 charge:1 carrier:1 generation:1 reference:1 burhop:1 e:1 h:1 cambridge:1 monograph:1 |@bigram emitted_photon:1 auger_electron:8 kinetic_energy:1 lise_meitner:1 quantum_mechanic:1 |
5,121 | Invertebrate | Thelenota ananas, a sea cucumber (phylum: Echinodermata) An invertebrate is an animal without a vertebral column. The group includes 95% of all animal species Encarta Reference Library Home Premium 2005 DVD. Article - Invertebrate. — all animals except those in the Chordate subphylum Vertebrata (fish, reptiles, amphibians, birds, and mammals). Carolus Linnaeus' Systema Naturae divided these animals into only two groups, the Insecta and the now-obsolete vermes (worms). Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, who was appointed to the position of "Curator of Insecta and Vermes" at the Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle in 1793, both coined the term "invertebrate" to describe such and divided the original two groups into ten, by splitting off Arachnida and Crustacea from the Linnean Insecta, and Mollusca, Annelida, Cirripedia, Radiata, Coelenterata and Infusoria from the Linnean Vermes. They are now classified into over 30 phyla, from simple organisms such as sea sponges and flatworms to complex animals such as arthropods and molluscs. Invertebrates form a paraphyletic group. (For a full list of animals considered to be invertebrates, see animal.) All the listed phyla are invertebrates along with two of the three subphyla in Phylum Chordata: Urochordata and Cephalochordata. These two, plus all the other known invertebrates, have only one cluster of Hox genes, while the vertebrates have duplicated their original cluster more than once. Within paleozoology and paleobiology, invertebrates big and small are often studied within the fossil discipline called invertebrate paleontology. Phyla and common examples The fossil coral Cladocora from the Pliocene of Cyprus. Echinodermata — sea stars, sea urchins, sea cucumbers Arthropoda — insects, arachnids, crustaceans Nematoda — round worms Mollusca — squid, snails, bivalves Annelida — segmented worms (earthworms, leeches, polychaetes) Nemertea — ribbon worms Platyhelminthes — flat worms Rotifera Acoelomorpha Ctenophora — Comb jellies Cnidaria — jellyfishes, corals, sea anemones, hydras Porifera — sponges See also Marine invertebrates References Further reading Hyman, L. H. 1940. The Invertebrates (6 volumes) New York : McGraw-Hill. A classic work. Anderson, D. T. (Ed.). (2001). Invertebrate zoology (2nd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Brusca, R. C., & Brusca, G. J. (2003). Invertebrates (2nd ed.). Sunderland, Mass. : Sinauer Associates. Miller, S.A., & Harley, J.P. (1996). Zoology (4th ed.). Boston: WCB/McGraw-Hill. Ruppert, E. E., Fox, R. S., & Barnes, R. D. (2004). Invertebrate zoology: a functional evolutionary approach. Belmont, CA: Thomas-Brooks/Cole. External links Support for endangered invertebrates African Invertebrates | Invertebrate |@lemmatized thelenota:1 ananas:1 sea:6 cucumber:2 phylum:5 echinodermata:2 invertebrate:13 animal:7 without:1 vertebral:1 column:1 group:4 include:1 specie:1 encarta:1 reference:2 library:1 home:1 premium:1 dvd:1 article:1 except:1 chordate:1 subphylum:2 vertebrata:1 fish:1 reptile:1 amphibian:1 bird:1 mammal:1 carolus:1 linnaeus:1 systema:1 naturae:1 divide:2 two:4 insecta:3 obsolete:1 vermis:3 worm:5 jean:1 baptiste:1 lamarck:1 appoint:1 position:1 curator:1 muséum:1 national:1 histoire:1 naturelle:1 coin:1 term:1 describe:1 original:2 ten:1 split:1 arachnida:1 crustacea:1 linnean:2 mollusca:2 annelida:2 cirripedia:1 radiata:1 coelenterata:1 infusoria:1 classify:1 simple:1 organism:1 sponge:2 flatworm:1 complex:1 arthropod:1 mollusc:1 invertebrates:3 form:1 paraphyletic:1 full:1 list:2 consider:1 see:2 along:1 three:1 chordata:1 urochordata:1 cephalochordata:1 plus:1 known:1 one:1 cluster:2 hox:1 gene:1 vertebrate:1 duplicate:1 within:2 paleozoology:1 paleobiology:1 big:1 small:1 often:1 study:1 fossil:2 discipline:1 call:1 paleontology:1 common:1 examples:1 coral:2 cladocora:1 pliocene:1 cyprus:1 star:1 urchin:1 arthropoda:1 insect:1 arachnid:1 crustacean:1 nematoda:1 round:1 squid:1 snail:1 bivalve:1 segment:1 earthworm:1 leech:1 polychaete:1 nemertea:1 ribbon:1 platyhelminthes:1 flat:1 rotifera:1 acoelomorpha:1 ctenophora:1 comb:1 jelly:1 cnidaria:1 jellyfish:1 anemone:1 hydra:1 porifera:1 also:1 marine:1 far:1 read:1 hyman:1 l:1 h:1 volume:1 new:1 york:1 mcgraw:2 hill:2 classic:1 work:1 anderson:1 ed:4 zoology:3 oxford:2 university:1 press:1 brusca:2 r:3 c:1 g:1 j:2 sunderland:1 mass:1 sinauer:1 associate:1 miller:1 harley:1 p:1 boston:1 wcb:1 ruppert:1 e:2 fox:1 barnes:1 functional:1 evolutionary:1 approach:1 belmont:1 ca:1 thomas:1 brook:1 cole:1 external:1 link:1 support:1 endanger:1 african:1 |@bigram vertebral_column:1 reptile_amphibian:1 carolus_linnaeus:1 linnaeus_systema:1 systema_naturae:1 jean_baptiste:1 baptiste_lamarck:1 histoire_naturelle:1 phylum_chordata:1 hox_gene:1 sea_urchin:1 sea_anemone:1 marine_invertebrate:1 mcgraw_hill:2 sinauer_associate:1 belmont_ca:1 brook_cole:1 external_link:1 |
5,122 | Transport_in_Laos | This article concerns systems of transportation in Laos. Laos is a country in Asia, which possesses a number of modern transportation systems, including several highways and a number of airports. As a landlocked country, Laos possesses no ports or harbours on the sea, and the difficulty of navigation on the Mekong means that this is also not a significant transport route. Railways Map of Laos There is one short section of railway in Laos. In January 2007 work began on a 3.5 km extension of the metre-gauge State Railway of Thailand network across the Thai-Lao Friendship Bridge to a passenger and freight terminal inside Laos. Test trains began running on July 4 2008, and Princess Maha Chakri Sirindhorn of Thailand formally inaugurated the line on March 5 2009. Surveys are underway to continue to the line a further 12 km to Vientiane. Laos does not have any links to other neighbouring countries by rail, although a link to Vietnam's Ha Tinh Province has been proposed. All neighbouring countries share the same 1000 mm gauge, including lines in China as far as Yunan. A short portage railway once also existed on the Mekong river. The only railway (ever) in Laos The International Steam Pages Highways In Laos, there are 21,716 km of highway, of which 9,673.5 km are paved, leaving 12,042.5 km unpaved. Driving in Laos is on the right. Laos has constructed a new highway connecting Savannakhet to the Vietnamese border at Lao Bao, with funding coming from the Japanese government . This has greatly facilitated travelling across Laos. This highway can now be traversed in a few hours, while in 2002 the trip took over 9 hours along a very bumpy (and scenic) route. There are 3 land connection across the Mekong from Laos to Thailand using the existing First and Second Friendship Bridge and Pakxe bridge. Vientiane is linked to Udon Thani using the First Friendship Bridge. Third Thai Laos Friendhip bridge began construction in March 2009 linking Nakhon Phanom province in northeastern Thailand and Khammouan province in Laos. Laos opened a highway connection to Kunming in April 2008. The Fourth Friendship Bridge is under planning to be completed by 2011 linking Kunming to Bokeo, Laos and Chiang Rai. It will reduce the travel time to 5 hours. This is a cooperation between Thailand, China and Laos. Water transport About 4,587 km of navigable water routes exist in Laos, primarily the Mekong and its tributaries. There is an additional 2,897 km, which is sectionally navigable by craft drawing less than 0.5 m. In terms of sea travel, Laos has a merchant marine consisting of 1 cargo ship of . Pipelines Laos has 136 km of pipeline for transport of petroleum products. Airports Laos possesses 52 airports, of which 9 have paved runways, and 43 do not. Of the airports with paved runways, only Wattay International Airport has runway length over 2,438m. Of the remainder, four have runways 1,524 to 2,437 m length, and a further four of lengths between 914 and 1,523 m. Of the airports without paved runways, 1 has runways of length above 1,524m, 17 have runway lengths between 914 and 1,523 m, leaving 25 with length below 914m. See also Laos Lao Airlines Vientiane External links News site regarding rail in Laos UN Map of Laos References | Transport_in_Laos |@lemmatized article:1 concern:1 system:2 transportation:2 lao:24 country:4 asia:1 possess:3 number:2 modern:1 include:2 several:1 highway:5 airport:6 landlocked:1 laos:4 port:1 harbour:1 sea:2 difficulty:1 navigation:1 mekong:4 mean:1 also:3 significant:1 transport:3 route:3 railway:5 map:2 one:1 short:2 section:1 january:1 work:1 begin:3 km:8 extension:1 metre:1 gauge:2 state:1 thailand:5 network:1 across:3 thai:2 friendship:4 bridge:6 passenger:1 freight:1 terminal:1 inside:1 test:1 train:1 run:1 july:1 princess:1 maha:1 chakri:1 sirindhorn:1 formally:1 inaugurate:1 line:3 march:2 survey:1 underway:1 continue:1 vientiane:3 link:6 neighbouring:2 rail:2 although:1 vietnam:1 ha:1 tinh:1 province:3 propose:1 share:1 mm:1 china:2 far:1 yunan:1 portage:1 exist:3 river:1 ever:1 international:2 steam:1 page:1 highways:1 pave:2 leave:2 unpaved:1 drive:1 right:1 construct:1 new:1 connect:1 savannakhet:1 vietnamese:1 border:1 bao:1 fund:1 come:1 japanese:1 government:1 greatly:1 facilitate:1 travel:3 traverse:1 hour:3 trip:1 take:1 along:1 bumpy:1 scenic:1 land:1 connection:2 use:2 first:2 second:1 pakxe:1 udon:1 thani:1 third:1 friendhip:1 construction:1 nakhon:1 phanom:1 northeastern:1 khammouan:1 open:1 kunming:2 april:1 fourth:1 plan:1 complete:1 bokeo:1 chiang:1 rai:1 reduce:1 time:1 cooperation:1 water:2 navigable:2 primarily:1 tributary:1 additional:1 sectionally:1 craft:1 draw:1 less:1 term:1 merchant:1 marine:1 consist:1 cargo:1 ship:1 pipeline:2 petroleum:1 product:1 runway:7 paved:2 wattay:1 length:6 remainder:1 four:2 without:1 see:1 airline:1 external:1 news:1 site:1 regard:1 un:1 reference:1 |@bigram lao_lao:2 thai_lao:2 passenger_freight:1 mekong_river:1 km_unpaved:1 lao_thailand:1 merchant_marine:1 pave_runway:1 airport_paved:1 paved_runway:2 external_link:1 |
5,123 | Interpreted_language | In computer programming an interpreted language is a programming language whose implementation often takes the form of an interpreter. Theoretically, any language may be compiled or interpreted, so this designation is applied purely because of common implementation practice and not some underlying property of a language. Many languages have been implemented using both compilers and interpreters, including Lisp, Pascal, C, BASIC, and Python. While Java is translated to a form that is intended to be interpreted, just-in-time compilation is often used to generate machine code. The Microsoft .NET languages compile to CIL from which is often then compiled into native machine code; however there is a virtual machine capable of interpreting CIL. Many Lisp implementations can freely mix interpreted and compiled code. These implementations also use a compiler that can translate arbitrary source code at runtime to machine code. Historical background of interpreted/compiled In the early days of computing, language design was heavily influenced by the decision to use compilation or interpretation as a mode of execution. For example, some compiled languages require that programs must explicitly state the data-type of a variable at the time it is declared or first used while some interpreted languages take advantage of the dynamic aspects of interpretation to make such declarations unnecessary. For example, Smalltalk—which was designed to be interpreted at run-time—allows generic Objects to dynamically interact with each other. Initially, interpreted languages were compiled line-by-line; that is, each line was compiled as it was about to be executed, and if a loop or subroutine caused certain lines to be executed multiple times, they would be recompiled every time. This has become much less common. Most so-called interpreted languages use an intermediate representation, which combines both compilation and interpretation. In this case, a compiler may output some form of bytecode or threaded code, which is then executed by a bytecode interpreter. Examples include Python, and Java. Similarly, Ruby uses an abstract syntax tree as intermediate representation. The intermediate representation can be compiled once and for all (as in Java), each time before execution (as in Perl or Ruby), or each time a change in the source is detected before execution (as in Python). Language features suiting interpreters well Interpreted languages still give programs certain extra flexibility over compiled languages. Features that are easier to implement in interpreters than in compilers include (but are not limited to): platform independence (Java's byte code, for example) reflective usage of the evaluator (e.g. a first-order eval function) dynamic typing ease of debugging (it is easier to get source code information in interpreted languages) small program size (since interpreted languages have flexibility to choose instruction code) object polymorphism dynamic scoping List of frequently interpreted languages APL A vector oriented language using an unusual character set. ASP Web page scripting language BASIC (although the original version, Dartmouth BASIC, was compiled, as are many modern BASICs) thinBasic COBOL ECMAScript ActionScript DMDScript E4X JavaScript (first named Mocha, then LiveScript) JScript Equation manipulation and solving systems GNU Octave IDL (programming language) Mathematica MATLAB Euphoria Interpreted or compiled. Forth (traditionally threaded interpreted) Inform J An APL variant in which tacit definition provides some of the benefits of compilation. Lava Perl PHP Lisp Scheme Logo MUMPS (traditionally interpreted, modern versions compiled) Perl R (programming language) Ruby JRuby( A Java implementation of Ruby) Smalltalk (pure object-orientation, originally from Xerox PARC, often supports debugging across machines.) Bistro Dolphin Smalltalk F-Script Little Smalltalk Squeak VisualAge VisualWorks Scripting languages Spreadsheets Excel stores formulas, interprets them from a tokenized format. S (programming language) Tcl XOTcl XMLmosaicAn xml contained C# like programming language interpreted by a Console Application written in Visual Basic.Net. Languages usually compiled to a virtual machine code Many interpreted languages are first compiled to some form of virtual machine code, which is then either interpreted or compiled at runtime to native code. Java (frequently translated to bytecode, but can also be compiled to a native binary using an AOT compiler) Groovy Join Java ColdFusion Lua .NET Framework languages (translated to CIL code) C# Visual Basic .NET Pike Python Visual FoxPro See also Compiled language Scripting language | Interpreted_language |@lemmatized computer:1 program:5 interpreted:7 language:28 programming:4 whose:1 implementation:5 often:4 take:2 form:4 interpreter:5 theoretically:1 may:2 compile:16 interpret:13 designation:1 apply:1 purely:1 common:2 practice:1 underlie:1 property:1 many:4 implement:2 use:9 compiler:5 include:3 lisp:3 pascal:1 c:3 basic:6 python:4 java:7 translate:4 intend:1 time:7 compilation:4 generate:1 machine:7 code:13 microsoft:1 net:4 cil:3 native:3 however:1 virtual:3 capable:1 freely:1 mix:1 compiled:2 also:3 arbitrary:1 source:3 runtime:2 historical:1 background:1 early:1 day:1 computing:1 design:2 heavily:1 influence:1 decision:1 interpretation:3 mode:1 execution:3 example:4 require:1 must:1 explicitly:1 state:1 data:1 type:1 variable:1 declare:1 first:4 advantage:1 dynamic:3 aspect:1 make:1 declaration:1 unnecessary:1 smalltalk:4 run:1 allow:1 generic:1 object:3 dynamically:1 interact:1 initially:1 line:4 execute:3 loop:1 subroutine:1 cause:1 certain:2 multiple:1 would:1 recompiled:1 every:1 become:1 much:1 less:1 call:1 intermediate:3 representation:3 combine:1 case:1 output:1 bytecode:3 thread:2 similarly:1 ruby:4 abstract:1 syntax:1 tree:1 perl:3 change:1 detect:1 feature:2 suit:1 well:1 still:1 give:1 extra:1 flexibility:2 easy:2 limit:1 platform:1 independence:1 byte:1 reflective:1 usage:1 evaluator:1 e:1 g:1 order:1 eval:1 function:1 typing:1 ease:1 debug:2 get:1 information:1 small:1 size:1 since:1 choose:1 instruction:1 polymorphism:1 scoping:1 list:1 frequently:2 apl:2 vector:1 orient:1 unusual:1 character:1 set:1 asp:1 web:1 page:1 script:3 although:1 original:1 version:2 dartmouth:1 modern:2 thinbasic:1 cobol:1 ecmascript:1 actionscript:1 dmdscript:1 javascript:1 name:1 mocha:1 livescript:1 jscript:1 equation:1 manipulation:1 solve:1 system:1 gnu:1 octave:1 idl:1 mathematica:1 matlab:1 euphoria:1 forth:1 traditionally:2 inform:1 j:1 variant:1 tacit:1 definition:1 provide:1 benefit:1 lava:1 php:1 scheme:1 logo:1 mumps:1 r:1 jruby:1 pure:1 orientation:1 originally:1 xerox:1 parc:1 support:1 across:1 bistro:1 dolphin:1 f:1 little:1 squeak:1 visualage:1 visualworks:1 spreadsheet:1 excel:1 store:1 formula:1 interprets:1 tokenized:1 format:1 tcl:1 xotcl:1 xmlmosaican:1 xml:1 contain:1 like:1 console:1 application:1 write:1 visual:3 languages:1 usually:1 either:1 binary:1 aot:1 groovy:1 join:1 coldfusion:1 lua:1 framework:1 pike:1 foxpro:1 see:1 scripting:1 |@bigram dynamic_typing:1 dynamic_scoping:1 perl_php:1 xerox_parc:1 |
5,124 | Foreign_relations_of_Kyrgyzstan | Kyrgyzstan favors close relations with other members of the Commonwealth of Independent States, particularly Kazakhstan and Russia. While Kyrgyzstan was initially determined to stay in the ruble zone, the stringent conditions set forth by the Russian Government prompted Kyrgyzstan to introduce its own currency, the som, in May 1993. Kyrgyzstan's withdrawal from the ruble zone was done with little prior notification and initially caused tensions in the region. Both Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan temporarily suspended trade, and Uzbekistan even introduced restrictions tantamount to economic sanctions. Both nations feared an influx of rubles and an increase in inflation. Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan's hostility toward Kyrgyzstan was short-lived, and the three nations signed an agreement in January 1994 creating an economic union. This led to the relaxation of border restrictions between the nations the following month. Kyrgyzstan also has contributed to the CIS peacekeeping forces in Tajikistan. Turkey has sought to capitalize on its cultural and ethnic links to the region and has found Kyrgyzstan receptive to cultivating bilateral relations. The Kyrgyz Republic also has experienced a dramatic increase in trade with the People's Republic of China, its southern neighbor. Kyrgyzstan has been active in furthering regional cooperation, such as joint military exercises with Uzbek and Kazakh troops. In January 1999, a new OSCE office opened in Bishkek; on February 18, 2000 the OSCE announced that an additional office will be opened in Osh to assist Bishkek in carrying out its work. Kyrgyzstan is a member of the OSCE, the CIS, and the United Nations. Illegal drugs Kyrgyzstan is a limited illicit cultivator of cannabis and opium poppy, mostly for CIS consumption. There is a limited government eradication program. Kyrgyzstan is used increasingly as a transshipment point for illicit drugs to Russia and Western Europe from Southwest Asia. Greece Both countries established diplomatic relations in 1992. Greece is represented in Kyrgyzstan through its embassy in Almaty (Kazakhstan). Kyrgyzstan is represented in Greece through a non resident ambassador based in Bishkek (in the Foreign Ministry). Kyrgyz consular representation in Greece is made by the Kazakh consulate in Athens. On November 1 2004, Kyrgyz President Askar Akayev made an official visit to Greece. A Foreign Ministry delegation from Greece visited Dushanbe for talks, and had meetings with Tajikistans Foreign Minister Zarifi and First Deputy Foreign Minister Youldashev in 2008. Foreign Minister Dora Bakoyannis met with Tajikistans Foreign Minister Zarifi during the 1st EU-Central Asia Forum on security issues in Paris in September 2008. There are between 650 and 700 people of Greek descent living in Kyrgyzstan. However, the data of the General Secretariat For Greeks Abroad give an even lower number (50 people). In 2004 Greece and Kyrgyzstan signed a bilateral agreement for air transports, tourism and diplomacy during Kyrgyz president Askar Akayev's visit to Greece. References External links Kyrgyzstan risks becoming narcotics transit-state - drugs tsar Most Kyrgyz residents believe country should give priority to Russia -poll | Foreign_relations_of_Kyrgyzstan |@lemmatized kyrgyzstan:16 favor:1 close:1 relation:3 member:2 commonwealth:1 independent:1 state:2 particularly:1 kazakhstan:4 russia:3 initially:2 determine:1 stay:1 ruble:3 zone:2 stringent:1 condition:1 set:1 forth:1 russian:1 government:2 prompt:1 introduce:2 currency:1 som:1 may:1 withdrawal:1 little:1 prior:1 notification:1 cause:1 tension:1 region:2 uzbekistan:3 temporarily:1 suspend:1 trade:2 even:2 restriction:2 tantamount:1 economic:2 sanction:1 nation:4 fear:1 influx:1 increase:2 inflation:1 hostility:1 toward:1 short:1 live:1 three:1 sign:2 agreement:2 january:2 create:1 union:1 lead:1 relaxation:1 border:1 follow:1 month:1 also:2 contribute:1 ci:3 peacekeeping:1 force:1 tajikistan:3 turkey:1 seek:1 capitalize:1 cultural:1 ethnic:1 link:2 find:1 receptive:1 cultivate:1 bilateral:2 kyrgyz:5 republic:2 experience:1 dramatic:1 people:3 china:1 southern:1 neighbor:1 active:1 regional:1 cooperation:1 joint:1 military:1 exercise:1 uzbek:1 kazakh:2 troop:1 new:1 osce:3 office:2 open:2 bishkek:3 february:1 announce:1 additional:1 osh:1 assist:1 carry:1 work:1 united:1 illegal:1 drug:3 limited:2 illicit:2 cultivator:1 cannabis:1 opium:1 poppy:1 mostly:1 consumption:1 eradication:1 program:1 use:1 increasingly:1 transshipment:1 point:1 western:1 europe:1 southwest:1 asia:2 greece:8 country:2 establish:1 diplomatic:1 represent:2 embassy:1 almaty:1 non:1 resident:2 ambassador:1 base:1 foreign:6 ministry:2 consular:1 representation:1 make:2 consulate:1 athens:1 november:1 president:2 askar:2 akayev:2 official:1 visit:3 delegation:1 dushanbe:1 talk:1 meeting:1 minister:4 zarifi:2 first:1 deputy:1 youldashev:1 dora:1 bakoyannis:1 meet:1 eu:1 central:1 forum:1 security:1 issue:1 paris:1 september:1 greek:2 descent:1 living:1 however:1 data:1 general:1 secretariat:1 abroad:1 give:2 low:1 number:1 air:1 transport:1 tourism:1 diplomacy:1 reference:1 external:1 risk:1 become:1 narcotic:1 transit:1 tsar:1 believe:1 priority:1 poll:1 |@bigram kazakhstan_uzbekistan:1 temporarily_suspend:1 opium_poppy:1 illicit_drug:1 diplomatic_relation:1 almaty_kazakhstan:1 kazakhstan_kyrgyzstan:1 president_askar:2 askar_akayev:2 dora_bakoyannis:1 external_link:1 |
5,125 | Flugelhorn | The flugelhorn (also spelled fluegelhorn or flügelhorn) is a brass instrument resembling a trumpet but with a wider, conical bore. Some consider it to be a member of the saxhorn family developed by Adolphe Sax (who also developed the saxophone); however, other historians assert that it derives from the keyed bugle designed by Michael Saurle (father), Munich 1832 (Royal Bavarian privilege for a "chromatic Flügelhorn" 1832), thus predating Adolphe Sax's innovative work. Etymology The German word, Flügel translates into English as "wing" or "flank". The instrument was used on the battlefield to summon the flanks of an army. Structure and variants The flugelhorn is built in the same B-flat pitch as many trumpets and cornets. It usually has three piston valves and employs the same fingering system as other brass instruments, but four valve and rotary valve variants also exist. It can thus be played without too much trouble by trumpet and cornet players, though some adaptation to their playing style may be needed. It is usually played with a more deeply conical mouthpiece than either trumpets or cornets (though not as conical as a horn mouthpiece). Some modern flugelhorns are built with a fourth valve, which takes them down in pitch a perfect fourth (similar to the fourth valve sometimes found on euphoniums, tubas, horns and piccolo trumpets, as well as the trigger on trombones). This adds a useful area of low range which, when coupled with the flugelhorn's dark sound, gives an interesting extension to the instrument's abilities. More often, however, the fourth valve is used in place of the first and third valve combination, which is somewhat sharp (which is compensated for on trumpets and cornets and some three-valve flugelhorns by a slide for the first or third valve). Timbre A rotary valve B-flat flugelhorn. The tone is "fatter" and usually regarded as more "mellow" and "dark" than that of the trumpet or cornet. The sound of the flugelhorn has been described as approximately halfway between a trumpet and a horn, whereas the cornet's sound has been described as approximately halfway between a trumpet and a flugelhorn Cecil Forsyth: Orchestration, p. 165. . The flugelhorn has a similar level of agility to the cornet but is more difficult to control in the high register (from approximately written G above the staff), where in general it "slots" or locks onto notes less easily. It is not generally used for aggressive or bright displays as both trumpet and cornet can be, but tends more towards a softer and more reflective role. Use The flugelhorn's main areas of use are in jazz, the brass band, and popular music, although it does appear occasionally in orchestral writing. Some of the more famous orchestral works with flugelhorn include Ottorino Respighi's Pines of Rome, Igor Stravinsky's Threni, Ralph Vaughan Williams's Ninth Symphony, and Michael Tippett's third symphony. The flugelhorn is sometimes substituted for the post horn in Mahler's Third Symphony. The flugelhorn figured prominently in many of Burt Bacharach's 1960s pop song arrangements, and more recently in compositions by the indie band Beirut, which became popular in 2006. Flugelhorns have occasionally been used as the alto or low soprano voice in a drum and bugle corps. This is increasingly rare, however. Famous players The flugelhorn is most often associated with the oeuvre of Chuck Mangione, most notably in his pop jazz classic Feels So Good. Joe Bishop, as a member of the Woody Herman band in 1936, was one of the earliest jazz musicians to make use of the flugelhorn. Shorty Rogers and Kenny Baker began playing it in the early fifties, and Clark Terry used it with Duke Ellington's orchestra in the middle fifties. Miles Davis helped further to popularize the instrument in jazz on the albums Miles Ahead and Sketches of Spain, both of which were arranged by Gil Evans, although he did not use it much on later projects. Other prominent jazz flugelhorn players include Freddie Hubbard, Lee Morgan, Art Farmer, Hugh Masekela, Tony Guerrero, Jimmy Owens, Chet Baker, Maynard Ferguson, Terumasa Hino, Woody Shaw, Kenny Wheeler, Tom Harrell, Bill Coleman, Thad Jones, Arturo Sandoval, Lee Loughnane of the rock band Chicago, and Harry Beckett. Most jazz flugelhorn players use the instrument as an auxiliary to the trumpet, but in the 1970s Chuck Mangione gave up playing the trumpet and concentrated on the flugelhorn alone. Pop flugelhorn exponents include Rick Braun, Mic Gillette, Jeff Oster, and Zach Condon. Footnotes References Ralph T. Dudgeon, Franz X. Streitwieser: The Fluegelhorn. Edition Bochinsky, 2004, English/German, ISBN 3932275837 "Flugelhorn", The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second edition, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell (London, 2001). "Flugelhorn", The New Grove Dictionary of Jazz, second edition, edited by Barry Kernfeld (London, 2002). External links An enthusiast's flugelhorn guide with many details of individual makes. An overview and brief history of the flugelhorn including a short sound clip. | Flugelhorn |@lemmatized flugelhorn:24 also:3 spell:1 fluegelhorn:2 flügelhorn:2 brass:3 instrument:6 resemble:1 trumpet:12 wider:1 conical:3 bore:1 consider:1 member:2 saxhorn:1 family:1 develop:2 adolphe:2 sax:2 saxophone:1 however:3 historian:1 assert:1 derive:1 key:1 bugle:2 design:1 michael:2 saurle:1 father:1 munich:1 royal:1 bavarian:1 privilege:1 chromatic:1 thus:2 predate:1 innovative:1 work:2 etymology:1 german:2 word:1 flügel:1 translates:1 english:2 wing:1 flank:2 use:10 battlefield:1 summon:1 army:1 structure:1 variants:1 build:2 b:2 flat:2 pitch:2 many:3 cornet:8 usually:3 three:2 piston:1 valve:10 employ:1 fingering:1 system:1 four:1 rotary:2 variant:1 exist:1 play:4 without:1 much:2 trouble:1 player:4 though:2 adaptation:1 playing:1 style:1 may:1 need:1 deeply:1 mouthpiece:2 either:1 horn:4 modern:1 fourth:4 take:1 perfect:1 similar:2 sometimes:2 find:1 euphonium:1 tuba:1 piccolo:1 well:1 trigger:1 trombone:1 add:1 useful:1 area:2 low:2 range:1 couple:1 dark:2 sound:4 give:2 interesting:1 extension:1 ability:1 often:2 place:1 first:2 third:4 combination:1 somewhat:1 sharp:1 compensate:1 slide:1 timbre:1 tone:1 fatter:1 regard:1 mellow:1 describe:2 approximately:3 halfway:2 whereas:1 cecil:1 forsyth:1 orchestration:1 p:1 level:1 agility:1 difficult:1 control:1 high:1 register:1 write:1 g:1 staff:1 general:1 slots:1 lock:1 onto:1 note:1 less:1 easily:1 generally:1 aggressive:1 bright:1 display:1 tend:1 towards:1 soft:1 reflective:1 role:1 main:1 jazz:7 band:4 popular:2 music:2 although:2 appear:1 occasionally:2 orchestral:2 writing:1 famous:2 include:4 ottorino:1 respighi:1 pine:1 rome:1 igor:1 stravinsky:1 threni:1 ralph:2 vaughan:1 williams:1 ninth:1 symphony:3 tippett:1 substitute:1 post:1 mahler:1 figure:1 prominently:1 burt:1 bacharach:1 pop:3 song:1 arrangement:1 recently:1 composition:1 indie:1 beirut:1 become:1 alto:1 soprano:1 voice:1 drum:1 corp:1 increasingly:1 rare:1 associate:1 oeuvre:1 chuck:2 mangione:2 notably:1 classic:1 feel:1 good:1 joe:1 bishop:1 woody:2 herman:1 one:1 early:2 musician:2 make:2 shorty:1 rogers:1 kenny:2 baker:2 begin:1 fifty:2 clark:1 terry:1 duke:1 ellington:1 orchestra:1 middle:1 mile:2 davis:1 help:1 popularize:1 album:1 ahead:1 sketch:1 spain:1 arrange:1 gil:1 evans:1 late:1 project:1 prominent:1 freddie:1 hubbard:1 lee:2 morgan:1 art:1 farmer:1 hugh:1 masekela:1 tony:1 guerrero:1 jimmy:1 owen:1 chet:1 maynard:1 ferguson:1 terumasa:1 hino:1 shaw:1 wheeler:1 tom:1 harrell:1 bill:1 coleman:1 thad:1 jones:1 arturo:1 sandoval:1 loughnane:1 rock:1 chicago:1 harry:1 beckett:1 auxiliary:1 concentrate:1 alone:1 exponent:1 rick:1 braun:1 mic:1 gillette:1 jeff:1 oster:1 zach:1 condon:1 footnote:1 reference:1 dudgeon:1 franz:1 x:1 streitwieser:1 edition:3 bochinsky:1 isbn:1 new:2 grove:2 dictionary:2 second:2 edit:2 stanley:1 sadie:1 john:1 tyrrell:1 london:2 barry:1 kernfeld:1 external:1 link:1 enthusiast:1 guide:1 detail:1 individual:1 overview:1 brief:1 history:1 short:1 clip:1 |@bigram brass_instrument:2 conical_bore:1 adolphe_sax:2 trumpet_cornet:6 piston_valve:1 valve_rotary:1 rotary_valve:2 horn_mouthpiece:1 euphonium_tuba:1 igor_stravinsky:1 ralph_vaughan:1 vaughan_williams:1 ninth_symphony:1 burt_bacharach:1 duke_ellington:1 gil_evans:1 stanley_sadie:1 tyrrell_london:1 external_link:1 |
5,126 | Burma | Burma, officially the Union of Myanmar, is the largest country by geographical area in mainland Southeast Asia, or Indochina. The country is bordered by the People's Republic of China on the northeast, Laos on the east, Thailand on the southeast, Bangladesh on the west, India on the northwest, and the Bay of Bengal to the southwest with the Andaman Sea defining its southern periphery. One-third of Burma's total perimeter, 1,930 kilometres (1,199 mi), forms an uninterrupted coastline. The country's culture, heavily influenced by neighbours, is based on Theravada Buddhism intertwined with local elements. Burma's diverse population has played a major role in defining its politics, history and demographics in modern times, and the country continues to struggle to mend its ethnic tensions. The military has dominated government since General Ne Win led a coup in 1962 that toppled the civilian government of U Nu. The Burmese Way to Socialism drove the formerly prosperous country into deep poverty. Burma remains under the tight control of the military-led State Peace and Development Council. The name of the country The name 'Burma' is derived from the Burmese word "Bamar" (ဗမာ), which in turn is the colloquial form of Myanmar (မြန်မာ) (or Mranma in old Burmese), both of which historically referred to the majority Burmans (or the Bamar). Depending on the register used the pronunciation would be “Bama” or Myanmah . The name “Burma” has been in use in English since the time of British colonial rule. In 1989, the military government officially changed the English translations of many colonial era names, including the name of the country, to "Myanmar". This prompted one scholar to coin the term "Myanmarification" to refer to the top-down program of political and cultural reform in the context of which the renaming was done. While some of these name changes are closer to their actual Burmese pronunciations, many opposition groups and countries continue to oppose their use in English because they recognize neither the legitimacy of the ruling military government nor its authority to rename the country or towns in English. Various non-Burman ethnic groups choose to not recognize the name because the term Myanmar has historically been used as a label for the majority ethnic group rather than for the country. The Burma Road from the Union of Burma to Myanmar, Mya Maung, Asian Survey, Vol. 30, No. 6, June 1990, p 602 Various world entities have chosen to accept or reject the name change. The United Nations, of which Burma is a member, endorsed the name change five days after its announcement by the junta. However, governments of many countries including the United States, the United Kingdom, Australia, France, "> and Canada still refer to the country as "Burma", with varying levels of recognition of the validity of the name change itself. Others, including the Association of Southeast Asian Nations and the governments of Germany, Japan, China and Russia recognise "Myanmar" as the official name. Media usage is also mixed. In spite of the usage by the US government, some American news outlets including The New York Times, The Wall Street Journal, The International Herald Tribune and CNN, and international news agencies the Associated Press, Reuters and Agence France-Presse have adopted the name "Myanmar". The name "Burma" is still widely used by other news outlets, including Voice of America, The Washington Post, The BBC, ITN, The Times, The Times of India and Time. Other sources often use combined terms such as "Burma, also known as Myanmar." The name "Myanmar" is derived from the local short-form name Myanma Naingngandaw, , the name used by the regime currently in power in the country. While the etymology of the name is unclear, it has been used since the 13th Century Encyclopædia Britannica, CD 2000 Deluxe Edition. primarily as a reference to the Myanma ethnic group. Until the mid-19th century, rulers in the region identified themselves with the areas that they ruled. For example, the 18th Century king, Alaungpaya alternately referred to himself as the ruler of Tampradipa and Thunaparanta, Ramanadesa, and Kamboza (all alternate names of places in the Irrawaddy Valley) in correspondence with the East India Company. The Court of Ava was the first to use this name to refer to its kingdom in the mid-19th Century, when its power was declining, when the kingdom was confined to the Irrawaddy Valley which was predominantly Myanma in character, and at a time when the Myanma ethnic identity first began to develop a political identity. In older English documents the usage was Bermah, and later Burmah, possibly from the Portuguese Birmania which is thought to be a corruption of the Indian word for Burma, Bama. Burma is known as Birmanie in French, Birmania in both Italian and Spanish, and Birmânia in Portuguese. Confusion among English speakers on how to pronounce 'Myanmar' gives rise to pronunciations such as , , and . The BBC recommends or . Geography Burma, which has a total area of 678,500 square kilometres (261,970 sq mi), is the largest country in mainland Southeast Asia, and the 40th-largest in the world (Zambia being the 39th). It is bordered to the northwest by Chittagong Division of Bangladesh and Mizoram, Manipur, Nagaland and Arunachal Pradesh of India to the northwest. It shares its longest borders with Tibet to the north and Yunnan of China to the northeast for a total of 2,185 km (1,358 mi). It is bounded by Laos and Thailand to the southeast. Burma has 1,930 km (1,199 mi) of contiguous coastline along the Bay of Bengal and Andaman Sea to the southwest and the south, which forms one-third of its total perimeter. The Irrawaddy Delta, which is approximately in area, is largely used for rice cultivation. In the north, the Hengduan Shan mountains form the border with China. Hkakabo Razi, located in Kachin State, at an elevation of 5,881 m (19,295 ft), is the highest point in Burma. Three mountain ranges, namely the Rakhine Yoma, the Bago Yoma, and the Shan Plateau exist within Burma, all of which run north-to-south from the Himalayas. The mountain chains divide Burma's three river systems, which are the Ayeyarwady, Salween (Thanlwin), and the Sittaung rivers. The Ayeyarwady River, Burma's longest river, nearly 2,170 kilometres (1,348 mi) long, flows into the Gulf of Martaban. Fertile plains exist in the valleys between the mountain chains. The majority of Burma's population lives in the Ayeyarwady valley, which is situated between the Rakhine Yoma and the Shan Plateau. Limestone landscape of Mon State. Much of the country lies between the Tropic of Cancer and the Equator. It lies in the monsoon region of Asia, with its coastal regions receiving over of rain annually. Annual rainfall in the delta region is approximately , while average annual rainfall in the Dry Zone, which is located in central Burma, is less than . Northern regions of the country are the coolest, with average temperatures of 21 °C (70 °F). Coastal and delta regions have mean temperatures of 32 °C (90 °F). The country's slow economic growth has contributed to the preservation of much of its environment and ecosystems. Forests, including dense tropical growth and valuable teak in lower Burma, cover over 49% of the country. Other trees indigenous to the region include acacia, bamboo, ironwood, mangrove, michelia champaca coconut and betel palm, and rubber has been introduced. In the highlands of the north, oak, pine and various rhododendrons cover much of the land. The lands along the coast support all varieties of tropical fruits. In the Dry Zone, vegetation is sparse and stunted. Typical jungle animals, particularly tigers and leopards, are common in Burma. In upper Burma, there are rhinoceros, wild buffalo, wild boars, deer, antelope and elephants, which are also tamed or bred in captivity for use as work animals, particularly in the lumber industry. Smaller mammals are also numerous, ranging from gibbons and monkeys to flying foxes and tapirs. The abundance of birds is notable with over 800 species, including parrots, peafowl, pheasants, crows, herons and paddybirds. Among reptile species there are crocodiles, geckos, cobras, Burmese pythons and turtles. Hundreds of species of freshwater fish are wide-ranging, plentiful and are very important food sources. "Flora and Fauna" at Myanmars.net History Summary After the First Burmese War, the Ava kingdom ceded the provinces of Manipur, Tenassarim, and Arakan to the British. Rangoon and southern Burma were incorporated into British India in 1853. All of Burma came directly or indirectly under British India in 1886 after the Third Burmese War and the fall of Mandalay. Burma was administered as a province of British India until 1937 when it became a separate, self-governing colony. The country became independent from the United Kingdom on 4 January 1948, as the "Union of Burma". It became the "Socialist Republic of the Union of Burma" on 4 January 1974, before reverting to the "Union of Burma" on 23 September 1988. On 18 June 1989, the State Law and Order Restoration Council (SLORC) adopted the name "Union of Myanmar" for English transliteration. This controversial name change in English, while accepted in the UN and in many countries, is not recognised by opposition groups and by nations such as the United Kingdom and the United States. Early history Archeological evidence suggests that civilization in the region which now forms Burma is quite old. The oldest archeological find was of cave paintings and a Holocene assemblage in a hunther-gatherer cave site in Padah Lin in Shan State. The Mon people are thought to be the earliest group to migrate into the lower Ayeyarwady valley, and by the mid-900s BC were dominant in southern Burma. The Mons became one of the first in South East Asia to embrace Theravada Buddhism. The Tibeto-Burman speaking Pyu arrived later in the 1st century BC, and established several city states – of which Sri Ksetra was the most powerful – in central Ayeyarwady valley. The Mon and Pyu kingdoms were an active overland trade route between India and China. The Pyu kingdoms entered a period of rapid decline in early 9th century AD when the powerful kingdom of Nanzhao (in present-day Yunnan) invaded Ayeyarwady valley several times. In 835, Nanzhao decimated the Pyu by carrying off many captives to be used as conscripts. Bagan (1044-1287) Tibeto-Burman speaking Burmans, or the Bamar, began migrating to the Ayeyarwady valley from present-day Yunnan's Nanzhao kingdom starting in 7th century AD. Filling the power gap left by the Pyu, the Burmans established a small kingdom centred in Bagan in 849. But it was not until the reign of King Anawrahta (1044-1077) that Bagan's influence expanded throughout much of present-day Burma. After Anawrahta's capture of the Mon capital of Thaton in 1057, the Burmans adopted Theravada Buddhism from the Mons. The Burmese script was created, based on the Mon script, during the reign of King Kyanzittha (1084-1112). Prosperous from trade, Bagan kings built many magnificent temples and pagodas throughout the country – many of which can still be seen today. Bagan's power slowly waned in 13th century. Kublai Khan's Mongol forces invaded northern Burma starting in 1277, and sacked Bagan city itself in 1287. Bagan's over two century reign of Ayeyarwady valley and its periphery was over. Pagodas and temples continue to exist in present-day Bagan, the capital of the Bagan Kingdom. Small kingdoms (1287-1531) The Mongols could not stay for long in the searing Ayeyarwady valley. But the Tai-Shan people from Yunnan who came down with the Mongols fanned out to the Ayeyarwady valley, Shan states, Laos, Siam and Assam, and became powerful players in Southeast Asia. The Bagan empire was irreparably broken up into several small kingdoms: The Burman kingdom of Ava or Innwa (1364-1555), the successor state to three smaller kingdoms founded by Burmanized Shan kings, controlling Upper Burma (without the Shan states) The Mon kingdom of Hanthawady Pegu or Bago (1287-1540), founded by a Mon-ized Shan King Wareru (1287-1306), controlling Lower Burma (without Taninthayi). The Rakhine kingdom of Mrauk U (1434-1784), in the west. Several Shan states in the Shan hills in the east and the Kachin hills in the north while the northwestern frontier of present Chin hills still disconnected yet. This period was characterized by constant warfare between Ava and Bago, and to a lesser extent, Ava and the Shans. Ava briefly controlled Rakhine (1379-1430) and came close to defeating Bago a few times, but could never quite reassemble the lost empire. Nevertheless, Burmese culture entered a golden age. Hanthawady Bago prospered. Bago's Queen Shin Saw Bu (1453-1472) raised the gilded Shwedagon Pagoda to its present height. By the late 15th century, constant warfare had left Ava greatly weakened. Its peripheral areas became either independent or autonomous. In 1486, King Minkyinyo (1486-1531) of Taungoo broke away from Ava and established a small independent kingdom. In 1527, Mohnyin (Shan: Mong Yang) Shans finally captured Ava, upsetting the delicate power balance that had existed for nearly two centuries. The Shans would rule Upper Burma until 1555. Taungoo (1531-1752) Reinforced by fleeing Burmans from Ava, the minor Burman kingdom of Taungoo under its young, ambitious king Tabinshwehti (1531-1551) defeated the more powerful Mon kingdom at Bago, reunifying all of Lower Burma by 1540. Tabinshwehti's successor King Bayinnaung (1551-1581) would go on to conquer Upper Burma (1555), Manipur (1556), Shan states (1557), Chiang Mai (1557), Ayutthaya (1564, 1569) and Lan Xang (1574), bringing most of western South East Asia under his rule. Bayinnaung died in 1581, preparing to invade Rakhine, a maritime power controlling the entire coastline west of Rakhine Yoma, up to Chittagong province in Bengal. Bayinnaung's massive empire unraveled soon after his death in 1581. Ayutthaya Siamese had driven out the Burmese by 1593 and went on to take Tanintharyi. In 1599, Rakhine forces aided by the Portuguese mercenaries sacked the kingdom's capital Bago. Chief Portuguese mercenary Filipe de Brito e Nicote (Burmese: Nga Zinga) promptly rebelled against his Rakhine masters and established Portuguese rule in Thanlyin (Syriam), then the most important seaport in Burma. The country was in chaos. The Burmese under King Anaukpetlun (1605-1628) regrouped and defeated the Portuguese in 1611. Anaukpetlun reestablished a smaller reconstituted kingdom based in Ava covering Upper Burma, Lower Burma and Shan states (but without Rakhine or Taninthayi). After the reign of King Thalun (1629-1648), who rebuilt the war-torn country, the kingdom experienced a slow and steady decline for the next 100 years. The Mons successfully rebelled starting in 1740 with French help and Siamese encouragement, broke away Lower Burma by 1747, and finally put an end to the House of Taungoo in 1752 when they took Ava. Konbaung (1752-1885) A British 1825 lithograph of Shwedagon Pagoda reveals early British occupation in Burma during the First Anglo-Burmese War. King Alaungpaya (1752-1760), established the Konbaung Dynasty in Shwebo in 1752. He founded Yangon in 1755. By his death in 1760, Alaungpaya had reunified the country. In 1767, King Hsinbyushin (1763-1777) sacked Ayutthya. The Qing Dynasty of China invaded four times from 1765 to 1769 without success. The Chinese invasions allowed the new Siamese kingdom based in Bangkok to repel the Burmese out of Siam by the late 1770s. King Bodawpaya (1782-1819) failed repeatedly to reconquer Siam in 1780s and 1790s. Bodawpaya did manage to capture the western kingdom of Rakhine, which had been largely independent since the fall of Bagan, in 1784. Bodawpaya also formally annexed Manipur, a rebellion-prone protectorate, in 1813. King Bagyidaw's (1819-1837) general Maha Bandula put down a rebellion in Manipur in 1819 and captured then independent kingdom of Assam in 1819 (again in 1821). The new conquests brought the Burmese adjacent to the British India. The British defeated the Burmese in the First Anglo-Burmese War (1824-1826). Burma had to cede Assam, Manipur, Rakhine (Arakan) and Tanintharyi (Tenessarim). In 1852, the British attacked a much weakened Burma during a Burmese palace power struggle. After the Second Anglo-Burmese War, which lasted 3 months, the British had captured the remaining coastal provinces: Ayeyarwady, Yangon and Bago, naming the territories as Lower Burma. King Mindon (1853-1878) founded Mandalay in 1859 and made it his capital. He skillfully navigated the growing threats posed by the competing interests of Britain and France. In the process, Mindon had to renounce Kayah (Karenni) states in 1875. His successor, King Thibaw (1878-1885), was largely ineffectual. In 1885, the British, alarmed by the French conquest of neighboring Laos, occupied Upper Burma. The Third Anglo-Burmese War (1885) lasted a mere one month insofar as capturing the capital Mandalay was concerned. The Burmese royal family was exiled to Ratnagiri, India. British forces spent at least another four years pacifying the country – not only in the Burman heartland but also in the Shan, Chin and Kachin hill areas. By some accounts, minor insurrections did not end until 1896. Colonial era (1886-1948) The United Kingdom began conquering Burma in 1824. For a period of sixty-two years, Burma was under British control. By 1886, Britain had incorporated it into the British Raj. Burma was administered as a province of British India until 1937 when it became a separate, self-governing colony. To stimulate trade and facilitate changes, the British brought in Indians and Chinese, who quickly displaced the Burmese in urban areas. To this day Rangoon and Mandalay have large ethnic Indian populations. Railroads and schools were built, as well as a large number of prisons, including the infamous Insein Prison, then as now used for political prisoners. Burmese resentment was strong and was vented in violent riots that paralyzed Yangon on occasion all the way until the 1930s. Much of the discontent was caused by a perceived disrespect for Burmese culture and traditions, for example, what the British termed the Shoe Question: the colonizers' refusal to remove their shoes upon entering Buddhist temples or other holy places. In October 1919, Eindawya Pagoda in Mandalay was the scene of violence when tempers flared after scandalized Buddhist monks attempted to physically expel a group of shoe-wearing British visitors. The leader of the monks was later sentenced to life imprisonment for attempted murder. Such incidents inspired the Burmese resistance to use Buddhism as a rallying point for their cause. Buddhist monks became the vanguards of the independence movement, and many died while protesting. One monk-turned-martyr was U Wisara, who died in prison after a 166-day hunger strike to protest a rule that forbade him from wearing his Buddhist robes while imprisoned. Eric Blair (George Orwell), served in the Indian Imperial Police in Burma for five years; his experience yielded the novel Burmese Days (1934) and the essays "A Hanging" (1931) and "Shooting an Elephant" (1936). An earlier writer with the same convoluted career path was Saki. During the colonial period, intermarriage between European male settlers and Burmese women, as well as between Anglo-Indians (who arrived with the British) and Burmese caused the birth of the Anglo-Burmese community. This influential community was to dominate the country during colonial rule and through the mid 1960's. On 1 April 1937, Burma became a separately administered territory, independent of the Indian administration. The vote for keeping Burma in India, or as a separate colony "khwe-yay-twe-yay" divided the populace, and laid the ground work for the insurgencies to come after independence. In the 1940s, the Thirty Comrades, commanded by Aung San, founded the Burma Independence Army. The Thirty Comrades received training in Japan. During World War II, Burma became a major frontline in the Southeast Asian Theatre. The British administration collapsed ahead of the advancing Japanese troops, jails and asylums were opened and Rangoon was deserted except for the many Anglo-Burmese and Indians who remained at their posts. A stream of some 300,000 refugees fled across the jungles into India; known as 'The Trek', all but 30,000 of those 300,000 arrived in India. Initially the Japanese-led Burma Campaign succeeded and the British were expelled from most of Burma, but the British counter-attacked using primarily troops of the British Indian Army. By July 1945, the British had retaken the country. Although many Burmese fought initially for the Japanese, some Burmese, mostly from the ethnic minorities, also served in the British Burma Army. In 1943, the Chin Levies and Kachin Levies were formed in the border districts of Burma still under British administration. The Burma Rifles fought as part of the Chindits under General Orde Wingate from 1943-1945. Later in the war, the Americans created American-Kachin Rangers who also fought against the Japanese. Many others fought with the British Special Operations Executive. The Burma Independence Army under the command of Aung San and the Arakan National Army fought with the Japanese from 1942-1944, but switched allegiance to the Allied side in 1945. In 1947, Aung San became Deputy Chairman of the Executive Council of Burma, a transitional government. But in July 1947, political rivals assassinated Aung San and several cabinet members. Democratic republic (1948-1962) On 4 January 1948, the nation became an independent republic, named the Union of Burma, with Sao Shwe Thaik as its first President and U Nu as its first Prime Minister. Unlike most other former British colonies and overseas territories, it did not become a member of the Commonwealth. A bicameral parliament was formed, consisting of a Chamber of Deputies and a Chamber of Nationalities. The geographical area Burma encompasses today can be traced to the Panglong Agreement, which combined Burma Proper, which consisted of Lower Burma and Upper Burma, and the Frontier Areas, which had been administered separately by the British. In 1961, U Thant, then the Union of Burma's Permanent Representative to the United Nations and former Secretary to the Prime Minister, was elected Secretary-General of the United Nations; he was the first non-Westerner to head any international organization and would serve as UN Secretary-General for ten years. Among the Burmese to work at the UN when he was Secretary-General was a young Aung San Suu Kyi, winner of the 1991 Nobel peace prize. Rule by military junta (1962-present) Democratic rule ended in 1962 when General Ne Win led a military coup d'état. He ruled for nearly 26 years and pursued policies under the rubric of the Burmese Way to Socialism. Between 1962 and 1974, Burma was ruled by a revolutionary council headed by the general, and almost all aspects of society (business, media, production) were nationalized or brought under government control (including the Boy Scouts). In an effort to consolidate power, General Ne Win and many top generals resigned from the military and took civilian posts and, from 1974, instituted elections in a one party system. Between 1974 and 1988, Burma was effectively ruled by General Ne Win through the Burma Socialist Programme Party (BSPP), which from 1964 until 1988 was the sole political party. During this period, Burma became one of the world's most impoverished countries. The Burmese Way to Socialism combined Soviet-style nationalization and central planning with the governmental implementation of superstitious beliefs. Criticism was scathing, such as an article published in a February 1974 issue of Newsweek magazine describing the Burmese Way to Socialism as 'an amalgam of Buddhist and Marxist illogic'. Almost from the beginning there were sporadic protests against the military rule, many of which were organized by students, and these were almost always violently suppressed by the government. On July 7, 1962 the government broke up demonstrations at Rangoon University killing 15 students. In 1974, the military violently suppressed anti-government protests at the funeral of U Thant. Student protests in 1975, 1976 and 1977 were quickly suppressed by overwhelming force. A new constitution of the Socialist Republic of the Union of Burma was adopted in 1974. In 1988, unrest over economic mismanagement and political oppression by the government led to widespread pro-democracy demonstrations throughout the country known as the 8888 Uprising. Security forces killed thousands of demonstrators, and General Saw Maung staged a coup d'état and formed the State Law and Order Restoration Council (SLORC). In 1989, SLORC declared martial law after widespread protests. The military government finalized plans for People's Assembly elections on 31 May 1989. SLORC changed the country's official English name from the "Socialist Republic of the Union of Burma" to the "Union of Myanmar" in 1989. In May 1990, the government held free elections for the first time in almost 30 years. The National League for Democracy (NLD), the party of Aung San Suu Kyi, won 392 out of a total 489 seats, but the election results were annulled by SLORC, which refused to step down. Led by Than Shwe since 1992, the military regime has made cease-fire agreements with most ethnic guerrilla groups. In 1992, SLORC unveiled plans to create a new constitution through the National Convention, which began 9 January 1993. In 1997, the State Law and Order Restoration Council was renamed the State Peace and Development Council (SPDC). On 23 June 1997, Burma was admitted into the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). The National Convention continues to convene and adjourn. Many major political parties, particularly the NLD, have been absent or excluded, and little progress has been made. On 27 March 2006, the military junta, which had moved the national capital from Yangon to a site near Pyinmana in November 2005, officially named the new capital Naypyidaw, meaning "city of the kings". The CIA World Factbook, however, still considers the capital to be Rangoon. In November 2006, the International Labour Organization (ILO) announced it will be seeking - at the International Court of Justice. - "to prosecute members of the ruling Myanmar junta for crimes against humanity" over the continuous forced labour of its citizens by the military. According to the ILO, an estimated 800,000 people are subject to forced labour in Myanmar. ILO cracks the whip at Yangon. The 2007 Burmese anti-government protests were a series of anti-government protests that started in Burma on August 15, 2007. The immediate cause of the protests was mainly the unannounced decision of the ruling junta, the State Peace and Development Council, to remove fuel subsidies which caused the price of diesel and petrol to suddenly rise as much as 100%, and the price of compressed natural gas for buses to increase fivefold in less than a week. Burma leaders double fuel prices. The protest demonstrations were at first dealt with quickly and harshly by the junta, with dozens of protesters arrested and detained. Starting September 18, the protests had been led by thousands of Buddhist monks, and those protests had been allowed to proceed until a renewed government crackdown on September 26. UN envoy warns of Myanmar crisis. During the crack-down, there were rumors of disagreement within the Burmese military, but none were confirmed. Some news reports referred to the protests as the Saffron Revolution. Protesters in Yangon with a banner that reads non-violence: national movement in Burmese, in the background is Shwedagon Pagoda During 2007 anti-government protests a significant role was played by Mrs. Daw Aung San Suu Kyi, the leader of the opposition to the Burmese military government. Mrs. Daw Aung San Suu Kyi had been under strict house arrest since 1989. In September 2007 hundreds of monks paid respects to her at the gate of her home, which was the first time in four years that people were able to see her in public. She was then given a second public appearance on Sept. 29, when she was allowed to leave house arrest briefly and meet with a UN envoy trying to persuade the junta to ease its crackdown against a pro-democracy uprising, to which the Myanmar government reluctantly agreed. On 7 February 2008, SPDC announced that a referendum for the Constitution would be held, and Elections by 2010. The Burmese constitutional referendum, 2008 was held on May 10 and promised a "discipline-flourishing democracy" for the country in the future. World governments remain divided on how to deal with the military junta. Calls for further sanctions by Canada, United Kingdom, United States, and France are opposed by neighboring countries; in particular, China has stated its belief that "sanctions or pressure will not help to solve the issue". There is some disagreement over whether sanctions are the most effective approach to dealing with the junta, such as from a Cato Institute study and from prominent Burmese such as Thant Myint-U (a former UN official), who have opined that sanctions may have caused more harm than good to the Burmese people. On May 3, 2008, Cyclone Nargis devastated the country when winds of up to 215 km/h (135 mph) U.S. envoy: Myanmar deaths may top 100,000 - CNN.com. touched land in the densely populated, rice-farming delta of the Irrawaddy Division. Aid arrives in Myanmar as death toll passes 22,000, but worst-hit area still cut off - International Herald Tribune. Reports estimated that more than 200,000 people are dead or missing from Cyclone Nargis that hit the country's Irrawaddy delta. Damage totaled to 10 billion dollars (USD); it was the worst natural disaster in Burmese history. Adds the World Food Programme, "Some villages have been almost totally eradicated and vast rice-growing areas are wiped out." The Associated Press: AP Top News at 4:25 p.m. EDT. The United Nations projects that as many as 1 million were left homeless; and the World Health Organization "has received reports of malaria outbreaks in the worst-affected area." The Associated Press: Official: UN plane lands in Myanmar with aid after cyclone. Yet in the critical days following this disaster, Burma's isolationist regime complicated recovery efforts by delaying the entry of United Nations planes delivering medicine, food, and other supplies into the Southeast Asian nation. The government's failure to permit entry for large-scale international relief efforts was described by the United Nations as "unprecedented." On May 4, 2009, an American, John Yettaw, allegedly swam across the lake uninvited to Aung San Suu Kyi's house and remained there overnight, resulting in the arrest of Yettaw and Suu Kyi, who are currently being held in Insein prison near Yangon. As a result, Suu Kyi is being charged with violating the terms of her house arrest, and faces a sentence of up to 5 years. Suu Kyi's current house arrest term was due to end on May 27, 2009. List of historical capitals Bagan Amarapura Ava Bagan Bago Mandalay Mrauk U Naypyidaw Rangoon (Yangon) Sagaing Shwebo Thaton Government and politics Burma is governed by a strict military dictatorship. The current head of state is Senior General Than Shwe, who holds the posts of "Chairman of the State Peace and Development Council" and "Commander in Chief of the Defense Services" as well as the Minister of Defence. General Khin Nyunt was prime minister until 19 October 2004, when he was replaced by General Soe Win, after the purge of Military Intelligence sections within the Burma armed forces. The current Prime Minister is General Thein Sein, who took over upon the death of General Soe Win on October 2, 2007. The majority of ministry and cabinet posts are held by military officers, with the exceptions being the Ministry of Health, the Ministry of Education, the Ministry of Labour, and the Ministry of National Planning and Economic Development, posts which are held by civilians. Elected delegates in the 1990 People's Assembly election formed the National Coalition Government of the Union of Burma (NCGUB), a government-in-exile since December 1990, with the mission of restoring democracy. Dr. Sein Win, a first cousin of Aung San Suu Kyi, has held the position of prime minister of the NCGUB since its inception. The NCGUB has been outlawed by the military government. Major political parties in the country are the National League for Democracy and the Shan Nationalities League for Democracy, although their activities are heavily regulated and suppressed by the military government. Many other parties, often representing ethnic minorities, exist. The military government allows little room for political organizations and has outlawed many political parties and underground student organizations. The military supported the National Unity Party in the 1990 elections and, more recently, an organization named the Union Solidarity and Development Association. Government propaganda poster states: "Tatmadaw and the people, cooperate and crush all those harming the union." In 1988, the army violently repressed protests against economic mismanagement and political oppression. On 8 August 1988, the military opened fire on demonstrators in what is known as 8888 Uprising and imposed martial law. However, the 1988 protests paved way for the 1990 People's Assembly elections. The election results were subsequently annulled by Senior General Saw Maung's government. The National League for Democracy, led by Aung San Suu Kyi, won over 60% of the vote and over 80% of parliamentary seats in the 1990 election, the first held in 30 years. The military-backed National Unity Party won less than 2% of the seats. Aung San Suu Kyi has earned international recognition as an activist for the return of democratic rule, winning the Nobel Peace Prize in 1991. The ruling regime has repeatedly placed her under house arrest. Despite a direct appeal by former UN Secretary General Kofi Annan to Senior General Than Shwe and pressure by the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), the military junta extended Aung San Suu Kyi's house arrest another year on 27 May 2006 under the 1975 State Protection Act, which grants the government the right to detain any persons on the grounds of protecting peace and stability in the country. The junta faces increasing pressure from the United States and the United Kingdom. Burma's situation was referred to the UN Security Council for the first time in December 2005 for an informal consultation. In September 2006, ten of the United Nations Security Council's 15 members voted to place Myanmar on the council's formal agenda. On Independence Day, 4 January 2007, the government released 40 political prisoners, under a general amnesty, in which 2,831 prisoners were released. On 8 January 2007, UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon urged the national government to free all political prisoners, including Aung San Suu Kyi. Three days later, on 11 January, five additional prisoners were released from prison. ASEAN has also stated its frustration with the Union of Myanmar's government. It has formed the ASEAN Inter-Parliamentary Myanmar Caucus to address the lack of democratisation in the country. Dramatic change in the country's political situation remains unlikely, due to support from major regional powers such as India, Russia, and, in particular, China. In the annual ASEAN Summit in January 2007, held in Cebu, Philippines, member countries failed to find common ground on the issue of Burma's lack of political reform. During the summit, ASEAN foreign ministers asked Burma to make greater progress on its roadmap toward democracy and national reconciliation. Some member countries contend that Burma's human rights issues are the country's own domestic affairs, while others contend that its poor human rights record is an international issue. Burma's army-drafted constitution was overwhelmingly approved (by 92.4% of the 22 million voters with alleged voter turnout of 99%) on May 10 in the first phase of a two-stage referendum amid Cyclone Nargis. It was the first national vote since the 1990 election. Multi-party elections in 2010 would end 5 decades of military rule, as the new charter gives the military an automatic 25% of seats in parliament. NLD spokesman Nyan Win, inter alia, criticized the referendum: "This referendum was full of cheating and fraud across the country; In some villages, authorities and polling station officials ticked the ballots themselves and did not let the voters do anything." Reuters, Cyclone-hit Myanmar says 92 percent back charter The constitution would bar Aung San Suu Kyi, from public office. 5 million citizens will vote May 24 in Yangon and the Irrawaddy delta, worst hit by Cyclone Nargis. www.gmanews.tv, Myanmar OKs charter amid cyclone disaster Burma is one of the countries with the highest level of corruption worldwide. Issues Human rights in Burma are a long-standing concern for the international community and human rights organizations. There is general consensus that the military regime in Burma is one of the world's most repressive and abusive regimes. Several human rights organizations, including Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International, and the American Association for the Advancement of Science have reported on human rights abuses by the military government. They have claimed that there is no independent judiciary in Burma. The military government restricts Internet access through software-based censorship that limits the material citizens can access on-line. Forced labour, human trafficking, and child labour are common. The military is also notorious for rampant use of sexual violence as an instrument of control, including systematic rapes and taking of sex slaves as porters for the military. A strong women's pro-democracy movement has formed in exile, largely along the Thai border and in Chiang Mai. There is a growing international movement to defend women's human rights issues. The Freedom in the World 2004 report by Freedom House notes that "The junta rules by decree, controls the judiciary, suppresses all basic rights, and commits human rights abuses with impunity. Military officers hold all cabinet positions, and active or retired officers hold all top posts in all ministries. Official corruption is reportedly rampant both at the higher and local levels." Brad Adams, director of Human Rights Watch's Asia division, in a 2004 address described the human rights situation in the country as appalling: "Burma is the textbook example of a police state. Government informants and spies are omnipresent. Average Burmese people are afraid to speak to foreigners except in most superficial of manners for fear of being hauled in later for questioning or worse. There is no freedom of speech, assembly or association." http://hrw.org/english/docs/2004/09/01/burma9290.htm Evidence has been gathered suggesting that the Burmese regime has marked certain ethnic minorities such as the Karen for extermination or 'Burmisation'. Burma's 'slow genocide' is revealed through the eyes of its child victims – Anton La Guardia, Telegraph, 24 June 2005 This, however, has received little attention from the international community since it has been more subtle and indirect than the mass killings in places like Rwanda. New evidence backs claims of genocide in Burma – Mike Thomson, Telegraph, 4 March 2006 In April 2007, the U.S. Government Accountability Office (GAO) identified financial and other restrictions that the military government places on international humanitarian assistance. The GAO report, entitled "Assistance Programs Constrained in Burma", outlined the specific efforts of the government to hinder the humanitarian work of international organizations, including restrictions on the free movement of international staff within the country. The report notes that the regime has tightened its control over assistance work since former Prime Minister Khin Nyunt was purged in October 2004. The military junta passed guidelines in February 2006, which formalized these restrictive policies. According to the report, the guidelines require that programs run by humanitarian groups "enhance and safeguard the national interest" and that international organizations coordinate with state agents and select their Burmese staff from government-prepared lists of individuals. United Nations officials have declared these restrictions unacceptable. Burma's government spends the least percentage of its GDP on health care of any country in the world, and international donor organizations give less to Burma, per capita, than any other country except India. http://www.msf.org/source/countries/asia/myanmar/2008/PreventableFate/PreventableFatereport.pdf According to the report named "Preventable Fate", published by Doctors without Borders (also known as MSF), 25,000 Burmese AIDS patients died in 2007, deaths that could largely have been prevented by Anti Retroviral Therapy drugs and proper treatment. . Divisions and states The 14 states and divisions of Burma. The country is divided into seven states (pyine) and seven divisions (yin). Divisions () are predominantly Bamar. States (), in essence, are divisions which are home to particular ethnic minorities. The administrative divisions are further subdivided into districts, which are further subdivided into townships, wards, and villages. States Chin State Kachin State Kayin (Karen) State Kayah (Karenni) State Mon State Rakhine (Arakan) State Shan State Administrative divisions Number of Districts, Townships, Cities/Towns, Wards, Village Groups and Villages in Burma as of December 31, 2001: List of Districts, Townships, Cities/Towns, Wards, Village Groups and Villages in Union of Myanmar published by Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of Union of Myanmar on December 31, 2001 No. State/Division District Township City/Town Wards Village groups Villages 1 Kachin State 3 18 20 116 606 2630 2 Kayah State 2 7 7 29 79 624 3 Kayin State 3 7 10 46 376 2092 4 Chin State 2 9 9 29 475 1355 5 Sagaing Division 8 37 37 171 1769 6095 6 Taninthayi Division 3 10 10 63 265 1255 7 Bago Division 4 28 33 246 1424 6498 8 Magway Division 5 25 26 160 1543 4774 9 Mandalay Division 7 31 29 259 1611 5472 10 Mon State 2 10 11 69 381 1199 11 Rakhine State 4 17 17 120 1041 3871 12 Yangon Division 4 45 20 685 634 2119 13 Shan State 11 54 54 336 1626 15513 14 Ayeyawady Division6 26 29 219 1912 11651 Total 63 324 312 2548 13742 65148 Foreign relations and military The country's foreign relations, particularly with Western nations, have been strained. The United States has placed a ban on new investments by U.S. firms, an import ban, and an arms embargo on the Union of Myanmar, as well as frozen military assets in the United States because of the military regime's ongoing human rights abuses, the ongoing detention of Nobel Peace Prize recipient Aung San Suu Kyi, and refusal to honor the election results of the 1990 People's Assembly election. Similarly, the European Union has placed sanctions on Burma, including an arms embargo, cessation of trade preferences, and suspension of all aid with the exception of humanitarian aid. U.S. and European government sanctions against the military government, coupled with boycotts and other direct pressure on corporations by western supporters of the democracy movement, have resulted in the withdrawal from the country of most U.S. and many European companies. However, several Western companies remain due to loopholes in the sanctions. Despite Western isolation, Asian corporations have generally remained willing to continue investing in the country and to initiate new investments, particularly in natural resource extraction. The country has close relations with neighboring India and China with several Indian and Chinese companies operating in the country. There remains active debate as to the extent to which the American-led sanctions have had adverse effects on the civilian population or on the military rulers. Burma has also received extensive military aid from India and China in the past. Caution by Junta's Asian Neighbors Reflects Their Self-Interest - washingtonpost.com According to some estimates, Burma has received more than US$200 million in military aid from India. India's Role in Burma's Crisis Under India's Look East policy, fields of cooperation between India and Burma include remote sensing, NewsLibrary.com - newspaper archive, clipping service - newspapers and other news sources oil and gas exploration, India looks to Burma to slake growing thirst for gas | csmonitor.com information technology, Myanmar, India to build IT centres in Myanmar_English_Xinhua hydro power SteelGuru - News and construction of ports and buildings. BBC News In 2008, India suspended military aid to Burma over the issue of human rights abuses by the ruling junta, although it has preserved extensive commercial ties which provide the regime with much needed revenue. India and Burma: time to choose (Human Rights Watch, 14-1-2008) The country's armed forces are known as the Tatmadaw, which numbers 488,000. The Tatmadaw comprises the Army, the Navy, and the Air Force. The country ranked twelfth in the world for its number of active troops in service. The military is very influential in the country, with top cabinet and ministry posts held by military officers. Official figures for military spending are not available. Estimates vary widely because of uncertain exchange rates, but military spending is very high. The country imports most of its weapons from Russia, Ukraine, China and India. The country is building a research nuclear reactor near May Myo (Pyin Oo Lwin) with help from Russia. It is one of the signatories of the nuclear non-proliferation pact since 1992 and a member of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) since 1957. The military junta had informed the IAEA in September 2000 of its intention to construct the reactor. The research reactor outbuilding frame was built by ELE steel industries limited of Yangon and water from Anisakhan/BE water fall will be used for the reactor cavity cooling system. ASEAN will not defend the country in any international forum following the military regime's refusal to restore democracy. In April 2007, the Malaysian Foreign Ministry parliamentary secretary Ahmad Shabery Cheek said Malaysia and other ASEAN members had decided not to defend Burma if the country's issue was raised for discussion at any international conference. "Now Myanmar has to defend itself if it is bombarded in any international forum," he said when winding up a debate at committee stage for the Foreign Ministry. He was replying to queries from opposition leader Lim Kit Siang on the next course of action to be taken by Malaysia and ASEAN with the military junta. Lim had said Malaysia must play a proactive role in pursuing regional initiatives to bring about a change in Burma and support efforts to bring the situation in Burma to the UN Security Council's attention. In November 2008, Burma's political situation with neighboring Bangladesh became tense as they began searching for natural gas in a disputed block of the Bay of Bengal. Guardian News. "." Until 2005, the United Nations General Assembly annually adopted a detailed resolution about the situation in Burma by consensus. But in 2006 a divided United Nations General Assembly voted through a resolution that strongly called upon the government of Burma to end its systematic violations of human rights. In January 2007, Russia and China vetoed a draft resolution before the United Nations Security Council calling on the government of Myanmar to respect human rights and begin a democratic transition. South Africa also voted against the resolution. The country is a corner of the Golden Triangle of opium production. In 1996 the United States Embassy in Rangoon released a "Country Commercial Guide", which states "Exports of opiates alone appear to be worth about as much as all legal exports." It goes on to say that investments in infrastructure and hotels are coming from major opiate-growing and opiate-exporting organizations and from those with close ties to these organizations. A four-year investigation concluded that Burma's national company Myanma Oil and Gas Enterprise (MOGE) was "the main channel for laundering the revenues of heroin produced and exported under the control of the Burmese army." The main player in the country's drug market is the United Wa State Army, ethnic fighters who control areas along the country's eastern border with Thailand, part of the infamous Golden Triangle. The Wa army, an ally of Burma's ruling military junta, was once the militant arm of the Beijing-backed Burmese Communist Party. Burma has been a significant cog in the transnational drug trade since World War II. The number of hectares used to grow the crops increased 29% in 2007. A United Nations report cites corruption, poverty and a lack of government control as causes for the jump. Economy The Sakura Tower in Yangon is virtually vacant due to a lack of major foreign investment. The country is one of the poorest nations in southeastern Asia, suffering from decades of stagnation, mismanagement and isolation. Burma's GDP grows at an average rate of 2.9% annually – the lowest rate of economic growth in the Greater Mekong Subregion. Under British administration and until the early 1960s, Burma was the wealthiest country in Southeast Asia. It was once the world's largest exporter of rice. During British administration, Burma supplied oil through the Burmah Oil Company. Burma also had a wealth of natural and labor resources. It produced 75% of the world's teak and had a highly literate population. The country was believed to be on the fast track to development. After a parliamentary government was formed in 1948, Prime Minister U Nu disastrously attempted to make Burma a welfare state and adopted central planning. Rice exports fell by two thirds and mineral exports by over 96%. Plans were partly financed by printing money, which led to inflation. The 1962 coup d'état was followed by an economic scheme called the Burmese Way to Socialism, a plan to nationalize all industries, with the exception of agriculture. The catastrophic program turned Burma into one of the world's most impoverished countries. Burma's admittance to Least Developed Country status by the UN in 1987 highlighted its economic bankruptcy. After 1988, the regime retreated from totalitarian socialism. It permitted modest expansion of the private sector, allowed some foreign investment, and received needed foreign exchange. The economy is still rated as the least free in Asia (tied with North Korea). All fundamental market institutions are suppressed. Private enterprises are often co-owned or indirectly owned by state. The corruption watchdog organization Transparency International in its 2007 Corruption Perceptions Index released on September 26, 2007 ranked Burma the most corrupt country in the world, tied with Somalia. 2007 CPI http://www.transparency.org/policy_research/surveys_indices/cpi/2007 The national currency is Kyat. Burma has a dual exchange rate system similar to Cuba. The market rate was around two hundred times below the government-set rate in 2006. Inflation averaged 30.1% between 2005 and 2007. Inflation is a serious problem for the economy. In April 2007, the National League for Democracy organized a two-day workshop on the economy. The workshop concluded that skyrocketing inflation was impeding economic growth. "Basic commodity prices have increased from 30 to 60 percent since the military regime promoted a salary increase for government workers in April 2006," said Soe Win, the moderator of the workshop. "Inflation is also correlated with corruption." Myint Thein, an NLD spokesperson, added: "Inflation is the critical source of the current economic crisis." In recent years, both China and India have attempted to strengthen ties with the government for economic benefit. Many nations, including the United States and Canada, and the European Union, have imposed investment and trade sanctions on Burma. The United States has banned all imports from Burma. Foreign investment comes primarily from People's Republic of China, Singapore, South Korea, India, and Thailand. Locals in Amarapura, Mandalay Division The major agricultural product is rice which covers about 60% of the country's total cultivated land area. Rice accounts for 97% of total food grain production by weight. Through collaboration with the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), 52 modern rice varieties were released in the country between 1966 and 1997, helping increase national rice production to 14 million tons in 1987 and to 19 million tons in 1996. By 1988, modern varieties were planted on half of the country's ricelands, including 98 percent of the irrigated areas. , Facts About Cooperation, International Rice Research Institute. Retrieved on 2007-09-25. The lack of an educated workforce skilled in modern technology contributes to the growing problems of the economy. Today, the country lacks adequate infrastructure. Goods travel primarily across the Thai border, where most illegal drugs are exported and along the Ayeyarwady River. Railroads are old and rudimentary, with few repairs since their construction in the late nineteenth century. Highways are normally unpaved, except in the major cities. Energy shortages are common throughout the country including in Yangon. Burma is also the world's second largest producer of opium, accounting for 8% of entire world production and is a major source of illegal drugs, including amphetamines. Other industries include agricultural goods, textiles, wood products, construction materials, gems, metals, oil and natural gas. The Union of Myanmar's rulers depend on sales of precious stones such as sapphires, pearls and jade to fund their regime. Rubies are the biggest earner; 90% of the world's rubies come from the country, whose red stones are prized for their purity and hue. Thailand buys the majority of the country's gems. Burma's "Valley of Rubies", the mountainous Mogok area, 200 km (125 miles) north of Mandalay, is noted for its rare pigeon's blood rubies and blue sapphires. Gems of Burma and their Environmental Impact. Many U.S. and European jewelry companies, including Bulgari, Tiffany, and Cartier, refuse to import these stones based on reports of deplorable working conditions in the mines. Human Rights Watch has encouraged a complete ban on the purchase of Burmese gems based on these reports and because nearly all profits go to the ruling junta, as the majority of mining activity in the country is government-run. Since 1992, the government has encouraged tourism in the country. However, fewer than 750,000 tourists enter the country annually. Aung San Suu Kyi has requested that international tourists not visit Burma. The junta's forced labour programmes were focused around tourist destinations which have been heavily criticised for their human rights records. Burma’s Minister of Hotels and Tourism Maj-Gen Saw Lwin has stated that the government receives a significant percentage of the income of private sector tourism services. . Much of the country is completely off-limits to tourists, and the military very tightly controls interactions between foreigners and the people of Burma. They are not to discuss politics with foreigners, under penalty of imprisonment, and in 2001, the Myanmar Tourism Promotion Board issued an order for local officials to protect tourists and limit "unnecessary contact" between foreigners and ordinary Burmese people. . Units of Measure Burma is one of three countries that still predominately uses a non-metric system of measure. Aside from a few imperial units, the common units of measure are unique to Burma, see Burmese units of measurement for more information. Demographics A block of flats in downtown Yangon, facing Bogyoke Market. Much of Yangon's urban population resides in densely populated flats. Burma has a population of about 56 million. Current population figures are rough estimates because the last partial census, conducted by the Ministry of Home and Religious Affairs under the control of the military junta, was taken in 1983. No trustworthy nationwide census has been taken in Burma since 1931. There are over 600,000 registered migrant workers from Burma in Thailand, and millions more work illegally. Burmese migrant workers account for 80% of Thailand's migrant workers. Burma has a population density of , one of the lowest in Southeast Asia. Refugee camps exist along Indian, Bangladeshi and Thai borders while several thousand are in Malaysia. Conservative estimates state that there are over 295,800 refugees from Burma, with the majority being Rohingya, Kayin, and Karenni. A girl from the Padaung minority, one of the many ethnic groups that make up Burma's population. Burma is home to four major linguistic families: Sino-Tibetan, Kradai, Austro-Asiatic, and Indo-European. Sino-Tibetan languages are most widely spoken. They include Burmese, Karen, Kachin, Chin, and Chinese. The primary Kradai language is Shan. Mon, Palaung, and Wa are the major Austroasiatic languages spoken in Burma. The two major Indo-European languages are Pali, the liturgical language of Theravada Buddhism, and English. According to the UNESCO Institute of Statistics, Burma's official literacy rate as of 2000 was 89.9%. Historically, Burma has had high literacy rates. To qualify for least developed country status by the UN in order to receive debt relief, Burma lowered its official literacy rate from 78.6% to 18.7% in 1987. Burma is ethnically diverse. The government recognizes 135 distinct ethnic groups. While it is extremely difficult to verify this statement, there are at least 108 different ethnolinguistic groups in Burma, consisting mainly of distinct Tibeto-Burman peoples, but with sizable populations of Daic, Hmong-Mien, and Austroasiatic (Mon-Khmer) peoples. The Bamar form an estimated 68% of the population. 10% of the population are Shan. The Kayin make up 7% of the population. The Rakhine people constitute 4% of the population. Overseas Chinese form approximately 3% of the population. Mon, who form 2% of the population, are ethno-linguistically related to the Khmer. Overseas Indians comprise 2%. The remainder are Kachin, Chin, Anglo-Indians and other ethnic minorities. Included in this group are the Anglo-Burmese. Once forming a large and influential community, the Anglo-Burmese left the country in steady streams from 1958 onwards, principally to Australia and the U.K.. Today, it is estimated that only 52,000 Anglo-Burmese remain in the country. 89% of the country's population are Buddhist, according to a report on abc World News Tonight in May 2008. Culture An ear-piercing ceremony at the Mahamuni Pagoda in Mandalay is one of the many coming-of-age ceremonies in Burmese culture. A diverse range of indigenous cultures exist in Burma, the majority culture is primarily Buddhist and Bamar. Bamar culture has been influenced by the cultures of neighbouring countries. This is manifested in its language, cuisine, music, dance and theatre. The arts, particularly literature, have historically been influenced by the local form of Theravada Buddhism. Considered the national epic of Burma, the Yama Zatdaw, an adaptation of Ramayana, has been influenced greatly by Thai, Mon, and Indian versions of the play. Buddhism is practiced along with nat worship which involves elaborate rituals to propitiate one from a pantheon of 37 nats. Mohinga, rice noodles in fish soup, is widely considered to be Burma's national dish. In a traditional village, the monastery is the centre of cultural life. Monks are venerated and supported by the lay people. A novitiation ceremony called shinbyu is the most important coming of age events for a boy when he enters the monastery for a short period of time. All boys of Buddhist family need to be a novice (beginner for Buddhism) before the age of twenty and to be a monk after the age of twenty. It is compulsory for all boys of Buddhism. The duration can be as little as one week. Girls have ear-piercing ceremonies (Image:Nathwin.gif) at the same time. Burmese culture is most evident in villages where local festivals are held throughout the year, the most important being the pagoda festival. Many villages have a guardian nat, and superstition and taboos are commonplace. British colonial rule also introduced Western elements of culture to Burma. Burma's educational system is modelled after that of the United Kingdom. Colonial architectural influences are most evident in major cities such as Yangon. Many ethnic minorities, particularly the Karen in the southeast, and the Kachin and Chin who populate the north and northwest, practice Christianity. According to CIA World Factbook, the Burman population is 68%, and the Ethnic groups comprise of 32%. However, the exiled leaders and organizations claims that Ethnic population is 40% which is implicitly contrasted with CIA report (official U.S report). Members of the Buddhist monkhood are venerated throughout Burma, which is one of the most predominantly Theravada Buddhist countries in the world. Language Burmese, the mother tongue of the Bamar and official language of Burma, is related to Tibetan and to the Chinese languages. It is written in a script consisting of circular and semi-circular letters, which were adapted from the Mon script, which in turn was developed from a southern Indian script in the 700s. The earliest known inscriptions in the Burmese script date from the 1000s. It is also used to write Pali, the sacred language of Theravada Buddhism, as well as several ethnic minority languages, including Shan, several Karen dialects, and Kayah (Karenni), with the addition of specialised characters and diacritics for each language. The Burmese language incorporates widespread usage of honorifics and is age-oriented. Burmese society has traditionally stressed the importance of education. In villages, secular schooling often takes place in monasteries. Secondary and tertiary education take place at government schools. Religion Many religions are practiced in Burma. Religious edifices and orders have been in existence for many years. Festivals can be held on a grand scale. The Christian and Muslim populations do, however, face religious persecution and it is hard, if not impossible, for non-Buddhists to join the army or get government jobs, the main route to success in the country. "Ethnic and Religious Diversity: Myanmar's Unfolding Nemesis", Matthews, Bruce, Institute of South East Asian Studies, Visiting Researcher Series, Volume 2001, No. 3. 2001. Such persecution and targeting of civilians is particularly notable in Eastern Burma, where over 3000 villages have been destroyed in the past ten years. Eighty-nine percent of the population embraces Buddhism (mostly Theravada). Other religions are practiced largely without obstruction, with the notable exception of some ethnic minorities such as the Muslim Rohingya people, who have continued to have their citizenship status denied and therefore do not have access to education, and Christians in Chin State. Four percent of the population practices Christianity; 4 percent, Islam; 1 percent, traditional animistic beliefs; and 2 percent follow other religions, including Mahayana Buddhism, Hinduism, Chinese religions and the Bahá'í religion. CIA Factbook – Burma International Religious Freedom Report 2007 – Burma Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs – Background Note: Burma However, according to a U.S. State Department’s 2006 international religious freedom report, official statistics underestimate the non-Buddhist population which could be as high as 30%. Muslim leaders estimated that approximately 20 percent of the population was Muslim. Education Yangon University of Medicine 1 The educational system of Burma is operated by the government Ministry of Education. Universities and professional institutes from upper Burma and lower Burma are run by two separate entities, the Department of Higher Education of Upper Burma and the Department of Higher Education of Lower Burma. Headquarters are based in Yangon and Mandalay respectively. The education system is based on the United Kingdom's system, due to nearly a century of British and Christian presences in Burma. Nearly all schools are government-operated, but there has been a recent increase in privately funded English language schools. Schooling is compulsory until the end of elementary school, probably about 9 years old, while the compulsory schooling age is 15 or 16 at international level. There are 101 universities, 12 institutes, 9 degree colleges and 24 colleges in Burma, a total of 146 higher education institutions. Chronicle of National Development Comparison Between Period Preceding 1988 and after (up to 31.12.2006) There are 10 Technical Training Schools, 23 nursing training schools, 1 sport academy and 20 midwifery schools. There are 2047 Basic Education High Schools, 2605 Basic Education Middle Schools, 29944 Basic Education Primary Schools and 5952 Post Primary Schools. 1692 multimedia classrooms exist within this system. There are two international schools which are acknowledged by WASC and College Board - Yangon International School (YIS) and Yangon International Educare Center (YIEC) in Yangon. Media Due to Burma's political climate, there are not many media companies in relation to the country's population, although a certain number exists. Some are privately owned, but all have to go through the censorship board. Notes External links Government myanmar.gov.mm Chief of State and Cabinet Members General information Burma from UCB Libraries GovPubs Online Burma/Myanmar Library: Classified and annotated links to more than 17,000 full-text documents on Burma/Myanmar be-x-old:М'янма | Burma |@lemmatized burma:172 officially:3 union:21 myanmar:38 large:9 country:91 geographical:2 area:16 mainland:2 southeast:13 asia:12 indochina:1 border:10 people:21 republic:7 china:14 northeast:2 lao:4 east:8 thailand:7 bangladesh:3 west:3 india:29 northwest:4 bay:3 bengal:4 southwest:2 andaman:2 sea:2 define:2 southern:4 periphery:2 one:20 third:5 total:10 perimeter:2 kilometre:3 mi:5 form:18 uninterrupted:1 coastline:3 culture:11 heavily:3 influence:6 neighbour:2 base:9 theravada:8 buddhism:12 intertwine:1 local:7 element:2 diverse:3 population:26 play:4 major:14 role:4 politics:3 history:4 demographic:1 modern:4 time:17 continue:6 struggle:2 mend:1 ethnic:21 tension:1 military:55 dominate:2 government:62 since:18 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5,127 | Foreign_relations_of_Jamaica | Jamaica has diplomatic relations with most nations and is a member of the United Nations and the Organization of American States. In the follow-on meetings to the December 1994 Summit of the Americas, Jamaica--together with Uruguay--was given the responsibility of coordinating discussions on invigorating society. Jamaica also chairs the Working Group on smaller Economies. Jamaica is an active member of the Commonwealth of Nations and the Non-Aligned Movement (G-77). Jamaica is a beneficiary of the Lome Conventions, through which the European Union (EU) grants trade preferences to selected states in Asia, the Caribbean, and the Pacific, and has played a leading role in the negotiations of the successor agreement in Fiji in 2000. Historically, Jamaica has had close ties with the UK, but trade, financial, and cultural relations with the United States are now predominant. Jamaica is linked with the other countries of the English-speaking Caribbean through the Caribbean Community (CARICOM), and more broadly through the Association of Caribbean States (ACS). In January 2000, Jamaica began serving a 2-year term on the United Nations Security Council. Prime Minister Percival James Patterson visited Cuba at the end of May 1997. In the fall of 1997, Jamaica upgraded its consulate in Havana to an embassy, and the nonresident Jamaican ambassador to Cuba was replaced by a resident ambassador. Disputes - international: none Illicit drugs: Transshipment point for cocaine from Central and South America to North America and Europe; illicit cultivation of cannabis; government has an active manual cannabis eradication program A good resource about Jamaica's foreign policies is Holger Henke's book "Between Self-Determination and Dependency: Jamaica's Foreign Relations, 1972-89," Kingston: University of the West Indies Press 2000.</P> See also Jamaica Diplomatic missions of Jamaica List of diplomatic missions in Jamaica Haiti-Jamaica relations | Foreign_relations_of_Jamaica |@lemmatized jamaica:15 diplomatic:3 relation:4 nation:4 member:2 united:3 organization:1 american:1 state:4 follow:1 meeting:1 december:1 summit:1 america:3 together:1 uruguay:1 give:1 responsibility:1 coordinate:1 discussion:1 invigorate:1 society:1 also:2 chair:1 work:1 group:1 small:1 economy:1 active:2 commonwealth:1 non:1 align:1 movement:1 g:1 beneficiary:1 lome:1 convention:1 european:1 union:1 eu:1 grant:1 trade:2 preference:1 select:1 asia:1 caribbean:4 pacific:1 play:1 leading:1 role:1 negotiation:1 successor:1 agreement:1 fiji:1 historically:1 close:1 tie:1 uk:1 financial:1 cultural:1 predominant:1 link:1 country:1 english:1 speaking:1 community:1 caricom:1 broadly:1 association:1 acs:1 january:1 begin:1 serve:1 year:1 term:1 security:1 council:1 prime:1 minister:1 percival:1 james:1 patterson:1 visited:1 cuba:2 end:1 may:1 fall:1 upgrade:1 consulate:1 havana:1 embassy:1 nonresident:1 jamaican:1 ambassador:2 replace:1 resident:1 dispute:1 international:1 none:1 illicit:2 drug:1 transshipment:1 point:1 cocaine:1 central:1 south:1 north:1 europe:1 cultivation:1 cannabis:2 government:1 manual:1 eradication:1 program:1 good:1 resource:1 foreign:2 policy:1 holger:1 henke:1 book:1 self:1 determination:1 dependency:1 kingston:1 university:1 west:1 indies:1 press:1 p:1 see:1 mission:2 list:1 haiti:1 |@bigram diplomatic_relation:1 prime_minister:1 illicit_drug:1 self_determination:1 dependency_jamaica:1 west_indies:1 diplomatic_mission:2 |
5,128 | Liberia | Liberia , officially the Republic of Liberia, is a country on the west coast of Africa, bordered by Sierra Leone, Guinea, Côte d'Ivoire, and the Atlantic Ocean. As of 2008, the nation is estimated to be home to 3,489,072 people and cover . Liberia has a hot equatorial climate with most rainfall arriving in summer with harsh harmattan winds in the dry season. Liberia's populated Pepper Coast is composed of mostly mangrove forests while the sparsely populated inland is forested, later opening to a plateau of drier grasslands. The history of Liberia is unique among African nations, due to its roots as a colony founded by freed slaves from the United States. These freed slaves formed an elite group in Liberian society, and, in 1847, formed a government based on that of the United States, naming their capital city after James Monroe, the fifth president of the United States. This government was overthrown by a military-led coup in 1980, which marked the beginning of a period of instability and civil war that left hundreds of thousands of people dead and devastated the country's economy. Today, Liberia is recovering, and despite its poverty and lack of adequate infrastructure, it has experienced economic growth. Etymology The name Liberia denotes "liberty" as Black Americans were sent to Liberia in 1822, and founded the country in 1847 with the support of the American Colonization Society creating a new ethnic group called the Americo-Liberians. Defense Language Institute Foreign Language Center, Liberia in Perspective: An Orientation Guide (2006) , page 1 However, this introduction of a new ethnic mix resulted in ethnic tensions with the sixteen other main ethnicities. Financial Times World Desk Reference (2004) Dorling Kindersley Publishing. p 368 History Indigenous peoples of West Africa Anthropological research shows the region of Liberia was inhabited at least as far back as the 12th century, perhaps earlier. Mende-speaking people expanded westward, forcing many smaller ethnic groups southward towards the Atlantic ocean. The Deys, Bassa, Kru, Gola and Kissi were some of the earliest recorded arrivals. Runn-Marcos, K. T. Kolleholon, B. Ngovo, p. 5 This influx was compounded during the ancient decline of the Western Sudanic Mali Empire in 1375 and later in 1591 with the Songhai Empire. Additionally, inland regions underwent desertification, and inhabitants were pressured to move to the wetter Pepper Coast. These new inhabitants brought skills such as cotton spinning, cloth weaving, iron smelting, rice and sorghum cultivation, and social and political institutions from the Mali and Songhay Empires. Runn-Marcos, K. T. Kolleholon, B. Ngovo, p. 6 Shortly after the Manes conquered the region, there was a migration of the Vai people into the region of Grand Cape Mount. The Vai were part of the Mali Empire who were forced to migrate when the empire collapsed in the 14th century. The Vai chose to migrate to the coastal region. The ethnic Kru opposed the influx of Vai. An alliance of the Manes and Kru was able to stop further influx of Vai, but the Vai remained in the Grand Cape Mount region (where the city of Robertsport is now located). People of the Littoral coast built canoes and traded with other West Africans from Cap-Vert to the Gold Coast. Later European traders would barter various commodities and goods with local people, sometimes hoisting their canoes aboard. When the Kru began trading with Europeans, they initially traded in commodities, but later they actively participated in the African slave trade. Kru laborers left their territory to work as paid laborers on plantations and in construction. Some even worked building the Suez and Panama Canals. Another tribal group in the area was the Glebo. The Glebo were driven, as a result of the Manes invasion, to migrate to the coast of what later became Liberia. Between 1461 and late 17th century, Portuguese, Dutch and British traders had contacts and trading posts in Liberia. The Portuguese had named the area Costa da Pimenta, later translated as Grain Coast, because of the abundance of grains of melegueta pepper. Settlers from the United States In 1822, the American Colonization Society established Liberia as a place to send people who were formerly enslaved. Free African Americans, a growing population in the US, due to abolition in the North and manumission, chose to emigrate to Liberia as well. Merriam Webster, p.684 African-Americans gradually migrated to the colony and became known as Americo-Liberians, from whom many present day Liberians trace their ancestry. On July 26, 1847, the Americo-Liberian settlers declared the independence of the Republic of Liberia. Joseph Jenkins Roberts, First President of Liberia. The settlers regarded Africa as a "Promised Land," but they did not integrate into an African society. Once in Africa, they referred to themselves as Americans and were recognized as such by local Africans and by British colonial authorities in neighboring Sierra Leone. The symbols of their state — its flag, motto, and seal — and the form of government that they chose reflected their American background and diaspora experience. Lincoln University (founded as Ashmun Institute for educating young blacks in Pennsylvania in 1854) played an important role in supplying Americo-Liberians leadership for the new nation. The first graduating class of Lincoln University, James R. Amos, his brother Thomas H. Amos, and Armistead Miller sailed for Liberia on the brig Mary C. Stevens in April, 1859 after graduation. The religious practices, social customs and cultural standards of the Americo-Liberians had their roots in the antebellum American South. These ideals strongly influenced the attitudes of the settlers toward the indigenous African people. The new nation, as they perceived it, was coextensive with the settler community and with those Africans who were assimilated into it. Mutual mistrust and hostility between the "Americans" along the coast and the "Natives" of the interior was a recurrent theme in the country's history, along with (usually successful) attempts by the Americo-Liberian minority to dominate what they identified as savage native peoples. They named the land "Liberia," which in the Romance languages, and in Latin in particular, means "Land of the Free," as an homage to their freedom from slavery. Historically, Liberia has enjoyed the support and unofficial cooperation of the United States government. Flint, John E. The Cambridge history of Africa: from c.1790 to c.1870 Cambridge University Press (1976) pg 184-199 Liberia’s government, modeled after that of the US, was democratic in structure, if not always in substance. In 1877, the True Whig Party monopolized political power in the country. Competition for office was usually contained within the party, whose nomination virtually ensured election. Two problems confronting successive administrations were pressure from neighboring colonial powers, Britain and France, and the threat of financial insolvency, both of which challenged the country’s sovereignty. Liberia retained its independence during the Scramble for Africa, but lost its claim to extensive territories that were annexed by Britain and France. Economic development was hindered by the decline of markets for Liberian goods in the late 19th century and by indebtedness on a series of loans, payments on which drained the economy. Mid-20th century President Edwin Barclay (right) and President Franklin D. Roosevelt during World War II, 1943 Two events were particularly important in releasing Liberia from its self-imposed isolation. The first was the grant in 1926 of a large concession to the American-owned Firestone Plantation Company; that move became a first step in the (limited) modernization of the Liberian economy. The second occurred during World War II, when the United States began providing technical and economic assistance that enabled Liberia to make economic progress and introduce social change. Both the Freeport of Monrovia and Roberts International Airport were built by U.S. personnel during World War II. On April 12,1980, a successful military coup was staged by a group of noncommissioned army officers led by Master Sergeant Samuel Kanyon Doe. The soldiers were a mixture of the various ethnic groups that claimed marginalization at the hands of the minority Americo-Liberian settlers. In a late-night raid, they killed William R. Tolbert, Jr., who had been president for nine years, in his mansion. Constituting themselves the People’s Redemption Council, Doe and his associates seized control of the government and brought an end to Africa’s first republic. Significantly, Doe was the first Liberian head of state who was not a member of the Americo-Liberian elite. Doe favored authoritarian policies, banning newspapers and outlawing various opposition parties. His tactic was to brand popular opposition parties as "socialist", and therefore illegal according to the Liberian constitution, while allowing less popular minor parties to remain as a token opposition. Unfortunately for Doe, popular support would then tend to realign behind one of these smaller parties, causing them to be labeled "socialist" in their turn. Samuel Doe with Caspar Weinberger on a 1982 visit to the United States In October 1985, Liberia held the first post-coup elections, ostensibly to legitimize Doe's regime. Virtually all international observers agreed that the Liberia Action Party (LAP) led by Jackson Doe (no relation) had won the election by a clear margin. After a week of counting the votes, however, Samuel Doe fired the count officials and replaced them with his own Special Election Committee (SECOM), which announced that Samuel Doe's ruling National Democratic Party of Liberia had won with 50.9% of the vote. In response, on November 12 a counter-coup was launched by Thomas Quiwonkpa, whose soldiers briefly occupied the Executive Mansion and the national radio station, with widespread support throughout the country. Three days later, Quiwonkpa's coup was overthrown. Government repression intensified, as Doe's troops killed more than 2,000 civilians and imprisoned more than 100 opposing politicians, including Jackson Doe, Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf and BBC journalist Isaac Bantu. 1989 and 2003 civil wars In late 1989, the First Liberian Civil War began. The harsh dictatorial atmosphere that gripped the country was due largely to Samuel Doe's rule. Americo-Liberian Charles Taylor, with the backing of neighboring countries such as Burkina Faso and Cote d'Ivoire, entered Nimba County with around 100 men. The Mask of Anarchy, by Stephen Ellis, 2001, p.75 (There is also an NYU Press Updated Edition 2006, ISBN 0814722385) These fighters quickly gained control of much of the country, thanks to strong support from the local population who were disillusioned with their present government. By then, a new player also emerged: Yormie Prince Johnson (former ally of Taylor) had formed his own army and had gained tremendous support from the Gio and Mano ethnic groups. In August 1990, the Economic Community Monitoring Group under the Economic Community of West African States organized its own military task force to intervene in the crisis. The troops were largely from Nigeria, Guinea and Ghana. On his way out after a meeting, Doe, who was traveling only with his personal staff, was ambushed and captured by members of the Gio Tribe who were loyal to Prince Yormie Johnson. The soldiers took him to Johnson's headquarters in neighboring Caldwell, tortured and killed him. By then, Taylor was a prominent warlord and leader of the National Patriotic Front of Liberia. After some prompting from Taylor that the anglophone Nigerians and Ghanaians were opposed to him, Senegalese troops were brought in with some financial support from the United States. Adekeye Adebajo, 'Liberia's Civil War: Nigeria, ECOMOG, and Regional Security in West Africa,' Lynne Rienner/International Peace Academy, 2002, p.107 But their service was short-lived, after a major confrontation with Taylor forces in Vahun, Lofa County on 28 May 1992, when six were killed when a crowd of NPFL supporters surrounded their vehicle and demanded they surrender the vehicle and weapons. Adekeye Adebajo, 'Liberia's Civil War: Nigeria, ECOMOG, and Regional Security in West Africa,' Lynne Rienner/International Peace Academy, 2002, p.108 By September 1990, Doe's forces controlled only a small area just outside the capital, Monrovia. After Doe's death, and as a condition for the end of the conflict, interim president Amos Sawyer resigned in 1994, handing power to the Council of State. Taylor was elected as President in 1997, after leading a bloody insurgency backed by Libyan President Muammar al-Gaddafi. Taylor's brutal regime targeted several leading opposition and political activists. In 1998, the government sought to assassinate child rights activist Kimmie Weeks for a report he had published on its involvement in the training of child soldiers, which forced him into exile. Taylor's autocratic and dysfunctional government led to the Second Liberian Civil War in 1999. The conflict intensified in mid-2003, and the fighting moved into Monrovia. An elite rapid response unit of the US Marines known as 'FAST' deployed to the US Embassy to ensure the security and interests of the US. The Marines would use US Air Force HH-60 Pave Hawk to airlift non-combatants and foreign nationals to Dakar, Senegal. A hastily assembled force of 1000 Nigerian troops, the ECOWAS Mission In Liberia (ECOMIL), was airlifted into Liberia on August 15, 2003 to prevent the rebels from overrunning the capital city and committing revenge-inspired war crimes. Meanwhile the US Joint Task Force Liberia commanded from USS Iwo Jima (LHD-7) was offshore, though only 100 of the 2,000 US Marines landed to liaise with the ECOMIL force. As the power of the government shrank, and with increasing international and US pressure for him to resign, President Taylor accepted an asylum offer from Nigeria, but vowed: "God willing, I will be back." Some of the ECOMIL troops were subsequently withdrawn and at least two battalions incorporated into the 15,000 strong United Nations Mission in Liberia (UNMIL) peacekeeping force. More than 200,000 people are estimated to have been killed in the civil wars. Post civil war After the exile of Taylor, Gyude Bryant was appointed Chairman of the transitional government in late 2003. Because of failures of the Transitional Government in curbing corruption, Liberia signed onto GEMAP, a novel anti-corruption program. The primary task of the transitional government was to prepare for fair and peaceful democratic elections. With UNMIL troops safeguarding the peace, Liberia successfully conducted presidential elections on October 11, 2005. There were 23 candidates; an early favorite was George Weah, internationally famous footballer, UNICEF Goodwill Ambassador and member of the Kru ethnic group expected to dominate the popular vote. No candidate took the required majority, prompting a run-off election between the top two candidates, Weah and Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf. The November 8, 2005 presidential runoff election was won decisively by Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf, a Harvard-trained economist. Both the general election and runoff were marked by peace and order, as thousands of Liberians waited in the Liberian heat to cast their ballots. Prior to her election as president, Johnson-Sirleaf was jailed twice during the Doe administration before escaping and going into exile. Upon taking office she became the first elected female head of state in Africa. During her administration President Johnson-Sirleaf established a Truth and Reconciliation Commission to address crimes committed during the later stages of Liberia's long civil war. Elsewhere, the Special Court for Sierra Leone (a war crimes tribunal) charged former President Charles Taylor with crimes against humanity, violations of the Geneva Conventions and "other serious violations of international humanitarian law". Special Court for Sierra Leone, http://www.sc-sl.org/Documents/SCSL-03-01-PT-263.pdf The indictment was issued on March 29, 2006, and he was later extradited from Nigeria to Sierra Leone, but the trial by the Special Court is being held in the Hague, for security reasons. Politics and government Liberia has a dual system of statutory law based on Anglo-American common law for the modern sector and customary unwritten law for the native sector for exclusively rural tribes. Liberia in Perspective: An Orientation Guide (2006) Defense Language Institute Foreign Language Center, page 2 Liberia's modern sector has three equal branches of government in the constitution, though in practice the executive branch headed by the President of Liberia is the strongest of the three. The other two branches are the legislative and judicial. Following the dissolution of the Republican Party in 1876, the True Whig Party dominated the Liberian government until the 1980 coup. Currently, no party has majority control of the legislature. The longest serving president in Liberian history was William Tubman, serving from 1944 until his death in 1971. The shortest term was held by James Skivring Smith, who controlled the government for two months. However, the political process from Liberia's founding in 1847, despite widespread corruption, was very stable until the end of the First Republic in 1980. The Executive branch of the government is headed by the President. Other parts of the branch are the Cabinet and the Vice President. Presidents are elected to six-year terms and can serve up to two terms in office. The President is both the head of state and the head of the government, and resides at the Executive Mansion in Monrovia. The Legislature of Liberia is a bicameral body with an upper chamber Senate and the lower chamber House of Representatives. Each county sends two senators to the legislature for a total of 30 senators, while the 64 seats in the House are distributed among the 15 counties based on the number of registered voters, with a minimum of at least two from each county. Senators serve nine-year terms (only six-year terms for junior senators elected in 2005) and members of the House six-year terms. Leadership consists of a Speaker in the House and a President Pro Tempore in the Senate. Liberia's Vice President serves as the President of the Senate. The legislature meets in the capital city of Monrovia. Liberia's highest judicial authority is the Supreme Court, headed by the Chief Justice. The five justice court holds sessions at the Temple of Justice on Capitol Hill in Monrovia. Members are nominated to the court by the President and are confirmed by the Senate and have lifetime tenure. Under the supreme court are 15 circuit courts, one in each county. Human rights Amnesty International summarizes in its Annual Report 2006: "Sporadic outbreaks of violence continued to threaten prospects of peace. Former rebel fighters who should have been disarmed and demobilized protested violently when they did not receive benefits. Slow progress in reforming the police, judiciary and the criminal justice system resulted in systematic violations of due process and vigilante violence against criminal suspects. Laws establishing an Independent National Commission on Human Rights and a Truth and Reconciliation Commission were adopted. Over 200,000 internally displaced people and refugees returned to their homes, although disputes over land and property appropriated during the war raised ethnic tensions. UN sanctions on the trade in diamonds and timber were renewed. Those responsible for human rights abuses during the armed conflict continued to enjoy impunity. The UN Security Council gave peacekeeping forces in Liberia powers to arrest former President Taylor and transfer him to the Special Court for Sierra Leone if he should return from Nigeria, where he continued to receive asylum. Liberia made a commitment to abolish capital punishment. A new law on rape, which initially proposed imposition of the death penalty for gang rape, was amended to provide a maximum penalty of life imprisonment." Amnesty International, Report 2006 Former 22nd president Charles Taylor was later captured trying to escape across the border of Cameroon and has been sent to the International Criminal Court in The Hague for trial. Geography Map of Liberia Liberia is situated in West Africa, bordering the North Atlantic Ocean to the country's southwest. The landscape is characterized by mostly flat to rolling coastal plains that contain mangroves and swamps, which rise to a rolling plateau and low mountains in the northeast. Tropical rainforests cover the hills, while elephant grass and semi-deciduous forests make up the dominant vegetation in the northern sections. The equatorial climate is hot year-round with heavy rainfall from May to October with a short interlude in mid-July to August. During the winter months of November to March dry dust-laden harmattan winds blow inland causing many problems for residents. Liberia's watershed tends to move in a southwestern pattern towards the sea as new rains move down the forested plateau off the inland mountain range of Guinée Forestière, in Guinea. Cape Mount near the border with Sierra Leone receives the most precipitation in the nation. The country's main northwestern boundary is traversed by the Mano River while its southeast limits are bounded by the Cavalla River. Liberia's three largest rivers are St. Paul exiting near Monrovia, the river St. John at Buchanan and the Cestos River, all of which flow into the Atlantic. The Cavalla is the longest river in the nation at . The highest point wholly within Liberia is Mount Wuteve at above sea level in the northwestern Liberia range of the West Africa Mountains and the Guinea Highlands. However, Mount Nimba near Yekepa, is higher at above sea level but is not wholly within Liberia as Nimba shares a border with Guinea and Côte d'Ivoire (Ivory Coast) and is their tallest mountain as well. Financial Time's World Desk Reference (2004) Dorling Kindersley Publishing. p 368 Counties and districts View of a lake in Bomi County Liberia is divided into 15 counties, which are subdivided into districts, and further subdivided into clans. The oldest counties are Grand Bassa and Montserrado, both founded in 1839 prior to Liberian independence. Gbarpolu is the newest county, created in 2001. Nimba is the largest of the counties in size at , while Montserrado is the smallest at . Montserrado is also the most populous county with 1,144,806 residents as of the 2008 census. Complete list of the counties: County Population (2008) Area Created Bomi 82,036 1984 Bong 328,919 1964 Gbarpolu 83,758 2001 Grand Bassa 224,839 1839 Grand Cape Mount 129,055 1844 Grand Gedeh 126,146 1964 Grand Kru 57,106 1984 Lofa 270,114 1964 Margibi 199,689 1985 Maryland 136,404 1857 Montserrado 1,144,806 1839 Nimba 468,088 1964 River Cess 65,862 1985 River Gee 67,318 2000 Sinoe 104,932 1843 Economy Historically, the Liberian economy depended heavily on iron ore and rubber exports, foreign direct investment, and exports of other natural resources, such as timber. Agricultural products include livestock (goats, pigs, cattle) and rice, the staple food. Fish are raised on inland farms and caught along the coast. Other foods are imported to support the population. Electricity is provided by dams and oil-fired plants. Boy grinding sugar cane. Foreign trade was primarily conducted for the benefit of the Americo-Liberian elite. The 1864 Ports of Entry Act severely restricted trade between foreigners and indigenous Liberians throughout most of Liberia's history. Little foreign direct investment benefited the 95% majority population, who were often subjected to forced labor on foreign concessions. Liberian law often did not protect indigenous Liberians from the extraction of rents and arbitrary taxation, and the majority survived on subsistence farming and low wage work on foreign concessions. While official export figures for commodities declined during the 1990s civil war as many investors fled, Liberia’s wartime economy featured the exploitation of the region’s diamond wealth. The country acted as a major trader in Liberian, Sierra Leonian and Angolan blood diamonds, exporting over $300 million in diamonds annually. This led to a United Nations ban on Liberian diamond exports, which was lifted on April 27, 2007. Other commodity exports continued during the war, in part due to illicit agreements between Liberia’s warlords and foreign concessionaires. Looting and war profiteering destroyed nearly the entire infrastructure of the country, such that the Monrovian capital was without running water and electricity (except for fuel-powered generators) by the time the first elected post-war government began to institute development and reforms in 2006. Once the hostilities ended, some official exporting and legitimate business activity resumed. For instance, Liberia signed a new deal with steel giant Mittal for the export of iron ore in summer 2005. But, as of mid-2006 Liberia was still dependent on foreign aid, and had a debt of $3.5 billion. Liberia currently has an approximate 85% unemployment rate(EST. 2003), the second highest in the world, behind only Nauru. Nineteenth-century Liberian two-dollar bill The Liberia dollar currently trades against the US dollar at a ratio of 65:1. Liberia used the US dollar as its currency from 1943 until 1982. Its external debt ($3.5 billion) is huge compared to its GDP ($2.5 billion/year); it imports approximately $4.839 billion in goods per year, while it exports only about $910 million. Inflation is falling, but still significant (15% in 2003, 4.9% in the 3rd quarter of 2005); interest rates are high, with the average lending rate listed by the Central Bank of Liberia at 17.6% for 3rd quarter 2005 (although the average time deposit rate was only 0.4%, and CD rate only 4.4%, barely keeping pace with inflation). It continues to suffer with poor economic performance due to a fragile security situation, the devastation wrought by its long war, its lack of infrastructure, and necessary human capital to help the country recover from the scourges of conflict and corruption. Liberia has one of the world's largest national registries of ships, due to its status as a "flag of convenience". Transport Demographics Mosque in Voinjama The population of over 3 million comprises 16 indigenous ethnic groups and various foreign minorities. Indigenous peoples comprise about 95% of the population, the largest of which are the Kpelle in central and western Liberia. Americo-Liberians, who are descendants of African-American settlers, make up 2.5%, and Congo people, descendants of repatriated Congo and Afro-Caribbean slaves who arrived in 1825, make up an estimated 2.5%. http://www.theperspective.org/rewriting_history.html There also is a sizable number of Lebanese, Indians, and other West African nationals who make up a significant part of Liberia's business community. A few whites (estimated at 18,000 in 1999; probably fewer now) reside in the country. As of 2006, Liberia has the highest population growth rate in the world (4.50% per annum). Similar to its neighbors, it has a large youth population, with half of the population being under the age of 18. Of the population, 40% hold indigenous beliefs, 40% are Christians, and 20% are Muslims. Culture Liberian ceremonial spoon Liberia was traditionally noted for its hospitality, academic institutions, cultural skills, and arts/craft works. Liberia has a long, rich history in textile arts and quilting. The free and former US slaves who emigrated to Liberia brought with them their sewing and quilting skills. The census of 1843 indicated a variety of occupations, including hatter, milliner, seamstress and tailor. Liberia hosted National Fairs in 1857 and 1858 in which prizes were awarded for various needle arts. One of the most well-known Liberian quilters was Martha Ann Ricks, who presented a quilt featuring the famed Liberian coffee tree to Queen Victoria in 1892. In modern times, Liberian presidents would present quilts as official government gifts. The John F. Kennedy Library and Museum collection includes a cotton quilt by Mrs. Jemima Parker which has portraits of both Liberian president William Tubman and JFK. Zariah Wright-Titus founded the Arthington (Liberia) Women's Self-Help Quilting Club (1987). In the early 1990s, Kathleen Bishop documented examples of appliquéd Liberian quilts. When current Liberian President Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf moved into the Executive Mansion, she reportedly had a Liberian-made quilt installed in her presidential office. The tallest man-made structure of Africa, the mast of former Paynesville Omega transmitter, is situated in Liberia. Liberia is one of only three nations to use primarily a non-metric system of units, the others being Burma and the United States. Education Students studying by candlelight in Bong County, Liberia The University of Liberia is the country's largest college and is located in Monrovia. Opened in 1862, it is one of Africa's oldest institutes of higher learning. Civil war severely damaged the university in the 1990s, but the university has begun to rebuild following the restoration of peace. The school includes six colleges, including a medical school and the nation's only law school, Louis Arthur Grimes School of Law. Jallah, David A. B. “Notes, Presented by Professor and Dean of the Louis Arthur Grimes School of Law, University of Liberia, David A. B. Jallah to the International Association of Law Schools Conference Learning From Each Other: Enriching the Law School Curriculum in an Interrelated World Held at Soochow University Kenneth Wang School of Law, Suzhou, China, October 17-19, 2007.” International Association of Law Schools. Retrieved on September 1, 2008. Cuttington University was established by the Episcopal Church of the USA (ECUSA) in 1889; its campus is currently located in Suakoko, Bong County (120 miles north of Monrovia). The private school, the oldest private college in Liberia, also holds graduate courses in Monrovia. According to statistics published by UNESCO for 2004 65% of primary-school age and 24% of secondary-school age children were enrolled in school. UNESCO Schooling data This is a significant increase on previous years; the statistics also show substantial numbers of older children going back to earlier school years. On average, children attain 10 years of education, 11 for boys and 8 for girls. Children ages five to eleven are required by law to attend school, though enforcement is lax. A 1912 law required children ages 6 to 16 to attend school. See also List of Liberian people Sapo National Park References Bibliography Hadden, Robert Lee. 2006. "The Geology of Liberia: a Selected Bibliography of Liberian Geology, Geography and Earth Science." Topographic Engineering Center, Alexandria, VA. Abstract: "Originally prepared by the US Geological Survey Library staff as part of an US Department of State project to restore the Geological Library of Liberia, 1998-1999. Revised and Updated through 2006." Gilbert, Erik & Reynolds, Jonathon T (2004) Africa in World History, From Prehistory to the Present. Pearson Education Canada Ltd pg 357 ISBN 9780130929075 Merriam Webster Inc. (1997) Merriam Webster's Geographical Dictionary: 3rd Edition. Merriam Webster Inc. Springfield, Mass. ISBN 0877795460 Runn-Marcos, K. T. Kolleholon, B. Ngovo (2005)Liberians: An Introduction to their History and Culture. Center for Applied Linguistics, Washington, DC Further reading Journey Without Maps by Graham Greene. An account of a four-week walk through the interior of Liberia in 1935. Reprinted in 2006 by Vintage ISBN 978-0099282235 To Late to Turn Back by Barbara Greene. Account by a cousin of Graham Greene of the above-mentioned 1935 journey, on which she was also a participant. Great Tales of Liberia by Wilton Sankawulo. Dr. Sankawulo is the compiler of these tales from Liberia and about Liberian culture. Published by Editura Universitatii "Lucian Blaga";; din Sibiu, Romania, 2004. - ISBN 973-651-838-8 Sundown at Dawn: A Liberian Odyssey by Wilton Sankawulo. Recommended by the Cultural Resource Center, Center for Applied Linguistics for its content concerning Liberian culture. ISBN 0-9763565-0-3 http://www.analystliberia.com/featurearticle_aug20_07.html http://www.cnn.com/2004/WORLD/africa/07/23/twih.liberia/index.html Mississippi in Africa: The Saga of the Slaves of Prospect Hill Plantation and Their Legacy in Liberia Today, by Alan Huffman (Gotham Books, 2004) To Liberia: Destiny's Timing, by Victoria Lang (Publish America, Baltimore, 2004, ISBN 1-4137-1829-9). A fast-paced gripping novel of the journey of a young Black couple fleeing America to settle in the African motherland of Liberia. Liberia: The Heart of Darkness by Gabriel I. H. Williams, Publisher: Trafford Publishing (July 6, 2006) ISBN 1553692942 Liberia: Portrait of a Failed State by John-Peter Pham, ISBN 1594290121 Godfrey Mwakikagile, Military Coups in West Africa Since The Sixties, Chapter Eight: Liberia: 'The Love of Liberty Brought Us Here,' pp. 85 - 110, Nova Science Publishers, Inc., Huntington, New York, 2001; Godfrey Mwakikagile, The Modern African State: Quest for Transformation, Chapter One: The Collapse of A Modern African State: Death and Rebirth of Liberia, pp. 1 - 18, Nova Science Publishers, Inc., 2001. Redemption Road: The Quest for Peace and Justice in Liberia (A Novel) by Elma Shaw, with a Foreword by President Ellen Johnson Sirleaf. (Cotton Tree Press, 2008, ISBN: 978-0-9800774-0-7) External links Government Executive Mansion official government website House of Representatives Chief of State and Cabinet Members General information Liberia from UCB Libraries GovPubs News media Liberian Observer newspaper Liberia news headlines from allAfrica.com Liberia world Liberia news & information Travel Other Liberian Law - Cornell Law Library - contains digitized documents dealing with the creation of the nation of Liberia and the laws enacted at its foundation, as well as extensive links for further research Liberia Online Community Liberian reconstruction from Reuters AlertNet be-x-old:Лібэрыя | Liberia |@lemmatized liberia:98 officially:1 republic:4 country:17 west:10 coast:10 africa:18 border:5 sierra:8 leone:7 guinea:5 côte:2 ivoire:3 atlantic:4 ocean:3 nation:11 estimate:4 home:2 people:16 cover:2 hot:2 equatorial:2 climate:2 rainfall:2 arriving:1 summer:2 harsh:2 harmattan:2 wind:2 dry:3 season:1 populate:1 pepper:3 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5,129 | Commutator_subgroup | In mathematics, more specifically in abstract algebra, the commutator subgroup or derived subgroup of a group is the subgroup generated by all the commutators of the group. The commutator subgroup is important because it is the smallest normal subgroup such that the quotient group of the original group by this subgroup is abelian. So in some sense it provides a measure of how far the group is from being abelian; the larger the commutator subgroup is, the "less abelian" the group is. Commutators For elements g and h of a group G, the commutator of g and h is . The commutator [g,h] is equal to the identity element e if and only if gh = hg, that is, if and only if g and h commute. In general, . An element of G which is of the form [g,h] for some g and h is called a commutator. The identity element is always a commutator, and it is the only commutator if and only if any two elements of G commute with each other, that is, if and only if G is abelian. Here are some simple but useful commutator identities, true for any elements s, g, h of a group G: , where . For any homomorphism , The first and second identities imply that the set of commutators in G is closed under inversion and under conjugation. If in the third identity we take , we get that the set of commutators is stable under any endomorphism of G. This is in fact a generalization of the second identity, since we can take f to be the conjugation automorphism . However, the product of two or more commutators need not be a commutator. A generic example is in the free group on a,b,c,d. It is known that the least order of a finite group for which there exists two commutators whose product is not a commutator is 96; in fact there are two nonisomorphic groups of order 96 with this property. Definition This motivates the definition of the commutator subgroup [G,G] (also called the derived subgroup, and denoted G′ or G(1)) of G is the subgroup generated by all the commutators. It follows from the properties of commutators that any element of [G,G] is of the form for some natural number n. Moreover, since , the commutator subgroup is normal in G. For any homomorphism , , so that . This shows that the commutator subgroup can be viewed as a functor on the category of groups, some implications of which are explored below. Moreover, taking it shows that the commutator subgroup is stable under every endomorphism of G: that is, [G,G] is a fully characteristic subgroup of G, a property which is considerably stronger than normality. The commutator subgroup can also be defined as the set of elements g of the group which have an expression as a product g = g1g2...gk that can be rearranged to give the identity. Derived series This construction can be iterated: The groups are called the second derived subgroup, third derived subgroup, and so forth, and the descending normal series is called the derived series. This should not be confused with the lower central series, whose terms are , not . For a finite group, the derived series terminates in a perfect group, which may or may not be trivial. For an infinite group, the derived series need not terminate at a finite stage, and one can continue it to infinite ordinal numbers via transfinite recursion, thereby obtaining the transfinite derived series, which eventually terminates at the perfect core of the group. Classes of groups A group G is an abelian group if and only if the derived group is trivial: . Equivalently, if and only if the group equals its abelianization. A group G is a perfect group if and only if the derived group equals the group itself: . Equivalently, if and only if the abelianization of the group is trivial. This is "opposite" to abelian. A group with for some n in N is called a solvable group; this is weaker than abelian, which is the case . A group with for some ordinal number, possibly infinite, is called a hypoabelian group; this is weaker than solvable, which is the case is finite (a natural number). Abelianization Given a group G, a factor group G/N is abelian if and only if [G,G] ≤ N. The quotient is an abelian group called the abelianization of G or G made abelian. It is usually denoted by Gab or Gab. There is a useful categorical interpretation of the map . Namely is universal for homomorphisms from G to an abelian group H: for any abelian group H and homomorphism of groups there exists a unique homomorphism such that . As usual for objects defined by universal mapping properties, this shows the uniqueness of the abelianization up to canonical isomorphism, whereas the explicit construction shows existence. The abelianization functor is the left adjoint of the inclusion functor from the category of abelian groups to the category of groups. Another important interpretation of is as , the first homology group of G with integral coefficients. Examples The commutator subgroup of the alternating group A4 is the Klein four group. The commutator subgroup of the symmetric group is the alternating group . The commutator subgroup of the quaternion group Q = {1, −1, i, −i, j, −j, k, −k} is [Q,Q]={1, −1}. Map from Out Since the derived subgroup is characteristic, any automorphism of G induces an automorphism of the abelianization. Since the abelianization is abelian, inner automorphisms act trivially, hence this yields a map References See also solvable group nilpotent group | Commutator_subgroup |@lemmatized mathematics:1 specifically:1 abstract:1 algebra:1 commutator:27 subgroup:21 derive:9 group:48 generate:2 important:2 small:1 normal:3 quotient:2 original:1 abelian:14 sense:1 provide:1 measure:1 far:1 large:1 le:1 element:8 g:39 h:9 equal:3 identity:7 e:1 gh:1 hg:1 commute:2 general:1 form:2 call:7 always:1 two:4 simple:1 useful:2 true:1 homomorphism:5 first:2 second:3 imply:1 set:3 close:1 inversion:1 conjugation:2 third:2 take:3 get:1 stable:2 endomorphism:2 fact:2 generalization:1 since:4 f:1 automorphism:3 however:1 product:3 need:2 generic:1 example:1 free:1 b:1 c:1 know:1 least:1 order:2 finite:4 exist:2 whose:2 nonisomorphic:1 property:4 definition:2 motivate:1 also:3 denote:2 follow:1 natural:2 number:4 n:5 moreover:2 show:4 view:1 functor:3 category:3 implication:1 explore:1 every:1 fully:1 characteristic:2 considerably:1 strong:1 normality:1 define:2 expression:1 gk:1 rearrange:1 give:2 series:7 construction:2 iterate:1 forth:1 descending:1 derived:3 confuse:1 low:1 central:1 term:1 terminates:1 perfect:3 may:2 trivial:3 infinite:3 terminate:2 stage:1 one:1 continue:1 ordinal:2 via:1 transfinite:2 recursion:1 thereby:1 obtain:1 eventually:1 core:1 class:1 equivalently:2 abelianization:8 opposite:1 solvable:3 weak:2 case:2 possibly:1 hypoabelian:1 factor:1 make:1 usually:1 gab:2 categorical:1 interpretation:2 map:3 namely:1 universal:2 unique:1 usual:1 object:1 mapping:1 uniqueness:1 canonical:1 isomorphism:1 whereas:1 explicit:1 existence:1 left:1 adjoint:1 inclusion:1 another:1 homology:1 integral:1 coefficient:1 examples:1 alternate:2 klein:1 four:1 symmetric:1 quaternion:1 q:3 j:2 k:2 induces:1 inner:1 automorphisms:1 act:1 trivially:1 hence:1 yield:1 reference:1 see:1 nilpotent:1 |@bigram abstract_algebra:1 commutator_subgroup:11 normal_subgroup:1 subgroup_quotient:1 functor_category:2 transfinite_recursion:1 inner_automorphisms:1 |
5,130 | Carl_Friedrich_Abel | Portrait of Carl Friedrich Abel by Thomas Gainsborough, 1777 Carl Friedrich Abel (December 22, 1723 – June 20 1787) was a German composer of the Classical era. (The Chambers Biographical Dictionary gives his year of birth as 1725.) Chambers Biographical Dictionary, ISBN 0-550-18022-2, page 3 He was a fine player on the viola da gamba, and composed important music for that instrument. Abel was born in Cöthen, the son of Christian Ferdinand Abel, the principal viola da gamba and cello player in the court orchestra of Johann Sebastian Bach. There is no proof that Abel studied at Thomasschule Leipzig, but it was on Bach's recommendation that in 1748 he was able to join Johann Adolph Hasse's court orchestra at Dresden where he remained for ten years. In 1759 (or 1758 according to Chambers), he went to England and became chamber-musician to Queen Charlotte. He gave a concert of his own compositions in London, performing on various instruments, one of which was a five-string cello known as a pentachord, which had been recently invented by John Joseph Merlin. Freiberg, Sarah. Conversation with Magical Merlin, Internet Cello Society. Retrieved 29 January 2009. In 1762, Johann Christian Bach, the eleventh son of Johann Sebastian Bach, joined him in London, and the friendship between him and Abel led, in 1764 or 1765, to the establishment of the famous Bach-Abel concerts, England's first subscription concerts. In those concerts, many celebrated guest artists appeared, and the works of Haydn received their first English performance. For ten years the concerts were organized by Mrs. Teresa Cornelys, a retired Venetian opera singer who owned a concert hall at Carlisle House in Soho Square, then the height of fashionable events. In 1775 the concerts became independent of her, to be continued by Abel and Bach until Bach's death in 1782. Abel still remained in great demand as a player on various instruments new and old. He traveled to Germany and France between 1782 and 1785, and upon his return to London, became a leading member of the Grand Professional Concerts at the Hanover Square Rooms in Soho. Throughout his life he had enjoyed excessive living, and his drinking probably hastened his death, which occurred in London on June 20, 1787. One of the most widely known works of Abel became famous due to a misattribution: in the 19th century, a manuscript symphony in the hand of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, was catalogued as his Symphony no. 3 in E flat, K. 18, and was published as such in the first complete edition of Mozart's works by Breitkopf & Härtel. Later, it was discovered that this symphony was actually the work of Abel, copied by the boy Mozart--evidently for study purposes--while he was visiting London in 1764. That symphony was originally published as the concluding work in Abel's Six Symphonies, Op. 7. Works list Symphony Op. 1 No.1 in B flat major, WK 1 Symphony Op. 1 No.2 in C major, WK 2 Symphony Op. 1 No.3 in D major, WK 3 Symphony Op. 1 No.4 in E flat major, WK 4 Symphony Op. 1 No.5 in F major, WK 5 Symphony Op. 1 No.6 in G major, WK 6 Symphony Op. 4 No.1 in D major, WK 7 Symphony Op. 4 No.2 in B flat major, WK 8 Symphony Op. 4 No.3 in E flat major, WK 9 Symphony Op. 4 No.4 in C major, WK 10 Symphony Op. 4 No.5 in G major, WK 11 Symphony Op. 4 No.6 in D major, WK 12 Symphony Op. 7 No.1 in G major, WK 13 Symphony Op. 7 No.2 in B flat major, WK 14 Symphony Op. 7 No.3 in D major, WK 15 Symphony Op. 7 No.4 in F major, WK 16 Symphony Op. 7 No.5 in C major, WK 17 Symphony Op. 7 No.6 in E flat major, WK 18 Symphony Op. 10 No.1 in E major, WK 19 Symphony Op. 10 No.2 in B flat major, WK 20 Symphony Op. 10 No.3 in E flat major, WK 21 Symphony Op. 10 No.4 in C major, WK 22 Symphony Op. 10 No.5 in D major, WK 23 Symphony Op. 10 No.6 in A major, WK 24 Symphony Op. 14 No.1 in C major, WK 25 Symphony Op. 14 No.2 in E flat major, WK 26 Symphony Op. 14 No.3 in D major, WK 27 Symphony Op. 14 No.4 in B flat major, WK 28 Symphony Op. 14 No.5 in G major, WK 29 Symphony Op. 14 No.6 in E flat major, WK 30 Symphony Op. 17 No.1 in E flat major, WK 31 Symphony Op. 17 No.2 in B flat major, WK 32 Symphony Op. 17 No.3 in D major, WK 33 Symphony Op. 17 No.4 in C major, WK 34 Symphony Op. 17 No.5 in B flat major, WK 35 Symphony Op. 17 No.6 in G major, WK 36 Symphony in C major, WK 37 Symphony in B flat major, WK 38 Symphony in E flat major, WK 39 Symphony in B flat major, WK 40 Symphony in D major, WK 41 Sinfonia concertante for oboe quartet in B flat major, WK 42 Sinfonia concertante for oboe quartet in D major, WK 43 Periodical Overture in D major, WK 44 Overture to 'Love in a village' in D major, WK 45a Overture to 'The summer's tale' in B flat major, WK 45b Flute Concerto No.1 in C major, WK 46 Flute Concerto No.2 in E minor, WK 47 Flute Concerto No.3 in D major, WK 48 Flute Concerto No.4 in C major, WK 49 Flute Concerto No.5 in G major, WK 50 Flute Concerto No.6 in C major, WK 51 Cello Concerto in B flat major, WK 52 Keyboard Concerto Op. 11 No.1 in F major, WK 53 Keyboard Concerto Op. 11 No.2 in B flat major, WK 54 Keyboard Concerto Op. 11 No.3 in E flat major, WK 55 Keyboard Concerto Op. 11 No.4 in D major, WK 56 Keyboard Concerto Op. 11 No.5 in G major, WK 57 Keyboard Concerto Op. 11 No.6 in C major, WK 58 Flute Concerto No.7 in D major, WK 59 Cello Concerto in C major, WK 60 String Quartet Op. 8 No.1 in F major, WK 61 String Quartet Op. 8 No.2 in B flat major, WK 62 String Quartet Op. 8 No.3 in E flat major, WK 63 String Quartet Op. 8 No.4 in D major, WK 64 String Quartet Op. 8 No.5 in A major, WK 65 String Quartet Op. 8 No.6 in F major, WK 66 Flute Quartet Op. 12 No.1 in C major, WK 67 Flute Quartet Op. 12 No.2 in A major, WK 68 Flute Quartet Op. 12 No.3 in F major, WK 69 Flute Quartet Op. 12 No.4 in D major, WK 70 Flute Quartet Op. 12 No.5 in B flat major, WK 71 Flute Quartet Op. 12 No.6 in G major, WK 72 String Quartet Op. 15 No.1 in E major, WK 73 String Quartet Op. 15 No.2 in C major, WK 74 String Quartet Op. 15 No.3 in E flat major, WK 75 String Quartet Op. 15 No.4 in G major, WK 76 String Quartet Op. 15 No.5 in F major, WK 77 String Quartet Op. 15 No.6 in A major, WK 78 Raccolta for keyboard in C major, WK 79a Raccolta for keyboard in B flat major, WK 79b Trio Sonata Op. 3 No.1 in G major, WK 80 Trio Sonata Op. 3 No.2 in C major, WK 81 Trio Sonata Op. 3 No.3 in B flat major, WK 82 Trio Sonata Op. 3 No.4 in D major, WK 83 Trio Sonata Op. 3 No.5 in A major, WK 84 Trio Sonata Op. 3 No.6 in E flat major, WK 85 Trio Sonata Op. 9 No.1 in A major, WK 86 Trio Sonata Op. 9 No.2 in C major, WK 87 Trio Sonata Op. 9 No.3 in G major, WK 88 Trio Sonata Op. 9 No.4 in B flat major, WK 89 Trio Sonata Op. 9 No.5 in D major, WK 90 Trio Sonata Op. 9 No.6 in F major, WK 91 Trio Sonata Op. 16a No.1 in G major, WK 92 Trio Sonata Op. 16a No.2 in D major, WK 93 Trio Sonata Op. 16a No.3 in C major, WK 94 Trio Sonata Op. 16a No.4 in A major, WK 95 Trio Sonata Op. 16a No.5 in D major, WK 96 Trio Sonata Op. 16a No.6 in G major, WK 97 Trio Sonata Op. 16b No.1 in G major, WK 98 Trio Sonata Op. 16b No.2 in D major, WK 99 Trio Sonata Op. 16b No.3 in C major, WK 100 Trio Sonata Op. 16b No.4 in G major, WK 101 Trio Sonata for 2 violins & cello in A major, WK 102 Trio Sonata for 2 violins & cello in A major, WK 103 Trio Sonata for 2 flutes & cello in G major, WK 104 Trio Sonata for 2 flutes & cello in D major, WK 105 Trio Sonata for 2 flutes & cello in G major, WK 106 Trio Sonata for 2 flutes & cello in F major, WK 107 Trio Sonata for 2 flutes & cello in C minor, WK 108 Trio Sonata for 2 flutes & cello in G major, WK 109 Trio Sonata for 2 flutes & cello in G major, WK 110 Trio Sonata for 2 flutes & cello in D major, WK 110a Trio Sonata for 2 flutes & cello in G major, WK 110b Trio Sonata for 2 flutes & cello in C major, WK 110c Trio Sonata for 2 flutes & cello in B flat major, WK 110d Trio Sonata for 2 flutes & cello in C major, WK 110e Trio Sonata for 2 flutes & cello in C major, WK 110f Keyboard Trio Op. 2 No.1 in C major, WK 111 Keyboard Trio Op. 2 No.2 in F major, WK 112 Keyboard Trio Op. 2 No.3 in D major, WK 113 Keyboard Trio Op. 2 No.4 in B flat major, WK 114 Keyboard Trio Op. 2 No.5 in G major, WK 115 Keyboard Trio Op. 2 No.6 in E flat major, WK 116 Keyboard Trio Op. 5 No.1 in B flat major, WK 117 Keyboard Trio Op. 5 No.2 in G major, WK 118 Keyboard Trio Op. 5 No.3 in E major, WK 119 Keyboard Trio Op. 5 No.4 in C major, WK 120 Keyboard Trio Op. 5 No.5 in A major, WK 121 Keyboard Trio Op. 5 No.6 in F major, WK 122 Flute Sonata Op. 6 No.1 in C major, WK 123 Flute Sonata Op. 6 No.2 in G major, WK 124 Flute Sonata Op. 6 No.3 in G major, WK 125 Flute Sonata Op. 6 No.4 in E major, WK 126 Flute Sonata Op. 6 No.5 in F major, WK 127 Flute Sonata Op. 6 No.6 in G major, WK 128 Violin Sonata Op. 13 No.1 in G major, WK 129 Violin Sonata Op. 13 No.2 in F major, WK 130 Violin Sonata Op. 13 No.3 in A major, WK 131 Violin Sonata Op. 13 No.4 in B flat major, WK 132 Violin Sonata Op. 13 No.5 in C major, WK 133 Violin Sonata Op. 13 No.6 in E flat major, WK 134 Violin Sonata Op. 18 No.1 in G major, WK 135 Violin Sonata Op. 18 No.2 in A major, WK 136 Violin Sonata Op. 18 No.3 in C major, WK 137 Violin Sonata Op. 18 No.4 in E flat major, WK 138 Violin Sonata Op. 18 No.5 in B flat major, WK 139 Violin Sonata Op. 18 No.6 in F major, WK 140 Violin Sonata in C major, WK 140a Keyboard Sonata in B flat major, WK 140b Sonata for viola da gamba No. 1 in C major, WK 141 Sonata for viola da gamba No. 2 in A major, WK 142 Sonata for viola da gamba No. 3 in D major, WK 143 Sonata for viola da gamba No. 4 in G major, WK 144 Sonata for viola da gamba No. 5 in A major, WK 145 Sonata for viola da gamba No. 6 in E minor, WK 146 Sonata for viola da gamba No. 7 in G major, WK 147 Sonata for viola da gamba No. 8 in A major, WK 148 Sonata for viola da gamba No. 9 in G major, WK 149 Sonata for viola da gamba No.10 in E minor, WK 150 Sonata for viola da gamba No.11 in C major, WK 151 Sonata for viola da gamba No.12 in G major, WK 152 Sonata for viola da gamba No.13 in G major, WK 153 Sonata for viola da gamba No.14 in D major, WK 154 Sonata for viola da gamba No.15 in G major, WK 155 Sonata for viola da gamba No.16 in D major, WK 156 Sonata for viola da gamba No.17 in E minor, WK 157 Sonata for viola da gamba No.18 in D major, WK 158 Sonata for viola da gamba No.19 in G major, WK 159 Sonata for viola da gamba No.20 in D major, WK 160 Sonata for viola da gamba No.21 in D major, WK 161 Sonata for viola da gamba No.22 in C major, WK 162 Sonata for viola da gamba No.23 in A major, WK 163 Sonata for viola da gamba No.24 in A major, WK 164 Sonata for viola da gamba No.25 in D major, WK 165 Sonata for viola da gamba No.26 in D major, WK 166 Sonata for viola da gamba No.27 in G major, WK 167 Sonata for viola da gamba No.28 in D major, WK 168 Sonata for viola da gamba No.29 in D major, WK 169 Sonata for viola da gamba No.30 in C major, WK 170 Sonata for viola da gamba No.31 in G major, WK 171 Sonata for viola da gamba No.32 in D major, WK 172 Sonata for viola da gamba No.33 in A major, WK 173 Sonata for viola da gamba No.34 in G major, WK 174 Sonata for viola da gamba No.35 in A minor, WK 175 Sonata for viola da gamba No.36 in F minor, WK 176 Sonata for viola da gamba No.37 in A major, WK 177 Sonata for viola da gamba No.38 in G major, WK 178 Sonata for viola da gamba No.39 in A major, WK 179 Sonata for viola da gamba No.40 in D major, WK 180 Sonata for viola da gamba No.41 in D major, WK 181 Sonata for viola da gamba No.42 in G major, WK 182 Sonata for viola da gamba No.43 in A major, WK 183 Sonata for viola da gamba No.44 in C major, WK 184 Arpeggio for viola da gamba in D major, WK 185 Allegro for viola da gamba in D major, WK 186 Piece for viola da gamba in D major, WK 187 Tempo fi minuetto for viola da gamba in D major, WK 188 Adagio for viola da gamba in D major, WK 189 Vivace for viola da gamba in D major, WK 190 Andante for viola da gamba in D major, WK 191 Piece for viola da gamba in D major, WK 192 Piece for viola da gamba in D major, WK 193 Piece for viola da gamba in D major, WK 194 Piece for viola da gamba in D major, WK 195 Fuga for viola da gamba in D major, WK 196 Piece for viola da gamba in D major, WK 197 Allegro for viola da gamba in D major, WK 198 Piece for viola da gamba in D major, WK 199 Tempo di minuetto for viola da gamba in D major, WK 200 Tempo di minuetto for viola da gamba in D major, WK 201 Piece for viola da gamba in D major, WK 202 Piece for viola da gamba in D major, WK 203 Con variatione for viola da gamba in D major, WK 204 Piece for viola da gamba in D minor, WK 205 Piece for viola da gamba in D minor, WK 206 Allegro for viola da gamba in D minor, WK 207 Piece for viola da gamba in D minor, WK 208 Adagio for viola da gamba in D minor, WK 209 Minuetto for viola da gamba in D major, WK 210 Allegretto for viola da gamba in A major, WK 211 Allegro for viola da gamba in A major, WK 212 Minuet for keyboard in C major, WK 213 Minuet for keyboard in D major, WK 214 Minuet for keyboard in G major, WK 215 Minuet for keyboard in G major, WK 216 March in F major, WK 217 March in F major, WK 218 March in F major, WK 219 March in F major, WK 220 March in F major, WK 221 March in B flat major, WK 222 March in F major, WK 223 Andante for string quartet in E flat major, WK 224 Flute Quartet in F major, WK 225 Flute Quartet in D major, WK 226 Flute Quartet with viola da gamba in G major, WK 227 Cello Duet in D major, WK 228 Concertino for 2 clarinets in E flat major (lost), WK 229 5 adagios for string quartet, WK 230 Dolly's eyes are so bright, WK 231 4 soli for flute (lost), WK 232 Frena le belle lagrime, WK deest Selected works by opus number (adapted from the listing in the article on Abel at fr.wikipedia.org) Op. 1: 6 Overtures or Sinfonias (1761) Op. 2: 6 Sonatas for Keyboard and Violin and Cello (ad libitum) (1760) Op. 3: 6 Trio Sonatas for 2 Violins and Basso Continuo (1762) Op. 4: 6 Overtures or Sinfonias (1762) Op. 5: 6 Sonatas for Keyboard and Violin and Cello (ad libitum) (1762) Op. 6: 6 Sonatas for Keyboard and Flute (1763) Op. 7: 6 Symphonies (1767) Op. 8: 6 String Quartets (1768) Op. 9: 6 Trio Sonatas for Violin, Cello and Basso Continuo (1771) Op. 10: 6 Symphonies (1771) Op. 11: 6 Concerti for Keyboard and Strings (1771) Op. 12: 6 Flute Quartets (1774) Op. 13: 6 Sonatas for Keyboard and Violin (1777) Op. 14: 6 Symphonies (1778) Op. 15: 6 String Quartets (1780) Op. 16: 4 Trio Sonatas for 2 Flutes and Basso Continuo (1781) Op. 16: 6 Trio Sonatas for Violin, Viola and Cello (1782) Op. 17: 6 Symphonies (1785) Op. 18: 6 Sonatas for Keyboard and Violin (1784) Notes References S. M. Helm: Carl Friedrich Abel, Symphonist. London 1953 External links | Carl_Friedrich_Abel |@lemmatized portrait:1 carl:3 friedrich:3 abel:14 thomas:1 gainsborough:1 december:1 june:2 german:1 composer:1 classical:1 era:1 chamber:4 biographical:2 dictionary:2 give:2 year:3 birth:1 isbn:1 page:1 fine:1 player:3 viola:76 da:75 gamba:75 compose:1 important:1 music:1 instrument:3 bear:1 cöthen:1 son:2 christian:2 ferdinand:1 principal:1 cello:25 court:2 orchestra:2 johann:4 sebastian:2 bach:7 proof:1 study:2 thomasschule:1 leipzig:1 recommendation:1 able:1 join:2 adolph:1 hasse:1 dresden:1 remain:2 ten:2 accord:1 go:1 england:2 become:4 musician:1 queen:1 charlotte:1 concert:8 composition:1 london:6 perform:1 various:2 one:2 five:1 string:18 know:2 pentachord:1 recently:1 invent:1 john:1 joseph:1 merlin:2 freiberg:1 sarah:1 conversation:1 magical:1 internet:1 society:1 retrieve:1 january:1 eleventh:1 friendship:1 lead:1 establishment:1 famous:2 first:3 subscription:1 many:1 celebrate:1 guest:1 artist:1 appear:1 work:7 haydn:1 receive:1 english:1 performance:1 organize:1 mr:1 teresa:1 cornelys:1 retired:1 venetian:1 opera:1 singer:1 hall:1 carlisle:1 house:1 soho:2 square:2 height:1 fashionable:1 event:1 independent:1 continue:1 death:2 still:1 great:1 demand:1 new:1 old:1 travel:1 germany:1 france:1 upon:1 return:1 leading:1 member:1 grand:1 professional:1 hanover:1 room:1 throughout:1 life:1 enjoy:1 excessive:1 living:1 drinking:1 probably:1 hasten:1 occur:1 widely:1 due:1 misattribution:1 century:1 manuscript:1 symphony:50 hand:1 wolfgang:1 amadeus:1 mozart:3 catalogue:1 e:26 flat:43 k:1 publish:2 complete:1 edition:1 breitkopf:1 härtel:1 later:1 discover:1 actually:1 copy:1 boy:1 evidently:1 purpose:1 visit:1 originally:1 conclude:1 six:1 op:132 list:1 b:25 major:227 wk:243 c:35 f:22 g:42 sinfonia:2 concertante:2 oboe:2 quartet:28 periodical:1 overture:5 love:1 village:1 summer:1 tale:1 flute:39 concerto:16 minor:12 keyboard:31 raccolta:2 trio:53 sonata:110 violin:22 arpeggio:1 allegro:4 piece:12 tempo:3 fi:1 minuetto:4 adagio:3 vivace:1 andante:2 fuga:1 di:2 con:1 variatione:1 allegretto:1 minuet:4 march:7 duet:1 concertino:1 clarinet:1 lose:2 dolly:1 eye:1 bright:1 solo:1 frena:1 le:1 belle:1 lagrime:1 deest:1 select:1 opus:1 number:1 adapt:1 listing:1 article:1 fr:1 wikipedia:1 org:1 sinfonias:2 ad:2 libitum:2 basso:3 continuo:3 note:1 reference:1 helm:1 symphonist:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram carl_friedrich:3 chamber_biographical:2 biographical_dictionary:2 viola_da:75 da_gamba:75 johann_sebastian:2 sebastian_bach:2 wolfgang_amadeus:1 amadeus_mozart:1 breitkopf_härtel:1 symphony_op:41 major_wk:226 wk_symphony:40 sinfonia_concertante:2 wk_flute:22 flute_concerto:7 cello_concerto:2 wk_keyboard:19 string_quartet:16 quartet_op:21 flute_quartet:10 wk_trio:37 trio_sonata:41 sonata_op:40 sonata_violin:5 violin_cello:5 sonata_flute:14 flute_cello:13 trio_op:12 flute_sonata:6 wk_violin:13 violin_sonata:13 wk_sonata:44 sonata_viola:44 gamba_major:45 ad_libitum:2 basso_continuo:3 violin_viola:1 viola_cello:1 external_link:1 |
5,131 | Politics_of_Liberia | Politics of Liberia takes place in a framework of a presidential representative democratic republic modeled on the government of the United States, whereby the President is the head of state and head of government; unlike the United States, however, Liberia is a unitary state as opposed to a federation and has a pluriform multi-party system rather than the two-party system that characterizes US politics. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the two chambers of the legislature. Liberia is still in transition from dictatorship and civil war to democracy. Liberia's government is based on the American model of a republic with three equal branches of government, though in reality the President of Liberia has usually been the dominant force in Liberian politics. Following the dissolution of the Republican Party in 1876, the True Whig Party dominated the Liberian government until the 1980 coup, eventually creating a one-party state. Currently, no party has majority control of the legislature. The longest serving president in Liberian history was William Tubman, serving from 1944 until his death in 1971. The shortest term was held by James Skivring Smith, who was interim president all of two months. However, the political process from Liberia's founding in 1847, despite widespread corruption, was very stable until the end of the First Republic in 1980. Political developments since 1980 The Executive Mansion has been the home of Liberian Presidents since the 1960s, but has not been used since a fire in 1996. Between 1980 and 2006, Liberia was governed by a series of military and transitional governments. The president of the last of these, Charles Taylor, was forced to step down in 2003, and the United Nations installed a transitional government. Elections to select a government to replace the transitional government took place in October and November 2005. (see Liberian elections, 2005). In the 1980s, Samuel K. Doe's government increasingly adopted an ethnic outlook as members of his Krahn ethnic group soon dominated political and military life in Liberia. This caused a heightened level of ethnic tension leading to frequent hostilities between the politically and militarily dominant Krahns and other ethnic groups in the country. Political parties remained banned until 1984. Elections were held on October 15 1985 in which Doe's National Democratic Party of Liberia (NDPL) was declared winner. The elections were characterized by widespread fraud and rigging. The period after the elections saw increased human rights abuses, corruption, and ethnic tensions. The standard of living, which had been rising in the 1970s, declined drastically. On November 12 1985, former Army Commanding General Thomas Quiwonkpa invaded Liberia by way of neighboring Sierra Leone and almost succeeded in toppling the government of Samuel Doe. Members of the Krahn-dominated Armed Forces of Liberia repelled Quiwonkpa's attack and executed him in Monrovia. On December 24 1989, a small band of rebels led by Doe's former procurement chief, Charles Taylor invaded Liberia from Côte d'Ivoire. Taylor and his National Patriotic Front rebels rapidly gained the support of Liberians because of the repressive nature of Samuel Doe and his government. Barely six months after the rebels first attacked, they had reached the outskirts of Monrovia. The Liberian Civil War, which was one of Africa's bloodiest, claimed the lives of more than 200,000 Liberians and further displaced a million others into refugee camps in neighboring countries. The Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) intervened and succeeded in preventing Charles Taylor from capturing Monrovia. Prince Johnson who had been a member of Taylor's National Patriotic Front of Liberia (NPFL) but broke away because of policy differences, formed the Independent National Patriotic Front of Liberia (INPFL). Johnson's forces captured and killed Doe on 9 September 1990. An Interim Government of National Unity (IGNU) was formed in Gambia under the auspices of ECOWAS in October 1990 and Dr. Amos Sawyer became President. Taylor refused to work with the interim government and continued war. By 1992, several warring factions had emerged in the Liberian civil war, all of which were absorbed in the new transitional government. After several peace accords and declining military power, Taylor finally agreed to the formation of a five-man transitional government. After considerable progress in negotiations conducted by the United States, United Nations, Organization of African Unity, and the Economic Community of West African States, disarmament and demobilization of warring factions were hastily carried out and special elections were held on 19 July 1997 with Charles Taylor and his National Patriotic Party emerging victorious. Taylor won the election by a large majority, primarily because Liberians feared a return to war had Taylor lost. However, unrest continued, and by 2003, two rebel groups were challenging Taylor's control of the country. In August 2003, Taylor resigned and fled the country and vice-president Moses Blah became acting president. The international community again intervened and helped set up a transitional government under Gyude Bryant. For more than a year, over 9,000 census-takers combed the densely forested nation mapping every structure. For three days starting March 21 2008, they will revisit each dwelling and count the inhabitants. Executive branch |President |Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf |UP |16 January 2006 |} The president is elected by popular vote for a six-year term (renewable). The cabinet is appointed by the president and confirmed by the Senate. Legislative branch Liberia has a bicameral Legislature that consists of the Senate (30 seats; members elected by popular vote to serve nine-year terms) and the House of Representatives (64 seats; members elected by popular vote to serve six-year terms) Political parties and elections More info: Liberia elections, 2005 More info: Liberia elections, 2005 Judicial branch There is a Supreme Court, criminal courts, and appeals court and magistrate courts in the counties. There also are traditional courts and lay courts in the counties. Trial by ordeal is practiced in various parts of Liberia. Administrative divisions The basic unit of local government is the town chief. There are clan chiefs, paramount chiefs, and district commissioners. Mayors are elected in principal cities in Liberia. The counties are governed by superintendents appointed by the President. There are fifteen counties in Liberia. International organization participation ACP, AfDB, CCC, ECA, ECOWAS, FAO, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat (nonsignatory user), Interpol, IOC, IOM, ITU, NAM, OAU, OPCW, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO Sources and References http://www.traveldocs.com/lr/history.htm | Politics_of_Liberia |@lemmatized politics:3 liberia:20 take:2 place:2 framework:1 presidential:1 representative:2 democratic:2 republic:3 model:2 government:20 united:5 state:8 whereby:1 president:13 head:2 unlike:1 however:3 unitary:1 oppose:1 federation:1 pluriform:1 multi:1 party:10 system:2 rather:1 two:4 characterize:2 u:1 executive:3 power:3 exercise:1 legislative:2 vest:1 chamber:1 legislature:3 still:1 transition:1 dictatorship:1 civil:3 war:7 democracy:1 base:1 american:1 three:2 equal:1 branch:4 though:1 reality:1 usually:1 dominant:2 force:4 liberian:10 follow:1 dissolution:1 republican:1 true:1 whig:1 dominate:3 coup:1 eventually:1 create:1 one:2 currently:1 majority:2 control:2 long:1 serve:4 history:2 william:1 tubman:1 death:1 short:1 term:4 hold:3 james:1 skivring:1 smith:1 interim:3 month:2 political:5 process:1 founding:1 despite:1 widespread:2 corruption:2 stable:1 end:1 first:2 development:1 since:3 mansion:1 home:1 use:1 fire:1 govern:2 series:1 military:3 transitional:6 last:1 charles:4 taylor:12 step:1 nation:3 instal:1 election:10 select:1 replace:1 october:3 november:2 see:1 samuel:3 k:1 doe:6 increasingly:1 adopt:1 ethnic:5 outlook:1 member:5 krahn:2 group:3 soon:1 life:2 cause:1 heightened:1 level:1 tension:2 lead:2 frequent:1 hostility:1 politically:1 militarily:1 krahns:1 country:4 remain:1 ban:1 national:6 ndpl:1 declare:1 winner:1 fraud:1 rigging:1 period:1 saw:1 increase:1 human:1 right:1 abuse:1 standard:1 living:1 rise:1 decline:2 drastically:1 former:2 army:1 command:1 general:1 thomas:1 quiwonkpa:2 invade:2 way:1 neighbor:2 sierra:1 leone:1 almost:1 succeed:2 topple:1 armed:1 repel:1 attack:2 execute:1 monrovia:3 december:1 small:1 band:1 rebel:4 procurement:1 chief:4 côte:1 ivoire:1 patriotic:4 front:3 rapidly:1 gain:1 support:1 repressive:1 nature:1 barely:1 six:3 reach:1 outskirt:1 africa:1 bloodiest:1 claim:1 far:1 displace:1 million:1 others:1 refugee:1 camp:1 economic:2 community:3 west:2 african:3 ecowas:3 intervene:1 prevent:1 capture:2 prince:1 johnson:3 npfl:1 break:1 away:1 policy:1 difference:1 form:2 independent:1 inpfl:1 kill:1 september:1 unity:2 ignu:1 gambia:1 auspex:1 dr:1 amos:1 sawyer:1 become:2 refuse:1 work:1 continue:2 several:2 faction:2 emerge:2 absorb:1 new:1 peace:1 accord:1 finally:1 agree:1 formation:1 five:1 man:1 considerable:1 progress:1 negotiation:1 conduct:1 organization:2 disarmament:1 demobilization:1 hastily:1 carry:1 special:1 july:1 victorious:1 win:1 large:1 primarily:1 fear:1 return:1 lose:1 unrest:1 challenge:1 august:1 resign:1 flee:1 vice:1 moses:1 blah:1 acting:1 international:2 intervened:1 help:1 set:1 gyude:1 bryant:1 year:4 census:1 taker:1 comb:1 densely:1 forested:1 map:1 every:1 structure:1 day:1 start:1 march:1 revisit:1 dwelling:1 count:1 inhabitant:1 ellen:1 sirleaf:1 january:1 elect:4 popular:3 vote:3 renewable:1 cabinet:1 appoint:2 confirm:1 senate:2 bicameral:1 consist:1 seat:2 nine:1 house:1 info:2 judicial:1 supreme:1 court:6 criminal:1 appeal:1 magistrate:1 county:4 also:1 traditional:1 lay:1 trial:1 ordeal:1 practice:1 various:1 part:1 administrative:1 division:1 basic:1 unit:1 local:1 town:1 clan:1 paramount:1 district:1 commissioner:1 mayor:1 principal:1 city:1 superintendent:1 fifteen:1 participation:1 acp:1 afdb:1 ccc:1 eca:1 fao:1 g:1 iaea:1 ibrd:1 icao:1 icftu:1 icrm:1 ida:1 ifad:1 ifc:1 ifrcs:1 ilo:1 imf:1 imo:1 inmarsat:1 intelsat:1 nonsignatory:1 user:1 interpol:1 ioc:1 iom:1 itu:1 nam:1 oau:1 opcw:1 un:1 unctad:1 unesco:1 unido:1 upu:1 wcl:1 wftu:1 wipo:1 wmo:1 source:1 reference:1 http:1 www:1 traveldocs:1 com:1 lr:1 htm:1 |@bigram pluriform_multi:1 politically_militarily:1 sierra_leone:1 samuel_doe:2 côte_ivoire:1 disarmament_demobilization:1 vice_president:1 gyude_bryant:1 census_taker:1 ellen_johnson:1 johnson_sirleaf:1 legislative_branch:1 bicameral_legislature:1 judicial_branch:1 supreme_court:1 participation_acp:1 acp_afdb:1 ccc_eca:1 eca_ecowas:1 iaea_ibrd:1 ibrd_icao:1 icao_icftu:1 icftu_icrm:1 icrm_ida:1 ida_ifad:1 ifad_ifc:1 ifc_ifrcs:1 ifrcs_ilo:1 ilo_imf:1 imf_imo:1 imo_inmarsat:1 inmarsat_intelsat:1 intelsat_nonsignatory:1 nonsignatory_user:1 interpol_ioc:1 ioc_iom:1 itu_nam:1 nam_oau:1 oau_opcw:1 opcw_un:1 un_unctad:1 unctad_unesco:1 unesco_unido:1 unido_upu:1 upu_wcl:1 wcl_wftu:1 wftu_wipo:1 wipo_wmo:1 http_www:1 |
5,132 | Edward_VI_of_England | Edward VI (12 October 1537 – 6 July 1553) became King of England and Ireland on 28 January 1547 and was crowned on 20 February at the age of nine. Henry VIII had replaced the style "Lord of Ireland" with "King of Ireland" in 1541; Edward also maintained the English claim to the French throne but did not rule France. See , and . The son of Henry VIII and Jane Seymour, Edward was the third monarch of the Tudor dynasty and England's first Protestant ruler. During Edward’s reign, the realm was governed by a Regency Council, because he never reached maturity. The Council was led from 1547 to 1549 by his uncle Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset, and from 1550 to 1553 by John Dudley, 1st Earl of Warwick, who in 1551 became 1st Duke of Northumberland. Edward's reign was marked by economic problems, military withdrawal from Scotland and Boulogne-sur-Mer, and social unrest that in 1549 erupted into riot and rebellion. It also saw the transformation of the Anglican Church into a recognisably Protestant body. The article follows the majority of historians in using the term "Protestant" for the Church of England as it stood by the end of Edward's reign. However, a minority prefer the terms "evangelical" or "new". In this view, as expressed by Diarmaid MacCulloch, it is "premature to use the label 'Protestant' for the English movement of reform in the reigns of Henry and Edward, even though its priorities were intimately related to what was happening in central Europe. A description more true to the period would be 'evangelical', a word which was indeed used at the time in various cognates". Henry VIII had severed the link between the Church of England and Rome, and during Edward's reign, Protestantism was established for the first time in England, with reforms that included the abolition of clerical celibacy and the mass, and the imposition of compulsory services in English. The architect of these reforms was Thomas Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury, whose Book of Common Prayer has proved lasting. When Edward fell terminally ill in 1553, he and his Council drew up a "Devise for the Succession" in an attempt to prevent a Catholic backlash against the Protestant Reformation. Edward named his cousin Lady Jane Grey as his heir and excluded his two half sisters, the Catholic Mary and Protestant Elizabeth. On Edward's death at the age of 15, the succession was disputed. Jane survived as queen for only nine days before the Privy Council proclaimed Mary, for whom the people had risen in support in the counties. As queen, Mary proceeded to undo many of Edward's Protestant reforms, but Elizabeth's religious settlement of 1559 was to secure his Protestant legacy. Early life Birth Prince Edward in 1539, by Hans Holbein the Younger. He holds a golden rattle that resembles a sceptre; and the Latin inscription urges him to equal or surpass his father. Prince Edward was born on 12 October 1537 at Hampton Court Palace, to the west of London. He was the son of King Henry VIII by his third wife, Jane Seymour. Throughout the realm, the people greeted the birth of a male heir, "whom we hungered for so long", Hugh Latimer, bishop of Worcester, quoted by with joy and relief. Te Deums were sung in churches, bonfires lit, and "their was shott at the Tower that night above two thousand gonnes". Jane, who appeared to recover quickly from a prolonged labour, sent out pre-signed letters announcing the birth of "a Prince, conceived in most lawful matrimony between my Lord the King's Majesty and us". Edward was christened on 15 October, with Princess Mary as godmother and Princess Elizabeth carrying the chrism, or baptismal cloth; and the Garter King of Arms proclaimed him as Duke of Cornwall and Earl of Chester. Jane Seymour, however, suddenly fell ill on 23 October from presumed postnatal complications, and she died the following night. ; . Claims that Edward was born by caesarian section came from uninformed or hostile sources and are now doubted. Jane was reported as recovering quickly at first. Some commentators have assumed her death was caused by puerperal fever, which cannot be ruled out, though the suddenness of her delayed illness and death do not correspond with the symptoms. Edward's biographer Jennifer Loach, followed by Chris Skidmore, believes she may have retained parts of the placenta in her womb, resulting in a haemorrhage. Henry VIII wrote to Francis I of France that "Divine Providence ... hath mingled my joy with bitterness of the death of her who brought me this happiness". Edward was about nine when his father King Henry VIII died January 27,1547. Upbringing and education Edward was a healthy baby who suckled strongly from the first. His father was delighted with him; in May 1538, Henry was observed "dallying with him in his arms ... and so holding him in a window to the sight and great comfort of the people". That September, the Lord Chancellor, Thomas, Lord Audley, reported Edward's rapid growth and vigour; and other accounts describe him as a tall and merry child. The tradition that Edward VI was a sickly boy has been challenged by some historians. ; ; At the age of four, he fell ill with a life-threatening "quartan fever", A fever recurring about every four days, today usually associated with malaria. but, despite occasional illnesses and poor eyesight, he enjoyed generally good health until the last six months of his life. Edward was also ill in 1550 and "of the measles and the smallpox" in 1552. Edward as Prince of Wales, 1546 Strong, 92; Hearn, 50. The portrait shows the Prince of Wales's feathers and crown on the pendant jewel. Edward was placed in the care of Margaret Bryan, "lady mistress" of the prince's household, and until the age of six he was brought up, as he put it later in his Chronicle, "among the women". ; A formal royal household was established around him, at first under Sir William Sidney, and later under Sir Richard Page, the stepfather of Edward Seymour's wife, Anne Stanhope. Henry demanded exacting standards of security and cleanliness in his son's household, stressing that Edward was "this whole realm's most precious jewel". ; Visitors described the prince, who was lavishly provided with toys and comforts, including his own troupe of minstrels, as a contented child. From the age of six, Edward began his formal education under Richard Cox and John Cheke, concentrating, as he recalled himself, on "learning of tongues, of the scripture, of philosophy, and all liberal sciences"; ; For example, he read biblical texts, Cato, Aesop's Fables, and Vives's Satellitium Vivis, which had been written for his sister Mary. he later also received tuition from Elizabeth's tutor, Roger Ascham, among others, and in French from Jean Belmain. He also learned Spanish and Italian. In addition, he is known to have studied geometry and learned to play musical instruments, including the lute and the virginals. He collected globes and maps and, according to coinage historian C. E. Challis, developed a grasp of monetary affairs that indicates a high intelligence. Edward's religious education is assumed to have favoured the reforming agenda. ; His religious establishment was probably chosen by Archbishop Thomas Cranmer, a leading reformer; and both Cox and Cheke were "reformed" Catholics or Erasmians and later became Marian exiles. By 1549, Edward had written a treatise on the pope as Antichrist and was making informed notes on theological controversies. ; Many aspects of Edward's religion were still essentially Catholic in his early years, including celebration of the mass and reverence for images and relics of the saints. Both Edward's sisters were attentive to their brother and often visited him—on one occasion, Elizabeth gave him a shirt "of her own working". Edward "took special content" in Mary's company, though he disapproved of her taste for foreign dances; "I love you most", he wrote to her in 1546. ; In 1543, Henry invited his three children to spend Christmas with him, signalling his reconciliation with his daughters, whom he had previously illegitimised and disinherited. The following spring, he restored them to their place in the succession with a Third Succession Act, which also provided for a regency council during Edward's minority. ; Henry made the recognition of his daughters conditional on approved marriages, among other things. He reserved the choosing of the regency council for his will. This unaccustomed family harmony may have owed much to the influence of Henry's new wife Catherine Parr, of whom Edward soon became fond. He called her his "most dear mother" and in September 1546 wrote to her: "I received so many benefits from you that my mind can hardly grasp them". Portrait miniature of Edward by an unknown artist, c. 1543–46 This miniature, formerly attributed to Hans Holbein the Younger and one of several versions derived from the same pattern, is now thought likely to be by a follower of William Scrots. The background inscription gives Edward's age as six, but this has been doubted after x-rays of the underpainting. See , and . Other children were brought to play with Edward, including the granddaughter of Edward's chamberlain Sir William Sidney, who in adulthood recalled the prince as "a marvellous sweet child, of very mild and generous condition". Edward shared his formal education with sons of nobles, "appointed to attend upon him" in what was a form of miniature court. Among these, Barnaby Fitzpatrick, the son of an Irish peer, became a close and lasting friend. Edward was more devoted to his schoolwork than were his classmates and seems to have outshone them, motivated to do his "duty" and compete with his sister Elizabeth's academic prowess, though Cox felt it necessary to beat him on at least one occasion. ; Edward’s surroundings and possessions were regally splendid: his rooms were hung with costly Flemish tapestries, and his clothes, books, and cutlery were encrusted with precious jewels and gold. Like his father, Edward was fascinated by military arts, and many of his portraits show him wearing a gold dagger with a jewelled hilt, in imitation of Henry. ; . Such portraits were modelled on Holbein's depiction of Henry VIII for a wall-painting at Whitehall in 1537, in which Henry confronts the viewer wearing a dagger. See Remigius van Leemput's 1667 copy of the mural, which was destroyed in a fire in 1698. Edward's Chronicle enthusiastically details English military campaigns against Scotland and France, and adventures such as John Dudley's near capture at Musselburgh in 1547. Rough wooing On 1 July 1543, Henry VIII had signed the Treaty of Greenwich with the Scots, sealing the peace with Edward's betrothal to the seven-month-old Mary, Queen of Scots. The Scots were in a weak bargaining position after their defeat at Solway Moss the previous November, and Henry, seeking to unite the two realms, stipulated that Mary be handed over to him to be brought up in England. When the Scots repudiated the treaty in December 1543 and renewed their alliance with France, Henry was enraged. In April 1544, he ordered Edward's uncle, Edward Seymour, Earl of Hertford, to invade Scotland and "put all to fire and sword, burn Edinburgh town, so razed and defaced when you have sacked and gotten what ye can of it, as there may remain forever a perpetual memory of the vengeance of God lightened upon [them] for their falsehood and disloyalty". Seymour responded with the most savage campaign ever launched by the English against the Scots. "His detailed reports to his master are a hideous record of fire and bloodshed, chronicled in the most factual and laconic manner." The war, which continued into Edward's reign, has become known as "The Rough Wooing". Accession [[Image:Ed and pope.png|thumb|'Edward VI and the Pope: An Allegory of the Reformation. This anonymous work of propaganda depicts the handing over of power from Henry VIII, who lies dying in bed, to Edward VI, seated beneath a cloth of state with a slumping pope at his feet. In the top right of the picture is an image of men pulling down and smashing idols. At Edward's side are his uncle the Lord Protector Edward Seymour, and members of the Privy Council. ; ; ]] Henry VIII died on 28 January 1547, when Edward was only nine. Those close to the throne, led by Edward Seymour and William Paget, agreed to delay the announcement of the king's death until arrangements had been made for a smooth succession. Seymour and Sir Anthony Browne, the Master of the Horse, rode to collect Edward from Hertford and brought him to Enfield, where Princess Elizabeth was living. He and Elizabeth were then told of the death of their father and heard a reading of the will. ; The Lord Chancellor, Thomas Wriothesley, announced Henry's death to parliament on 31 January, and general proclamations of Edward's succession were ordered. The new king was taken to the Tower of London, where he was welcomed with "great shot of ordnance in all places there about, as well out of the Tower as out of the ships". The following day, the nobles of the realm made their obedience to Edward at the Tower, and Seymour was announced as Protector. Henry VIII was buried at Windsor on 16 February, in the same tomb as Jane Seymour, as he had wished. Edward VI was crowned at Westminster Abbey four days later on Sunday 20 February, the first coronation in England for almost 40 years. The ceremonies were shortened, because of the "tedious length of the same which should weary and be hurtsome peradventure to the King's majesty, being yet of tender age", and also because the Reformation had rendered some of them inappropriate. ; On the eve of the coronation, Edward progressed on horseback from the Tower to the Palace of Westminster through thronging crowds and pageants, many based on the pageants for a previous boy king, Henry VI. He laughed at a Spanish tightrope walker who "tumbled and played many pretty toys" outside St Paul's Cathedral. At the coronation service, Cranmer affirmed the royal supremacy and called Edward a second Josiah, ; urging him to continue the reformation of the Church of England, "the tyranny of the Bishops of Rome banished from your subjects, and images removed". After the service, Edward presided at a banquet in Westminster Hall, where, he recalled in his Chronicle, he dined with his crown on his head. ; Somerset's Protectorate Council of Regency Henry VIII's will named sixteen executors, who were to act as Edward's Council until he reached the age of 18. These executors were supplemented by twelve men "of counsail" who would assist the executors when called on. ; The final state of Henry VIII's will has been the subject of controversy. Some historians suggest that those close to the king manipulated either him or the will itself to ensure a shareout of power to their benefit, both material and religious. In this reading, the composition of the Privy Chamber shifted towards the end of 1546 in favour of the reforming faction. In addition, two leading conservative Privy Councillors were removed from the centre of power. Stephen Gardiner was refused access to Henry during his last months. Thomas Howard, 3rd Duke of Norfolk, found himself accused of treason; the day before the king's death his vast estates were seized, making them available for redistribution, and he spent the whole of Edward's reign in the Tower of London. ; Other historians have argued that Gardiner's exclusion was based on non-religious matters, that Norfolk was not noticeably conservative in religion, that conservatives remained on the Council, and that the radicalism of men such as Sir Anthony Denny, who controlled the dry stamp that replicated the king's signature, is debatable.<ref>. In addressing these views, Loach cites, among others: G. Redworth, In Defence of the Church Catholic: the Life of Stephen Gardiner (Oxford, 1990), 231–37; Susan Brigden, "Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey, and the Conjoured League", Historical Journal, xxxvii (1994), 507–37; and Eric Ives, "Henry VIII's Will: A Forensic Conundrum", Historical Journal (1992), 792–99.</ref> Whatever the case, Henry's death was followed by a lavish hand-out of lands and honours to the new power group. The will contained an "unfulfilled gifts" clause, added at the last minute, which allowed Henry's executors to freely distribute lands and honours to themselves and the court, ; David Starkey describes this distribution of benefits as typical of "the shameless back-scratching of the alliance"; G. R. Elton calls the changes to the will "convenient". particularly to Edward Seymour, 1st Earl of Hertford, who became the Lord Protector of the Realm, Governor of the King's Person, and the Duke of Somerset. Edward VI's uncle, Edward Seymour, Duke of Somerset, ruled England in the name of his nephew as Lord Protector from 1547 to 1549. In fact, Henry VIII's will did not provide for the appointment of a Protector. It entrusted the government of the realm during his son's minority to a Regency Council that would rule collectively, by majority decision, with "like and equal charge". ; The existence of a council of executors alongside the Privy Council was rationalised in March when the two became one, incorporating the executors and most of their appointed assistants and adding Thomas Seymour, who had protested at his exclusion from power. Nevertheless, a few days after Henry's death, on 4 February, the executors chose to invest almost regal power in Edward Seymour. ; Thirteen out of the sixteen (the others being absent) agreed to his appointment as Protector, which they justified as their joint decision "by virtue of the authority" of Henry's will. ; Seymour may have done a deal with some of the executors, who almost all received hand-outs. ; He is known to have done so with William Paget, private secretary to Henry VIII, In 1549, Paget was to remind Seymour: "Remember what you promised me in the gallery at Westminster before the breath was out of the body of the king that dead is. Remember what you promised immediately after, devising with me concerning the place which you now occupy ... and that was to follow mine advice in all your proceedings more than any other man's". Quoted in and to have secured the support of Sir Anthony Browne of the Privy Chamber. Seymour's appointment was in keeping with historical precedent, ; Uncles of the king had been made Protector in 1422 and 1483 during the minorities of Henry VI and Edward V (though not also Governor of the King's Person, as Seymour's brother Thomas, who coveted the role for himself, pointed out). and his eligibility for the role was reinforced by his military successes in Scotland and France. In March 1547, he secured letters patent from King Edward granting him the almost monarchical right to appoint members to the Privy Council himself and to consult them only when he wished. ; In 1549, William Paget described him as king in all but name. In the words of historian G. R. Elton, "from that moment his autocratic system was complete". He proceeded to rule largely by proclamation, calling on the Privy Council to do little more than rubber-stamp his decisions. Somerset's takeover of power was smooth and efficient. The imperial ambassador, Van der Delft, reported that he "governs everything absolutely", with Paget operating as his secretary, though he predicted trouble from John Dudley, who had recently been raised to Earl of Warwick in the share-out of honours. ; In fact, in the early weeks of his Protectorate, Somerset was challenged only by the Chancellor, Thomas Wriothesley, whom the Earldom of Southampton had evidently failed to buy off, and by his own brother. Wriothesley, a religious conservative, objected to Somerset’s assumption of monarchical power over the Council. He then found himself abruptly dismissed from the chancellorship on charges of selling off some of his offices to delegates. ; His removal forestalled the forming of factions within the Council. Thomas Seymour Somerset faced less manageable opposition from his younger brother Thomas Seymour, who has been described as a "worm in the bud". As King Edward's uncle, Thomas Seymour demanded the governorship of the king’s person and a greater share of power. Some historians believe that John Dudley, who was to challenge Somerset in 1549, encouraged Thomas Seymour to make these demands. Somerset tried to buy his brother off with a barony, an appointment to the Lord Admiralship, and a seat on the Privy Council—but Thomas was bent on scheming for power. He began smuggling pocket money to King Edward, telling him that Somerset held the purse strings too tight, making him a "beggarly king". He also urged him to throw off the Protector within two years and "bear rule as other kings do"; but Edward, schooled to defer to the Council, failed to co-operate. ; In April, using Edward’s support to circumvent Somerset’s opposition, Thomas Seymour secretly married Henry VIII's widow Catherine Parr, whose Protestant household included the 11-year-old Lady Jane Grey and the 13-year-old Princess Elizabeth. In summer 1548, a pregnant Catherine Parr discovered Thomas Seymour embracing Princess Elizabeth. As a result, Elizabeth was removed from Catherine Parr's household and transferred to Sir Anthony Denny's. That September, Catherine Parr died in childbirth, and Thomas Seymour promptly resumed his attentions to Elizabeth by letter, planning to marry her. Elizabeth was receptive, but, like Edward, unready to agree to anything unless permitted by the Council. In January 1549, the Council, led by John Dudley, who had just engineered the recall of Wriothesley, had Thomas Seymour arrested on various charges, including embezzlement at the Bristol mint. King Edward, whom Seymour was accused of planning to marry to Lady Jane Grey, himself testified about the pocket money. ; Lack of clear evidence for treason ruled out a trial, so Seymour was condemned instead by an Act of Attainder and beheaded on 20 March 1549. The execution of the Protector's brother had at last given his enemies a chance to damage him. It was the latest of a series of disasters that had marked the Protector's rule. From this time, Somerset's own position was increasingly under threat. War Somerset’s only undoubted skill was as a soldier, which he had proven on expeditions to Scotland and in the defence of Boulogne-sur-Mer in 1546. From the first, his main interest as Protector was the war against Scotland. ; After a crushing victory at the Battle of Pinkie Cleugh in September 1547, he set up a network of garrisons in Scotland, stretching as far north as Dundee. His initial successes, however, were followed by a loss of direction, as his aim of uniting the realms through conquest became increasingly unrealistic. The Scots allied with France, who sent reinforcements for the defence of Edinburgh in 1548, while Mary, Queen of Scots, was removed to France, where she was betrothed to the dauphin. ; The dauphin was the future Francis II of France, son of Henry II of France. The cost of maintaining the Protector's massive armies and his permanent garrisons in Scotland also placed an unsustainable burden on the royal finances. A French attack on Boulogne in August 1549 at last forced Somerset to begin a withdrawal from Scotland. Rebellion During 1548, England was subject to social unrest. After April 1549, a series of armed revolts broke out, fuelled by various religious and agrarian grievances. The two most serious rebellions, which required major military intervention to put down, were in Devon and Cornwall and in Norfolk. The first, sometimes called the Prayer Book Rebellion, arose mainly from the imposition of church services in English, and the second, led by a tradesman called Robert Kett, mainly from the encroachment of landlords on common grazing ground. A complex aspect of the social unrest was that the protestors believed they were acting legitimately against enclosing landlords with the Protector's support, convinced that the landlords were the lawbreakers. ; For example, in Hereford, a man was recorded as saying that "by the king's proclamation all enclosures were to be broken up". The same justification for outbreaks of unrest was voiced throughout the country, not only in Norfolk and the west. The origin of the popular view of Somerset as sympathetic to the rebel cause lies partly in his series of sometimes liberal, often contradictory, proclamations, ; Some proclamations expressed sympathy for the victims of enclosure and announced action; some condemned the destruction of enclosures and associated riots; another announced pardons for those who had destroyed enclosures by mistake ("of folly and of mistaking") after misunderstanding the meaning of proclamations, so long as they were sorry. and partly in the uncoordinated activities of the commissions he sent out in 1548 and 1549 to investigate grievances about loss of tillage, encroachment of large sheep flocks on common land, and similar issues. Somerset's commissions were led by an evangelical M.P. called John Hales, whose socially liberal rhetoric linked the issue of enclosure with Reformation theology and the notion of a godly commonwealth. ; Local groups often assumed that the findings of these commissions entitled them to act against offending landlords themselves. "Their aim was not to bring down government, but to help it correct the faults of local magistrates and identify the ways in which England could be reformed." King Edward wrote in his Chronicle that the 1549 risings began "because certain commissions were sent down to pluck down enclosures". Whatever the popular view of Somerset, the disastrous events of 1549 were taken as evidence of a colossal failure of government, and the Council laid the responsibility at the Protector's door. In July 1549, Paget wrote to Somerset: "Every man of the council have misliked your proceedings ... would to God, that, at the first stir you had followed the matter hotly, and caused justice to be ministered in solemn fashion to the terror of others ...". By that autumn, plans were afoot to eject Somerset as Protector. Fall of Somerset The sequence of events that led to Somerset's removal from power has often been called a coup d'état. By 1 October, Somerset had been alerted that his rule faced a serious threat. He issued a proclamation calling for assistance, took possession of the king's person, and withdrew for safety to the fortified Windsor Castle, where Edward wrote, "Me thinks I am in prison". Meanwhile, a united Council published details of Somerset's government mismanagement. They made clear that the Protector's power came from them, not from Henry VIII's will. On 11 October, the Council had Somerset arrested and brought the king to Richmond. Edward summarised the charges against Somerset in his Chronicle: "ambition, vainglory, entering into rash wars in mine youth, negligent looking on Newhaven, enriching himself of my treasure, following his own opinion, and doing all by his own authority, etc." Quoted in . By "Newhaven" is meant Ambleteuse, near Boulogne. In February 1550, John Dudley, Earl of Warwick, emerged as the leader of the Council and, in effect, as Somerset's successor. Although Somerset was released from the Tower and restored to the Council, he was executed for felony in January 1552 after scheming to overthrow Dudley's regime. ; Edward noted his uncle's death in his Chronicle: "the duke of Somerset had his head cut off upon Tower Hill between eight and nine o'clock in the morning". Historians contrast the efficiency of Somerset's takeover of power, in which they detect the organising skills of allies such as Paget, the "master of practices", with the subsequent ineptitude of his rule. ; By autumn 1549, his costly wars had lost momentum, the crown faced financial ruin, and riots and rebellions had broken out around the country. Until recent decades, Somerset's reputation with historians was high, in view of his many proclamations that appeared to back the common people against a rapacious landowning class. ; . A. F. Pollard took this line in the early 20th century, echoed later by Edward VI's 1960s biographer W. K. Jordan, among others. The revisionary approach was initiated by M. L. Bush and Dale Hoak in the 1970s. More recently, however, he has often been portrayed as an arrogant ruler, devoid of the political and administrative skills necessary for governing the Tudor state. Northumberland's regime In contrast, Somerset's successor John Dudley, Earl of Warwick, made duke of Northumberland in 1550, was once regarded by historians merely as a grasping schemer who cynically elevated and enriched himself at the expense of the crown. ; Since the 1970s, the administrative and economic achievements of his regime have been recognised, and he has been credited with restoring the authority of the royal Council and returning the government to an even keel after the disasters of Somerset's protectorate. ; Nonetheless, that he shared Somerset's ambition, greed, and corruption is undisputed. ; John Dudley, Earl of Warwick, later 1st Duke of Northumberland, led the Privy Council after the downfall of Somerset. The Earl of Warwick's rival for leadership of the new regime was Thomas Wriothesley, 1st Earl of Southampton, whose conservative supporters had allied with Dudley's followers to create a unanimous Council which they, and observers such as the Emperor's ambassador, expected to reverse Somerset's policy of religious reform. Southampton's faction intended to appoint the Catholic Princess Mary as regent for King Edward. ; Warwick, on the other hand pinned his hopes on the king's strong Protestantism and, claiming that Edward was old enough to rule in person, moved himself and his people closer to the king, taking control of the Privy Chamber. Paget, accepting a barony, joined Warwick when he realised that a conservative policy would not bring the Emperor onto the English side over Boulogne. Southampton prepared a case for executing Somerset, aiming to discredit Warwick through Somerset's statements that he had done all with Warwick's cooperation. As a counter-move, Warwick convinced parliament to free Somerset, which it did on 14 January 1550. Warwick then had Southampton and his followers purged from the Council after winning the support of Council members in return for titles, and was made Lord President of the Council and great master of the king's household. ; . Hoak explains that the office of Lord President gave its holder the right to create and dismiss councillors, as well as to call and dissolve Council meetings. Although not called a Protector, he was now clearly the head of the government. In accordance with his use of the king's personal authority as the source of his own, Warwick encouraged the king to come to Council meetings, which enabled him to cite the king's authority for his decisions. ; ; . Loach, followed by Skidmore, contends that Edward did not attend the Privy Council itself but a special committee created for him. Although Edward was precocious and able to understand much government business, his contributions during Warwick's presidency probably amounted to no more than assent to decisions already taken. In Dale Hoak's view, "Edward VI's speeches and papers really present the somewhat pathetic figure of an articulate puppet far removed from the realities of government". His greatest influence was in matters of religion, where the Council followed the strongly Protestant policy that Edward favoured. The new duke of Northumberland's mode of operation was very different from Somerset's. Careful to make sure he always commanded a majority of councillors, he encouraged a working council and used it to legitimate his authority. Lacking Somerset's blood relationship with the king, he added members to the Council from his own faction in order to control it. He also added members of his own family to the royal household. After a time, he insisted it was "some derogation to his Majesty's honour and royal authority" for the Council to countersign his letters and so gained control of Edward's name. He saw that to achieve personal dominance, he needed total procedural control of the Council. In the words of historian John Guy, "Like Somerset, he became quasi-king; the difference was that he managed the bureaucracy on the pretence that Edward had assumed full sovereignty, whereas Somerset had asserted the right to near-sovereignty as Protector". Warwick's war policies were more pragmatic than Somerset's, and they have earned him criticism for weakness. In 1550, he signed a peace treaty with France that agreed to withdrawal from Boulogne, recalled all English garrisons from Scotland, and cancelled Edward's betrothal to Mary, Queen of Scots, in favour of one with Henry II's daughter Elisabeth. ; . Edward sent Elisabeth a "fair diamond" from Catherine Parr's collection. In practice, he realised that England could no longer support the cost of wars. ; At home, he took measures to police local unrest. In order to forestall future rebellions, he kept permanent representatives of the crown in the localities, including lords lieutenant, who commanded military forces and reported back to central government. ; Warwick also tackled the disastrous state of the kingdom's finances, drawing on the talents of Thomas Smith, William Cecil, and William Paulet, and on the financial advice of men such as Walter Mildmay and Thomas Gresham. However, his regime did not take action until after it had succumbed to the temptations of a quick profit by further debasing the coinage. ; The economic disaster that resulted handed the initiative to the experts, and the debasement was reversed. By 1552, confidence in the coinage was restored, prices fell, and trade at last improved. Though a full economic recovery was not achieved until Elizabeth's reign, its origins lay in the Duke of Northumberland's policies. The regime also cracked down on the widespread embezzlement of government finances and carried out a thorough review of revenue collection practices which has been called "one of the more remarkable achievements of Tudor administration". Reformation In the matter of religion, the regime of Northumberland followed the same policy as that of Somerset, supporting an increasingly vigorous programme of reform. Although Edward VI's practical influence on government was limited, his intense Protestantism made a reforming administration obligatory; his succession was managed by the reforming faction, who continued in power throughout his reign. The man Edward trusted most, Thomas Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury, introduced a series of religious reforms which revolutionised the English church from one that, while rejecting papal supremacy, remained essentially Catholic, to one that was institutionally Protestant. The confiscation of church property that had begun under Henry VIII resumed under Edward—notably with the dissolution of the chantries—to the great monetary advantage of the crown and the new owners of the seized property. Church reform was therefore as much a political as a religious policy under Edward VI. ; By the end of his reign, the church had been financially ruined, with much of the property of the bishops transferred into lay hands. The religious convictions of both Somerset and Northumberland have proved elusive for historians, who are divided on the sincerity of their Protestantism. ; ; ; ; . Northumberland was to renounce Protestantism before his execution, but this may have been an attempt to save his neck. There is less doubt, however, about the religious devotion—some have called it bigotry ; —of King Edward, who was said to have read twelve chapters of scripture daily and enjoyed sermons, and was commemorated by John Foxe as a "godly imp". ; Edward was depicted during his life and afterwards as a new Josiah, the biblical king who destroyed the idols of Baal. He could be priggish in his anti-Catholicism and once asked Catherine Parr to persuade Princess Mary "to attend no longer to foreign dances and merriments which do not become a most Christian princes". Edward's biographer Jennifer Loach cautions, however, against accepting too readily the pious image of Edward handed down by the reformers, as in John Foxe's influential Acts and Monuments, where a woodcut depicts the young king listening to a sermon by Hugh Latimer. ; . Loach points out, following Jordan, that Edward's Chronicle records nothing of his religious views and mentions no sermons; MacCulloch counters that Edward's notebook of sermons, which was once archived and documented, has since been lost. In the early part of his life, Edward conformed to the prevailing Catholic practices, including attendance at mass: but he became convinced, under the influence of Cranmer and the reformers among his tutors and courtiers, that "true" religion should be imposed in England. Thomas Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury, exerted a powerful influence on Edward's Protestantism. The English Reformation advanced under pressure from two directions: from the traditionalists on the one hand and the zealots on the other, who led incidents of iconoclasm (image-smashing) and complained that reform did not go far enough. Reformed doctrines were made official, such as justification by faith alone and communion for laity as well as clergy in both kinds, of bread and wine. The Ordinal of 1550 replaced the divine ordination of priests with a government-run appointment system, authorising ministers to preach the gospel and administer the sacraments rather than, as before, "to offer sacrifice and celebrate mass both for the living and the dead". ; ; Cranmer set himself the task of writing a uniform liturgy in English, detailing all weekly and daily services and religious festivals, to be made compulsory in the first Act of Uniformity of 1549. The Book of Common Prayer of 1549, intended as a compromise, was attacked by traditionalists for dispensing with many cherished rituals of the liturgy, such as the elevation of the bread and wine, ; ; . One of the grievances of the western prayer-book rebels in 1549 was that the new service seemed “like a Christmas game". while some reformers complained about the retention of too many "popish" elements, including vestiges of sacrificial rites at communion. The prayer book was also opposed by many senior Catholic clerics, including Stephen Gardiner, Bishop of Winchester, and Edmund Bonner, Bishop of London, who were both imprisoned in the Tower and, along with others, deprived of their sees. After 1551, the Reformation advanced further, with the approval and encouragement of Edward, who began to exert more personal influence in his role as Supreme Head of the church. The new changes were also a response to criticism from such reformers as John Hooper, Bishop of Gloucester, and the Scot John Knox, who was employed as a minister in Newcastle under the Duke of Northumberland and whose preaching at court prompted the king to oppose kneeling at communion. Cranmer was also influenced by the views of the continental reformer Martin Bucer, who died in England in 1551, by Peter Martyr, who was teaching at Oxford, and by other foreign theologians. ; ; The progress of the Reformation was further speeded by the appointment of more reformers as bishops. . Notable among the new bishops were John Ponet, who succeeded Gardiner at Winchester, Myles Coverdale at Exeter, and John Hooper at Gloucester. In the winter of 1551–52, Cranmer rewrote the Book of Common Prayer in less ambiguous reformist terms, revised canon law, and prepared a doctrinal statement, the Forty-two Articles, to clarify the practice of the reformed religion, particularly in the divisive matter of the communion service. Cranmer's formulation of the reformed religion, finally divesting the communion service of any notion of the real presence of God in the bread and the wine, effectively abolished the mass. ; According to Elton, the publication of Cranmer's revised prayer book in 1552, supported by a second Act of Uniformity, "marked the arrival of the English Church at protestantism". "The Prayer Book of 1552, the Ordinal of 1550, which it took over, the act of uniformity which made the Prayer Book the only legal form of worship, and the Forty-two Articles binding upon all Englishmen, clerical and lay—these between them comprehended the protestant Reformation in England." The prayer book of 1552 remains the foundation of the Church of England's services. However, Cranmer was unable to implement all these reforms once it became clear in spring 1553 that King Edward, upon whom the whole Reformation in England depended, was dying. . Edward approved the Forty-two Articles in June 1553, too late for them to be introduced—they later became the basis of Elizabeth I's Thirty-nine Articles of 1563. Cranmer's revision of canon law, Reformatio Legum Ecclesiasticarum, was never authorised by king or parliament. Succession crisis Device for the succession In his "devise for the succession", Edward passed over his sisters' claims to the throne in favour of Lady Jane Grey. In the fourth line, he altered "L Janes heires masles" to "L Jane and her heires masles". During the winter of 1552–53, Edward VI became ill, and by May his condition, which included chronic coughing and swollen legs and head, was grave. The prospect of the king's death and the succession of his Catholic sister Mary threatened disaster to those around the king. It placed in jeopardy not only the English Reformation but the powerful and lucrative positions enjoyed by Edward’s Council and officers. For these reasons, an attempt was made in June 1553, shortly before Edward's death, to subvert the succession. Henry VIII had appeared to establish the convention that an English king could dictate his own heirs and set aside the traditional rules of descent. Edward therefore wrote out several drafts of a document headed "My devise for the succession" in which he passed over the claims of the princesses Mary and Elizabeth in favour of his first cousin once removed, the seventeen-year-old Lady Jane Grey, who on 21 May was married to Guildford Dudley, the fourth son of the Duke of Northumberland, "with a display regal". ; ; Northumberland and his supporters insisted that deeply reluctant lawyers draw up a will in the terms of Edward's device, and on 21 June, this was signed by over a hundred notables, including councillors, peers, archbishops, bishops, and sheriffs, many of whom later claimed that they had been bullied into doing so by Northumberland. ; . Bribery also played a role in the amassing of signatures. In Hoak’s view, "The 'Devise' to alter the succession is consistent with the decisive political realism of a man who, understanding the treasonable risks, made everyone else in high office co-partners in a crime less unacceptable than the accession of a papist”. In the atmosphere of approaching uncertainty, Northumberland further secured his ties to the crown by betrothing a brother, son, and daughter to three individuals high in the line of succession to the throne. ; He also sealed an alliance with the French, banking on their support in the event of an armed challenge from Princess Mary. The plan to exclude Princess Mary from the succession shows that those at the centre of power had lost touch with political reality. ; Though Henry VIII had tampered with the succession, his exclusion of his sister Margaret's heirs was understandable because her heirs were aliens. Edward's device to alter the succession was not only unconstitutional in its violation of Henry VIII's Third Succession Act of 1543 but was demonstrably the product of hurried and illogical thinking. ; At first, Edward had provided for the succession of Jane's male heirs, but, as his death approached, he altered the wording so that Jane herself should succeed, since he had willed the crown to male heirs who had not yet been born. Those who drew up the legal documents failed to make the same change for her two sisters, who, inconsistently, remained excluded from the succession in favour of their male heirs. By the logic of the device, Jane's mother, Frances Grey, Duchess of Suffolk, the daughter of Henry VIII's sister Mary Tudor, but unlikely now to bear a male child, should have been named as Edward's heir, but she waived her claim in favour of her daughter. On 21 June, Edward issued letters patent bastardising the princesses Mary and Elizabeth. Why the Protestant Elizabeth was cut out of the succession along with Mary is unknown; it may be that if Mary was to be excluded on grounds of bastardy, Elizabeth, who had once been bastardised herself, had to be barred for the same reason. ; Whether the device was Edward's own idea or the result of manipulation by his advisors has been a matter of debate for historians. ; ; . Jordan believes that Edward's "resolve to bar Mary from the throne had now become something approaching a mania". Guy suggests that the drafts of the device were presented by Sir John Gates, a follower of Northumberland, to Edward, who then copied them out. In Hoak’s view, "Contrary to what has been thought, the scheme to alter the succession originated in Northumberland’s camp and not in King Edward’s brain". In practice, Edward's aims and those of Northumberland and his followers had become identical by 1553. Edward, who believed that his word was law, understood and accepted the proposals for the succession, even if they were not his own idea. In recent decades, revisionist historians such as Dale Hoak and Stephen Alford have emphasised that Northumberland alone did not engineer the plot to subvert the succession and place Lady Jane Grey on the throne. ; In his confession on the scaffold, the duke claimed that "some others" were involved, but he would not name them, "for I will hurt now no man". ; Although the marriage between Lady Jane Grey and Guildford Dudley, as well as other "suddenly knit" betrothals that tied Northumberland to the crown, were contracted in the last weeks of Edward's life, it has been shown that Northumberland had begun making arrangements for these alliances a year earlier, before Edward became ill. ; However, Edward Montagu, the Chief Justice, recalled that when legal objections to the device were raised in the Privy Council, Northumberland "fell into a great anger and rage, and called me traitor before all the Council, and said that in the quarrel of that matter he would fight in his shirt with any man living". The final responsibility for the alteration of the succession, however arrived at, must therefore be laid jointly at the door of Northumberland and of the young king himself. Illness and death Edward's illness began in January 1553 with a fever and cough that gradually worsened. The imperial ambassador, Scheyfve, reported that "he suffers a good deal when the fever is upon him, especially from a difficulty in drawing his breath, which is due to the compression of the organs on the right side ... I opine that this is a visitation and sign from God". Edward felt well enough in early April to take the air in the park at Westminster and to move to Greenwich, but by the end of the month he had weakened again. Scheyfve, who had an informant in the king’s household, wrote that “the matter he ejects from his mouth is sometimes coloured a greenish yellow and black, sometimes pink, like the colour of blood”. In May, ulcers—possibly bedsores—spread across his body, and his doctors believed he was suffering from "a suppurating tumour" of the lung. ; Members of the Council and other nobles began arming themselves for the troubles ahead; Windsor Castle and the south coast, among other places, were guarded and prepared for the worst; forces in the Tower and the city were strengthened, and naval vessels massed in the Thames. By mid-June, the doctors were admitting that Edward's life was beyond recovery. After this time, his legs became so swollen that he had to lie on his back, and he lost the strength to resist the disease. To his tutor John Cheke, he whispered "I am glad to die". Edward made his final appearance in public on 1 July, when he showed himself at his window in Greenwich Palace, horrifying those who saw him by his "thin and wasted" condition. During the next two days, large crowds arrived hoping to see the king again, but on the 3rd, they were told that the weather was too chilly for him to appear. Edward died at the age of 15 at Greenwich Palace on 6 July 1553. According to John Foxe’s legendary account of his death, his last words were: "I am faint; Lord have mercy upon me, and take my spirit". ; . See Foxe’s Acts and monuments, VI, 352. He was buried in Henry VII Lady Chapel at Westminster Abbey on 8 August 1553, with reformed rites performed by Thomas Cranmer. The procession was led by “a grett company of chylderyn in ther surples” and watched by Londoners “wepyng and lamenting”; the funeral chariot, draped in cloth of gold, was topped by an effigy of Edward, with crown, sceptre, and garter. At the same time, Queen Mary attended a mass for his soul in the Tower, where Jane Grey was by then imprisoned. The cause of Edward VI's death is not certain. As with many royal deaths in the 16th century, rumours of poisoning abounded, but no evidence has been found to support these. ; The Duke of Northumberland, whose unpopularity was underlined by the events that followed Edward’s death, was widely believed to have ordered the imagined poisoning. Another theory held that Edward had been poisoned by Catholics seeking to bring Mary to the throne. The surgeon who opened Edward’s chest after his death found that "the disease whereof his majesty died was the disease of the lungs". The Venetian ambassador reported that Edward had died of consumption—in other words, tuberculosis—a diagnosis accepted by many historians. Skidmore believes that Edward contracted the tuberculosis after a bout of measles and smallpox in 1552 that suppressed his natural immunity to the disease. Loach suggests instead that his symptoms were typical of acute bronchopneumonia, leading to a "suppurating pulmonary infection", septicaemia, and kidney failure. Queen Jane and Queen Mary Lady Jane Grey was proclaimed queen by the Privy Council four days after Edward's death. Princess Mary, who had visited Edward in February, was fully aware of the progress of her brother’s illness and of the plot to transfer the succession to Jane Grey. She maintained contact with Emperor Charles V and his ambassadors, who advised her to accept the throne even if it were offered to her on condition she made no change in religion. Two days before Edward’s death, she was summoned to court. Instead, she left Hunsdon House, near London, and sped to her estate at Kenninghall in Norfolk, fearing a trap. Northumberland sent ships to the Norfolk coast to prevent her escape or the arrival of reinforcements from the continent. He delayed the announcement of the king’s death while he gathered his forces, and Jane Grey, who may not have been told of Edward's device until this moment, was taken to the Tower on 10 July. Later that day, she was proclaimed queen in the streets of London, to murmurings of discontent. Northumberland now pressed Jane to make his son Guildford Dudley king, which, according to her own account, she refused to do. The Privy Council received a message from Mary asserting her "right and title" to the throne and commanding that the Council proclaim her queen, as she had already proclaimed herself. ; The Council replied that Jane was queen by Edward's authority and that Mary, by contrast, was illegitimate and supported only by "a few lewd, base people". Mary I, by Antonis Mor, 1554 Northumberland soon realised that he had miscalculated drastically, not least in failing to secure Mary's person before Edward's death. ; Although many of those who rallied to Mary were conservatives hoping for the defeat of Protestantism, her supporters also included many legitimists, for whom her lawful claim to the throne overrode religious considerations. ; Northumberland was obliged to relinquish control of a nervous Council in London and launch an unplanned pursuit of Mary into East Anglia, from where news was arriving of her growing support, which included a number of nobles and gentlemen and "innumerable companies of the common people". Northumberland marched out of London with three thousand men, reaching Cambridge on 14 July; meanwhile, Mary rallied her forces at Framlingham Castle in Suffolk, gathering an army of nearly twenty thousand by 19 July. ; Seeing his troops melt away in support of Mary, Northumberland sent desperate messages to the French pleading for assistance, promising them Calais, among other inducements. It now dawned on the Privy Council that it had made a terrible mistake. When news reached the councillors in the Tower that even the Norfolk fleet had declared for Mary, they abandoned Northumberland and offered a reward for his arrest. ; On 19 July, the Council completed its turnabout by publicly proclaiming Mary as queen; and Jane's nine-day reign came to an end. The proclamation triggered wild rejoicing throughout London. Stranded in Cambridge, Northumberland had no alternative, as a member of the Council, but to proclaim Mary himself. William Paget and the Earl of Arundel rode to Framlingham to beg Mary’s pardon, and Arundel arrested Northumberland on 24 July. Northumberland was beheaded on 22 August, shortly after renouncing Protestantism. His recantation dismayed his daughter-in-law, Jane, who followed him to the scaffold on 12 February 1554, after her father's involvement in Wyatt's rebellion. ; Protestant legacy Hugh Latimer preaching to King Edward from the pulpit in the privy garden at the Palace of Whitehall. The woodcut was published in John Foxe's Acts and Monuments in 1563. Although Edward reigned for only six years and died at the age of fifteen, his reign made a lasting contribution to the English Reformation and the structure of the Church of England. The last decade of Henry VIII's reign had seen a partial stalling of the Reformation, a drifting back to more conservative values. By contrast, Edward's reign saw radical progress in the Reformation. In those six years, the Church transferred from an essentially Roman Catholic liturgy and structure to one that is usually identified as Protestant. In particular, the introduction of the Book of Common Prayer, the Ordinal of 1550, and Cranmer's Forty-two Articles formed the basis for English Church practices that continue to this day. ; Edward himself fully approved these changes, and though they were the work of reformers such as Thomas Cranmer, Hugh Latimer, and Nicholas Ridley, backed by Edward’s determinedly evangelical Council, the fact of the king's religion was a catalyst in the acceleration of the Reformation during his reign. Queen Mary’s attempts to undo the reforming work of her brother’s reign faced major obstacles. Despite her belief in the papal supremacy, she ruled constitutionally as the Supreme Head of the English Church, a contradiction under which she bridled. She found herself entirely unable to restore the vast number of ecclesiastical properties handed over or sold to private landowners. Although she burned a string of leading church radicals, many reformers either went into exile or remained subversively active in England during her reign, producing a torrent of reforming propaganda that she was unable to stem. ; Nevertheless, Protestantism was not yet "printed in the stomachs" of the English people, ; and had Mary lived longer, her Catholic reconstruction might have succeeded, leaving Edward’s reign, rather than hers, as a historical aberration. On Mary’s death in 1558, the English Reformation resumed its course, and most of the reforms instituted during Edward’s reign were reinstated in the Elizabethan Religious Settlement. Queen Elizabeth replaced Mary's councillors and bishops with ex-Edwardians, such as William Cecil, Northumberland's former secretary, and Richard Cox, Edward's old tutor, who preached an anti-Catholic sermon at the opening of parliament in 1558. Parliament passed an Act of Uniformity the following spring that restored, with modifications, Cranmer’s prayer book of 1552; and the Thirty-nine Articles of 1563 were largely based on Cranmer's Forty-two Articles. The theological developments of Edward's reign provided a vital source of reference for Elizabeth's religious policies, though the internationalism of the Edwardian Reformation was never revived. ; Ancestry </center> See also Cultural depictions of Edward VI of England Notes Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Further reading . . . . . 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5,133 | Alexander_I_of_Serbia | Not to be confused with Alexander I of Yugoslavia. Alexander I or Aleksandar Obrenović (Serbian Cyrillic: Александар Обреновић) (August 14, 1876 - June 11, 1903) was king of Serbia from 1889 to 1903. Accession In 1889, his father, King Milan, unexpectedly abdicated and withdrew to private life, proclaiming Alexander king of Serbia under a regency until he should attain his majority at eighteen years of age. His mother Natalija Obrenović became his regent. In 1893, King Alexander, aged seventeen, in a first coup d'état proclaimed himself of full age, dismissed the regents and their government, and took the royal authority into his own hands. His action was popular, and was rendered still more so by his appointment of a radical ministry. In May 1894, King Alexander, by another coup, abolished the liberal constitution of 1889 and restored the conservative one of 1869. His attitude during the Greco-Turkish War (1897) was one of strict neutrality. In the same year, the young King brought his father, Milan, back to Serbia and, in 1898, appointed him commander-in-chief of the Serbian army. During that time, Milan was regarded as the de facto ruler of the country. Marriage In the summer of 1900, King Alexander suddenly announced his engagement to the widowed Madame Draga Mašin, formerly a lady-in-waiting to his mother. The projected union initially aroused great opposition: he did not consult with his father, who had been on vacation in Carlsbad and making arrangements to secure the hand of a German princess for his son, or his prime minister Dr. Vladan Đorđević, who was visiting the Paris Universal Exhibition at the time of the announcement. Both immediately resigned from their respective offices and Alexander had difficulty in forming a new cabinet. Alexander's mother also opposed the marriage and was subsequently banished from the kingdom. Opposition to the union seemed to subside somewhat for a time upon the publication of Tsar Nicholas II's congratulations to the king on his engagement and of his acceptance to act as the principal witness at the wedding. The marriage was duly celebrated in August 1900. Even so, the unpopularity of the union weakened the King's position in the eyes of the army and the country at large. Political reconciliation King Alexander and Queen Draga King Alexander tried to reconcile political parties by unveiling a liberal constitution of his own initiative, introducing for the first time in the constitutional history of Serbia the system of two chambers (skupshtina and senate). This reconciled the political parties but did not reconcile the army which, already dissatisfied with the king's marriage, became still more so at the rumors that one of the two unpopular brothers of Queen Draga, Lieutenant Nikodije, was to be proclaimed heir-presumptive to the throne. Meanwhile, the independence of the senate and of the council of state caused increasing irritation to King Alexander. In yet another coup d'état, he suspended (March 1903) the constitution for half an hour, time enough to publish the decrees by which the old senators and councillors of state were dismissed and replaced by new ones. This arbitrary act naturally increased the dissatisfaction in the country. Assassination The general impression was that, as much as the senate was packed with men devoted to the royal couple and the government obtained a large majority at the general elections, King Alexander would not hesitate any longer to proclaim Queen Draga's brother as the heir to the throne. In spite of this, it had been agreed with the Serbian Government that Prince Mirko of Montenegro, who was married to Natalija Konstantinovic, the granddaughter of Princess Anka Obrenović, an aunt of King Milan, would be proclaimed Crown Prince of Serbia in the event that the marriage of King Alexander and Queen Draga was childless. Apparently to prevent Queen Draga's brother being named heir, but in reality to replace Alexander Obrenović with Peter Karageorgevic, a conspiracy was organised by the military. The royal couple's palace was invaded and they hid in a cupboard in the Queen's bedroom. There is another possibility, used in a Serbian history TV series "The End of the Obrenovic Dynasty", in which the royal couple was hidden behind the mirror in a common bedroom. The conspirators searched the palace and eventually discovered the royal couple and murdered them in the early morning of June 11, 1903. King Alexander and Queen Draga were shot and their bodies mutilated and disemboweled and, according to eyewitness accounts, thrown from a second floor window of the palace. The King was only 26 years old at the time of his death. King Alexander and Queen Draga were buried in the crypt of St. Mark's Church, Belgrade. References Notes Sources | Alexander_I_of_Serbia |@lemmatized confuse:1 alexander:16 yugoslavia:1 aleksandar:1 obrenović:4 serbian:4 cyrillic:1 александар:1 обреновић:1 august:2 june:2 king:19 serbia:5 accession:1 father:3 milan:4 unexpectedly:1 abdicate:1 withdraw:1 private:1 life:1 proclaim:5 regency:1 attain:1 majority:2 eighteen:1 year:3 age:3 mother:3 natalija:2 become:2 regent:2 seventeen:1 first:2 coup:3 état:2 full:1 dismiss:2 government:3 take:1 royal:5 authority:1 hand:2 action:1 popular:1 render:1 still:2 appointment:1 radical:1 ministry:1 may:1 another:3 abolish:1 liberal:2 constitution:3 restore:1 conservative:1 one:4 attitude:1 greco:1 turkish:1 war:1 strict:1 neutrality:1 young:1 bring:1 back:1 appoint:1 commander:1 chief:1 army:3 time:6 regard:1 de:1 facto:1 ruler:1 country:3 marriage:5 summer:1 suddenly:1 announce:1 engagement:2 widow:1 madame:1 draga:8 mašin:1 formerly:1 lady:1 wait:1 project:1 union:3 initially:1 arouse:1 great:1 opposition:2 consult:1 vacation:1 carlsbad:1 make:1 arrangement:1 secure:1 german:1 princess:2 son:1 prime:1 minister:1 dr:1 vladan:1 đorđević:1 visit:1 paris:1 universal:1 exhibition:1 announcement:1 immediately:1 resign:1 respective:1 office:1 difficulty:1 form:1 new:2 cabinet:1 also:1 oppose:1 subsequently:1 banish:1 kingdom:1 seem:1 subside:1 somewhat:1 upon:1 publication:1 tsar:1 nicholas:1 ii:1 congratulation:1 acceptance:1 act:2 principal:1 witness:1 wedding:1 duly:1 celebrate:1 even:1 unpopularity:1 weaken:1 position:1 eye:1 large:2 political:3 reconciliation:1 queen:8 try:1 reconcile:3 party:2 unveil:1 initiative:1 introduce:1 constitutional:1 history:2 system:1 two:2 chamber:1 skupshtina:1 senate:3 already:1 dissatisfy:1 rumor:1 unpopular:1 brother:3 lieutenant:1 nikodije:1 heir:3 presumptive:1 throne:2 meanwhile:1 independence:1 council:1 state:2 cause:1 increase:2 irritation:1 yet:1 suspend:1 march:1 half:1 hour:1 enough:1 publish:1 decree:1 old:2 senator:1 councillor:1 replace:2 arbitrary:1 naturally:1 dissatisfaction:1 assassination:1 general:2 impression:1 much:1 pack:1 men:1 devote:1 couple:4 obtain:1 election:1 would:2 hesitate:1 long:1 spite:1 agree:1 prince:2 mirko:1 montenegro:1 marry:1 konstantinovic:1 granddaughter:1 anka:1 aunt:1 crown:1 event:1 childless:1 apparently:1 prevent:1 name:1 reality:1 peter:1 karageorgevic:1 conspiracy:1 organise:1 military:1 palace:3 invade:1 hide:2 cupboard:1 bedroom:2 possibility:1 use:1 tv:1 series:1 end:1 obrenovic:1 dynasty:1 behind:1 mirror:1 common:1 conspirator:1 search:1 eventually:1 discover:1 murder:1 early:1 morning:1 shoot:1 body:1 mutilate:1 disembowel:1 accord:1 eyewitness:1 account:1 throw:1 second:1 floor:1 window:1 death:1 bury:1 crypt:1 st:1 mark:1 church:1 belgrade:1 reference:1 note:1 source:1 |@bigram coup_état:2 greco_turkish:1 commander_chief:1 de_facto:1 prime_minister:1 tsar_nicholas:1 queen_draga:7 heir_presumptive:1 heir_throne:1 eyewitness_account:1 |
5,134 | Godzilla_vs._Mothra | , released as Godzilla and Mothra: The Battle for Earth outside of Japan, is the 19th installment in the Godzilla series of films. The movie was released theatrically in Japan on December 12, 1992. It was directed by Takao Okawara from a screenplay by Kazuki Omori, produced by Tomoyuki Tanaka and Shogo Tomiyama, with special effects provided by Koichi Kawakita. Akira Ifukube's score won a Japanese Academy Award. Plot A large meteor hurtles towards Earth, and lands in the ocean, causing many natural disasters, such as typhoons, and awakens Godzilla. One particularly large typhoon is monitored over the Pacific ocean. This typhoon uncovers a giant egg from underground. The next day, a young man named Takuya Fujita is detained after stealing an ancient artifact. Later, the Japanese Prime Minister arrives with Takuya's ex-wife, Masako Tezuka, and offers him to explore an island in the sea with Masako and Marutomo company secretary, Kenji Andoh, and become a free man. Takuya initially turns down the offer, on the basis that he is to be released in another week. But after his ex-wife informs him that his sentence has been reconsidered, he accepts. After the trio arrives at the island, they find a cave behind a waterfall. Inside the cave, they discover ancient paintings, including a picture of two giant insects fighting one another. While studying them, the sun shines through a hole in the wall, shaped like a cross inside a circle. The light points to a small opening in the cave, where they come upon the giant egg. After taking a small sample of the outer shell, the three hear a pair of voices, which informs them that the egg belongs to Mothra. After searching around a bit, they find the Cosmos' voices. They explain that they keep the Earth's natural order of things in balance. The Cosmos also tell them a story of ancient origin. Many years earlier, an advanced civilization once existed, and for a time, the Earth's Cosmos was in perfect order. However, the scientists of this civilization tried to control the Earth's climate by creating a weather machine, so the Earth created the Black Mothra, named Battra. Battra then destroyed the weather machine. However, afterwards, Battra became uncontrollable, and started to harm the very Earth that created it. Mothra was then sent in to stop Battra. Mothra then fought a fierce battle with Battra, who eventually lost. However, in the course of this battle, the civilization was totally destroyed by both the fight, and by flooding caused by it. Mothra and Battra then lay in rest. Mothra on Infant Island, and Battra in the Northern Sea. But due to the recent changes in the atmosphere due to pollution and Global warming, Mothra's egg has been uncovered, and the Cosmos fear that Battra has awoken as well. Meanwhile, Japanese forces try to stop Battra's invasion, but fails as Battra invades Japan and headed for Nagoya. While this was happening, Andoh calls his boss, Takeshi Tomokane. Makoto then orders a freighter sent to Infant Island to pick up the egg, planning to exploit it. Andoh explains to Masako and Takuya that, contrary to Takeshi's true intentions, he intends to protect the egg, and the Cosmos agree to let him take it. They also volunteer to go with them back to Japan. However, Battra invades and destroys Nagoya and the weapons before retreating. The freighter is already out at sea, carrying the egg back. As they are sailing, an atomic ray shoots up from the water. The crew runs to the edge of the boat, gazing at it. Takuya soon identifies it as belonging to Godzilla. Realizing the freighter was not fast enough with the egg attached, he runs down to the cables holding it. Andoh follows him. When he finally reaches the cables, Andoh tries to stop him from releasing them. At this point, Godzilla has surfaced, and is heading toward the egg. Andoh and Takuya argue aboard the ship. Takuya eventually manages to beat Andoh, and successfully releases the egg. Everyone watches Godzilla. However, rather than immediately destroying it, he continues towards it. The egg then hatches, and a Mothra larva crawls out. Mothra leaves the lift just in time to avoid Godzilla's atomic ray, which destroys it. The two then begin fighting. Eventually, Mothra is cornered behind the ship. She then uses her silk webbing attack on Godzilla to stun him but it fails to stop him. However, Battra soon appears, and joins the fight. First he attacks Mothra and sends her flying as she tries to escape. However, one of his beams hits Godzilla, angering the mutant dinosaur. Godzilla then attacks back at Battra, with Mothra caught in the middle. The two continue to fight above water. Mothra finally gets a chance at escape, and takes it, heading back to Infant Island. However, Godzilla and Battra are still going at it. The battle is taken underwater, where it only gets fiercer. Eventually, the force of the battle causes a giant crack in the ocean's floor to open up, spewing massive amounts of magma, and opening a giant plate along the ocean's floor. This crack swallows up Godzilla and Battra. After the battle, Takuya, Andoh, Masako, and the Cosmos stay overnight at a hotel. While Andoh is drinking, Masako and Takuya have a discussion about the day's events, and about their history together. Masako awakens to discover that the Cosmos have gone missing, and immediately wakes up Takuya, who immediately realizes that Andoh took them back to Takeshi. The two take a flight back to Tokyo, where Masako meets up with their daughter, Midori Tezuka, her sister, Mayumi Fukazawa, and Professor Shigeki Fukazawa. They explain to her that the problem with the earthquake was so bad, that it is creating a large fault along the Philippine Plate. While they talk, Takuya leaves the airport. Masako then goes to the Diet to try to get them to buy the Cosmos back. They offer Takeshi all they can afford, but he turns them down. While this is happening, the Cosmos call out to Mothra and are saved. Marutomo employees discover the Cosmos are missing, and suspects the government of stealing them. Meanwhile, the government discovers that Mothra is on her way to Japan. While they are not certain of how Mothra will behave, they feel they must prepare for the worst. They set up a defense force, and put up a blockade that, if passed, would force them to send in soldiers. Mothra passes the defense force. The next day, Masako sets out with Midori and Miki Saegusa to find the Cosmos. After driving throughout the city, Miki finally hears the song that the Cosmos are using to call Mothra. She leads them to a hotel, where the child finds Takuya, who is in possession of the Cosmos, and trying to sell them. While all this is happening, Mothra is heading through the city, directly towards the hotel. After Midori begs him to release the Cosmos, and Masako berates him for taking them, Takuya reconciles, and lets the Cosmos free. The Cosmos then tell Mothra to leave the city, and not to hurt anyone else. Mothra turns around, and heads back. The forces attack again, but stop when they realize that Masako and the others are in the hotel. Mothra, behaving strangely, heads for the Diet building. A crowd soon gathers to watch what will happen next. Mothra starts building a cocoon around herself. While she does this, Miki has a telepathic sense. Godzilla is alive, and has just surfaced from Mount Fuji. The Japanese government soon confirms this. Mothra transforms into her adult form and flies away from the building. The Cosmos explain that she will go to find Battra and kill him. Battra, meantime, escapes from the magma, and surfaces. He then transforms into his adult form, and flies toward the mainland. The Japanese government is shocked. They want to avoid the apparently inevitable meeting of the three monsters, so they devise a plan. They set up a force directed out toward the ocean, which would lure Godzilla there. However, the force is defeated, and Godzilla proceeds on his original course. Meanwhile, Mothra and Battra meet up at Yokohama Cosmo World, and proceed to battle. Eventually, Battra hits Mothra with a beam, knocking her out. At this point, Godzilla shows up. Battra decides that Godzilla is a more important target, and attacks him instead. However, Godzilla soon defeats Battra. At this point, Mothra has regained enough strength to fight again, and she charges Godzilla with her antenna rays and collapses a building upon him. With Godzilla temporarily disabled, Mothra flies towards Battra, and lands in front of him. She gives him some of her life energy as the Cosmos sing, and Battra revives. The song is interrupted when Godzilla appears. Mothra takes off and flies at him. Godzilla manages to push her away, but she quickly comes back. She uses her paralyzing spore attack to immobilize Godzilla and reflect his atomic ray, trapping Godzilla. However, he uses his nuclear pulse, knocking her out. Godzilla then fires his atomic ray at a nearby Ferris wheel and attempts to collapse it onto Mothra and crush her. Battra however flies up and grabs the Ferris wheel, carrying it and crashing it into Godzilla. The two fly off to fight Godzilla. Eventually Mothra uses her spore attack once again. Battra fires his beams and strengthens the spores. Eventually, Godzilla is overwhelmed and falls to the ground. Battra and Mothra hold a brief conversation, and then set out to carry Godzilla back into the ocean. Godzilla swings his tail to prevent Mothra from grabbing it, and takes a bite into Battra's neck, crushing through Battra's armor, causing Battra's blood to spill everywhere. Mothra shocks Godzilla's tail and both monstrous insects manage to get a good hold and carry him away. Over the sea, Godzilla fires a blast of atomic breath at Battra from point blank range, killing Battra once and for all. The weakened Mothra is forced to drop the two monsters, losing the battle, and after sending a shimmering light across the ocean, she retreats while Godzilla swims away and Battra's body sinks to the bottom of the ocean. The next morning, Mothra is sitting at an airport, and the Cosmos are holding a conversation with government officials, Masako, Takuya, and Midori. Apparently, Battra had been waiting around for many years for a large meteorite that would hit the Earth in the year 1999, destroying it. Battra was going to stop the meteorite, but was killed by Godzilla. Mothra, in their previous conversation, had promised that she would stop the meteorite from landing. The Cosmos then join Mothra, and the three fly off into space to divert the meteorite. Cast Tetsuya Bessho as Takuya Fujito Satomi Kobayashi as Masako Tezuka Megumi Odaka as Miki Saegusa Keiko Imamura and Sayaka Osawa as The Cosmos Takehiro Murata as Kenji Andoh Saburo Shinoda as Professor Fukazawa Akira Takarada as Jyoji Minamino Makoto Otake as Takeshi Tomokane Kenpachiro Satsuma as Godzilla Hurricane Ryu as Battra Larva Box office The film sold approximately 4,200,000 tickets in Japan. Not only was it the most popular film of the Heisei Godzilla series, but it was the most popular Godzilla film since Ghidorah, the Three-Headed Monster, It remains the fourth most-attended monster film in Japan, the second biggest film in Asia, and the third in Europe during 1993, behind Jurassic Park. Critical reaction Ed Godziszewski of Monster Zero said, "Rushed into production but a few months after Godzilla vs King Ghidorah, this film is unable to hide its hurried nature [but] effects-wise, the film makes up for the story’s shortcomings and then some." Review Ed Godziszewski, Monster Zero, June 10, 2002 Japan Hero said, "While this movie is not the best of the Heisei series, it is still a really interesting movie. The battles are cool, and Battra was an interesting idea. If you have never seen this movie, I highly recommend it." Review Japan Hero Popcorn Pictures said, "This is an absolute must for Japanese sci-fi fans and one of the best of the Godzilla series." Review Popcorn Pictures Stomp Tokyo said the film is "one of the better Godzilla movies in that the scenes in which monsters do not appear actually make some sort of sense. And for once, they are acted with some gusto, so that we as viewers can actually come to like the characters on screen, or at least be entertained by them." Review Stomp Tokyo, March 8, 1997 Mike Bogue of American Kaiju said the film "[does] not liv[e] up to its potential," but added that "[its] colorful and elaborate spectacle eventually won me over" and "the main story thread dealing with the eventual reconciliation of the divorced couple adequately holds the human plot together." Review Mike Bogue, American Kaiju Trivia Before this film plot was discussed, an film idea entitled [Godzilla vs. Gigamoth] was tossed around, but eventually scrapped. Gigamoth is believed to have been the inspiration for Battra. DVD releases Columbia TriStar Released: November 10, 1998, Double feature with Godzilla vs. King Ghidorah Aspect Ratio: Full frame (1.33:1) Sound: English (2.0) Supplements: Liner notes Region 1 Notes and references External links | Godzilla_vs._Mothra |@lemmatized release:8 godzilla:42 mothra:39 battle:9 earth:8 outside:1 japan:9 installment:1 series:4 film:12 movie:5 theatrically:1 december:1 direct:2 takao:1 okawara:1 screenplay:1 kazuki:1 omori:1 produce:1 tomoyuki:1 tanaka:1 shogo:1 tomiyama:1 special:1 effect:2 provide:1 koichi:1 kawakita:1 akira:2 ifukube:1 score:1 win:2 japanese:6 academy:1 award:1 plot:3 large:4 meteor:1 hurtles:1 towards:4 land:3 ocean:8 cause:4 many:3 natural:2 disaster:1 typhoon:3 awaken:2 one:5 particularly:1 monitor:1 pacific:1 uncover:2 giant:5 egg:11 underground:1 next:4 day:3 young:1 man:2 name:2 takuya:15 fujita:1 detain:1 steal:2 ancient:3 artifact:1 later:1 prime:1 minister:1 arrive:2 ex:2 wife:2 masako:13 tezuka:3 offer:3 explore:1 island:5 sea:4 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5,135 | Aquilegia | __NOTOC__ Aquilegia () Sunset Western Garden Book, 1995:606–607 is a genus of about 60-70 species of columbines, herbaceous perennial plants that are found in meadows, woodlands, and at higher altitudes throughout the Northern Hemisphere. They are known for their distinctive flowers, generally bell-shaped, with each petal modified into an elongated nectar spur. Its fruit takes the form of a follicle. Dezhi & Robinson (2001) Columbine is derived from the latin word for Dove. Columbines are closely related to plants in the genera Actaea (baneberries) and Aconitum (wolfbanes/monkhoods), which like Aquilegia produce cardiogenic toxins. Tilford (1997) They are used as food plants by some Lepidoptera (butterflies and moths) caterpillars. These are mainly of noctuid moths – noted for feeding on many poisonous plants without harm – like Cabbage Moth (Mamestra brassicae), Dot Moth (Melanchra persicariae) and Mouse Moth (Amphipyra tragopoginis). The Engrailed (Ectropis crepuscularia), a geometer moth, also uses columbine as larval foodplant. Use by humans Double-flowered Aquilegia × hybrida Several species are grown in gardens, including the European Columbine (A. vulgaris), a traditional garden flower in many parts of the world Nold (2003): p.128 . Numerous cultivars and hybrids have also been developed as well. They are easy to propagate from seed. The flowers of various species of Aquilegia were consumed in moderation by Native Americans as a condiment with other fresh greens, and are reported to be very sweet, and safe if consumed in small quantities. The plant's seeds and roots are highly poisonous however, and contain cardiogenic toxins which cause both severe gastroenteritis and heart palpitations if consumed as food. Native Americans used very small amounts of Aquilegia root as an effective treatment for ulcers. However, the medical use of this plant is better avoided due to its high toxicity; columbine poisonings may be fatal. The Colorado Blue Columbine (A. caerulea) is the official state flower of Colorado (see also Columbine, Colorado). Also, columbines have been important in the study of evolution. It was found that Sierra Columbine (A. pubescens) and Crimson Columbine (A. formosa) each have specifically-adapted pollinators, with hawkmoths that can pollinate one species while usually failing to pollinate the other. Such a "pollination syndrome", being due to flower genetics, ensures reproductive isolation and can be a cause underlying speciation. Fulton & Hodges (1999), Hodges et al. (2002) Cultivation Large numbers of hybrids are now available for the garden, since the British A vulgaris was joined by other European and N American varieties. Andrew McIndoe, Kevin Hobbs: Perennials. David & Charles, 2005 ISBN 1558707646, 9781558707641 Aquilegia species are very interfertile, and will self sow. New England Wild Flower Society Guide to Growing and Propagating Wildflowers of the United States and Canada Selected species Columbine species include: Dezhi & Robinson (2001), RBGE [2008], USDA [2008] Aquilegia alpina Dark Columbine, Aquilegia atrata Fan Columbine, Aquilegia flabellata Fragrant Columbine, Aquilegia fragrans Aquilegia × maruyamana Pyrenean Columbine, Aquilegia pyrenaica Aquilegia alpina L. Aquilegia atrata W.D.J.Koch – Dark Columbine Aquilegia atrovinosa Aquilegia aurea Janka Aquilegia barbaricina – Barbaricina Colombine (doubtfully valid) Aquilegia barnebyi – Oil Shale Columbine Aquilegia bernardii Gren. & Godr. Aquilegia bertolonii Schott Aquilegia blecicii Podobnik (doubtfully valid) Aquilegia brevistyla – Smallflower Columbine Aquilegia buergeriana Aquilegia caerulea – Colorado Blue Columbine Aquilegia canadensis – Canadian Columbine, Wild Columbine, "red columbine" Aquilegia champagnatii Moraldo, E.Nardi & la Valva (doubtfully valid) Aquilegia chrysantha – Golden Columbine Aquilegia desertorum – Desert Columbine Aquilegia desolatica – Desolation Columbine Aquilegia dinarica Beck Aquilegia ecalcarata Aquilegia einseleana F.W.Schultz Aquilegia elegantula – Western Red Columbine Aquilegia eximia – Van Houtte's Columbine Aquilegia flabellata – Fan Columbine, wodamakinari (Japanese) (including A. akitensis) Aquilegia flavescens – Yellow Columbine Aquilegia fragrans Benth. – Fragrant Columbine Aquilegia formosa – Crimson Columbine, Western Columbine, "red columbine" Aquilegia glandulosa Aquilegia grahamii – Graham's Columbine Aquilegia grata Aquilegia × hybrida Aquilegia incurvata Aquilegia japonica Aquilegia jonesii – Jones' Columbine Aquilegia karatavica Aquilegia karelini Aquilegia kitaibelii Schott Aquilegia lactiflora Aquilegia laramiensis – Laramie Columbine Aquilegia litardierei Briq. Aquilegia longissima – Longspur Columbine Aquilegia loriae – Lori's Columbine Aquilegia magellensis F.Conti & Soldano – Magella Columbine Aquilegia × maruyamana Aquilegia micrantha – Mancos Columbine Aquilegia moorcroftiana Aquilegia nigricans Baumg. Aquilegia nugorensis Arrigoni & E.Nardi (doubtfully valid) Aquilegia nuragica – Nuragica Columbine Aquilegia olympica Aquilegia ottonis Orph. ex Boiss. Aquilegia oxysepala Aquilegia pancicii Degen Aquilegia parviflora Aquilegia pubescens – Sierra Columbine, Coville's Columbine, "yellow columbine" Aquilegia pubiflora Aquilegia pyrenaica DC. – Pyrenean Columbine Aquilegia rockii Aquilegia saximontana – Rocky Mountain Columbine Aquilegia scopulorum – Blue Columbine, Utah Columbine Aquilegia shockleyi – Desert Columbine Aquilegia sibirica Aquilegia thalictrifolia Schott & Kotschy Aquilegia transsilvanica Schur Aquilegia triternata – Chiricahua Mountain Columbine Aquilegia turczaninovii Aquilegia viridiflora Aquilegia viscosa Gouan Aquilegia vitalii Aquilegia vulgaris – Common Columbine, European Columbine, Granny's Nightcap Aquilegia yabeana See also Nora Barlow Footnotes References Allan M. Armitage: Armitage's Native Plants for North American Gardens.Timber Press, 2006 ISBN 0881927600, 9780881927603 (2001): 19. Aquilegia. In: : Flora of China (Vol. 6: Caryophyllaceae through Lardizabalaceae): 278. Science Press, Beijing & Missouri Botanical Garden Press, St. Louis. ISBN 1-930723-25-3 HTML fulltext (1999): Floral isolation between Aquilegia formosa and A. pubescens. Proc. R. Soc. B 266(1435): 2247–2252. PDF fulltext (2002): Genetics of floral traits influencing reproductive isolation between Aquilegia formosa and A. pubescens. Am. Nat. 159(Supplement 3): S51–S60. (HTML abstract) (2003): Columbines: Aquilegia, Paraquilegia, and Semiaquilegia. Timber Press. ISBN 0881925888 Preview at Google Books [2008]: Digital Flora Europaea: Aquilegia species list. Retrieved 2008-NOV-25. (1997): Edible and Medicinal Plants of the West. Mountain Press Pub., Missoula, Montana. ISBN 0-87842-359-1 [2008]: USDA Plants Profile: Aquilegia. Retrieved 2008-NOV-25. Related Reading Kramer, EM. (2009). Aquilegia: A New Model for Plant Development, Ecology, and Evolution Annual Review of Plant Biology, Vol. 60. | Aquilegia |@lemmatized aquilegia:89 sunset:1 western:3 garden:6 book:2 genus:2 specie:8 columbine:54 herbaceous:1 perennial:2 plant:11 find:2 meadow:1 woodland:1 high:2 altitude:1 throughout:1 northern:1 hemisphere:1 know:1 distinctive:1 flower:7 generally:1 bell:1 shape:1 petal:1 modify:1 elongated:1 nectar:1 spur:1 fruit:1 take:1 form:1 follicle:1 dezhi:2 robinson:2 derive:1 latin:1 word:1 dove:1 closely:1 related:2 actaea:1 baneberry:1 aconitum:1 wolfbane:1 monkhoods:1 like:2 produce:1 cardiogenic:2 toxin:2 tilford:1 use:5 food:2 lepidoptera:1 butterfly:1 moth:6 caterpillar:1 mainly:1 noctuid:1 note:1 feed:1 many:2 poisonous:2 without:1 harm:1 cabbage:1 mamestra:1 brassicae:1 dot:1 melanchra:1 persicariae:1 mouse:1 amphipyra:1 tragopoginis:1 engrailed:1 ectropis:1 crepuscularia:1 geometer:1 also:5 larval:1 foodplant:1 human:1 double:1 hybrida:2 several:1 grow:2 include:3 european:3 vulgaris:3 traditional:1 part:1 world:1 nold:1 p:1 numerous:1 cultivar:1 hybrid:2 develop:1 well:2 easy:1 propagate:2 seed:2 various:1 consume:3 moderation:1 native:3 american:4 condiment:1 fresh:1 green:1 report:1 sweet:1 safe:1 small:2 quantity:1 root:2 highly:1 however:2 contain:1 cause:2 severe:1 gastroenteritis:1 heart:1 palpitation:1 amount:1 effective:1 treatment:1 ulcer:1 medical:1 avoid:1 due:2 toxicity:1 poisoning:1 may:1 fatal:1 colorado:4 blue:3 caerulea:2 official:1 state:2 see:2 important:1 study:1 evolution:2 sierra:2 pubescens:4 crimson:2 formosa:4 specifically:1 adapted:1 pollinator:1 hawkmoth:1 pollinate:2 one:1 usually:1 fail:1 pollination:1 syndrome:1 genetics:2 ensure:1 reproductive:2 isolation:3 underlying:1 speciation:1 fulton:1 hodges:2 et:1 al:1 cultivation:1 large:1 number:1 available:1 since:1 british:1 join:1 n:1 variety:1 andrew:1 mcindoe:1 kevin:1 hobbs:1 david:1 charles:1 isbn:5 interfertile:1 self:1 sow:1 new:2 england:1 wild:2 society:1 guide:1 wildflower:1 united:1 canada:1 select:1 rbge:1 usda:2 alpina:2 dark:2 atrata:2 fan:2 flabellata:2 fragrant:2 fragrans:2 maruyamana:2 pyrenean:2 pyrenaica:2 l:1 w:2 j:1 koch:1 atrovinosa:1 aurea:1 janka:1 barbaricina:2 colombine:1 doubtfully:4 valid:4 barnebyi:1 oil:1 shale:1 bernardii:1 gren:1 godr:1 bertolonii:1 schott:3 blecicii:1 podobnik:1 brevistyla:1 smallflower:1 buergeriana:1 canadensis:1 canadian:1 red:3 champagnatii:1 moraldo:1 e:2 nardi:2 la:1 valva:1 chrysantha:1 golden:1 desertorum:1 desert:2 desolatica:1 desolation:1 dinarica:1 beck:1 ecalcarata:1 einseleana:1 f:2 schultz:1 elegantula:1 eximia:1 van:1 houtte:1 wodamakinari:1 japanese:1 akitensis:1 flavescens:1 yellow:2 benth:1 glandulosa:1 grahamii:1 graham:1 grata:1 incurvata:1 japonica:1 jonesii:1 jones:1 karatavica:1 karelini:1 kitaibelii:1 lactiflora:1 laramiensis:1 laramie:1 litardierei:1 briq:1 longissima:1 longspur:1 loriae:1 lori:1 magellensis:1 conti:1 soldano:1 magella:1 micrantha:1 mancos:1 moorcroftiana:1 nigricans:1 baumg:1 nugorensis:1 arrigoni:1 nuragica:2 olympica:1 ottonis:1 orph:1 ex:1 boiss:1 oxysepala:1 pancicii:1 degen:1 parviflora:1 coville:1 pubiflora:1 dc:1 rockii:1 saximontana:1 rocky:1 mountain:3 scopulorum:1 utah:1 shockleyi:1 sibirica:1 thalictrifolia:1 kotschy:1 transsilvanica:1 schur:1 triternata:1 chiricahua:1 turczaninovii:1 viridiflora:1 viscosa:1 gouan:1 vitalii:1 common:1 granny:1 nightcap:1 yabeana:1 nora:1 barlow:1 footnote:1 reference:1 allan:1 armitage:2 north:1 timber:2 press:5 flora:2 china:1 vol:2 caryophyllaceae:1 lardizabalaceae:1 science:1 beijing:1 missouri:1 botanical:1 st:1 louis:1 html:2 fulltext:2 floral:2 proc:1 r:1 soc:1 b:1 pdf:1 trait:1 influence:1 nat:1 supplement:1 abstract:1 paraquilegia:1 semiaquilegia:1 preview:1 google:1 digital:1 europaea:1 list:1 retrieved:2 nov:2 edible:1 medicinal:1 west:1 pub:1 missoula:1 montana:1 profile:1 reading:1 kramer:1 em:1 model:1 development:1 ecology:1 annual:1 review:1 biology:1 |@bigram herbaceous_perennial:1 northern_hemisphere:1 closely_related:1 lepidoptera_butterfly:1 butterfly_moth:1 reproductive_isolation:2 et_al:1 columbine_aquilegia:32 oil_shale:1 rocky_mountain:1 botanical_garden:1 pdf_fulltext:1 missoula_montana:1 |
5,136 | House | A ranch style house in Salinas, California Example of an early Victorian "Gingerbread House" in the United States, built in 1855 The noun house generally refers to a shelter or building or structure that is a dwelling or place for habitation by human beings. The term includes many kinds of dwellings ranging from rudimentary huts of nomadic tribes to high-rise apartment buildings. Schoenauer, Norbert (2000). 6,000 Years of Housing (rev. ed.) (New York: W.W. Norton & Company). However, the word can also be used as a verb ("to house"), and can have adjectival formations as well. In some contexts, "house" may mean the same as dwelling, residence, home, abode, accommodation, housing, lodging, among other meanings. The social unit that lives in a house is known as a household. Most commonly, a household is a family unit of some kind, though households can be other social groups, such as single persons, or groups of unrelated individuals. Settled agrarian and industrial societies are composed of household units living permanently in housing of various types, according to a variety of forms of land tenure. English-speaking people generally call any building they routinely occupy "home". Many people leave their houses during the day for work and recreation, and return to them to sleep or for other activities. History The oldest house in the world is approximately from 10,000 BC and was made of mammoth bones, found at Mezhirich near Kiev in Ukraine. It was probably covered with mammoth hides. The house was discovered in 1965 by a farmer digging a new basement six feet below the ground. Architect Norbert Schoenauer, in his book 6,000 Years of Housing, identifies three major categories of types of housing: the "Pre-Urban" house, the "Oriental Urban" house, and the "Occidental Urban" house. Types of Pre-Urban houses include temporary dwellings such as the Inuit igloo, semi-permanent dwellings such as the pueblo, and permanent dwellings such as the New England homestead. "Oriental Urban" houses include houses of the ancient Greeks and Romans, and traditional urban houses in China, India, and Islamic cities. "Occidental Urban" houses include medieval urban houses, the Renaissance town house, and the houses, tenements and apartments of the 19th and 20th centuries. Houses of that time were generally made of simple and raw materials. Types Structure A suburban neighborhood in San Jose, California. Wood houses in the Swiss Alps. The developed world in general features three basic types of house that have their own ground-level entry and private open space, and usually on a separately titled parcel of land: Single-family detached houses - free-standing on all sides. Semi-detached houses (duplexes) - houses that are attached, usually to only one other house via a party wall. Terraced house (UK) also known as a row house or townhouse - attached to other houses, possibly in a row, each separated by a party wall. In addition, there are various forms of attached housing where a number of dwelling units are co-located within the same structure, which share a ground-level entry and may or may not have any private open space, such as apartments (a.k.a. flats) of various scales. Another type of housing is movable, such as houseboats, caravans, and trailer homes. In the United Kingdom, 27% of the population live in terraced houses and 32% in semi-detached houses, as of 2002. In the United States as of 2000, 61.4% of people live in detached houses and 5.6% in semi-detached houses, 26% in row houses or apartments, and 7% in mobile homes. Shape Archaeologists have a particular interest in house shape: they see the transition over time from round huts to rectangular houses as a significant advance in optimizing the use of space, and associate it with the growth of the idea of a personal area (see personal space). Function A Nalukettu traditional Kerala house in India Some houses transcend the basic functionality of providing "a roof over one's head" or of serving as a family "hearth and home". When a house becomes a display-case for wealth and/or fashion and/or conspicuous consumption, we may speak of a "great house". The residence of a feudal lord or of a ruler may require defensive structures and thus turn into a fort or a castle. The house of a monarch may come to house courtiers and officers as well as the royal family: this sort of house may become a palace. Moreover, in time the lord or monarch may wish to retreat to a more personal or simple space such as a villa, a hunting lodge or a dacha. Compare the popularity of the holiday house or cottage, also known as a crib. In contrast to a relatively upper class or modern trend to ownership of multiple houses, much of human history shows the importance of multi-purpose houses. Thus the house long served as the traditional place of work (the original cottage industry site or "in-house" small-scale manufacturing workshop) or of commerce (featuring, for example, a ground floor "shop-front" shop or counter or office, with living space above). During the Industrial Revolution there was a separation of manufacturing and banking from the house, though to this day some shopkeepers continue (or have returned) to live "over the shop". Inside the house Layout Traditional house in Brazil. Ideally, architects of houses design rooms to meet the needs of the people who will live in the house. Such designing, known as "interior design", has become a popular subject in universities. Feng shui, originally a Chinese method of situating houses according to such factors as sunlight and micro-climates, has recently expanded its scope to address the design of interior spaces with a view to promoting harmonious effects on the people living inside the house. Feng shui can also mean the 'aura' in or around a dwelling. Compare the real-estate sales concept of "indoor-outdoor flow". The square footage of a house in the United States reports the area of "living space", excluding the garage and other non-living spaces. The "square metres" figure of a house in Europe reports the area of the walls enclosing the home, and thus includes any attached garage and non-living spaces. Parts Floor plan of a "foursquare" house Many houses have several rooms with specialized functions. These may include a living/eating area, a sleeping area, and (if suitable facilities and services exist) washing and lavatory areas. In traditional agriculture-oriented societies, domestic animals such as chickens or larger livestock (like cattle) often share part of the house with human beings. Most conventional modern houses will at least contain a bedroom, bathroom, kitchen (or kitchen area), and a living room. A typical "foursquare house" (as pictured) occurred commonly in the early history of the United States of America, with a staircase in the center of the house, surrounded by four rooms, and connected to other sections of the house (including in more recent eras a garage). The names of parts of a house often echo the names of parts of other buildings, but could typically include: atrium attic alcove basement / cellar bathroom (in various senses of the word) bath / shower toilet bedroom (or nursery, for infants or small children) conservatory dining room family room or den Fireplace (for warmth during winter; generally not found in warmer climates) foyer front room (in various senses of the phrase) garage hallway/passage hearth - often an important symbolic focus of family togetherness kitchen larder laundry room library living room loft lounge nook office or study pantry parlour recreation room / rumpus room / television room shrines to serve the religious functions associated with a family stairwell sunroom storage room / box room workshop Construction The structure of the house (under demolition). This house is constructed from bricks and wood and was later covered by insulating panels. The roof construction is also seen. In the United States, modern house-construction techniques include light-frame construction (in areas with access to supplies of wood) and adobe or sometimes rammed-earth construction (in arid regions with scarce wood-resources). Some areas use brick almost exclusively, and quarried stone has long provided walling. To some extent, aluminum and steel have displaced some traditional building materials. Increasingly popular alternative construction materials include insulating concrete forms (foam forms filled with concrete), structural insulated panels (foam panels faced with oriented strand board or fiber cement), and light-gauge steel framing and heavy-gauge steel framing. The Saitta House, Dyker Heights, Brooklyn, New York built in 1899 is made of and decorated in wood. “Saitta House - Report Part 1”,DykerHeightsCivicAssociation.com More generally, people often build houses out of the nearest available material, and often tradition and/or culture govern construction-materials, so whole towns, areas, counties or even states/countries may be built out of one main type of material. For example, a large fraction of American houses use wood, while most British and many European houses utilize stone or brick. In the 1900s, some house designers started using prefabrication. Sears, Roebuck & Co. first marketed their Houses by Mail to the general public in 1908. Prefab techniques became popular after World War II. First small inside rooms framing, then later, whole walls were prefabricated and carried to the construction site. The original impetus was to use the labor force inside a shelter during inclement weather. More recently builders have begun to collaborate with structural engineers who use computers and finite element analysis to design prefabricated steel-framed homes with known resistance to high wind-loads and seismic forces. These newer products provide labor savings, more consistent quality, and possibly accelerated construction processes. Lesser-used construction methods have gained (or regained) popularity in recent years. Though not in wide use, these methods frequently appeal to homeowners who may become actively involved in the construction process. They include: Cannabrick construction Cordwood construction Straw bale construction Geodesic domes Wattle and daub Thermographic comparison of traditional (left) and 'passivhaus' (right) buildings Energy-efficiency In the developed world, energy-conservation has grown in importance in house-design. Housing produces a major proportion of carbon emissions (30% of the total in the UK, for example). Development of a number of low-energy building types and techniques continues. They include the zero-energy house, the passive solar house, superinsulated and houses built to the Passivhaus standard. Earthquake protection One tool of earthquake engineering is base isolation which is increasingly used for earthquake protection. Base isolation is a collection of structural elements of a building that should substantially decouple it from the shaking ground thus protecting the building's integrity YouTube - Testing of a New Line of Seismic Base Isolators and enhancing its seismic performance. This technology, which is a kind of seismic vibration control, can be applied both to a newly designed building and to seismic upgrading of existing structures. Normally, excavations are made around the building and the building is separated from the foundations. Steel or reinforced concrete beams replace the connections to the foundations, while under these, the isolating pads, or base isolators, replace the material removed. While the base isolation tends to restrict transmission of the ground motion to the building, it also keeps the building positioned properly over the foundation. Careful attention to detail is required where the building interfaces with the ground, especially at entrances, stairways and ramps, to ensure sufficient relative motion of those structural elements. Legal issues Buildings with historical importance have restrictions. United Kingdom New houses in the UK are not covered by the Sale of Goods Act. When purchasing a new house the buyer has less legal protection than when buying a new car. New houses in the UK may be covered by a NHBC guarantee but some people feel that it would be more useful to put new houses on the same legal footing as other products. United States and Canada In the US and Canada, many new houses are built in housing tracts, which provide homeowners a sense of "belonging" and the feeling they have "made the best use" of their money. However, these houses are often built as cheaply and quickly as possible by large builders seeking to maximize profits. Many environmental health issues are ignored or minimized in the construction of these structures. In one case in Benicia, California, a housing tract was built over an old landfill. Home buyers were never told, and only found out when some began having reactions to high levels of lead and chromium. Identifying houses With the growth of dense settlement, humans designed ways of identifying houses and/or parcels of land. Individual houses sometimes acquire proper names; and those names may acquire in their turn considerable emotional connotations: see for example the house of Howards End or the castle of Brideshead Revisited. A more systematic and general approach to identifying houses may use various methods of house numbering. Animal houses Humans often build "houses" for domestic or wild animals, often resembling smaller versions of human domiciles. Familiar animal houses built by humans include bird-houses, hen-houses/chicken-coops and doghouses (kennels); while housed agricultural animals more often live in barns and stables. However, human interest in building houses for animals does not stop at the domestic pet. People build bat-houses, nesting-sites for wild ducks and other birds, bee houses, giraffe houses, kangaroo houses, worm houses, hermit crab houses, as well as shelters for many other animals. Shelter A modern style house in Canberra, Australian Capital Territory Forms of (relatively) simple shelter may include: Bus stop Camper Chalet Cottage dugout Gazebo Hangar Houseboat hut Lean-to Log Cabin Shack Tent (see also camp) yaodong Caravan Umbrella Houses and symbolism Houses may express the circumstances or opinions of their builders or their inhabitants. Thus a vast and elaborate house may serve as a sign of conspicuous wealth, whereas a low-profile house built of recycled materials may indicate support of energy conservation. Houses of particular historical significance (former residences of the famous, for example, or even just very old houses) may gain a protected status in town planning as examples of built heritage and/or of streetscape values. Plaques may mark such structures. House-ownership provides a common measure of prosperity in economics. Contrast the importance of house-destruction, tent dwelling and house rebuilding in the wake of many natural disasters. Peter Olshavsky's House for the Dance of Death provides a 'pataphysical variation on the house. Heraldry The house occurs as a rare charge in heraldry. See also Institutions U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development Regulatory Barriers Clearinghouse HUD USER Moladi Economics Affordable housing Housing bubble United States housing bubble Functions Mixed-use development Visitability Types Home automation Hurricane proof house Earth sheltering Lodging Boarding house Lustron house Mobile home Modular home Housing in Japan Housing estate Miscellaneous Housewarming party Domestic robot Squatting Lists List of house types List of house styles List of types of lodging List of real estate topics List of famous American Houses References External links Housing from UCB Libraries GovPubs be-x-old:Жытло | House |@lemmatized ranch:1 style:3 house:124 salina:1 california:3 example:7 early:2 victorian:1 gingerbread:1 united:9 state:8 build:13 noun:1 generally:5 refer:1 shelter:6 building:17 structure:8 dwelling:8 place:2 habitation:1 human:8 term:1 include:14 many:8 kind:3 range:1 rudimentary:1 hut:3 nomadic:1 tribe:1 high:3 rise:1 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5,137 | Karlheinz_Stockhausen | Karlheinz Stockhausen, 2005 Karlheinz Stockhausen (22 August 1928 – 5 December 2007) was a German composer, widely acknowledged by critics as one of the most important (Barrett 1988, 45; Harvey 1975b, 705; Hopkins 1972, 33; Klein 1968, 117) but also controversial (Power 1990, 30) composers of the twentieth and early twenty-first centuries. Another critic calls him "one of the great visionaries of 20th-century music" (Hewett 2007). He is known for his ground-breaking work in electronic music, aleatory (controlled chance) in serial composition, and musical spatialization. He was educated at the Hochschule für Musik Köln and the University of Cologne, and later studied with Olivier Messiaen in Paris, and with Werner Meyer-Eppler at the University of Bonn. One of the leading figures of the Darmstadt School, his compositions and theories were and remain widely influential, not only on composers of art music, but also on jazz and popular-music artists. His works, composed over a period of nearly sixty years, eschew traditional forms. In addition to electronic music—both with and without live performers—they range from miniatures for musical boxes through works for solo instruments, songs, chamber music, choral and orchestral music, to a cycle of seven full-length operas. His theoretical and other writings comprise ten large volumes. He received numerous prizes and distinctions for his compositions, recordings, and for the scores produced by his publishing company. Some of his notable compositions include the series of nineteen Klavierstücke (Piano Pieces), Kontra-Punkte for ten instruments, the electronic/musique-concrète Gesang der Jünglinge, Gruppen for three orchestras, the percussion solo Zyklus, Kontakte, the cantata Momente, the live-electronic Mikrophonie I, Hymnen, Stimmung for six vocalists, Aus den sieben Tagen, Mantra for two pianos and electronics, Tierkreis, Inori for soloists and orchestra, and the gigantic opera cycle Licht. He died of sudden heart failure at the age of 79, on 5 December 2007 at his home in Kürten, Germany. Biography Childhood Stockhausen was born in the Burg Mödrath, the so-called "castle" of the village of Mödrath, which served at the time as the maternity home of the Bergheim Kreis. The village, located near Kerpen in the vicinity of Cologne, was displaced in 1956 by the strip-mining of lignite in the region, though the castle itself still exists. His father was a schoolteacher and his mother was the daughter of a prosperous family of farmers in Neurath in the Cologne Bight. She played the piano and accompanied her own singing but, after three pregnancies in as many years, experienced a mental breakdown and was institutionalized in December 1932, followed a few months later by the death of her younger son, Hermann (Kurtz 1992, 8 & 13). From the age of seven, Stockhausen grew up in Altenberg, where he received his first piano lessons from the Protestant organist of the Altenberg Cathedral, Franz-Josef Kloth (Kurtz 1992, 14). His father, Simon Stockhausen, remarried in 1938 and with his new wife Luzia, had two daughters (Kurtz 1992, 18). Because his relationship with his new stepmother was less than happy, in January 1942 he became a boarder at the teachers' training college in Xanten, where he continued his piano training and also studied oboe and violin (Kurtz 1992, 18). According to one source, as a young teenager he worked as a cobbler (Prendergast 2000, 52). In 1941 or 1942, he learned that his mother had died, ostensibly from leukemia, though everyone at the same hospital had supposedly died of the same disease. It was generally understood that she had been a victim of the Nazi policy of euthanasia for "useless eaters" (Stockhausen 1989a, 20; Kurtz 1992, 19). Later, Stockhausen dramatised his mother's death in hospital by lethal injection, in Act 1 scene 2 ("Mondeva") of the opera Donnerstag aus Licht (Kurtz 1992, 213). In the Autumn of 1944, he was conscripted to serve as a stretcher-bearer in Bedburg (Kurtz 1992, 18). In February 1945, he met his father for the last time in Altenberg. Simon, who was on leave from the front, told his son "I'm not coming back. Look after things" (Kurtz 1992, 19). Education From 1947 to 1951, Stockhausen studied music pedagogy and piano at the Hochschule für Musik Köln (Cologne Conservatory of Music) and musicology, philosophy, and Germanics at the University of Cologne. He had the usual training in harmony and counterpoint, the latter with Hermann Schroeder, but he did not develop a real interest in composition until 1950. He was admitted at the end of that year to the class of the Swiss composer Frank Martin, who had just begun a seven-year tenure in Cologne (Kurtz 1992, 28). At the Darmstädter Ferienkurse in 1951, Stockhausen met the Belgian composer Karel Goeyvaerts, who had just completed studies with Olivier Messiaen (analysis) and Darius Milhaud (composition) in Paris, and Stockhausen resolved to do likewise (Kurtz 1992, 34–36). He arrived in Paris on 8 January 1952 and began attending Messiaen's courses in aesthetics and analysis, as well as Milhaud's composition classes. He continued with Messiaen for a year, but was disappointed with Milhaud and abandoned his lessons after a few weeks (Kurtz 1992, 45–48). In March 1953, he left Paris to take up a position as assistant to Herbert Eimert at the newly established Electronic Music Studio of Nordwestdeutscher Rundfunk (NWDR) (from 1 January 1955, Westdeutscher Rundfunk, or WDR) in Cologne (Kurtz 1992, 56–57). In 1962, he would succeed Eimert as director of the studio (Morawska-Büngeler 1988, 19). From 1954 to 1956, he studied phonetics, acoustics, and information theory with Werner Meyer-Eppler at the University of Bonn (Kurtz 1992, 68–72). Together with Eimert, Stockhausen edited the influential journal Die Reihe from 1955 to 1962 (Grant 2001, 1–2). Career and adult life Family and home On 29 December 1951, in Hamburg, he married Doris Andreae (Kurtz 1992, 45; Maconie 2005, 47). Together they had four children: Suja (b. 1953), Christel (b. 1956), Markus (b. 1957), and Majella (b. 1961) (Kurtz 1992, 90; Tannenbaum 1987, 94). On 3 April 1967, in San Francisco, he married Mary Bauermeister, with whom he had two children: Julika (b. 22 January 1966) and Simon (b. 1967) (Kurtz 1992, 141 & 149; Tannenbaum 1987, 95). Four of Stockhausen's children became professional musicians (Kurtz 1992, 202), and he composed some of his works specifically for them. A large number of pieces for the trumpet—from Sirius (1975–77) to the trumpet version of In Freundschaft (1997)—were composed for and premièred by his son Markus (Kurtz 1992, 208; Markus Stockhausen 1998, 13–16; Tannenbaum 1987, 61). Markus, at the age of 4 years, had performed the part of The Child in the Cologne première of Originale, alternating performances with his sister Christel (Maconie 2005, 220). Klavierstück XII and Klavierstück XIII (and their versions as scenes from the operas Donnerstag aus Licht and Samstag aus Licht) were written for his daughter Majella, and were first performed by her at the ages of 16 and 20, respectively (Maconie 2005, 430 & 443; Stockhausen Texte 5:190, 255, 274; Stockhausen Texte 6:64, 373). The saxophone duet in the second act of Donnerstag aus Licht, and a number of synthesizer parts in the Licht operas, including Klavierstück XV ("Synthi-Fou") from Dienstag, were composed for his son Simon (Kurtz 1992, 222; Maconie 2005, 480 & 489; Stockhausen Texte 5:186, 529), who also assisted his father in the production of the electronic music from Freitag aus Licht. His daughter Christel is a flautist who performed and gave a course on interpretation of Tierkreis in 1977 (Stockhausen Texte 5:105), later published as an article (C. Stockhausen 1978). In 1961, Stockhausen acquired a parcel of land in the vicinity of Kürten, a village east of Cologne, near Bergisch Gladbach in the Bergisches Land. He had a house built there, which was designed to his specifications by the architect Erich Schneider-Wessling, and he resided there since its completion in the autumn of 1965 (Kurtz 1992, 116–17, 137–38). Teaching After lecturing at the Internationale Ferienkurse für Neue Musik at Darmstadt (first in 1953), Stockhausen gave lectures and concerts in Europe, North America, and Asia (Stockhausen-Verlag 2008, 2, 14–15). He was guest professor of composition at the University of Pennsylvania in 1965 and at the University of California, Davis in 1966–67 (Kramer 1998; Stockhausen-Verlag 2008, 2–3). He founded and directed the Cologne Courses for New Music from 1963 to 1968, and was appointed Professor of Composition at the Hochschule für Musik Köln in 1971, where he taught until 1977 (Kurtz 1992, 126–28 & 194; Stockhausen-Verlag 2008, 3). In 1998, he founded the Stockhausen Courses, which are held annually in Kürten (Stockhausen-Verlag 2008, 6–8, 15). "Space music" and Expo 70 Ever since the mid-1950s, Stockhausen had been developing concepts of spatialization in his works, not only in electronic music, such as the 5-channel Gesang der Jünglinge (1955–56) and Telemusik (1966), and 4-channel Kontakte (1958–60) and Hymnen (1966–67). Instrumental/vocal works like Gruppen for three orchestras (1955–57) and Carré for four choirs and orchestras (1959–60) also exhibit this trait (Stockhausen Texte 2:71–72, 49–50, 102–103; Stockhausen 1989, 105–108; Cott 1973, 200–201). In lectures such as “Music in Space” from 1958 (Stockhausen Texte 1:152–75), he called for new kinds of concert halls to be built, "suited to the requirements of spatial music". His idea was a spherical space which is fitted all around with loudspeakers. In the middle of this spherical space a sound-permeable, transparent platform would be suspended for the listeners. They could hear music composed for such standardized spaces coming from above, from below and from all points of the compass. (Stockhausen Texte 1:153) In 1968, the West German government invited Stockhausen to collaborate on the German Pavilion at the 1970 World Fair in Osaka, and with the artist Otto Piene to create a joint multimedia project for it. Other collaborators on the project included the pavilion’s architect, Fritz Bornemann, Fritz Winckel, director of the Electronic Music Studio at the Technical University of Berlin, and the engineer Max Mengeringhausen. The pavilion theme was “gardens of music”, in keeping with which Bornemann intended “planting” the exhibition halls beneath a broad lawn, with only a connected auditorium “sprouting” above ground. Initially, Bornemann conceived this auditorium in the form of an amphitheatre, with a central orchestra podium and surrounding audience space. In the summer of 1968, Stockhausen met with Bornemann and persuaded him to change this conception to a spherical space with the audience in the center, surrounded by loudspeaker groups in seven rings at different "latitudes" around the interior walls of the sphere (Kurtz 1992, 166; Föllmer 1996). Photos and architectural plans of the auditorium of the West German Pavilion and its sound system. Though Stockhausen and Piene’s planned multimedia project, titled Hinab-Hinauf, was developed in considerable detail (Stockhausen, Texte 3:155–74), the World Fair committee rejected their concept as too extravagant and instead asked Stockhausen to present daily five-hour programs of his music (Kurtz 1992, 178). Stockhausen’s works were performed for 5½ hours every day over a period of 183 days to a total audience of about a million listeners (Wörner 1973, 256). According to Stockhausen's biographer, Michael Kurtz, "Many visitors felt the spherical auditorium to be an oasis of calm amidst the general hubbub, and after a while it became one of the main attractions of Expo 1970" (Kurtz 1992, 179). More photos of the spherical auditorium at Expo 70 Publishing activities From the mid-1950s onward, Stockhausen designed (and in some cases had had printed) his own musical scores for his publisher, Universal Edition, which often involved unconventional devices. The score for his piece Refrain, for instance, includes a rotatable (refrain) on a transparent plastic strip. Early in the 1970s, he ended his agreement with Universal Edition and began publishing his own scores under the Stockhausen-Verlag imprint (Kurtz 1992, 184). This arrangement allowed him to extend his notational innovations (for example, dynamics in Weltparlament [the first scene of Mittwoch aus Licht] are coded in colour) and resulted in eight German Music Publishers Society Awards between 1992 (Luzifers Tanz) and 2005 (Hoch-Zeiten, from Sonntag aus Licht) (Stockhausen-Verlag 2008, 12–13). In the early 1990s, Stockhausen reacquired the licenses to most of the recordings of his music he had made to that point, and started his own record company to make this music permanently available on compact disc (Maconie 2005, 477–78). Grave of the Composer Death Stockhausen died of sudden heart failure on the morning of 5 December 2007 in Kürten, North Rhine-Westphalia (Bäumer 2007). He had just the night before finished a work recently commissioned for performance by the Mozart Orchestra of Bologna (Bäumer 2007). Compositions Stockhausen wrote 370 individual works. He often departs radically from musical tradition and his work is influenced by Olivier Messiaen, Edgard Varèse, and Anton Webern, as well as by film (Stockhausen 1996b) and by painters such as Piet Mondrian (Stockhausen 1996a, 94; Texte 3, 92–93; Toop 1998) and Paul Klee (Maconie 2005, 187). 1950s Stockhausen began to compose in earnest only during his third year at the conservatory (Kurtz 1992, 26–27). His early student compositions remained out of the public eye until, in 1971, he published Chöre für Doris, Drei Lieder for alto voice and chamber orchestra, Choral for a capella choir (all three from 1950), and a Sonatine for Violin and Piano (1951) (Maconie 1990, 5–6 and 11). In August 1951, just after his first Darmstadt visit, Stockhausen began working with a form of athematic serial composition that rejected the twelve-tone technique of Schoenberg (Felder 1977, 92). He characterized many of these earliest compositions (together with the music of other, like-minded composers of the period) as punktuelle ("punctual" or "pointist" music, commonly mistranslated as "pointillist") Musik, though one critic concluded after analysing several of these early works that Stockhausen "never really composed punctually" (Sabbe 1981). Compositions from this phase include Kreuzspiel (1951), the Klavierstücke I–IV (1952—the fourth of this first set of four Klavierstücke, titled Klavierstück IV, is specifically cited by Stockhausen as an example of "punctual music" in Texte 2, 19), and the first (unpublished) versions of Punkte and Kontra-Punkte (1952) (Texte 2, 20). However, several works from these same years show Stockhausen formulating his "first really ground-breaking contribution to the theory and, above all, practice of composition" (Toop 2005, 3), that of "group composition" (Toop 2005, 3), found in Stockhausen's works as early as 1952 and continuing to the present time (Toop 2005, 3). This principle was first publicly described by Stockhausen in a radio talk from December 1955, titled "Gruppenkomposition: Klavierstück I" (Texte 1, 63–74). In December 1952, he composed a Konkrete Etüde, realized in Pierre Schaeffer's Paris musique concrète studio. In March 1953, he moved to the NWDR studio in Cologne and turned to electronic music with two Electronic Studies (1953 and 1954), and then introducing spatial placements of sound sources with his mixed concrète and electronic work Gesang der Jünglinge (1955–56). Experiences gained from the Studies made plain that it was an unacceptable oversimplification to regard timbres as stable entities (Texte 1, 56). Reinforced by his studies with Meyer-Eppler, beginning in 1955, Stockhausen formulated new "statistical" criteria for composition, focussing attention on the aleatoric, directional tendencies of sound movement, "the change from one state to another, with or without returning motion, as opposed to a fixed state" (Decroupet and Ungeheuer 1998, 98–99). Stockhausen later wrote, describing this period in his compositional work, "The first revolution occurred from 1952/53 as musique concrète, electronic tape music, and space music, entailing composition with transformers, generators, modulators, magnetophones, etc; the integration of all concrete and abstract (synthetic) sound possibilities (also all noises), and the controlled projection of sound in space" (Stockhausen 1989b, 127; reprinted in Schwartz & Childs 1998, 374). His position as "the leading German composer of his generation" (Toop 2001) was established with Gesang der Jünglinge and three concurrently composed pieces in different media: Zeitmasze for five woodwinds, Gruppen for three orchestras, and Klavierstück XI (Kohl 1998a, 61). The principles underlying the latter three compositions are presented in Stockhausen's best-known theoretical article, ". . . wie die Zeit vergeht . . ." (". . . How Time Passes . . ."), first published in 1957 in vol. 3 of Die Reihe (Texte 1, 99–139). His work with electronic music and its utter fixity led him to explore modes of instrumental and vocal music in which performers' individual capabilities and the circumstances of a particular performance (e.g., hall acoustics) may determine certain aspects of a composition. He called this "variable form" (Wörner 1973, 101–105). In other cases, a work may be presented from a number of different perspectives. In Zyklus (1959), for example, he began using graphical notation for instrumental music. The score is written so that the performance can start on any page, and it may be read upside down, or from right to left, as the performer chooses (Stockhausen, Texte 2, 73–100). Still other works permit different routes through the constituent parts. Stockhausen called both of these possibilities "polyvalent form" (Stockhausen, Texte 1, 241–51), which may be either open form (essentially incomplete, pointing beyond its frame), as with Klavierstück XI (1956), or "closed form" (complete and self-contained) as with Momente (1962-64/69) (Kaletha 2004, 97–98). In many of his works, elements are played off against one another, simultaneously and successively: in Kontra-Punkte ("Against Points", 1952-53), which, in its revised form became his official "opus 1", a process leading from an initial "point" texture of isolated notes toward a florid, ornamental ending is opposed by a tendency from diversity (six timbres, dynamics, and durations) toward uniformity (timbre of solo piano, a nearly constant soft dynamic, and fairly even durations). In Gruppen (1955–57), fanfares and passages of varying speed (superimposed durations based on the harmonic series) are occasionally flung between three full orchestras, giving the impression of movement in space (Maconie 2005, 486). In his Kontakte for electronic sounds (optionally with piano and percussion) (1958–60), he achieved for the first time an isomorphism of the four parameters of pitch, duration, dynamics, and timbre (Stockhausen 1962, 40). 1960s In 1960, Stockhausen returned to the composition of vocal music (for the first time since Gesang der Jünglinge) with Carré for four choirs and four orchestras (Stockhausen-Verlag 2008, 18). Two years later, he began an expansive cantata titled Momente (1962-64/69), for solo soprano, four choir groups and thirteen instrumentalists (Stockhausen-Verlag 2008, 18). In 1963, Stockhausen created Plus-Minus, "2 × 7 pages for realisation" containing basic note materials and a complex system of transformations to which those materials are to be subjected in order to produce an unlimited number of different compositions (Stockhausen-Verlag 2008, 20; Toop 2005, 175–78). Through the rest of the 1960s, he continued to explore such possibilities of "process composition" in works for live performance, such as Prozession (1967), Kurzwellen, and Spiral (both 1968), culminating in the verbally described "intuitive music" compositions of Aus den sieben Tagen (1968) and Für kommende Zeiten (1968-70) (Fritsch 1979; Kohl 1981, 192–93, 227–51; Kohl 1998b, 7; Toop 2005, 191–92). Some of his later works, such as Ylem (1972) and the first three parts of Herbstmusik (1974), also fall under this rubric (Maconie 2005, 254 and 366–68). Several of these process compositions were featured in the all-day programmes presented at Expo 70, for which Stockhausen composed two more similar pieces, Pole for two players, and Expo for three (Kohl 1981, 192–93; Maconie 2005, 323–24). In other compositions, such as Stop for orchestra (1965), Adieu for wind quintet (1966), and the Dr. K Sextett, which was written in 1968–69 in honour of Alfred Kalmus of Universal Edition, he presented his performers with more restricted improvisational possibilities (Maconie 2005, 262, 267–68, 319–20). He pioneered live electronics in Mixtur (1964/67/2003) for orchestra and electronics (Kohl 1981, 51–163), Mikrophonie I (1964) for tam-tam, two microphones, two filters with potentiometers (6 players) (Maconie 1972; Maconie 2005, 255–57), Mikrophonie II (1965) for choir, Hammond organ, and four ring modulators (Peters 1992), and Solo for a melody instrument with feedback (1966) (Maconie 2005, 262–65). Improvisation also plays a part in all of these works, but especially in Solo (Maconie 2005, 264). He also composed two electronic works for tape, Telemusik (1966) and Hymnen (1966-67) (Kohl 2002; Stockhausen-Verlag 2008, 21). The latter also exists in a version with partially improvising soloists, and the third of its four "regions" in a version with orchestra (Stockhausen-Verlag 2008, 21). At this time, Stockhausen also began to incorporate pre-existent music from world traditions into his compositions (Kohl 1981, 93–95; Texte 4, 468–76). Telemusik was the first overt example of this trend (Kohl 2002, 96). In 1968, Stockhausen composed the vocal sextet Stimmung, for the Collegium Vocale Köln, an hour-long work based entirely on the overtones of a low B-flat (Toop 2005, 39). In the following year, he created Fresco for four orchestral groups, a Wandelmusik ("foyer music") composition (Maconie 2005, 321). This was intended to be played for about five hours in the foyers and grounds of the Beethovenhalle auditorium complex in Bonn, before, after, and during a group of (in part simultaneous) concerts of his music in the auditoriums of the facility (Maconie 2005, 321–23). The overall project was given the title Musik für die Beethovenhalle (Maconie 2005, 296). This had precedents in two collective-composition seminar projects that Stockhausen gave at Darmstadt in 1967 and 1968: Ensemble and Musik für ein Haus (Gehlhaar 1968; Ritzel 1970; Iddon 2004; Maconie 2005, 321), and would have successors in the "park music" composition for five spatially separated groups, Sternklang ("Star Sounds") of 1971, the orchestral work Trans, composed in the same year and the thirteen simultaneous "musical scenes for soloists and duets" titled Alphabet für Liège (1972) (Maconie 2005, 334–36, 338, 341–43). 1970s Beginning with Mantra for two pianos and electronics (1970), Stockhausen turned to formula composition, a technique which involves the projection and multiplication of a single, double, or triple melodic-line formula (Kohl 1983–84a; Kohl 1990; Kohl 2004). Sometimes, as in Mantra and the large orchestral composition with mime soloists, Inori, the simple formula is stated at the outset as an introduction. He continued to use this technique (e.g., in the two related solo-clarinet pieces, Harlekin ["Harlequin"] and Der kleine Harlekin ["The Little Harlequin"] of 1975, and the orchestral Jubiläum ["Jubilee"] of 1977) through the completion of the opera-cycle Licht in 2003 (Blumröder 1982; Conen 1991; Kohl 1983–84a; Kohl 1990; Kohl 1993; Kohl 2004; Stockhausen-Verlag 2008, 10). Some works from the 1970s did not employ formula technique—e.g., the vocal duet "Am Himmel wandre ich" ("In the Sky I am Walking", one of the 13 components of the multimedia Alphabet für Liège, 1972), "Laub und Regen" ("Leaves and Rain", from the theatre piece Herbstmusik (1974), the unaccompanied-clarinet composition Amour, and the choral opera Atmen gibt das Leben ("Breathing Gives Life", 1974/77)—but nevertheless share its simpler, melodically oriented style (Conen 1991, 57). Two such pieces, Tierkreis ("Zodiac", 1974–75) and In Freundschaft ("In Friendship", 1977, a solo piece with versions for virtually every orchestral instrument), have become Stockhausen's most widely performed and recorded compositions (Anon. 2007a; Deruchie 2007; Nordin 2004). This dramatic simplification of style provided a model for a new generation of German composers, loosely associated under the label neue Einfachheit or New Simplicity (Andraschke 1981). The best-known of these composers is Wolfgang Rihm, who studied with Stockhausen in 1972–73. His orchestral composition Sub-Kontur (1974–75) quotes the formula of Stockhausen's Inori (1973–74), and he has also acknowledged the influence of Momente on this work (Frobenius 1981, 53 + note 59–60). Other large works from this decade include the orchestral Trans (1971) and two music-theatre compositions utilizing the Tierkreis melodies: Musik im Bauch ("Music in the Belly") for six percussionists (1975), and the science-fiction "opera" Sirius (1975–77) for eight-channel electronic music with soprano, bass, trumpet, and bass clarinet, which has four different versions for the four seasons, each lasting over an hour and a half (Stockhausen-Verlag 2008, 23–25). 1977–2003 Between 1977 and 2003, he composed seven operas in a cycle titled Licht: Die sieben Tage der Woche ("Light: The Seven Days of the Week") (Maconie 2005, 403–544). The Licht cycle deals with the traits associated in various historical traditions with each weekday (Monday = birth and fertility, Tuesday = conflict and war, Wednesday = reconciliation and cooperation, Thursday = travelling and learning, etc.) and with the relationships between and among three archetypal characters: Michael, Lucifer, and Eve (Kohl 1983–84b, 489; Stockhausen Texte 6:152–56, 175, 200–201). Each of these characters dominates one of the operas (Donnerstag [Thursday], Samstag [Saturday], and Montag [Monday], respectively), the three possible pairings are foregrounded in three others, and the equal combination of all three is featured in Mittwoch (Wednesday) (Kohl 1990, 274). Stockhausen's conception of opera was based significantly on ceremony and ritual, with influence from the Japanese Noh theatre (Stockhausen, Conen, and Hennlich 1989, 282), as well as Judeo-Christian and Vedic traditions (Bruno 1999, 134). Similarly, his approach to voice and text sometimes departed from traditional usage: characters were as likely to be portrayed by instrumentalists or dancers as by singers, and a few parts of Licht (e.g., Luzifers Traum from Samstag, Welt-Parlament from Mittwoch, Lichter-Wasser and Hoch-Zeiten from Sonntag) use written or improvised texts in simulated or invented languages (Kohl 1983–84b, 499; Moritz 2005; Stockhausen 1999, 18–25; Stockhausen 2001b, 20; Stockhausen 2003, 20). The seven operas were not composed in "weekday order", but rather starting (apart from Jahreslauf in 1977, which became the first act of Dienstag) with the "solo" operas and working toward the more complex ones: Donnerstag (1978–80), Samstag (1981–83), Montag (1984–88), Dienstag (1977/1987–91), Freitag (1991–94), Mittwoch (1995–97), and finally Sonntag (1998–2003) (Stockhausen-Verlag 2008, 3–7, 26–48). Stockhausen had dreams of flying throughout his life, and these dreams are reflected in the Helikopter-Streichquartett (the third scene of Mittwoch aus Licht), completed in 1993. In it, the four members of a string quartet perform in four helicopters flying independent flight-paths over the countryside near the concert hall. The sounds they play are mixed together with the sounds of the helicopters and played through speakers to the audience in the hall. Videos of the performers are also transmitted back to the concert hall. The performers are synchronized with the aid of a click-track, transmitted to them and heard over headphones (Stockhausen 1996c, 215). The first performance of the piece took place in Amsterdam on 26 June 1995, as part of the Holland Festival (Stockhausen 1996c, 216). Despite its extremely unusual nature, the piece has been given several performances, including one on 22 August 2003 as part of the Salzburg Festival to open the Hangar-7 venue (Stockhausen-Verlag 2008, 7), and the German première on 17 June 2007 in Braunschweig as part of the Stadt der Wissenschaft 2007 Festival (Stockhausen-Stiftung 2007). The work has also been recorded by the Arditti Quartet. 2003–2007 After completing Licht, Stockhausen embarked on a new cycle of compositions, based on the hours of the day, entitled Klang ("Sound"). Twenty-one of these pieces were completed before the composer's death (Stockhausen-Verlag 2008, 49–50). The works from this cycle performed to date are First Hour: Himmelfahrt (Ascension), for organ or synthesizer, soprano and tenor (2004–2005); Second Hour: Freude (Joy) for two harps (2005); Third Hour: Natürliche Dauern (Natural Durations) for piano (2005-2006); and Fourth Hour: Himmels-Tür (Heaven's Door) for a percussionist and a little girl (2005) (Stockhausen-Verlag 2008, 49). The Fifth Hour, Harmonien (Harmonies), is a solo in three versions for flute, bass clarinet, and trumpet (2006) (Stockhausen-Verlag 2008, 49); the bass clarinet and flute versions were premièred in Kürten on 11 July 2007 and 13 July 2007, respectively (Stockhausen 2007b and Stockhausen 2007c), and the trumpet version was premièred on 2 August 2008 in London at a BBC Proms concert (Stockhausen-Stiftung 2008, 7). The Sixth through Twelfth hours are chamber-music works based on the material from the Fifth Hour (Stockhausen-Verlag 2008, 49). Of these, the Seventh (Balance, for flute, English horn, and bass clarinet), Ninth (Hoffnung, for string trio), and Tenth, Glanz (commission of the Asko Ensemble and the Holland Festival), were premièred on 22 August (Stockhausen-Stiftung 2008, 9), 31 August (Stockhausen-Stiftung 2008, 10), and 19 June (Beer 2008; Voermans 2008), respectively. The première of the Sixth (Schönheit, for flute, trumpet, and bass clarinet) has been announced for 5 October 2009 (Stockhausen-Stiftung 2008, 16). The Thirteenth Hour, Cosmic Pulses—an electronic work made by superimposing 24 layers of sound, each having its own spatial motion, among eight loudspeakers placed around the concert hall—was premièred in Rome on 7 May 2007 at Auditorium Parco della Musica, (Sala Sinopoli) (Stockhausen 2007a). Hours 14 through 21 are solo pieces for bass voice, baritone voice, basset-horn, horn, tenor voice, soprano voice, soprano saxophone, and flute, respectively, each with electronic accompaniment of a different set of three layers from Cosmic Pulses (Stockhausen-Verlag 2008, 50). Of these, the Twentieth (Edentia for soprano saxophone and electronic music) was premièred on 6 August 2008 (Mischke 2008), while the Fourteenth (Havona for bass voice and electronic music) and Nineteenth (Urantia for soprano and electronic music) have been announced for 10 January 2009 in Paris, and 8 November 2008 in London, respectively (Stockhausen-Stiftung 2008, 15 and 13). Theories In the 1950s and early 1960s, Stockhausen published a series of articles that established his importance in the area of music theory. Although these include analyses of music by Mozart, Debussy, Bartók, Stravinsky, Goeyvaerts, Boulez, Nono, Johannes Fritsch, Michael von Biel, and, especially, Webern (Texte 1:24–31, 39–44, 75–85, 86–98; Texte 2:136–39, 149–66, 170–206; Texte 3:236–38; Texte 4:662–63), the items on compositional theory directly related to his own work are regarded as the most important generally. "Indeed, the Texte come closer than anything else currently available to providing a general compositional theory for the postwar period" (Morgan 1975, 16). His most celebrated article is "... wie die Zeit vergeht ..." (". . . How Time Passes . . ."), first published in the third volume of Die Reihe (1957). In it, he expounds a number of temporal conceptions underlying his instrumental compositions Zeitmaße, Gruppen, and Klavierstück XI. In particular, this article develops (1) a scale of twelve tempos analogous to the chromatic pitch scale, (2) a technique of building progressively smaller, integral subdivisions over a basic (fundamental) duration, analogous to the overtone series, (3) musical application of the concept of the partial field (time fields and field sizes) in both successive and simultaneous proportions, (4) methods of projecting large-scale form from a series of proportions, (5) the concept of "statistical" composition, (6) the concept of "action duration" and the associated "variable form", and (7) the notion of the "directionless temporal field" and with it, "polyvalent form" (Stockhausen Texte 1:99–139). Other important articles from this period include "Musik im Raum" ("Music in Space", 1958, Texte 1:152–75), "Musik und Graphik" ("Music and Graphics", 1959, Texte 1:176–88), "Momentform" (1960, Texte 1:189–210), "Die Einheit der musikalischen Zeit" ("The Unity of Musical Time", 1961, Texte 1:211–21; Stockhausen 1962), and "Erfindung und Entdeckung" ("Invention and Discovery", 1961, Texte 1:222–58), the last summing up the ideas developed up to 1961. Taken together, these temporal theories suggested that the entire compositional structure could be conceived as "timbre": since "the different experienced components such as color, harmony and melody, meter and rhythm, dynamics, and form correspond to the different segmental ranges of this unified time" [Texte 1:120], the total musical result at any given compositional level is simply the "spectrum" of a more basic duration—i.e., its "timbre," perceived as the overall effect of the overtone structure of that duration, now taken to include not only the "rhythmic" subdivisions of the duration but also their relative "dynamic" strength, "envelope," etc. . . . Compositionally considered, this produced a change of focus from the individual tone to a whole complex of tones related to one another by virtue of their relation to a "fundamental"—a change that was probably the most important compositional development of the latter part of the 1950s, not only for Stockhausen’s music but for "advanced" music in general. (Morgan 1975, 6) Some of these ideas, considered from a purely theoretical point of view (divorced from their context as explanations of particular compositions) drew significant critical fire (Backus 1962, Fokker 1968, Perle 1960). For this reason, Stockhausen ceased publishing such articles for a number of years, as he felt that "many useless polemics" about these texts had arisen, and he preferred to concentrate his attention on composing (Texte 4:13). Through the 1960s, although he taught and lectured publicly (Texte 3:196–211), Stockhausen published little of an analytical or theoretical nature. Only in 1970 did he again begin publishing theoretical articles, with "Kriterien", his six seminar lectures for the Darmstädter Ferienkurse (Texte 3:222–29). Reception Musical influence Stockhausen's two early Electronic Studies (especially the second) had a powerful influence on the subsequent development of electronic music in the 1950s and 1960s, particularly in the work of the Italian Franco Evangelisti and the Poles Andrzej Dobrowolski and Włodzimierz Kotoński (Skowron 1981, 39). The influence of his Kontra-Punkte, Zeitmasse and Gruppen may be seen in the work of many composers, including Igor Stravinsky's Threni (1957-58) and Movements for piano and orchestra (1958-59) and other works up to the Variations: Aldous Huxley In Memoriam (1963-64), whose rhythms "are likely to have been inspired, at least in part, by certain passages from Stockhausen's Gruppen" (Neidhöffer 2005, 340). Though music of Stockhausen's generation may seem an unlikely influence, Stravinsky said in a 1957 conversation: I have all around me the spectacle of composers who, after their generation has had its decade of influence and fashion, seal themselves off from further development and from the next generation (as I say this, exceptions come to mind, Krenek, for instance). Of course, it requires greater effort to learn from one’s juniors, and their manners are not invariably good. But when you are seventy-five and your generation has overlapped with four younger ones, it behooves you not to decide in advance "how far composers can go," but to try to discover whatever new thing it is makes the new generation new. (Stravinsky and Craft 1959, 133) Amongst British composers, Sir Harrison Birtwistle readily acknowledges the influence of Stockhausen's Zeitmaße (especially on his two wind quintets, Refrains and Choruses and Five Distances) and Gruppen on his work more generally (Cross 2000, 48; Cross 2001; Hall 1984, 3 and 7–8; Hall 1998, 99 and 108; Pace 1996, 27). Brian Ferneyhough says that, although the "technical and speculative innovations" of Klavierstücke I-IV, Kreuzspiel and Kontra-Punkte escaped him on first encounter (Ferneyhough 1988), they nevertheless produced a "sharp emotion, the result of a beneficial shock engendered by their boldness" (Ferneyhough 1988) and provided "an important source of motivation (rather than of imitation) for my own investigations" (Ferneyhough 1988). While still in school, he became fascinated upon hearing the British première of Gruppen, and listened many times to the recording of this performance, while trying to penetrate its secrets—how it always seemed to be about to explode, but managed nevertheless to escape unscathed in its core—but scarcely managed to grasp it. Retrospectively, it is clear that from this confusion was born my interest for the formal questions which remain until today. (Ferneyhough 1988) With respect to Stockhausen's later work, he said, I have never subscribed (whatever the inevitable personal distance) to the thesis according to which the many transformations of vocabulary characterizing Stockhausen’s development are the obvious sign of his inability to carry out the early vision of strict order that he had in his youth. On the contrary, it seems to me that the constant reconsideration of his premises has led to the maintenance of a remarkably tough thread of historical consciousness which will become clearer with time. . . . I doubt that there has been a single composer of the intervening generation who, even if for a short time, did not see the world of music differently thanks to the work of Stockhausen. (Ferneyhough 1988) In a short essay describing Stockhausen's influence on his own work, Richard Barrett concludes that "Stockhausen remains the composer whose next work I look forward most to hearing, apart from myself of course" and names as works that have had particular impact on his musical thinking Mantra, Gruppen, Carré, Klavierstück X, Inori, and Jubiläum (Barrett 1998). French composer Jean-Claude Éloy regards Stockhausen as the most important composer of the second half of the twentieth century, and cites virtually "all his catalog of works" as "a powerful discoveration [sic], and a true revelation" (Éloy 2008). Dutch composer Louis Andriessen acknowledged the influence of Stockhausen's Momente in his pivotal work Contra tempus of 1968 (Schönberger 2001). German composer Wolfgang Rihm, who studied with Stockhausen, was influenced by Momente, Hymnen, and Inori (Williams 2006, 382). Jazz musicians such as Miles Davis (Bergstein 1992), Cecil Taylor, Charles Mingus, Herbie Hancock, Yusef Lateef (Feather 1964; Tsahar 2006), and Anthony Braxton (Radano 1993, 110) cite Stockhausen as an influence. At the Cologne ISCM Festival in 1960, the Danish composer Per Nørgård heard Stockhausen's Kontakte as well as pieces by Kagel, Boulez, and Berio. He was profoundly affected by what he heard and his music suddenly changed into "a far more discontinuous and disjunct style, involving elements of strict organization in all parameters, some degree of aleatoricism and controlled improvisation, together with an interest in collage from other musics" (Anderson 2001). Stockhausen was influential within pop and rock music as well. Frank Zappa acknowledges Stockhausen in the liner notes of Freak Out!, his 1966 debut with the Mothers of Invention. Rick Wright and Roger Waters of Pink Floyd also acknowledge Stockhausen as an influence (Macon 1997, 141; Bayles 1996, 222). San Francisco psychedelic groups Jefferson Airplane and the Grateful Dead are vaguely said to have done the same (Prendergast 2000, 54), though Stockhausen himself merely says the former band included students of Luciano Berio and both were "well orientated toward new music" (Texte 4, 505). Founding members of Cologne-based experimental band Can, Irmin Schmidt and Holger Czukay, state they studied with Stockhausen (Irmin Schmidt biography; Holger Czukay biography, though Czukay at the time was known as Holger Schüring), and this is confirmed to have been from 1963 to 1966 at the Cologne Courses for New Music (Texte 3, 196, 198, 200). German electronic pioneers Kraftwerk also say they studied with Stockhausen (Flur 2003, 228), and Icelandic vocalist Björk has acknowledged Stockhausen's influence (Heuger 1998, 15; Guðmundsdóttir 1996; Ross 2004, 53 & 55). Wider cultural renown Stockhausen, along with John Cage, is one of the few avant-garde composers to have succeeded in penetrating the popular consciousness (Anon. 2007b; Broyles 2004; Hewett 2007). The Beatles famously included his face on the cover of Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band (Guy and Llewelyn-Jones 2004, 111). This reflects his influence on the band's own avant-garde experiments as well as the general fame and notoriety he had achieved by that time (1967). In particular, "A Day in the Life" (1967) and "Revolution 9" 1968) were influenced by Stockhausen's electronic music (Aldgate, Chapman, and Marwick 2000, 146; MacDonald 1995, 233–34). Stockhausen's name, and the perceived strangeness and unlistenability of his music, was even a punchline in cartoons, as documented on a page on the official Stockhausen web site (Stockhausen Cartoons). Perhaps the most caustic remark about Stockhausen was attributed to Sir Thomas Beecham. Asked "Have you heard any Stockhausen?", he is alleged to have replied, "No, but I believe I have trodden in some" (Lebrecht 1983, 334, annotated on 366: "Apocryphal; source unknown"). Stockhausen's fame is also reflected in works of literature. For example, he is mentioned in Philip K. Dick's 1974 novel Flow My Tears, The Policeman Said (Dick 1993, 101) and in Thomas Pynchon's 1966 novel The Crying of Lot 49. The Pynchon novel features "The Scope", a bar with "a strict electronic music policy". Protagonist Oedipa Maas asks "a hip graybeard" about a "sudden chorus of whoops and yibbles" coming out of "a kind of jukebox." He replies, "That's by Stockhausen... the early crowd tends to dig your Radio Cologne sound. Later on we really swing" (Pynchon 1999, 34). Criticism Robin Maconie finds that, "Compared to the work of his contemporaries, Stockhausen’s music has a depth and rational integrity that is quite outstanding. . . . His researches, initially guided by Meyer-Eppler, have a coherence unlike any other composer then or since" (Maconie 1989, 177–78). Maconie also compares Stockhausen to Beethoven: "If a genius is someone whose ideas survive all attempts at explanation, then by that definition Stockhausen is the nearest thing to Beethoven this century has produced. Reason? His music lasts" (Maconie 1988), and "As Stravinsky said, one never thinks of Beethoven as a superb orchestrator because the quality of invention transcends mere craftsmanship. It is the same with Stockhausen: the intensity of imagination gives rise to musical impressions of an elemental and seemingly unfathomable beauty, arising from necessity rather than conscious design” (Maconie 1989, 178). Christopher Ballantine, while comparing and contrasting the categories of experimental and avant-garde music, concludes that Perhaps more than any other contemporary composer, Stockhausen exists at the point where the dialectic between experimental and avant-garde music becomes manifest; it is in him, more obviously than anywhere else, that these diverse approaches converge. This alone would seem to suggest his remarkable significance. (Ballantine 1977, 244) Igor Stravinsky expressed great, but not uncritical, enthusiasm for Stockhausen's music in the conversation books with Robert Craft (e.g., Craft and Stravinsky 1960, 118) and for years organised private listening sessions with friends in his home where he played tapes of Stockhausen's latest works (Stravinsky 1984, 356; Craft 2002, 141). In an interview published in March 1968, however, he says of an unidentified person, I have been listening all week to the piano music of a composer now greatly esteemed for his ability to stay an hour or so ahead of his time, but I find the alternation of note-clumps and silences of which it consists more monotonous than the foursquares of the dullest eighteenth-century music. ([Craft] 1968, 4) The following October, a report in Sovetskaia Muzyka (Anon. 1968) translated this sentence (and a few others from the same article) into Russian, substituting for the conjunction "but" the phrase "Ia imeiu v vidu Karlkheintsa Shtokkhauzena" ("I am referring to Karlheinz Stockhausen"). When this translation was quoted in Druskin's Stravinsky biography, the field was widened to all of Stockhausen's compositions and Druskin adds for good measure, "indeed, works he calls unnecessary, useless and uninteresting”, again quoting from the same Sovetskaia Muzyka article, even though it had made plain that the characterization was of American "university composers" (Druskin 1974, 207). Early in 1995, BBC Radio 3 sent Stockhausen a package of recordings from contemporary artists Aphex Twin, Richie Hawtin (Plastikman), Scanner and Daniel Pemberton, and asked him for his opinion on the music. In August of that year, Radio 3 reporter Dick Witts interviewed Stockhausen about these pieces for a broadcast in October, subsequently published in the November issue of the British publication The Wire asking what advice he would give these young musicians. Stockhausen made suggestions to each of the musicians, who were then invited to respond. All but Plastikman obliged (Witts 1995). Controversy In a press conference in Hamburg on 16 September 2001, Stockhausen was asked by a journalist whether the characters in Licht were for him "merely some figures out of a common cultural history" or rather "material appearances". The composer replied, "I pray daily to Michael, but not to Lucifer. I have renounced him. But he is very much present, like in New York recently" (Stockhausen 2002, 76). The same journalist then asked how the events of September 11th had affected him, and how he viewed reports of the attack in connection with the harmony of humanity represented in Hymnen. He answered: Well, what happened there is, of course—now all of you must adjust your brains—the biggest work of art there has ever been. The fact that spirits achieve with one act something which we in music could never dream of, that people practise ten years madly, fanatically for a concert. And then die. [Hesitantly.] And that is the greatest work of art that exists for the whole Cosmos. Just imagine what happened there. There are people who are so concentrated on this single performance, and then five thousand people are driven to Resurrection. In one moment. I couldn't do that. Compared to that, we are nothing, as composers. [...] It is a crime, you know of course, because the people did not agree to it. They did not come to the "concert". That is obvious. And nobody had told them: "You could be killed in the process." (Stockhausen 2002, 76–77.) (To see how the excerpt appeared out of its context, and in English translation, see Tommasini 2001.) As a result of the reaction to the press report of Stockhausen's comments, a four-day festival of his work in Hamburg was canceled. In addition, his pianist daughter announced to the press that she would no longer appear under the name "Stockhausen" (Lentricchia and McAuliffe 2003, 7). In a subsequent message, he stated that the press had published "false, defamatory reports" about his comments, and clarified as follows: At the press conference in Hamburg, I was asked if Michael, Eve and Lucifer were historical figures of the past and I answered that they exist now, for example Lucifer in New York. In my work, I have defined Lucifer as the cosmic spirit of rebellion, of anarchy. He uses his high degree of intelligence to destroy creation. He does not know love. After further questions about the events in America, I said that such a plan appeared to be Lucifer's greatest work of art. Of course I used the designation "work of art" to mean the work of destruction personified in Lucifer. In the context of my other comments this was unequivocal. (Stockhausen 2001a) Honours Amongst the numerous honors and distinctions that were bestowed upon Stockhausen are: 1964 German gramophone critics award; 1966 and 1972 SIMC award for orchestral works (Italy); 1968 Grand Art Prize for Music of the State of North Rhine-Westfalia; Grand Prix du Disque (France); Member of the Free Academy of the Arts, Hamburg; 1968, 1969, and 1971 Edison Prize (Holland); 1970 Member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Music; 1973 Member of the Academy of the Arts, Berlin; 1974 Distinguished Service Cross, 1st class (Germany); 1977 Member of the Philharmonic Academy of Rome; 1979 Member of the American Academy and Institute of Arts and Letters; 1980 Member of the European Academy of Science, Arts and Letters; 1981 Prize of the Italian music critics for Donnerstag aus Licht; 1982 German gramophone prize (German Phonograph Academy); 1983 Diapason d’or (France) for Donnerstag aus Licht; 1985 Commandeur de l'Ordre des Arts et des Lettres (France); 1986 Ernst von Siemens Music Prize; 1987 Honorary Member of the Royal Academy of Music, London; 1988 Honorary Citizen of the Kuerten community (Gemeinde Kürten website); 1989 Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences; 1990 Prix Ars Electronica, Linz, Austria; 1991 Honorary Fellow of the Royal Irish Academy of Music; Accademico Onorario of the Accademia Nazionale di Santa Caecilia, Rome; Honorary Patron of Sound Projects Weimar; 1992 IMC-UNESCO Picasso Medal; Distinguished Service Medal of the German state North Rhine-Westfalia; German Music Publishers Society Award for the score of Luzifers Tanz (3rd scene of Saturday from Light); 1993 Patron of the European Flute Festival; Diapason d’or for Klavierstücke I–XI and Mikrophonie I and II; 1994 German Music Publishers Society Award for the score Jahreslauf (Act 1 of Tuesday from Light); 1995 Honorary Member of the German Society for Electro-Acoustic Music; Bach Award of the city of Hamburg; 1996 Honorary doctorate (Dr. phil. h. c.) of the Free University of Berlin; Composer of the European Cultural Capital Copenhagen; Edison Prize (Holland) for Mantra; Member of the Free Academy of the Arts Leipzig; Honorary Member of the Leipzig Opera; Cologne Culture Prize; 1997 German Music Publishers Society Award for the score of Weltparlament (1st scene of Wednesday from Light); Honorary member of the music ensemble LIM (Laboratorio de Interpretación Musical), Madrid; 1999 Entry in the Golden Book of the city of Cologne; 2000 German Music Publishers Society Award for the score of Evas Erstgeburt (Act 1 of Monday from Light); 2000–2001 The film In Absentia made by the Quay Brothers (England) to concrete and electronic music by Karlheinz Stockhausen won the Golden Dove (first prize) at the International Festival for Animated Film in Leipzig. More awards: Special Jury Mention, Montreal, FCMM 2000; Special Jury Award, Tampere 2000; Special Mention, Golden Prague Awards 2001; Honorary Diploma Award, Cracow 2001; Best Animated Short Film, 50th Melbourne International Film Festival 2001; Grand Prix, Turku Finland 2001; 2001 German Music Publishers Society Award for the score Helicopter String Quartet (3rd scene of Wednesday from Light); Polar Music Prize of the Royal Swedish Academy of the Arts; 2002 Honorary Patron of the Sonic Arts Network, England; 2003 German Music Publishers Society Award for the score of Michaelion (4th scene of Wednesday from Light); 2004 Associated member of the Academie Royale des Sciences, des Lettres & des Beaux-arts (Belgium); Honorary doctorate (Dr. phil. h. c.) of the Queen’s University in Belfast; German Music Publishers Society Award for the score of Stop and Start for 6 instrumental groups; 2005 German Music Publishers Society Award for the score of Hoch-Zeiten for choir (5th scene of Sunday from Light). Notable students Maryanne Amacher Gilbert Amy Junsang Bahk Clarence Barlow Gerald Barry Mary Bauermeister Michael von Biel Konrad Boehmer Jean-Yves Bosseur Karl Gottfried Brunotte Boudewijn Buckinx Cornelius Cardew Stephen Chatman Tom Constanten Holger Czukay Hugh Davies Michel Decoust Jean-Claude Éloy Peter Eötvös Julio Estrada Johannes G. Fritsch Renaud Gagneux Rolf Gehlhaar Jacob Gilboa Gérard Grisey Jon Hassell York Höller Eleanor Hovda Nicolaus A. Huber Alden Jenks David C. Johnson Will Johnson Jonathan Kramer Helmut Lachenmann André Laporte Mario Lavista Luca Lombardi Vincent McDermott John McGuire Jennifer Helen McLeod Robin Maconie Mesías Maiguashca Pierre Mariétan Tomás Marco Gérard Masson Paul Méfano Costin Miereanu Dary John Mizelle Emmanuel Nunes Gonzalo de Olavide Jorge Peixinho Robert HP Platz Zoltán Pongrácz Horaţiu Rădulescu Wolfgang Rihm Ingo Schmitt Irmin Schmidt Holger Schüring Kurt Schwertsik Gerald Shapiro Makoto Shinohara Roger Smalley Avo Sõmer Tim Souster Atli Heimir Sveinsson Zsigmond Szathmáry Ivan Tcherepnin Serge Tcherepnin Gilles Tremblay Stephen Truelove Claude Vivier Kevin Volans Thomas Wells La Monte Young Hans Zender Bibliography Aldgate, Anthony, James Chapman, and Arthur Marwick. 2000. Windows on the Sixties: Exploring Key Texts of Media and Culture. London and New York: I. B. Taurus & Co. Ltd. ISBN 1-86064-383-3 Anderson, Julian. 2001. “Nørgård, Per”. The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, ed. S. Sadie and J. 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Sprache im Grenzbereich der Künste, 16–40. Munich: Edition Text+Kritik. Reprinted in: Günter Peters. Heiliger Ernst im Spiel – Texte zur Musik von Karlheinz Stockhausen / Holy Seriousness in the Play – Essays on the Music of Karlheinz Stockhausen (bilingual edition, German and English), 27–62/163–98. Kürten: Stockhausen-Stiftung für Musik, 2003. Power, David. 1990. "Book Reviews: Towards a Cosmic Music, Karlheinz Stockhausen; Tim Nevill". Tempo, new series, no. 175. (December): 30–31. Prendergast, Mark. 2000. The Ambient Century: From Mahler to Trance - the Evolution of Sound in the Electronic Age. New York: Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 1582341346. Pynchon, Thomas. 1999. The Crying of Lot 49 New York: HarperPerennial. Radano, Ronald M. 1993. New Musical Figurations: Anthony Braxton's Cultural Critique Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Rigoni, Michel. 1998. Stockhausen: ... un vaisseau lancé vers le ciel. Lillebonne: Millénaire III Editions. Ritzel, Fred. 1970. Musik für ein Haus: Kompositionsstudio Karlheinz Stockhausen, Internationale Ferienkurse für Neue Musik, Darmstadt 1968. Darmstädter Beiträge zur Neuen Musik 12, edited by Ernst Thomas. Mainz: B. Schott’s Söhne. Roads, Curtis. 2001. Microsound. Cambridge: MIT Press. ISBN 0262182157 Ross, Alex. 2004. "Björk's Saga". The New Yorker 80, no. 23 (August 23): 49–53 +55–59. . Sabbe, Herman. 1981. “Die Einheit der Stockhausen-Zeit ...: Neue Erkenntnismöglichkeiten der seriellen Entwicklung anhand des frühen Wirkens von Stockhausen und Goeyvaerts. Dargestellt aufgrund der Briefe Stockhausens an Goevaerts”. In Musik-Konzepte 19: Karlheinz Stockhausen: ... wie die Zeit verging ..., edited by Heinz-Klaus Metzger and Rainer Riehn, 5–96. Munich: Edition Text + Kritik. Schönberger, Elmer. 2001. "Andriessen: (4) Louis Andriessen". The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, ed. S. Sadie and J. Tyrrell. London: Macmillan. Schwartz, Elliott, and Barney Childs, with Jim Fox. 1998. Contemporary Composers on Contemporary Music. Expanded edition. New York: Da Capo Press. ISBN 0306808196 Sigel, Paul. 2000. "Der deutsche Beitrag auf der Expo70 in Osaka." Arch plus no. 149–150 (April): 116–33. Reprinted online Thema 5, no. 1 (July 2000) Skowron, Zbigniew. 1981. "Muzyka elektroniczna Karlheinza Stockhausena. Okres prób i doswiadczen" [Karlheinz Stockhausen's electronic music. A period of trials and experiences]. Muzyka: Kwartalnik Instytutu Sztuki Polskiej Akademii Nauk 26, nos. 3-4:17-40. Stenzl, Jürg. 1991. "York Höller's 'The Master and Margarita': A German Opera." Translated by Sue Rose. Tempo New Series, no. 179 (December): 8–15. Stephens, Suzanne, and Kathinka Pasveer (eds.). 2008. Gedenkschrift für Stockhausen. Kürten: Stockhausen-Stiftung für Musik. ISBN 978-3-00-023528-3 Stockhausen, Christel. 1978. "Stockhausens Tierkreis: Einführung und Hinweise zur praktischen Aufführung." Melos 45/Neue Zeitschrift für Musik 139 (July-August): 283-87. Reprinted together with an English trans. as "Stockhausen’s ZODIAC, Introduction and Instructions for Performance Practice", in a booklet now included with the score of Tierkreis. Stockhausen, Karlheinz. Texte zur Musik. 10 vols. Vols. 1–3 edited by Dieter Schnebel; vols. 4–10 edited by Christoph von Blumröder. Vols. 1–3, Cologne: Verlag M. DuMont Schauberg (1963, 1964, 1971); vols. 4–6 DuMont Buchverlag (1978, 1989, 1989). Vols. 7–10 Kürten: Stockhausen-Verlag (1998). English edition, as Texts on Music, edited by Jerome Kohl, with translations by Jerome Kohl, Richard Toop, Tim Nevill, Suzanne Stephens, et al. Kürten: Stockhausen-Verlag, in preparation. Stockhausen, Karlheinz. 1962. "The Concept of Unity in Electronic Music". Translated by Elaine Barkin. Perspectives of New Music 1, no. 1 (Autumn): 39–48. Stockhausen, Karlheinz. 1989a. Stockhausen on Music: Lectures and Interviews, edited by Robin Maconie. London and New York: Marion Boyars. Stockhausen, Karlheinz. 1989b. Towards a Cosmic Music. Texts selected and translated by Tim Nevill. Shaftsbury: Element Books. ISBN 1852300841 Stockhausen, Karlheinz. 1996a. "Electroacoustic Performance Practice". Perspectives of New Music 34, no. 1 (Fall): 74–105. Stockhausen, Karlheinz. 1996b. “Kino-Bilder”. In Bilder vom Kino: Literarische Kabinettstücke, edited by Wolfram Schütte, 138–40. Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp Verlag. Stockhausen, Karlheinz. 1996c. "Helikopter-Streichquartett". Grand Street 14, no. 4 (Spring, "Grand Street 56: Dreams"):213–25. ISBN 1-885490-07-0. Online Variant of this text (some omissions, some supplements, different illustrations). Stockhausen, Karlheinz. 1998. “Bildung ist große Arbeit: Karlheinz Stockhausen im Gespräch mit Studierenden des Musikwissenschaftlichen Instituts der Universität zu Köln am 5. Februar 1997.” In Stockhausen 70: Das Programmbuch Köln 1998. Signale aus Köln: Musik der Zeit 1, edited by Imke Misch and Christoph von Blumröder, 1–36. Saarbrücken: Pfau-Verlag. Stockhausen, Karlheinz. 1999. Stockhausen-Kurse Kürten 1999: Kompositions-Kurs: Skizzen von Welt-Parlament (1995) für Chor a capella (mit singenden Dirigenten/Klangregisseur (1. Szene vom Mittwoch aus Licht). Kürten: Stockhausen-Verlag. Stockhausen, Karlheinz. 2001a. "Message from Professor Karlheinz Stockhausen" (Accessed 27 December 2007) Stockhausen, Karlheinz. 2001b. Stockhausen Courses Kürten 2001: Composition Course on Lights-Waters (Sunday Greeting) for Soprano, Tenor, and orchestra with synthesizer (1999). Kürten: Stockhausen-Verlag. Stockhausen, Karlheinz. 2002. " „Huuuh!“ Das Pressegespräch am 16. September 2001 im Senatszimmer des Hotel Atlantic in Hamburg". MusikTexte no. 91:69–77. Stockhausen, Karlheinz. 2003. Stockhausen Courses Kürten 2003: Composition Course on Hoch-Zeiten (of Sunday from Light) for Choir (2001/02). Kürten: Stockhausen-Verlag. Stockhausen, Karlheinz. 2007a. "Cosmic Pulses: Electronic Music." (Accessed 30 March 2008) In programme book for the world première. Rome (8 May). Slightly expanded version in 2007 Stockhausen-Kurse Kürten: Programm zu den Interpretations- und Kompositionskursen und Konzerten der Musik von / Programme for the Interpretation and Composition Courses and Concerts of the Music of Karlheinz Stockhausen, 7. Juli bis 15. Juli 2007 in Kürten / from July 7th to 15th 2007 in Kuerten, notes for the German première on July 13, 2007, pp. 22 (German text) and 40 (English text), with illustrations divided between those pages and the programme cover. Kürten: Stockhausen-Verlag. Stockhausen, Karlheinz. 2007b. "Harmonien/Harmonies for Bass Clarinet (2006)". In 2007 Stockhausen-Kurse Kürten: Programm zu den Interpretations- und Kompositionskursen und Konzerten der Musik von / Programme for the Interpretation and Composition Courses and Concerts of the Music of Karlheinz Stockhausen, 7. Juli bis 15. Juli 2007 in Kürten / from July 7th to 15th 2007 in Kuerten, notes for the German première on 11 July 2007, pp. 33–34. Kürten: Stockhausen-Verlag. Stockhausen, Karlheinz. 2007c. "Harmonien/Harmonies for Flute (2006): 5th Hour of Klang / Sound, The 24 Hours of the Day". In 2007 Stockhausen-Kurse Kürten: Programm zu den Interpretations- und Kompositionskursen und Konzerten der Musik von / Programme for the Interpretation and Composition Courses and Concerts of the Music of Karlheinz Stockhausen, 7. Juli bis 15. Juli 2007 in Kürten / from July 7th to 15th 2007 in Kuerten, notes for the German première on 13 July 2007, p. 36. Kürten: Stockhausen-Verlag. Stockhausen, Karlheinz, Hermann Conen, and Jochen Hennlich. 1989. "Before and After Samstag aus Licht: Conversation of 24 May 1984, in Milan." Translated by Karin von Abrams. Contemporary Music Review 5, no. 1:267–97. Stockhausen, Markus. 1998. "Markus Stockhausen plays Karlheinz Stockhausen", notes on pp. 13–17 of booklet to CD recording, Markus Stockhausen plays Karlheinz Stockhausen: Aries, In Freundschaft, Halt, Pietà. EMI Classics 7243 5 56645 2 5. Stockhausen-Stiftung. 2007. Stockhausen Aufführungen/Performances 2007. Kürten: Stockhausen-Stiftung. Stockhausen-Stiftung. 2008. Stockhausen Aufführungen/Performances 2008. Kürten: Stockhausen-Stiftung. Stockhausen-Verlag. 2008. Stockhausen August 22nd 1928–December 5th 2007, English edition of brochure with official worklist and list of CDs. Kürten: Stockhausen-Verlag. Straus, Joseph N. 1997. "Babbitt and Stravinsky under the Serial 'Regime'" Perspectives of New Music 35, no. 2 (Summer): 17–32. Straus, Joseph N. 2001. Stravinsky's Late Music. Cambridge Studies in Music Theory and Analysis 16. New York: Cambridge University Press 33–35. ISBN 0521802202 Stravinsky, Igor. 1984. Selected Correspondence, vol. 2. Edited and with commentaries by Robert Craft. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. Stravinsky, Igor, and Robert Craft. 1960. Memories and Commentaries. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. Stravinsky, Igor, and Robert Craft. 1980. Conversations with Stravinsky. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. ISBN 0520040406 (Reprint of the 1959 Doubleday edition.) Tannenbaum, Mya. 1987. Conversations with Stockhausen, translated from the Italian by David Butchart. Oxford: Clarendon Press; New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-315467-6 Tommasini, Anthony. 2001. "The Devil Made Him Do It". New York Times (30 September). Toop, Richard. 1998. "Mondrian, Fibonacci . . . und Stockausen: Mass und Zahl in Adieu". Neue Zeitschrift für Musik 159, no. 4 (July–August): 31–35. Toop, Richard. 2001. “Karlheinz Stockhausen”. The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians ed. S. Sadie and J. Tyrrell. London: Macmillan. Toop, Richard. 2005. Six Lectures from the Stockhausen Courses Kürten 2002. Stockhausen-Verlag. ISBN 3-00-016-185-6 Toop, Richard. 2008. "Kulturelle Dissidenten: Die Stockhausen-Klasse der Jahre 1973 und 1974". MusikTexte: Zeitschrift für neue Musik, no. 116 (February): 46–49. Truelove, Stephen. 1984. "Karlheinz Stockhausen’s Klavierstück XI: An Analysis of Its Composition via a Matrix System of Serial Polyphony and the Translation of Rhythm into Pitch." DMA diss. Norman: University of Oklahoma. Truelove, Stephen. 1998. "The Translation of Rhythm into Pitch in Stockhausen's Klavierstück XI." Perspectives of New Music 36, no. 1 (Winter): 189–220. Tsahar, Assif. 2006. "Gentle Giant". Haaretz Daily Newspaper [Tel-Aviv] (17 March). Voermans, Erik. 2008. "Besluit van een machtig oeuvre". Het Parool (20 June). Wager, Gregg. 1998. "Symbolism as a Compositional Method in the Works of Karlheinz Stockhausen. College Park, Maryland; diss. phil. Free University Berlin, 1996. Wörner, Karl Heinz. 1973. Stockhausen: Life and Work. Translated by Bill Hopkins. Berkeley: University of California Press. Williams, Alastair. 2006. "Swaying with Schumann: Subjectivity and Tradition in Wolfgang Rihm's Fremde Szenen I–III and Related Scores". Music and Letters 87, no. 3:379–97. Witts, Dick. 1995. "Karlheinz Stockhausen: Advice to Clever Children ...". The Wire, issue 141 (November). External links Karlheinz Stockhausen official site The Stockhausen Society (International) website Obituary in The Times, 10 December 2007 Aspekte des Seriellen bei Karlheinz Stockhausen by Karlheinz Essl (1989) (pdf) Complete list of works by Stockhausen Comprehensive Stockhausen Discography Stockhausen at Expo 70 in Osaka Interview with Stockhausen Karlheinz Stockhausen: Both a rationalist and a mystic, the composer's influence stretched from Boulez to the Beatles Obituary in The Guardian by Ivan Hewett In Kürten zu Hause—und im Universum Obituary in the Kölner Stadt-Anzeiger by Rainer Nonnenmann (in German). The construction of Stockhausen's Heaven's Door The online music review La Folia discusses awareness of Stockhausen's music in the US "Stockhausen is Invisible" and "Ferneyhough & Stockhausen: Grubby and Gruppen" Listening Stockhausen website video and audio files Epitonic.com: Karlheinz Stockhausen featuring tracks from Mantra Excerpts from sound archives of Stockhausen's works | Karlheinz_Stockhausen |@lemmatized karlheinz:74 stockhausen:296 august:17 december:16 german:32 composer:38 widely:3 acknowledge:6 critic:5 one:21 important:6 barrett:4 harvey:3 hopkins:3 klein:2 also:20 controversial:1 power:2 twentieth:5 early:12 twenty:2 first:23 century:8 another:4 call:6 great:6 visionary:1 music:152 hewett:4 know:5 ground:4 breaking:1 work:67 electronic:32 aleatory:1 control:1 chance:1 serial:11 composition:48 musical:21 spatialization:2 educate:1 hochschule:5 für:31 musik:44 köln:11 university:30 cologne:18 later:9 study:15 olivier:3 messiaen:5 paris:8 werner:2 meyer:4 eppler:4 bonn:3 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5,138 | Nitroglycerin | Nitroglycerin (NG), (United States spelling) also known as nitroglycerine, ( Spelling), trinitroglycerin, trinitroglycerine, 1,2,3-trinitroxypropane and glyceryl trinitrate, is a heavy, colorless, oily, explosive liquid obtained by nitrating glycerol. Since the 1860s, it has been used as an active ingredient in the manufacture of explosives, specifically dynamite, and as such is employed in the construction and demolition industries. Similarly, since the 1880s, it has been used by the military as an active ingredient, and a gellatinizer for nitrocellulose, in some solid propellants, such as Cordite and Ballistite. Nitroglycerin is also used medically as a vasodilator to treat heart conditions, such as angina and chronic heart failure. History Nitroglycerin was the first practicable explosive stronger than black powder. It was synthesized by chemist Ascanio Sobrero in 1847, working under TJ Pelouze at the University of Turin. Sobrero initially called his discovery pyroglycerine, and warned vigorously against its use as an explosive. It was later adopted as a commercially useful explosive by Alfred Nobel. He experimented with safer ways to handle the dangerous substance; his younger brother Emil and several workers were killed in 1864 in a nitroglycerin explosion at the family's armaments factory in Heleneborg, in Sweden. NobelPrize.org: Emil Nobel A year later, Nobel founded Alfred Nobel & Company in Germany, building an isolated factory in the Krümmel hills of Geesthacht near Hamburg. This business exported a liquid combination of nitroglycerin and gunpowder known as "Blasting Oil", but it was extremely unstable and difficult to transport, as shown in numerous catastrophes. The buildings of the Krümmel factory itself were destroyed on two occasions. NobelPrize.org: Krümmel In April 1866, three crates of nitroglycerin were shipped to California for the Central Pacific Railroad, who wished to experiment with its blasting capability to speed the construction of the 1,659-foot (506 m) Summit Tunnel through the Sierra Nevada. One of the crates exploded, destroying a Wells Fargo office in San Francisco and killing fifteen people, leading to a complete ban on the transport of liquid nitroglycerin in California. The on-site manufacture of nitroglycerin was thus required for the remaining hard-rock drilling and blasting required for the completion of America's First Transcontinental Railroad. "Transcontinental Railroad - People & Events: Nitroglycerin", American Experience, PBS Liquid nitroglycerin was widely banned elsewhere as well and this finally led to Alfred Nobel & Company's development of dynamite in 1867, made by mixing the nitroglycerin with the diatomaceous earth (kieselguhr) found in the Krümmel hills. Similar mixtures, such as dualine (1867), lithofracteur (1869), and gelignite (1875), mixed nitroglycerin with other inert absorbents—many different combinations were tried in order to get around Nobel's tightly controlled patents. Dynamites containing nitrocellulose, which increase the viscosity of the mix, are commonly known as "gelatins." Following discoveries that amyl nitrite helped to alleviate chest pain, Doctor William Murrell experimented with the use of nitroglycerin to alleviate angina pectoris and reduce blood pressure. He began treating patients with small doses in 1878, and it was soon adopted into widespread use after he published his results in The Lancet in 1879. The medical establishment used the name "glyceryl trinitrate" or "trinitrin" to avoid alarming patients who associated nitroglycerin with explosions. Sneader, Walter. Drug Discovery: A History. John Wiley and Sons, 2005 ISBN 0471899801 Instability and desensitization In its pure form, it is a primary contact explosive (physical shock can cause it to explode) and degrades over time to even more unstable forms. This makes it highly dangerous to transport or use. In this undiluted form, it is one of the more powerful explosives, comparable to the more recently developed RDX and PETN, as well as the plastic explosive C-4—which contains over 90% RDX as its active ingredient. Early in the history of this explosive it was discovered that liquid nitroglycerin can be "desensitized" by cooling to 5 to 10 °C (40 to 50 °F), at which temperature it freezes, contracting upon solidification. However, later thawing can be extremely sensitizing, especially if impurities are present or if warming is too rapid. It is possible to chemically "desensitize" nitroglycerin to a point where it can be considered approximately as "safe" as modern high explosive formulations, by the addition of approximately 10-30% ethanol, acetone, or dinitrotoluene (percentage varies with the desensitizing agent used). Desensitization requires extra effort to reconstitute the "pure" product. Failing this, it must be assumed that desensitized nitroglycerin is substantially more difficult to detonate, possibly rendering it useless as an explosive for practical application. A serious problem in the use of nitroglycerin results from its high freezing point 13 °C (55 °F). Solid nitroglycerin is much less sensitive to shock than the liquid, a feature common in explosives; in the past it was often shipped in the frozen state, but this resulted in a high number of accidents during the thawing process by the end user just prior to use. This disadvantage is overcome by using mixtures of nitroglycerin with other polynitrates; for example, a mixture of nitroglycerin and ethylene glycol dinitrate freezes at -29 °C (-20 °F). Detonation Nitroglycerin and any dilutents can certainly deflagrate, i.e. burn. However, the explosive power of nitroglycerin is derived from detonation: energy from the initial decomposition causes a pressure wave or gradient that detonates the surrounding fuel. This is a self-sustained shock-wave that propagates through the explosive medium at some 30 times the speed of sound as a near-instantaneous pressure-induced decomposition of the fuel into a white hot gas. This is totally different from deflagration, which depends solely upon available fuel regardless of pressure or shock. Manufacturing The industrial manufacturing process often uses a nearly 50:50 mixture of concentrated sulfuric acid and concentrated nitric acid. This can be produced by mixing white fuming nitric acid (quite costly pure nitric acid in which oxides of nitrogen have been removed, as opposed to red fuming nitric acid) and concentrated sulfuric acid. More often, this mixture is attained by the cheaper method of mixing fuming sulfuric acid, also known as oleum, (sulfuric acid containing excess sulfur trioxide) and azeotropic nitric acid (consisting of around 70% nitric acid, the rest being water). The sulfuric acid produces protonated nitric acid species, which are attacked by glycerin's nucleophilic oxygen atoms. The nitro group is thus added as an ester C-O-NO2 and water is produced. This is different from an aromatic nitration reaction in which nitronium ions are the active species in an electrophilic attack of the molecules' ring system. The addition of glycerin results in an exothermic reaction (i.e., heat is produced), as usual for mixed acid nitrations. However, if the mixture becomes too hot, it results in runaway, a state of accelerated nitration accompanied by the destructive oxidizing of organic materials of nitric acid and the release of very poisonous brown nitrogen dioxide gas at high risk of an explosion. Thus, the glycerin mixture is added slowly to the reaction vessel containing the mixed acid (not acid to glycerin). The nitrator is cooled with cold water or some other coolant mixture and maintained throughout the glycerin addition at about 22 °C, much below which the esterification occurs too slowly to be useful. The nitrator vessel, often constructed of iron or lead and generally stirred with compressed air, has an emergency trap door at its base, which hangs over a large pool of very cold water and into which the whole reaction mixture (called the charge) can be dumped to prevent an explosion, a process referred to as drowning. If the temperature of the charge exceeds about 30 °C (actual value varying by country) or brown fumes are seen in the nitrator's vent, then it is immediately drowned. Use as an explosive and a propellant Alfred Nobel's patent application from 1864. The main use of nitroglycerin, by tonnage, is in explosives such as dynamite and in propellants. Alfred Nobel developed the use of nitroglycerin as a blasting explosive by mixing the nitroglycerine with inert absorbents particularly diatomaceous earth. He named this explosive dynamite and patented it in 1867. It was supplied ready for use in the form of sticks, individually wrapped in greased water-proof paper. Dynamite and similar explosives were widely adopted for civil engineering tasks, such as building railway tunnels and cuttings; and for quarrying. Nitroglycerin was also adapted as a military propellant, for use in guns and rifles. Poudre B, invented in France in 1886, was one of the first military propellants to replace gunpowder; but it was based on nitrocellulose, not nitroglycerin. It was later found to be unstable. Alfred Nobel then developed ballistite, by combining nitroglycerin and guncotton. He patented it in 1887. Ballistite was adopted by a number of European governments, as a military propellant. Italy was the first to adopt it. However, it was not adopted by the British Government. They, together with the British Commonwealth countries, adopted cordite, which had been developed by Sir Frederick Abel and Sir James Dewar, in 1889. The original Cordite Mk I consisted of 58% nitroglycerine, 37% guncotton and 5% petroleum jelly. Ballistite and cordite were both manufactured in the forms of cords. Smokeless powders were originally developed using nitrocellulose as the sole explosive ingredient; and were therefore known as single base propellants. A range of smokeless powders that contain both nitrocellulose and nitroglycerin, known as double base propellants, were also developed. Smokeless powders were originally supplied only for military use; however they were also soon developed for civilian use and were quickly adopted for sport. Some are known as sporting powders. Blasting gelatin, also known as gelignite, was invented by Nobel in 1875, using nitroglycerine, wood pulp, and sodium or potassium nitrates. This was an early low-cost, flexible explosive. War time production rates Large quantities of nitroglycerin were manufactured in both World Wars for use in military propellants. World War I In World War I HM Factory, Gretna, the largest propellant factory in the United Kingdom was producing 800 tons (812 tonne) of Cordite RDB per week. This required 336 tons of nitroglycerin per week (assuming no losses in production). The Royal Navy had its own factory at Royal Navy Cordite Factory, Holton Heath. A large cordite factory was also built in Canada in World War I. The Canadian Explosives Limited Cordite factory at Nobel, Ontario was designed to produce 1,500,000 lb (681 tonne) of Cordite per month. It required 286 tonnes of nitroglycerin per month. Medical implications Medical use Nitroglycerin in medicine, where it is generally called glyceryl trinitrate, is used as a heart medication (under the trade names Nitrospan, Nitrostat, and Tridil, amongst others). It is used as a medicine for angina pectoris (ischaemic heart disease) in tablets, ointment, solution for intravenous use, transdermal patches (Trinipatch, Transderm Nitro, Nitro-Dur), or sprays administered sublingually (Nitrolingual Pump Spray, Natispray). The principal action of nitroglycerin is vasodilation—widening of the blood vessels. Nitroglycerin will dilate veins more than arteries, decreasing cardiac preload and leading to the following therapeutic effects during episodes of angina pectoris: subsiding of chest pain decrease of blood pressure increase of heart rate. orthostatic hypotension These effects arise because nitroglycerin is converted to nitric oxide in the body by mitochondrial aldehyde dehydrogenase Chen et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA (2005) 102:12159-64 , and nitric oxide is a natural vasodilator. Recently, it has also become popular in an off-label use at reduced (0.2%) concentration in ointment form as an effective treatment for anal fissure. The side effects of Nitroglycerin include lack of sexual desire, head ache, painful urination and increased bowel movements. Industrial exposure Infrequent exposure to high doses of nitroglycerin can cause severe headaches known as "NG head". These headaches can be severe enough to incapacitate some people; however, humans develop a tolerance to and dependence on nitroglycerin after long-term exposure. Withdrawal can (rarely) be fatal; withdrawal symptoms include headaches and heart problems; with re-exposure to nitroglycerin, these symptoms may disappear. For workers in nitroglycerin (NTG) manufacturing facilities, this can result in a "Monday morning headache" phenomenon for those who experience regular nitroglycerin exposure in the workplace leading to the development of NTG tolerance for the vasodilating effects. Over the weekend the workers lose the tolerance to NTG and when they are reexposed on Monday the prominent vasodilation produces tachycardia, dizziness, and a headache. References - 1866 Newspaper article See also Mannitol hexanitrate Xylitol pentanitrate Erythritol tetranitrate Ethylene glycol dinitrate Methyl nitrate External links WebBook page for C3H5N3O9 Computational Chemistry Wiki The Tallini Tales of Destruction Detailed and horrific stories of the historical use of nitroglycerin-filled torpedoes to restart petroleum wells. | Nitroglycerin |@lemmatized nitroglycerin:43 ng:2 united:2 state:3 spell:2 also:10 know:9 nitroglycerine:4 trinitroglycerin:1 trinitroglycerine:1 trinitroxypropane:1 glyceryl:3 trinitrate:3 heavy:1 colorless:1 oily:1 explosive:22 liquid:6 obtain:1 nitrate:3 glycerol:1 since:2 use:29 active:4 ingredient:4 manufacture:5 specifically:1 dynamite:6 employ:1 construction:2 demolition:1 industry:1 similarly:1 military:6 gellatinizer:1 nitrocellulose:5 solid:2 propellant:10 cordite:9 ballistite:4 medically:1 vasodilator:2 treat:2 heart:6 condition:1 angina:4 chronic:1 failure:1 history:3 first:4 practicable:1 strong:1 black:1 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5,139 | Hamas | Hamas ( Ḥamās, an acronym of حركة المقاومة الاسلامية Ḥarakat al-Muqāwamat al-Islāmiyyah, meaning "Islamic Resistance Movement") is a Palestinian Islamic socio-political organization which includes a paramilitary force, the Izz ad-Din al-Qassam Brigades. Hamas is considered wholly, or in part, a terrorist organization by certain countries and supranational organizations. Since June 2007, Hamas has governed the Gaza portion of the Palestinian Territories. Hamas was created in 1987 by Sheikh Ahmed Yassin, Abdel Aziz al-Rantissi and Mohammad Taha of the Palestinian wing of Egypt's Muslim Brotherhood at the beginning of the First Intifada, an uprising against Israeli rule in the Palestinian Territories. Hamas launched numerous suicide bombings against Israel, Best known for suicide bombings/attacks: "Best known for the violence it launched against Israel through suicide bombings and rocket attacks... " (Murphy, John. "Hamas aims for political might", The Baltimore Sun, January 22, 2006) "To the outside world, Hamas is best-known — infamous — for its reliance on suicide bombers." (Palestinian territories:Inside Hamas,PBS FRONTLINE:World, May 9, 2006) the first of them in April, 1993. "Hamas" Council on Foreign Relations. Updated January 7, 2009 Hamas ceased the attacks in 2005 and renounced them in April, 2006. "Hamas in call to end suicide bombings" The Observer. April 9, 2006 Hamas has also been responsible for Israel-targeted rocket attacks, IED attacks, and shootings, but reduced those operations in 2005 and 2006. HAMAS (Islamic Resistance Movement) In 2008 the rockets reached their peak and then once again went down after Operation Cast Lead. In January 2006, Hamas was successful in the Palestinian parliamentary elections, taking 76 of the 132 seats in the chamber, while the previous ruling Fatah party took 43. After Hamas's election victory, violent and non-violent infighting arose between Hamas and Fatah. "The Gangs of Gaza", Newsweek, June 26, 2006. "...they find themselves on the brink of civil war in a power struggle between the governing Hamas movement and President Mahmoud Abbas's Fatah group. In two days of fighting between the two rival and well-armed factions, 12 Palestinians have been killed and more than 100 wounded, and there are few signs the months-long political dispute at the centre of the violence is about to die down." al-Mughrabi, Nidal and Assadi, Mohammed. Palestinian in-fighting provokes despair, frustration, Reuters, October 3, 2006. Following the Battle of Gaza in June 2007, elected Hamas officials were ousted from their positions in the Palestinian National Authority government in the West Bank and replaced by rival Fatah members and independents. Hamas retained control of Gaza. Carter: Stop favoring Fatah over Hamas The Jerusalem Post June 19, 2007 Exposing the bitter truth of Gaza carnage The Age June 23, 2007 On June 18, 2007, Palestinian President Mahmoud Abbas (Fatah) issued a decree outlawing the Hamas militia. CNN - Abbas outlaws Hamas militia forces Israel immediately thereafter imposed an economic blockade on Gaza, and Hamas repeatedly launched rocket attacks upon areas of Israel near its border with Gaza. "Gaza faces economic disaster if blockade continues, U.N. official warns" International Herald Tribune After the end of a six-month ceasefire the conflict was escalated, and Israel invaded Hamas-ruled Gaza in late December, 2008. Jpost 19 January 2009 Pool of 8 foreign journalists allowed into Gaza by Etgar Lefkovits Israel withdrew its forces from Gaza in mid-January, 2009. "Israel withdraws its troops from Gaza" Times Online Through its funding and management of schools, health-care clinics, mosques, youth groups, athletic clubs and day-care centers, Hamas by the mid-1990s had attained a "well-entrenched" presence in the West Bank and Gaza. Kindergartens and Killing: A Guide to Hamas Anti-Defamation League March 15, 1996 ". . . Hamas is a well-entrenched, all-encompassing presence in daily life in the West Bank and Gaza, administering mosques, schools, clinics, youth groups, athletic clubs and day-care centers." An estimated 80 to 90 percent of Hamas revenues fund health, social welfare, religious, cultural, and educational services. "Hamas" - Council on Foreign Relations. Updated January 7, 2009; "Approximately 90 percent of its work is in social, welfare, cultural, and educational activities, writes the Israeli scholar Reuven Paz." - "What is Hamas?" Pierre Tristam, About.com: Middle East Issues; "'up to 90% of [Hamas] resources and staff were devoted to public-service enterprises' (according to Robin Wright in Dreams and Shadows: The Future of the Middle East (Penguin Press, 2008)." Books: Kingdom of God The New Statesman May 7, 2007; "Using Israeli estimates, [Matthew Levitt, senior fellow at the Washington Institute for Near East Policy] reckons Hamas probably has an annual budget of between $70m and $90m, 80 to 85 per cent of which it spends on its political work and its extensive networks of schools, clinics and welfare organisations, while 15 to 20 per cent goes on military operations." Hamas's 1988 charter calls for replacing the State of Israel with a Palestinian Islamic state in the area that is now Israel, the West Bank, and the Gaza Strip. "Israeli Official Says Hamas Has Made Abbas Irrelevant" The New York Times, February 27, 2006 However, Khaled Meshal, Hamas's Damascus-based political bureau chief, stated in 2009 that the group would accept the creation of a Palestinian state based on the 1967 borders and, although unwilling to negotiate a permanent peace with Israel, has offered a temporary, long-term truce, or hudna, that would be valid for ten years. "Meshal: Hamas seeks Palestinian state based on '67 borders " By Haaretz Service , Ha'retz, 05/05/2009 Hamas describes its conflict with Israel as neither religious nor antisemitic, Hamas offers truce, Al-Ahram Weekly, 21 - 27 October 1999, Issue No. 452 "Haniyeh: Hamas willing to accept Palestinian state with 1967 borders", Amira Hass, Ha'aretz, 09/11/2008 the head of Hamas's political bureau stating in early 2006 that the conflict with Israel "is not religious but political", and that Jews have a covenant from God "that is to be respected and protected." January 31, 2006 Guardian Nonetheless, the Hamas Charter and statements by Hamas leaders are influenced by antisemitic conspiracy theories. "Though most Muslims reject Islamism and its propaganda, anti-Semitic messages from satellite channels like the Hamas-run Al-Aqsa are helping to bring a message of hate and intolerance to Europe. The effects of such hate preaching can already be felt in Germany." Matthias Küntzel. "'WIPE OUT THE JEWS': Anti-Semitic Hate Speech in the Name of Islam", Der Spiegel, May 16, 2008. Anti-Semitism at Core of Hamas Charter, Anti-Defamation League, February 27, 2006. Accessed April 17, 2007. "Hamas, which is deeply engaged in teaching anti-Semitic, and anti-Christian hate in schools," Puder, Joseph. Levitt Can't Strike Hopeful Note About Hamas, The Bulletin, March 27, 2007. Hamas is considered a terrorist organization by Canada, EU blacklists Hamas political wing the European Union, telegraph.uk america.gov al-jazeera Israel, The Financial Sources of the Hamas Terror Organization (Israel MFA) Japan, Japan's Diplomatic Bluebook 2005 states that it has frozen the assets of "terrorist organizations, including... Hamas." and the United States. "Country reports on terrorism 2005", United States Department of State. Office of the Coordinator for Counterterrorism. US Dept. of State Publication 11324. April 2006. p 196 Australia Listing of Terrorist Organisations, Australian Government Attorney-General's Department, 27 January 2006. Accessed July 31, 2006. and the United Kingdom United Kingdom Home Security Office. Terrorism Act 2000. Proscribed terrorist groups list the military wing of Hamas, the Izz ad-Din al-Qassam Brigades, as a terrorist organization. The United States and the European Union have implemented restrictive measures against Hamas on an international level. "Council Decision" Council of the European Union, December 21, 2005 Name Some disagreement exists over the meaning of the word "Hamas". Hamas is an acronym of the Arabic phrase حركة المقاومة الاسلامية, or Harakat al-Muqāwama al-Islāmiyya or "Islamic Resistance Movement". In Arabic the word "Hamās" translates roughly to "enthusiasm, zeal, élan, or fighting spirit". حماسHamās enthusiasm, rapture; zeal; elan, fighting spirit. Wehr, Hans. Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic. The initial consonant is not the ordinary /h/ of English, but a slightly more rasping sound, the voiceless pharyngeal fricative , transcribed as <ḥ>; it is for this reason that speakers of Hebrew frequently use the voiceless uvular fricative , the equivalent sound for most Hebrew speakers. The Izz ad-Din al-Qassam Brigades, Hamas's military wing formed in 1992, is named in commemoration of influential Palestinian nationalist Sheikh Izz ad-Din al-Qassam. Armed Hamas cells sometimes refer to themselves as "Students of Ayyash", "Students of the Engineer", or "Yahya Ayyash Units", Kushner, Harvey W. (2002). Encyclopedia of Terrorism, p.160 Sage Publications, ISBN 0-7619-2408-6 to commemorate Yahya Ayyash, an early Hamas bomb-maker killed in 1996. Goals A flag, with the Shahadah, frequently used by Hamas supporters Hamas wants to create an Islamic state in the West Bank and the Gaza strip, a goal which combines Palestinian nationalism with Islamist objectives. "Hamas" Hamas's 1988 charter calls for the replacement of Israel and the Palestinian Territories with an Islamic Palestinian state. However, Hamas did not mention that goal in its electoral manifesto during the January 2006 election campaign, though the manifesto did call for maintaining the armed struggle against the Israeli occupation of the Palestinian Territories. After the elections, in April, 2006, Hamas co-founder Mahmoud Al-Zahar did not rule out the possibility of accepting a temporary two-state solution, but also stated that he dreamed "of hanging a huge map of the world on the wall at my Gaza home which does not show Israel on it . . . . I hope that our dream to have our independent state on all historic Palestine (will materialize). . . . This dream will become real one day. I'm certain of this because there is no place for the state of Israel on this land". Al-Zahar added that he did not rule out the possibility of having Jews, Muslims and Christians living under the sovereignty of an Islamic state, stating that the Palestinians had never hated the Jews and that only the Israeli occupation was their enemy. On 21 April 2008, former U.S. President Jimmy Carter met with Hamas Leader Khaled Meshal and reached an agreement that Hamas would respect the creation of a Palestinian state in the West Bank and Gaza Strip areas seized by Israel in the Six-Day War of 1967, provided this be ratified by the Palestinian people in a referendum. Hamas later publicly offered a long-term hudna with Israel if Israel agreed to return to its 1967 borders and to grant the "right of return" to all Palestinian refugees. Israel has not responded to the offer. Carter Says Hamas and Syria Are Open For Peace New York Times, 22 April 2008 Hamas Offers Israel 10-Year Truce MSNBC In November, 2008 Hamas leader Ismail Haniyeh, disputed Prime Minister of the Palestinian Territories and de facto prime minister in Gaza, stated that Hamas was willing to accept a Palestinian state within the 1949 armistice lines, and offered Israel "a long-term hudna, or truce, if Israel recognized the Palestinians' national rights." Hamas willing to accept Palestinian state with 1967 borders Haaretz November 15, 2008 Critics of the Hamas truce offer suggest that Israel would never accept the Palestinian refugees' right of return since that would create a demographic majority of Muslims in Israel and thus put an end to Israel's Jewish-majority status. Also, there may be disagreement within the Hamas leadership on long-term peace with Israel. American writer Jeffrey Goldberg states that when he asked Hamas hardliner http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/7807430.stm “Obituary: Nizzar Rayyan”, BBC, (January 1, 2009). Nizar Rayyan if he could envision a 50-year hudna (cease-fire) with Israel, Rayyan responded, "The only reason to have a hudna is to prepare yourself for the final battle. We don't need 50 years to prepare ourselves for the final battle with Israel. Israel is an impossibility. It is an offense against God." http://jeffreygoldberg.theatlantic.com/archives/2009/01/nizar_rayyan_of_hamas_on_gods.php “Nizar Rayyan of Hamas on God's Hatred of Jews”, The Atlantic, (January 2, 2009). Steven Erlanger of the New York Times comments that Hamas excludes the possibility of permanent reconciliation with Israel. "Since the Prophet Muhammad made a temporary hudna, or truce, with the Jews about 1,400 years ago, Hamas allows the idea. But no one in Hamas says he would make a peace treaty with Israel or permanently give up any part of Palestine.". In Gaza, Hamas's Insults to Jews Complicate Peace - New York Times Mkhaimer Abusada, a political scientist at Al Azhar University writes that Hamas talks "of hudna, not of peace or reconciliation with Israel. They believe over time they will be strong enough to liberate all historic Palestine.” A memorandum prepared by the political bureau of Hamas in the 1990s at the request of western diplomats, published in a book by Azzam Tamimi, states that Hamas is "a Palestinian national liberation movement that struggles for the liberation of the Palestinian occupied territories and for the recognition of Palestinian legitimate rights." Hamas, the document stated, "regards itself as an extension of an old tradition that goes back to the early 20th century struggle against British and Zionist colonialism in Palestine." Quotations from Hamas memorandum "This is what we struggle for," reprinted in Tamimi, Azzam, Hamas, A History from Within, Olive Branch Press, 2007, pp. 265-270. The memorandum notes that, in principle, Hamas does not endorse targeting civilians, but argues that such attacks represented "an exception necessitated by Israel's insistence on targeting Palestinian civilians and by Israel's refusal to agree to an understanding prohibiting the killing of civilians on both sides comparable to the one reached between Israel and Hezbollah in Southern Lebanon." Quotations from Hamas memorandum "This is what we struggle for," reprinted in Tamimi, Azzam, Hamas, A History from Within, Olive Branch Press, 2007, pp. 265-270. Even in the 1990s, according to the memorandum, the organization foresaw the day when "dialogue" between itself and Israel would be possible, but warned that "The prospect of the movement initiating, or accepting dialogue with Israel is nonexistent at present because of the skewed balance of power between the Palestinians and the Israelis. In Sheikh Yassin's words: 'There can be no dialogue between a party that is strong and oppressive and another that is weak and oppressed. There can be no dialogue except after the end of oppression.'" Hamas Charter The Hamas charter (or covenant), issued in 1988, calls for the eventual creation of an Islamic state in Palestine, in place of Israel and the Palestinian Territories, and the obliteration or nullification of Israel. Specifically, the quotation section that precedes the charter's introduction provides the following quote, attributed to Imam Hassan al-Banna: "Israel will exist and will continue to exist until Islam will obliterate it, just as it obliterated others before it." The Avalon Project: Hamas Covenant 1988 accessed February 9, 2009 The quotation has also been translated as follows: "Israel will be established and will stay established until Islam shall nullify it, as it nullified what was before it." The Palestinian Hamas By Shaul Mishal, Avraham Sela accessed February 9, 2009 The charter's advocacy of an Islamic state in the territory of the Palestinian territories and Israel is stated as an Islamic religious prophesy arising from Hadith, the oral traditions relating to the words and deeds of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. The Palestine Center In this regard, the charter states that "renouncing any part of Palestine means renouncing part of the religion; the nationalism of the Islamic Resistance Movement is part of its faith. . ." Hamas Charter, Unabridged (1988) The charter's current status within Hamas is unclear. For example, Mousa Abu Marzook, the deputy of the political bureau of Hamas, in 2007 described the charter as "an essentially revolutionary document born of the intolerable conditions under occupation" in 1988. Marzook added that "if every state or movement were to be judged solely by its foundational, revolutionary documents . . ., there would be a good deal to answer for on all sides," noting as an example that the U.S. Constitution engaged in codifying slavery. "Hamas' Stand" The Los Angeles Times July 10, 2007 Senior British Diplomat and former British Ambassador to the UN Sir Jeremy Greenstock stated in early 2009 that the Hamas charter was "drawn up by a Hamas-linked imam some [twenty] years ago and has never been adopted since Hamas was elected as the Palestinian government in 2006". Greenstock also stated that Hamas is not intent on the destruction of Israel. BBC Today Programme interview with Sir Jeremy Greenstock, 12 January 2009 Finally, according to investigations by Israeli daily "The Jerusalem Post" in 2006, representatives of Hamas in Beirut, Damascus and London had intended to rewrite the charter. Azzam Tamimi, Director of the London-based Institute of Islamic Political Thinking, told the newspaper in a telephone interview: "All the madness from the Protocols of Elders of Zion and the conspiracy theory must be eradicated. It should never have been there in the first place". EXCLUSIVE: Hamas working on 'new charter' | Middle East | Jerusalem Post The thirty-six articles of the Covenant detail the movement's founding beliefs regarding the primacy of Islam in all aspects of life. The Covenant identifies Hamas as the Muslim Brotherhood in Palestine and considers its members to be Muslims who "fear God and raise the banner of Jihad in the face of the oppressors." Hamas describes resisting and quelling the enemy as the individual duty of every Muslim and prescribes vigilant roles for all members of society; including men and women, professionals, scientists and students. The enemy is defined primarily in terms of antisemitic conspiracy theories of world Jewish domination. "As noted, the Hamas view of the Jewish people is not drawn solely from the pages of the Qur'an and hadith. Its myopia is also the product of Western anti-Semitic influences. While Hamas, like other modern-day Islamists, has developed its argument on the Jewish question by relying on Qur'anic and other Islamic sources, it also, as Nettler notes, makes it 'modern by appropriate commentary, and supplemented by felicitous borrowing from such classical Western anti-Semitic sources as The Protocols of the Elders of Zion. Such opinions are influenced by the most bizarre form of Gentile paranoid conspiracy theory." Beverley Milton-Edwards, Islamic Politics in Palestine, I.B. Tauris, 1996, ISBN 1860644759, p. 188 "In calling for holy war against Israel, the covenant of Hamas, drawn up in 1998, also employs the language of the Protocols." Frederick M. Schweitzer, Marvin Perry, Anti-Semitism: myth and hate from antiquity to the present, Palgrave Macmillan, 2002, ISBN 0312165617, p. 116. "From the beginning, Hamas espoused the antisemitism of the Muslim Brotherhood's leading thinkers, Hasah al-Banna and Sayyid Qutb. This fact is clear from its own ideological credo formulated as the Islamic covenant in 1988, which not only calls for Islam to eliminate Israel but also states "our struggle against the Jews is extremely wide-ranging and grave." It cites the Hadith... in noting that at the end of time, Muslims will fight the Jews and kill them. The covenant and other Hamas publications draw on the libels of the Protocols of the Elders of Zion, accusing Jews of a universal conspiracy for world domination... Some of the antisemitic canards are backed in the covenant by koranic proof texts." Levy, Richard S. Antisemitism: A Historical Encyclopedia of Prejudice and Persecution, ABL_CLIO, 2005, p. 289.ISBN 1851094393 "In addition, classically anti-Semitic texts coming from pre-Holocaust Christian Europe, such as the Protocols of the Elders of Zion, also inform the ideals and philosophy of HAMAS members and their views of Jews and Judaism." Thomas M. Leonard, Encyclopedia of the Developing World, Routledge, 2005, p. 742. ISBN 1579583881 "Hamas hardened the conventional tone among Arab nationalists toward the Jews, adopting anti-Semitic charges based on The Protocols of the Elders of Zion concerning a Jewish conspiracy for world domination." Shaul Mishal, Avraham Sela. The Palestinian Hamas: Vision, Violence, and Coexistence, Columbia University Press, 2000, p. 45. ISBN 0231116756 According to a translation stored at a Yale University website, the Charter states that the organization's goal is to "raise the banner of Allah over every inch of Palestine, for under the wing of Islam followers of all religions can coexist in security and safety where their lives, possessions and rights are concerned." It further asserts that "The Islamic Resistance Movement is a humanistic movement. It takes care of human rights and is guided by Islamic tolerance when dealing with the followers of other religions. It does not antagonize anyone of them except if it is antagonized by it or stands in its way to hamper its moves and waste its efforts. Under the wing of Islam, it is possible for the followers of the three religions - Islam, Christianity and Judaism - to coexist in peace and quiet with each other. Peace and quiet would not be possible except under the wing of Islam. Past and present history are the best witness to that." In several places, the Charter compares Israeli treatment of Palestinians to the actions of the Nazis. For example Israel is described as "a vicious enemy which acts in a way similar to Nazism, making no differentiation between man and woman, between children and old people" and predicts that the "Zionist Nazi activities against our people will not last for long." The Charter outlines the organization's position on various issues, including social and economic development and ideological influences, education, as well as its position regarding Israel. Amongst many other things, it reiterates the group's rejection of the principle of coexistence with Zionism, which it defines as a danger not just to Palestinians, but to all Arab states. While primarily focusing on what it calls the "Zionist invasion" of Palestine as the cause of conflict, in places the Charter asserts that Zionism was able to achieve its ends due to the activities of secret organizations such as Freemasons and cites as an example the ability of Zionists to obtain the Balfour Declaration of 1917. The Charter asserts that through shrewd manipulation of imperial countries and secret societies, Zionists were behind a wide range of events and disasters going as far back in history as the French Revolution and that "There is no war going on anywhere, without having their finger in it." The Charter also selectively quotes Islamic religious texts to provide justification for fighting against and killing Jews. History Establishment Some have accused Israel, after the 1967 Six Day War, of looking to cultivate political Islam (and its most important group, the Muslim Brotherhood), as a counterweight to Fatah, the main secular Palestinian nationalist political organization. How Israel Helped to Spawn Hamas, by Andrew Higgins Wall Street Journal January 24, 2009 How Israel brought Gaza to the brink of humanitarian catastrophe, by Avi Shlaim Guardian UK January 7, 2009 Between 1967 and 1987, the year Hamas was founded, the number of mosques in Gaza tripled from 200 to 600, and the Muslim Brotherhood named the period between 1975 and 1987 a phase of 'social institution building.' Was Hamas the Work of the Israeli Mossad? by Ramzy Baroud Middle East Times March 13, 2009 Likewise, antagonistic and sometimes violent opposition to Fatah, the Palestine Liberation Organization and other secular nationalist groups increased dramatically in the streets and on university campuses. Sheikh Ahmed Yassin founded Hamas in 1987 as an offshoot of Egypt's Muslim Brotherhood, supported by Brotherhood-affiliated charities and social institutions that had gained a strong foothold in the occupied territories. The acronym "Hamas" first appeared in 1987 in a leaflet that accused the Israeli intelligence services of undermining the moral fiber of Palestinian youth as part of Mossad's recruitment of what Hamas termed "collaborators". Hamas's military branch, the Izz ad-Din al-Qassam Brigades, was created in 1992. During the 1990s and 2000s it conducted numerous suicide bombings For suicide attacks, sources include: "Best known for the violence it launched against Israel through suicide bombings and rocket attacks... " (Murphy, John. Hamas aims for political might, The Baltimore Sun, January 22, 2006) "To the outside world, Hamas is best-known — infamous — for its reliance on suicide bombers." (Palestinian territories:Inside Hamas,PBS FRONTLINE:World, May 9, 2006) "Hamas is best known abroad for the scores of suicide bombings it has carried out and its commitment to the destruction of Israel." (Barzak, Ibrahim. "Israel blames Iran, Syria for bombings", ABC News, January 20, 2006, p. 2) "...the militant organization, best known abroad for its attacks against Israeli civilians..." (Musharbash, Yassin. "Could Victory be Undoing of Hamas", Der Spiegel, January 27, 2006) "...it was best known in Israel and abroad for the suicide attacks it used..." ("After the Hamas earthquake", The Guardian, January 27, 2006). and other attacks directed against civilians, including the 2002 Passover suicide bombing. Hamas was banned in Jordan in 1999, reportedly in-part at the request of the United States, Israelis, and the Palestinian Authority. "Jordan curbs Hamas", The Guardian, November 22, 1999 Presidential and Legislative Elections In January, 2004, Hamas leader Sheikh Ahmed Yassin stated that the group would end armed resistance in exchange for a Palestinian state in the West Bank and Gaza Strip, and east Jerusalem, and that restoring Palestinians' "historical rights" (relating to their 1948 expulsion from Palestine) "would be left for future generations." Running out of time Al-Ahram Weekly 29 January - 4 February 2004 On January 25, 2004, senior Hamas official Abdel Aziz al-Rantissi offered a 10-year truce, or hudna, in return for the establishment of a Palestinian state and the complete withdrawal by Israel from the territories captured in the Six Day War of 1967. Al-Rantissi stated that Hamas had come to the conclusion that it was "difficult to liberate all our land at this stage, so we accept a phased liberation." Israel rejects 'insincere' Hamas offer of 10-year truce The Independent January 27, 2004 Israel immediately dismissed al-Rantissi's statements as insincere and a smokescreen for military preparations. Israel rejects 'insincere' Hamas offer of 10-year truce The Independent January 27, 2004 "Israel immediately dismissed the comments, from Abdel Aziz Rantisi, a leader of Hamas's political wing, as insincere." Yassin was killed March 22, 2004, by a targeted Israeli air strike, Fury as Gaza buries Hamas leader BBCNews April 19, 2004 , and al-Rantisi was killed by a similar air strike on April 18, 2004. Hamas chief killed in air strike BBCNews March 22, 2004 After an attack on the southern Israeli town of Be'er Sheva in August 2004, in which 15 civilians were killed and 125 wounded, the truce was generally observed. However, in 2005, a group claiming to be aligned with Hamas was involved in several attacks on Israelis in the Hebron area of the West Bank, killing six. While Hamas had boycotted the January 2005 presidential election, in which Mahmoud Abbas was elected to replace Yasser Arafat, it did participate in the municipal elections held between January and May 2005, in which it took control of Beit Lahia and Rafah in the Gaza Strip and Qalqilyah in the West Bank. In the Palestinian legislative election of 2006, Hamas gained the majority of seats in the first fair and democratic elections held in Palestine, Carter: Stop favoring Fatah over Hamas, The Jerusalem Post, 19 June 2007 defeating the ruling Fatah party. The "List of Change and Reform", as Hamas presented itself, obtained 42.9% of the vote and 74 of the 132 seats. The CEC announces the final results of the second PLC elections Many perceived the preceding Fatah government as corrupt and ineffective, and Hamas's supporters see it as an "armed resistance" Kristen Ess. "Why Hamas Won" ZNet. Palestine, January 31, 2006. Hamas had omitted its call for an end to Israel from its election manifesto, calling instead for "the establishment of an independent state whose capital is Jerusalem." In early February, 2006, after its victory in the 2006 parliamentary elections, Hamas reiterated that it was giving up suicide attacks and offered Israel a 10-year truce "in return for a complete Israeli withdrawal from the occupied Palestinian territories: the West Bank, Gaza Strip and East Jerusalem," "Who are Hamas?" BBC News, 27 January 2007 and recognition of Palestinian rights including the "right of return." Peace with Israel for withdrawal to ’67 borders, ynetnews March 3, 2006 Mashal added that Hamas was not calling for a final end to armed operations against Israel, and it would not impede other Palestinian groups from carrying out such operations. Mashal did not recognize a leading role for the Road map for peace, adopted by the Quartet in June 2003, because "The problem is not Hamas' stance, but Israel's stance. It is in fact not honoring the Road Map". Hamas delegation arrives in Moscow, ynetnews March 3, 2006 The Road map had projected the establishment of an independent Palestinian state in 2005. Instead, Hamas took a stance favoring renewed support for the 2002 Arab peace initiative. Le Monde Diplomatique, July 2007, http://mondediplo.com/2007/07/05palestine In May, 2006, after the U.S. and other governments imposed sanctions on the Palestinian territories in the wake of Hamas’ election victory, Hassan al-Safi, a senior Hamas official in the Gaza Strip, threatened a new Intifada against those U.S.-led international forces. Abu Toameh, Khaled. Hamas armed force readies for action, The Jerusalem Post, May 6, 2006. Hamas-Fatah conflict After the formation of the Hamas cabinet on 20 March 2006, tensions between Fatah and Hamas militants progressively rose in the Gaza strip, leading to demonstrations, violence and repeated attempts at a truce. Mahnaimi, Uzi. Israel foils plot to kill Palestinian president, The Sunday Times, 7 May 2006 On 27 June 2006, Hamas and Fatah reached an agreement which included the forming of a national unity government. On 8 February 2007, Hamas and Fatah signed a deal to end factional warfare that killed nearly 200 Palestinians, and to form a coalition, hoping this would lead Western powers to lift crippling sanctions imposed on the Hamas-led government. Saud Abu Ramadan and David Rosenberg. Palestinians Reach Accord on Forging Unity Government". Bloomberg, 9 February 2007. The events leading to a mid-2006 conflict between Israel and Hamas began on 9 June 2006. During an Israeli artillery operation, an explosion occurred on a busy Gaza beach, killing eight Palestinian civilians. It was initially assumed that Israeli shellings were responsible for the killings, but Israeli government officials later denied this. http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/jpost/access/1063909381.html?dids=1063909381:1063909381&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT&date=Jun+20%2C+2006&author=YAAKOV+KATZ&pub=Jerusalem+Post&edition=&startpage=01&desc=HRW+says+it+can%27t+refute+IDF+Gaza+beach+findings+blast http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/jpost/access/1071649401.html?dids=1071649401:1071649401&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT&date=Jun+22%2C+2006&author=YAAKOV+KATZ&pub=Jerusalem+Post&edition=&startpage=04&desc=IDF%3A+Second+piece+of+shrapnel+not+ours Hamas formally withdrew from its 16-month ceasefire on June 10, taking responsibility for the subsequent Qassam rocket attacks launched from Gaza into Israel. Militants Fire Rockets Into South Israel On 29 June, following an incursion by Hamas in which Israeli soldier Gilad Shalit was captured, Israel captured 64 Hamas officials. Among them were 8 Palestinian Authority cabinet ministers and up to 20 members of the Palestinian Legislative Council, as well as heads of regional councils, and the mayor of Qalqilyah and his deputy. At least a third of the Hamas cabinet was captured and held by Israel. On August 6 Israeli forces detained the Speaker of the Palestinian Legislative Council, Hamas member Aziz Dweik, at his home in the West Bank. In June 2007, renewed fighting broke out between Hamas and Fatah. After a brief civil war, Hamas maintained control of Gaza and the Fatah controlled the West Bank. President Mahmoud Abbas dismissed the Hamas-led Palestinian Authority government What Happens After Hamas Wins? Time and outlawed the Hamas militia. According to an article in the magazine Vanity Fair, in the months leading up to June 2007 Battle of Gaza, the United States, with the assistance of Israel, had armed and funded militias controlled by Mohammed Dahlan and nominally loyal to Mahmoud Abbas and his Fatah faction. According to the magazine, the intention was to overthrow the Hamas-led government so that it could be replaced with a US-backed "emergency government." The plan was reportedly approved by US Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice and President George W. Bush. David Rose, The Gaza Bombshell, Vanity Fair, April 2008 Leaders of Hamas and Fatah later met in the Yemeni capital San‘a’ on 23 March 2008 and agreed to the tentative "Sana'a Declaration" to resume conciliatory talks. Immediately upon the conclusion of the Battle of Gaza, Israel imposed an economic blockade on Gaza, and Hamas repeatedly launched rocket attacks upon areas of Israel near its border with Gaza because of the blockade. On June 18, 2008, Israel and Hamas announced a ceasefire, which formally began on June 19, 2008. The agreement was reached after talks between the two camps were conducted through Egyptian mediators in Cairo. As part of the ceasefire, Israel agreed to allow limited commercial shipping across its border with Gaza, barring any breakdown of the tentative peace deal, and Hamas hinted that it would discuss the release of Gilad Shalit. Israel agrees to Gaza ceasefire BBC News Hamas committed itself to enforce the ceasefire on the other Palestinian organizations Six Months of the Lull Arrangement Intelligence Report (PDF) Intelligence and Terrorism Information Center at the Israel Intelligence Heritage & Commemoration Center (IICC) December 31, 2008 . While Hamas was careful to maintain the ceasefire, the lull was sporadically violated by other groups, sometimes in defiance of Hamas Hamas arrests Fatah rocket cell Press TV, 11 July 2008 Hamas tries to enforce Gaza cease-fire Sacramento Bee, Dion Nissenbaum. July 8, 2008 Hamas: Continued rocket fire by Fatah armed group harms Palestinian interests Haaretz. Avi Isacharoff and Yuval Azoulay. June 29, 2008 Hamas arrests Fatah spokesman in GazaJerusalem Post. June 30, 2008 Hamas arrests militants after rocket fire Reuters. July 10, 2008 . The ceasefire seriously eroded on November 4, 2008, after six Hamas paramilitary died during an Israeli incursion intended, Israel said, to destroy a tunnel dug by militants to abduct Israeli troops. "Rockets fired after Gaza clashes" BBC. November 5, 2008 The conflict escalated with Israel’s invasion of Hamas-ruled Gaza in late December, 2008. Both sides declared unilateral ceasefires on January 18, 2009. "Q&A: Gaza conflict " BBC. January 18, 2009 End of 2008 ceasefire with Israel In February 2005, Hamas had declared a unilateral ceasefire with Israel, but this was ended after Israeli air strikes on tunnels Hamas used to transport weapons and civilian goods into Gaza. Hamas threatens to break ceasefire after Israeli air strikes The Daily Telegraph, 17 October 2006 Ali Abunimah, author of "One Country: A Bold Proposal to End the Israeli-Palestinian Impasse," writes that Hamas "had observed the unilateral truce with Israel. It had given up suicide attacks against Israeli civilians. And there was no response to that. On the contrary." "As Hamas Seizes Full Control of Gaza and US Prepares Further Isolation, What Next for Palestinians?" Democracy Now!. 15 June 2007 Mashal reaffirmed the long-term truce offer in a March 5, 2008 interview with Al Jazeera English. citing Hamas's signing of the 2005 Cairo Declaration and the National Reconciliation Document. On 17 June 2008, and after months of mediation by Egypt, Egyptian mediators announced that an informal truce was agreed between Hamas and Israel. The six-month ceasefire was set to start from 19 June 2008. Israeli officials initially declined to confirm or deny the agreement "If indeed there is a cessation of terrorist attacks, if indeed there is an end to the military build-up in Gaza, if indeed there is movement on the issue of Gilad Shalit, this indeed will be a new reality." - Israeli government spokesman Mark Regev said to AFP while Hamas announced that it would "adhere to the timetable which was set by Egypt but it is Hamas's right to respond to any Israeli aggression before its implementation". On November 4, 2008 Israeli forces killed six Hamas gunmen in a raid inside the Gaza Strip. Gaza truce broken as Israeli raid kills six Hamas gunmen, The Guardian, November 5, 2008. Why Israel went to war in Gaza, The Guardian, January 4, 2008. Hamas responded with a barrage of rockets. During November a total of 190 home made rockets were fired from Gaza into Israel. Gaza: the numbers On December 18, 2008, Hamas issued a statement declaring that it would end the six-month ceasefire scheduled to officially expire the next day. Hamas answers Israeli air raid with rockets as truce ends early, The Guardian, December 19, 2008. Hamas blamed Israel, saying it had not respected its terms, including the lifting of the blockade under which little more than humanitarian aid has been allowed into Gaza. Israelis and Palestinians Suffer Under Bombardments CNN Newsroom Transcript December 31, 2008 On December 21, following the launch of more than 70 rockets from Gaza targeted at Israel, Rockets from Gaza bombard Israeli area Hamas issued a statement that they would consider renewing the expired truce—"if Israel stopped its aggression" in Gaza and opened up its border crossings. The previous six weeks had seen a "dramatic increase" in attacks from Hamas, spiking at some 200 or so a day, according to the Israeli government. Why Israel Attacked Time magazine - December 27, 2008 On December 24, Israeli President Shimon Peres visited the western Negev town of Sderot which has been bombarded by Hamas rockets on a regular basis. Joining with residents in a Hanukkah candle-lighting ceremony, Peres said: "In Gaza they are lighting rockets and in Sderot we are lighting candles." Peres in Sderot: In Gaza they're lighting rockets, here we're lighting candles -Ha'artz, December 24, 2008 Over the weekend of 27-28 December, Israel implemented Operation Cast Lead against Hamas. Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak said "We warned Hamas repeatedly that rejecting the truce would push Israel to aggression against Gaza." Hamas has estimated that at least 100 members of its security forces had been killed. <http://www.reuters.com/article/newsOne/idUSLR1342320081227 Israel kills scores in Gaza air strikes> According to Israel, militant training camps, rocket-manufacturing facilities and weapons warehouses that had been pre-identified were hit, and later they attacked rocket and mortar squads who fired around 180 rockets and mortars at Israeli communities. Israeli assault on Hamas kills more than 200 AP - "Military officials said aircraft released more than 100 tons of bombs in the first nine hours of fighting, focusing initially on militant training camps, rocket-manufacturing facilities and weapons warehouses that had been identified in advance. A second wave was directed at squads who fired about 180 rockets and mortars at Israeli border communities." "Late Saturday, thousands of Gazans received Arabic-language cell-phone messages from the Israeli military, urging them to leave homes where militants might have stashed weapons." The chief of Gaza's police forces, Tawfiq Jabber, head of the General Security Service Salah Abu Shrakh http://www.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?cid=1231950866724&pagename=JPost%2FJPArticle%2FShowFull , senior religious authority and official Nizar Rayyan , and Interior Minister Said Seyam were among those killed. Although Israel sent out thousands of cell-phone messages urging residents of Gaza to leave houses where weapons may be stored, in an attempt to minimise civilian casualties, there have been widespread reports of civilian casualties including allegations of the deliberate targeting of Palestinian civilians. Israel accused of war crimes over 12-hour assault on Gaza village The Guardian January 18, 2009 Israel declared a unilateral ceasefire in their Gaza operations on 17 January 2009. Hamas responded the following day by announcing a one week ceasefire to give Israel time to withdraw its forces from the Gaza Strip. The Palestinian Center for Human Rights documented the deaths of 1,284 people in the war, of whom 894 appeared to be civilians, including 280 aged under 18. A further 167 members of Hamas's police force died. Olmert says "I wept" of death of Gaza children Reuters Friday, January 23, 2009 Earlier, on January 18, 2009, the Center reported that 95 of the 1194 Gazans officially registered as killed from December 27 to January 17 were Hamas or other militia. 95 Palestinian fighters killed in Gaza war Press TV January 19, 2009 In contrast, Israel has estimated it killed about 500 paramilitary fighters during the conflict. On January 19, King Abdullah of Saudi Arabia pledged $1 billion to help rebuild the Gaza Strip. Saudi Arabia pledges $1 billion to rebuild Gaza Yahoo News January 19, 2009 Provision of social welfare and education Hamas is particularly popular among Palestinians in the Gaza Strip, though it also has a following in the West Bank, and to a lesser extent in other Middle Eastern countries. Its popularity stems in part from its welfare and social services to Palestinians in the occupied territories, including school and hospital construction. The group devotes much of its estimated $70 million annual budget to an extensive social services network, running many relief and education programs, and funds schools, orphanages, mosques, healthcare clinics, soup kitchens, and sports leagues. Such services arent't generally provided by The Palestinian Authority. According to the Israeli scholar Reuven Paz "approximately 90 percent of the organization's work is in social, welfare, cultural, and educational activities". In 1973, the Islamic center 'Mujamma' was established in Gaza and started to offer clinics, blood banks, day care, medical treatment, meals and youth clubs. The centre plays an important role for providing social care to the people, particularly those living in refugee camps. It also extended financial aid and scholarships to young people who wanted to study in Saudi Arabia and the West. Hamas Victory Is Built on Social Work. Los Angeles Times, March 2, 2006. In particular, Hamas funded health services where people could receive free or inexpensive medical treatment. Hamas greatly contributed to the health sector, and facilitated hospital and physician services in the Palestinian territory. On the other hand, Hamas’s use of hospitals is sometimes criticised as purportedly serving the promotion of suicide bombings and other forms of violence against Israel. The party is also known to support families of those who have been killed (including suicide bombers), wounded or imprisoned by Israel, including providing a monthly allowance of $100. Families of militants not affiliated with Hamas receive slightly less. Hamas has funded education as well as the health service, and built Islamic charities, libraries, mosques, education centers for women. They also built nurseries, kindergartens and supervised religious schools that provide free meals to children. When children attend their schools and mosques, parents are required to sign oaths of allegiance. Refugees, as well as those left without homes, are able to claim financial and technical assistance from Hamas. Peter Hilsenrath The work of Hamas in these fields supplements that provided by the United Nations Relief Works Agency (UNRWA). Hamas is also well regarded by Palestinians for its efficiency and perceived lack of corruption compared to Fatah. Funding The Council on Foreign Relations estimates Hamas's annual budget at $70 million. The largest backer of Hamas is Saudi Arabia, with over 50% of its funds coming from that country, Flow of Saudis' Cash to Hamas Is Scrutinized New York Times mainly through Islamic charity organizations. Saudi Arabia's denials of involvement in international terrorism An earlier estimate by GlobalSecurity.org estimated a $50 million annual budget, mostly supplied by private charitable associations but with $12 million supplied directly by Gulf states, primarily Saudi Arabia, and a further $3 million from Iran. Hamas Funding ‘’GlobalSecurity.org’’ The funding by Saudi Arabia continues despite Saudi pledges to stop funding groups such as Hamas that have used violence, Past Hamas Activity in Saudi Arabia and its recent denouncements of Hamas' lack of unity with Fatah. Saudis blame Hamas amid calls for talks with Fatah According to the U.S. State Dept, Hamas is funded by Iran, Palestinian expatriates, and "private benefactors in Saudi Arabia and other Arab states." However, senior British Diplomat and former British Ambassador to the UN Sir Jeremy Greenstock stated in an interview on the BBC Today Programme that the Hamas is not politically tied to Iran. Various sources, among them United Press International, "Hamas history tied to Israel", United Press International, 18 June 2002 Gérard Chaliand Gérard Chaliand: « En Irak, l'insurrection armée montre sa terrible efficacité face à la meilleure armée du monde », April 2006 interview with Gérard Chaliand, renowned specialist of guerrilla movements and international politics and L'Humanité /; French original version: have claimed that Hamas' early growth had been supported by the Mossad as a "counterbalance to the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO)". The French investigative newspaper Le Canard enchaîné claimed that Shin Bet had also supported Hamas as a counterweight to the PLO and Fatah. It speculated that this was an attempt to give "a religious slant to the conflict, in order to make the West believe that the conflict was between Jews and Muslims", perhaps in order to support the controversial thesis of a "clash of civilizations". Les très secrètes 'relations' Israël-Hamas (The very secret Israel-Hamas 'relations'), Le Canard Enchaîné, February 1, 2006 (issue n°4449) In a statement to the Israeli Parliament's (the Knesset) Foreign Affairs and Defense Committee on Monday February 12 2007, Israeli Prime minister Ehud Olmert said "Netanyahu established Hamas, gave it life, freed Sheikh Yassin and gave him the opportunity to blossom". The charitable trust Holy Land Foundation for Relief and Development was accused in December 2001 of funding Hamas. PO-837: Secretary O'Neill - Statement on the Blocking of Hamas Financiers' Assets The case against the foundation, however, ended in a mistrial in which, of the 200 charges filed by the United States Justice Department, the jurors had acquitted on some counts and were deadlocked on charges ranging from tax violations to providing material support for terrorists. However in a retrial, on November 24, 2008 the U.S. won convictions of the five leaders of the Holy Land Foundation on all 108 counts of the original indictment. Media The main website of Hamas provides translations of official communiqués in Persian, Urdu, Indonesian, Russian, English, and Arabic. In 2005, Hamas announced its intention to launch an experimental TV channel, "Al-Aqsa TV". The station was launched on January 7, 2006, less than three weeks before the Palestinian legislative elections. It has shown television programs, including some children's television, which deliver anti-semitic messages. Hamas has stated that the television station is "an independent media institution that often does not express the views of the Palestinian government headed by Ismail Haniyeh or of the Hamas movement," and that Hamas does not hold anti-semitic views. Hamas Condemns the Holocaust The Guardian May 12, 2008 Issues Accusations of antisemitism The Hamas Charter (1988) Article 7 of the Hamas Covenant provides the following quotation, attributed to Mohammed: "The Day of Judgement will not come about until Moslems fight the Jews (killing the Jews), when the Jew will hide behind stones and trees. The stones and trees will say O Moslems, O Abdulla, there is a Jew behind me, come and kill him. Only the Gharkad tree, (evidently a certain kind of tree) would not do that because it is one of the trees of the Jews." Article 22 claims that the French revolution, the Russian revolution, colonialism and both world wars were created by the Zionists or forces supportive of Zionism: "You may speak as much as you want about regional and world wars. They were behind World War I, when they were able to destroy the Islamic Caliphate, making financial gains and controlling resources. They obtained the Balfour Declaration, formed the League of Nations through which they could rule the world. They were behind World War II, through which they made huge financial gains by trading in armaments, and paved the way for the establishment of their state. It was they who instigated the replacement of the League of Nations with the United Nations and the Security Council to enable them to rule the world through them. There is no war going on anywhere, without having their finger in it." Hamas Covenant 1988 Article 32 of the Covenant refers to an antisemitic forgery, The Protocols of the Elders of Zion: "Today it is Palestine, tomorrow it will be one country or another. The Zionist plan is limitless. After Palestine, the Zionists aspire to expand from the Nile to the Euphrates. When they will have digested the region they overtook, they will aspire to further expansion, and so on. Their plan is embodied in the "Protocols of the Elders of Zion", and their present conduct is the best proof of what we are saying." Statements by Hamas leaders and clerics associated with Hamas In an interview translated by MEMRI that aired on Al-Aqsa TV on April 9, 2008, Hamas Culture Minister Atallah Abu Al-Subh stated that " The Protocols of the Elders of Zion The Protocols of the Elders of Zion is the faith that every Jew harbors in his heart". On Hamas TV: Hamas Culture Minister Presents Excerpts from Protocols of the Elders of Zion, Claims Jews Trying to Control the World MEMRI April 22, 2008 Sheik Yunus al-Astal, a Hamas legislator and imam, in a column in the weekly newspaper Al Risalah in 2008 discussed a Koranic verse suggesting that "suffering by fire is the Jews' destiny in this world and the next." Astal concluded "Therefore we are sure that the Holocaust is still to come upon the Jews. In 2008 Imam Yousif al-Zahar of Hamas said in his sermon at the Katib Wilayat mosque in Gaza that "Jews are a people who cannot be trusted. They have been traitors to all agreements. Go back to history. Their fate is their vanishing." In an editorial in The Guardian in January 2006, Khaled Meshaal, the chief of Hamas's political bureau stated: "Our message to the Israelis is this: We do not fight you because you belong to a certain faith or culture. Jews have lived in the Muslim world for 13 centuries in peace and harmony; they are in our religion "the people of the book" who have a covenant from God and his messenger, Muhammad (peace be upon him), to be respected and protected." "Our conflict with you is not religious but political. We have no problem with Jews who have not attacked us — our problem is with those who came to our land, imposed themselves on us by force, destroyed our society and banished our people." A report by MEMRI from 2002 states that the Hamas monthly Falastin Al-Muslima had published in September 1996 a series of articles by Ibrahim Al-'Ali on how Allah punished the Jews of the village of Iliya for violation of the Sabbath by transforming them into animals such as "apes, pigs, mice, and lizards". They were also punished by not being able to reproduce. According to MEMRI, the author stated that "The transformation was actual" and not metaphoric. Al-'Ali goes on to say that although they did not reproduce the punishment "left its mark in the souls of the Jews who came after them". Statements on the Holocaust In 2008, Basim Naim, the minister of health in the Hamas government in Gaza, said "But it should be made clear that neither Hamas nor the Palestinian government in Gaza denies the Nazi Holocaust. The Holocaust was not only a crime against humanity but one of the most abhorrent crimes in modern history. We condemn it as we condemn every abuse of humanity and all forms of discrimination on the basis of religion, race, gender or nationality." "Hamas condemns the Holocaust" The Guardian, May 12, 2008 In 2005, Khaled Mashaal called Mahmoud Ahmadinejad's December 14, 2005 statements on the Holocaust (that Europeans had "created a myth in the name of Holocaust" Iran leader's Holocaust remarks condemned MSNBC, December 14, 2005 ) as "courageous." "Hamas springs to Iran's defense" Al Jazeera, December 15, 2005 According to MEMRI, In 2003 Hamas leader Abdel Aziz Rantisi published an article in the Hamas weekly Al-Risala in which he called the Holocaust "the false Holocaust" and "the greatest of lies". In this article Rantisi expressed support to Holocaust deniers Roger Garaudy, David Irving, Gerd Honsik, and Fredrick Töben, and to the idea that the gas chambers were a myth. Rantisi also stated that "the Nazis received tremendous financial aid from the Zionist banks and monopolies, and this contributed to their rise to power", and accused the Jewish-owned Berlin-based investment bank Mendelssohn & Co. of funding the Nazis, calling it a "Zionist bank". Academic analysis In 1994, Esther Webman of the Project for the Study of Anti-Semitism at the Tel Aviv University wrote: "....the anti-Semitic rhetoric in Hamas leaflets is frequent and intense. Nevertheless, anti-Semitism is not the main tenet of Hamas ideology. Generally no differentiation was made in the leaflets between Jew and Zionist, in as much as Judaism was perceived as embracing Zionism, although in other Hamas publications and in interviews with its leaders attempts at this differentiation have been made." Webman, Esther. Anti-semitic Motifs in the Ideology of Hizballah and Hamas, Project for the study of Anti-semitism, Tel Aviv University, 1994, p. 22. ISBN 9652225924 Proximity to civilians during warfare During the 2008–2009 Israel–Gaza conflict, the Israeli government and military criticized Hamas for blending into or hiding among the Palestinian civilian population. Laub, Karen. "Ground war in Gaza drives up civilian casualties." Associated Press. 7 January 2009. 13 January 2009. The Israeli government published what it said was video evidence of human shield tactics by Hamas. "Video: Hamas uses civilians as a means to achieving military goals." Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 11 January 2009. 13 January 2009. Israel also claimed that Hamas frequently used mosques as hideouts and places to store weapons, "Hamas's human shields." Jerusalem Post. 4 March 2008. 13 January 2009. "Weapons Hidden in Mosque Neutralized by Israel Air Force 31 Dec. 2008." 31 December 2008. 13 January 2009. and that Hamas paramilitary soldiers stored weapons in their homes, making it difficult to ensure that civilians close to legitimate military targets are not hurt during Israeli military operations. Barzak, Ibrahim and Matti Friedman. "Israel Destroys Hamas Homes, Gaza Mosque." Time.com. 2 January 2009. 13 January 2009. Former Shin Bet head Avi Dichter has claimed that Gaza's Shifa Hospital is used as a meeting place and hiding place for Hamas. Mizroch, Amir. "Dichter: Hamas salaries paid at Shifa Hospital." Jerusalem Post. 12 January 2009. 13 January 2009. The accusations are difficult to confirm or deny, as during the Gaza conflict with Hamas Israel denied Western reporters access to Gaza. "Israel's Propaganda War: Reporters Banned From Gaza" Associated Press January 5, 2007 In the case of an Israeli mortar strike that killed 43 people near a U.N. school, the Israeli army stated that it was responding to a mortar attack coming from within the school, a claim which U.N. and school officials rejected. "UN official says no militants inside Gaza school" Reuters January 7, 2009 A later investigation by Israel reported that Hamas paramilitary had launched a rocket from a yard adjacent to the school and the mortar strike that hit next to the school was due to a GPS error. http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/1054284.html IDF investigation shows errant mortar hit UN building in Gaza] Haaretz January 12, 2009 (Immediately after the strike, some Israeli military and UN officials stated that the Israeli mortar had landed within school grounds; UN rejects IDF claim Gaza militants operated from bombed-out school Haaretz January 7, 2009 'Stray' mortar hit UN school BBCNews January 11, 2009 the UN later clarified that the missiles had landed adjacent to the school. UN backs down on 'school massacre' in Gaza The Australian February 6, 2009 Why UN 'reversal' over Gaza school should be treated with caution Channel 4 (UK) February 5, 2009 ) The 'hiding among civilians' charge against Hamas was called "full of holes" in one Arab publication, which stated that no international human rights group had accused Hamas of using civilians as 'human shields' during the conflict. "Israeli ‘human shield’ claim is full of holes" The National (UAE) January 13, 2009. Children's web site and television program Al Fateh is Hamas' web site for children. The site says it is for "the young builders of the future" and it has a link to Hamas's official web site. Several Israeli reviews and news coverages of the site describe it as hate-mongering and accuse it of glorifying death and suicide for God "Hamas website: Kids, die for Allah" "On CAMERA Column: Ignoring Hamas Hate-Indoctrination" Al-Aqsa TV is a television channel founded by Hamas. Its programming includes ideologically tinged children's shows, news talk, and religiously inspired entertainment. According to the Anti-Defamation League, the station promotes terrorist activity and incites hatred of Jews and Israelis. Hamas has stated that the television station is "an independent media institution that often does not express the views of the Palestinian government headed by Ismail Haniyeh or of the Hamas movement," and that Hamas does not hold anti-semitic views. Dissent and the Media Human rights groups and Gazans have accused the Hamas government in the Gaza Strip of restricing freedom of the press and forcefully suppressing dissent. Both foreign and Palestinian journalists report harassment and other measures taken against them. Hamas forces try to arrest prominent Gaza journalist - International Herald Tribune Spokesperson of Presidency Condemns Hamas Militias New Crimes against Citizens in Gaza Strip, WAFA, August 31, 2007. In September 2007 the Gaza Interior Ministry disbanded the Gaza Strip branch of the pro-Fatah Union of Palestinian Journalists, a move criticized by Reporters without borders. Hamas disbands journalists union amid continuing incidents, Reporters without borders, 6 September 2007 In November of that year the Hamas government arrested a British journalist and for a time canceled all press cards in Gaza. On February 8, 2008 Hamas banned distribution of the pro-Fatah Al-Ayyam newspaper, and closed its offices in the Gaza Strip because it ran a caricature that mocked legislators loyal to Hamas, Hamas de facto government bans distribution of Al-Ayyam newspaper in the Gaza Strip Maan News Agency, February 10, 2008 Hamas orders closure of newspaper over caricature - International Herald Tribune . The Gaza Strip Interior Ministry later issued an arrest warrant for the editor. Maan News Agency More widely, in late August, 2007 the group was accused in the The Telegraph, a conservative British newspaper, of torturing, detaining, and firing on unarmed protesters who had objected to policies of the Hamas government. Also in late August, Palestinian health officials reported that the Hamas government had been shutting down Gaza clinics in retaliation for doctor strikes - The Hamas government confirmed the "punitive measure against doctors" because, in its view, they had incited other doctors to suspend services and go out on strike. According to the Israeli news service Ynetnews, in September 2007 the Hamas government banned public prayers, after Fatah supporters began holding worship sessions that quickly escalated into raucous protests against Hamas rule. Government security forces beat several gathering supporters and journalists. Hamas blocks Fatah protests in Gaza, ynetnews, 7 September 2007 In October 2008, the Hamas government announced it would release all political prisoners in custody in Gaza. Several hours after the announcement, 17 Fatah members were released. Hamas frees Fatah prisoners, Al-Jazeera, October 30, 2008. Terrorism and political violence Hamas uses both political activities and violence in pursuit of its goals. For example, while politically engaged in the 2006 Palestinian Territories parliamentary election campaign, Hamas stated in its election manifesto that it was prepared to use "armed resistance to end the occupation". Attacks on civilians During the First Intifada (1987- 1993), Hamas violence was directed at Israel's military and security forces and not civilians. Hamas leaders have stated that the organization expanded into attacks on civilians in response to Baruch Goldstein's attack on the Cave of the Patriarchs mosque in February 1994. Hamas' first use of suicide bombing followed on April 16, 1994 when a suicide bomber driving an explosive-laden van detonated between two buses parked at a restaurant, killing eight and wounding 50 people. How Sharon and the Likud Party nurtured the rise of Hamas mediamonitors June 05, 2002 From that time until 2005, Hamas launched many suicide attacks against Israeli civilians, seeing the attacks as a legitimate aspect of its asymmetric warfare against Israel. Hamas ceased such attacks in 2005 and renounced them in April 2006. Prior to 2005 there were several large-scale suicide bombings against Israeli civilian targets, the most deadly of which was the bombing of a Netanya hotel on 27 March 2002, in which 30 people were killed and 140 were wounded. This attack has also been referred to as the Passover massacre since it took place on the first night of the Jewish festival of Passover. According to Israel, from November 2000 to April 2004, 377 Israeli citizens and soldiers were killed and 2,076 wounded in 425 military and other attacks by Hamas. The Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs maintains a comprehensive list of Hamas attacks. In a 2002 report, Human Rights Watch stated that Hamas' leaders "should be held accountable for the war crimes and crimes against humanity" that have been committed by its members. Erased In A Moment: Suicide Bombing Attacks Against Israeli Civilians V. Structures and Strategies of the Perpetrator Organizations, Human Rights Watch, October, 2002. ISBN 1-56432-280-7 In June 30, 2007, HRW published its report titled, Indiscriminate Fire, Palestinian Rocket Attacks on Israel and Israeli Artillery Shelling in the Gaza Strip. Indiscriminate Fire, Palestinian Rocket Attacks on Israel and Israeli Artillery Shelling in the Gaza Strip In August 28, 2007, HRW published its report titled, Civilians under Assault, Hezbollah’s Rocket Attacks on Israel in the 2006 War. Civilians under Assault, Hezbollah’s Rocket Attacks on Israel in the 2006 War In April 20, 2009, HRW published its report titled Under Cover of War Hamas, Political Violence in Gaza. Under Cover of War Hamas, Political Violence in Gaza In March 25, 2009, HRW published its report titled, Rain of Fire, Israel’s Unlawful Use of White Phosphorus in Gaza. Rain of Fire, Israel’s Unlawful Use of White Phosphorus in Gaza In May 2006 Israel arrested top Hamas official Ibrahim Hamed, whom Israeli security officials said was responsible for dozens of suicide bombings and other attacks on Israelis. According to a website relaying a report published in Haaretz, a leading Hamas figure, Abdel Aziz Rantisi, stated in May, 2003 that the organization was "prepared to stop terrorism against Israeli civilians if Israel stops killing Palestinian civilians ... We have told (Palestinian Authority Prime Minister) Abu Mazen in our meetings that there is an opportunity to stop targeting Israeli civilians if the Israelis stop assassinations and raids and stop brutalizing Palestinian civilians." </blockquote> A similar offer, to carry out attacks only on military targets, was made in 2008 by Hamas leader Kemal Mashaal, who added that Hamas had made the same offer to Israel ten years earlier. Mashaal offers to cease civilian attacks March 31, 2008, Jerusalem Post During the second Intifada, Hamas, along with the Islamic Jihad Movement, were primarily responsible for military actions and other violence directed against Israel. Hamas has conducted its actions mainly through its military wing — the Izz ad-Din al-Qassam Brigades. Since 2002, paramilitary soldiers of Hamas and other groups have used homemade Qassam rockets to hit Israeli towns in the Negev, such as Sderot killing fifteen people and wounding dozens. Victims of Palestinian Violence and Terrorism. September 2000 to January 27, 2009 Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs . Hamas has claimed responsibility for most of these attacks, Abbas: Hamas truce violations are an exception, won't continue - Haaretz - Israel News (see List of Qassam rocket attacks), and has condoned them when it did not acknowledge responsibility. The introduction of the Qassam-2 rocket has enabled Palestinian paramilitary groups to reach, from Gaza, such Israeli cities such as Ashkelon. BICOM Fact Sheet 2: Ashkelon - The Changing Scenario BICOM. 2008-05-03. Themes of martyrdom and Human Shields used in Gaza and the West Bank According to a translation by the Israeli organization Palestinian Media Watch, on February 29, 2008, Fathi Hamad, a member of the Palestinian Legislative Council, stated on Al-Aqsa TV, “For the Palestinian people death became an industry, at which women excel and so do all people on this land: the elderly excel, the Jihad fighters excel, and the children excel. Accordingly (Palestinians) created a human shield of women, children, the elderly and the Jihad fighters against the Zionist bombing machine, as if they were saying to the Zionist enemy: 'We desire death as you desire life'." http://www.pmw.org.il/Bulletins_Dec2008.htm#b2912082 "Hamas explains using civilians as human shields", Palestinian Media Watch, (December 28, 2008). Guerrilla warfare Hamas has made great use of guerrilla tactics in the Gaza Strip and to a lesser degree the West Bank. Hamas has successfully adapted these techniques over the years since its inception. According to a 2006 report by rival Fatah party, Hamas had smuggled "between several hundred and 1,300 tons" of advanced rockets, along with other weaponry, into Gaza. Some Israelis and some Gazans both noted similarities in Hamas's military buildup to that of Hezbollah in the 2006 Israel-Hezbollah war. Hamas has used IEDs and anti-tank rockets against the IDF in Gaza. The latter include standard RPG-7 warheads and home-made rockets such as the Al-Bana, Al-Batar and Al-Yasin. The IDF has a difficult, if not impossible time trying to find hidden weapons caches in Palestinian areas — this is due to the high local support base Hamas enjoys. Hamas and the United States The FBI and United States Department of Justice have stated that Hamas threatens the United States through covert cells on U.S. soil. United States v. Abu Marzook. No. 03 CR 978 12. IL District Ct. 2005. Lake, Eli. "Hamas Agents Lurking in U.S., FBI Warns."] New York Sun. 29 April 2004. 10 December 2006. According to Steven Emerson,Hamas has an extensive infrastructure in the US mostly revolving around the activities of fundraising, recruiting and training members, directing operations against Israel, organizing political support and operating through human-rights front groups. While Hamas has not acted outside Israel, it has the capability of carrying out attacks in America if it decided to enlarge the scope of its operations. FBI director Robert Mueller has testified to the Senate Intelligence Committee that, It is the FBI's assessment, at this time, that there is a limited threat of a coordinated terrorist attack in the U.S. from Palestinian terrorist organizations, such as HAMAS, the Palestine Islamic Jihad, and the al-Aqsa Martyr's Brigade. These groups have maintained a longstanding policy of focusing their attacks on Israeli targets in Israel and the Palestinian territories. We believe that the primary interest of Palestinian terrorist groups in the U.S. remains the raising of funds to support their regional goals. [...] Of all the Palestinian groups, HAMAS has the largest presence in the U.S. with a robust infrastructure, primarily focused on fundraising, propaganda for the Palestinian cause, and proselytizing. Although it would be a major strategic shift for HAMAS, its U.S. network is theoretically capable of facilitating acts of terrorism in the U.S. FBI Press Room: Testimony of Robert S. Mueller, III, Director, Federal Bureau of Investigation, before the Senate Committee on Intelligence of the United States Senate. February 16, 2005 On 8 November 2006, after Israeli artillery shells killed 19 Palestinian civilians, Hamas's military wing released a statement condemning both Israel and America. "America is offering political, financial and logistic cover for the Zionist occupation crimes, and it is responsible for the Beit Hanoun massacre. Therefore, the people and the [Islamic] nation all over the globe are required to teach the American enemy tough lessons," Hamas said in a statement sent to the Associated Press. Ghazi Hamad, spokesman for the Hamas-led Palestinian government denied any involvement with the statement, saying "Our battle is against the occupation on the Palestinian land. We have no interest to transfer the battle." Other targets and activities In addition to killing Israeli civilians and armed forces, Hamas has also attacked suspected Palestinian collaborators, and Fatah rivals. Fatah, Hamas gunbattles kill 7 (Toronto Star) October 1, 2006 In the wake of the Israeli invasion of Gaza in January 2009, Hamas has been accused of systematically rounding up, torturing and summarily executing Fatah supporters suspected of supplying information to Israel. San Francisco Chronicle 22 January 2009 Hamas executes suspected Fatah traitors in Gaza On February 2007, members of the Palestinian Red Crescent, speaking on conditions of anonymity, said that Hamas had confiscated their humanitarian supply convoys that were destined for Palestinian civilians. Hamas claims the supplies were heading to former members of Fatah. Human Rights Watch has cited a number of summary executions as particular examples of violations of the rules of warfare, including the case of Muhammad Swairki, 28, a cook for Palestinian Authority Chairman Mahmoud Abbas's presidential guard, who was thrown to his death, with his hands and legs tied, from a 15-story apartment building in Gaza City. Gaza: Armed Palestinian Groups Commit Grave Crimes, Human Rights Watch, June 13, 2007. Hamas and other Palestinian militant groups are accused of frequently extrajudicially executing or otherwise punishing those considered collaborators with Israel. Frequent killings of unarmed people have also occurred during Hamas-Fatah clashes. BBC NEWS | Middle East | Unrest erupts in Gaza Strip Shot by their own side, healed by the enemy - Telegraph Thousands of angry Hamas loyalists marched on 24 February 2008 at the funeral of a Muslim preacher who died in PNA custody, turning the ceremony into a rare show of defiance against President Mahmoud Abbas. Angered by preacher's death, protesters stand against Abbas - CNN.com International perception of Hamas According to National Public Radio, a non-commercial broadcasting organization in the U.S., "Israel and many Western powers have struggled with how best to interact with a group that is at once labeled terrorist and, at the same time, is the legitimately elected leadership of the Palestinian National Authority." "Hamas: Government or Terrorist Organization?". NPR.org. December 6, 2006. The United States lists Hamas as a "Foreign Terrorist Organization". Canada officially describes Hamas as a "a radical Sunni Muslim terrorist organization." Keeping Canadians Safe, Public Security and Emergency Preparedness Canada, National Security, Listed entities. Accessed July 31, 2006. "Hamas is listed as a terrorist group in the Criminal Code of Canada." Tibbetts, Janice. Canada shuts out Hamas ,The Montreal Gazette, March 30, 2006. The European Union lists Hamas among the entities against which it applies restrictions in order to combat terrorism. Israel's Ministry of Foreign Affairs states that "Hamas maintains a terrorist infrastructure in Gaza and the West Bank, and acts to carry out terrorist attacks in the territories and Israel." The Financial Sources of the Hamas Terror Organization, 2003-07-30 Japan stated in 2005 that it had frozen the assets of "terrorist organizations, including... Hamas." The military wing of Hamas, the Izz ad-Din al-Qassam Brigades, is listed as a terrorist organization by Australia, and the United Kingdom. Norway was the first Western country to recognize the 2007 Palestinian government consisting of both Hamas and Fatah, and Norwegian officials have met with Hamas representatives on several occasions. "We know that the USA and the EU have legal obligations since they have Hamas on their terrorist list. We must be able to take an independent decision about contact," Norwegian foreign minister Jonas Gahr Støre responded to a 2006 United States' attempt to dissuade Norwegian contact with Hamas. Jordan banned Hamas in 1999. Karmi, Omar. "What does the Hamas victory mean for nearby Jordan?", The Daily Star, February 18, 2006 In a 2007 Pew Global Attitudes Survey, 62% of Palestinians had a favorable opinion of Hamas, as do majorities or pluralities in Jordan and Morocco. Opinions of Hamas are divided in Egypt and Kuwait, and Hamas is viewed negatively in Turkey and Lebanon. Pew Research Center Global Attitudes Survey: Global Unease With Major World Powers, June 27, 2007 In February 2008 a Haaretz poll indicated that 64% of Israelis favour their government holding direct talks with Hamas in Gaza about a cease-fire and the release of captives. Legal action against Hamas In 2004, a federal court in the United States found Hamas liable in a civil lawsuit for the 1996 murders of Yaron and Efrat Ungar near Bet Shemesh, Israel. Hamas has been ordered to pay the families of the Ungars $116 million. $116m awarded in terrorism suit The Boston Globe On 5 July 2004, the court issued a default judgment against the PNA and the PLO regarding the Ungars' claim that the Palestinian Authority and the PLO provide safe haven to Hamas. On August 20, 2004, three Palestinians, one a naturalized American citizen, were charged with a "lengthy racketeering conspiracy to provide money for terrorist acts in Israel." The indicted include Mousa Mohammed Abu Marzook, senior member of Hamas, believed to be currently in Damascus, Syria and considered a fugitive by the U.S.. On February 1, 2007, two men were acquitted of contravening US law by supporting Hamas. Two Men Acquitted of Conspiracy To Fund Hamas Activities in Israel - washingtonpost.com Both men argued that they helped move money for Palestinian causes aimed at helping the Palestinian people and not to promote terrorism. See also Hezbollah Fatah List of Hamas suicide attacks Palestinian territories Hamastan Holy Land Foundation for Relief and Development Qassam rocket Members of Hamas called Qawasameh Palestinian political violence Islamic fundamentalism PLO and Hamas Muslim Brotherhood List of political parties in the Palestinian National Authority Human rights in the Palestinian National Authority Fatah-Hamas conflict Islam Jihad Izz ad-Din al-Qassam Brigades (Military Wing of Hamas) Al Fateh (Hamas' web site for children) Sources Hawala. An Informal Payment System and Its Use to Finance Terrorism, Sebastian R. Müller (Dec. 2006), ISBN ISBN 3865506569, ISBN 978-3865506566 References External links Sherifa Zuhur, Hamas and Israel: Conflicting Strategies of Group-Based Politics (PDF File) December 2008 Official websites Hamas official government Web site (In Arabic) "The Palestinian Information Center" The news site is frequently described as Hamas-affiliated. In English. Other sites Al-Aqsa TV (In Arabic) Britannica Encarta CFR.org Hamas leaders CFR Hamas Charter Hamas leaders explain their goal Who are Hamas? BBC News Hamas in its own words Hamas Fact Sheet and Hamas in Their Own Words at ADL The Covenant of the Islamic Resistance Movement (Hamas) What does Hamas want? Hamas, the Islamic Resistance Movement fact file in ynet | Hamas |@lemmatized hamas:399 ḥamās:1 acronym:3 حركة:2 المقاومة:2 الاسلامية:2 ḥarakat:1 al:52 muqāwamat:1 islāmiyyah:1 mean:4 islamic:30 resistance:10 movement:18 palestinian:123 socio:1 political:27 organization:30 include:20 paramilitary:7 force:18 izz:8 ad:8 din:8 qassam:13 brigade:8 consider:6 wholly:1 part:9 terrorist:23 certain:4 country:8 supranational:1 since:8 june:26 govern:2 gaza:115 portion:1 territory:21 create:7 sheikh:6 ahmed:3 yassin:7 abdel:5 aziz:6 rantissi:4 mohammad:1 taha:1 wing:12 egypt:5 muslim:17 brotherhood:8 beginning:2 first:10 intifada:4 uprising:1 israeli:77 rule:7 launch:11 numerous:2 suicide:24 bombing:15 israel:142 best:11 know:10 attack:49 violence:15 rocket:37 murphy:2 john:2 aim:3 might:3 baltimore:2 sun:3 january:59 outside:3 world:19 infamous:2 reliance:2 bomber:4 inside:4 pbs:2 frontline:2 may:15 april:19 council:10 foreign:12 relation:5 update:2 cease:6 renounce:4 call:17 end:18 observer:1 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5,140 | Boston_Corbett | Thomas P. "Boston" Corbett (1832 – presumed dead 1894) was the Union Army soldier who shot and killed Abraham Lincoln's assassin, John Wilkes Booth. He disappeared after 1888, but circumstantial evidence suggests that he died in the Great Hinckley Fire in 1894, although this remains impossible to substantiate. Early life Corbett was born in London, England. His family emigrated to New York City in 1839. He eventually took on the trade of a hatter in Troy, New York. There has been speculation that Corbett was exposed to the fumes of mercury that were used in the hatter's trade causing Corbett's later mental problems. Corbett married, but his wife died in childbirth. Following her death, he moved to Boston, and continued working as a hatter. He became a born-again evangelical Christian and changed his name to Boston, the name of the city where he was reborn. In an attempt to imitate Jesus, he began to wear his hair very long. On July 16, 1858, in order to avoid the temptation of prostitutes, Corbett castrated himself with a pair of scissors. Swanson, p.329 Afterward, he ate a meal and went to a prayer meeting, before going for medical treatment. Enlisted in the Union army Sergeant Boston Corbett Corbett joined the Union army at the outbreak of the American Civil War. He re-enlisted three times and eventually obtained the rank of sergeant in the 16th New York Cavalry. He was captured by the Confederate Army on June 24, 1864, and was held captive at Andersonville prison. He was eventually exchanged and returned to his unit. He later testified for the prosecution in the trial of the commandant of Andersonville, Captain Henry Wirz. Assigned to pursue John Wilkes Booth Wanted poster for John Wilkes Booth, John Surratt, and David Herold (1865) On April 24, 1865, Corbett was one of the cavalrymen sent to pursue John Wilkes Booth, who had assassinated Abraham Lincoln and was still at large. On April 26, they surrounded Booth and his accomplice, David Herold, in a tobacco barn on the Virginia farm of Richard Garrett. The barn was set on fire in an attempt to force them out. Herold surrendered, but Booth remained inside. Corbett was positioned by a large crack in the barn wall. He saw Booth moving about inside and shot him with his Colt revolver despite Secretary of War Stanton's desire that Booth be taken alive. Booth was struck in the neck, the bullet injuring his spinal cord, and he died a few hours later. Boston Corbett Corbett was immediately arrested for disobeying orders, but the charges were later dropped by the Secretary of War, Edwin M. Stanton. Later, Stanton said, "The rebel is dead. The patriot lives." Corbett received his share of the reward money, amounting to $1,653.84. Swanson, p.358 In his official statement, Corbett claimed he shot Booth because he thought Lincoln's assassin was preparing to use his weapons. This claim was denied by other witnesses. When asked later why he did it, Corbett said that "Providence directed me." Swanson, p.340 Civilian life after the Union army Shortly after being discharged from the army, Corbett returned to his trade of being a hatter, first in Boston, and later in Connecticut and New Jersey. His later life involved increasingly erratic behavior. In 1875, he threatened several men with a pistol at a soldier's reunion in Caldwell, Ohio. In 1878, he moved to Concordia, Kansas, where he lived in a hole dug into a hillside. In 1887, he was appointed assistant doorkeeper of the Kansas House of Representatives in Topeka, Kansas. Overhearing a conversation in which the legislature's opening prayer was mocked, he jumped to his feet and brandished a revolver. No one was hurt but Corbett was arrested, declared insane, and sent to the Topeka Asylum for the Insane. On May 26, 1888, Corbett escaped from the asylum. He went to Neodesha, Kansas, and stayed briefly with Richard Thatcher, a man he had met during his imprisonment at Andersonville in the Civil War. When he left, he said he was heading for Mexico. Corbett is believed to have settled in the forests near Hinckley, Minnesota and died in the Great Hinckley Fire that took place there on September 1, 1894. There is no conclusive proof of his demise there with certainty, but the name "Thomas Corbett" appears on the list of the dead and missing. In 1958, Boy Scout Troop 31 of Concordia, Kansas constructed a roadside monument to Corbett located on Key Road in Concordia. A small wood sign was also constructed to mark the hillside hole Corbett once occupied. Further reading References External links Boston Corbett: The Man Who Killed John Wilkes Booth Retrieved on 2009-03-26 Kansas Photo Tour of Boston Corbett Memorial | Boston_Corbett |@lemmatized thomas:2 p:4 boston:8 corbett:24 presume:1 dead:3 union:4 army:6 soldier:2 shoot:3 kill:2 abraham:2 lincoln:3 assassin:2 john:6 wilkes:5 booth:11 disappear:1 circumstantial:1 evidence:1 suggest:1 die:4 great:2 hinckley:3 fire:3 although:1 remain:2 impossible:1 substantiate:1 early:1 life:3 bear:1 london:1 england:1 family:1 emigrate:1 new:4 york:3 city:2 eventually:3 take:3 trade:3 hatter:4 troy:1 speculation:1 expose:1 fume:1 mercury:1 use:2 cause:1 later:7 mental:1 problem:1 marry:1 wife:1 childbirth:1 follow:1 death:1 move:3 continue:1 work:1 become:1 born:1 evangelical:1 christian:1 change:1 name:3 reborn:1 attempt:2 imitate:1 jesus:1 begin:1 wear:1 hair:1 long:1 july:1 order:2 avoid:1 temptation:1 prostitute:1 castrate:1 pair:1 scissors:1 swanson:3 afterward:1 eat:1 meal:1 go:3 prayer:2 meeting:1 medical:1 treatment:1 enlist:2 sergeant:2 join:1 outbreak:1 american:1 civil:2 war:4 three:1 time:1 obtain:1 rank:1 cavalry:1 capture:1 confederate:1 june:1 hold:1 captive:1 andersonville:3 prison:1 exchange:1 return:2 unit:1 testify:1 prosecution:1 trial:1 commandant:1 captain:1 henry:1 wirz:1 assign:1 pursue:2 want:1 poster:1 surratt:1 david:2 herold:3 april:2 one:2 cavalryman:1 send:2 assassinate:1 still:1 large:2 surround:1 accomplice:1 tobacco:1 barn:3 virginia:1 farm:1 richard:2 garrett:1 set:1 force:1 surrender:1 inside:2 position:1 crack:1 wall:1 saw:1 colt:1 revolver:2 despite:1 secretary:2 stanton:3 desire:1 alive:1 strike:1 neck:1 bullet:1 injure:1 spinal:1 cord:1 hour:1 immediately:1 arrest:2 disobey:1 charge:1 drop:1 edwin:1 say:3 rebel:1 patriot:1 live:2 receive:1 share:1 reward:1 money:1 amount:1 official:1 statement:1 claim:2 think:1 prepare:1 weapon:1 deny:1 witness:1 ask:1 providence:1 direct:1 civilian:1 shortly:1 discharge:1 first:1 connecticut:1 jersey:1 late:1 involve:1 increasingly:1 erratic:1 behavior:1 threaten:1 several:1 men:1 pistol:1 reunion:1 caldwell:1 ohio:1 concordia:3 kansas:3 hole:2 dug:1 hillside:2 appoint:1 assistant:1 doorkeeper:1 kansa:3 house:1 representative:1 topeka:2 overhear:1 conversation:1 legislature:1 open:1 mock:1 jump:1 foot:1 brandish:1 hurt:1 declare:1 insane:2 asylum:2 may:1 escape:1 neodesha:1 stay:1 briefly:1 thatcher:1 man:2 meet:1 imprisonment:1 leave:1 head:1 mexico:1 believe:1 settle:1 forest:1 near:1 minnesota:1 place:1 september:1 conclusive:1 proof:1 demise:1 certainty:1 appear:1 list:1 miss:1 boy:1 scout:1 troop:1 construct:2 roadside:1 monument:1 locate:1 key:1 road:1 small:1 wood:1 sign:1 also:1 mark:1 occupy:1 far:1 reading:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 retrieve:1 photo:1 tour:1 memorial:1 |@bigram boston_corbett:5 abraham_lincoln:2 wilkes_booth:5 circumstantial_evidence:1 david_herold:2 spinal_cord:1 edwin_stanton:1 erratic_behavior:1 topeka_kansa:1 overhear_conversation:1 conclusive_proof:1 boy_scout:1 external_link:1 |
5,141 | Isaac_Abendana | Isaac Abendana (c. 1640 - 1710) was the younger brother of Jacob Abendana, and became hakam of the Spanish Portuguese Synagogue in London after his brother died. Abendana moved to England before his brother, in 1662, and taught Hebrew at Cambridge University. He completed an unpublished Latin translation of the Mishnah for the university in 1671. While he was at Cambridge, Abendana sold Hebrew books to the Bodleian Library of Oxford, and in 1689 he took a teaching position in Magdalen College. In Oxford, he wrote a series of Jewish almanacs for Christians, which he later collected and compiled as the Discourses on the Ecclesiastical and Civil Polity of the Jews (1706). Like his brother, he maintained an extensive correspondence with leading Christian scholars of his time, most notably with the philosopher Ralph Cudworth, master of Christ's College, Cambridge. | Isaac_Abendana |@lemmatized isaac:1 abendana:4 c:1 young:1 brother:4 jacob:1 become:1 hakam:1 spanish:1 portuguese:1 synagogue:1 london:1 die:1 move:1 england:1 teach:1 hebrew:2 cambridge:3 university:2 complete:1 unpublished:1 latin:1 translation:1 mishnah:1 sell:1 book:1 bodleian:1 library:1 oxford:2 take:1 teaching:1 position:1 magdalen:1 college:2 write:1 series:1 jewish:1 almanac:1 christian:2 later:1 collect:1 compile:1 discourse:1 ecclesiastical:1 civil:1 polity:1 jew:1 like:1 maintain:1 extensive:1 correspondence:1 lead:1 scholar:1 time:1 notably:1 philosopher:1 ralph:1 cudworth:1 master:1 christ:1 |@bigram bodleian_library:1 magdalen_college:1 |
5,142 | Politics_of_Oman | Politics of Oman takes place in a framework of an absolute monarchy whereby the Sultan of Oman is not only head of state, but also the head of government. Chief of state and government is the hereditary sultan, Qābūs ibn Saˤīd as-Saˤīd, who appoints a cabinet to assist him. In the early 1990s, the sultan instituted an elected advisory council, the Majlis ash-Shura, though few Omanis were eligible to vote. Universal suffrage for those over 21 was instituted on 4 October 2003. Over 190,000 people (74% of those registered) voted to elect the 83 seats. Two women were elected to seats. The monarchy The sultan is a direct descendant of the 19th century ruler, Usman Sa'id bin Sultan, who first opened relations with the United States in 1833. The Sultanate has neither political parties nor legislature, although the bicameral representative bodies provide the government with advice. The sultan does not designate a successor when alive. Instead, the ruling family tries to unanimously designate a new sultan after his death. If they do not designate a new ruler after three days, then they open a letter left to them by the deceased sultan, containing a recommendation for a new sultan. It is assumed that the ruling family will agree on this person as the successor. Current sultan of Oman, His Majesty Sultan Qaboos bin Sa’id Al ‘Bu Sa’id holds an extraordinary amount of power. In addition to being sultan, he is prime minister, defense minister, finance minister, foreign affairs minister, and chairman of the central bank. Moreover, Qaboos has only a few family members in his cabinet and the offices they hold are considered quite powerless. His cousin Haythim, for example, is minister of national heritage and culture while his uncle, Shabib is special advisor for environmental affairs. This style of governance has implications as none of his family members have acquired the necessary administrative skills to rule Oman after Qaboos death. Katz, Mark. "Assessing the Political Stability of Oman." Middle East Review of International Affairs Volume 8, No. 3, September 2004 Judicial system Oman's judicial system traditionally has been based on the Shari'a--the Qur'anic laws and the oral teachings of the Islamic Prophet Muhammad. Traditionally, Shari'a courts fell under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Justice, Awqaf, and Islamic Affairs. Oman's first criminal code was not enacted until 1974. The current structure of the criminal court system was established in 1984 and consists of a magistrate court in the capital and four additional magistrate courts in Sohar, Sur, Salalah, and Nizwa. In the less-populated areas and among the nomadic bedouin, tribal custom often is the law. Recent royal decrees have placed the entire court system--magistrates, commercial, shari'a and civil courts--under the control of the Ministry of Justice. An independent Office of the Public Prosecutor also has been created (formerly a part of the Royal Oman Police), and a Supreme Court is under formation. Regional court complexes are envisioned to house the various courts, including the courts of first instance for criminal cases and Shariah cases (family law and inheritance). Administrative divisions Administratively, the populated regions are divided into 59 districts (wilayats), presided over by governors (walis) responsible for settling local disputes, collecting taxes, and maintaining peace. Most wilayats are small; an exception is the wilayat of Dhofar, which comprises the whole province. The wali of Dhofar is an important government figure, holding cabinet rank, while other walis operate under the guidance of the Ministry of Interior. The Consultative Council In November 1991, Sultan Qaboos established the Consultative Assembly (Majlis al-Shura), which replaced the 10-year-old State Consultative Council, in an effort to systematize and broaden public participation in government. The Assembly has 83 elected members with only consultative tasks. Representatives were chosen in the following manner: Local caucuses in each of the 59 districts sent forward the names of three nominees, whose credentials were reviewed by a cabinet committee. These names were then forwarded to the Sultan, who made the final selection. The Consultative Assembly serves as a conduit of information between the people and the government ministries. It is empowered to review drafts of economic and social legislation prepared by service ministries, such as communications and housing, and to provide recommendations. Service ministers also may be summoned before the Majlis to respond to representatives' questions. It has no authority in the areas of foreign affairs, defense, security, and finances. The Council of State (Majlis al-Dawla) has 41 appointed members. Political parties and elections Oman does not allow political parties and only holds elections with expanding suffrage for a consultative assembly. Though Oman is developing into a constitutional monarchy, political parties are not yet allowed in Oman. The previously influential opposition movement, the Popular Front for the Liberation of Oman, is dormant today. The last elections were held on October 27, 2007. Foreign relations Although Oman enjoys a high degree of internal stability, regional tensions in the aftermath of the Persian Gulf War and the Iran-Iraq war continue to necessitate large defense expenditures. In 2001, Oman budgeted $2.4 billion for defense--about 33% of its gross domestic product. Oman maintains a small but professional and effective military, supplied mainly with British equipment in addition to items from the United States, France, and other countries. British officers, on loan or on contract to the Sultanate, help staff the armed forces, although a program of "Omanization" has steadily increased the proportion of Omani officers over the past several years. After North and South Yemen merged in May 1990, Oman settled its border disputes with the new Republic of Yemen on 1 October 1992. The two neighbors have cooperative bilateral relations. Oman's borders with all neighbors are demarcated. International organization participation Oman participates in ABEDA, AFESD, AL, AMF, ESCWA, FAO, G-77, GCC, IBRD, ICAO, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ISO (correspondent), ITU, NAM, OIC, OPCW, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTrO. Notes and references External links Omani Ministry of Foreign Affairs Adam Carr's Election Archive | Politics_of_Oman |@lemmatized politics:1 oman:18 take:1 place:2 framework:1 absolute:1 monarchy:3 whereby:1 sultan:14 head:2 state:6 also:3 government:6 chief:1 hereditary:1 qābūs:1 ibn:1 saˤīd:2 appoint:2 cabinet:4 assist:1 early:1 institute:2 elected:1 advisory:1 council:4 majlis:4 ash:1 shura:2 though:2 omani:3 eligible:1 vote:2 universal:1 suffrage:2 october:3 people:2 register:1 elect:3 seat:2 two:2 woman:1 direct:1 descendant:1 century:1 ruler:2 usman:1 sa:3 id:3 bin:2 first:3 open:2 relation:3 united:2 sultanate:2 neither:1 political:5 party:4 legislature:1 although:3 bicameral:1 representative:3 body:1 provide:2 advice:1 designate:3 successor:2 alive:1 instead:1 rule:3 family:5 try:1 unanimously:1 new:4 death:2 three:2 day:1 letter:1 leave:1 deceased:1 contain:1 recommendation:2 assume:1 agree:1 person:1 current:2 majesty:1 qaboos:4 al:4 bu:1 hold:5 extraordinary:1 amount:1 power:1 addition:2 prime:1 minister:6 defense:4 finance:2 foreign:4 affair:6 chairman:1 central:1 bank:1 moreover:1 member:4 office:2 consider:1 quite:1 powerless:1 cousin:1 haythim:1 example:1 national:1 heritage:1 culture:1 uncle:1 shabib:1 special:1 advisor:1 environmental:1 style:1 governance:1 implication:1 none:1 acquire:1 necessary:1 administrative:2 skill:1 katz:1 mark:1 assess:1 stability:2 middle:1 east:1 review:3 international:2 volume:1 september:1 judicial:2 system:4 traditionally:2 base:1 shari:3 qur:1 anic:1 law:3 oral:1 teaching:1 islamic:2 prophet:1 muhammad:1 court:10 fell:1 jurisdiction:1 ministry:6 justice:2 awqaf:1 criminal:3 code:1 enact:1 structure:1 establish:2 consist:1 magistrate:3 capital:1 four:1 additional:1 sohar:1 sur:1 salalah:1 nizwa:1 less:1 populate:1 area:2 among:1 nomadic:1 bedouin:1 tribal:1 custom:1 often:1 recent:1 royal:2 decree:1 entire:1 commercial:1 civil:1 control:1 independent:1 public:2 prosecutor:1 create:1 formerly:1 part:1 police:1 supreme:1 formation:1 regional:2 complex:1 envision:1 house:1 various:1 include:1 instance:1 case:2 shariah:1 inheritance:1 division:1 administratively:1 populated:1 region:1 divide:1 district:2 wilayats:2 preside:1 governor:1 walis:2 responsible:1 settle:2 local:2 dispute:2 collect:1 tax:1 maintain:2 peace:1 small:2 exception:1 wilayat:1 dhofar:2 comprise:1 whole:1 province:1 wali:1 important:1 figure:1 rank:1 operate:1 guidance:1 interior:1 consultative:6 november:1 assembly:4 replace:1 year:2 old:1 effort:1 systematize:1 broaden:1 participation:2 task:1 choose:1 following:1 manner:1 caucus:1 send:1 forward:2 name:2 nominee:1 whose:1 credential:1 committee:1 make:1 final:1 selection:1 serve:1 conduit:1 information:1 empower:1 draft:1 economic:1 social:1 legislation:1 prepare:1 service:2 communication:1 housing:1 may:2 summon:1 respond:1 question:1 authority:1 security:1 dawla:1 election:4 allow:2 expand:1 develop:1 constitutional:1 yet:1 previously:1 influential:1 opposition:1 movement:1 popular:1 front:1 liberation:1 dormant:1 today:1 last:1 enjoy:1 high:1 degree:1 internal:1 tension:1 aftermath:1 persian:1 gulf:1 war:2 iran:1 iraq:1 continue:1 necessitate:1 large:1 expenditure:1 budget:1 billion:1 gross:1 domestic:1 product:1 professional:1 effective:1 military:1 supply:1 mainly:1 british:2 equipment:1 item:1 france:1 country:1 officer:2 loan:1 contract:1 help:1 staff:1 armed:1 force:1 program:1 omanization:1 steadily:1 increase:1 proportion:1 past:1 several:1 north:1 south:1 yemen:2 merge:1 border:2 republic:1 neighbor:2 cooperative:1 bilateral:1 demarcate:1 organization:1 participate:1 abeda:1 afesd:1 amf:1 escwa:1 fao:1 g:1 gcc:1 ibrd:1 icao:1 ida:1 idb:1 ifad:1 ifc:1 iho:1 ilo:1 imf:1 imo:1 inmarsat:1 intelsat:1 interpol:1 ioc:1 iso:1 correspondent:1 itu:1 nam:1 oic:1 opcw:1 un:1 unctad:1 unesco:1 unido:1 upu:1 wftu:1 wipo:1 wmo:1 wtro:1 note:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 adam:1 carr:1 archive:1 |@bigram universal_suffrage:1 sa_id:3 sultan_qaboos:2 prime_minister:1 foreign_affair:3 qur_anic:1 prophet_muhammad:1 supreme_court:1 consultative_assembly:3 majlis_al:2 constitutional_monarchy:1 persian_gulf:1 gross_domestic:1 afesd_al:1 al_amf:1 ibrd_icao:1 icao_ida:1 ida_idb:1 idb_ifad:1 ifad_ifc:1 iho_ilo:1 ilo_imf:1 imf_imo:1 imo_inmarsat:1 inmarsat_intelsat:1 intelsat_interpol:1 interpol_ioc:1 ioc_iso:1 iso_correspondent:1 correspondent_itu:1 itu_nam:1 nam_oic:1 oic_opcw:1 opcw_un:1 un_unctad:1 unctad_unesco:1 unesco_unido:1 unido_upu:1 upu_wftu:1 wftu_wipo:1 wipo_wmo:1 wmo_wtro:1 external_link:1 omani_ministry:1 |
5,143 | Epimenides_paradox | The Epimenides paradox is a problem in logic. It is named after the Cretan philosopher Epimenides of Knossos (alive circa 600 BC), who stated (Kretes aei pseystai), "Cretans, always liars". There is no single statement of the problem; a typical variation is given in the book Gödel, Escher, Bach, by Douglas R. Hofstadter: Epimenides was a Cretan who made one immortal statement: "All Cretans are liars." It is commonly supposed that self-referential paradox arises when one considers whether Epimenides spoke the truth. However, if Epimenides knew of one Cretan (other than himself) who is not a liar, his statement is a lie (because he asserts all) even though it correctly describes the speaker as a liar. Interestingly, St. Paul makes reference to Epimenides: He says of Cretans that "they are all liars, as one of their own has said." History of the phrase Epimenides was a philosopher and religious prophet who, against the general sentiment of Crete, proposed that Zeus was immortal, as in the following poem: Denying the immortality of Zeus, then, is the lie of the Cretans. It appears that by "Cretans", Epimenides intended "Cretans other than myself". The phrase "Cretans, always liars" was quoted by the poet Callimachus in his Hymn to Zeus, with the same theological intent as Epimenides. The entire second line is quoted by the Apostle Paul in the Epistle to Titus. The logical inconsistency of a Cretan asserting all Cretans are always liars may not have occurred to Epimenides, nor to Callimachus. In the original context, Epimenides necessarily meant "Cretans other than myself", so there is no self-reference and thus no logical problem to speak of; accusing Cretans (other than himself) denying the immortality of Zeus while he did not deny it himself. It is not clear when Epimenides became associated with the Epimenides paradox. Epimenides himself does not appear to have intended any irony or paradox in his statement, "Cretans, always liars", nor did Callimachus, nor the author of Titus, nor Clement. The logical contradiction exists on Saint Paul's epistle rather than the poem of Epimenides: In his epistle to Titus, Apostle Paul wants to warn Titus that Cretans don't believe in the one truth of Christianity, because "Cretans are always liars". To justify his claim, Apostle Paul cites Epimenides. This forms a contradiction because he uses the words of a Cretan (always liar) in order to prove that Cretans are always liars, also concluding that Epimenides (a Cretan) had surely told the truth (that Cretans are always liers). In the Middle Ages, many forms of the liar paradox were studied under the heading of insolubilia, but these were not associated with Epimenides. The earliest unmistakable reference to the Epimenides paradox as it is known today is an article by Bertrand Russell on the theory of types dating to 1908. The liar paradox was known in antiquity, but it was not associated with Epimenides and Saint Augustine restates the liar paradox, without mentioning Epimenides or Titus, in Against the Academicians (III.13.29). Many variations of the liar paradox (called insolubilia) were studied in the Middle Ages, but none of the extant medieval works on insolubilia refer to Epimenides, neither directly nor through the Epistle to Titus. The earliest appearance of Epimenides in the context of a logical problem dates only to the nineteenth century. Since that time, the Epimenides paradox has been commonly employed in discussions of logic. However it is possible that the paradox was attributed to Epimenides rather than to Saint Paul himself to avoid offending the logical consistency of Saint Paul and hence that of the New Testimony. This might be an explanation as to why Epimenides paradox was first recorded in the nineteenth century and in the Christian world rather than in the Classical antiquity. Logical analysis If one defines "liar" as someone who is never truthful, then the statement "All Cretans are liars," if uttered by a Cretan, Epimenides, leads inescapably to the conclusion that the speaker's statement is not true -- that is, some Cretans are not liars. Of course this would no longer be a paradox if you assume whoever stated that "Epimenides was a Cretan who made one immortal statement: 'All Cretans are liars.'" was lying. Several interpretations and analyses are available, if the statement is considered false. It might be contended that the truth-value "false" can be consistently assigned to the simple proposition that "All Cretans are liars," so that this statement by itself, when deemed false, is not, strictly speaking, paradoxical. Thus, if there ever existed a Cretan who even once spoke the truth, the categorical statement "All Cretans are (always) liars," would be false, and Epimenides might be simply regarded as having made a false statement himself. An interesting asymmetry is possible under one interpretation: the statement's truth clearly implies its falsehood, but, unless the statement is interpreted to refer specifically to itself (rather than referring categorically to all statements by Cretans), the statement could be contingently false without implying its own truth. Naturally, any truly logical idea of a paradox with the statement falls flat if one understands that while "all Cretans" may be "liars," such a statement in realistic terms does not necessarily mean that all Cretans lie all the time or that they lie only. Even if it is said that "Cretans are always liars," this does not produce a paradox if one understands the various meanings of the term always - as in "John always says No!" does not mean that "No" is all - or the only thing - John ever says. Certainly even the most prolific liars in history told the truth at least some of the time, so an idea that anyone lies in every single sentence they speak is merely simpleminded at best. Paradoxical versions of the Epimenides problem are closely related to a class of more difficult logical problems, including the liar paradox, Russell's paradox, and the Burali-Forti paradox, all of which have self-reference in common with Epimenides. Indeed, the Epimenides paradox is usually classified as a variation on the liar paradox, and sometimes the two are not distinguished. The study of self-reference led to important developments in logic and mathematics in the twentieth century. References All of the works of Epimenides are now lost, and known only through quotations by other authors. The quotation from the Cretica of Epimenides is given by R.N. Longenecker, "Acts of the Apostles", in volume 9 of The Expositor's Bible Commentary, Frank E. Gaebelein, editor (Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan Corporation, 1976-1984), page 476. Longenecker in turn cites M.D. Gibson, Horae Semiticae X (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1913), page 40, "in Syriac". Longenecker states the following in a footnote: The Syr. version of the quatrain comes to us from the Syr. church father Isho'dad of Mero (probably based on the work of Theodore of Mopsuestia), which J.R. Harris translated back into Gr. in Exp ["The Expositor"] 7 (1907), p 336. An oblique reference to Epimenides in the context of logic appears in "The Logical Calculus" by W. E. Johnson, Mind (New Series), volume 1, number 2 (April, 1892), pages 235-250. Johnson writes in a footnote, Compare, for example, such occasions for fallacy as are supplied by "Epimenides is a liar" or "That surface is red," which may be resolved into "All or some statements of Epimenides are false," "All or some of the surface is red." The Epimenides paradox appears explicitly in "Mathematical Logic as Based on the Theory of Types", by Bertrand Russell, in the American Journal of Mathematics, volume 30, number 3 (July, 1908), pages 222-262, which opens with the following: The oldest contradiction of the kind in question is the Epimenides. Epimenides the Cretan said that all Cretans were liars, and all other statements made by Cretans were certainly lies. Was this a lie? In that article, Russell uses the Epimenides paradox as the point of departure for discussions of other problems, including the Burali-Forti paradox and the paradox now called Russell's paradox. Since Russell, the Epimenides paradox has been referenced repeatedly in logic. Typical of these references is Gödel, Escher, Bach by Douglas Hofstadter, which accords the paradox a prominent place in a discussion of self-reference. | Epimenides_paradox |@lemmatized epimenides:42 paradox:27 problem:7 logic:6 name:1 cretan:34 philosopher:2 knossos:1 alive:1 circa:1 bc:1 state:3 kretes:1 aei:1 pseystai:1 always:12 liars:7 single:2 statement:19 typical:2 variation:3 give:2 book:1 gödel:2 escher:2 bach:2 douglas:2 r:3 hofstadter:2 make:5 one:10 immortal:3 commonly:2 suppose:1 self:5 referential:1 arises:1 consider:2 whether:1 speak:5 truth:8 however:2 knew:1 liar:21 lie:8 assert:2 even:4 though:1 correctly:1 describe:1 speaker:2 interestingly:1 st:1 paul:7 reference:10 say:6 history:2 phrase:2 religious:1 prophet:1 general:1 sentiment:1 crete:1 propose:1 zeus:4 following:2 poem:2 deny:3 immortality:2 appear:4 intend:2 cretans:2 quote:2 poet:1 callimachus:3 hymn:1 theological:1 intent:1 entire:1 second:1 line:1 apostle:4 epistle:4 titus:6 logical:9 inconsistency:1 may:3 occur:1 original:1 context:3 necessarily:2 mean:3 thus:2 accuse:1 clear:1 become:1 associate:3 irony:1 author:2 clement:1 contradiction:3 exists:1 saint:4 rather:4 want:1 warn:1 believe:1 christianity:1 justify:1 claim:1 cite:2 form:2 use:2 word:1 order:1 prove:1 also:1 conclude:1 surely:1 tell:2 liers:1 middle:2 age:2 many:2 study:3 heading:1 insolubilia:3 early:2 unmistakable:1 know:3 today:1 article:2 bertrand:2 russell:6 theory:2 type:2 date:2 antiquity:2 augustine:1 restate:1 without:2 mention:1 academician:1 iii:1 call:2 none:1 extant:1 medieval:1 work:3 refer:3 neither:1 directly:1 appearance:1 nineteenth:2 century:3 since:2 time:3 employ:1 discussion:3 possible:2 attribute:1 avoid:1 offend:1 consistency:1 hence:1 new:2 testimony:1 might:3 explanation:1 first:1 record:1 christian:1 world:1 classical:1 analysis:2 define:1 someone:1 never:1 truthful:1 utter:1 lead:2 inescapably:1 conclusion:1 true:1 course:1 would:2 longer:1 assume:1 whoever:1 several:1 interpretation:2 available:1 false:7 contend:1 value:1 consistently:1 assign:1 simple:1 proposition:1 deem:1 strictly:1 paradoxical:2 ever:2 exist:1 categorical:1 simply:1 regard:1 interesting:1 asymmetry:1 clearly:1 imply:2 falsehood:1 unless:1 interpret:1 specifically:1 categorically:1 could:1 contingently:1 naturally:1 truly:1 idea:2 fall:1 flat:1 understand:2 realistic:1 term:2 produce:1 various:1 meaning:1 john:2 thing:1 certainly:2 prolific:1 least:1 anyone:1 every:1 sentence:1 merely:1 simpleminded:1 best:1 version:2 closely:1 relate:1 class:1 difficult:1 include:2 burali:2 forti:2 common:1 indeed:1 usually:1 classify:1 sometimes:1 two:1 distinguish:1 important:1 development:1 mathematics:2 twentieth:1 lose:1 quotation:2 cretica:1 n:1 longenecker:3 act:1 volume:3 expositor:2 bible:1 commentary:1 frank:1 e:2 gaebelein:1 editor:1 grand:1 rapid:1 michigan:1 zondervan:1 corporation:1 page:4 turn:1 gibson:1 horae:1 semiticae:1 x:1 cambridge:2 university:1 press:1 syriac:1 follow:1 footnote:2 syr:2 quatrain:1 come:1 u:1 church:1 father:1 isho:1 dad:1 mero:1 probably:1 base:2 theodore:1 mopsuestia:1 j:1 harris:1 translate:1 back:1 gr:1 exp:1 p:1 oblique:1 calculus:1 w:1 johnson:2 mind:1 series:1 number:2 april:1 write:1 compare:1 example:1 occasion:1 fallacy:1 supply:1 surface:2 red:2 resolve:1 explicitly:1 mathematical:1 american:1 journal:1 july:1 open:1 old:1 kind:1 question:1 point:1 departure:1 repeatedly:1 accord:1 prominent:1 place:1 |@bigram epimenides_paradox:9 gödel_escher:2 escher_bach:2 epimenides_cretan:4 self_referential:1 cretan_liar:5 epistle_titus:3 logical_inconsistency:1 liar_paradox:6 bertrand_russell:2 nineteenth_century:2 closely_relate:1 russell_paradox:2 burali_forti:2 forti_paradox:2 twentieth_century:1 theodore_mopsuestia:1 douglas_hofstadter:1 |
5,144 | Forcemeat | Forcemeat is a mixture of ground, lean meat emulsified with fat. The emulsification can be accomplished by either grinding, sieving, or pureeing the ingredients. The emulsification may either be smooth or coarse, depending on the desired consistency of the final product. Forcemeats are used in the production of numerous items found in charcuterie, such items include quenelles, sausages, pâtés, terrines, roulades, and galantines. Forcemeats are usually produced from raw proteins, except in the case of a gratin forcemeat. Proteins commonly used in the production of forcemeats include pork, fish (pike, trout, or salmon), seafood, game meats (venison, boar, or rabbit), poultry, game birds, veal, and pork livers. Pork fatback is often used for the fat portion of a forcemeat as it has a somewhat neutral flavor. The Culinary Institute of America, 299. The four basic styles Straight forcemeats are produced by progressively grinding equal parts pork and pork fat with a third, dominant, meat, which can be pork or another meat. The proteins are cubed and then seasoned, cured, rested, ground and finally placed into the desired vessel. Country-style forcemeats are a combination of pork and pork fat, often with the addition of pork liver and garnish ingredients. The texture of this finished product is coarse. Gratin forcemeats have a portion of the main protein browned; the French term gratin translates to "browned". Mousseline forcemeats are very light in texture, utilizing lean cuts of meat usually from veal, poultry, fish, or shellfish. The resulting texture comes from the addition of eggs and cream to this forcemeat. Secondary binders Often the only binder in a forcemeat is the physical structure of the protein utilized. Sometimes a secondary binder is necessary to hold the emulsion. These binders are generally needed when preparing the country-style and gratin forcemeats. The three type of binders include eggs, nonfat dry milk powder, and panades. A panade can be made from starchy ingredients which aid in the binding process; these include well-cooked potatoes which have been pureed, milk soaked bread, or pâte à choux. The Culinary Institute of America, 300. Notes Works cited The Culinary Institute of America. Garde Manger: The Art and Craft of the Cold Kitchen. 3rd ed. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, INC, 2008. ISBN 978-0470055908 See also Ground beef Pemmican Jerky Stuffing | Forcemeat |@lemmatized forcemeat:13 mixture:1 ground:2 lean:2 meat:5 emulsify:1 fat:4 emulsification:2 accomplish:1 either:2 grinding:1 sieve:1 puree:2 ingredient:3 may:1 smooth:1 coarse:2 depend:1 desired:2 consistency:1 final:1 product:2 use:3 production:2 numerous:1 item:2 find:1 charcuterie:1 include:4 quenelles:1 sausage:1 pâtés:1 terrine:1 roulade:1 galantine:1 usually:2 produce:2 raw:1 protein:4 except:1 case:1 gratin:4 proteins:1 commonly:1 pork:9 fish:2 pike:1 trout:1 salmon:1 seafood:1 game:2 venison:1 boar:1 rabbit:1 poultry:2 bird:1 veal:2 liver:2 fatback:1 often:3 portion:2 somewhat:1 neutral:1 flavor:1 culinary:3 institute:3 america:3 four:1 basic:1 style:3 straight:1 progressively:1 grind:2 equal:1 part:1 third:1 dominant:1 another:1 cub:1 season:1 cure:1 rest:1 finally:1 place:1 vessel:1 country:2 combination:1 addition:2 garnish:1 texture:3 finished:1 main:1 brown:2 french:1 term:1 translate:1 mousseline:1 light:1 utilizing:1 cut:1 shellfish:1 resulting:1 come:1 egg:2 cream:1 secondary:2 binder:5 physical:1 structure:1 utilized:1 sometimes:1 necessary:1 hold:1 emulsion:1 generally:1 need:1 prepare:1 three:1 type:1 nonfat:1 dry:1 milk:2 powder:1 panades:1 panade:1 make:1 starchy:1 aid:1 binding:1 process:1 well:1 cooked:1 potato:1 soak:1 bread:1 pâte:1 à:1 chou:1 note:1 work:1 cite:1 garde:1 manger:1 art:1 craft:1 cold:1 kitchen:1 ed:1 hoboken:1 nj:1 john:1 wiley:1 son:1 inc:1 isbn:1 see:1 also:1 beef:1 pemmican:1 jerky:1 stuffing:1 |@bigram trout_salmon:1 pork_liver:2 fish_shellfish:1 hoboken_nj:1 wiley_son:1 |
5,145 | Eight-ball | A player about to take a shot. Eight-ball, sometimes called stripes and solids and, more rarely, bigs and littles or highs and lows, is a pocket billiards (pool) game popular in much of the world, and the subject of international amateur and professional competition. Played on a pool table with six pockets, the game is so universally known in some countries that beginners are often unaware of other pool games and believe the word "pool" itself refers to eight-ball. The game has numerous variations, including Alabama eight-ball, crazy eight, English eight-ball pool, last pocket, misery, Missouri, 1 and 15 in the sides, rotation eight ball, soft eight, and others. Standard eight-ball is the second most competitive professional pool game, after nine-ball. In its most common incarnation, eight-ball is played with sixteen balls: a , and fifteen , consisting of seven striped balls, seven solid balls and the black 8 ball. After the balls are scattered on a break shot, the players are assigned either the group of solid balls or the stripes once a ball from a particular group is legally pocketed. The ultimate object of the game is to legally pocket the eight ball in a called pocket, which can only be done after all of the balls from a player's assigned group have been cleared from the table. History The game of eight-ball is derived from an earlier game invented around 1900 (first recorded in 1908) in the United States and initially popularized under the name "B.B.C. Co. Pool" (a name that was still in use as late as 1925) by the Brunswick-Balke-Collender Company. This forerunner game was played with seven and seven , a , and the cue ball. Today, numbered and are preferred in most of the world, though the British-style variant uses the traditional colors. The game had relatively simple rules compared to today and was not added (under any name) to an official rule book until 1940. International rules American-style eight-ball rules are played around the world by professionals, and in many amateur leagues. The rules for eight-ball may be the most contested of any billiard game. There are several competing sets of "official" rules. The non-profit World Pool-Billiard Association (WPA), with national affiliates such as the Billiard Congress of America (BCA), promulgates the World Standardized Rules for amateur and professional play. The for-profit International Pool Tour has also established an international set of rules for professional and semi-professional play, used in major tournaments broadcast on television (as of 2007, this league has suspended operations, and is focusing on invitational matches, but is expected by many players to resume in 2009). Meanwhile, many amateur leagues, such as the American Poolplayers Association (APA) / Canadian Poolplayers Association (CPA), and the Valley National Eight-ball Association (VNEA) / VNEA Europe, use their own rulesets as their standards (most of them at least loosely based on the WPA/BCA version), while millions of individuals play informally using colloquial rules which vary not only from area to area but even from venue to venue. A summary of the international rules follows (see the WPA/BCA or IPT published rules, which conflict on minor points, for more details): Equipment There are seven numbered 1 through 7, seven numbered 9 through 15, an , and a . A proper rack, with the two corner balls of a different and the 8 ball in the center. The balls are usually colored as follows: 1 and 9 - yellow 2 and 10 - blue 3 and 11 - red 4 and 12 - purple 5 and 13 - orange 6 and 14 - green 7 and 15 - brown/ maroon 8 - black Cue - white The table's playing surface is approximately 9 ft. by 4.5 ft. (regulation size), though some leagues/tournaments may allow other sizes. Setup To start the game, the are placed in a triangular rack. The base of the rack is parallel to the (the short end of the pool table) and positioned so the apex ball of the rack is located on the . The balls in the rack are ideally placed so that they are all in contact with one another. This is accomplished by pressing the balls together from the back of the rack toward the apex ball. The placement of the balls, for a legal rack according to World Standardized Rules is that the 8 ball is placed in the center, while the two lower corners must be a stripe and a solid (see image). The cue ball is placed anywhere the breaker desires inside the "". Break One person is chosen (by a predetermined method, e.g., coin flip, win or loss of previous game, ) to shoot first and the object ball rack apart. If the shooter who breaks fails to make a legal break (usually defined as at least four balls hitting cushions or an object ball being pocketed), then the opponent can demand a and become the breaker, or elect to play from the current position of the balls. Long exposure photo of the break in eight-ball. If the breaker pockets a ball, it is still that player's turn and the table is considered "open" (meaning the breaker can still make any object ball to determine if he/she will only shoot or throughout the game). If the breaker fails to make another ball after the break, the table is still considered "open" until someone legally pockets a ball. According to World Standardized Rules, if the 8 ball is pocketed on the break, the breaker may ask for a re-rack or have the 8 ball spotted and continue shooting. If the breaker scratches while pocketing the 8 ball on the break, the incoming player has the option of a re-rack or having the 8 ball spotted and begin shooting with behind the . For regional variations, see below. Turns A player (or team) will continue to shoot until committing a (), taking a safety, or failing to legally pocket an object ball on a non-safety shot. Thereupon it is the turn of the opposing player(s). Play alternates in this manner for the remainder of the game. Following a foul, the incoming player has anywhere on the table, unless the foul occurred on the break shot, as noted previously. Pocketing the 8 ball Once all of a player's or team's group of object balls are pocketed, they may attempt to sink the 8 ball. To win, the player or team must first designate which pocket they plan to sink the 8 ball into and then successfully pot the 8 ball in that called pocket. If the 8 ball falls into any pocket other than the one designated, is knocked off the table, or a foul (see below) occurs and the 8 ball is pocketed, the player loses the game. Otherwise, the player's turn is over (including if a foul occurs on an unsuccessful attempt to pocket the 8 ball; in some leagues, such as the VNEA, such fouls are also loss of game, but not in World Standardized Rules). Winning Any of the following circumstances result in a game win: A player legally pockets the 8 ball into a designated pocket, after all his or her object balls have been pocketed The opposing player illegally pockets the 8 ball (e.g. before clearing all of his/her object balls, does so on the same shot as the last such object ball, or it falls into a pocket other than the one that was designated) The opposing player commits any foul, including scratching the cue ball into a pocket, or knocking it off the table, during the same inning that the 8 ball is pocketed. A scratch or foul is not a loss of the game if the 8 ball is not pocketed or jumped from the table. The opposing player knocks the 8 ball off the table. Fouls The shooter fails to sink all of his/or her object balls before the 8 ball No ball comes into contact with a cushion or is pocketed, after legal cue ball contact with the (first) object ball (or 8 ball, if shooting for the 8). The cue ball is pocketed ("") The shooter does not have at least one foot on the floor (this requirement may be waived if the shooter is disabled in a relevant way, or the venue has not provided a ) The cue ball is shot before all balls have come to a complete stop from the previous shot The cue ball is struck more than once during a shot The cue ball is jumped entirely or partially over an obstructing ball with an illegal jump shot that scoops under the cue ball The cue ball is clearly pushed, with the cue tip remaining in contact with it more than momentarily The shooter touches the cue ball with something other than the tip of the cue The shooter touches any ball (with body, clothing or equipment), other than as necessary to move the cue ball when the player has The shooter knocks a ball off the table The shooter has shot out-of-turn On the break shot, no balls are pocketed and fewer than four balls reach the cushions (in which case the incoming player can demand a re-rack and take the break or force the original breaker to re-break, or may take ball-in-hand behind the and shoot the balls as they lie) English-style rules In the United Kingdom, eight-ball pool (and its internationally standardized variant blackball) as an overall rather different version of the game has evolved, influenced by English billiards and snooker, and has become popular in amateur competition in Britain, Ireland, Australia, and some other countries. As with American eight-ball, there are multiple competing standards bodies that have issued international rules. Aside from using unnumbered object balls (except for the 8), UK-style tables have pockets just larger than the balls, and more than one type of is typically used. The rules significantly differ in numerous ways, including the handling of fouls, which may give the opponent two shots, racking (the 8 ball, not the apex ball, goes on the foot spot), selection of which group of balls will be shot by which player, handling of balls and , and many other details. The English Pool Association is recognized by the Sports Council as the governing body for pool including blackball in England. Eight-ball rotation The hybrid game eight-ball rotation is a combination of eight-ball and rotation, in which the players must pocket their balls (other than the 8, which remains last) in numerical order. Informal rule variations Canada In Canada there is a similar level and type of variation as in the US (see below). One particularly common feature of Canadian bar pool is the "hooked yourself on the 8" rule — failure to hit the 8 ball when one is shooting for the 8 is a loss of game, unless one was () by one's opponent (even then, if for the 8, as opposed to "just a shot", i.e. a , failure to hit the 8 is an instant loss). Pocketing an opponent's while shooting for the 8, even if the shot was otherwise legal, is also a game-loser, often even in local league play. , where the simultaneously strikes a legal and an opponent's object balls, are generally considered legal shots in informal games, as long as they are called as split shots, and the hit is in fact simultaneous to the human eye. A further Canadian bar-pool peccadillo is that a shot is a -ending (but not ) foul if one pockets one's called shot but also pockets another ball incidentally, even if it is one's own (however, if that secondary pocketing was also called, the shot is legal, regardless of the order in which the balls were dropped). Latin America The balls are often loose, crooked and/or not exactly on the (it is not considered to matter), and the rack itself may be made of rubber, and flexible, making a tight rack physically impossible to achieve. Other than the 8 ball, other balls may be placed far more randomly than players in other areas would tolerate, with large clusters of solids together, and stripes with each other. In most of Latin America, including Mexico, shots are un-, as in British pool (i.e. count, a concept foreign to most American players other than APA league members). In many if not most areas (Brazil being an exception), fouls result in behind the only, as in American bar pool (allowing for intentional scratches that leave the opponent a very difficult shot if all opponent balls are forward of the headstring). A common Latin American variant of "" is that each player is allowed either one (or even two) cue ball scratches when shooting for the 8, which must be pocketed in the same pocket as the shooter's final object ball. Such fouls simply end the shooter's turn at the table and give the opponent ball-in-hand behind the head string; only the second (or third, respectively) such scratch is a loss of game (though scratching the 8 ball itself off the table or into the wrong pocket is an instant loss). This version is common even in US pool bars that are dominated by recent Latino immigrants. This requirement has a profound effect upon game strategy – it is effectively 5 times harder to – and most North American (and British, etc.) players are completely unprepared for it, unless they are last-pocket players. Players must be very mindful what they do with their last few balls, and common failure to get that allows for the last object-ball shot to set the player up for an easy 8 ball shot into the same pocket leads to long games with many , and shots on the 8. In some parts of Latin America, especially South America, the 1 ball often must be pocketed in the right side pocket (relative to the end of the table one breaks from), and the 15 ball must be pocketed in the other side pocket (left). This rule probably developed to make it harder to run out after the first shot. Position play takes a larger role in this variation, and a player's strategy must necessarily initially revolve around getting the 1 or 15 in and preventing this opponent from doing likewise. When racking the balls for this variation, the 1 and 15 balls are placed behind the 8 ball at the center of the rack, the 1 ball on the left and the 15 ball on the right (from the racker's perspective). Latino last-pocket is virtually the only version of eight-ball played in Mexico, other than in the Mexico–United States border area. In Mexico, a minority of players rack with the 8 ball rather than the apex ball on the foot spot, a trait in common with British blackball/8-ball pool. Pocketing the 8 ball on the is an instant win, as it usually is in American bar pool, but is not in the international rules. The only ball-in-hand (behind the head string) foul in Mexican pool is the cue ball into a pocket; other fouls are simply loss-of-turn. Because Mexican pool, except near the US border, is almost always played on open-pocket pool-hall-style tables, rather than coin-operated tables that trap object balls, any of one's own balls pocketed on a foul are (but how they are spotted varies widely, with the balls often placed against the on the , and adjacent to nearby if more than one must be spotted, instead of on the foot spot, but sometimes even to the side at diamonds, due to the influence of coyote, a Mexican variant of Chicago; foot-spot spotting is neither common nor uncommon.) Pool itself is not considered a very serious game in the country other than in the northern states; in most of Mexico, three-cushion billiards is the serious game, while pool is mostly played by youths, by groups of friends (including many young women) as a bar game to pass the time, and by older working-class men as an after-work activity. In many recreation halls, dominoes is more popular than pool. In many bars in Brazil (and not an official rule), a foul is generally punished by pocketing the lowest-numbered ball of the opponent. In that case, the cue ball remains where it stopped, as ball-in-hand is not commonly used. Additionally, in the case of scratching the cue ball, the opponent places the cue ball in , on the , or most commonly anywhere inside , indicating some British snooker and/or blackball influence. North Africa In North African countries (as in Latin America, but reversed), both the 1 and 15 balls must be pocketed in the sides, the 15 on the right and 1 on the left (relative to the end of the table one breaks from). The North African version of the informal game is always played "". is not taken on fouls, and "" is a very common rule in addition to last-pocket. United Kingdom There are several colloquial blackball/8-ball pool variations, which – along with differences between published blackball and 8-ball pool rules (which differ in various ways) and American-style and international eight-ball rules – can be encountered by eight-ball players as a form of culture clash when playing against opponents who are more accustomed to UK pub pool, the being the most significant. United States American bar players Most commonly of all in American , it is generally required that all shots be in detail, as to what balls and bank/kick cushions will be involved in the shot, with the shot considered a turn-ending (but not ball-in-hand) foul if not executed precisely as planned (and a loss of game if the "foul" shot pocketed the 8 ball). Contrariwise, some Americans hold that nothing other than the 8 ball has to be called in any way — "" counts. In informal amateur play in most areas, the table will only be considered open if no balls were pocketed, or an equal number of stripes and solids were pocketed, or the cue ball was (into a pocket or off the table), on the ; if an odd number of balls were legally pocketed, such as one solid and two stripes, or no solids and one stripe, the breaker must shoot the stripes (in these examples). The table is almost never considered so as for it to be legal to use a ball of the opposite , much less the 8 ball, as the first ball in a combination shot while the table is open (despite this being perfectly legal in WPA World Standardized and many US league rules). In non- it is fairly common for a foul break in which the rack was not struck at all (e.g., due to a ) to be re-shot by the original breaker. Fouls, in common bar pool, that are not cue ball scratches generally only cause loss of turn, with cue ball left in place (even if it is ). Even in the case of a scratch, this only results in behind the . Handling of fouls while shooting at and/or pocketing the 8 ball varies widely, from area to area, in bar pool. In some cases any foul while shooting at but not pocketing the 8 is a loss of game, in others only a foul while otherwise successfully pocketing the 8, and in yet others only certain fouls, such as also sinking an opponent's ball, while pocketing the 8 (that last is not even a recognized foul of any kind in the international and major American league rulesets, and may have been imported from Canada). What is considered a foul further diverges from established, published rulesets. Scoop-under are usually considered valid (these are fouls in WPA (and most US league) rules, as they are , though few players realize it). When a cue ball is frozen or near-frozen to an object ball, shooting it dead-on, in line with both balls, is a foul in formal rulesets (as another kind of double-hit), but is generally tolerated in bar pool. Other US bar pool oddities varying from area to area include: Knocking the cue ball off the table on the break may be an instant loss; scratching on the break may be an instant loss; pocketing the 8 ball on the break (without scratching) may be either an instant win or instant loss (the latter being a rare variant); no safeties may be allowed at all – all shots may be required to be at least vaguely plausible attempts to pocket a legal ball; all jump shots may be banned; may be banned; it may be illegal to use the 8 ball in any way in combinations, caroms or kisses; the 8 ball may be required to be pocketed "cleanly" in the sense of no contact with other object balls (even if the can be accurately called); failure to hit one of one's own object balls (or the 8 if shooting for the 8) may be considered a "table scratch" that gives the opponent a shot in-hand from behind the head string; failure to hit the 8 if shooting for the 8 may be a loss of game; and a "split" shot, where the cue ball simultaneously strikes a legal ball and an opponent's object ball, may be considered legal shots, as long as it is called as a split shot, and the hit is in fact simultaneous to the human eye. "" is a common American amateur variation, especially on coin-operated (because it usually makes the game last longer), in which the 8 ball must be off one or more ( may also qualify in some versions), into the ; either player may suggest bank-the-eight at any time before or during the game, and the other may accept or refuse; all other rules apply as usual. Playing bank-the-eight may be considered rude if there is a long line of players waiting to use the table. A similarly-motivated variant is "", in which the 8 ball must be pocketed in the same pocket as the shooting player's last object ball (i.e., each player may be said to eventually "own" a pocket in which their 8 ball shot must be played if they have already run out their ); all other rules apply as usual. Most American league players are also bar pool players outside of league matches and will happily switch back and forth between league rules and their local house rules, depending on who their opponents are. Due probably to the influence of nine-ball, in which the 1 ball must be the apex ball of the rack, most American bar players traditionally rack a game of eight-ball with the 1 ball in this position. Racking is also typically done solid-stripe-solid-stripe-solid along the two sides of the rack, resulting in solids being on all three corners. This is not a legal rack in World Standardized Rules, nor any other notable league ruleset, because it gives an automatic, strong statistical advantage to solids. See also List of World Eight-ball Champions References External links World Pool-Billiard Association (WPA) – the International Olympic Committee-recognised promulgator of international rules for a variety of cue sports including eight-ball. Sanctions international tournaments, amateur and professional, in various countries. Billiard Congress of America (BCA) – the US national WPA affiliate and self-described "governing body of pool" in North America; has an affiliated national amateur league that holds North American tournaments in Las Vegas. American Poolplayers Association (APA) – the self-described world's largest [amateur] pool league (site also provides pool-related news and articles); see also the affiliated Canadian Poolplayers Association (CPA) Uses a ruleset widely divergent from that of WPA/BCA, geared toward beginning players. Holds North American tournaments in Las Vegas. Valley National Eightball Association (VNEA) – the oldest extant and allegedly second-largest national amateur league in North America; despite its name, it is becoming increasingly international, with Caribbean and Mexican teams, as well as foreign affiliate leagues such as VNEA Europe, and is branching out to Finland, Australia, Argentina, Malaysia, the Republic of Georgia, etc. Uses a ruleset similar to that of the WPA/BCA in most respects. 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5,146 | Astoria,_Oregon | The Astoria Column The city of Astoria is the county seat of Clatsop County, Oregon, United States. Situated near the mouth of the Columbia River, the city was named after the American investor (and first millionaire) John Jacob Astor. His fur trading company founded Fort Astoria at the site in 1810. Astoria was incorporated in 1876. Located on the south shore of the Columbia, the city is served by the Port of Astoria with a deep water port. Transportation includes the Astoria Regional Airport with U.S. Route 30 and U.S. Route 101 as the main highways, and the Astoria-Megler Bridge connecting to neighboring Washington across the river. The population was 9,813 at the 2000 census. As of 2007, the state estimate raises it to 10,045 residents. PSU:Population Research Center History The Methodist Mission at Astoria in 1841 View of Astoria in 1868 The Lewis and Clark Expedition spent the winter of 1805-1806 at Fort Clatsop, a small log structure south and west of modern day Astoria. The expedition had hoped a ship would come by to take them back east, but instead endured a torturous winter of rain and cold, then returned east the way they came. Today the fort has been recreated and is now a national monument. In 1810, John Jacob Astor's Pacific Fur Company sent the Astor Expedition that founded Fort Astoria as its primary fur-trading post in the Northwest, and in fact the first permanent U.S. settlement on the Pacific coast. It was an extremely important post for American exploration of the continent and was influential in establishing American claims to the land. British explorer David Thompson (explorer) was the first European to navigate the entire length of the Columbia River in 1811. Thompson reached the partially constructed Fort Astoria at the mouth of the Columbia, arriving two months after the Pacific Fur Company's ship, the Tonquin. The Pacific Fur Company failed, however, and the fort and fur trade were sold to the British in 1813. The house was restored to the U.S. in 1818, though the fur trade would remain under British control until American pioneers following the Oregon Trail began filtering into the port town in the mid-1840s. The Treaty of 1818 established joint U.S. - British occupancy of territory west of the continental divide to the Pacific Ocean. In 1846 the Oregon Treaty ended the Oregon Boundary Dispute; with Britain ceding all right to the mainland south of the 49th Parallel. Washington Irving, a prominent American writer with a European reputation, was approached by John Jacob Astor to mythologize the three-year reign of his Pacific Fur Company. Astoria (1835), written while Irving was Astor's guest, cemented the importance of the region in the American psyche. In his Introduction to the rambling work, Irving reports that Astor explicitly "expressed a regret that the true nature and extent of his enterprizeand its national character and importance had never been understood." In Irving's words, the fur traders were "Sinbads of the wilderness," and their venture was a staging point for the spread of American economic power into both the continental interior and into the Pacific. As the Oregon Territory grew and became increasingly more settled, Astoria likewise grew as a port city at the mouth of the great river that provided the easiest access to the interior. The first U.S. Post Office west of the Rocky Mountains was established in Astoria in 1847. In 1876, the community was legally incorporated. It attracted a host of immigrants beginning in the late-nineteenth century: Scandinavian settlers, primarily Finns, and Chinese soon became significant parts of the population. The Finns mostly lived in Uniontown, near the present-day end of the Astoria-Megler Bridge, and took fishing jobs; the Chinese tended to do cannery work, and usually lived either downtown or in bunkhouses near the canneries. In 1883, and again in 1922, downtown Astoria was devastated by fire, partly because it was mostly wood and entirely raised off the marshy ground on pilings. Even after the first fire, the same format was used, and the second time around the flames spread quickly again, as collapsing streets took out the water system. Frantic citizens resorted to dynamite, blowing up entire buildings to stop the fire from going further. Astoria has served as a port of entry for over a century and remains the trading center for the lower Columbia basin, although it has long since been eclipsed by Portland and Seattle as an economic hub on the coast of the Pacific Northwest. Astoria's economy centered around fishing, fish processing, and lumber. In 1945, about 30 canneries could be found along the Columbia; however, in 1974 Bumblebee Seafood moved its headquarters out of Astoria, and gradually reduced its presence until 1980 when the company closed its last Astoria cannery. The timber industry likewise declined; Astoria Plywood Mill, the city's largest employer, closed in 1989, and the Burlington Northern and Santa Fe Railway discontinued service in 1996. In 1966 the Astoria-Megler Bridge was opened; it completed U.S. Route 101 and linked Astoria with Washington State on the opposite shore of the Columbia. Today, tourism, Astoria's growing art scene, and light manufacturing are the main economic activities of the city. It is a port of call for cruise ships, with many docking in 2004, 2005, 13 in 2006, and 14 scheduled for 2007. In addition to the replicated Fort Clatsop, a popular point of interest is the Astoria Column, a tower high built atop the hill above the town, with an inner circular staircase allowing visitors to climb to see a panoramic view of the town, the surrounding lands, and the Columbia flowing into the Pacific. The column was built by the Astor family in 1926 to commemorate the region's early history. Since 1998, artistically-inclined fishermen and women from Alaska and the Pacific Northwest have traveled to Astoria for the Fisher Poets Gathering, where poets and singers tell their tales to honor the fishing industry and lifestyle. Astoria is also the western terminus of the TransAmerica Trail, a bicycle touring route created by the American Cycling Association. Demographics As of the census of 2000, there were 9,813 people, 4,235 households, and 2,469 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,597.6 people per square mile (617.1 per km²). There were 4,858 housing units at an average density of 790.9 per square mile (305.5 per km²). The racial makeup of the city was: 91.08% White 0.52% Black or African American 1.14% Native American 1.94% Asian 0.19% Pacific Islander 2.67% from other races 2.46% from two or more races 5.98% of the population were Hispanic American or Latino of any race. 14.2% were of German, 11.4% Irish, 10.2% English, 8.3% United States or American, 6.1% Finnish, 5.6% Norwegian, and 5.4% Scottish ancestry according to Census 2000. There were 4,235 households out of which 28.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 43.5% were married couples living together, 11.2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 41.7% were non-families. 35.4% of all households were made up of individuals and 13.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.26 and the average family size was 2.93. In the city the population was spread out with: 24.0% under the age of 18 9.1% from 18 to 24 26.4% from 25 to 44 24.5% from 45 to 64 15.9% 65 years of age or older. The median age was 38 years. For every 100 females there were 92.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 89.9 males. The median income for a household in the city was $33,011, and the median income for a family was $41,446. Males had a median income of $29,813 versus $22,121 for females. The per capita income for the city was $18,759. About 11.6% of families and 15.9% of the population were below the poverty line, including 22.0% of those under age 18 and 9.6% of those age 65 or over. Geography and climate Astoria is located above the equator . According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 10.6 square miles (27.5 km²), of which, 6.1 square miles (15.9 km²) of it is land and 4.5 square miles (11.6 km²) of it (42.18%) is water. Climate Astoria lies within the Marine west coast climate zone, with very mild temperatures year-round, some of the most consistent in the continental United States; normal winters are mild for Astoria's latitude, generally above freezing, and wet. Summers are cool, although short heat waves can occur. Rainfall is most abundant in late fall and winter, and lightest in late summer. Snowfall is relatively rare but does accumulate in small amounts in winter. Education John Jacob Astor Elementary The Astoria School District has five schools, each of which serves a different age group of students: Captain Robert Gray Elementary School John Jacob Astor Elementary School Lewis & Clark Elementary School Astoria Middle School Astoria High School Media The Daily Astorian KMUN KAST AM/FM Astoria in popular culture Shanghaied In Astoria is a musical about Astoria's history, that has been performed in Astoria every year since 1984. Astoria was the setting of the 1985 movie The Goonies, which was filmed on location. Other movies filmed in Astoria include Overboard, Short Circuit, The Black Stallion, Kindergarten Cop, Free Willy, Free Willy 2: The Adventure Home, Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles III, Benji the Hunted, The Ring, The Ring (2002) - Filming locations The Ring Two, Into the Wild, and The Guardian. The early 1960s television series Route 66 filmed the episode entitled "One Tiger to a Hill" "Route 66" One Tiger to a Hill (1962) in Astoria; it was broadcast on September 211962. An album by the rock band The Ataris, So Long, Astoria, has cover art and a title song depicting the city. Astoria is the first setting of the novel The Traveling Death and Resurrection Show by Ariel Gore. Astoria is mentioned in Neal Stephenson's novel Snow Crash as the best place at that point in the novel to get to the USS Enterprise. Astoria is also mentioned in the movie Eight Below; it is the current hometown of character Jerry Shepherd. Most recently it is mentioned in the movie about the Coast Guard "The Guardian" with Kevin Costner. The monster movie It Came from Beneath the Sea (1955) has a reference to Astoria. The Navy tracks the beast (a giant Octopus), first to Astoria, where it attacks people on shore, leaving sucker imprints in the sand. Other points of interest Suomi Hall, the meeting hall of Finnish and Scandinavian immigrants, under the Astoria-Megler Bridge Columbia River Maritime Museum Peter Iredale shipwreck Astoria Regional Airport Clatsop Spit CGAS Astoria Sister cities Astoria has one sister city, Sister Cities International as designated by Sister Cities International: Walldorf, Germany Notable residents Brian Bruney, New York Yankees reliever Michael Hurley, American Singer/Songwriter Ranald MacDonald, first man to teach the English language in Japan Holly Madison, one of Hugh Hefner's ex-girlfriends , born in Astoria but left before 2nd birthday Donald Malarkey, World War II U.S. Army soldier of the 101st Airborne Division was portrayed in the TV series Band of Brothers. Joshua Marquis, District Attorney Maila Nurmi, aka 1950s TV horror hostess Vampira and co-star of Ed Wood's Plan 9 From Outer Space attended Astoria High School in the late 1930s. Further reading Elma MacGibbons reminiscences about her travels in the United States starting in 1898, which were mainly in Oregon and Washington. Includes chapter "Astoria and the Columbia River." References External links City of Astoria (official website) Astoria-Warrenton Chamber of Commerce Oregon Blue Book listing for Astoria | Astoria,_Oregon |@lemmatized astoria:57 column:3 city:18 county:2 seat:1 clatsop:4 oregon:7 united:5 state:7 situate:1 near:3 mouth:3 columbia:10 river:6 name:1 american:13 investor:1 first:8 millionaire:1 john:5 jacob:5 astor:9 fur:9 trading:3 company:6 found:2 fort:7 site:1 incorporate:2 locate:2 south:3 shore:3 serve:3 port:6 deep:1 water:3 transportation:1 include:4 regional:2 airport:2 u:8 route:6 main:2 highway:1 megler:4 bridge:4 connect:1 neighbor:1 washington:4 across:1 population:7 census:4 estimate:1 raise:2 resident:2 psu:1 research:1 center:3 history:3 methodist:1 mission:1 view:2 lewis:2 clark:2 expedition:3 spend:1 winter:5 small:2 log:1 structure:1 west:4 modern:1 day:2 hop:1 ship:3 would:2 come:3 take:3 back:1 east:2 instead:1 endure:1 torturous:1 rain:1 cold:1 return:1 way:1 today:2 recreate:1 national:2 monument:1 pacific:11 send:1 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5,147 | DirkJan | DirkJan is a comic, the creation of Dutch author and artist Mark Retera. It is also the name of its main character. DirkJan is a loser who stumbles through life in mostly three-panel comic strips. He started out in 1989 as a student at the current Radboud University Nijmegen in the Netherlands, where he lived in a typical student house with all the stereotypical side-kicks, such as the fat boy, the beer drinker, the bossy girl who checks if everybody keeps to the house rules, and the tramps who use the heated shared hallway to stay the night. Early DirkJans contained many references to the student life of Nijmegen. DirkJan was first published in Critic, the magazine for the local union of psychology students. It then moved on to monthly publication in the student magazine of Nijmegen (Algemeen Nijmeegs Studentenblad, ANS). DirkJan became known nationally when the then only commercial comics magazine of the Netherlands SjoSji (now defunct) started publishing the strip. With the last move, the nature of the strip changed. Most of the student side-kicks got cancelled and DirkJan left university, first for jail (DJ is a notorious Kabouter abuser) and then to wander the globe and indeed space. As of November 2007, there are thirteen DirkJan albums, tentatively named 'DirkJan 1' through 'DirkJan 13'. Several newspapers in the Netherlands publish the comic in their daily edition. The amateur comics magazine Iris (1990 - 1995) (re)published a number of DirkJan comics, some of which were refused for publication in SjoSji. External links http://www.mooves.nl/ (two animated DirkJan strips, Flash-only site) | DirkJan |@lemmatized dirkjan:10 comic:6 creation:1 dutch:1 author:1 artist:1 mark:1 retera:1 also:1 name:2 main:1 character:1 loser:1 stumble:1 life:2 mostly:1 three:1 panel:1 strip:4 start:2 student:6 current:1 radboud:1 university:2 nijmegen:3 netherlands:3 live:1 typical:1 house:2 stereotypical:1 side:2 kick:2 fat:1 boy:1 beer:1 drinker:1 bossy:1 girl:1 check:1 everybody:1 keep:1 rule:1 tramp:1 use:1 heated:1 share:1 hallway:1 stay:1 night:1 early:1 dirkjans:1 contain:1 many:1 reference:1 first:2 publish:4 critic:1 magazine:4 local:1 union:1 psychology:1 move:2 monthly:1 publication:2 algemeen:1 nijmeegs:1 studentenblad:1 ans:1 become:1 know:1 nationally:1 commercial:1 sjosji:2 defunct:1 last:1 nature:1 change:1 get:1 cancelled:1 left:1 jail:1 dj:1 notorious:1 kabouter:1 abuser:1 wander:1 globe:1 indeed:1 space:1 november:1 thirteen:1 album:1 tentatively:1 several:1 newspaper:1 daily:1 edition:1 amateur:1 iris:1 number:1 refuse:1 external:1 link:1 http:1 www:1 mooves:1 nl:1 two:1 animate:1 flash:1 site:1 |@bigram comic_strip:1 nijmegen_netherlands:1 beer_drinker:1 external_link:1 http_www:1 |
5,148 | Diaspora | The term diaspora (in Greek, διασπορά – "a scattering [of seeds]") refers to the movement of any population sharing common ethnic identity who were either forced to leave or voluntarily left their settled territory, and became residents in areas often far remote from the former. It is converse to the nomadic culture, and more appropriately linked with the creation of a group of refugees. However, while refugees may or may not ultimately settle in a new geographic location, the term diaspora refers to a permanently-displaced and relocated collective. Diasporic cultural development often assumes a different course from that of the population in the original place of settlement. It tends to vary in culture, traditions and other factors between remotely separated communities. The last vestige of cultural affiliation in a diaspora is often found in community resistance to language change and in maintenance of religious practice. Origins and development The first mention of a diaspora created as a result of exile is found in Deuteronomy 28:25 "thou shalt be a dispersion in all kingdoms of the earth". Its use began to develop from this original sense when the Hebrew Bible was translated into Greek p.81, Kantor ; the word diaspora then was used to refer to the population of Jews exiled from Israel in 607 BCE by the Babylonians, and from Judea in 70 CE by the Roman Empire. pp.53, 105-106, Kantor It subsequently came to be used to refer interchangeably, but exclusively, to the historical movements of the dispersed ethnic population of Israel, the cultural development of that population, or the population itself. p.1, Barclay To date, when capitalized and without modifiers (that is, simply the Diaspora), the term generally refers specifically to the Jewish diaspora. The wider application of diaspora evolved from the Assyrian two-way mass deportation policy of conquered populations to deny future territorial claims on their part. pp.96-97, Galil & Weinfeld In Ancient Greece the term diaspora meant "the scattered" and was used to refer to citizens of a dominant city-state who emigrated to a conquered land with the purpose of colonisation, to assimilate the territory into the empire. pp.1-2, Tetlow First modern attestation of diaspora is in 1876 from the Greek diaspora, derived from diaspeirein "to scatter about, disperse," from dia- "about, across" + speirein "to scatter". Diaspora Sometimes refugees of other origins or ethnicities may be called a diaspora, but the two terms are far from synonymous. Katrina scatters a grim diaspora BBC Out of the Hadhramaut The term became more widely assimilated into English by the mid 1950s, with long-term expatriates in significant numbers from other particular countries or regions also being referred to as a diaspora. The world's successful diasporas - Research - World Business Diasporas of Highly Skilled and Migration of Talent Katrina scatters a grim Diaspora BBC An academic field, diaspora studies, has become established relating to this contemporary more general sense of the word. In all cases, the term diaspora carries a sense of displacement; that is, the population so described finds itself for whatever reason separated from its national territory; and usually it has a hope, or at least a desire, to return to their homeland at some point, if the "homeland" still exists in any meaningful sense. Some writers have noted that diaspora may result in a loss of nostalgia for a single home as people "re-root" in a series of meaningful displacements. In this sense, individuals may have multiple homes throughout their diaspora, with different reasons for maintaining some form of attachment to each. European diasporas Greek Diaspora 6th c. BC European history contains numerous diaspora-like events. In ancient times, the trading and colonising activities of the Greek tribes from the Balkans and Asia Minor spread people of Greek culture, religion and language around the Mediterranean and Black Sea basins, establishing Greek city states in Sicily, southern Italy, northern Libya, eastern Spain, the south of France, and the Black sea coasts. Greeks founded more than 400 colonies. Early development of Greek society Alexander the Great's conquest of the Achaemenid Empire marked the beginning of the Hellenistic period, which was characterized by a new wave of Greek colonization in Asia and Africa, with Greek ruling classes established in Egypt, southwest Asia and northwest India. Hellenistic Civilization The Migration Period relocations, which included several phases, are just one set of many. The first phase Migration Period displacement from between AD 300 and 500 included relocation of the Goths (Ostrogoths and Visigoths), Vandals, Franks, various other Germanic people (Burgundians, Langobards, Angles, Saxons, Jutes, Suebi, Alemanni, Varangians and Normans), Alans and numerous Slavic tribes. The second phase, between AD 500 and 900, saw Slavic, Turkic, and other tribes on the move, resettling in Eastern Europe and gradually making it predominantly Slavic, and affecting Anatolia and the Caucasus as the first Turkic tribes (Avars, Bulgars, Huns, Khazars, Pechenegs and possibly Magyars) arrived. The last phase of the migrations saw the coming of the Hungarian Magyars and the Viking expansion out of Scandinavia. However, such colonizing migrations cannot be considered indefinitely as diasporas; over very long periods, eventually the migrants assimilate into the settled area so completely that it becomes their new homeland. Thus the modern population of Hungary do not feel that they belong in the Western Siberia that the Hungarian Magyars left 12 centuries ago; and the English descendants of the Angles, Saxons and Jutes do not yearn to reoccupy the plains of Northwest Germany. Another example is the Irish diaspora, beginning mid-19th century and brought about by a combination of harsh imperial British policies and the An Gorta Mór or "Great Hunger" of the Irish Famine. Estimates are that between 45% and 85% of Ireland's population emigrated to countries including Britain, the United States, Canada, Argentina, Australia and New Zealand. The size of the diaspora is demonstrated by the number of people around the world who claim Irish ancestry; some sources put the figure at 80-100 million. In 1492, a Spanish expedition headed by Christopher Columbus reached the Americas, after which European exploration and colonization rapidly expanded. In the 16th century perhaps 240,000 Europeans entered American ports. "The Columbian Mosaic in Colonial America" by James Axtell In the 19th century alone over 50 million people left Europe for the Americas. David Eltis Economic Growth and the Ending of the Transatlantic slave trade African Diaspora One of the largest diasporas of pre-modern times was the African Diaspora, which began at the beginning of the 16th century. During the Atlantic Slave Trade, twenty million people from West, West-Central and South-east Africa were transported to the Western Hemisphere as slaves. This population left a major influence on the culture of English, French, Portuguese and Spanish New World colonies. The Arab slave trade also transported large numbers of Africans from the continent, although the effect of the Diaspora to the east is more subtle. It has not received as much historical study in the West, but affected millions of Africans. Braziel, Jana Evans. 2008. Diaspora - an introduction. Malden, MA: Blackwell. Asian diaspora Chinese emigration (also known as the Chinese Diaspora) first occurred thousands of years ago. The mass emigration that occurred from the 19th century to 1949 was caused mainly by wars and starvation in mainland China, as well as political corruption. Most immigrants were illiterate or poorly educated peasants and coolies (Chinese: 苦力, translated: Hard Labor), who immigrated to developing countries in need of labor, such as the Americas, Australia, South Africa, Southeast Asia, Malaya and other places. The largest Asian diaspora outside of Southeast Asia is that of the Indian diaspora. The overseas Indian community estimated at over 25 million is spread across many regions in the world, on every continent. It constitutes a diverse, heterogeneous and eclectic global community representing different regions, languages, cultures, and faiths. The common thread that binds them together is the idea of India and its intrinsic values (see Desi). The Romani are widely dispersed with their largest concentrated populations in Europe. Linguistic and genetic evidence indicates the Romanies originated from the Indian subcontinent, emigrating from India towards the northwest no earlier than the 11th century. At least three waves of Nepalese diaspora can be identified. The earliest wave dates back to hundreds of years as early marriage and high birthrates propelled Hindu settlement eastward across Nepal, then into Sikkim and Bhutan. A backlash developed in the 1980s as Bhutan's political elites realized that Bhutanese Buddhists were at risk of becoming a minority in their own country. At present, the United States is working towards resettling more than 60,000 ethnic Nepalese from Bhutan in the US as a third country settlement programme. A second wave was driven by British recruitment of mercenary soldiers beginning around 1815 and resettlement after retirement in the British Isles and southeast Asia. The third wave began in the 1970s as land shortages intensified and the pool of educated labor greatly exceeded job openings in Nepal. Job-related emigration created Nepalese enclaves in India, the wealthier countries of the Middle East, Europe and North America. Current estimates of the number of Nepalese living outside Nepal range well up into the millions. The 20th century and beyond The twentieth century saw huge population movements. Some involved large-scale transfers of people by government action. For instance, Stalin shipped millions of people to Eastern Russia, Central Asia, and Siberia both as punishment and to stimulate development of the frontier regions. Some migrations occurred to avoid conflict and warfare. Other diasporas were created as a consequence of political decisions, such as the end of colonialism. Ethnic cleansing Other diasporas have occurred as people fled ethnically directed persecution, oppression or genocide. Examples of these include: the Armenians, Assyrians and Greeks who were forced out of Anatolia by the Ottoman Turks during the Armenian, Assyrian and Greek genocides1 (1915–1918), with survivors settling in areas of the Levant, United States, Europe and South America A Letter from The International Association of Genocide Scholars . Since World War I, the Assyrian diaspora has steadily increased so that there are now more Assyrians living in western and eastern Europe, North America and Australia, than in the Middle East. At the turn of the century, the Christian population in the Ottoman Empire had numbered about 5,000,000. When the Turks' massacres ended in 1923 and following the population exchange and the 1950s pogroms, only a few thousand Greeks remained. WWII and the end of colonial rule As WWII unfolded, Nazi Germany deported and killed millions of Jews. Some Jews fled from persecution to western Europe and the Americas before borders closed. Later other eastern European refugees moved west, away from Soviet annexation, An International Conference on the Baltic Archives Abroad and the Iron Curtain regimes after World War II. After WWII, the Soviet Union and Communist-controlled Poland, Hungary and Yugoslavia expelled hundreds of thousands of ethnic Germans, who had lived in eastern countries for nearly two centuries, in retaliation for Nazi invasion and attempts at annexation. Most moved west, with tens of thousands seeking refuge in the United States. Galicia in northern Spain sent many emigrants into exile during Franco's military regime from 1936 to his death in 1975. Following WWII, the creation of the state of Israel, and a series of uprisings against colonialist rule, the Middle East was almost entirely emptied of its historic Jewish populations of nearly 1 million, the majority of whom found refuge in Israel and became known as Mizrahi Jews. At the same time, the Palestinian diaspora was created as a result of the establishment of Israel in 1948, in which 750,000 people were displaced. It was enlarged by the effects of the 1967 Arab-Israeli War; today the Palestinian refugee population is the oldest in the world. The 1947 Partition resulted in the migration of millions of people between India and Pakistan. Many were murdered in the unrest of the period, with estimates of fatalities up to 10 million people. Thousands of former subjects of the British Raj went to the from the Indian subcontinent after India and Pakistan became independent in 1947. From the late nineteenth century Korea, and formally from 1910, became a Japanese colony. Millions of Chinese fled to western provinces not occupied by Japan (i.e., in particular Ssuchuan/Szechwan and Yunnan in the Southwest and Shensi and Kansu in the Northwest) and to Southeast Asia. More than 100,000 Koreans moved across the Amur River into Eastern Russia (then the Soviet Union) away from the Japanese. During the Japanese war with China (1937-1945), Japan established Manchuria as a multi-ethnic puppet state, Manchukuo. The Cold War and the formation of post-colonial states During and after the Cold War-era, huge populations of refugees migrated from conflict, especially from then-developing countries. Upheaval in the Middle East and Central Asia, much of which related to power struggles between the United States and the Soviet Union, created a host of new refugee populations which developed into global diasporas. The Afghan diaspora resulted from the 1979 invasion by the former Soviet Union; both official and unofficial records indicate that the war displaced over 6 million people, resulting in the creation of the largest refugee population worldwide today. Many Iranians fled the 1979 Iranian Revolution following the fall of the Shah. The Assyrian diaspora expanded as the Civil War in Lebanon, the coming into power of the Islamic republic of Iran, the Ba'athist dictatorship in Iraq, and the present-day unrest in Iraq pushed even more Assyrians on the roads of exile. Codeswitching Worldwide II, by Rodolfo Jacobson Tens of thousands of Iraqis have fled conflict in their nation since the beginning of the American occupation of Iraq in 2003. In Southeast Asia, many Vietnamese people emigrated to France and later millions to the United States, Australia and Canada after the Cold War-related Vietnam War. Later, 30,000 French colons from Cambodia were displaced after being expelled by the Khmer Rouge regime under Pol Pot. The mass exodus of Vietnamese people from Vietnam coined the term 'Boat people'. In Africa, a new series of diasporas formed following the end of colonial rule. Uganda expelled 80,000 South Asians in 1972. Hundreds of thousands of people fled from the Rwandan Genocide in 1994 into neighboring countries. Thousands of refugees from deteriorating conditions in Zimbabwe have gone to South Africa. The long war in Congo has also created massive numbers of refugees. In South America, thousands of Chilean and Uruguayan refugees fled to Europe during periods of military rule in the 1970s and '80s. A million Colombian refugees have left Colombia since 1965 to escape the country's violence and civil wars. In Central America, Nicaraguans, Salvadorans, Guatemalans, Hondurans, Costa Ricans and Panamanians fled conflict and poor economic conditions. Migration diasporas: A subject of debate Some scholars argue that when economic migrants gather in such numbers outside their home region, they form an effective Diaspora: for instance, the Turkish Gastarbeiter in Germany; South Asians in the Persian Gulf; Filipinos worldwide; and Chinese workers in Japan. Hispanics or Latinos in the USA are sometimes referred to as a newly developed "diaspora" or dispersions of immigrant peoples from Latin America into the United States, and ethnic groups continued their cultural distinction, such as Mexican-Americans, Puerto Rican people, Cuban-Americans, etc. Since the 1970s, Mexican immigrants to the United States have been chiefly economic refugees coming for work; many have crossed the border illegally or remained undocumented aliens who never acquired legal residency or US citizenship. Earlier mass movements of rural migration in the U.S. occurred: The two waves of the Great Migration of African Americans from the South to the North, Midwest and Western states comprised a diaspora and resulted in urbanization of more than 6.5 million African Americans from 1910-1970; many were recruited by northern businesses eager for labor for their developing industries, but the people were also voting with their feet to leave behind segregation, lynchings, disfranchisement and limited chances in a rural economy. Historians identify as another diaspora the mass migration of people during the Dust Bowl years: the "Okies" from the drought-ridden American Great Plains and "Arkies" from the Ozarks of the American South in the 1930s; the majority of both groups went west to California. More recently, some observers have labeled evacuation from New Orleans and the Gulf Coast in the wake of Hurricane Katrina a diaspora, since a significant number of evacuees have not been able to return, yet maintain aspirations to do so. Other scholars maintain that inclusion of such migrations under the heading of "diaspora" has caused a blurring of terms. The International Organization for Migration said there are more than 200 million migrants around the world today. Europe hosted the largest number of immigrants, with 70.6 million people in 2005, the latest year for which figures are available. North America, with over 45.1 million immigrants, is second, followed by Asia, which hosts nearly 25.3 million. Most of today's migrant workers come from Asia. Rich world needs more foreign workers: report, FOXNews.com, December 02, 2008 In popular culture Futuristic science fiction sometimes refers to a diaspora, taking place when much of humanity leaves Earth to settle on far-flung "colony worlds. İsmet Özel wrote a poem titled "Of not being a Jew" in which he lamented the fact that he felt like a pursued Jew, but had no second country to which he could go. He writes: Your load is heavy He's very heavy Just because he's your brother Your brothers are your pogroms When you reach the doorsteps of your friends Starts your Diaspora In The Malazan Book of the Fallen, by Steven Erikson and Ian Cameron Esslemont, the Division of the Crimson Guard is known as the Diaspora. After the war between the Malazan Empire and the Guard ends in stalemate after a protracted duel between Skinner (of the Guards) and Dassem (first sword of the Empire) ends in a draw, the Guards' leader Kazz D'Avore disappears and the Guards split into companies to search for him. This search is also known as the Diaspora of the Malazans. The song "Prayer Of The Refugee" by Rise Against, was originally called Diaspora, and was featured on Guitar Hero with said name. See also - List of diasporas Armenian diaspora Basque diaspora British diaspora Boat people Greek diaspora Irish diaspora Jamaican diaspora Jewish diaspora Mexican diaspora Polonia Quebec diaspora Refugees of Iraq Romani diaspora Tamil diaspora Turkish diaspora Displaced person Ethnic cleansing Exodus Expatriate Human migration Immigration Population transfer Refugee Rural exodus Slave trade Ummah Citations and notes References Kantor, Mattis, The Jewish time line encyclopedia: a year-by-year history from Creation to the Present, (New updated edition), Jason Aronson, Northvale NJ, 1992 Barclay, John M. G., (ed.), Negotiating Diaspora: Jewish Strategies in the Roman Empire, Continuum International Publishing Group, 2004 Galil, Gershon, & Weinfeld, Moshe, Studies in Historical Geography and Biblical Historiography: Presented to Zekharyah Ḳalai, BRILL, 2000 Tetlow, Elisabeth Meier, Women, Crime, and Punishment in Ancient Law and Society, Continuum International Publishing Group, 2005 Cohen, Robin, Global Diasporas: An Introduction, University of Washington Press Seattle, 1997 Shain, Yossi, Kinship and Diasporas in International Politics, Michigan University Press, 2007 Braziel, Jana Evans. 2008. Diaspora - an introduction. Malden, MA: Blackwell. 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5,149 | Phonology | Phonology (from , phōnē, "voice, sound" and , lógos, "word, speech, subject of discussion") is the systematic use of sound to encode meaning in any spoken human language, or the field of linguistics studying this use. Just as a language has syntax and vocabulary, it also has a phonology in the sense of a sound system. When describing the formal area of study, the term typically describes linguistic analysis either beneath the word (e.g., syllable, onset and rime, phoneme, articulatory gesture, articulatory feature, mora, etc.) or to units at all levels of language that are thought to structure sound for conveying linguistic meaning. It is viewed as the subfield of linguistics that deals with the sound systems of languages. Whereas phonetics is about the physical production, acoustic transmission and perception of the sounds of speech, phonology describes the way sounds function within a given language or across languages to encode meaning. The term "phonology" was used in the linguistics of a greater part of the 20th century as a cover term uniting phonemics and phonetics. Current phonology can interface with disciplines such as psycholinguistics and speech perception, resulting in specific areas like articulatory or laboratory phonology. An important part of traditional forms of phonology has been studying which sounds can be grouped into distinctive units within a language; these units are known as phonemes. For example, in English, the [p] sound in pot is aspirated (pronounced ), while the word- and syllable-final [p] in soup is not aspirated (indeed, it might be realized as a glottal stop). However, English speakers intuitively treat both sounds as variations (allophones) of the same phonological category, that is, of the phoneme /p/. Traditionally, it would be argued that if a word-initial aspirated [p] were interchanged with the word-final unaspirated [p] in soup, they would still be perceived by native speakers of English as "the same" /p/. (However, speech perception findings now put this theory in doubt.) Although some sort of "sameness" of these two sounds holds in English, it is not universal and may be absent in other languages. For example, in Thai, Hindi, and Quechua, aspiration and non-aspiration differentiates phonemes: that is, there are word pairs that differ only in this feature (there are minimal pairs differing only in aspiration). In addition to the minimal units that can serve the purpose of differentiating meaning (the phonemes), phonology studies how sounds alternate, i.e. replace one another in different forms of the same morpheme (allomorphs), as well as, e.g., syllable structure, stress, accent, and intonation. The principles of phonological theory have also been applied to the analysis of sign languages, even though the sub-lexical units are not instantiated as speech sounds. The principles of phonological analysis can be applied independently of modality because they are designed to serve as general analytical tools, not language-specific ones. On the other hand, it must be noted, it is difficult to analyze phonologically a language one does not speak, and most phonological analysis takes place with recourse to phonetic information. Representing phonemes A diagram of the vocal tract The vowels of modern (Standard) Arabic and (Israeli) Hebrew from the phonemic point of view. Note the intersection of the two circles—the distinction between short a, i and u is made by both speakers, but Arabic lacks the mid articulation of short vowels, while Hebrew lacks the distinction of vowel length. The writing systems of some languages are based on the phonemic principle of having one letter (or combination of letters) per phoneme and vice-versa. Ideally, speakers can correctly write whatever they can say, and can correctly read anything that is written. However in English, different spellings can be used for the same phoneme (e.g., rude and food have the same vowel sounds), and the same letter (or combination of letters) can represent different phonemes (e.g., the "th" consonant sounds of thin and this are different). In order to avoid this confusion based on orthography, phonologists represent phonemes by writing them between two slashes: " / / ". On the other hand, reference to variations of phonemes or attempts at representing actual speech sounds are usually enclosed by square brackets: " [ ] ". While the letters between slashes may be based on spelling conventions, the letters between square brackets are usually the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) or some other phonetic transcription system. Additionally, angled brackets " " can be used to isolate the graphemes of an alphabetic writing system. Phoneme inventories Doing a phoneme inventory The vowels of modern (Standard) Arabic and (Israeli) Hebrew from the phonetic point of view. Note that the two circles are totally separate—none of the vowel-sounds made by speakers of one language are made by speakers of the other. One modern theory is that Israeli Hebrew's phonology reflects Yiddish elements, not Semitic ones. Part of the phonological study of a language involves looking at data (phonetic transcriptions of the speech of native speakers) and trying to deduce what the underlying phonemes are and what the sound inventory of the language is. Even though a language may make distinctions between a small number of phonemes, speakers actually produce many more phonetic sounds. Thus, a phoneme in a particular language can be instantiated in many ways. Traditionally, looking for minimal pairs forms part of the research in studying the phoneme inventory of a language. A minimal pair is a pair of words from the same language, that differ by only a single categorical sound, and that are recognized by speakers as being two different words. When there is a minimal pair, the two sounds are said to be examples of realizations of distinct phonemes. However, since it is often impossible to detect or agree to the existence of all the possible phonemes of a language with this method, other approaches are used as well. Phonemic distinctions or allophones If two similar sounds do not belong to separate phonemes, they are called allophones of the same underlying phoneme. For instance, voiceless stops () can be aspirated. In English, voiceless stops at the beginning of a stressed syllable (but not after ) are aspirated, whereas after they are not aspirated. This can be seen by putting the fingers right in front of the lips and noticing the difference in breathiness in saying pin versus spin. There is no English word pin that starts with an unaspirated p, therefore in English, aspirated (the means aspirated) and unaspirated are allophones of the same phoneme . The sounds in the words tub, stub, but, butter, and button are all pronounced differently in American English, yet are all intuited to be of "the same sound", therefore they constitute another example of allophones of the same phoneme in English. However, an intuition such as this could be interpreted as a function of post-lexical recognition of the sounds. That is, all are seen as examples of English /t/ once the word itself has been recognized. The findings and insights of speech perception and articulation research complicates this idea of interchangeable allophones being perceived as the same phoneme, no matter how attractive it might be for linguists who wish to rely on the intuitions of native speakers. First, interchanged allophones of the same phoneme can result in unrecognizable words. Second, actual speech, even at a word level, is highly co-articulated, so it is problematic to think that one can splice words into simple segments without affecting speech perception. In other words, interchanging allophones is a nice idea for intuitive linguistics, but it turns out that this idea can not transcend what co-articulation actually does to spoken sounds. Yet human speech perception is so robust and versatile (happening under various conditions) because, in part, it can deal with such co-articulation. There are different methods for determining why allophones should fall categorically under a specified phoneme. Counter-intuitively, the principle of phonetic similarity is not always used. This tends to make the phoneme seem abstracted away from the phonetic realities of speech. It should be remembered that, just because allophones can be grouped under phonemes for the purpose of linguistic analysis, this does not necessarily mean that this is an actual process in the way the human brain processes a language. On the other hand, it could be pointed out that some sort of analytic notion of a language beneath the word level is usual if the language is written alphabetically. So one could also speak of a phonology of reading and writing. Change of a phoneme inventory over time The particular sounds which are phonemic in a language can change over time. At one time, and were allophones in English, but these later changed into separate phonemes. This is one of the main factors of historical change of languages as described in historical linguistics. Other topics in phonology Phonology also includes topics such as phonotactics (the phonological constraints on what sounds can appear in what positions in a given language) and phonological alternation (how the pronunciation of a sound changes through the application of phonological rules, sometimes in a given order which can be feeding or bleeding, Goldsmith 1995:1. as well as prosody, the study of suprasegmentals and topics such as stress and intonation. Development of the field In ancient India, the Sanskrit grammarian (c. 520–460 BC) in his text of Sanskrit phonology, the Shiva Sutras, discusses something like the concepts of the phoneme, the morpheme and the root. The Shiva Sutras describe a phonemic notational system in the fourteen initial lines of the . The notational system introduces different clusters of phonemes that serve special roles in the morphology of Sanskrit, and are referred to throughout the text. Panini's grammar of Sanskrit had a significant influence on Ferdinand de Saussure, the father of modern structuralism, who was a professor of Sanskrit. The Polish scholar Jan Baudouin de Courtenay, (together with his former student Mikołaj Kruszewski) coined the word phoneme in 1876, and his work, though often unacknowledged, is considered to be the starting point of modern phonology. He worked not only on the theory of the phoneme but also on phonetic alternations (i.e., what is now called allophony and morphophonology). His influence on Ferdinand de Saussure was also significant. Prince Nikolai Trubetzkoy's posthumously published work, the Principles of Phonology (1939), is considered the foundation of the Prague School of phonology. Directly influenced by Baudouin de Courtenay, Trubetzkoy is considered the founder of morphophonology, though morphophonology was first recognized by Baudouin de Courtenay. Trubetzkoy split phonology into phonemics and archiphonemics; the former has had more influence than the latter. Another important figure in the Prague School was Roman Jakobson, who was one of the most prominent linguists of the twentieth century. In 1968 Noam Chomsky and Morris Halle published The Sound Pattern of English (SPE), the basis for Generative Phonology. In this view, phonological representations are sequences of segments made up of distinctive features. These features were an expansion of earlier work by Roman Jakobson, Gunnar Fant, and Morris Halle. The features describe aspects of articulation and perception, are from a universally fixed set, and have the binary values + or -. There are at least two levels of representation: underlying representation and surface phonetic representation. Ordered phonological rules govern how underlying representation is transformed into the actual pronunciation (the so called surface form). An important consequence of the influence SPE had on phonological theory was the downplaying of the syllable and the emphasis on segments. Furthermore, the Generativists folded morphophonology into phonology, which both solved and created problems. Natural Phonology was a theory based on the publications of its proponent David Stampe in 1969 and (more explicitly) in 1979. In this view, phonology is based on a set of universal phonological processes which interact with one another; which ones are active and which are suppressed are language-specific. Rather than acting on segments, phonological processes act on distinctive features within prosodic groups. Prosodic groups can be as small as a part of a syllable or as large as an entire utterance. Phonological processes are unordered with respect to each other and apply simultaneously (though the output of one process may be the input to another). The second-most prominent Natural Phonologist is Stampe's wife, Patricia Donegan; there are many Natural Phonologists in Europe, though also a few others in the U.S., such as Geoffrey Pullum. The principles of Natural Phonology were extended to morphology by Wolfgang U. Dressler, who founded Natural Morphology. In 1976 John Goldsmith introduced autosegmental phonology. Phonological phenomena are no longer seen as operating on one linear sequence of segments, called phonemes or feature combinations, but rather as involving some parallel sequences of features which reside on multiple tiers. Autosegmental phonology later evolved into Feature Geometry, which became the standard theory of representation for the theories of the organization of phonology as different as Lexical Phonology and Optimality Theory. Government Phonology, which originated in the early 1980s as an attempt to unify theoretical notions of syntactic and phonological structures, is based on the notion that all languages necessarily follow a small set of principles and vary according to their selection of certain binary parameters. That is, all languages' phonological structures are essentially the same, but there is restricted variation that accounts for differences in surface realizations. Principles are held to be inviolable, though parameters may sometimes come into conflict. Prominent figures include Jonathan Kaye, Jean Lowenstamm, Jean-Roger Vergnaud, Monik Charette, John Harris, and many others. In a course at the LSA summer institute in 1991, Alan Prince and Paul Smolensky developed Optimality Theory — an overall architecture for phonology according to which languages choose a pronunciation of a word that best satisfies a list of constraints which is ordered by importance: a lower-ranked constraint can be violated when the violation is necessary in order to obey a higher-ranked constraint. The approach was soon extended to morphology by John McCarthy and Alan Prince, and has become the dominant trend in phonology. Though this usually goes unacknowledged, Optimality Theory was strongly influenced by Natural Phonology; both view phonology in terms of constraints on speakers and their production, though these constraints are formalized in very different ways. Broadly speaking Government Phonology (or its descendant, strict-CV phonology) has a greater following in the United Kingdom, whereas Optimality Theory is predominant in North America. See also Absolute neutralisation Cherology English phonology Morphophonology Phoneme Phonological hierarchy Prosody (linguistics) Notes Bibliography Anderson, John M.; and Ewen, Colin J. (1987). Principles of dependency phonology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Bloch, Bernard. (1941). Phonemic overlapping. American Speech, 16, 278-284. Bloomfield, Leonard. (1933). Language. New York: H. Holt and Company. (Revised version of Bloomfield's 1914 An introduction to the study of language). Brentari, Diane (1998). A prosodic model of sign language phonology. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Chomsky, Noam. (1964). Current issues in linguistic theory. In J. A. Fodor and J. J. Katz (Eds.), The structure of language: Readings in the philosophy language (pp. 91-112). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Chomsky, Noam; and Halle, Morris. (1968). The sound pattern of English. New York: Harper & Row. Clements, George N. (1985). The geometry of phonological features. Phonology Yearbook, 2, 225-252. Clements, George N.; and Samuel J. Keyser. (1983). CV phonology: A generative theory of the syllable. Linguistic inquiry monographs (No. 9). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-53047-3 (pbk); ISBN 0-262-03098-5 (hbk). de Lacy, Paul. (2007). The Cambridge Handbook of Phonology. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-84879-2 (hbk). Firth, J. R. (1948). Sounds and prosodies. Transactions of the Philological Society 1948, 127-152. Gilbers, Dicky; and de Hoop, Helen. (1998). Conflicting constraints: An introduction to optimality theory. Lingua, 104, 1-12. Goldsmith, John A. (1979). The aims of autosegmental phonology. In D. A. Dinnsen (Ed.), Current approaches to phonological theory (pp. 202-222). Bloomington: Indiana University Press. Goldsmith, John A. (1989). Autosegmental and metrical phonology: A new synthesis. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. Gussenhoven, Carlos & Jacobs, Haike. "Understanding Phonology", Hodder & Arnold, 1998. 2nd edition 2005. Halle, Morris. (1954). The strategy of phonemics. Word, 10, 197-209. Halle, Morris. (1959). The sound pattern of Russian. The Hague: Mouton. Harris, Zellig. (1951). Methods in structural linguistics. Chicago: Chicago University Press. Hockett, Charles F. (1955). A manual of phonology. Indiana University publications in anthropology and linguistics, memoirs II. Baltimore: Waverley Press. Hooper, Joan B. (1976). An introduction to natural generative phonology. New York: Academic Press. Jakobson, Roman. (1949). On the identification of phonemic entities. Travaux du Cercle Linguistique de Copenhague, 5, 205-213. Jakobson, Roman; Fant, Gunnar; and Halle, Morris. (1952). Preliminaries to speech analysis: The distinctive features and their correlates. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Kaisse, Ellen M.; and Shaw, Patricia A. (1985). On the theory of lexical phonology. In E. Colin and J. Anderson (Eds.), Phonology Yearbook 2 (pp. 1-30). Kenstowicz, Michael. Phonology in generative grammar. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. Ladefoged, Peter. (1982). A course in phonetics (2nd ed.). London: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. Martinet, André. (1949). Phonology as functional phonetics. Oxford: Blackwell. Martinet, André. (1955). Économie des changements phonétiques: Traité de phonologie diachronique. Berne: A. Francke S.A. Napoli, Donna Jo (1996. Linguistics: An Introduction. New York: Oxford University Press. Pike, Kenneth. (1947). Phonemics: A technique for reducing languages to writing. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. Sapir, Edward. (1925). Sound patterns in language. Language, 1, 37-51. Sapir, Edward. (1933). La réalité psychologique des phonémes. Journal de Psychologie Normale et Pathologique, 30, 247-265. de Saussure, Ferdinand. (1916). Cours de linguistique générale. Paris: Payot. Stampe, David. (1979). A dissertation on natural phonology. New York: Garland. Swadesh, Morris. (1934). The phonemic principle. Language, 10, 117-129. Trager, George L.; and Bloch, Bernard. (1941). The syllabic phonemes of English. Language, 17, 223-246. Trubetzkoy, Nikolai. (1939). Grundzüge der Phonologie. Travaux du Cercle Linguistique de Prague 7. Twaddell, William F. (1935). On defining the phoneme. Language monograph no. 16. Language. Some phonologists Jan Baudouin de Courtenay Leonard Bloomfield Franz Boas Noam Chomsky George N. Clements Patricia Donegan John Rupert Firth John Goldsmith Mark Hale Morris Halle Bruce Hayes Joan B. Hooper William Idsardi Roman Jakobson Wyn Johnson Daniel Jones Jonathan Kaye (Linguist) Michael Kenstowicz Paul Kiparsky Mikołaj Kruszewski Jerzy Kuryłowicz André Martinet John McCarthy David Odden Kenneth Pike Alan Prince Charles Reiss Jerzy Rubach Edward Sapir Ferdinand de Saussure Paul Smolensky David Stampe Henry Sweet Nikolai Trubetzkoy Phonology conferences Manchester Phonology Meeting North American Phonology Conference External links What is phonology? What is autosegmental phonology? What is generative phonology? What is lexical phonology? What is metrical phonology? What is a phonological derivation? What is phonological hierarchy? What is phonological symmetry? What is a phonological universal? Metrical phonology Generative phonology: Its origins, its principles, and its successors (by John Goldsmith) On-line phonology course (of English) Another on-line phonology course dealing with English using large amounts of Macromedia Flash interaction. phonoblog Variation in the English Indefinite Article: A humorous article demonstrating the importance of phonology (as opposed to merely syntax and semantics) in linguistic analysis. | Phonology |@lemmatized phonology:62 phōnē:1 voice:1 sound:33 lógos:1 word:19 speech:14 subject:1 discussion:1 systematic:1 use:8 encode:2 meaning:4 spoken:1 human:3 language:41 field:2 linguistics:9 study:8 syntax:2 vocabulary:1 also:8 sense:1 system:7 describe:6 formal:1 area:2 term:4 typically:1 linguistic:6 analysis:7 either:1 beneath:2 e:7 g:4 syllable:7 onset:1 rime:1 phoneme:37 articulatory:3 gesture:1 feature:11 mora:1 etc:1 unit:5 level:4 think:2 structure:5 convey:1 view:6 subfield:1 deal:3 whereas:3 phonetics:4 physical:1 production:2 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5,150 | European_Free_Alliance | The European Free Alliance (EFA) is a European political party. It consists of various European political parties which advocate either full political independence (statehood), or some form of devolution or self-government for their country or region. The alliance has generally limited its membership to progressive parties. Therefore not all European regionalist parties are members of EFA. It participates in the European Greens–European Free Alliance in the European Parliament. Their youth wing is EFAY. History Since the 1979 European Parliament election regionalists and separatists have been represented in the European Parliament. In that election five regionalist parties got seats: the Northern-Irish Social Democratic and Labour Party, the Scottish National Party, the Flemish People's Union (VU), the Waloon Democratic Front of Francophones (FDF) and the South Tyrolean People's Party won seats. The SNP, although being a social-democratic party, joined the European Progressive Democrats, which was led by the Gaullist Rally for the Republic, the SDLP the Socialist Group, VU and FDF the Technical Group of Independents, which comprised both conservative and left-wing MEPs, and the SVP joined the group of the European People's Party. In 1981 several European regionalist parties joined together to form a pan-European political alliance, called the "European Free Alliance". It was not until the 1989 European Parliament election that the EFA members formed a united group in the European Parliament. Before the regionalists had been seated divided, with the SNP with the Gaullist European Democratic Alliance, VU, the Valdotanian Union and the Basque Nationalist Party in the Rainbow Group, together with green parties, and Batasuna sat among non-iscrits. In 1989 the regionalists, including EFA-members, formed a group called the Rainbow Group as well. It consisted out of three Italian MEPs (for Lega Nord and the Sardinian Action Party), two Spanish MEPs (for the Basque Nationalist Party and the Andalusian Party), one Belgian MEP (for VU), one French MEP (for the Union of the Corsican People, one British MEP (for the SNP) and one Irish MEP (an independent). They were joined by 4 MEPs from the left-wing Danish Eurosceptic People's Movement against the EU, while all the other regionalist MEPs, including those of the SDLP, the SVP and the Convergence and Union of Catalonia refused to join EFA. In the 1994 European Parliament election the regionalists lost considerably. Moreover they had suspended the membership of Lega Nord for entering in a government with the post-fascist National Alliance and the Basque Nationalist Party had joined the European People's Party. The three remaining EFA-members in the Parliament (SNP, VU and Canarian Coalition) formed a common group with the Energie Radicale-list. This group was called European Radical Alliance. Following the 1999 European Parliament election the EFA-members in parliament formed a common group with the European Greens called European Greens–European Free Alliance. The EFA supplied ten members from the Scottish National Party (2 MEPs), the Welsh Plaid Cymru (2), the Flemish People's Union (2), the Basque Nationalist Party (1), Basque Solidarity (1), the Andalusian Party (1) and the Galician Nationalist Bloc (1). In the 2004 European Parliament election the EFA was reduced to four MEPs (two of the SNP, one of Plaid Cymru and one of the Republican Left of Catalonia, replaced at the mid-term by a MEP of Basque Solidarity) plus two affiliate members. The cooperation between and the Greens was continued. In 2004 the EFA became a European political party. Ideology In the Brussels Declaration of 2000 the EFA codified its political principles. The EFA stands for "a Europe of Free Peoples based on the principle of subsidiarity, which believe in solidarity with each other and the peoples of the world." Statutes of EFA The EFA sees itself as an alliance of stateless peoples, which are striving towards independence or autonomy. It supports European integration on basis of the subsidiarity-principle. It believes however that Europe should move away from further centralization. It works towards the formation of a Europe of Regions. It believes that regions should have more power in Europe, for in stance participate in the Council of the European Union, when matters within their competence are discussed. It also wants to protect the linguistic and cultural diversity within the European Union. The EFA stands on the left of the political spectrum, and in the Brussels declaration it emphasizes the protection of human rights, sustainable development and social justice. In 2007 the EFA congress in Bilbao added several progressive principles to the declaration: including a commitment to fight against racism, antisemitism, discrimination, xenophobia and islamophobia and a commitment to get full citizenship for migrants, including voting rights. EFA members are generally progressive parties, although there are some notable exceptions such as the Christian-democratic Party of German-speaking Belgians, the conservative Bavaria Party, the centre-right Liga Veneta Repubblica and the far right South Tyrolean Freedom. Organization The main organs of the EFA organization are the General Assembly, the Bureau and the Secretariat. In the General Assembly every member party has one vote. It is the supreme council of the EFA. Only member parties can participate in the EFA. The EFA also has observers. Before becoming member a party needs to have been observer of the EFA for at least one year. Only one member party per region is allowed. If a second party from a region wants to join the first party needs to agree, these two parties will then form a common delegation with one vote. The EFA also recognizes friends of the EFA, a special status for regionalist parties outside of the European Union. The Bureau takes care of daily affairs. It is chaired by Nelly Maes, a former MEP for the FlemishProgressives. Jill Evans (Plaid Cymru), Gustave Alirol (Occitan Party) and Fabrizio Comencini (Liga Veneta Repubblica) are vice-chairpersons. Joan i Mari Bernat (Republican Left of Catalonia is secretary-general), while François Alfonsi (Party of the Corsican Nation) is treasurer. Other members of the Bureau are Ana Miranda Paz (Galician Nationalist Bloc), Alyn Smith (Scottish National Party), Sybren Posthumus (Frisian National Party), Irujo Amezaga (Basque Solidarity), Pavlos Voskopoulos (Macedonian Movement for Balkan Prosperity) and Rolf Granlund (Future of Åland). Members Current state(s)PartySeeking torepresent Joined(Observer/Member [www.sybrenposthumus.com/images/europasche_freie_allianz_efa_-_2_copy1.ppt Wass ist EFA?] ) MEPsUnity List Carinthian Slovenes2005/2006 0Party of German-speaking BelgiansGerman speakers1981 0Social Liberal Party1981 0United Macedonian Organisation Macedonians2006/2007 0Moravians2006 0Future of Åland2005/2006 0Savoyard League Savoie1999/2000 0Savoy Region Movement Savoie 1991 0 Occitan Party1982 0Party of the Corsican Nation 1981 0Breton Democratic Union1987 0Union of the Alsatian People1991 0Catalan Unity Northern Catalonia 1991 0Bavaria Party2007/2008 0The Friesen East Frisia2008/2009 0Rainbow Macedonians1999/2000 0South Tyrolean Freedom 2009 0Emilian Free Alliance Emilia1999/2000 0Liga Veneta Repubblica1999/2000 0Sardinian Action Party1984 0Slovene Union Slovenes 1991 0Lithuanian Polish People's Party Poles2003/2004 0Frisian National Party1981 0Silesian Autonomy Movement Silesia2002/2003 0Party of Regions of SlovakiaPrešov and Košice2008/2009Galician Nationalist Bloc1994/2000 0Aragonese Junta2003/2004 0Majorca Socialist Party 2000/2008 0 / Republican Left of Catalonia Catalan Countries1989 0 / Basque Solidarity1986 1 (Mikel Irujo, for Spain)Andalusian Party1999 0Mebyon Kernow2003 0Plaid Cymru1983 1 (Jillian Evans)Scottish National Party1989 2 (Ian Hudghton and Alyn Smith) MEP Tatjana Ždanoka (Latvia) and László Tőkés (Romania) both also sit in the EFA subgroup. They are both individual affiliates of the EFA subgroup, as Ždanoka's party For Human Rights in United Latvia is not a member of EFA and Tőkés is an independent. Observer members Current state(s)PartySeeking torepresent JoinedList for Fiume Rijeka 2009South Schleswig Voter Federation Danes2009Wendish People's Party Sorbs2009Valdotanian Renewal 2007Movement for the Independence of Sicily 2009 Former members Current state(s)PartySeeking torepresent NotesLega Nord Suspended in 1994, left in 1996 / Basque Nationalist PartyLeft in 2004Valdotanian Union Expelled in 2007 after lack of activity in EFA structuresUnion for South TyrolExpelled in 2008 over its opposition to the Bilbao declarationTransilvania–Banat League Transylvania and BanatCeased activityHungarian Federalist Party HungariansCeased activity Non-members Several prominent regional, regionalist, secessionist or minority parties are not a member of EFA. These include: Vlaams Belang, non-inscrit New-Flemish Alliance, EPP–ED Democratic Front of Francophones, ELDR Movement for Rights and Freedoms, ELDR Istrian Democratic Assembly, ELDR Swedish People's Party, ELDR Christian Social Union of Bavaria, EPP Lega Nord, left in 1996, later ELDR, IND/DEM and now UEN Liga Veneta Lega Lombarda minor "national" sections Valdotanian Union, expelled from EFA in 2007 Edelweiss Aosta Valley Autonomist Federation South Tyrolean People's Party, EPP–ED Union for South Tyrol, expelled from EFA in 2008 The Libertarians Union for Trentino Trentino Tyrolean Autonomist Party North-East Project Sardinian Reformers Movement for Autonomy, EPP–ED For Human Rights in United Latvia, whose MEP sits with EFA Democratic Union of Hungarians in Romania, EPP Party of the Hungarian Coalition, EPP Basque Nationalist Party, formerly EPP, then EFA until 2004 and now EDP Democratic Convergence of Catalonia, ELDR Democratic Union of Catalonia, EPP–ED Initiative for Catalonia Greens, EGP Canarian Coalition Valencian Nationalist Bloc Aragonese Party Regionalist Party of Cantabria Sinn Féin, EUL–NGL Social Democratic and Labour Party, PES References External links European Free Alliance website European Free Alliance (EFA) Manifesto for the June 2004 European elections The Greens-European Free Alliance Group in the European Parliament European Free Alliance Youth EFAY | European_Free_Alliance |@lemmatized european:36 free:10 alliance:16 efa:35 political:7 party:51 consist:2 various:1 advocate:1 either:1 full:2 independence:3 statehood:1 form:7 devolution:1 self:1 government:2 country:1 region:7 generally:2 limit:1 membership:2 progressive:4 therefore:1 regionalist:7 member:20 participate:3 green:7 parliament:11 youth:2 wing:3 efay:2 history:1 since:1 election:7 regionalists:4 separatist:1 represent:1 five:1 get:2 seat:3 northern:2 irish:2 social:5 democratic:12 labour:2 scottish:4 national:8 flemish:3 people:14 union:16 vu:5 waloon:1 front:2 francophones:2 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5,151 | Motorola_6800 | Motorola 6800 Microprocessor The 6800 is an 8-bit microprocessor produced by Motorola and released shortly after the Intel 8080 in late 1974. "We introduced our M6800 microprocessor system late in 1974 and it gained broad industry acceptance in 1975." It had 78 instructions, including the (in)famous, undocumented Halt and Catch Fire (HCF) bus test instruction. Halt and Catch Fire instruction. It may have been the first microprocessor with an index register. It was usually packaged in a 40 pin DIP (dual-inline package). Several first-generation microcomputers of the 1970s, available by mail order as kits or in assembled form, used the 6800 as their CPU; examples are the MEK6800D2 development board, the SWTPC 6800 (the first computer to use the 6800), the MITS Altair 680 range (MITS offered these as alternatives to its Altair 8800 which used the Intel 8080), several of the Ohio Scientific designs, Gimix, Smoke Signal Broadcasting, Midwest Scientific, and the Newbear 77-68. The 4051, a professional grade desktop graphical system intended for user programming in BASIC, was manufactured and sold by Tektronix. This integrated a 6800 processor, memory card, storage display tube, keyboard, and magnetic tape cassette in a single unit and employed an external thermal imaging printer for hard copy. The 6800 'fathered' several descendants, the pinnacle being the greatly extended and semi-compatible 6809, which was used in the Vectrex video game console and the TRS-80 Color Computer, among several others. There are also many microcontrollers descended from the 6800 architecture, such as the Motorola 6801/6803, 6805, RS08, 68HC08, 68HC11 and 68HC12. Hitachi, Ltd. acted as a second source for many of Motorola's CPUs, and also produced its own derivatives including the 6301 and 6303, which could run 6800 code. These microprocessors also had a couple of extra instructions added to their instruction sets. Competitor MOS Technology came up with an architectural relative of the 6800, with its 6502 ('lawsuit compatible' MPU) and its successors. The 6502 did not have the 16 bit registers of the 6800, but had more addressing modes and was substantially cheaper. The 6502 was used in many computers and game consoles during the late 1970s and early-to-mid-1980s (most notably the Atari 2600, Atari 400/800, Apple II, the Commodore PET, VIC-20 and Commodore 64, the Acorn Electron/BBC Microcomputer, and the Nintendo Entertainment System/NES). The 6800, used in the Sphere 1 personal computer, was supplanted by the Motorola 68000, used in large numbers in the Apple Macintosh family before the introduction of the PowerPC, a RISC technology developed by IBM and produced jointly with Motorola. Programming model 7 A 0 7 B 0 15 X 0 15 PC 0 <tr> <td> <table width="100%" style="border: 1px solid; border-color: #000000; background-color: #00CCFF" cellspacing="0"> 15 SP 0 </td> </tr> 7 CCR 0 </table> A - Accumulator A B - Accumulator B X - Index register PC - Program Counter SP - Stack Pointer CCR - Conditional Code Register: Half carry, Interrupt mask, Negative, Zero, oVerflow and Carry The 6800 is a standard "8-bit" 2's complement microprocessor, like the Intel 8080. It supports 8-bit bytes, 16-bit addresses and 64KB of memory. Like the 8080, code can be placed in ROM. This is an important feature compared to some of the minicomputers of the time, especially the PDP-8, which used a linked-list embedded in the code for subroutine linkage. The 6800 had a 16-bit stack pointer, so the stack can be located anywhere and can grow to any length up to the size of the memory. Compare this with the 6502 which had only an 8-bit stack pointer and which mapped the stack into the second page (addresses 256 - 511). Like the 8080, the 6800 supports multi-precision arithmetic using a carry flag and the ADC (add with carry) and SBC (subtract with carry) instructions. Decimal arithmetic is supported in a fashion similar to the 8080: there is a DAA (decimal adjust accumulator) instruction, which corrects the result of the 2's complement ADD on two packed decimal digits. Unlike the 6502, the 6800 also provided add and subtract without carry (ADD and SUB instructions). Arithmetic instructions set the usual 2's complement flags: Sign, Zero, oVerflow and Carry. Unlike the 8080 and the 6502, the 6800 had a complete set of branch instructions, basically identical to those provided on the PDP-11, for comparing both signed and unsigned quantities. For example, if you want to compare i with j, then load i into an accumulator (LDAA i), compare or subtract with j (CMPA j or SUBA j) and then branch: BEQ - Branch if i equals j BNE - Branch if i does not equal j BHI - Branch if i is greater than j (unsigned) BHS - Branch if i is higher or same as j (unsigned) BLO - Branch if i is lower than j (unsigned) BLS - Branch if i is lower than or equal to j (unsigned) BGT - Branch if i is greater than j (signed) BGE - Branch if i is greater than or equal to j (signed) BLT - Branch if i is less than j (signed) BLE - Branch if i is less than or equal to j (signed) BPL - Branch if plus (positive or zero) BMI - Branch if minus (negative) BCC - Branch if Carry clear (same as BHS) BCS - Branch if Carry set (same as BLO) BVS - Branch if oVerflow set BVC - Branch if oVerflow clear BRA - Branch always Unlike the PDP-11, 6502 and 8080 the 6800 was big endian, as was the IBM 360. Unlike the PDP-11 and 6502, but like the 8080, the 6800 used borrow carry: the carry flag is set on a borrow during subtraction instead of clear. Unlike the 8080 and especially the PDP-8, but like the PDP-11, the 6800 had no special purpose I/O instructions. Instead, all I/O devices share the same address space as memory. Unlike the 8080, the 6800 had indexing, which allowed it to directly support data structures. The base address of a data structure is loaded into the index register, and then an 8-bit unsigned offset from the second byte of indexing instructions is added to it to read different items from the structure. The 6800 had four addressing modes: immediate, indexed, extended and direct (or zero-page). The zero-page mode allows faster direct access to the first 256 bytes of memory and is similar to the zero-page mode of the PDP-8. The zero-page can be thought of as an extension of the register set, an idea taken much further with the zero-page indirect modes of the 6502. The instruction set mnemonics owe a great deal to the PDP-11, and are burned into the brains of many assembly language programmers and computer architects. Many CPUs, including the ARM remained close to the form of the 6800 mnemonics. 6800 Bus Like the 8080, the 6800 defines a bus and was the center of a family of peripheral ICs, see the table below. The bus was particularly simple: peripherals generally needed just three control signals in addition to the address and data lines: Φ2 or E (from MC6802): a clock cycle is defined as two successive falling edges of E. R/W a read cycle if high, or a write cycle if low. CS chip select if low (decoded from address lines and VMA). The bus was clocked: setup and hold times are relative to falling edge of clock E. The 8080 bus was strobe signal based: setup and hold times are specified relative to the rising edges of MEM_RD, MEM_WR, IO_RD and IO_WR, which are signals generated by the 8228 system controller chip. 6800 systems could be simpler as they did not depend on such a system controller chip for memory timing. Clocking, Power There were three speed grades: 6800 ran at 1 MHz, 68A00 ran at 1.5 MHz and 68B00 ran at 2 MHz. Instructions took between 2 (for LDAA immediate) to 12 (for SWI) cycles. Like the 4004, 4040, 8008, and 8080, the 6800 required two non-overlapping clock inputs: Φ1 and Φ2. The clocks must not overlap to prevent races in transparent latch-based designs: latches which feed each other must not both be transparent at the same time. The 6800 used dynamic logic: the maximum high time for Φ1 and Φ2 was 9.5 μs. Several companion chips were available to generate these clocks: the MC6870 (built-in crystal), MC6871 (built-in crystal with clock stretching logic for slow devices) and MC6875 (external crystal, clock stretching and reset synchronizer). The MC6802 was a 6800 with a built-in clock generator. A crystal could be directly connected to the chip. The MC6802 also had 128 bytes of RAM built-in and was intended to be used with an MC6846 for a complete two-chip microcomputer. The 6800 required just a single 5V supply. This made it more appealing than the 8080, which required +12V, +5V and -5V. Criticisms There are a number of problems which were remedied in later devices, such as the 6809 and 6811: Only one pointer register. Although the stack pointer can be used in tight copy loops, it is awkward and interrupts have to be disabled for this trick. The 6800's most important competitor, the 8080, had three pointers (but no indexing). Stack instructions use post-decrement on push and pre-increment on pop instead of the more natural post-increment on pop and pre-decrement on push (SP pointing at the top element). This shows up when the stack pointer is transferred to the index register: the first thing on the stack is at offset 1. The index register can not be directly pushed or popped from the stack. The accumulators and index registers occupy different spaces and thus there are no instructions to transfer or operate between the two. For example there is no way to directly add an accumulator or even a constant to the index register. Later processors remedied this by adding the "ABX" (add B to X) and "LEA" (load effective address) instructions. The CPX (compare X) instruction does not affect the Carry flag, so direct magnitude comparisons with the index register are not possible. The DAA (decimal adjust) instruction only worked after addition, and not subtraction. To subtract packed decimal, one had to use 9's complement followed by addition. Other microprocessors solved this problem in various ways: The 6502 had a decimal mode bit: when set both the normal addition and subtraction instructions operated on packed decimal. The Z80 had a subtraction bit in its status flags. If the last operation was a subtraction, this bit was set to let the decimal adjust instruction know to operate differently. The 8086 simply had a DAS (decimal adjust for subtraction) instruction. Designers It's not clear if there was a chief architect. Some of the 6800 designers went on to join MOS Technology where they created the 6502. These included Chuck Peddle and Bill Mensch. Bill Mensch designed the MC6820. Development Systems The Motorola Exorciser was a development system available for the 6800. It used plug in cards with 86-pin edge connectors and ran MDOS (Motorola Disk Operating System) off of 8 in. floppy disks. MIKBUG was an early debugger in ROM. It allowed loading of memory from paper tape using the S19 format. RASM was the relocatable assembler available on MDOS. MPL "Motorola Programming Language" was a PL/M like PL/I clone. Peripheral ICs MC6810 128 bytes of RAM MC6818 Real Time Clock (used in IBM PC/AT) MC6820/6821 "PIA" Peripheral Interface Adapter (GPIO / parallel port) MC6828 "PIC" Priority Interrupt Controller MC6830 1024 bytes of ROM (frequently loaded with MIKBUG) MC6840 Counter/Timer MC6843 Floppy disk controller MC6844 DMA controller MC6845 CRT Controller (used in MDA, CGA and EGA) MC6846 ROM + Counter/Timer + GPIO MC6847 Video Display Generator MC6850 "ACIA" Asynchronous Communications Interface Adapter ("async" serial port) MC6852 "SSDA" Synchronous Serial Data Adapter (can be used for floppy disk serialization) MC6854 "ADLC" Advanced Data Link Controller (HDLC/SDLC serial communications) MC6860 Low speed FSK modem MC6883 "SAM" Synchronous Address Multiplexer (DMA and DRAM controller for MC6847) See also Motorola 68000 Freescale 68HC11 Motorola 6809 References External links MC6800 applications manual from 1975- lots of information MDOS User's Manual Motorol Exorciser Emulator MIKBUG 680x images and descriptions at cpu-collection.de Instruction set summary Java Applet Simulator of a simplified M6800 Microprocessor | Motorola_6800 |@lemmatized motorola:11 microprocessor:8 bit:11 produce:3 release:1 shortly:1 intel:3 late:5 introduce:1 system:9 gain:1 broad:1 industry:1 acceptance:1 instruction:23 include:4 famous:1 undocumented:1 halt:2 catch:2 fire:2 hcf:1 bus:6 test:1 may:1 first:5 index:9 register:12 usually:1 package:2 pin:2 dip:1 dual:1 inline:1 several:5 generation:1 microcomputer:3 available:4 mail:1 order:1 kit:1 assembled:1 form:2 use:20 cpu:4 example:3 development:3 board:1 swtpc:1 computer:5 mit:2 altair:2 range:1 offer:1 alternative:1 ohio:1 scientific:2 design:3 gimix:1 smoke:1 signal:4 broadcasting:1 midwest:1 newbear:1 professional:1 grade:2 desktop:1 graphical:1 intend:2 user:2 programming:1 basic:1 manufacture:1 sell:1 tektronix:1 integrate:1 processor:2 memory:7 card:2 storage:1 display:2 tube:1 keyboard:1 magnetic:1 tape:2 cassette:1 single:2 unit:1 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5,152 | Newfoundland_and_Labrador | Newfoundland and Labrador (; ) is a province of Canada, on the country's Atlantic coast in northeastern North America. This easternmost Canadian province comprises two main parts: the island of Newfoundland off the country's eastern coast, and Labrador on the mainland to the northwest of the island. A former colony and dominion of the United Kingdom, it became the tenth province to enter the Canadian Confederation on 31 March 1949, named simply as Newfoundland. Since 1964, the province's government has referred to itself as the Government of Newfoundland and Labrador, and on 6 December 2001, an amendment was made to the Constitution of Canada to change the province's official name to Newfoundland and Labrador. Proclamation: Constitutional Amendment 2001 (Newfoundland and Labrador) In day-to-day conversation, however, Canadians generally still refer to the province itself as Newfoundland and to the region on the Canadian mainland as Labrador. As of January 2009, the province's population is estimated to be 508,990. Approximately 94% of the province's population resides on the Island of Newfoundland (including its associated smaller islands). The Island of Newfoundland has its own dialects of the English, French, and Irish languages. The English dialect in Labrador shares much with that of Newfoundland. Labrador also has its own dialects of Innu-aimun and Inuit. Etymology While the name Newfoundland is derived from English as "New Found Land" (a translation from the Latin Terra Nova), Labrador comes from the Portuguese lavrador, a title meaning "landholder/ploughman" held by Portuguese explorer of the region João Fernandes Lavrador. History Human inhabitation in Newfoundland and Labrador can be traced back over 9,000 years to the people of the Maritime Archaic Tradition. They were gradually displaced by the Palaeoeskimo people of the Dorset Culture and finally by the Innu and Inuit in Labrador and the Beothuks on the island. The oldest known European contact was made over a thousand years ago when the Vikings briefly settled in L'Anse aux Meadows. Five hundred years later, European explorers (John Cabot, Gaspar Corte-Real, Jacques Cartier, and others), fishermen from England, Ireland, Portugal, France and Spain and Basque whalers (the remains of several whaling stations have been found at Red Bay, Newfoundland and Labrador) began exploration and exploitation of the area. The overseas expansion of British Empire began when Sir Humphrey Gilbert took possession of Newfoundland in the name of England in 1583. Apart from St.John's, which was already established, early settlements were started at Cupids, Ferryland and other places. The Newfoundland Red Ensign was an unofficial commercial ensign from 1904 to 1931. During its history Newfoundland and Labrador have had many forms of government, including a time as the Dominion of Newfoundland, equivalent in status to Canada and Australia. Newfoundland and Labrador became the tenth province of Canada on 31 March 1949. Newfoundland has been a battleground in numerous early wars among Great Britain, France, Spain and even the United States. The Royal Newfoundland Regiment fought with distinction in World War I. Numerous bases were built in Newfoundland and Labrador by Canada and the United States during World War II, particularly to safeguard the Atlantic convoys to Europe. Politics of the province were dominated by the Liberal Party, led by Joseph R. Smallwood, from confederation until 1972. In 1972, the Smallwood government was replaced by the Progressive Conservative administration of Frank Moores. In 1979, Brian Peckford, another Progressive Conservative, became Premier. During this time, Newfoundland was involved in a dispute with the federal government for control of offshore oil resources. In the end, the dispute was decided by compromise. In 1989, Clyde Wells and the Liberal Party returned to power ending 17 years of Conservative government. Newfoundland and Canadian Government delegation signing the agreement admitting Newfoundland to confederation in December 1948. Prime Minister Louis St. Laurent and Albert Walsh shake hands following signing of agreement. In the late 1980s, the federal government, along with its Crown corporation Petro-Canada and other private sector petroleum exploration companies, committed to developing the oil and gas resources of the Hibernia oil field on the northeast portion of the Grand Banks. Throughout the mid-1990s, thousands of Newfoundlanders were employed in the oil industry. The pressure of the oil and gas industry to explore offshore in Atlantic Canada saw Newfoundland and Nova Scotia submit to a federal arbitration to decide on a disputed offshore boundary between the two provinces in the Laurentian Basin. The 2003 settlement rewrote an existing boundary in Newfoundland's favour, opening this area up to energy exploration. In 1992 and again in 2003, the federal government declared moratoriums on the Atlantic cod fishery due to declining catches, which deeply affected the economy of Newfoundland. From late October 2003 to early January 2006, Premier Williams argued that then Prime Minister Paul Martin had not held up his promises for a new deal on the "Atlantic Accord". The issue is the royalties from oil. Toward the end of 2004, Williams ordered the Canadian flag to be removed from all provincial buildings as a protest against federal policies, and asked for municipal councils to consider doing the same. The flags went back up in January 2005 after much controversy nationwide. At the end of January, the federal government signed a deal to allow 100% of oil revenues to go to the province. Geography Newfoundland and Labrador is the easternmost province of Canada. The Strait of Belle Isle separates the province into two geographical divisions, Labrador and island of Newfoundland. The province also includes over 7,000 small islands. Newfoundland is roughly triangular, with each side being approximately 400 km (250 mi), and has an area of 108,860 km² (41,700 sq mi). Newfoundland and its associated small islands have a total area of 111,390 km² (43,008 sq mi). Newfoundland extends between latitudes 46°36'N and 51°38'N. Labrador is an irregular shape: the western part of its border with Quebec is the drainage divide of the Labrador Peninsula. Lands drained by rivers that flow into the Atlantic Ocean are part of Labrador, the rest belong to Quebec. Labrador’s extreme northern tip, at 60°22'N, shares a short border with Nunavut. Labrador’s area (including associated small islands) is 294,330 km² (113,641 sq mi). Together, Newfoundland and Labrador make up 4.06% of Canada’s area. Labrador is the easternmost part of the Canadian Shield, a vast area of ancient metamorphic rock comprising much of northeastern North America. Colliding tectonic plates have shaped much of the geology of Newfoundland. Gros Morne National Park has a reputation as an outstanding example of tectonics at work, and as such has been designated a World Heritage Site. The Long Range Mountains on Newfoundland's west coast are the northeasternmost extension of the Appalachian Mountains. The north-south extent of the province (46°36'N to 60°22'N), prevalent westerly winds, cold ocean currents and local factors such as mountains and coastline combine to create the various climates of the province. Northern Labrador is classified as a polar tundra climate, southern Labrador is considered to be a subarctic climate while most of Newfoundland would be considered to have a humid continental climate, Dfb: Cool summer subtype. Fauna and flora Demographics According to the 2001 Canadian census, the largest ethnic group in Newfoundland and Labrador is English (39.4%), followed by Irish (19.7%), Scottish (6.0%), French (5.5%), and First Nations (3.2%). While half of all respondents also identified their ethnicity as "Canadian," 38% report their ethnicity as "Newfoundlander" in a 2003 Statistics Canada Ethnic Diversity Survey. The Daily, Monday, September 29, 2003. Ethnic Diversity Survey 1897 Newfoundland postage stamp, the first in the world to feature mining. Population since 1951 YearPopulationFive Year % changeTen Year % changeRank AmongProvinces1951 361,416 n/a n/a 91956 415,074 14.8 n/a 91961 457,853 10.3 26.7 91966 493,396 7.8 18.9 91971 522,100 5.8 14.0 91976 557,720 6.8 13.0 91981 567,681 1.8 8.7 91986 568,350 0.1 1.9 91991 568,475 0.02 0.1 91996 551,790 -2.9 -2.9 92001 512,930 -7.0 -9.8 92006* 505,469 -0.6 -7.6 9 *Preliminary 2006 census estimate. Source: Statistics Canada StatCan 2001 Census - population Canada's population. Statistics Canada. Last accessed September 28, 2006. Language The 2006 census returns showed a population of 505,469.Of the 499,830 singular responses to the census question concerning 'mother tongue' the languages most commonly reported were: RankLanguageRespondentsPercentage1.English488,40597.72.French1,8850.4%3.Montagnais-Naskapi1,5850.3%4.Chinese1,0800.2%5.Spanish6700.1%6.German6550.1%7.Inuktitut5950.1%8.Urdu5500.1%9.Arabic5400.1%10.Dutch3000.1%11.Russian225< 0.1%12.Italian195< 0.1% Figures shown above are for the number of single language responses and the percentage of total single-language responses. There were also 435 responses of both English and a 'non-official language'; 30 of both French and a 'non-official language'; 295 of both English and French; 10 of English, French and a 'non-official language'; and about 14,305 people who either did not respond to the question, or reported multiple non-official languages, or else gave some other unenumerated response. Religion The largest denominations by number of adherents according to the 2001 census were the Roman Catholic Church with 187,405 (37 %); the Anglican Church of Canada with 132,680 (26 %); and the United Church of Canada with 86,420 (17 %). Religions in Canada Industry and economy All currency is in Canadian dollars. In 2005 the gross domestic product (GDP) of Newfoundland and Labrador was approximately fourteen billion dollars. Service industries accounted for over $8 billion with financial services, health care and public administration being the top three contributors. Other significant industries are mining, oil production and manufacturing. The total workforce in 2005 was 215,000 persons. Per capita GDP in 2006 was 47,520, higher than the national average and second only to Alberta out of Canadian provinces. It is interesting to note that the GDP in Newfoundland and Labrador surged 9.1 per cent in 2007, nearly three times the rate of its growth in 2006. Without solid numbers verified for 2008 it is expected that Alberta will see a 3.2 per cent economic growth and regain the provincial lead it lost to Newfoundland in 2007, who are expected to see a 2.2 per cent growth. Traditional industries include mining, logging, fishery and forest-based industries (sawmills and paper mills). Mining and oil production Mines in Labrador, the iron ore mine at Wabush/Labrador City, and the new nickel mine in Voisey's Bay produced a total of $2.5 billion worth of ore in 2006. A new mine at Duck Pond (30 kilometers (18 mi) south of the now-closed mine at Buchans), started producing copper, zinc, silver and gold in 2007 and prospecting for new ore bodies continues. Mining accounted for 3.5% of the provincial GDP in 2006. The province produces 55% of Canada’s total iron ore. Quarries producing dimension stone such as slate and granite, account for less than $10 million worth of material per year. Oil production from offshore oil platforms on Hibernia, White Rose Terra Nova oil fields on the Grand Banks was 110 million barrels which contributed 15% of the provinces GDP in 2006. Total production from the Hibernia field from 1997 to 2006 was 733 million barrels with an estimated value of $36 billion. This will increase with the inclusion of the latest project, Hebron. Remaining reserves are estimated at almost 2 billion barrels as of December 31, 2006. Exploration for new reserves is ongoing. On April 8 2009 another oil discovery was announced. StatoilHydro announced that they were making plans to make an application for a Significant Discovery License over the coming months, it revealed that during deepwater drilling in an area about 500 kilometres east-northeast of St. John's "hydrocarbons were encountered". Fishing and aquaculture The fishing industry remains an important part of the provincial economy, employing 26,000 and contributing over $440 million to the GDP. The combined harvest of fish such as cod, haddock, halibut, herring and mackerel was 150,000 tonnes (165,000 tons) valued at about $130 million in 2006. Shellfish, such as crab, shrimp and clams, accounted for 195,000 tonnes (215,000 tons) with a value of $316 million in the same year. The value of products from the seal hunt was $55 million. Aquaculture is a new industry for the province, which in 2006 produced over 10,000 tonnes of Atlantic salmon, mussels and steelhead trout worth over $50 million. Manufacturing Newsprint is produced by two paper mills, one in Grand Falls with a capacity of 210,000 tonnes (230,000 tons) per year currently operated by Abitibi - Bowater, which announced in December 2008 that it would close the mill in March 2009. Kruger operates a mill in Corner Brook with a capacity of 420,000 tonnes (462,000 tons) per year The value of newsprint exports varies greatly from year to year, depending on the global market price. Lumber is produced by numerous mills in Newfoundland. Apart from seafood processing, paper manufacture and oil refining, manufacturing in the province consists of smaller industries producing food, brewing and other beverage production, and footwear. Agriculture Agriculture in Newfoundland is limited to areas south of St. John's, near Deer Lake and in the Codroy Valley. Potatoes, rutabagas, known locally as "turnips", carrots and cabbage are grown for local consumption. Poultry, eggs and pork are also produced. Wild blueberries, partridgeberries (lingonberries) and bakeapples (cloudberries) are harvested commercially and used in jams and wine making. Tourism Tourism is a significant part of the economy. In 2006 nearly 500,000 non-resident tourists visited Newfoundland and Labrador, spending an estimated $366 million. Provincial symbols Provincial Symbols+ Official FlowerPurple Pitcher Plant Official TreeBlack Spruce Official BirdAtlantic Puffin Official Animal Caribou Official Game Bird Ptarmigan Official Mineral Labradorite Official Dog(s) Newfoundland dog & Labrador Retriever Provincial Anthem Ode to Newfoundland Provincial Holiday June 24, Discovery Day Patron Saint St. John the Baptist Official tartan Great Seal Coat of armsEscutcheon Provincial Wordmark Notable people The celtic band "Great Big Sea" has strong roots from Newfoundland. Master Printmaker David Blackwood, born in Wesleyville NL. 1941, portrays his childhood memories of Newfoundland through a large portion of his work. Daniel Cleary, a forward in the NHL on the team for Detroit Red Wings became the first Newfoundlander to win a Stanley Cup. Music See also Labrador Dominion of Newfoundland List of communities in Newfoundland and Labrador Higher education in Newfoundland and Labrador References Atlas of Newfoundland and Labrador by Department of Geography Memorial University of Newfoundland, Breakwater Books Ltd; ISBN 1-55081-000-6; (1991) Cadigan, Sean T. Newfoundland and Labrador: A History U. of Toronto Press, 2009. Standard scholarly history G.J. Casey and Elizabeth Miller, eds., Tempered Days: A Century of Newfoundland Fiction St. John's: Killick Press, 1996. Karl Mcneil Earle; "Cousins of a Kind: The Newfoundland and Labrador Relationship with the United States" American Review of Canadian Studies Vol: 28. Issue: 4. 1998. pp : 387-411. C. R. Fay; Life and Labour in Newfoundland University of Toronto Press, 1956 Lawrence Jackson, Newfoundland & Labrador Fitzhenry & Whiteside Ltd; ISBN 1-55041-261-2; (1999) Gene Long, Suspended State: Newfoundland Before Canada Breakwater Books Ltd; ISBN 1-55081-144-4; (April 1, 1999) R. A. MacKay; Newfoundland; Economic, Diplomatic, and Strategic Studies Oxford University Press, 1946 Patrick O'Flaherty, The Rock Observed: Studies in the Literature of Newfoundland University of Toronto Press, 1979 Joseph Smallwood ed. The Encyclopedia of Newfoundland and Labrador St. John's: Newfoundland Book Publishers, 1981-, 2 vol. This Marvelous Terrible Place: Images of Newfoundland and Labrador by Momatiuk et al., Firefly Books; ISBN 1-55209-225-9; (September 1998) True Newfoundlanders: Early Homes and Families of Newfoundland and Labrador by Margaret McBurney et al., Boston Mills Pr; ISBN 1-55046-199-0; (June 1997) Biogeography and Ecology of the Island of Newfoundland: Monographiae Biologicae'' by G. Robin South (Editor) Dr W Junk Pub Co; ISBN 90-6193-101-0; (April 1983) </div> Notes External links Fisheries Heritage website Government of Newfoundland and Labrador Official Tourism Website Newfoundland and Labrador's Provincial Register of Historic Places | Newfoundland_and_Labrador |@lemmatized newfoundland:68 labrador:45 province:22 canada:18 country:2 atlantic:7 coast:3 northeastern:2 north:3 america:2 easternmost:3 canadian:12 comprise:2 two:4 main:1 part:6 island:11 eastern:1 mainland:2 northwest:1 former:1 colony:1 dominion:3 united:5 kingdom:1 become:4 tenth:2 enter:1 confederation:3 march:3 name:4 simply:1 since:2 government:11 refer:2 december:4 amendment:2 make:5 constitution:1 change:1 official:14 proclamation:1 constitutional:1 day:4 conversation:1 however:1 generally:1 still:1 region:2 january:4 population:6 estimate:5 approximately:3 resides:1 include:5 associate:3 small:5 dialect:3 english:7 french:5 irish:2 language:9 share:2 much:4 also:6 innu:2 aimun:1 inuit:2 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5,153 | Alabama | Alabama (formally, the State of Alabama; ) is a state located in the southern region of the United States of America. It is bordered by Tennessee to the north, Georgia to the east, Florida and the Gulf of Mexico to the south, and Mississippi to the west. Alabama ranks 30th in total land area and ranks second in the size of its inland waterways. The state ranks 23rd in population with almost 4.6 million residents in 2006. From the American Civil War until World War II, Alabama, like many Southern states, suffered economic hardship, in part because of continued dependence on agriculture. White rural interests dominated the state legislature until the 1960s, while urban interests and African Americans were underrepresented. George Mason University, United States Election Project: Alabama Redistricting Summary, accessed March 10, 2008 In the years following World War II, Alabama experienced significant recovery as the economy of the state transitioned from agriculture to diversified interests in heavy manufacturing, mineral extraction, education, and high technology, as well as the establishment or expansion of multiple military installations, primarily those of the U.S. Army and U.S. Air Force. Today, the state is heavily invested in aerospace, education, health care, and banking, and various heavy industries including automobile manufacturing, mineral extraction, steel production and fabrication. Alabama is unofficially nicknamed the Yellowhammer State, which is also the name of the state bird. Alabama is also known as the "Heart of Dixie". The state tree is the Longleaf Pine, the state flower is the Camellia. The capital of Alabama is Montgomery, and the largest city by population is Birmingham. The largest city by total land area is Huntsville. The oldest city is Mobile. Etymology of state name The Alabama, a Muskogean tribe, which resided just below the confluence of the Coosa and Tallapoosa Rivers on the upper reaches of the Alabama River, served as the etymological source of the names of the river and state. In the Alabama language, the word for an Alabama person is Albaamo (or variously Albaama or Albàamo in different dialects; the plural form "Alabama persons" is Albaamaha). The word Alabama is believed to have originated from the Choctaw language and was later adopted by the Alabama tribe as their name. The spelling of the word varies significantly between sources. The first usage appears in three accounts of the Hernando de Soto expedition of 1540 with Garcilasso de la Vega using Alibamo while the Knight of Elvas and Rodrigo Ranjel wrote Alibamu and Limamu, respectively. As early as 1702, the tribe was known to the French as Alibamon with French maps identifying the river as Rivière des Alibamons. Other spellings of the appellation have included Alibamu, Alabamo, Albama, Alebamon, Alibama, Alibamou, Alabamu, and Allibamou. The use of state names derived from Native American languages is common with an estimated 27 states having names of Native American origin. Although the origin of Alabama was evident, the meaning of the tribe's name was not always clear. An article without a byline appearing in the Jacksonville Republican on July 27, 1842, originated the idea that the meaning was "Here We Rest." This notion was popularized in the 1850s through the writings of Alexander Beaufort Meek. Experts in the Muskogean languages have been unable to find any evidence that would support this translation. It is now generally accepted that the word comes from the Choctaw words alba (meaning "plants" or "weeds") and amo (meaning "to cut", "to trim", or "to gather"). This results in translations such as "clearers of the thicket" or even "herb gatherers" which may refer to clearing of land for the purpose of planting crops or to collection of medicinal plants by medicine men. History Among the Native American people once living in the area of present day Alabama were Alabama (Alibamu), Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek, Koasati, and Mobile. Trade with the Northeast via the Ohio River began during the Burial Mound Period (1000 BC-700 AD) and continued until European contact. The agrarian Mississippian culture covered most of the state from 1000 to 1600 AD, with one of its major centers being at the Moundville Archaeological Site in Moundville, Alabama. Artifacts recovered from archaeological excavations at Moundville were a major component in the formulation of the Southeastern Ceremonial Complex. Contrary to popular belief, this development appears to have no direct links to Mesoamerica, but developed independently. This Ceremonial Complex represents a major component of the religion of the Mississippian peoples, and is one of the primary means by which their religion is understood. The French founded the first European settlement in the state with the establishment of Mobile in 1702. Southern Alabama was French from 1702 to 1763, part of British West Florida from 1763 to 1780, and part of Spanish West Florida from 1780 to 1814. Northern and central Alabama was part of British Georgia from 1763 to 1783 and part of the American Mississippi territory thereafter. Its statehood was delayed by the lack of a coastline; rectified when Andrew Jackson captured Spanish Mobile in 1814. Alabama was the twenty-second state, admitted to the Union in 1819. Its constitution provided for universal suffrage for white men. Alabama was the new frontier in the 1820s and 1830s. Settlers rapidly arrived to take advantage of fertile soils. Planters brought slaves with them, and traders brought in more from the Upper South as the cotton plantations expanded. The economy of the central "Black Belt" featured large cotton plantations whose owners built their wealth on the labor of enslaved African Americans. It was named for the dark, fertile soil. Elsewhere poor whites were subsistence farmers. According to the 1860 census, enslaved Africans comprised 45% of the state's population of 964,201. There were only 2,690 free persons of color. In 1861 Alabama declared its secession from the Union and joined the Confederate States of America. While few battles were fought in the state, Alabama contributed about 120,000 soldiers to the Civil War. All the slaves were freed by 1865. Following Reconstruction, Alabama was restored to the Union in 1868. After the Civil War, the state was still chiefly rural and tied to cotton. Planters resisted working with free labor and sought to re-establish controls over African Americans. Whites used paramilitary groups, Jim Crow laws and segregation to reduce freedoms of African Americans and restore their own dominance. In its new constitution of 1901, the legislature effectively disfranchised African Americans through voting restrictions. While the planter class had engaged poor whites in supporting these efforts, the new restrictions resulted in disfranchising poor whites as well. By 1941, a total of more whites than blacks had been disfranchised: 600,000 whites to 520,000 blacks. This was due mostly to effects of the cumulative poll tax. Glenn Feldman. The Disfranchisement Myth: Poor Whites and Suffrage Restriction in Alabama. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2004, p. 136. The damage to the African-American community was pervasive, as nearly all its citizens lost the ability to vote. In 1900, fourteen Black Belt counties (which were primarily African American) had more than 79,000 voters on the rolls. By June 1, 1903, the number of registered voters had dropped to 1,081. In 1900, Alabama had more than 181,000 African Americans eligible to vote. By 1903, only 2,980 had managed to "qualify" to register, although at least 74,000 black voters were literate. The shut out was long-lasting. The disfranchisement was ended only by African Americans leading the Civil Rights Movement and gaining Federal legislation in the mid-1960s to protect their voting and civil rights. The Voting Rights Act of 1965 also protected the suffrage of poor whites. The rural-dominated legislature continued to underfund schools and services for African Americans in the segregated state, but did not relieve them of paying taxes. Continued racial discrimination, agricultural depression, and the failure of the cotton crops due to boll weevil infestation led tens of thousands of African Americans to seek out opportunities in northern cities. They left Alabama in the early 20th century as part of the Great Migration to industrial jobs and better futures in northern industrial cities. The rate of population growth rate in Alabama (see "Historical Populations" table below) dropped by nearly half from 1910–1920, reflecting the effect of outmigration. At the same time, many rural whites and blacks migrated to the city of Birmingham for work in new industrial jobs. It experienced such rapid growth that it was nicknamed "The Magic City". By the 1920s, Birmingham was the 19th largest city in the U.S. and held more than 30% of the population of the state. Heavy industry and mining were the basis of the economy. Despite massive population changes in the state from 1901 to 1961, the rural-dominated legislature refused to reapportion House and Senate seats based on population. They held on to old representation to maintain political and economic power in agricultural areas. In addition, the state legislature gerrymandered the few Birmingham legislative seats to ensure election by persons living outside of Birmingham. One result was that Jefferson County, home of Birmingham's industrial and economic powerhouse, contributed more than one-third of all tax revenue to the state. Urban interests were consistently underrepresented in the legislature. A 1960 study noted that because of rural domination, "A minority of about 25 per cent of the total state population is in majority control of the Alabama legislature." Because of the long disfranchisement of African Americans, the state continued as one-party Democratic for decades. It produced a number of national leaders. Industrial development related to the demands of World War II brought prosperity. Cotton faded in importance as the state developed a manufacturing and service base. In the 1960s under Governor George Wallace, many whites in the state opposed integration efforts. During the Civil Rights Movement, African Americans achieved a protection of voting and other civil rights through the passage of the national Civil Rights Act of 1964, Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965. De jure segregation ended in the states as Jim Crow laws were invalidated or repealed. Under the Voting Rights Act of 1965, cases were filed in Federal courts to force Alabama to properly redistrict by population both the state legislature House and Senate. In 1972, for the first time since 1901, the legislature implemented the Alabama constitution's provision for periodic redistricting based on population. This benefited the many urban areas that had developed, and all in the population who had been underrepresented for more than 60 years. After 1972, the state's white voters shifted much of their support to Republican candidates in presidential elections (as also occurred in neighboring southern states). Since 1990 the majority of whites in the state have also voted increasingly Republican in state elections, although Democrats are still the majority party in both houses of the legislature. Geography Alabama terrain map: shows lakes, rivers, roads, with Mount Cheaha (right center) east of Birmingham. Alabama is the thirtieth largest state in the United States with 52,423 square miles (135,775 km²) of total area: 3.19% of the area is water, making Alabama twenty-third in the amount of surface water, also giving it the second largest inland waterway system in the United States. About three-fifths of the land area is a gentle plain with a general descent towards the Mississippi River and the Gulf of Mexico. The North Alabama region is mostly mountainous, with the Tennessee River cutting a large valley creating numerous creeks, streams, rivers, mountains, and lakes. The states bordering Alabama are Tennessee to the north; Georgia to the east; Florida to the south; and Mississippi to the west. Alabama has coastline at the Gulf of Mexico, in the extreme southern edge of the state. Alabama generally ranges in elevation from sea level at Mobile Bay to over 1,800 feet (550 m) in the Appalachian Mountains in the northeast. The highest point is Mount Cheaha (see map), at a height of 2,407 ft (733 m). Alabama's land consists of of forest or 67% of total land area. Alabama Forest Owner's Guide to Information Resources, Introduction, Alabamaforests.org Suburban Baldwin County, along the Gulf Coast, is the largest county in the state in both land area and water area. Areas in Alabama administered by the National Park Service include Horseshoe Bend National Military Park near Alexander City; Little River Canyon National Preserve near Fort Payne; Russell Cave National Monument in Bridgeport; Tuskegee Airmen National Historic Site in Tuskegee; and Tuskegee Institute National Historic Site near Tuskegee. Additionally, Alabama has four National Forests including Conecuh, Talladega, Tuskegee, and William B. Bankhead. Alabama also contains the Natchez Trace Parkway, the Selma To Montgomery National Historic Trail, and the Trail Of Tears National Historic Trail. A notable natural wonder in Alabama is "Natural Bridge" rock, the longest natural bridge east of the Rockies, located just south of Haleyville, in Winston County. A -wide meteorite impact crater is located in Elmore County, just north of Montgomery. This is the Wetumpka crater, which is the site of "Alabama's greatest natural disaster". "Wetumpka Impact Crater" Wetumpka Public Library, accessed August 21, 2007. A -wide meteorite hit the area about 80 million years ago. The hills just east of downtown Wetumpka showcase the eroded remains of the impact crater that was blasted into the bedrock, with the area labeled the Wetumpka crater or astrobleme ("star-wound") because of the concentric rings of fractures and zones of shattered rock that can be found beneath the surface. "The Wetumpka Astrobleme" by John C. Hall, Alabama Heritage, Fall 1996, Number 42. In 2002, Christian Koeberl with the Institute of Geochemistry University of Vienna published evidence and established the site as an internationally recognized impact crater. Urban areas Mobile, second largest metropolitan area Huntsville, third largest metropolitan area Montgomery, fourth largest metropolitan area Rank Metropolitan Area Population (2007 estimates) 1 Birmingham-Hoover1,108,210 2 Mobile 404,097 3 Huntsville 386,632 4 Montgomery 365,962 5 Tuscaloosa 205,218 6 Decatur 149,279 7 Florence-Muscle Shoals 143,149 8 Dothan 139,499 9 Auburn-Opelika 130,516 10 Anniston-Oxford 113,103 11 Gadsden 103,271 total 3,249,245 Rank City Population (2007 estimates) 1 Birmingham, Alabama229,800 2 Montgomery, Alabama 204,086 3 Mobile, Alabama 191,411 4 Huntsville, Alabama 171,327 5 Tuscaloosa, Alabama 88,722 6 Hoover, Alabama 69,872 7 Dothan, Alabama 65,447 8 Decatur, Alabama 55,741 9 Auburn, Alabama 54,348 10 Madison, Alabama 38,275 Climate The climate of Alabama is described as temperate with an average annual temperature of 64 °F (18 °C). Temperatures tend to be warmer in the southern part of the state with its close proximity to the Gulf of Mexico, while the northern parts of the state, especially in the Appalachian Mountains in the northeast, tend to be slightly cooler. "Alabama Climate", Encyclopedia Britannica, Retrieved May 7, 2007 Generally, Alabama has very hot summers and mild winters with copious precipitation throughout the year. Alabama receives an average of of rainfall annually and enjoys a lengthy growing season of up to 300 days in the southern part of the state. Summers in Alabama are among the hottest in the United States, with high temperatures averaging over throughout the summer in some parts of the state. Alabama is also prone to tropical storms and even hurricanes. Areas of the state far away from the Gulf are not immune to the effects of the storms, which often dump tremendous amounts of rain as they move inland and weaken. Though winters in the state are usually mild, nightly freezing occurs frequently in the North Alabama region. This is shown in this picture taken at the Old State Bank in Decatur during early January. South Alabama reports more thunderstorms than any part of the U.S. The Gulf Coast, around Mobile Bay, averages between 70 and 80 days per year with thunder reported. This activity decreases somewhat further north in the state, but even the far north of the state reports thunder on about 60 days per year. Occasionally, thunderstorms are severe with frequent lightning and large hail – the central and northern parts of the state are most vulnerable to this type of storm. Alabama ranks seventh in the number of deaths from lightning and ninth in the number of deaths from lightning strikes per capita. Lightning Fatalities, Injuries and Damages in the United States, 1990–2003, Retrieved May 8, 2007 Sometimes tornadoes occur – these are common throughout the state, although the peak season for tornadoes varies from the northern to southern parts of the state. Alabama shares the dubious distinction, with Kansas, of having reported more F5 tornadoes than any other state – according to statistics from the National Climatic Data Center for the period January 1, 1950 to October 31, 2006. An F5 tornado is the most powerful of its kind. Fujita scale. Tornadoproject.com. Retrieved September 3, 2007 Several long – tracked F5 tornadoes have contributed to Alabama reporting more tornado fatalities than any other state except for Texas and Mississippi. The Super Outbreak of March, 1974, badly affected Alabama. The northern part of the state – along the Tennessee Valley – is one of the areas in the US most vulnerable to violent tornadoes. The area of Alabama and Mississippi most affected by tornadoes is sometimes referred to as Dixie Alley, as distinct from the Tornado Alley of the Southern Plains. Alabama is one of the few places in the world that has a secondary tornado season (November and December) in addition to the Spring severe weather season. Winters are generally mild in Alabama, as they are throughout most of the southeastern United States, with average January low temperatures around in Mobile and around in Birmingham. Snow is a rare event in much of Alabama. Areas of the state north of Montgomery may receive a dusting of snow a few times every winter, with an occasional moderately heavy snowfall every few years. In the southern Gulf coast, snowfall is less frequent, sometimes going several years without any snowfall. Monthly normal high and low temperatures for various Alabama cities Alabama Weather and Climate. US Travel Weather Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Citytemp°F°C°F°C°F°C°F°C°F°C°F°C°F°C°F°C°F°C°F°C°F°C°F°C Birminghamhigh style="text-align:center; background:#e5afaa; color:Black;" style="text-align:center; background:#e5afaa; color:Black;" style="text-align:center; background:#e5afaa; color:Black;" style="text-align:center; background:#e5afaa; color:Black;" style="text-align:center; background:#e5afaa; color:Black;" style="text-align:center; background:#e5afaa; color:Black;" style="text-align:center; background:#e5afaa; color:Black;" style="text-align:center; background:#e5afaa; color:Black;" style="text-align:center; background:#e5afaa; color:Black;" style="text-align:center; background:#e5afaa; color:Black;" style="text-align:center; background:#e5afaa; color:Black;" style="text-align:center; background:#e5afaa; color:Black;" low style="text-align:center; background:#c5dfe1; color:Black;" style="text-align:center; background:#c5dfe1; color:Black;" style="text-align:center; 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background:#c5dfe1; color:Black;" style="text-align:center; background:#c5dfe1; color:Black;" style="text-align:center; background:#c5dfe1; color:Black;" style="text-align:center; background:#c5dfe1; color:Black;" style="text-align:center; background:#c5dfe1; color:Black;" style="text-align:center; background:#c5dfe1; color:Black;" style="text-align:center; background:#c5dfe1; color:Black;" Montgomeryhigh style="text-align:center; background:#e5afaa; color:Black;" style="text-align:center; background:#e5afaa; color:Black;" style="text-align:center; background:#e5afaa; color:Black;" style="text-align:center; background:#e5afaa; color:Black;" style="text-align:center; background:#e5afaa; color:Black;" style="text-align:center; background:#e5afaa; color:Black;" style="text-align:center; background:#e5afaa; color:Black;" style="text-align:center; background:#e5afaa; color:Black;" style="text-align:center; background:#e5afaa; color:Black;" style="text-align:center; background:#e5afaa; color:Black;" style="text-align:center; background:#e5afaa; color:Black;" style="text-align:center; background:#e5afaa; color:Black;" low style="text-align:center; background:#c5dfe1; color:Black;" style="text-align:center; background:#c5dfe1; color:Black;" style="text-align:center; background:#c5dfe1; color:Black;" style="text-align:center; background:#c5dfe1; color:Black;" style="text-align:center; background:#c5dfe1; color:Black;" style="text-align:center; background:#c5dfe1; color:Black;" style="text-align:center; background:#c5dfe1; color:Black;" style="text-align:center; background:#c5dfe1; color:Black;" style="text-align:center; background:#c5dfe1; color:Black;" style="text-align:center; background:#c5dfe1; color:Black;" style="text-align:center; background:#c5dfe1; color:Black;" style="text-align:center; background:#c5dfe1; color:Black;" Demographics Alabama population density map The United States Census Bureau, as of July 1, 2008, estimated Alabama's population at 4,661,900, which represents an increase of 214,545, or 4.8%, since the last census in 2000. This includes a natural increase since the last census of 121,054 people (that is 502,457 births minus 381,403 deaths) and an increase due to net migration of 104,991 people into the state. Immigration from outside the United States resulted in a net increase of 31,180 people, and migration within the country produced a net gain of 73,811 people. The state had 108,000 foreign-born (2.4% of the state population), of which an estimated 22.2% were illegal immigrants (24,000). The center of population of Alabama is located in Chilton County, outside of the town of Jemison, an area known as Jemison Division. Race and ancestry The racial makeup of the state and comparison to the prior census: The largest reported ancestry groups in Alabama: African American (26.0%), American (17.0%), English (7.8%), Irish (7.7%), German (5.7%), and Scots-Irish (2.0%). 'American' does not include those reported as Native American. Religion Alabama is located in the middle of the Bible Belt. In a 2007 survey, nearly 70% of respondents could name all four of the Christian Gospels. Of those who indicated a religious preference, 59% said they possessed a "full understanding" of their faith and needed no further learning. In a 2007 poll, 92% of Alabamians reported having at least some confidence in churches in the state. The Mobile area is notable for its large percentage of Catholics, owing to the area's unique early history under French and Spanish rule. Today, a huge percentage of Alabamians identify themselves as Protestants. In the 2008 American Religious Identification Survey, 80% of Alabama respondents reported their religion as "Other Christian" (survey's label), 6% as Catholic, and 11% as having no religion at all. Economy Alabama's quarter depicting famous resident Helen Keller along with the longleaf pine branch and Camellia blossoms from the 50 State Quarters program. Released March 19, 2003. According to the United States Bureau of Economic Analysis, the 2006 total gross state product was $160 billion, or $29,697 per capita for a ranking of 44th among states. Alabama's GDP increased 3.1% from 2005, placing Alabama number 23 in terms of state level GDP growth. The single largest increase came in the area of durable goods manufacturing. In 1999, per capita income for the state was $18,189. Alabama's agricultural outputs include poultry and eggs, cattle, plant nursery items, peanuts, cotton, grains such as corn and sorghum, vegetables, milk, soybeans, and peaches. Although known as "The Cotton State", Alabama ranks between eight and ten in national cotton production, according to various reports, with Texas, Georgia and Mississippi comprising the top three. Alabama's industrial outputs include iron and steel products (including cast-iron and steel pipe); paper, lumber, and wood products; mining (mostly coal); plastic products; cars and trucks; and apparel. Also, Alabama produces aerospace and electronic products, mostly in the Huntsville area, which is home of the NASA George C. Marshall Space Flight Center and the US Army Aviation and Missile Command, headquartered at Redstone Arsenal. Alabama is also home to the largest industrial growth corridor in the nation, including the surrounding states of Tennessee, Mississippi, Florida, and Georgia. Most of this growth is due to Alabama's rapidly expanding automotive manufacturing industry. In Alabama alone since 1993, it has generated more than 67,800 new jobs. Alabama currently ranks 4th in the nation in automobile output. In the 1970s and 1980s, Birmingham's economy was transformed by investments in bio-technology and medical research at the University of Alabama at Birmingham (UAB) and its adjacent hospital. The UAB Hospital is a Level I trauma center providing health care and breakthrough medical research. UAB is now the area's largest employer and the largest in Alabama with a workforce of about 20,000. Health care services provider HealthSouth is also headquartered in the city. Birmingham is also a leading banking center, serving as home Regions Financial Corporation. Birmingham-based Compass Banchshares was acquired by Madrid-based BBVA in September 2007; the headquarters of the new BBVA Compass Bank remains in Birmingham. SouthTrust, another large bank headquartered in Birmingham, was acquired by Wachovia in 2004. The city still has major operations as one of the regional headquarters of Wachovia. In November 2006, Regions Financial merged with AmSouth Bancorporation, which was also headquartered in Birmingham. They formed the 8th Largest U. S. Bank (by total assets). Nearly a dozen smaller banks are also headquartered in the Magic City, such as Superior Bank and New South Federal Savings Bank. Telecommunications provider AT&T, formerly BellSouth, has a major presence with several large offices in the metropolitan area. Major insurance providers: Protective Life, Infinity Property & Casualty and ProAssurance among others, are headquartered in Birmingham and employ a large number of people in Greater Birmingham. The city is also a powerhouse of construction and engineering companies, including BE&K and B. L. Harbert International which routinely are included in the Engineering News-Record lists of top design and international construction firms. Huntsville is regarded for its high-technology driven economy and is known as the "Rocket City" due to NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center and the Redstone Arsenal. Huntsville's main economic influence is derived from aerospace and military technology. Redstone Arsenal, Cummings Research Park (CRP), The University of Alabama in Huntsville and NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center comprise the main hubs for the area's technology-driven economy. CRP is the second largest research park in the United States and the fourth largest in the world, and is over 38 years old. Huntsville is also home for commercial technology companies such as the network access company ADTRAN, computer graphics company Intergraph and design and manufacturer of IT infrastructure Avocent. Telecommunications provider Deltacom, Inc. and copper tube manufacturer and distributor Wolverine Tube are also based in Huntsville. Cinram manufactures and distributes 20th Century Fox DVDs and Blu-ray Discs out of their Huntsville plant. Sanmina-SCI also has a large presence in the area. Forty-two Fortune 500 companies have operations in Huntsville. In 2005, Forbes Magazine named the Huntsville-Decatur Combined Statistical Area as 6th best place in the nation for doing business, and number one in terms of the number of engineers per total employment. The city of Mobile, Alabama's only saltwater port, is a busy seaport on the Gulf of Mexico with inland waterway access to the Midwest via the Tennessee-Tombigbee Waterway. The Port of Mobile is the 10th largest by tonnage in the United States. In May 2007, a site north of Mobile was selected by German steelmaker ThyssenKrupp for a $3.7 billion steel production plant, with the promise of 2,700 permanent jobs. Taxes Alabama's tax structure is one the most regressive in the United States. Alabama levies a 2, 4, or 5 percent personal income tax, depending upon the amount earned and filing status, though taxpayers can deduct their federal income tax from their Alabama state tax, which favors wealthier Alabamians who typically pay federal taxes. The state's general sales tax rate is 4%. Comparison of State and Local Retail Sales Taxes, July 2004 Retrieved on May 25, 2007 The collection rate could be substantially higher, depending upon additional city and county sales taxes. For example, the total sales tax rate in Mobile is 9% and there is an additional restaurant tax of 1%, which means that a diner in Mobile would pay a 10% tax on a meal. Sales and excise taxes in Alabama account for 51 percent of all state and local revenue, compared with an average of about 36 percent nationwide. Alabama is also one of the few remaining states that levies a tax on food and medicine. Alabama's income tax on poor working families is among the nation's very highest. Alabama is the only state that levies income tax on a family of four with income as low as $4,600, which is barely one-quarter of the federal poverty line. Alabama's threshold is the lowest among the 41 states and the District of Columbia with income taxes. The corporate income tax rate is currently 6.5%. The overall federal, state, and local tax burden in Alabama ranks the state as the second least tax-burdened state in the country. Property taxes are the lowest in the United States. The current state constitution requires a voter referendum to raise property taxes. One of its amendments lowered the percentage of fair-market value at which property was taxed and another declared that timber and farmland would be taxed on the value of its current use instead of what the land is worth. Since Alabama's tax structure largely depends on consumer spending, it is subject to high variable budget structure. For example, in 2003 Alabama had an annual budget deficit as high as $670 million. It is one of only a few states to accomplish large surpluses, with a budget surplus of nearly $1.2 billion in 2007, and estimated at more than $2.1 billion for 2008. However, the declining national economy in 2008 has eliminated that surplus and the state is again facing shortfall, with the governor declaring "proration," which will result in an immeditate education budget cut and school layoffs. Transportation Alabama state welcome sign Alabama has five major interstate roads that cross it: I-65 runs north–south roughly through the middle of the state; I-59/I-20 travels from the central west border to Birmingham, where I-59 continues to the north-east corner of the state and I-20 continues east towards Atlanta; I-85 originates in Montgomery and runs east-northeast to the Georgia border, providing a main thoroughfare to Atlanta; and I-10 traverses the southernmost portion of the state, running from west to east through Mobile. Another interstate road, I-22, is currently under construction. When completed around 2012 it will connect Birmingham with Memphis, Tennessee. Several US Highways also pass through the state, such as US 11, US 29, US 31, US 43, US 72, US 78, US 80, US 82, US 84, US 98, US 231, and US 280. Major airports in Alabama include Birmingham-Shuttlesworth International Airport (BHM), Dothan Regional Airport (DHN), Huntsville International Airport (HSV), Mobile Regional Airport (MOB), Montgomery Regional Airport (MGM), Muscle Shoals – Northwest Alabama Regional Airport (MSL), Tuscaloosa Regional Airport (TCL), and Pryor Field Regional Airport (DCU). For rail transport, Amtrak schedules the Crescent, a daily passenger train, running from New York to New Orleans with stops at Anniston, Birmingham, and Tuscaloosa. Water ports Aerial view of the port of Mobile Listed from north to south Port name Location Connected to Port of Florence Florence/Muscle Shoals, on Pickwick LakeTennessee River Port of Decatur Decatur, on Wheeler LakeTennessee River Port of Guntersville Guntersville, on Lake GuntersvilleTennessee River Port of Birmingham Birmingham, on Black Warrior River Tenn-Tom Waterway Port of Tuscaloosa Tuscaloosa, on Black Warrior RiverTenn-Tom Waterway Port of Montgomery Montgomery, on Woodruff Lake Alabama River Port of Mobile Mobile, on Mobile Bay Gulf of Mexico Law and government The State Capitol, built in 1850 State government The foundational document for Alabama's government is the Alabama Constitution, which was ratified in 1901. At almost 800 amendments and 310,000 words, it is the world's longest constitution and is roughly forty times the length of the U.S. Constitution. There is a significant movement to rewrite and modernize Alabama's constitution. Alabama Citizens for Constitutional Reform This movement is based upon the fact that Alabama's constitution highly centralizes power in Montgomery and leaves practically no power in local hands. Any policy changes proposed around the state must be approved by the entire Alabama legislature and, frequently, by state referendum. One criticism of the current constitution claims that its complexity and length were intentional to codify segregation and racism. Alabama is divided into three equal branches: The legislative branch is the Alabama Legislature, a bicameral assembly composed of the Alabama House of Representatives, with 105 members, and the Alabama Senate, with 35 members. The Legislature is responsible for writing, debating, passing, or defeating state legislation. The executive branch is responsible for the execution and oversight of laws. It is headed by the Governor of Alabama. Other members of executive branch include the cabinet, the Attorney General of Alabama, the Alabama Secretary of State, the Alabama Commissioner of Agriculture and Industries, the Alabama State Treasurer, and the Alabama State Auditor. The judicial branch is responsible for interpreting the Constitution and applying the law in state criminal and civil cases. The highest court is the Supreme Court of Alabama. Local and county government Alabama has 67 counties. Each county has its own elected legislative branch, usually called the County Commission, which usually also has executive authority in the county. Due to the restraints placed in the Alabama Constitution, all but seven counties (Jefferson, Lee, Mobile, Madison, Montgomery, Shelby, and Tuscaloosa) in the state have little to no home rule. Instead, most counties in the state must lobby the Local Legislation Committee of the state legislature to get simple local policies such as waste disposal to land use zoning. List of Alabama county seats Alabama is an alcoholic beverage control state; the government holds a monopoly on the sale of alcohol. However, counties can declare themselves "dry"; the state does not sell alcohol in those areas. State politics Alabama Governor Bob Riley in 2004 The current governor of the state is Republican Bob Riley. The lieutenant governor is Jim Folsom Jr. The Chief Justice of the Alabama Supreme Court is Democrat Sue Bell Cobb. The Democratic Party currently holds a large majority in both houses of the Legislature. Due to the Legislature's power to override a gubernatorial veto by a mere simple majority (most state Legislatures require a 2/3 majority to override a veto), the relationship between the executive and legislative branches can be easily strained when different parties control the branches. During Reconstruction following the American Civil War, Alabama was occupied by federal troops of the Third Military District under General John Pope. In 1874, the political coalition known as the Redeemers took control of the state government from the Republicans, in part by suppressing the African American vote. After 1890, a coalition of whites passed laws to segregate and disenfranchise black residents, a process completed in provisions of the 1901 constitution. Provisions which disfranchised African Americans also disfranchised poor whites, however. By 1941 more whites than blacks had been disfranchised: 600,000 to 520,000, although the impact was greater on the African-American community, as almost all of its citizens were disfranchised. From 1901 to the 1960s, the state legislature failed to perform redistricting as population grew and shifted within the state. The result was a rural minority that dominated state politics until a series of court cases required redistricting in 1972. With the disfranchisement of African Americans, the state became part of the "Solid South", a one-party system in which the Democratic Party became essentially the only political party in every Southern state. For nearly 100 years, local and state elections in Alabama were decided in the Democratic Party primary, with generally only token Republican challengers running in the General Election. In the 1986 Democratic primary election, the then-incumbent Lieutenant Governor lost the Democratic nomination for Governor. The state Democratic party invalidated the election and placed the Lieutenant Governor's name on the ballot as the Democratic candidate instead of the candidate chosen in the primary. The voters of the state revolted at what they perceived as disenfranchisement of their right to vote and elected the Republican challenger Guy Hunt as Governor. This was the first Republican Governor elected in Alabama since Reconstruction. Since then, Republicans have become increasingly competitive in Alabama politics. They currently control both seats in the U.S. Senate four out of the state's seven congressional seats, they hold an 8-1 majority on the Alabama Supreme Court and they have a 5-2 majority among statewide elected executive branch offices. However, Democrats currently hold all three seats on the Alabama Public Service Commission and they maintain control of both houses of the legislature, holding approximately 59.4% of seats in the Alabama Senate and 58.7% of seats in the Alabama House of Representatives. A majority of local offices in the state are still held by Democrats. Generally speaking, local elections in rural counties are decided in the Democratic Primary and local elections in metropolitan counties are decided in the Republican Primary although there are exceptions to this rule. Only one Republican Lt. Governor has been elected since Reconstruction, Steve Windom. Windom served as Lt. Governor under Democratic Gov. Don Siegelman . The last time that Alabama had a governor and lt. governor of the same party was the period between 1983-1987 when Wallace was serving his fourth term as governor and Bill Baxley was serving as Lt. Governor, both were Democrats. An overwhelming majority of sheriff's offices in Alabama are in Democratic hands. However, most of the Democratic sheriffs preside over more rural and less populated counties and the majority of Republicans preside over more urban/suburban and more populated counties. Only three Alabama counties (Tuscaloosa, Montgomery and Calhoun) with a population of over 100,000 have Democratic sheriffs and only five Alabama counties with a population of under 75,000 have Republican sheriffs (Autauga, Coffee, Dale, Coosa, and Blount). Alabama state politics gained nationwide and international attention in the 1950s and 1960s during the American Civil Rights Movement, when majority whites bureaucratically, and at times, violently resisted protests for electoral and social reform. George Wallace, the state's governor, remains a notorious and controversial figure. Only with the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and Voting Rights Act of 1965 did African Americans regain suffrage and other civil rights. In 2007, the Alabama Legislature passed, and the Governor signed, a resolution expressing "profound regret" over slavery and its lingering impact. In a symbolic ceremony, the bill was signed in the Alabama State Capitol, which housed Congress of the Confederate States of America. National politics + Presidential elections results Year Republican Democratic State winner200860.32% 1,266,54638.80% 813,479John McCain200462.46% 1,176,39436.84% 693,933George W. Bush200056.47% 944,40941.59% 695,602George W. Bush199650.12% 769,04443.16% 662,165Bob Dole199247.65% 804,28340.88% 690,080George Bush198859.17% 815,57639.86% 549,506George Bush198460.54% 872,84938.28% 551,899Ronald Reagan198048.75% 654,19247.45% 636,730Ronald Reagan197642.61% 504,07055.73% 659,170Jimmy Carter197272.43% 728,70125.54% 256,923Richard Nixon1968*13.99% 146,92318.72% 196,579George Wallace (I)196469.45% 479,08530.55% 210,732Barry Goldwater196042.16% 237,98156.39% 318,303John F. Kennedy*State won by George Wallaceof the American Independent Party,at 65.86%, or 691,425 votes From 1876 through 1956, Alabama supported only Democratic presidential candidates, by large margins. 1960 was a curious election. The Democrats won with John F. Kennedy on the ballot, but the Democratic electors from Alabama gave 6 of their 11 electoral votes as a protest to Harry Byrd. In 1964, Republican Barry Goldwater carried the state, in part because of his opposition to the 1964 Civil Rights Act, which restored the franchise for African Americans. In the 1968 presidential election, Alabama supported native son and American Independent Party candidate George Wallace over both Richard Nixon and Hubert Humphrey. Wallace was the official Democratic candidate in Alabama , while Humphrey was listed as the "National Democratic." In 1976, Democratic candidate Jimmy Carter from Georgia carried the state, the region, and the nation, but Democratic control of the region slipped after that. Since 1980, conservative Alabama voters have increasingly voted for Republican candidates at the Federal level, especially in Presidential elections. By contrast, Democratic candidates have been elected to many state-level offices and comprise a longstanding majority in the Alabama Legislature; see Dixiecrat. In 2004, George W. Bush won Alabama's nine electoral votes by a margin of 25 percentage points with 62.5% of the vote, mostly white voters. The eleven counties that voted Democratic were Black Belt counties, where African Americans are the majority racial group. The state's two U.S. senators are Jefferson B. Sessions III and Richard C. Shelby, both Republicans. In the U.S. House of Representatives, the state is represented by seven members, four of whom are Republicans: (Jo Bonner, Mike D. Rogers, Robert Aderholt, and Spencer Bachus) and three are Democrats: (Bobby Bright, Parker Griffith and Artur Davis). Health, education, and policy Primary and secondary education Public primary and secondary education in Alabama is under the overview of the Alabama State Board of Education as well as local oversight by 67 county school boards and 60 city boards of education. Together, 1,541 individual schools provide education for 743,364 elementary and secondary students. Public school funding is appropriated through the Alabama Legislature through the Education Trust Fund. In FY 2006–2007, Alabama appropriated $3,775,163,578 for primary and secondary education. That represented an increase of $444,736,387 over the previous fiscal year. In 2007, over 82 percent of schools made adequate yearly progress (AYP) toward student proficiency under the National No Child Left Behind law, using measures determined by the state of Alabama. In 2004, only 23 percent of schools met AYP. However, while Alabama's public education system has improved, it still lags behind in achievement compared to other states. According to U.S. Census data, Alabama's high school graduation rate – 75% – is the second lowest in the United States (after Mississippi). http://www.census.gov/prod/2003pubs/c2kbr-24.pdf The largest educational gains were among people with some college education but without degrees. CensusScope - Education Statistics Colleges and universities Harrison Plaza at the University of North Alabama in Florence. The school was chartered as LaGrange College by the Alabama Legislature in 1830. Alabama's programs of higher education include 14 four-year public universities, numerous two-year community colleges, and 17 private, undergraduate and graduate universities. Public, post-secondary education in Alabama is overseen by the Alabama Commission on Higher Education. Colleges and universities in Alabama offer degree programs from 2-year associate degrees to 16 doctoral level programs. Accreditation of academic programs is through the Southern Association of Schools and Colleges as well as a plethora of subject focused national and international accreditation agencies. . Professional sports teams ClubSportLeagueBirmingham BaronsBaseballSouthern LeagueHuntsville StarsBaseballSouthern LeagueMobile BayBearsBaseballSouthern LeagueMontgomery BiscuitsBaseballSouthern LeagueHuntsville HavocIce hockeySouthern Professional Hockey LeagueAlabama Renegades (Huntsville)FootballNational Women's Football AssociationTennessee Valley Vipers (Huntsville)Arena footballaf2Rocket City United (Huntsville)SoccerNational Premier Soccer League Notable Alabamians Famous people from Alabama include Hank Aaron, Tallulah Bankhead, William Brockman Bankhead, Charles Barkley, Hugo L. Black, Paul W. (Bear) Bryant, Jimmy Buffett, George Washington Carver, Nat King Cole, Courteney Cox Arquette, Mitch Holleman, Zelda Fitzgerald, Charles Ghigna, Winston Groom, William C. Handy, Taylor Hicks, Bo Jackson, Kate Jackson, Jamey Johnson, Helen Keller,Coretta Scott King, William R. King, Harper Lee, Joe Louis, William March, Willie Mays, Willie McCovey , Roy Moore, John Hunt Morgan, Jim Nabors, Randy Owen, Jesse Owens, Satchel Paige, Jake Peavy, Claude Pepper, Rosa Parks, Wilson Pickett, Howell Raines, Condoleezza Rice, Lionel Richie, Rich Boy, Kenny Stabler, John Sparkman, Bart Starr, Ruben Studdard, Oscar W. Underwood, George Wallace, Booker T. Washington, Billy Williams, and Hank Williams. World Almanac & Book of Facts, Reader's Digest Publishing, 2008. See also List of Alabama-related topics Cultural sites The Old State Bank in Decatur Alabama Shakespeare Festival Alabama Symphony Orchestra The Alabama Theatre Birmingham Astronomical Society Birmingham Civil Rights Institute Birmingham Museum of Art Old State Bank Old St. Stephens Rhea-McEntire House USS Alabama U.S. Space & Rocket Center/U.S. Space Camp, Huntsville Vulcan Park, Birmingham Cathedral of the Immaculate Conception, Mobile Christ Church Cathedral, Mobile The Temple, Mobile Events Alabama Jubilee Hot Air Balloon Classic Alabama Sports Festival Bayfest, Mobile's Music Festival Big Spring Jam City Stages Music Festival, Birmingham GMAC Bowl Jubilee City Fest, Montgomery Mule Day, Winfield Mardi Gras, Mobile Mobile Bay Jubilee National Peanut Festival Navistar LPGA Classic, Prattville Papajohns.com Bowl (formerly the Birmingham Bowl) Regions Charity Classic (formerly the Bruno's Memorial Classic) Senior Bowl, Mobile Sidewalk Moving Picture Festival Spirit of America Festival Venues Alys Robinson Stephens Performing Arts Center (home of the Alabama Symphony Orchestra), Birmingham American Village, Montevallo Birmingham Jefferson Convention Complex, Birmingham Braly Municipal Stadium (host of the NCAA Division II National Football Championship), Florence Bryant-Denny Stadium, Tuscaloosa Celebration Arena, Priceville Daphne Civic Center, Daphne Fair Park Arena, Birmingham Hank Aaron Stadium, Mobile Joe W. Davis Stadium, Huntsville Jordan-Hare Stadium, Auburn Ladd Peebles Stadium, Mobile Legion Field, Birmingham McWane Science Center, Birmingham Mitchell Center, Mobile Mobile Civic Center, Mobile Montgomery Riverwalk Stadium, Montgomery Movie Gallery Veterans Stadium, Troy Paul Snow Stadium, Jacksonville Point Mallard Aquatic Center, Decatur Regions Park, Hoover Rickwood Field, Birmingham Robert Trent Jones Golf Trail Talladega Superspeedway and The International Motorsports Hall of Fame & Museum Von Braun Center, Huntsville References Further reading For a detailed bibliography, see the History of Alabama. Atkins, Leah Rawls, Wayne Flynt, William Warren Rogers, and David Ward. Alabama: The History of a Deep South State (1994) Flynt, Wayne. Alabama in the Twentieth Century (2004) Owen Thomas M. History of Alabama and Dictionary of Alabama Biography 4 vols. 1921. Jackson, Harvey H. Inside Alabama: A Personal History of My State (2004) Mohl, Raymond A. "Latinization in the Heart of Dixie: Hispanics in Late-twentieth-century Alabama" Alabama Review 2002 55(4): 243-274. ISSN 0002-4341 Peirce, Neal R. The Deep South States of America: People, Politics, and Power in the Seven Deep South States (1974). Information on politics and economics 1960–72. Williams, Benjamin Buford. A Literary History of Alabama: The Nineteenth Century 1979. WPA. Guide to Alabama (1939) External links Alabama.gov – Official website. Alabama State Guide, from the Library of Congress Alabama State Databases - Annotated list of searchable databases produced by Alabama state agencies and compiled by the Government Documents Roundtable of the American Library Association. Alabama Association of Regional Councils Energy Data & Statistics for Alabama- From the U.S. Department of Energy TourAlabama.org – Alabama Department of Tourism and Travel All About Alabama, at the Alabama Department of Archives and History site AlabamaMosaic, a digital repository of materials on Alabama's history, culture, places, and people Code of Alabama 1975 – at the Alabama Legislature site USGS real-time, geographic, and other scientific resources of Alabama Alabama QuickFacts from the U.S. Census Bureau Alabama State Fact Sheet from the U.S. Department of Agriculture Alabama State Parks National Parks of Alabama Encyclopedia of Alabama | Alabama |@lemmatized alabama:208 formally:1 state:155 locate:5 southern:12 region:9 united:15 america:5 border:4 tennessee:7 north:13 georgia:8 east:9 florida:5 gulf:10 mexico:6 south:12 mississippi:9 west:6 rank:9 total:11 land:9 area:34 second:7 size:1 inland:4 waterway:6 population:21 almost:3 million:3 resident:3 american:36 civil:16 war:7 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5,154 | Embouchure | The embouchure of a trumpeter. The embouchure is the use of facial muscles and the shaping of the lips to the mouthpiece of a wind instrument. The word is of French origin and is related to the root bouche (fr.), 'mouth'. The proper embouchure allows the instrumentalist to play the instrument at its full range with a full, clear tone and without strain or damage to one's muscles. Brass embouchure While performing on a brass instrument, the sound is produced by the player buzzing his or her lips into a mouthpiece. Pitches are changed in part through altering the amount of muscular contraction in the lip formation. The performer's use of the air, tightening of cheek and jaw muscles, as well as tongue manipulation can affect how the embouchure works. Even today, many brass pedagogues take a rigid approach to teaching how a brass player's embouchure should function. Many of these authors also disagree with each other regarding which technique is correct. Research suggests efficient brass embouchures depend on the player using the method that suits that player's particular anatomy (see below). Individual differences in dental structure, lip shape and size, jaw shape and the degree of jaw malocclusion, and other anatomical factors will affect whether a particular embouchure technique will be effective or not . In 1962, Philip Farkas hypothesized The Art of Brass Playing, Philip Farkas, 1962 that the air stream traveling through the lip aperture should be directed straight down the shank of the mouthpiece. He believed that it would be illogical to "violently deflect" the air stream downward at the point of where the air moves past the lips. In this text, Farkas also recommends that the lower jaw be protruded so that the upper and lower teeth are aligned. In 1970, Farkas published a second text A Photographic Study of 40 Virtuoso Horn Players, Philip Farkas, 1970 which contradicted his earlier writing. Out of 40 subjects, Farkas showed that 39 subjects directed the air downward to varying degrees and 1 subject directed the air in an upward direction at various degrees. The lower jaw position seen in these photographs show more variation from his earlier text as well. This supports what was written by trombonist and brass pedagogue Donald S. Reinhardt in 1942 Pivot System For Trumpet, Donald S. Reinhardt, 1942 Pivot System for Trombone, Donald S. Reinhardt, 1942 . In 1972 The Encyclopedia of the Pivot System, Donald S. Reinhardt, 1972 , Reinhardt described and labeled different embouchure patterns according the characteristics including mouthpiece placement and the general direction of the air stream as it travels past the lips. According to this later text, players who place the mouthpiece higher on the lips, so that more upper lip is inside the mouthpiece, will direct the air downwards to varying degrees while playing. Performers who place the mouthpiece lower, so that more lower lip is inside the mouthpiece, will direct the air to varying degrees in an upward manner. In order for the performer to be successful, the air stream direction and mouthpiece placement need to be personalized based on individual anatomical differences. Lloyd Leno confirmed the existence of both upstream and downstream embouchures "A Study of Lip Vibrations with High-Speed Photography", International Trombone Association Journal, Lloyd Leno, 1987 . More controversial was Reinhardt's description and recommendations regarding a phenomenon he termed a "pivot". According to Reinhardt, a successful brass embouchure depends on a motion wherein the performer moves both the mouthpiece and lips as a single unit along the teeth in an upward and downward direction. As the performer ascends in pitch, he or she will either move the lips and mouthpiece together slightly up towards the nose or pull them down together slightly towards the chin, and use the opposite motion to descend in pitch. Whether the player uses one general pivot direction or the other, and the degree to which the motion is performed, depends on the performer's anatomical features and stage of development. The placement of the mouthpiece upon the lips doesn't change, but rather the relationship of the rim and lips to the teeth. While the angle of the instrument may change as this motion follows the shape of the teeth and placement of the jaw, contrary to what many brass performers and teachers believe, the angle of the instrument does not actually constitute the motion Reinhardt advised as a pivot. Later research supports Reinhardt's claim that this motion exists and might be advisable for brass performers to adopt. John Froelich "The Mouthpiece Forces Used During Trombone Performances", International Trombone Association Journal, John Froelich, 1990 describes how mouthpiece pressure towards the lips (vertical forces) and shear pressure (horizontal forces) functioned in three test groups, student trombonists, professional trombonists, and professional symphonic trombonists. Froelich noted that the symphonic trombonists used the least amount of both direct and shear forces and recommends this model be followed. Other research notes that virtually all brass performers rely upon the upward and downward embouchure motion The Correlation Between Doug Elliott's Embouchure Types and Playing and Selected Physical Characteristics Among Trombonists (David Wilken, doctoral dissertation, Ball State University, 2000) An Analysis, Clarification, and Revaluation of Donald Reinhardt's Pivot System for Brass Instruments (David Ray Turnbull, doctoral thesis, Arizona State University, 2001 . Other authors and pedagogues remain skeptical about the necessity of this motion, but scientific evidence supporting this view has not been sufficiently developed at this time to support this view. Some noted brass pedagogues prefer to instruct the use of the embouchure from a less analytical point of view. Arnold Jacobs, a tubist and well-regarded brass teacher, believed that it was best for the student to focus on his or her use of the air and musical expression to allow the embouchure to develop naturally on its own Arnold Jacobs: Song and Wind, Brian Frederiksen, 1996 . Other instructors, such as Carmine Caruso, believed that the brass player's embouchure could best be developed through strength building exercises that focus the student's attention on his or her time perception Musical Calisthenics for Brass, Carmine Caruso, 1979 . Still other authors who have differing approaches to embouchure development include Louis Maggio Original Louis Maggio System for Brass, C. MacBeth , Jeff Smiley The Balanced Embouchure, Jeff Smiley , and Jerome Callet Superchops, Jerome Callet Trumpet Secrets, Jerome Callet . Farkas embouchure Most professional performers, as well as instructors, use a combination called a puckered smile. Farkas text ignored told people to blow as if they were trying to cool soup. Raphael Mendez advised saying the letter "M". The skin under your lower lip will be taut with no air pocket. Your lips do not overlap nor do they roll in or out. The corners of the mouth are held firmly in place. To play with an extended range you should use a pivot, tongue arch and lip to lip compression. According Farkas text ignored the mouthpiece should have 2/3 upper lip and 1/3 lower lip (french horn), 2/3 lower lip and 1/3 upper lip (trumpet and cornet), and more latitude for lower brass (trombone, baritone, and tuba). For trumpet, some also advocate 1/2 upper lip and 1/2 lower lip . Farkas claimed placement was more important for the instruments with smaller mouthpieces text ignored . Your lips should not overlap each other, nor should they roll in or out. The mouth corners should be held firm. Farkas speculated that the horn should be held in a downward angle to allow the air stream to go straight into the mouthpiece, although his later text text ignored shows that air stream direction actually is either upstream or downstream and is dependent upon the ratio of upper or lower lip inside the mouthpiece, not the horn angle. Farkas advised to moisten the outside of your lips, then form your embouchure and gently place the mouthpiece on it text ignored . He also recommended there must be a gap of ⅓ inch or so between your teeth so that the air flows freely. (Subset) Buzzing embouchure The Farkas set is the basis of most lip buzzing embouchures. Mendez did teach lip buzzing and got great results. One can initiate this type of buzz by using the same sensation as spitting seeds, but maintaining a continued flow of air. This technique assists the development of the Farkas approach by preventing the player from using an aperture that is too open. Stevens-Costello embouchure The Complete Stevens-Costello Embouchure Technique (Rev 2006) by Roy Stevens & Bill Moriarity, Colin Publications Stevens-Costello embouchure has its origins in the William Costello embouchure and was further developed by Roy Stevens. It uses a slight rolling in of both lips and touching evenly all the way across. It also uses mouthpiece placement of about 40% to 50% top lip and 60% to 50% lower lip. The teeth will be about 1/4 to 1/2 inch apart and the teeth are parallel or the jaw slightly forward. There is relative mouthpiece pressure to the given air column. One exercise to practice the proper weight to air relationship is the palm exercise where you hold your horn by laying it on its side in the palm of your hand. Do not grasp it. Place your lips on the mouthpiece and blow utilizing the weight of the horn in establishing a sound. Maggio embouchure A rare, puckered embouchure, sometimes used by jazz players for extremely high "screamer" notes. Maggio claimed that the pucker embouchure gives more endurance than some systems. Carlton MacBeth is the main proponent of the pucker embouchure. The Maggio system was established because Louis Maggio had sustained an injury which prevented him from playing. In this system you cushion the lips by extending them or puckering (like a monkey). This puckering enables the players to overcome physical malformations. It also lets the player play for an extended time in the upper register. The pucker can make it easy to use too open an aperture. Lots of very soft practice can help overcome this. Tongue-controlled embouchure This embouchure method, advocated by a minority of brass pedagogues such as Jerome Callet, has not yet been sufficiently researched to support the claims that this system is the most effective approach for all brass performers. Advocates of Callet's approach believe that this method was recommended and taught by the great brass instructors of the early 20th Century. Two French trumpet technique books, authored by Jean-Baptiste Arban, and St. Jacome, were translated into English for use by American players. According to some, due to a misunderstanding arising from differences in pronunciation between French and English, the commonly used brass embouchure in Europe was interpreted incorrectly. Callet attributes this difference in embouchure technique as the reason the great players of the past were able to play at the level of technical virtuosity which they did, although the increased difficulty of contemporary compositions for brass seem to indicate that the level of brass technique achieved by today's performers equals or even exceeds that of most performers from the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Callet's method of brass embouchure consists of the tongue remaining forward and through the teeth at all times. The corners of the mouth always remain relaxed, and only a small amount of air is used. The top and bottom lips curl inward and grip the forward tongue. The tongue will force the teeth, and subsequently the throat, wide open, supposedly resulting in a bigger, more open sound. The forward tongue resists the pressure of the mouthpiece, controls the flow of air for lower and higher notes, and protects the lips and teeth from damage or injury from mouthpiece pressure. Because of the importance of the tongue in this method many refer to this as a "tongue-controlled embouchure." This technique facilitates the use of a smaller mouthpiece, and larger bore instruments. It results in improved intonation and stronger harmonically related partials across the player's range. Woodwind embouchure Flute embouchure A variety of transverse flute embouchures are employed by professional flutists, though the most natural form is perfectly symmetrical, the corners of the mouth relaxed, the lower lip placed along and at a short distance from the embouchure hole. The end-blown shakuhachi and hocchiku flutes demand especially difficult embouchures, sometimes requiring many lessons before any sound can be produced. The embouchure is an important element to tone production. The right embouchure will produce a beautiful sound and a correct intonation yet little time is spent developing it. The embouchure is produced with the muscles around the lips. These muscles have to be properly warmed up and exercised before practicing. Tone development exercises including long notes and harmonics must be done as part of the warm up every day. Reed instrument embouchure With the woodwinds, aside from the flute, piccolo, and recorder, the sound is generated by a reed and not with the lips. The embouchure is therefore based on sealing the area around the reed and the mouthpiece. This serves to prevent air from escaping while simultaneously supporting the reed allowing it to vibrate, and to constrict the reed preventing it from vibrating too much. With woodwinds, it is important to ensure that the mouthpiece is not placed too far into the mouth, which would result in too much vibration (no control), often creating a sound an octave (or harmonic twelfth for the clarinet) above the intended note. If the mouthpiece is not placed far enough into the mouth, no noise will be generated, as the reed will not vibrate. The embouchure for single reed woodwinds like the clarinet and saxophone is formed by resting the reed upon the bottom lip, which is in turn supported by the bottom teeth. The top teeth then rest on top of the mouthpiece. In both saxophone and clarinet playing, the corners of the mouth are brought inwards (similar to a drawstring bag) in order to create a seal. With the less common double-lip embouchure, the top lip is placed under (around) the top teeth. In both instances, the position of the tongue in the mouth plays a vital role in focusing and accelerating the air stream blown by the player. This results in a more mature and full sound, rich in overtones. The double reed woodwinds, the oboe and bassoon, have no mouthpiece. Instead the reed is two pieces of cane extending from a metal tube (oboe - staple) or placed on a bocal (bassoon, English horn). The reed is placed directly on the lips and then played like the double-lip embouchure described above. Compared to the single reed woodwinds, the reed is very small and subtle changes in the embouchure can have a dramatic effect on tuning, tone and pitch control. Polyphonic embouchure (finger-embouchure) Waterflute with 45 finger-embouchure holes, allowing an intricate but polyphonic embouchure-like control by inserting one finger into each of several of the instrument's mouths at the same time. Recent "waterflute" installations as fountains in public parks allow for a kind of reverse-embouchure. Whereas traditional instruments are supplied with compressible fluid (air) from the mouth of a player, the new waterflutes supply fluid (water) to the player, and sound is made when the player resists this supply of fluid. Water flows out through mouths of the instrument and the player blocks this flow of water to make sound. As a result, the player can put one finger in each of several of the instrument's mouths, to play a chord, while independently controlling the embouchure of the sound made at each mouth. Additionally, the player's own mouth is free to sing along with the instrument, while the player can independently affect the sound of each of several different musical parts with this "finger embouchure". Such instruments are referred to as hydraulophones. Finger-embouchure can be used to make a wide variety of sounds, ranging from a buzzing sound like that made by a defective faucet, to a very pure tone similar to the sound made by a glass harmonica. Finger embouchure can also be used to affect the intonation or temperament. For example, a skilled hydraulist can use finger-embouchure to remain in a just intonation while changing keys, or to fluidly vary the intonation of a chord while it is sounding. See also Double buzz relating to the brass players embouchure Saxophone embouchure Roy Stevens relating to the Stevens-Costello method Books about embouchure "Super Chops", "Trumpet Secrets" by Jerry Callet http://www.super-chops.com "Screamin - The Final Embouchure Method" video by Bill Carmichael http://www.screamin.net "Sail the Seven C's" Book & CD by Clyde Hunt http://www.bflatmusic.com/ "Embouchure Enhancement" by Roddy Lewis http://www.r-o-d-d-y-t-r-u-m-p-e-t.cc/home.html "A New Approach to Altissimo Trumpet Playing" by John Lynch http://www.asymmetric-mouthpiece.com/the_book.htm " Trumpet A-Z" ,"Trumpet FAQ'S", "Pros Talk Embouchure" by Clint 'Pops' McLaughlin http://www.BbTrumpet.com "Brass Tactics" by Chase Sanborn http://www.brasstactics.net/ "The Buzzing Book" by James Thompson http://userwww.service.emory.edu/~mmoor02/ABSPress.html#studies "The Complete Stevens-Costello Embouchure Technique (Rev 2006)" by Roy Stevens & Bill Moriarity http://www.charlescolin.com See also References External links Flute Embouchure Photos Jerome Callet's Superchops Embouchure Clinic Bahb Civiletti's TCE page Rune's Trumpet-think Discussion about embouchures Diagrams of embouchures Trumpet College Discussion about all embouchures Beginners guide to embouchures OJ's Discussion about all embouchures Saxophone embouchures Roy Roman's Stevens-Costello Embouchure Instruction Al Geller's Stevens-Costello Embouchure Instruction Tribute Site about Roy Stevens | Embouchure |@lemmatized embouchure:76 trumpeter:1 use:23 facial:1 muscle:5 shaping:1 lip:46 mouthpiece:31 wind:2 instrument:15 word:1 french:4 origin:2 relate:4 root:1 bouche:1 fr:1 mouth:15 proper:2 allow:6 instrumentalist:1 play:10 full:3 range:4 clear:1 tone:5 without:1 strain:1 damage:2 one:6 brass:27 perform:2 sound:16 produce:4 player:24 buzz:4 pitch:4 change:5 part:3 alter:1 amount:3 muscular:1 contraction:1 formation:1 performer:13 air:23 tightening:1 cheek:1 jaw:7 well:4 tongue:10 manipulation:1 affect:4 work:1 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5,155 | Meat | Varieties of meat. Meat is animal flesh that is used as food. Lawrie, 1. Most often, this means the skeletal muscle and associated fat, but it may also describe other edible tissues such as organs, livers, skin, brains, bone marrow, kidneys or lungs. The word meat is also used by the meat packing industry in a more restrictive sense—the flesh of mammalian species (pigs, cattle, etc.) raised and prepared for human consumption, to the exclusion of fish, poultry, and eggs. Etymology The word meat comes from the Old English word mete, which referred to food in general. Mad in Danish, mat in Swedish and Norwegian, and matur in Icelandic which also means 'food'. One definition that refers to meat as not including fish developed over the past few hundred years and has religious influences. The distinction between fish and "meat" is codified by the Jewish dietary law of kashrut, regarding the mixing of milk and meat, which does not forbid the mixing of milk and fish. Modern Jewish legal practice (halakha) on kashrut classifies the flesh of both mammals and birds as "meat"; fish are considered to be parve, neither meat nor a dairy food. The Catholic dietary restriction on "meat" on Fridays also does not apply to the cooking and eating of fish. The Latin word carō "meat" (also the root of 'carnal', referring to the 'pleasures of the flesh') is often a euphemism for sexual pleasure, effected from the function performed by fleshy organs. Thus 'meat' may refer to the human body in a sensual, or sexual, connotation. A meat market, in addition to simply denoting a market where meat is sold, also refers to a place or situation where humans are treated or viewed as commodities, especially a place known as one where a sexual partner may be found. "Meat" may also be used to refer to humans humorously or indifferently. In military slang, "meat shield" refers to soldiers sent towards an enemy to draw fire away from another unit. History Meat constituted a substantial proportion of even the earliest humans' diet, paleontological evidence suggests. Lawrie, 2. Early hunter-gatherers depended on the organized hunting of large animals such as bison and deer. The domestication of animals, of which we have evidence dating back to the end of the last glacial period (c. 10,000 years BP), allowed the systematic production of meat and the breeding of animals with a view to improving meat production. The animals which are now the principal sources of meat were domesticated in conjunction with the development of early civilizations: Sheep, originating from western Asia, were domesticated with the help of dogs prior to the establishment of settled agriculture, likely as early as the eighth millenium BC. Lawrie, 3. Several breeds of sheep were established in ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt by 3500–3000 BC. Presently, more than 200 sheep breeds exist. Cattle were domesticated in Mesopotamia after settled agriculture was established about 5000 BC, Lawrie, 5. and several breeds were established by 2500 BC. Lawrie, 6. Modern domesticated cattle fall into the groups Bos taurus (European cattle) and Bos indicus (zebu), both descended from the now-extinct Aurochs. The breeding of beef cattle, cattle optimized for meat production as opposed to animals best suited for draught or dairy purposes, began in the middle of the 18th century. Lawrie, 7. Domestic pigs, which are descended from wild boars, are known to have existed about 2500 BC in modern-day Hungary and in Troy; earlier pottery from Jericho and Egypt depicts wild pigs. Lawrie, 8. Pork sausages and hams were of great commercial importance in Greco-Roman times. Pigs continue to be bred intensively as they are being optimized to produce meat best suited for specific meat products. Lawrie, 9. Modern agriculture employs a number of techniques, such as progeny testing, to make animals evolve rapidly towards having the qualities desired by meat producers. Lawrie, 10. For instance, in the wake of well-publicised health concerns associated with saturated fats in the 1980s, the fat content of beef, pork and lamb fell from 20–26 percent to 4–8 percent within a few decades, both due to selective breeding for leanness and changed methods of butchery. Methods of genetic engineering aimed at improving the meat production qualities of animals are now also becoming available. Lawrie, 14. Even though it is a very old industry, meat production continues to be shaped strongly by the rapidly evolving demands of customers. The trend towards selling meat in pre-packaged cuts has increased the demand for larger breeds of cattle, which are better suited to producing such cuts. Lawrie, 11. Ever more animals not previously exploited for their meat are now being farmed, especially the more agile and mobile species, whose muscles tend to be developed better than those of cattle, sheep or pigs. Examples include the various antelope species, the zebra, water buffalo and camel, Lawrie, 11 et seq. as well as non-mammals such as the crocodile, emu and ostrich. Lawrie, 13. Another important trend in contemporary meat production is organic farming which, while providing no organoleptic benefit to meat so produced, Lawrie, 11, citing Ollson, V., Andersson, I., Ranson, K., Lundström, K. (2003) Meat Sci. 64, 287 and noting also that organically reared pigs "compare unfavourably" with conventionally reared ones "in some respects." meets an increasing demand for numerous reasons. Growth and development of meat animals Agricultural science has identified several factors bearing on the growth and development of meat in animals. Genetics Trait Heritability Table adapted from Lawrie, 17. Reproductive efficiency 2–10% Meat quality 15–30% Growth 20–40% Muscle/fat ratio 40–60% Several economically important traits in meat animals are heritable to some degree (see the table to the right) and can thus be selected for by breeding. In cattle, certain growth features are controlled by recessive genes which have not so far been controlled, complicating breeding. Lawrie, 18. One such trait is dwarfism; another is the doppelender or "double muscling" condition, which causes muscle hypertrophy and thereby increases the animal's commercial value. Genetic analysis continues to reveal the genetic mechanisms that control numerous aspects of the endocrine system and, through it, meat growth and quality. Lawrie, 19. Genetic engineering techniques can shorten breeding programmes significantly because they allow for the identification and isolation of genes coding for desired traits, and for the reincorporation of these genes into the animal genome. Lawrie, 21. To enable such manipulation, research is ongoing as of 2006 to map the entire genome of sheep, cattle and pigs. Some research has already seen commercial application. For instance, a recombinant bacterium has been developed which improves the digestion of grass in the rumen of cattle, and some specific features of muscle fibres have been genetically altered. Experimental reproductive cloning of commercially important meat animals such as sheep, pig or cattle has been successful. The multiple asexual reproduction of animals bearing desirable traits can thus be anticipated, Lawrie, 22. although this is not yet practical on a commercial scale. Environment Heat regulation in livestock is of great economic significance, because mammals attempt to maintain a constant optimal body temperature. Low temperatures tend to prolong animal development and high temperatures tend to retard it. Depending on their size, body shape and insulation through tissue and fur, some animals (e.g. pigs) have a relatively narrow zone of temperature tolerance and others (e.g. cattle) a broad one. Lawrie, 23. Static magnetic fields, for reasons still unknown, also retard animal development. Nutrition The quality and quantity of usable meat depends on the animal's plane of nutrition, i.e., whether it is over- or underfed. Scientists disagree, however, about how exactly the plane of nutrition influences carcass composition. Lawrie, 25. The composition of the diet, especially the amount of protein provided, is also an important factor regulating animal growth. Lawrie, 26. Ruminants, who may digest cellulose, are better adapted to poor-quality diets, but their ruminal microorganisms degrade high-quality protein if supplied in excess. Lawrie, 27. Because producing high-quality protein animal feed is expensive (see also Environmental impact below), several techniques are employed or experimented with to ensure maximum utilization of protein. These include the treatment of feed with formalin to protect amino acids during their passage through the rumen, the recycling of manure by feeding it back to cattle mixed with feed concentrates, or the partial conversion of petroleum hydrocarbons to protein through microbial action. In plant feed, environmental factors influence the availability of crucial nutrients or micronutrients, a lack or excess of which can cause a great many ailments. Lawrie, 29. In Australia, for instance, where the soil contains limited phosphate, cattle are being fed additional phosphate to increase the efficiency of beef production. Lawrie, 28. Also in Australia, cattle and sheep in certain areas were often found losing their appetite and dying in the midst of rich pasture; this was at length found to be a result of cobalt deficiency in the soil. Plant toxins are also a risk to grazing animals; for instance, fluoracetate, found in some African and Australian plants, kills by disrupting the cellular metabolism. Certain man-made pollutants such as methylmercury and some pesticide residues present a particular hazard due to their tendency to bioaccumulate in meat, potentially poisoning consumers. Lawrie, 30. Human intervention Meat producers may seek to improve the fertility of female animals through the administration of gonadotrophic or ovulation-inducing hormones. Lawrie, 31. In pig production, sow infertility is a common problem, possibly due to excessive fatness. Lawrie, 32. No methods currently exist to augment the fertility of male animals. Artificial insemination is now routinely used to produce animals of the best possible genetic quality, and the efficiency of this method is improved through the administration of hormones that synchronize the ovulation cycles within groups of females. Lawrie, 33. Growth hormones, particularly anabolic agents such as steroids, are used in some countries to accelerate muscle growth in animals. This practice has given rise to the beef hormone controversy, an international trade dispute. It may also decrease the tenderness of meat, although research on this is inconclusive, Lawrie, 35. and have other effects on the composition of the muscle flesh. Lawrie, 36 et seq. Where castration is used to improve control over male animals, its side effects are also counteracted by the administration of hormones. Sedatives may be administered to animals to counteract stress factors and increase weight gain. Lawrie, 39. The feeding of antibiotics to certain animals has been shown to improve growth rates also. This practice is particularly prevalent in the USA, but has been banned in the , partly because it causes antibiotic resistance in pathogenic microorganisms. Biochemical composition Numerous aspects of the biochemical composition of meat vary in complex ways depending on the species, breed, sex, age, plane of nutrition, training and exercise of the animal, as well as on the anatomical location of the musculature involved. Lawrie, 94–126. Even between animals of the same litter and sex there are considerable differences in such parameters as the percentage of intramuscular fat. Lawrie, 126. Main constituents Adult mammalian muscle flesh consists of roughly 75 percent of water, 19 percent of protein, 2.5 percent of intramuscular fat, 1.2 percent of carbohydrates and 2.3 percent of other soluble non-protein substances. These include nitrogenous compounds, such as amino acids, and inorganic substances such as minerals. Lawrie, 76. Muscle proteins are either soluble in water (sarcoplasmic proteins, about 11.5 percent of total muscle mass) or in concentrated salt solutions (myofibrillar proteins, about 5.5 percent of mass). Lawrie, 75. There are several hundred sarcoplasmic proteins. Lawrie, 77. Most of them – the glycolytic enzymes – are involved in the the glycolytic pathway, i.e., the conversion of stored energy into muscle power. Lawrie, 78. The two most abundant myofibrillar proteins, myosin and actin, Lawrie, 79. are responsible for the muscle's overall structure. The remaining protein mass consists of connective tissue (collagen and elastin) as well as organelle tissue. Fat in meat can be either adipose tissue, used by the animal to store energy and consisting of "true fats" (esters of glycerol with fatty acids), Lawrie, 82. or intramuscular fat, which contains considerable quantities of phospholipids and of unsaponifiable constituents such as cholesterol. Red and white meat Meat can be broadly classified as "red" or "white" depending on the concentration of myoglobin in muscle fiber. When myoglobin is exposed to oxygen, reddish oxymyoglobin develops, making myoglobin-rich meat appear red. The redness of meat depends on species, animal age and fiber type: Red meat contains more narrow muscle fibers that tend to operate over long periods without rest, Lawrie, 93. while white meat contains more broad fibers that tend to work in short fast bursts. The meat of adult mammals such as cows, sheep, goats and horses is generally considered red, while domestic chicken and turkey breast meat is generally considered white. Production Meat is produced by killing the animal in question and cutting the desired flesh out of it. These procedures are called slaughter and butchery, respectively. Attesting to the long history of meat consumption in human civilizations, ritual slaughter has become part of the practice of several religions. These rituals, as well as other pre-industrial meat production methods such as these used by indigenous peoples, are not detailed here. This section will instead provide an overview of contemporary industrialized meat production in dedicated slaughterhouses from cattle, sheep and pigs. Transport Upon reaching a predetermined age or weight, livestock are transported en masse from the farm to the slaughterhouse, a process called "live export". Depending on its length and circumstances, this exerts stress and injuries on the animals, and some may die en route. Apart from being arguably inhumane, unnecessary stress in transport may adversely affect the quality of the meat. Lawrie, 129. In particular, the muscles of stressed animals are low in water and glycogen, and their pH fails to attain acidic values, all of which results in poor meat quality. Lawrie, 130. Consequently, and also due to campaigning by animal welfare groups, laws and industry practices in several countries tend to become more restrictive with respect to the duration and other circumstances of livestock transports. Slaughter Animals are slaughtered by being first stunned and then exsanguinated (bled out). Death results from the one or the other procedure, depending on the methods employed. Stunning can be effected through asphyxiating the animals with carbon dioxide, shooting them with a gun or a captive bolt pistol, or shocking them with electric current. Lawrie, 134 et seq. In most forms of ritual slaughter, stunning is not allowed. Draining as much blood as possible from the carcass is necessary because blood causes the meat to have an unappealing appearance and is a very good breeding ground for microorganisms. Lawrie, 134. The exsanguination is accomplished by severing the carotid artery and the jugular vein in cattle and sheep, and the anterior vena cava in pigs. Lawrie, 137. Dressing and cutting After exsanguination, the carcass is dressed, that is, the head, feet, hide (except hogs), excess fat, viscera and offal are removed, leaving only bones and edible muscle. Lawrie, 138. Cattle and pig carcasses, but not those of sheep, are then split in half along the mid ventral axis, and the carcass is cut into wholesale pieces. The dressing and cutting sequence, long a province of manual labor, is progressively being fully automated. Conditioning Under hygienic conditions and without other treatment, meat can be stored at above its freezing point (–1.5 °C) for about six weeks without spoilage, during which time it undergoes an aging process that increases its tenderness and flavor. Lawrie, 141. During the first day after death, glycolysis continues until the accumulation of lactic acid causes the pH to reach about 5.5. The remaining glycogen, about 18 g per kg, is believed to increase the water-holding capacity and tenderness of the flesh when cooked. Lawrie, 87. Rigor mortis sets in a few hours after death as ATP is used up, causing actin and myosin to combine into rigid actomyosin and lowering the meat's water-holding capacity, Lawrie, 90. causing it to lose water ("weep"). Lawrie, 146. In muscles that enter rigor in a contracted position, actin and myosin filaments overlap and cross-bond, resulting in meat that is tough on cooking Lawrie, 144. – hence again the need to prevent pre-slaughter stress in the animal. Over time, the muscle proteins denature in varying degree, with the exception of the collagen and elastin of connective tissue, Lawrie, 142. and rigor mortis resolves. Because of these changes, the meat is tender and pliable when cooked just after death or after the resolution of rigor, but tough when cooked during rigor. As the muscle pigment myoglobin denatures, its iron oxidates, which may cause a brown discoloration near the surface of the meat. Ongoing proteolysis also contributes to conditioning. Hypoxanthine, a breakdown product of ATP, contributes to the meat's flavor and odor, as do other products of the discomposition of muscle fat and protein. Lawrie, 155. Spoilage and preservation The spoilage of meat occurs, if untreated, in a matter of hours or days and results in the meat becoming unappetizing, poisonous or infectious. Spoilage is caused by the practically unavoidable infection and subsequent decomposition of meat by bacteria and fungi, which are borne by the animal itself, by the people handling the meat, and by their implements. Meat can be kept edible for a much longer time – though not indefinitely – if proper hygiene is observed during production and processing, and if appropriate food safety, food preservation and food storage procedures are applied. Methods of preparation A spit barbecue at a street fair in New York City's East Village. Meat is prepared in many ways, as steaks, in stews, fondue, or as dried meat. It may be ground then formed into patties (as hamburgers or croquettes), loaves, or sausages, or used in loose form (as in "sloppy joe" or Bolognese sauce). Some meat is cured, by smoking, pickling, preserving in salt or brine (see salted meat and curing). Other kinds of meat are marinated and barbecued, or simply boiled, roasted, or fried. Meat is generally eaten cooked, but there are many traditional recipes that call for raw beef, veal or fish (tartare). Meat is often spiced or seasoned, as in most sausages. Meat dishes are usually described by their source (animal and part of body) and method of preparation. Meat is a typical base for making sandwiches. Popular varieties of sandwich meat include ham, pork, salami and other sausages, and beef, such as steak, roast beef, corned beef, and pastrami. Meat can also be molded or pressed (common for products that include offal, such as haggis and scrapple) and canned. Nutritional benefits and concerns +Typical Meat Nutritional Content from 110 grams (4 oz or .25 lb) Source calories protein carbs fat fish 110–140 20–25 g 0 g 1–5 g chicken breast 160 28 g 0 g 7 g lamb 250 30 g 0 g 14 g steak (beef top round) 210 36 g 0 g 7 g steak (beef T-bone) 450 25 g 0 g 35 g Further information: Nutrition, Foodborne illness, Health concerns associated with red meat All muscle tissue is very high in protein, containing all of the essential amino acids, and in most cases is a good source of zinc, vitamin B12, selenium, phosphorus, niacin, vitamin B6, iron and riboflavin. http://www.beef.org/uDocs/whatyoumisswithoutmeat638.pdf Muscle tissue is very low in carbohydrates and fibers. Dietary Fiber Meatless Diet The fat content of meat can vary widely depending on the species and breed of animal, the way in which the animal was raised, including what it was fed, the anatomical part of the body, and the methods of butchering and cooking. Wild animals such as deer are typically leaner than farm animals, leading those concerned about fat content to choose game such as venison. Decades of breeding meat animals for fatness (to provide calories for hard work) is being reversed by consumer demand for meat with less fat (for a more sedentary lifestyle). Red meat, such as beef, pork, and lamb, contains many essential nutrients necessary for healthy growth and development in children, as well as for good health and well-being in adults. These nutrients include iron, zinc, and protein. http://www.beef.org/uDocs/whatyoumisswithoutmeat638.pdf Most meats contain a full complement of the amino acids required for the human diet. Fruits and vegetables, by contrast, are usually lacking several essential amino acids. It is for this reason that people who abstain from eating all meat need to plan their diet carefully to include sources of all the necessary amino acids. The table in this section compares the nutritional content of several types of meat. While each kind of meat has about the same content of protein and carbohydrates, there is a very wide range of fat content. It is the additional fat that contributes most to the calorie content of meat, and to concerns about dietary health. In recent years, concerns have been raised over the use of meat as a regular part of the human diet. In a large-scale study, the consumption of red meat over a lifetime was found to raise the risk of cancer by 20 to 60 percent, while causing adverse mutations in DNA. In particular, red meat and processed meat were found to be associated with higher risk of cancers of the lung, esophagus, liver, and colon, among others. Animal fat, particularly from ruminants, tends to have a higher percentage of saturated fat vs. monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fat when compared to vegetable fats, with the exception of some tropical plant fats; Nutrients, Vitamins, Minerals and Dietary Information consumption of which has been correlated with various health problems. The saturated fat found in meat has been associated with significantly raised risks of colon cancer, breast cancer, osteoporosis, Cornell Science News: Less meat may reduce osteoporosis risk Osteoporosis Prevention Osteoporosis and prostate cancer, although some evidence suggests that risks of prostate cancer are unrelated to animal fat consumption. Meat has been correlated to increased risk of heart disease Eating Meat: a Little Doesn't Hurt and diabetes, with the risks of heart disease being three times greater for 45-64 year old men who eat meat daily, versus those who are vegetarian, according to one survey. Meat consumption and fatal ischemic heart disease. [Prev Med. 1984] - PubMed Result A large-scale study in 2008 also found that eating two or more servings of meat a day increases the risk of suffering from excessive fat around the waist, high blood sugar, high cholesterol, and high blood pressure by 25 percent compared to those who had two servings of meat a week or less. Meat, diet soda linked to heart disease - US study Pass on Meat and Soda To Avoid Heart Disease According to Study | HealthyLivingTalk.com - Diet, Weight, Healthy Living News and Tips One famous study, the Nurses' Health Study, followed about 100,000 female nurses and their eating habits. Nurses who ate the largest amount of animal fat were twice as likely to develop colon cancer as the nurses who ate the least amount of animal fat. Animal Fat Is Tied To Colon Cancer - New York Times In response to changing prices as well as health concerns about saturated fat and cholesterol, consumers have altered their consumption of various meats. A USDA report points out that consumption of beef in the United States between 1970–1974 and 1990–1994 dropped by 21%, while consumption of chicken increased by 90%. During the same period of time, the price of chicken dropped by 14% relative to the price of beef. In 1995 and 1996, beef consumption increased due to higher supplies and lower prices. Meat, like any food, can also transmit certain diseases, but complete cooking and avoiding recontamination reduces this possibility. A 2009 study by the National Cancer Institute revealed a direct link between the consumption of red meat and increased mortality. The study of more than a half million middle-aged and elderly Americans indicated that those who ate 4 ounces of red meat daily were 30% more likely to die within ten years. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/03/23/AR2009032301626.html?hpid=topnews Daily Red Meat Raises Chances Of Dying Early] Cooking meat Several studies published since 1990 indicate that cooking muscle meat creates heterocyclic amines (HCAs), which are thought to increase cancer risk in humans. Researchers at the National Cancer Institute published results of a study which found that human subjects who ate beef rare or medium-rare had less than one third the risk of stomach cancer than those who ate beef medium-well or well-done. http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/factsheet/Risk/heterocyclic-amines National Cancer Institute - Heterocyclic Amines in Cooked Meats While eating muscle meat raw may be the only way to avoid HCAs fully, the National Cancer Institute states that cooking meat below creates "negligible amounts" of HCAs. Also, microwaving meat before cooking may reduce HCAs by 90%. Heterocyclic Amines in Cooked Meats - National Cancer Institute Nitrosamines, present in processed and cooked foods, have been noted as being carcinogenic, being linked to colon cancer. Also, toxic compounds called PAHs, or Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, present in processed, smoked and cooked foods, are known to be carcinogenic. PAH - Occurrence in foods, dietary exposure and health effects Ethics of eating meat Processed meat in an American supermarket While most people have no ethical objections to eating meat, ethical issues regarding the consumption of meat can include objections to the act of killing animals or the agricultural practices surrounding the production of meat. Reasons for objecting to the practice of killing animals for consumption may include animal rights, environmental ethics, religious doctrine, or an aversion to inflicting pain or harm on other living creatures. The religion of Jainism has always opposed eating meat, and there are also many schools of Buddhism and Hinduism that condemn the eating of meat. Some people, while not vegetarians, refuse to eat the flesh of certain animals due to cultural or religious taboo, such as cats, dogs, horses, or rabbits. In some cases, specific meats (especially from pigs and cows) are forbidden within religious traditions. Some people eat only the flesh of animals which they believe have not been mistreated, and abstain from the meat of animals reared in factory farms or from particular products such as foie gras and veal. In vitro and imitation meat Main articles: Imitation meat, In vitro meat Various forms of imitation meat have been created to satisfy some vegetarians' and vegans' taste for the flavor and texture of meat. There is also some speculation about the possibility of growing in vitro meat from animal tissue. Nutrition wise, imitation meat is comparable to animal meat, however they rarely contain the same levels of saturated fat and can often contain valuable minerals and vitamins while still containing approximately the same levels of protein as animal meats. Nutritional Information Comparison for Meat Environmental impact The UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) has estimated that direct emissions from meat production account for about 18% of the world's total greenhouse gas emissions. The FAO figure accounts for the entire meat production cycle - clearing forested land, making and transporting fertiliser, burning fossil fuels in agricultural machinery, and the front and rear end emissions of cattle and sheep. Animals fed on grain and those which rely on grazing need more water than grain crops. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/3559542.stm BBC News - Hungry world 'must eat less meat' by Alex Kirby In tracking food animal production from the feed through to the dinner table, the inefficiencies of meat, milk and egg production range from a 4:1 energy input to protein output ratio up to 54:1. U.S. could feed 800 million people with grain that livestock eat The result is that producing animal-based food is typically much less efficient than the harvesting of grains, vegetables, legumes, seeds and fruits, though this might not be largely true for animal husbandry in parts of the developing world where factory farming is almost non existent, making animal based food much more sustainable. See also Slaughterhouse Bushmeat Livestock/Domestication Food science Gristle Hormonal meat List of meat animals Culinary name Vegetarianism/Veganism/Ethics of eating meat Sinew Red meat/White meat References Footnotes External links American Meat Science Association website Qualitionary - Legal Definitions - Meat | Meat |@lemmatized variety:2 meat:148 animal:68 flesh:10 use:11 food:16 lawrie:54 often:5 mean:2 skeletal:1 muscle:25 associate:5 fat:30 may:16 also:27 describe:2 edible:3 tissue:9 organ:2 liver:2 skin:1 brain:1 bone:3 marrow:1 kidney:1 lung:2 word:4 pack:1 industry:3 restrictive:2 sense:1 mammalian:2 specie:6 pig:14 cattle:20 etc:1 raise:6 prepare:2 human:11 consumption:13 exclusion:1 fish:8 poultry:1 egg:2 etymology:1 come:1 old:3 english:1 mete:1 refer:6 general:1 mad:1 danish:1 mat:1 swedish:1 norwegian:1 matur:1 icelandic:1 one:9 definition:2 include:11 develop:4 past:1 hundred:2 year:5 religious:4 influence:3 distinction:1 codify:1 jewish:2 dietary:6 law:2 kashrut:2 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5,156 | Kohlrabi | Kohlrabi (German Turnip) (Brassica oleracea Gongylodes Group) is a low, stout cultivar of the cabbage that will grow almost anywhere. It has been selected for its swollen, nearly spherical, Sputnik-like shape. The name comes from the German Kohl ("cabbage") plus Rübe ~ Rabi (Swiss German variant) ("turnip"), because the swollen stem resembles the latter. However, the actual "Kohlrübe" exists too and corresponds to the rutabaga in English, which is distinct from the kohlrabi. Kohlrabi has been created by artificial selection for lateral meristem growth; its origin in nature is the same as that of cabbage, broccoli, cauliflower, kale, collard greens, and brussels sprouts: They are all bred from, and are the same species as, the wild cabbage plant (Brassica oleracea). The taste and texture of kohlrabi are similar to those of a broccoli stem or cabbage heart, but milder and sweeter, with a higher ratio of flesh to skin. The young stem in particular can be as crisp and juicy as an apple, although much less sweet. Except for the Gigante cultivar, spring-grown kohlrabi much over 5 cm in size tend to be woody, as do fall-grown kohlrabi much over perhaps 10 cm in size; the Gigante cultivar can achieve great size while remaining of good eating quality. Kohlrabi can be eaten raw as well as cooked. There are several varieties commonly available, including White Vienna, Purple Vienna, Grand Duke, Gigante (also known as "Superschmeltz"), Purple Danube, and White Danube. Coloration of the purple types is superficial: the edible parts are all pale yellow. The leafy greens can also be eaten. Some varieties are grown as feed for cattle. Bailey, L. H., (1912, republished in 1975). Kohlrabi for stock-feeding. In Cyclopedia of American Agriculture: Vol. II--crops. Macmillan Publishing, New York. p. 389-390. ISBN 0405067623. Google Book Search. Retrieved on June 15, 2008. Kohlrabi is one of the most commonly eaten vegetables in Kashmir. Locally called Monj, the vegetable is eaten along with the leaves (haakh). Every Kashmiri household will have this on their dinner/lunch plate 3 to 4 times a week. Monj (kohlrabi) is made in many forms. There is a spicy version which the Pandits call "dum monj" while as the non-spicy version is called Monj-haakh. Alternative Names Arabic "الورديّة" (Al-Wardia) Assamese "Olkobi" Bengali "ওলকপি" (Olkopi) Czech "kedlubna" or "kedluben" Danish "Glaskål" Persian "کلم قمری" Hebrew "קולורבי" (Kolorabi) Hindi "गांठ-गोभी" (ganth-gobhi) Hungarian karalábé Kannada "Navil Kos" Marathi "Naval Kol" Norwegian "Kålrabi" or "Kålrot" Polish "Kalarepa" Portuguese "Couve-rábano" Punjabi "Kadam" Romanian "Gulie" Serbian "Келераба" ("Keleraba") Spanish "Nabo" Tamil "Nool Kol" Telugu "Nool kol" Sinhalese "Nokool" Swedish "Kålrot" Viet Nam "Xu hào" See also Rutabaga List of culinary vegetables External links PROTAbase on Brassica oleracea (kohlrabi) Horticultural information on the tasty kohlrabi From the Learn2Grow databases Kohlrabi and Brussels Sprouts Are European Kohlrabi: Plants For a Future database Spicy Kohlrabi recipe References | Kohlrabi |@lemmatized kohlrabi:15 german:3 turnip:2 brassica:3 oleracea:3 gongylodes:1 group:1 low:1 stout:1 cultivar:3 cabbage:5 grow:2 almost:1 anywhere:1 select:1 swollen:2 nearly:1 spherical:1 sputnik:1 like:1 shape:1 name:2 come:1 kohl:1 plus:1 rübe:1 rabi:1 swiss:1 variant:1 stem:3 resemble:1 latter:1 however:1 actual:1 kohlrübe:1 exist:1 correspond:1 rutabaga:2 english:1 distinct:1 create:1 artificial:1 selection:1 lateral:1 meristem:1 growth:1 origin:1 nature:1 broccoli:2 cauliflower:1 kale:1 collard:1 green:2 brussels:2 sprout:2 breed:1 specie:1 wild:1 plant:2 taste:1 texture:1 similar:1 heart:1 mild:1 sweeter:1 high:1 ratio:1 flesh:1 skin:1 young:1 particular:1 crisp:1 juicy:1 apple:1 although:1 much:3 less:1 sweet:1 except:1 gigante:3 spring:1 grown:2 cm:2 size:3 tend:1 woody:1 fall:1 perhaps:1 achieve:1 great:1 remain:1 good:1 eating:1 quality:1 eaten:1 raw:1 well:1 cook:1 several:1 variety:2 commonly:2 available:1 include:1 white:2 vienna:2 purple:3 grand:1 duke:1 also:3 know:1 superschmeltz:1 danube:2 coloration:1 type:1 superficial:1 edible:1 part:1 pale:1 yellow:1 leafy:1 eat:3 feed:1 cattle:1 bailey:1 l:1 h:1 republish:1 stock:1 feeding:1 cyclopedia:1 american:1 agriculture:1 vol:1 ii:1 crop:1 macmillan:1 publishing:1 new:1 york:1 p:1 isbn:1 google:1 book:1 search:1 retrieve:1 june:1 one:1 vegetable:3 kashmir:1 locally:1 call:3 monj:4 along:1 leaf:1 haakh:2 every:1 kashmiri:1 household:1 dinner:1 lunch:1 plate:1 time:1 week:1 make:1 many:1 form:1 spicy:3 version:2 pandits:1 dum:1 non:1 alternative:1 arabic:1 الوردي:1 ة:1 al:1 wardia:1 assamese:1 olkobi:1 bengali:1 ওলকপ:1 olkopi:1 czech:1 kedlubna:1 kedluben:1 danish:1 glaskål:1 persian:1 کلم:1 قمری:1 hebrew:1 קולורבי:1 kolorabi:1 hindi:1 ग:2 ठ:1 भ:1 ganth:1 gobhi:1 hungarian:1 karalábé:1 kannada:1 navil:1 ko:1 marathi:1 naval:1 kol:3 norwegian:1 kålrabi:1 kålrot:2 polish:1 kalarepa:1 portuguese:1 couve:1 rábano:1 punjabi:1 kadam:1 romanian:1 gulie:1 serbian:1 келераба:1 keleraba:1 spanish:1 nabo:1 tamil:1 nool:2 telugu:1 sinhalese:1 nokool:1 swedish:1 viet:1 nam:1 xu:1 hào:1 see:1 list:1 culinary:1 external:1 link:1 protabase:1 horticultural:1 information:1 tasty:1 databases:1 european:1 future:1 database:1 recipe:1 reference:1 |@bigram brussels_sprout:2 wild_cabbage:1 pale_yellow:1 leafy_green:1 viet_nam:1 culinary_vegetable:1 external_link:1 |
5,157 | Clarence_Thomas | Clarence Thomas (born June 23, 1948) is an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States, having served since 1991. Justice Thomas is the second African American to serve on the nation's highest court, after Justice Thurgood Marshall whom he succeeded. Thomas grew up in Georgia, and graduated from college and law school in New England. In 1974, he was appointed Assistant Attorney General in Missouri, and subsequently practiced law there in the private sector. In 1979, he became a legislative assistant to Missouri Senator John Danforth, and in 1981 was appointed as Assistant Secretary for Civil Rights at the U.S. Department of Education. The following year, Thomas became Chairman of the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, in which position he served for eight years until joining the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit in 1990. Nominated to the Supreme Court by President George H. W. Bush in 1991, Thomas's confirmation hearings were bitter and intensely fought. Since joining the Court, Thomas has taken a judicially conservative approach, seeking to uphold what he sees as the original meaning of the Constitution and statutes. Early life and education Clarence Thomas was born in Pin Point, Georgia, a small, impoverished African American community. His family are descendents of American Slaves in the American South. His father left his family when he was two years old. After a house fire left them homeless, Thomas and his younger brother Myers were taken to Savannah, Georgia, where their mother worked as a domestic employee. Thomas' sister Emma stayed behind with relatives in Pin Point. When Thomas was 7, the family moved in with his maternal grandfather, Myers Anderson, and Anderson's wife, Christine, in Savannah. Anderson had little formal education, but had built a fuel oil business that also sold ice. Thomas calls his grandfather "the greatest man I have ever known." When Thomas was 10, Anderson started taking the family to help at a farm every day from sunrise to sunset. His grandfather believed in hard work and self-reliance; he would counsel Thomas to "never let the sun catch you in bed." Thomas was the only black person at his high school in Savannah, where he was an honors student. Clarence Thomas Speaks Out BusinessWeek Raised Roman Catholic (he later attended an Episcopal church with his wife, but returned to the Catholic Church in the late 1990s), Thomas considered entering the priesthood at the age of 16, becoming the first black student to attend St. John Vianney's Minor Seminary (Savannah) on the Isle of Hope. He also attended Conception Seminary College, a Roman Catholic seminary in Missouri, briefly. No one in Thomas's family had attended college, and Thomas has said that during his first year in seminary he was one of only "three or four" blacks attending the school. Thomas told interviewers that he left the seminary after overhearing a student say, in response to the shooting of Martin Luther King, Jr., "Good, I hope the son of a bitch died." He did not think the church did enough to combat racism. At a nun's suggestion, Thomas attended the College of the Holy Cross in Worcester, Massachusetts, where as a sophomore transfer student he had to adjust to a New England atmosphere very different from what he was used to in Savannah. At Holy Cross, Thomas helped found the Black Student Union and once walked out after an incident in which black students were punished while white students were not for committing the same violation. Some of the priests negotiated with the protesting black students to return to school, and Thomas graduated in 1971 with an A.B. cum laude in English literature. Among Thomas's classmates at Holy Cross were future defense attorney Ted Wells and Pulitzer Prize-winning author Edward P. Jones. Thomas had a series of deferments from the military draft while in college at Holy Cross. Upon graduation, he was classified as 1-A and received a low lottery number, indicating that he might be drafted to serve in Vietnam. However, Thomas failed his medical exam, reportedly due to curvature of the spine, and was not drafted. Thomas then entered Yale Law School, from which he received a Juris Doctor (J.D.) degree in 1974, graduating towards the middle of his class. http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2007/09/27/60minutes/main3305443_page5.shtml Thomas has recollected that his Yale law degree was not taken seriously by law firms to which he applied after graduating, and potential employers assumed he obtained it because of affirmative action policies. Townhall.com::Talk Radio Online::Radio Show According to Thomas, he was "asked pointed questions, unsubtly suggesting that they doubted I was as smart as my grades indicated." Influences In 1975, when Thomas read Race and Economics by economist Thomas Sowell, he found an intellectual foundation for this philosophy. The book criticized social reforms by government and instead argued for individual action to overcome circumstances and adversity. He was also influenced by Ayn Rand, particularly The Fountainhead, and would later require his staffers to watch the 1949 film version. Thomas later said that novelist Richard Wright had been the most influential writer in his life; Wright's books Native Son and Black Boy "capture[d] a lot of the feelings that I had inside that you learn how to repress." Personal life Thomas has one child, Jamal Adeen, from his first marriage. This marriage, to college sweetheart Kathy Grace Ambush, lasted from 1971 until their 1981 separation and 1984 divorce. Thomas married Virginia Lamp in 1987. In 1997 they took in one of Thomas' great nephews. "Justice Thomas marches to own tune," Associated Press via USA Today (2001-09-03). Since joining the Supreme Court, Thomas requested an annulment of his first marriage from the Roman Catholic Church, which was granted. He was reconciled to the Church in the mid-1990s and remains a practicing Catholic, Insight Scoop | The Ignatius Press Blog: Did Clarence Thomas just say he's not Catholic? The religion of Clarence Thomas, Supreme Court Justice although he criticized the Church in his 2007 autobiography for its approach to racism in the 1960s, saying it was not as "adamant about ending racism then as it is about ending abortion now." Thomas is one of twelve Catholic justices—out of 110 justices total—in the history of the Supreme Court. Religious affiliation of Supreme Court justices Justice Sherman Minton converted to Catholicism after his retirement. In 1994, Thomas performed the wedding ceremony for radio host Rush Limbaugh and his wife, Marta Fitzgerald. The ceremony was held at Thomas's house. Career Early career Official Equal Employment Opportunity Commission portrait of Thomas From 1974 to 1977, Thomas was an Assistant Attorney General of Missouri under then State Attorney General John Danforth. When Danforth was elected to the U.S. Senate in 1976 to 1979, Thomas left to become an attorney with Monsanto in St. Louis, Missouri. He moved to Washington, D.C. and returned to work for Danforth from 1979 to 1981 as a Legislative Assistant. Both men shared a common bond in that both had studied to be ordained (although in different denominations). Danforth was to be instrumental in championing Thomas for the Supreme Court. In 1981, he joined the Reagan administration. From 1981 to 1982, he served as Assistant Secretary of Education for the Office of Civil Rights in the U.S. Department of Education. From 1982 to 1990 he was Chairman of the US Equal Employment Opportunity Commission ("EEOC"). Newsweek characterized Thomas as "openly ambitious for higher office" during his tenure at the EEOC. As Chairman, he promoted a doctrine of self-reliance, and halted the usual EEOC approach of filing class-action discrimination lawsuits, instead pursuing specific acts of individual discrimination. He also asserted in 1984 that black leaders were "watching the destruction of our race" as they "bitch, bitch, bitch" about President Reagan instead of working with the Reagan administration to alleviate teenage pregnancy, unemployment and illiteracy. Federal judge In June 1989, President George H. W. Bush appointed Thomas to the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit, despite Thomas's initial protestations that he would not like to be a judge. Thomas gained the support of other African-Americans such as former Transportation Secretary William Coleman, but said that when meeting white Democratic staffers in the United States Senate, he was "struck by how easy it had become for sanctimonious whites to accuse a black man of not caring about civil rights." Thomas's confirmation hearing was uneventful, and he developed warm relationships during his time at the federal court, including with fellow federal judge Ruth Bader Ginsburg. Thomas served on the D.C. Circuit Court of Appeals from March of 1990 until October of 1991. Federal Judicial Center Supreme Court nomination and confirmation When Justice William Brennan stepped down in 1990, Bush wanted to nominate Thomas as Brennan's replacement; he felt that replacing Marshall with Thomas could imply that Thomas received the appointment out of tokenism, but he then decided that Thomas had not yet had enough experience as a judge after only months on the federal bench. Bush therefore nominated Judge David Souter of the First Circuit instead. On July 1, 1991 President Bush nominated Clarence Thomas to replace Thurgood Marshall, who had recently announced his retirement. New York Times Marshall had been the only African-American justice on the court. Legal author Jeffrey Toobin says Bush and others saw Thomas as "pretty much" the only qualified black candidate who would be a reliable conservative vote. Toobin, Jeffrey. The Nine. First Anchor Books Edition, September 2008. Page 30. Thomas had flown to Kennebunkport, Maine to discuss the prospective appointment with Bush. After the appointment of David Souter and the ensuing disappointment of conservatives, White House chief of staff John H. Sununu had promised that the president would fill the next Supreme Court vacancy with a nominee so conservative that there would be a "knock-down, drag-out, bloody-knuckles, grass-roots fight" over confirmation. Toobin, Jeffrey. The Nine. First Anchor Books Edition, September 2008. Page 25. President Bush said that Thomas was the "best qualified [nominee] at this time." The American Bar Association's (ABA) rating for Judge Thomas was split between "qualified" and "not qualified." Thomas had never argued a case in the high courts, though others had been appointed without Supreme Court oral argument experience. Toobin, Jeffrey. The Nine. First Anchor Books Edition, September 2008. Page 31. Some Supreme Court justices had been appointed without any prior experience as a judge. http://supreme.lp.findlaw.com/supreme_court/justices/nopriorexp.html Toobin says Thomas had never written a legal book, article, or brief of any consequence, and had been a judge for only a year. Organizations including the NAACP, the Urban League and the National Organization for Women opposed the appointment based on Thomas's criticism of affirmative action and suspicions that Thomas might not be a supporter of the Supreme Court judgment in Roe v. Wade; NOW and the NAACP had also protested Bush's previous Court appointee, David Souter. Under questioning during confirmation hearings, Thomas repeatedly asserted that he had not formulated a position on the Roe decision. It is routine for nominees, at all levels of the Federal judiciary, to refuse to discuss cases during their confirmation hearings that might come before them if they are confirmed. Clinton appointed Associate Justices Ruth Bader Ginsburg and Stephen Breyer, who both refused to discuss Roe before the Judiciary Committee, even though Ginsburg has worked for years for the ACLU defending it. Despite this nearly universal refusal of nominees to discuss hot button issues such as Roe, members of the Senate Judiciary Committee nearly always try to draw the nominee's view out during confirmation hearings. Some of the public statements of Thomas's opponents foreshadowed the confirmation fight that would occur. One such statement came from activist Florynce Kennedy at a July 1991 conference of the National Organization for Women in New York City. Making reference to the failure of Ronald Reagan's nomination of Robert Bork, she said of Thomas, "We're going to 'bork' him." Wall Street Journal The liberal campaign to defeat the Bork nomination served as a model for liberal interest groups opposing Thomas. Tushnet, Mark. A Court Divided, page 335 (Norton & Company 2005). Likewise, in view of what had happened to Bork, Thomas' confirmation hearings were also approached as a political campaign by the White House and Senate Republicans. Clarence Thomas's formal confirmation hearings began on September 10, 1991. Thomas was reticent when answering Senators' questions during the appointment process. Four years earlier, Robert Bork, a law professor, had expounded on his judicial philosophy during his confirmation, and he had been refused confirmation. Whereas Thomas' earlier writings had frequently referenced the legal theory of natural law, Thomas distanced himself from that controversial stance during his confirmation hearings, giving the impression that he had no views. Thomas himself later asserted in his autobiography that in the course of his professional career, he had not developed a judicial philosophy. Anita Hill allegations Toward the end of the confirmation hearings, an FBI interview with Anita Hill who had worked for Thomas at the Department of Education and the EEOC, was leaked. Hill, an attorney, was then called to testify at Thomas' confirmation hearings, where she alleged that Thomas had subjected her to inappropriate harassing comments of a sexual nature. Hill's testimony included lurid details, and she was aggressively questioned by some Senators. In particular, the questioning by Senator Specter was intense. See Morrison, Toni. “Race-ing Justice, En-gendering Power,” page 55 (Pantheon Books 1992). After the questioning, Specter said that, "the testimony of Professor Hill in the morning was flat out perjury", and that "she specifically changed it in the afternoon when confronted with the possibility of being contradicted." See transcript, page 230. Thomas denied the allegations, stating: Hill was the only person to testify at the Senate hearings against Thomas. Angela Wright, who worked with Thomas at the EEOC before he fired her, "The Thomas Nomination; On the Hearing Schedule: Eight Further Witnesses," The New York Times (1991-10-13) decided not to testify, See hearing record from October 13, 1991. Senator Biden wrote to Wright: "I wish to make clear, however, that if you want to testify at the hearing in person, I will honor that request." Wright responded to Biden: "I agree the admission of the transcript of my interview and that of Miss Jourdain's in the record without rebuttal at the hearing represents my position and is completely satisfactory to me." but alleged similar improprieties in a written statement, saying that Thomas had repeatedly made sexual comments to her, commenting on her body or pressuring her for dates. The New York Times. "THE THOMAS NOMINATION; Excerpts From Judiciary Committee's Interview of Angela Wright." Oct. 4, 1991. Also, Sukari Hardnett, a former Thomas assistant, wrote to the Senate committee saying that although Thomas had not harassed her, "if you were young, black, female, reasonably attractive and worked directly for Clarence Thomas, you knew full well you were being inspected and auditioned as a female." http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/10/02/AR2007100201822.html http://www.fair.org/index.php?page=1896 http://hnn.us/comments/121846.html Other former colleagues differed, and testified on Thomas's behalf. Nancy Altman, who shared an office with Thomas at the Department of Education, testified that she "could hear virtually every conversation for two years that Clarence Thomas had ... [and n]ot once in those two years did I ever hear Clarence Thomas make a sexist or offensive comment...." Altman said that it was "not credible that Clarence Thomas could have engaged in the kinds of behavior that Anita Hill alleges, without any of the women who he worked closest with—dozens of us, we could spend days having women come up, his secretaries, his chief of staff, his other assistants, his colleagues—without any of us having sensed, seen or heard something." http://www.gpoaccess.gov/congress/senate/judiciary/sh102-1084pt4/589-590.pdf page 590 Diane Holt testified that in the years after Hill left for another job, Hill called at least a dozen times. After extensive debate, the Judiciary Committee split 7–7 on September 27, sending the nomination to the full Senate without a recommendation. Thomas was confirmed by a 52–48 vote on October 15, 1991, the narrowest margin for approval in more than a century. Hall, Kermit (ed), The Oxford Companion to the Supreme Court of the United States, page 871, Oxford Press, 1992 The final floor vote was mostly along party lines: 41 Republicans and 11 Democrats voted to confirm while 46 Democrats and two Republicans voted to reject the nomination. The debate over who was telling the truth continues, and several books have been written about the original hearings and testimony that could have been presented. Clarence Thomas and Anita Hill have both written autobiographies that include their takes on the hearings. The conduct, meaning, and outcome of the hearings are still vigorously disputed by all sides. Early years on the Court Though Thomas was immediately welcomed by most Justices, including Marshall, whom he was replacing, law clerks of the more liberal justices viewed Thomas with ill-disguised contempt, questioning his qualifications and intellectual heft. Greenburg, Jan Crawford. Supreme Conflict: The Inside Story of the Struggle for Control of the United States Supreme Court.2007. Penguin Books. Page 112. According to Jan Crawford Greenburg, Justice Harry Blackmun allowed his clerks to refer to Christopher Landau, a Thomas clerk, as "Justice," because they saw him as the one really "running the show." Greenburg called this "a rude and glaring breach of protocol." Greenburg, Jan Crawford. Supreme Conflict: The Inside Story of the Struggle for Control of the United States Supreme Court.2007. Penguin Books. Pages 112-113. Greenburg says that pundits' portrayal of Thomas as Antonin Scalia's understudy was grossly inaccurate - she says that from early on, it was more often Scalia changing his mind to agree with Thomas, rather than the other way around. Greenburg, Jan Crawford. Supreme Conflict: The Inside Story of the Struggle for Control of the United States Supreme Court.2007. Penguin Books. Page 115. However, Greenburg points out that the forcefulness of Thomas's views pushed Justices Souter, Sandra Day O'Connor, and Anthony Kennedy away. Greenburg, Jan Crawford. Supreme Conflict: The Inside Story of the Struggle for Control of the United States Supreme Court.2007. Penguin Books. Pages 115-116. Later years on the Court Thomas has rarely given media interviews during his time on the Court. He said in 2007: "One of the reasons I don't do media interviews is, in the past, the media often has its own script." In 2007, Justice Thomas received a $1.5 million advance for writing his memoir, My Grandfather's Son. Judicial philosophy Clarence Thomas being sworn in by Byron White, as wife Virginia Lamp Thomas looks on. Conservatism and originalism Justice Thomas is often described as an originalist, and may be the most judicially conservative member of the Supreme Court. Toobin, Jeffrey. The Nine. First Anchor Books Edition, September 2008. Page 116. http://www.oyez.org/cases/2000-2009/2005/2005_04_623/ideology/#opinions http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2007/09/27/60minutes/main3305443.shtml http://articles.latimes.com/2007/oct/01/entertainment/et-book1 However, Justice Scalia is sometimes viewed as perhaps more conservative. Marshall, Thomas. Public Opinion and the Rehnquist Court, page 79 (SUNY Press, 2008). Von Drehle, David. "Executive Branch Reined In", Washington Post (2004-06-29). West, Paul. A president under siege throws down the gauntlet,” Hartford Courant (2005-11-01). Former Thomas clerk Erik Jaffe has asserted that the term "conservative" can be somewhat confusing when used with reference to a judge: Justice Thomas also acknowledges having some "libertarian leanings." Kauffman B., "Clarence Thomas", Reason Magazine, November 1987, Accessed May 7, 2007. Voting alignment John Fox, a writer and documentary film producer, wrote an online biography of Justice Thomas published in December 2006 by the Public Broadcasting System in which he stated that, "Thomas ... almost always votes with Scalia." Fox, John. “Biographies of the Robes: Clarence Thomas,” PBS (December 2006) The Harvard Law Review reports that on average, from 1994 to 2004, Scalia and Thomas had an 86.7% voting alignment, the highest on the court, followed by Ginsburg and Souter (85.6%), Rehnquist and Kennedy (84.9%), Breyer and Ginsburg (82.1%), and Rehnquist and O’Connor (81.3%). “Nine Justices, Ten Years: A Statistical Retrospective,” Harvard Law Review, volume 118, page 510, 519 (2004). More recently, other pairs of justices have had alignments closer than (or as close as) the Scalia-Thomas alignment. Baude, Will. Brothers in Law, The New Republic Online, (2004-06-30): "Justices Souter and Ginsburg were in complete agreement in 85 percent of the Court’s decisions. Chief Justice Rehnquist agreed with Justice O’Connor in 79 percent and Justice Kennedy in 77 percent. Justices Stevens and Souter agreed 77 percent of the time; so did Justices Ginsburg and Breyer. Thomas and Scalia agreed in only 73 percent of the cases. Thomas regularly breaks with Scalia, disagreeing on points of doctrine, finding a more measured and judicial tone, and calling for the elimination of bad law. Unless he is simply a very bad yes-man, Clarence Thomas is a more independent voice than most people give him credit for." For example, in 2005 seven pairs of justices had an alignment as close, and in 2006 five pairs of justices had an alignment as close. According to Tom Goldstein, during the 2006-07 term, Justices Alito and Roberts "had the highest proportion of agreement of any members of the Court, 89 percent in pure agreement, that is to say, not just in the result but in absolute, complete agreement, every word.” Mauro, Tony. "Reading the Roberts Court," Legal Times (2007-08-17). The conventional wisdom that Thomas's votes follow Antonin Scalia's is reflected by Linda Greenhouse's observation that Thomas voted with Scalia 91 percent of the time during October Term 2006, Greenhouse, Linda."In Steps Big and Small, Supreme Court Moved Right", New York Times, July 1, 2007. and with Justice John Paul Stevens the least, 36% of the time. Greenhouse, Linda. "In Steps Big and Small, Supreme Court, Moved Right", The New York Times, July 1, 2007. Statistics compiled annually by Tom Goldstein of SCOTUSblog demonstrate that Greenhouse's count is methodology-specific, counting non-unanimous cases where Scalia and Thomas voted for the same litigant, regardless of whether they got there by the same reasoning. Goldstein's statistics show that the two agreed in full only 74% of the time, and that the frequency of agreement between Scalia and Thomas is not as outstanding as is often implied by pieces aimed at lay audiences. For example, in that same term, Justices Souter and Ginsburg voted together 81% of the time by the method of counting that yields a 74% agreement between Thomas and Scalia; by the metric that produces the 91% Scalia/Thomas figure, Justices Ginsburg and Breyer agreed 90% of the time, and Chief Justice Roberts and Justice Alito agreed 94% of the time. Legal correspondent Jan Crawford Greenburg wrote in her book on the Supreme Court that Justice Thomas's forceful views have moved moderates like Sandra Day O'Connor further to the left, but frequently attracted votes from former Chief Justice Rehnquist and Justice Scalia. Greenburg, Jan Crawford Greenburg, . Supreme Conflict: The Inside Story of the Struggle for Control of the United States Supreme Court.2007. Penguin Books. Page 166. Frequency of dissent The online PBS biography of Justice Thomas by John Fox states that, "He [sic] decisions frequently disagree with those of the Court majority." However, four other justices dissented as frequently in 2007. “The Statistics,” Harvard Law Review, volume 121, page 439 (2007). Three other justices dissented as frequently in 2006. “The Statistics,” Harvard Law Review, volume 120, page 372 (2006). One other justice dissented as frequently in 2005. “The Statistics,” Harvard Law Review, volume 119, page 415 (2005). From 1994 to 2004, on average, Justices Stevens and Scalia were both more frequent dissenters than Justice Thomas. Stare decisis The online PBS biography of Justice Thomas by John Fox states that Thomas "has little or no respect for judicial precedent." However, law professor Michael J. Gerhardt asserts that Thomas has supported leaving a broad spectrum of constitutional decisions intact. Gerhardt, Michael. The Power of Precedent, page 188 (Oxford University Press 2008): Thomas "does not, at least statistically, urge more than three overrulings per term, thus indicating his willingness to leave a fairly broad spectrum of constitutional decisions intact". Justice Thomas supports statutory stare decisis. Barrett, Amy. “Statutory Stare Decisis in the Courts of Appeals,” George Washington Law Review (2005). During his confirmation hearings Thomas said: "[S]tare decisis provides continuity to our system, it provides predictability, and in our process of case-by-case decision making, I think it is a very important and critical concept." "A Big Question About Clarence Thomas", The Washington Post, October 14, 2004. Accessed May 7, 2007. Among the thirteen justices who served on the Rehnquist Court, Thomas ranked eleventh for overturning precedent (as of 2008). However, he urged overruling precedent more frequently than the other justices. Gerhardt, Michael. The Power of Precedent, pages 249 (ranked eleventh for overturning precedent) and 12 (most frequently urged overturning) (Oxford University Press 2008). According to Justice Scalia, Justice Thomas is more willing to overrule constitutional cases: "If a constitutional line of authority is wrong, he would say let's get it right. I wouldn't do that." Ringel, Jonathan. “The Bombshell in the Clarence Thomas Biography”, Daily Report bvia Law.com (2004-08-05). Scalia also said that Thomas "doesn't believe in stare decisis, period." Thomas's belief in originalism is strong; he has said, "When faced with a clash of constitutional principle and a line of unreasoned cases wholly divorced from the text, history, and structure of our founding document, we should not hesitate to resolve the tension in favor of the Constitution's original meaning." Thomas believes that an erroneous decision can and should be overturned, no matter how old it is. Toobin, Jeffrey. The Nine. First Anchor Books Edition, September 2008. Page 120. Commerce Clause Justice Thomas consistently supports a strict interpretation of the Constitution's interstate commerce clause, Toobin, Jeffrey. The Nine. First Anchor Books Edition, September 2008. Page 117. limiting federal power, and a broad interpretation of states' sovereign immunity. E.g. Seminole Tribe v. Florida. In both United States v. Lopez and United States v. Morrison Thomas wrote a separate concurring opinion arguing for the original meaning of the commerce clause and criticizing the substantial effects formula. Thomas sees manufacturing and agriculture as being outside of the scope of the Commerce Clause, and therefore not subject to federal regulation. http://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/93-1260.ZC1.html He believes federal legislators have abused the Commerce Clause, and critics argue that his limited view of Congressional authority would invalidate much of the contemporary work of the federal government, if it were shared by the majority. Thomas wrote a sharply worded dissent in Gonzales v. Raich, a decision that permitted the federal government to arrest, prosecute, and imprison patients who were using medical marijuana. He had previously authored United States v. Oakland Cannabis Buyers' Cooperative, an earlier case that permitted the federal government to inspect medical marijuana dispensaries (the Oakland case dealt with the issue of medical necessity rather than federalism). Thomas's conception of federal preemption can be seen in Altria Group v. Good, where his dissenting opinion said the federal Labeling Act barred a suit brought by consumers. The consumers charged that a cigarette manufacturer's advertising of product as "light" and "low tar" had misled them, causing smoking-related health problems. http://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/07-562.ZD.html Federalism and "states' rights" Federalism was a central part of the Rehnquist Court's constitutional agenda. Justice Thomas consistently voted for outcomes that promoted state-governmental authority, in cases involving federalism-based limits on Congress’s enumerated powers. Joondeph, Bradley “Federalism, the Rehnquist Court, and the Modern Republican Party,” Oregon Law Review, Volume 87 (2008): "Most scholars agree that federalism was central to the Rehnquist Court’s constitutional agenda." According to Ann Althouse, the Court has yet to move toward "the broader, more principled version of federalism propounded by Justice Thomas." Althouse, Ann. “Why Talking About States' Rights Cannot Avoid the Need for Normative Federalism Analysis: A Response to Professors Baker and Young,” Duke Law Journal, Volume 51, page 363 (2001). The term "states' rights" is sometimes used instead of the term "federalism." According to Althouse, the former term is inflammatory due to historical association with racism and segregation, and is more often part of the vocubulary of opponents (rather than supporters) of the Court’s more recent federalism jurisprudence. Justice Thomas has been characterized as defending "states' rights," for example by Harvard sociology professor Orlando Patterson. Patterson, Orlando. “Thomas Agonistes,” New York Times (2007-06-17). Patterson wrote: "His ardent defense of states’ rights would have required him to uphold Virginia’s anti-miscegenation law, not to mention segregated education, yet he lives with a white wife in Virginia." Patterson did not point to any case where Justice Thomas defended "states’ rights", however. Justice Thomas has endorsed the Court’s opinion in Loving v. Virginia, which held that state laws banning inter-racial marriage violate the Equal Protection Clause. See Lawrence v. Texas, 539 U.S. 558 (2003) (Thomas, J., dissenting). Thomas has also endorsed the Court’s opinion in Brown v. Board of Education which held that state laws requiring segregated education violate the Equal Protection Clause. Parents Involved in Community Schools v. Seattle School District, 551 U.S. (2007). Executive power Thomas has argued that the executive branch has broad authority under the Constitution and federal statutes. In Hamdi v. Rumsfeld, he was the only justice who agreed with the Fourth Circuit that Congress had power to authorize the President's detention of combatants in the narrow circumstances alleged in that case. Hamdi v. Rumsfeld, 542 U.S. 507 (2004). He also was one of three justices who dissented in Hamdan v. Rumsfeld, which held that the military commissions set up by the Bush administration to try detainees at Guantanamo Bay required explicit congressional authorization because they conflicted with both the Uniform Code of Military Justice (UCMJ) and "at least" Common Article 3 of the Geneva Convention. Hamdan v. Rumsfeld, Supreme Court Syllabus, pg. 4., point 4. Thomas argued that Hamdan is an illegal combatant and therefore not protected by the Geneva Convention and also agreed with Justice Scalia that the Court was "patently erroneous" in its declaration of jurisdiction in this case. Free speech Among the present Supreme Court, Thomas is typically the second most likely to uphold free speech claims (tied with David Souter), as of 2002. Volokh, Eugene. How the Justices Voted in Free Speech Cases, 1994-2002, UCLA Law He has voted in favor of First Amendment claims in cases involving a wide variety of issues, including pornography, campaign contributions, political leafletting, religious speech, and commercial speech. On occasion, however, he has disagreed with free speech claimants. For example, he dissented in Virginia v. Black, a case that struck down a Virginia statute that banned cross-burning, and he authored ACLU v. Ashcroft, which referred the Child Online Protection Act back to District Court, where COPA was overturned. Concurring in Morse v. Frederick, he argued that Tinker v. Des Moines should be overruled and that students' free speech rights in public schools are limited. http://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/06-278.ZC.html. Fourth Amendment In the cases regarding the Fourth Amendment, which prohibits unreasonable searches and seizures, Thomas often favors police over defendants. For example, his opinion for the court in Board of Education v. Earls upheld drug testing for students involved in extracurricular activities, and he wrote again for the court in Samson v. California, permitting random searches on parolees. He dissented in the case Georgia v. Randolph, which prohibited warrantless searches that one resident approves and the other opposes, arguing that the case was controlled by the court's decision in Coolidge v. New Hampshire. In Indianapolis v. Edmond, Thomas described the court's extant caselaw as having held that "suspicionless roadblock seizures are constitutionally permissible if conducted according to a plan that limits the discretion of the officers conducting the stops." Although he expressed doubt that those cases were correctly decided, he concluded that since the litigants in the case at bar had not briefed or argued that the earlier cases be overruled, he believed that the court should assume their validity and rule accordingly. http://supct.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/99-1030.ZD1.html There are counterexamples, however: for example, he was in the majority in Kyllo v. United States, which held that the use of thermal imaging technology to probe a suspect's home, without a warrant, violated the Fourth Amendment. Eighth Amendment and capital punishment Justice Thomas was among the dissenters in both Atkins v. Virginia and Roper v. Simmons, which held that the Eighth Amendment to the United States Constitution prohibits the application of the death penalty to certain classes of persons. In Kansas v. Marsh, his opinion for the court indicated a belief that the Constitution affords states broad procedural latitude in imposing the death penalty provided they remain within the limits of Furman v. Georgia and Gregg v. Georgia, the 1976 case in which the court had reversed its 1972 ban on death sentences as long as states followed certain procedural guidelines. In Foucha v. Louisiana, Thomas dissented from the majority Supreme Court opinion which required the removal from a mental institution of a prisoner who had become sane. The court held that a Louisiana statute violated the Due Process Clause "because it allows an insanity acquittee to be committed to a mental institution until he is able to demonstrate that he is not dangerous to himself and others, even though he does not suffer from any mental illness." http://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/90-5844.ZS.html Dissenting, Thomas cast the issue as a matter of federalism. Greenburg, Jan Crawford. Supreme Conflict: The Inside Story of the Struggle for Control of the United States Supreme Court.2007. Penguin Books. Page 117. "Removing sane insanity acquittees from mental institutions may make eminent sense as a policy matter," he concluded, "but the Due Process Clause does not require the States to conform to the policy preferences of federal judges." http://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/90-5844.ZD2.html In Hudson v. McMillian, a prisoner had been beaten, garnering a cracked lip, broken dental plate, loosened teeth, and cuts and bruises. The Court stated that these were not serious injuries, but held that "[t]he use of excessive physical force against a prisoner may constitute cruel and unusual punishment even though the inmate does not suffer serious injury." Hudson v. McMillian, 503 U.S. 1 (1992). Dissenting, Thomas wrote that, in his view, "a use of force that causes only insignificant harm to a prisoner may be immoral, it may be tortious, it may be criminal, and it may even be remediable under other provisions of the Federal Constitution, but it is not 'cruel and unusual punishment.' In concluding to the contrary, the Court today goes far beyond our precedents.” Thomas's vote - in one of his first cases after joining the Court - was an early example of his willingness to be the sole dissenter (Scalia later joined the opinion). Greenburg, Jan Crawford. Supreme Conflict: The Inside Story of the Struggle for Control of the United States Supreme Court.2007. Penguin Books. Page 119. Thomas' opinion was criticized by the 7-member majority of the Court, which wrote that by comparing physical assault to other prison conditions such as poor prison food, Thomas' opinion ignored "the concepts of dignity, civilized standards, humanity, and decency that animate the Eighth Amendment." According to historian David Garrow, Thomas's dissent in Hudson was a "classic call for federal judicial restraint, reminiscent of views that were held by Felix Frankfurter and John M. Harlan II a generation earlier, but editorial criticism rained down on him." Garrow, David. "Saving Thomas", The New Republic (2004-10-25). Thomas would later respond to the accusation "that I supported the beating of prisoners in that case. Well, one must either be illiterate or fraught with malice to reach that conclusion....no honest reading can reach such a conclusion." In Doggett v. United States, the defendant had been a fugitive since his indictment in 1980. After he was arrested in 1988, the court held that the 8½ year delay between indictment and arrest violated Doggett's Sixth Amendment right to a speedy trial. http://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/90-0857.ZS.html Thomas dissented, arguing that the purpose of the Speedy Trial Clause was to prevent "'undue and oppressive incarceration' and the 'anxiety and concern accompanying public accusation'" and that the case implicated neither. http://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/90-0857.ZD2.html (citation omitted). He cast the case as instead "present[ing] the question [of] whether, independent of these core concerns, the Speedy Trial Clause protects an accused from two additional harms: (1) prejudice to his ability to defend himself caused by the passage of time; and (2) disruption of his life years after the alleged commission of his crime." Thomas dissented from the court's decision to, as he saw it, answer the former in the affirmative. Id. Thomas wrote that dismissing the conviction "invites the Nation's judges to indulge in ad hoc and result-driven second guessing of the government's investigatory efforts. Our Constitution neither contemplates nor tolerates such a role." Greenburg, Supreme Conflict, page 123. In United States v. Bajakajian, Thomas joined with the Court's more liberal bloc to write the majority opinion declaring a fine unconstitutional under the Eighth Amendment. The fine was for failing to declare over $300,000 in a suitcase on an international flight. Under a federal statute, 18 U.S.C. § 982(a)(1), the passenger would have had to forfeit the entire amount. Thomas noted that the case required a distinction to be made between civil forfeiture and a fine exacted with the intention of punishing the respondent. He found that the forfeiture in this case was clearly intended as a punishment at least in part, was "grossly disproportional," and a violation of the Excessive Fines Clause. http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?court=us&vol=000&invol=96-1487 Fourteenth Amendment In Elk Grove Unified School District v. Newdow and Cutter v. Wilkinson, Thomas argued that the Establishment Clause was not incorporated to states by the Fourteenth Amendment, directly challenging the precedent Everson v. Board of Education. Thomas believes that the Fourteenth Amendment forbids any consideration of race, such as race-based affirmative action or preferential treatment. In Adarand Constructors v. Pena, for example, he wrote that "there is a 'moral [and] constitutional equivalence' between laws designed to subjugate a race and those that distribute benefits on the basis of race in order to foster some current notion of equality. Government cannot make us equal; it can only recognize, respect, and protect us as equal before the law. ¶ That [affirmative action] programs may have been motivated, in part, by good intentions cannot provide refuge from the principle that under our Constitution, the government may not make distinctions on the basis of race." http://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/93-1841.ZC1.html (citation omitted) In Gratz v. Bollinger, Thomas said that, in his view, "a State’s use of racial discrimination in higher education admissions is categorically prohibited by the Equal Protection Clause." http://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/02-516.ZC1.html In Parents Involved in Community Schools v. Seattle School District No. 1, Thomas joined the opinion of Chief Justice Roberts, concluding that "[t]he way to stop discrimination on the basis of race is to stop discriminating on the basis of race." http://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/05-908.ZO.html Concurring, Thomas wrote that "if our history has taught us anything, it has taught us to beware of elites bearing racial theories," and charged that the dissent carried "similarities" to the arguments of the segregationists in Brown v. Board of Education. http://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/05-908.ZC.html And in Grutter v. Bollinger, he approvingly quoted Justice Harlan's Plessy v. Ferguson dissent: “Our Constitution is color-blind, and neither knows nor tolerates classes among citizens.” http://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/02-241.ZX1.html Abortion In Planned Parenthood v. Casey (1992), the court reaffirmed Roe v. Wade. Thomas joined the dissenting opinions of Chief Justice William Rehnquist and Justice Antonin Scalia. Rehnquist wrote that "[w]e believe Roe was wrongly decided, and that it can and should be overruled consistently with our traditional approach to stare decisis in constitutional cases." http://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/91-744.ZX3.html Scalia's opinion concluded that the right to obtain an abortion is not "a liberty protected by the Constitution of the United States." http://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/91-744.ZX4.html "[T]he Constitution says absolutely nothing about it," Scalia wrote, "and [ ] the longstanding traditions of American society have permitted it to be legally proscribed." http://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/91-744.ZX4.html In Stenberg v. Carhart (2000) the Court struck down a state ban on partial-birth abortion, concluding that it failed the "undue burden" test established in Casey. Thomas dissented, writing: "Although a State may permit abortion, nothing in the Constitution dictates that a State must do so." http://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/99-830.ZD3.html He went on to excoriate the reasoning of the Casey and Stenberg majorities: "The majority’s insistence on a health exception is a fig leaf barely covering its hostility to any abortion regulation by the States -- a hostility that Casey purported to reject." In Gonzales v. Carhart (2007), the court rejected a facial challenge to a federal ban on partial-birth abortion. http://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/05-380.ZO.html Concurring, Thomas noted that the Court's abortion jurisprudence had no basis in the Constitution, but that the court had accurately applied that jurisprudence in rejecting the challenge. http://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/05-380.ZC.html Thomas added that the court was not deciding the question of whether Congress had the power to outlaw partial birth abortions. "[W]hether the Act constitutes a permissible exercise of Congress’ power under the Commerce Clause is not before the Court [in this case]," he wrote; "[t]he parties did not raise or brief that issue; it is outside the question presented; and the lower courts did not address it." http://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/05-380.ZC.html Judicial review The online PBS biography of Justice Thomas by John Fox states that Justice Thomas "would severely limit the Court's right to review legislation." However, according to the New York Times, “from 1994 to 2005....Justice Thomas voted to overturn federal laws in 34 cases and Justice Scalia in 31, compared with just 15 for Justice Stephen Breyer." “Activism Is in the Eye of the Ideologist,” New York Times (2006-09-11). Approach to oral arguments Thomas is well-known for listening rather than asking questions during oral arguments of the Court. In 2009, the New York Times noted that he had not asked a question from the bench in over 3 years. He has offered several reasons for this, including that he developed a habit of listening as a young man, when he "found that I could learn better just listening." Thomas also gave some additional reasons, during a question-and-answer session with high school students in 2000: Thomas is not the first quiet justice; "liberal icons William Brennan and Thurgood Marshall were likewise generally quiet." David Garrow, [http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9E04E3DB153CF935A35753C1A960958260&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=5 "The Rehnquist Reins", New York Times Magazine (1996-10-06). Thomas attributes his listening habit partly to his cultural environment. He comes from the Gullah/Geechee cultural region of coastal Georgia and grew up speaking the Gullah language, which is a hybrid of English and various West African languages. In 2000, during that same question-and-answer session with high school students, Thomas explained: New York Times op-ed columnist and book reviewer Professor Orlando Patterson says that Thomas "erased his accent long ago" and therefore should have erased his listening habit long ago. CNN analyst Jeffrey Toobin also questions Thomas's explanation, writing that Thomas knew how to speak English well from an early age, because he lived with his English-speaking grandfather from the age of six, attended only English-speaking parochial schools, and earned excellent school grades. Jeffrey Toobin, The Nine. Page 106. 2007. Doubleday. ISBN 0385516401. (Toobin does not say when the accent ended.) In November 2007, Thomas said to an audience at Hillsdale College in Michigan: "My colleagues should shut up!". He later explained, "I don't think that for judging, and for what we are doing, all those questions are necessary", and compared his profession to the medical arts: Writings Thomas, Clarence (2007). My Grandfather's Son: A Memoir, Harper, ISBN 0-06-056555-1. Thomas, Clarence. "Why Federalism Matters," Drake Law Review, Volume 48, Issue 2, page 234 (2000). References See also Demographics of the Supreme Court of the United States List of Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States by court composition List of Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States by education List of Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States by time in office List of law clerks of the Supreme Court of the United States List of United States Chief Justices by time in office List of Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States United States Supreme Court cases during the Rehnquist Court United States Supreme Court cases during the Roberts Court Further reading Abraham, Henry J., Justices and Presidents: A Political History of Appointments to the Supreme Court. 3d. ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992). ISBN 0-19-506557-3. Brock, David (1994). The Real Anita Hill, Touchstone, ISBN 0-02-904656-4 Brooks, Roy L. Structures of Judicial Decision Making from Legal Formalism to Critical Theory Carp, Dylan (1998, September). Out of Scalia's Shadow. Liberty. Cushman, Clare, The Supreme Court Justices: Illustrated Biographies,1789-1995 (2nd ed.) (Supreme Court Historical Society), (Congressional Quarterly Books, 2001) ISBN 1568021267; ISBN 9781568021263. Edward Shills and Max Rheinstien, Max Weber on Law in Economy and Society Foskett, Ken (2004). Judging Thomas: The Life and Times of Clarence Thomas, William Morrow, ISBN 0-06-052721-8 Frank, John P., The Justices of the United States Supreme Court: Their Lives and Major Opinions (Leon Friedman and Fred L. Israel, editors) (Chelsea House Publishers, 1995) ISBN 0791013774, ISBN 978-0791013779. Hall, Kermit L., ed. The Oxford Companion to the Supreme Court of the United States. New York: Oxford University Press, 1992.,ISBN 0195058356; ISBN 9780195058352. Lazarus, Edward (2005, Jan. 6). Will Clarence Thomas Be the Court's Next Chief Justice? FindLaw. Mayer, Jane, and Jill Abramson (1994). Strange Justice: The Selling of Clarence Thomas, Houghton Mifflin Company, ISBN 0-452-27499-0 Martin, Fenton S. and Goehlert, Robert U., The U.S. Supreme Court: A Bibliography, (Congressional Quarterly Books, 1990). ISBN 0871875543. Onwuachi-Willig, Angela (2005). Just Another Brother on the SCT?: What Justice Clarence Thomas Teaches Us About the Influence of Racial Identity. Iowa Law Review, 90. Presser, Stephen B. (2005, Jan.-Feb.) Touting Thomas: The Truth about America's Most Maligned Justice. Legal Affairs. Thomas, Andrew Peyton (2001). Clarence Thomas: A Biography, Encounter Books, ISBN 1-893554-36-8 Urofsky, Melvin I., The Supreme Court Justices: A Biographical Dictionary (New York: Garland Publishing 1994). 590 pp. ISBN 0815311761; ISBN 978-0815311768. External links Supreme Court official biography (PDF format) How to Read the Constitution (an excerpt from Clarence Thomas's Wriston Lecture to the Manhattan Institute in October 2008) An Outline of the Anita Hill and Clarence Thomas Controversy Transcripts of Senate Judiciary Committee Hearing on the Nomination of Clarence Thomas to the Supreme Court Clarence Thomas at the 2007 Annual National Lawyers Convention - November 2007 Overview of Personal Memoir Biography of Clarence Thomas - Cornell Law School Washington Post article about Thomas Donald E. Wilkes, Jr., Strange Cruel Justice (2003)& Too Few Voices Heard in Choice of Thomas (2003) & Open Letter Concerning the Invitation To Justice Clarence Thomas to Speak at the UGA School of Law Graduation Ceremony (2003) & Embarrassing Justice (2003) & I Accuse You, Clarence Thomas (2006) & A Rodent in Robes (2008). | Clarence_Thomas |@lemmatized clarence:32 thomas:211 bear:3 june:2 associate:3 justice:94 supreme:53 court:104 united:30 state:57 serve:8 since:5 second:3 african:5 american:8 nation:2 high:9 thurgood:3 marshall:7 succeed:1 grow:2 georgia:7 graduate:3 college:7 law:53 school:17 new:20 england:2 appoint:6 assistant:8 attorney:6 general:3 missouri:5 subsequently:1 practice:2 private:1 sector:1 become:6 legislative:2 senator:5 john:12 danforth:5 secretary:4 civil:4 right:16 u:20 department:4 education:15 following:1 year:16 chairman:3 equal:8 employment:3 opportunity:3 commission:5 position:3 eight:2 join:9 appeal:4 district:6 columbia:2 circuit:5 nominate:4 president:9 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5,158 | Educational_psychology | Educational psychology is the study of how humans learn in educational settings, the effectiveness of educational interventions, the psychology of teaching, and the social psychology of schools as organizations. Although the terms "educational psychology" and "school psychology" are often used interchangeably, In the US researchers and theorists are likely to be identified as educational psychologists, whereas practitioners in schools or school-related settings are identified as school psychologists. In the UK, however, this distinction is not made and the generic term for practitioners is "Educational Psychologist." Educational psychology is concerned with how students learn and develop, often focusing on subgroups such as gifted children and those subject to specific disabilities. Educational psychology can in part be understood through its relationship with other disciplines. It is informed primarily by psychology, bearing a relationship to that discipline analogous to the relationship between medicine and biology and also between Engineering and Physics. Educational psychology in turn informs a wide range of specialities within educational studies, including instructional design, educational technology, curriculum development, organizational learning, special education and classroom management. Educational psychology both draws from and contributes to cognitive science and the learning sciences. In universities, departments of educational psychology are usually housed within faculties of education, possibly accounting for the lack of representation of educational psychology content in introductory psychology textbooks. Lucas, J. L., Blazek, M. A., & Raley, A. B. (2005). The lack of representation of educational psychology and school psychology in introductory psychology textbooks. Educational Psychology, 25, 347-351. Social, moral and cognitive development An abacus provides concrete experiences for learning abstract concepts. To understand the characteristics of learners in childhood, adolescence, adulthood, and old age, educational psychology develops and applies theories of human development. Often cast as stages through which people pass as they mature, developmental theories describe changes in mental abilities (cognition), social roles,moral reasoning, and beliefs about the nature of knowledge. For example, educational psychologists have researched the instructional applicability of Jean Piaget's theory of development, according to which children mature through four stages of cognitive capability. Piaget hypothesized that children are not capable of abstract logical thought until they are older than about 11 years, and therefore younger children need to be taught using concrete objects and examples. Researchers have found that transitions, such as from concrete to abstract logical thought, do not occur at the same time in all domains. A child may be able to think abstractly about mathematics, but remain limited to concrete thought when reasoning about human relationships. Perhaps Piaget's most enduring contribution is his insight that people actively construct their understanding through a self-regulatory process. Woolfolk, A. E.,Winne,P. H. & Perry, N. E. (2006). Educational Psychology (3rd Canadian ed.). Toronto, Canada: Pearson. Piaget proposed a developmental theory of moral reasoning in which children progress from a naive understanding of morality based on behavior and outcomes to a more advanced understanding based on intentions. Piaget's views of moral development were elaborated by Kohlberg into a stage theory of moral development. There is evidence that the moral reasoning described in stage theories is not sufficient to account for moral behavior. For example, other factors such as modeling (as described by the social cognitive theory of morality) are required to explain bullying. Rudolf Steiner's model of child development interrelates physical, emotional, cognitive, and moral development Woods, Ashley and Woods, Steiner Schools in England, University of West of England, Bristol: Research Report RR645, section 1.5, "Findings from the survey and case studies" in developmental stages similar to those later described by Piaget. Carrie Y. Nordlund, "Art Experiences in Waldorf Education", Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Missouri-Columbia, May 2006 Developmental theories are sometimes presented not as shifts between qualitatively different stages, but as gradual increments on separate dimensions. Development of epistemological beliefs (beliefs about knowledge) have been described in terms of gradual changes in people's belief in: certainty and permanence of knowledge, fixedness of ability, and credibility of authorities such as teachers and experts. People develop more sophisticated beliefs about knowledge as they gain in education and maturity. Cano, F. (2005). Epistemological beliefs and approaches to learning: Their change through secondary school and their influence on academic performance. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 75, 203-221. Individual differences and disabilities An example of an item from a cognitive abilities test. Each person has an individual profile of characteristics, abilities and challenges that result from learning and development. These manifest as individual differences in intelligence, creativity, cognitive style, motivation, and the capacity to process information, communicate, and relate to others. The most prevalent disabilities found among school age children are attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), learning disability, dyslexia, and speech disorder. Less common disabilities include mental retardation, hearing impairment, cerebral palsy, epilepsy, and blindness. Although theories of intelligence have been discussed by philosophers since Plato, intelligence testing is an invention of educational psychology, and is coincident with the development of that discipline. Continuing debates about the nature of intelligence revolve on whether intelligence can be characterized by a single, scalar factor (Spearman's general intelligence), multiple factors (as in Sternberg's triarchic theory of intelligence and Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences), or whether it can be measured at all. In practice, standardized instruments such as the Stanford-Binet IQ test and the WISC are widely used in economically developed countries to identify children in need of individualized educational treatment. Children classified as gifted are often provided with accelerated or enriched programs. Children with identified deficits may be provided with enhanced education in specific skills such as phonological awareness. Learning and cognition Two fundamental assumptions that underlie formal education systems are that students (a) retain knowledge and skills they acquire in school, and (b) can apply them in situations outside the classroom. But are these assumptions accurate? Research has found that, even when students report not using the knowledge acquired in school, a considerable portion is retained for many years and long term retention is strongly dependent on the initial level of mastery. Semb, G. B., & Ellis, J. A. (1994). Knowledge taught in schools: What is remembered? Review of Educational Research, 64, 253-286. One study found that university students who took a child development course and attained high grades showed, when tested 10 years later, average retention scores of about 30%, whereas those who obtained moderate or lower grades showed average retention scores of about 20%. Ellis, J. A., Semb, G. B., & Cole, B. (1998). Very long-term memory for information taught in school. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 23, 419-433. There is much less consensus on the crucial question of how much knowledge acquired in school transfers to tasks encountered outside formal educational settings, and how such transfer occurs. Perkins, D. N., & Salomon, G. (1992). Transfer of learning. International Encyclopedia of Education (2nd ed.). Oxford, UK: Pergamon Press. Some psychologists claim that research evidence for this type of far transfer is scarce, Perkins, D. N., & Grotzer, T. A. (1997). Teaching intelligence. American Psychologist, 52, 1125-1133. Detterman, D. K. (1993). The case for the prosecution: Transfer as an epiphenomenon. In D. K. Detterman & R. J. Sternberg (Eds.), Transfer on trial: Intelligence, cognition, and instruction (pp. 1-24). Norwood, NJ: Ablex. while others claim there is abundant evidence of far transfer in specific domains. Halpern, D. F. (1998). Teaching critical thinking for transfer across domains. American Psychologist, 53, 449-455. Several perspectives have been established within which the theories of learning used in educational psychology are formed and contested. These include behaviorism, cognitivism, social cognitive theory, and constructivism. This section summarizes how educational psychology has researched and applied theories within each of these perspectives. Behavioral perspective Applied behavior analysis, a set of techniques based on the behavioral principles of operant conditioning, is effective in a range of educational settings. Alberto, P., & Troutman, A. (2003). Applied behavior analysis for teachers (6th ed.). Columbus, OH, USA: Prentice-Hall-Merrill. For example, teachers can improve student behavior by systematically rewarding students who follow classroom rules with praise, stars, or tokens exchangeable for sundry items. McGoey, K. E., & DuPaul, G. J. (2000). Token reinforcement and response cost procedures: Reducing the disruptive behavior of preschool children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. School Psychology Quarterly, 15, 330-343. Theodore, L. A., Bray, M. A., Kehle, T. J., & Jenson, W. R. (2001). Randomization of group contingencies and reinforcers to reduce classroom disruptive behavior. Journal of School Psychology, 39, 267-277. Despite the demonstrated efficacy of awards in changing behavior, their use in education has been criticized by proponents of self-determination theory, who claim that praise and other rewards undermine intrinsic motivation. There is evidence that tangible rewards decrease intrinsic motivation in specific situations, such as when the student already has a high level of intrinsic motivation to perform the goal behavior. Lepper, M. R., Greene, D. & Nisbett, R. E. (1973). Undermining children's intrinsic interest with extrinsic reward: A test of the “overjustification” hypothesis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 28, 129-137. But the results showing detrimental effects are counterbalanced by evidence that, in other situations, such as when rewards are given for attaining a gradually increasing standard of performance, rewards enhance intrinsic motivation. Cameron, J., Pierce, W. D., Banko, K. M., & Gear, A. (2005). Achievement-based rewards and intrinsic motivation: A test of cognitive mediators. Journal of Educational Psychology, 97, 641-655. Pierce, W. D. & Cameron, J. (2002). A summary of the effects of reward contingencies on interest and performance. The Behavior Analyst Today, 3, 222-226. Many effective therapies have been based on the principles of Applied Behavior Analysis, including Pivotal Response Therapy which is used to treat Autism Spectrum Disorders. Cognitive perspective Among current educational psychologists, the cognitive perspective is more widely held than the behavioral perspective perhaps because it admits causally related mental constructs such as traits, beliefs, memories, motivations and emotions. Cognitive theories claim that memory structures determine how information is perceived, processed, stored, retrieved and forgotten. Among the memory structures theorized by cognitive psychologists are separate but linked visual and verbal systems described by Allan Paivio's dual coding theory. Educational psychologists have used dual coding theory and cognitive load theory to explain how people learn from multimedia presentations. Mayer, R. E. (2001). Multimedia learning. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Three experiments reported by Krug, Davis and Glover Krug, D., Davis, T. B., Glover, J. A. (1990). Massed versus distributed repeated reading: A case of forgetting helping recall? Journal of Educational Psychology, 82, 366-371. demonstrated the advantage of delaying a 2nd reading of a text passage by one week (distributed) compared with no delay between readings (massed). The spaced learning effect, a cognitive phenomenon strongly supported by psychological research, has broad applicability within education. Dempster, F. N. (1989). Spacing effects and their implications for theory and practice. Educational Psychology Review, 1, 309-330. For example, students have been found to perform better on a test of knowledge about a text passage when a second reading of the passage is delayed rather than immediate (see figure). Educational psychology research has confirmed the applicability to education of other findings from cognitive psychology, such as the benefits of using mnemonics for immediate and delayed retention of information. Carney, R. N., & Levin, J. R. (2000). Fading mnemonic memories: Here's looking anew, again! Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25, 499-508. Problem solving, regarded by many cognitive psychologists as fundamental to learning, is an important research topic in educational psychology. A student is thought to interpret a problem by assigning it to a schema retrieved from long term memory. When the problem is assigned to the wrong schema, the student's attention is subsequently directed away from features of the problem that are inconsistent with the assigned schema. Kalyuga, S., Chandler, P., Tuovinen, J., & Sweller, J. (2001). When problem solving is superior to studying worked examples. Journal of Educational Psychology, 93, 579-588. The critical step of finding a mapping between the problem and a pre-existing schema is often cited as supporting the centrality of analogical thinking to problem solving. Social cognitive perspective Social cognitive theory is a highly influential fusion of behavioral, cognitive and social elements that was initially developed by educational psychologist Albert Bandura. In its earlier, neo-behavioral incarnation called social learning theory, Bandura emphasized the process of observational learning in which a learner's behavior changes as a result of observing others' behavior and its consequences. The theory identified several factors that determine whether observing a model will affect behavioral or cognitive change. These factors include the learner's developmental status, the perceived prestige and competence of the model, the consequences received by the model, the relevance of the model's behaviors and consequences to the learner's goals, and the learner's self-efficacy. The concept of self-efficacy, which played an important role in later developments of the theory, refers to the learner's belief in his or her ability to perform the modeled behavior. An experiment by Schunk and Hanson, Schunk, D. H., & Hanson, A. R. (1985). Peer models: Influence on children's self-efficacy and achievement behavior. Journal of Educational Psychology, 77, 313-322. that studied grade 2 students who had previously experienced difficulty in learning subtraction, illustrates the type of research stimulated by social learning theory. One group of students observed a subtraction demonstration by a teacher and then participated in an instructional program on subtraction. A second group observed other grade 2 students performing the same subtraction procedures and then participated in the same instructional program. The students who observed peer models scored higher on a subtraction post-test and also reported greater confidence in their subtraction ability. The results were interpreted as supporting the hypothesis that perceived similarity of the model to the learner increases self-efficacy, leading to more effective learning of modeled behavior. It is supposed that peer modeling is particularly effective for students who have low self-efficacy. Over the last decade, much research activity in educational psychology has focused on developing theories of self-regulated learning (SRL) and metacognition. These theories work from the central premise that effective learners are active agents who construct knowledge by setting goals, analysing tasks, planning strategies and monitoring their understanding. Research has indicated that learners who are better at goal setting and self-monitoring tend to have greater intrinsic task interest and self-efficacy; Zimmerman, B. J. (1998). Developing self-fulfilling cycles of academic regulation: An analysis of exemplary instructional models. In D. H. Schunk & B. J. Zimmerman (Eds.) Self-regulated learning: From teaching to self-reflective practice (pp. 1-19). New York: Guilford. and that teaching learning strategies can increase academic achievement. Hattie, J., Biggs, J., & Purdie, N. (1996). Effects of learning skills interventions on student learning: A meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 66, 99-136. Constructivist perspective Constructivism is a category of learning theories in which emphasis is placed on the agency and prior knowledge of the learner, and often on the social and cultural determinants of the learning process. Educational psychologists distinguish individual (or psychological) constructivism, identified with Piaget's learning theory, from social constructivism. A dominant influence on the latter type is Lev Vygotsky's work on sociocultural learning, describing how interactions with adults, more capable peers, and cognitive tools are internalized to form mental constructs. Elaborating on Vygotsky's theory, Jerome Bruner and other educational psychologists developed the important concept of instructional scaffolding, in which the social or information environment offers supports for learning that are gradually withdrawn as they become internalized. Motivation Motivation is an internal state that activates, guides and sustains behavior. Educational psychology research on motivation is concerned with the volition or will that students bring to a task, their level of interest and intrinsic motivation, the personally held goals that guide their behavior, and their belief about the causes of their success or failure. A form of attribution theory developed by Bernard Weiner Weiner, B. (2000). Interpersonal and intrapersonal theories of motivation from an attributional perspective. Educational Psychology Review, 12, 1-14. describes how students' beliefs about the causes of academic success or failure affect their emotions and motivations. For example, when students attribute failure to lack of ability, and ability is perceived as uncontrollable, they experience the emotions of shame and embarrassment and consequently decrease effort and show poorer performance. In contrast, when students attribute failure to lack of effort, and effort is perceived as controllable, they experience the emotion of guilt and consequently increase effort and show improved performance. Motivational theories also explain how learners' goals affect the way that they engage with academic tasks. Elliot, A. J. (1999). Approach and avoidance motivation and achievement goals. Educational Psychologist, 34, 169–189. Those who have mastery goals strive to increase their ability and knowledge. Those who have performance approach goals strive for high grades and seek opportunities to demonstrate their abilities. Those who have performance avoidance goals are driven by fear of failure and avoid situations where their abilities are exposed. Research has found that mastery goals are associated with many positive outcomes such as persistence in the face of failure, preference for challenging tasks, creativity and intrinsic motivation. Performance avoidance goals are associated with negative outcomes such as poor concentration while studying, disorganized studying, less self-regulation, shallow information processing and test anxiety. Performance approach goals are associated with positive outcomes, and some negative outcomes such as an unwillingness to seek help and shallow information processing. Research methodology The research methods used in educational psychology tend to be drawn from psychology and other social sciences. There is also a history of significant methodological innovation by educational psychologists, and psychologists investigating educational problems. Research methods address problems in both research design and data analysis. Research design informs the planning of experiments and observational studies to ensure that their results have internal, external and ecological validity. Data analysis encompasses methods for processing both quantitive (numerical) and qualitative (non-numerical) research data. Although, historically, the use of quantitative methods was often considered an essential mark of scholarship, modern educational psychology research uses both quantitative and qualitative methods. Quantitative methods Test scores and other educational variables often approximate a normal distribution. Perhaps first among the important methodological innovations of educational psychology was the development and application of factor analysis by Charles Spearman. Factor analysis is mentioned here as one example of the many multivariate statistical methods used by educational psychologists. Factor analysis is used to summarize relationships among a large set of variables or test questions, develop theories about mental constructs such as self-efficacy or anxiety, and assess the reliability and validity of test scores. Thompson, B. (2004). Exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis: Understanding concepts and applications. Washington, DC, USA: American Psychological Association. Over one hundred years after its introduction by Spearman, factor analysis has become a research staple figuring prominently in educational psychology journals. Because educational assessment is fundamental to most quantitative research in the field, educational psychologists have made significant contributions to the field of psychometrics. For example, alpha, the widely used measure of test reliability was developed by educational psychologist Lee Cronbach. The reliability of assessments are routinely reported in quantitative educational research. Although, originally, educational measurement methods were built on classical test theory, item response theory and Rasch models are now used extensively in educational measurement worldwide. These models afford advantages over classical test theory, including the capacity to produce standard errors of measurement for each score or pattern of scores on assessments and the capacity to handle missing responses. Meta-analysis, the combination of individual research results to produce a quantitative literature review, is another methodological innovation with a close association to educational psychology. In a meta-analysis, effect sizes that represent, for example, the differences between treatment groups in a set of similar experiments, are averaged to obtain a single aggregate value representing the best estimate of the effect of treatment. Lipsey, M. W., & Wilson, D. B. (2001). Practical meta-analysis. London: Sage. Several decades after Pearson's work with early versions of meta-analysis, Glass Glass, G. V. (1976). Primary, secondary, and meta-analysis of research. Educational Researcher, 5, 3-8. published the first application of modern meta-analytic techniques and triggered their broad application across the social and biomedical sciences. Today, meta-analysis is among the most common types of literature review found in educational psychology research. Other quantitative research issues associated with educational psychology include the use of nested research designs (e.g., a student nested within a classroom, which is nested within a school, which is nested within a district, etc.) and the use of longitudinal statistical models to measure change. Qualitative methods Qualitative methods are used in educational studies whose purpose is to describe events, processes and situations of theoretical significance. The qualitative methods used in educational psychology often derive from anthropology, sociology or sociolinguistics. For example, the anthropological method of ethnography has been used to describe teaching and learning in classrooms. In studies of this type, the researcher may gather detailed field notes as a participant observer or passive observer. Later, the notes and other data may be categorized and interpreted by methods such as grounded theory. Triangulation, the practice of cross-checking findings with multiple data sources, is highly valued in qualitative research. Case studies are forms of qualitative research focusing on a single person, organization, event, or other entity. In one case study, Everall, R. D., Bostik, K. E. & Paulson, B. L. (2005). I'm sick of being me: Developmental themes in a suicidal adolescent. Adolescence, 40, 693-708. researchers conducted a 150-minute, semi-structured interview with a 20-year old woman who had a history of suicidal thinking between the ages of 14 to 18. They analyzed an audio-recording of the interview to understand the roles of cognitive development, identity formation and social attachment in ending her suicidal thinking. Qualitative analysis is most often applied to verbal data from sources such as conversations, interviews, focus groups, and personal journals. Qualitative methods are thus, typically, approaches to gathering, processing and reporting verbal data. One of the most commonly used methods for qualitative research in educational psychology is protocol analysis. Ericsson, K. A., & Simon, H. (1993). Protocol analysis: Verbal reports as data (Rev. ed.). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. In this method the research participant is asked to think aloud while performing a task, such as solving a math problem. In protocol analysis the verbal data is thought to indicate which information the subject is attending to, but is explicitly not interpreted as an explanation or justification for behavior. In contrast, the method of verbal analysis Chi, M. T. H. (1997). Quantifying qualitative analyses of verbal data: A practical guide. Journal of the Learning Sciences, 6, 271-315. does admit learners' explanations as a way to reveal their mental model or misconceptions (e.g., of the laws of motion). The most fundamental operations in both protocol and verbal analysis are segmenting (isolating) and categorizing sections of verbal data. Conversation analysis and discourse analysis, sociolinguistic methods that focus more specifically on the structure of conversational interchange (e.g., between a teacher and student), have been used to assess the process of conceptual change in science learning. Pea, R. D. (1993). Learning scientific concepts through material and social activities: Conversational analysis meets conceptual change. Educational Psychologist, 28, 265-277. Qualitative methods are also used to analyse information in a variety of media, such as students' drawings and concept maps, video-recorded interactions, and computer log records. Applications in instructional design and technology Bloom's taxonomy of educational objectives: categories in the cognitive domain Anderson, L. W., & Krathwohl, D. R. (2001). A taxonomy for learning, teaching, and assessing: A revision of Bloom's taxonomy of educational objectives. New York, USA: Addison-Wesley Longman. Instructional design, the systematic design of materials, activities and interactive environments for learning, is broadly informed by educational psychology theories and research. For example, in defining learning goals or objectives, instructional designers often use a taxonomy of educational objectives created by Benjamin Bloom and colleagues. Bloom also researched mastery learning, an instructional strategy in which learners only advance to a new learning objective after they have mastered its prerequisite objectives. Bloom Bloom, B. S. (1984). The two sigma problem: The search for methods of group instruction as effective as one-to-one tutoring. Educational Researcher, 13(6),4–16. discovered that a combination of mastery learning with one-to-one tutoring is highly effective, producing learning outcomes far exceeding those normally achieved in classroom instruction. Gagné, another psychologist, had earlier developed an influential method of task analysis in which a terminal learning goal is expanded into a hierarchy of learning objectives Gronlund, N. E. (2000). How to write and use instructional objectives (6th ed.). Columbus, OH, USA: Merrill. connected by prerequisite relations. Intelligent tutoring system Educational technology John R. Anderson Cognitive tutor Cooperative learning Collaborative learning problem-based learning Computer supported collaborative learning William Winn constructive alignment Applications in teaching A class size experiment in the United States found that attending small classes for 3 or more years in the early grades increased high school graduation of students from low income families. Finn, J. D., Gerber, S. B., Boyd-Zaharias, J. (2005). Small classes in the early grades, academic achievement, and graduating from high school. Journal of Educational Psychology, 97, 214-233. Research on classroom management and pedagogy is conducted to guide teaching practice and form a foundation for teacher education programs. The goals of classroom management are to create an environment conducive to learning and to develop students' self-management skills. More specifically, classroom management strives to create positive teacher-student and peer relationships, manage student groups to sustain on-task behavior, and use counselling and other psychological methods to aid students who present persistent psychosocial problems. Emmer, E. T., & Stough, L. M. (2001). Classroom management: A critical part of educational psychology with implications for teacher education. Educational Psychologist, 36, 103-112. Introductory educational psychology is a commonly required area of study in most North American teacher education programs. When taught in that context, its content varies, but it typically emphasizes learning theories (especially cognitively oriented ones), issues about motivation, assessment of students' learning, and classroom management. A developing Wikibook about educational psychology gives more detail about the educational psychology topics that are typically presented in preservice teacher education. Special education Lesson plan More about applications to classroom teaching History Educational psychology cannot claim priority in the systematic analysis of educational processes. Philosophers of education such as Democritus, Quintilian, Vives and Comenius, had examined, classified and judged the methods of education centuries before the beginnings of psychology in the late 1800s. Instead, aspirations of the new discipline rested on the application of the scientific methods of observation and experimentation to educational problems. Even in the earliest years of the discipline, educational psychologists recognized the limitations of this new approach. In his famous series of lectures Talks to Teachers on Psychology, published in 1899 and now regarded as the first educational psychology textbook, the pioneering American psychologist William James commented that: According to Berliner Berliner, D. C. (1993). The 100-year journey of educational psychology: From interest to disdain to respect for practice. In T. K. Fagan & G. R. VandenBos (Eds). Exploring applied psychology: Origins and critical analysis. Washington DC: American Psychology Association. educational psychology theorists' attitude to the world of educational practice has shifted from initial interest to disdain, and eventually to respect. Charles Hubbard Judd In 1912, Thorndike, who developed the theory of instrumental conditioning, presaged later work on programmed instruction, mastery learning and computer-based learning: Influential educational psychologists and theorists The following persons were selected and featured in a 2003 biographical history of educational psychology Zimmerman, B. J., & Schunk, D. H. (Eds.)(2003). Educational psychology: A century of contributions. Mahwah, NJ, US: Erlbaum. as having made significant contributions to the field: Albert Bandura 1925- Alfred Binet 1857-1911 Benjamin Bloom 1913-1999 Ann Brown 1943-1999 Jerome Bruner 1915- Lee Cronbach 1916-2001 John Dewey 1859-1952 Nathaniel Gage 1917- Robert Gagné 1916-2002 William James 1842-1910 Maria Montessori 1870-1952 Jean Piaget 1896-1980 Herbert Simon 1916–2001 Burrhus Frederic Skinner 1904-1990 Charles Spearman 1863-1945 Lewis Terman 1877-1956 Edward L. Thorndike 1874-1949 Lev Semenovich Vygotsky 1896-1934 Careers in educational psychology Education and training A person may be considered an educational psychologist after completing a graduate degree in educational psychology or a closely related field. Universities establish educational psychology graduate programs in either psychology departments or, more commonly, faculties of education. Educational psychologists work in a variety of settings. Some work in university settings where they carry out research on the cognitive and social processes of human development, learning and education. Educational psychologists may also work as consultants in designing and creating educational materials, classroom programs and online courses. Educational psychologists who work in k-12 school settings (called school psychologists in the United States) are trained at the masters and doctoral levels. In addition to conducting assessments, school psychologists provide services such as academic and behavioral intervention, counseling, teacher consultation, and crisis intervention. In the UK, status as a Chartered Educational Psychologist is gained by completing: an undergraduate degree in psychology permitting registration with the British Psychological Society two or three years experience working with children, young people and their families. a three-year professional doctorate in educational psychology. The previous requirement to train and work for two years as a teacher has now been abandoned. Employment outlook Employment for psychologists in the United States is expected to grow faster than most occupations through the year 2014, with anticipated growth of 18-26%. One in four psychologist are employed in educational settings. In the United States, the median salary for psychologists in primary and secondary schools is $58,360 as of May 2004. Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor. Occupational Outlook Handbook. 2006-07 Edition. Psychologists. retrieved from http://www.bls.gov/oco/ocos056.htm on June 30, 2006. In recent decades the participation of women as professional researchers in North American educational psychology has risen dramatically. Evans, J., Hsieh, P. P., & Robinson, D. H. (2005). Women's Involvement in educational psychology journals from 1976 to 2004. Educational Psychology Review, 17, 263-271. The percentage of female authors of peer-reviewed journal articles doubled from 1976 (24%) to 1995 (51%), and has since remained constant. Female membership on educational psychology journal editorial boards increased from 17% in 1976 to 47% in 2004. Over the same period, the proportion of chief editor positions held by women increased from 22% to 70%. Research journals Journal Impact*Educational Psychologist 3.72Journal of the Learning Sciences 2.28Learning and Individual Differences 2.17Review of Educational Research 1.96Journal of Educational Psychology 1.69Learning and Instruction 1.62Journal of Educational and Behavioral Statistics 1.35Educational Psychology Review 1.23American Educational Research Journal 1.10British Journal of Educational Psychology 0.92Cognition and Instruction 0.80Contemporary Educational Psychology 0.75Journal of Experimental Education 0.73Instructional Science 0.66Journal of Educational Measurement 0.47Educational Technology Res and Dev0.20International Journal of Learning 0.19European Journal of Psychology of Education 0.18Japanese Journal of Educational Psychology 0.08 * Citations per article from 2005 ISI JCR Although not exhaustive, the table to the right lists peer-reviewed journals in educational psychology and related fields. The impact factor is the average number of citations per article in each journal. See also Applied psychology Articles related to educational psychology American Educational Research Association American Psychological Association Association for Psychological Science British Psychological Society Educational psychologists Contemporary Educational Psychology Educational research Evolutionary educational psychology Important publications in educational psychology International Society of the Learning Sciences Learning sciences List of education topics Philosophy of education School psychologist External links Educational Psychology Resources by Athabasca University Division 15 of the American Psychological Association Educational Psychology Interactive Psychology of Education Section of the British Psychological Society School Psychology on the Web Explorations in Learning & Instruction: The Theory Into Practice Database Classics in the History of Psychology The Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing Educational psychology at The Psychology Wiki EPNET - Educational Psychology forum Careers in the United Kingdom United Kingdom description of educational psychologist Educational Psychologist description from the British Psychological Society Careers in the United States Careers in Educational Psychology Textbooks There are many introductory educational psychology textbooks, mostly intended for future k-12 teachers. Psychology Applied To Teaching by Jack Snowman and Robert Biehler Educational Psychology by John Santrock Educational Psychology by Robert Slavin Educational Psychology: Developing Learners by Jeanne Ormrod Educational Psychology by Anita Woolfolk Educational Psychology: Effective Teaching, Effective Learning by Elliot, Kratochwill, Cook & Travers References Outline of psychology | Educational_psychology |@lemmatized educational:137 psychology:104 study:13 human:4 learn:26 setting:9 effectiveness:1 intervention:4 teaching:4 social:19 school:25 organization:2 although:5 term:6 often:11 use:26 interchangeably:1 u:3 researcher:7 theorist:2 likely:1 identify:5 psychologist:42 whereas:2 practitioner:2 relate:3 uk:4 however:1 distinction:1 make:3 generic:1 concern:2 student:29 develop:13 focus:5 subgroup:1 gifted:1 child:16 subject:2 specific:4 disability:5 part:2 understand:3 relationship:6 discipline:5 inform:3 primarily:1 bear:1 analogous:1 medicine:1 biology:1 also:8 engineering:1 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5,159 | Military_of_Ivory_Coast | The National Armed Forces of Côte d'Ivoire (; FANCI) is the armed forces of Côte d'Ivoire (Ivory Coast). It consists the chief of staff and commander of the FANCI. Military regions Côte d'Ivoire is divided into five military regions, each commanded by a colonel: Library of Congress, Cote d'Ivoire Country Study, circa 1987, accessed January 2009 The army has the majority of its forces in the First Military Region concentrated in and around Abidjan, its principal units there being a rapid intervention battalion (airborne), an infantry battalion, an armored battalion, and an air defense artillery battalion. The Second Military Region is located in Daloa and is assigned one infantry battalion. The Third Military Region is headquartered in Bouaké and is home to an artillery, an infantry, and an engineer battalion (however rebels currently control this city). The Fourth Military Region maintains only a Territorial Defense Company headquartered in Korhogo ( however rebels currently control this city). The fifth region is the Western Operational Zone, a temporary command created to respond to the security threat caused by the civil war in neighboring Liberia. Gendarmerie The gendarmerie is roughly equivalent in size to the army. It is a national police force which is responsible for territorial security, especially in rural areas. In times of national crisis the gendarmerie could be used to reinforce the army. The gendarmerie is commanded by a colonel-major and comprises four Legions, each corresponding to one of the four numbered military regions, minus the temporary military operational zone on the western border. Navy Côte d'Ivoire has a brown-water navy whose mission is coastal surveillance and security for the nation's 340-mile coastline. 1 Patra patrol craft - 147 tons full load - commissioned 1978 2 CTM LCM - 150t - commissioned 1968 2 Rodman 890 fishery protection - commissioned 1997 Air Force </ref> ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Aircraft ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Origin ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Type ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Versions ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|In service "World Military Aircraft Inventory", Aerospace Source Book 2007, Aviation Week & Space Technology, January 15 2007. ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Notes |----- | Antonov An-32 || || tactical transport || || 1 || |----- | Cessna 421 Golden Eagle || || utility || || 1 || |----- | Eurocopter SA 365 Dauphin || || utility helicopter || SA 365C || 2 || |----- | Gulfstream III || || VIP || || 1 || |----- | Mil Mi-24 || || attack helicopter || || 1 || |----- | Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-23 || || fighter || || 2 || |} References Further Reading: http://www.iss.co.za/af/profiles/IvoryCoast/SecInfo.html See also Côte d'Ivoire Politics of Côte d'Ivoire Foreign relations of Côte d'Ivoire | Military_of_Ivory_Coast |@lemmatized national:3 armed:2 force:5 côte:7 ivoire:8 fanci:2 ivory:1 coast:1 consist:1 chief:1 staff:1 commander:1 military:9 region:8 divide:1 five:1 command:3 colonel:2 library:1 congress:1 cote:1 country:1 study:1 circa:1 access:1 january:2 army:3 majority:1 first:1 concentrate:1 around:1 abidjan:1 principal:1 unit:1 rapid:1 intervention:1 battalion:6 airborne:1 infantry:3 armored:1 air:2 defense:2 artillery:2 second:1 locate:1 daloa:1 assign:1 one:2 third:1 headquarter:2 bouaké:1 home:1 engineer:1 however:2 rebel:2 currently:2 control:2 city:2 fourth:1 maintain:1 territorial:2 company:1 korhogo:1 fifth:1 western:2 operational:2 zone:2 temporary:2 create:1 respond:1 security:3 threat:1 cause:1 civil:1 war:1 neighbor:1 liberia:1 gendarmerie:4 roughly:1 equivalent:1 size:1 police:1 responsible:1 especially:1 rural:1 area:1 time:1 crisis:1 could:1 use:1 reinforce:1 major:1 comprise:1 four:2 legion:1 correspond:1 number:1 minus:1 border:1 navy:2 brown:1 water:1 whose:1 mission:1 coastal:1 surveillance:1 nation:1 mile:1 coastline:1 patra:1 patrol:1 craft:1 ton:1 full:1 load:1 commissioned:3 ctm:1 lcm:1 rodman:1 fishery:1 protection:1 ref:1 style:6 text:6 align:6 left:6 background:6 aacccc:6 aircraft:2 origin:1 type:1 version:1 service:1 world:1 inventory:1 aerospace:1 source:1 book:1 aviation:1 week:1 space:1 technology:1 note:1 antonov:1 tactical:1 transport:1 cessna:1 golden:1 eagle:1 utility:2 eurocopter:1 sa:2 dauphin:1 helicopter:2 gulfstream:1 iii:1 vip:1 mil:1 mi:1 attack:1 mikoyan:1 gurevich:1 mig:1 fighter:1 reference:1 far:1 reading:1 http:1 www:1 co:1 za:1 af:1 profile:1 ivorycoast:1 secinfo:1 html:1 see:1 also:1 politics:1 foreign:1 relation:1 |@bigram côte_ivoire:7 ivoire_ivory:1 chief_staff:1 cote_ivoire:1 infantry_battalion:2 patrol_craft:1 load_commissioned:1 align_left:6 background_aacccc:6 inventory_aerospace:1 utility_helicopter:1 mil_mi:1 mikoyan_gurevich:1 gurevich_mig:1 mig_fighter:1 http_www:1 |
5,160 | Mirror | A mirror, reflecting a vase. A mirror is an object with at least one polished and therefore specularly reflective surface. The most familiar type of mirror is the plane mirror, which has a flat surface. Curved mirrors are also used, to produce magnified or diminished images or focus light or simply distort the reflected image. Mirrors are commonly used for personal grooming (in which case the old-fashioned term "looking-glass" can be used), decoration, and architecture. Mirrors are also used in scientific apparatus such as telescopes and lasers, cameras, and industrial machinery. Most mirrors are designed for visible light; however, mirrors designed for other types of waves or other wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation are also used, especially in optical instruments. History The first mirrors used by people were most likely pools of dark, still water, or water collected in a primitive vessel of some sort. The earliest manufactured mirrors were pieces of polished stone such as obsidian, a naturally occurring volcanic glass. Examples of obsidian mirrors found in Anatolia (modern-day Turkey) have been dated to around 6000 BC. Polished stone mirrors from central and south America date from around 2000 BC onwards. History of Mirrors Dating Back 8000 Years, Jay M. Enoch, School of Optometry, University of California at Berkeley Mirrors of polished copper were crafted in Mesopotamia from 4000 BC, and in ancient Egypt from around 3000 BC. The National Museum of Science and Technology, Stockholm In China, bronze mirrors were manufactured from around 2000 BC. Chinavoc.com Metal-coated glass mirrors are said to have been invented in Sidon (modern-day Lebanon) in the first century AD, Mirrors in Egypt, Digital Egypt for Universities and glass mirrors backed with gold leaf are mentioned by the Roman author Pliny in his Natural History, written in about 77 AD. Wondrous Glass: Images and Allegories, Kelsey Museum of Archaeology The Romans also developed a technique for creating crude mirrors by coating blown glass with molten lead. The Book of the Mirror, Cambridge Scholars Publishing, edited by Miranda Anderson Reflecting parabolic mirrors were first described by the Arabian physicist, Ibn Sahl, in the 10th century The Forgotten Revolution By Lucio Russo, Silvio Levy Page 331 . Ibn al-Haytham discussed concave and convex mirrors in both cylindrical and spherical geometries, R. S. Elliott (1966). Electromagnetics, Chapter 1. McGraw-Hill. carried out a number of experiments with mirrors, and solved the problem of finding the point on a convex mirror at which a ray coming from one point is reflected to another point. Dr. Mahmoud Al Deek. "Ibn Al-Haitham: Master of Optics, Mathematics, Physics and Medicine, Al Shindagah, November-December 2004. By the 11th century, clear glass mirrors were being produced in Moorish Spain. Some time during the early Renaissance, European manufacturers perfected a superior method of coating glass with a tin-mercury amalgam. The exact date and location of the discovery is unknown, but in the 16th century, Venice, a city famed for its glass-making expertise, became a centre of mirror production using this new technique. Glass mirrors from this period were extremely expensive luxuries. The Tin-Mercury Mirror: Its Manufacturing Technique and Deterioration Processes, Per Hadsund, Studies in Conservation, Vol. 38, No. 1 (Feb., 1993) The Saint-Gobain factory, founded by royal initiative in France, was an important manufacturer, and Bohemian and German glass, often rather cheaper, was also important. The invention of the silvered-glass mirror is credited to German chemist Justus von Liebig in 1835. His process involved the deposition of a thin layer of metallic silver onto glass through the chemical reduction of silver nitrate. This silvering process was adapted for mass manufacturing and led to the greater availability of affordable mirrors. Nowadays, mirrors are often produced by the vacuum deposition of aluminium (or sometimes silver) directly onto the glass substrate. Manufacturing Mirrors are manufactured by applying a reflective coating to a suitable substrate. The most common such substrate is glass, due to its ease of fabrication, its rigidity, and its ability to take a smooth finish. The reflective coating ("silver") is typically applied to the back surface of the glass, so that it is protected from corrosion and accidental damage. (Glass is much more scratch-resistant than most substrates.) Historically, mirrors in the classical antiquity were made of solid metal (bronze, later silver) and they were too expensive for widespread use as well as being prone to corrosion. Due to polished metal's low emissivity, antique mirrors also gave a darker picture compared to modern ones, making them unsuitable for indoor use with artificial lighting (candles or lanterns at the time). The method of making mirrors out of ordinary glass was discovered by 16th-century Venetian glassmakers on the island of Murano, who covered the backside of plate glass with mercury, obtaining near-perfect reflection and imaging qualities. For over one hundred years Venetian mirrors installed in richly decorated frames served as luxury decoration for palaces throughout Europe, but the secret of mercury process eventually arrived to London and Paris during the 17th century, due to industrial espionage. French workshops succeeded in large scale industrialization of the process, eventually making mirrors affordable to the masses, although mercury's toxicity remained a problem. In modern times the mirror substrate is shaped, polished and cleaned, and is then coated. Glass mirrors are most often coated with non-toxic silver or aluminium, implemented by a series of coatings: tin silver chemical activator copper paint The tin is applied because silver will not bond with the glass. The activator causes the tin/silver to harden. Copper is added for long-term durability. Episode 305 of How It's Made, filmed at La Verrerie Walker Ltée in Ajou, Quebec, Canada The paint protects the coating on the back of the mirror from scratches and other accidental damage. In some applications, generally those that are cost-sensitive or that require great durability, mirrors are instead made from a single, bulk material such as polished metal. For technical applications such as laser mirrors, the reflective coating is typically applied by vacuum deposition on the front surface of the substrate. This eliminates double reflections and reduces absorption of light in the mirror. Cheaper technical mirrors use a silver, aluminium, or gold coating (the latter typically for infrared mirrors), and achieve reflectivities of 90–95% when new. A protective overcoat may be applied to prevent oxidation of the reflective layer. Applications requiring higher reflectivity or greater durability use dielectric coatings, which can achieve reflectivities as high as 99.999% over a narrow range of wavelengths. Effects In a plane mirror, a parallel beam of light changes its direction as a whole, while still remaining parallel; the images formed by a plane mirror are virtual images, of the same size as the original object (see mirror image). There are also concave mirrors, where a parallel beam of light becomes a convergent beam, whose rays intersect in the focus of the mirror. Lastly, there are convex mirrors, where a parallel beam becomes divergent, with the rays appearing to diverge from a common intersection "behind" the mirror. Spherical concave and convex mirrors do not focus parallel rays to a single point due to spherical aberration. However, the ideal of focusing to a point is a commonly-used approximation. Parabolic reflectors resolve this, allowing incoming parallel rays (for example, light from a distant star) to be focused to a small spot; almost an ideal point. Parabolic reflectors are not suitable for imaging nearby objects because the light rays are not parallel. A beam of light reflects off a mirror at an angle of reflection that is equal to its angle of incidence (if the size of a mirror is much larger than the wavelength of light). That is, if the beam of light is shining on a mirror's surface at a 30° angle from vertical, then it reflects from the point of incidence at a 30° angle from vertical in the opposite direction. This law mathematically follows from the interference of a plane wave on a flat boundary (of much larger size than the wavelength). Applications Reflections in a spherical convex mirror. The photographer is seen at top right Safety and easier viewing Rear-view mirrors are widely used in and on vehicles (such as automobiles, or bicycles), to allow drivers to see other vehicles coming up behind them. Some motorcycle helmets have a built-in so-called MROS (Multiple Reflective Optic System): a set of reflective surfaces inside the helmet that together function as a rear-view mirror. There exist rear view sunglasses, of which the left end of the left glass and the right end of the right glass work as mirrors. Convex mirrors are used to provide a wider field of view than a flat mirror, and are often used on vehicles, especially large trucks, to minimise blind spots. They are sometimes placed at road junctions, and corners of places such as parking lots to allow people to see around corners to avoid crashing into other vehicles or shopping carts. They are also sometimes used as part of security systems, so that a single video camera can show more than one angle at a time. Mouth mirrors or "dental mirrors" are used by dentists to allow indirect vision and lighting within the mouth. Their reflective surfaces may be either flat or curved. Mouth mirrors are also commonly used by engineers to allow vision in tight spaces and around corners in equipment. Two-way mirrors A two-way mirror, also sometimes referred to as a one-way mirror or one-way glass, reflects some percentage of the light and lets some other percentage pass. It is a sheet of glass coated with a layer of metal only a few dozen atoms thick, allowing some of the light through the surface (from both sides). It is used between a dark room and a brightly lit room. People on the brightly lit side see their own reflection — it looks like a normal mirror. People on the dark side see through it — it looks like a transparent window. It may be used to observe criminal suspects or customers. The same type of mirror, when used in an optical instrument, is called a half-silvered mirror or beam splitter. Its purpose is to split a beam of light so that half passes straight through, while the other half is reflected — this is useful for interferometry. The reality television program Big Brother makes extensive use of two-way mirrors throughout its set to allow cameramen in special black hallways to use movable cameras to videotape contestants without their coming in contact with the workers. Contrary to popular belief, passive one-way mirrors that operate directionally between equally lit rooms do not exist. The laws of physics do not allow for real, passive one-way mirrors or windows (ones that do not need external energy); if such a device were possible, one could break the second law of thermodynamics and make energy flow from a cold object to a hot one, by placing such a mirror between them. One-way windows can be made to work with polarized light, however, without violating the second law. Rayleigh, On the magnetic rotation of light and the second law of thermodynamics, Nature (London), Vol. 64, p. 577 (Oct. 10, 1901). Optical isolators are one-way devices that are commonly used with lasers. Signalling With the sun as light source, a mirror can be used to signal by variations in the orientation of the mirror. The signal can be used over long distances, possibly up to 60 kilometres on a clear day. This technique was used by Native American tribes and numerous militaries to transmit information between distant outposts. Mirrors can also be used for rescue, especially to attract the attention of search and rescue helicopters. Specialised signalling mirrors are available and are often included in military survival kits. Technology Televisions and projectors Microscopic mirrors are a core element of many of the largest high-definition televisions and video projectors. A common technology of this type is Texas Instruments' DLP. A DLP chip is a postage stamp-sized microchip whose surface is comprised of an array of millions of microscopic mirrors. The picture is created as the individual mirrors move to either reflect light toward the projection surface (pixel on), or toward a light absorbing surface (pixel off). Other projection technologies involving mirrors include LCoS. Like a DLP chip, LCoS is a microchip of similar size, but rather than millions of individual mirrors, there is a single mirror that is actively shielded by a liquid crystal matrix with up to millions of pixels. The picture is formed as light is either reflected toward the projection surface (pixel on), or absorbed by the activated LCD pixels (pixel off). LCoS-based televisions and projectors often use 3 chips, one for each primary color. Large mirrors are used in rear projection televisions. Light (for example from a DLP as mentioned above) is "folded" by one or more mirrors so that the television set is compact. Instruments Telescopes and other precision instruments use front silvered or first surface mirrors, where the reflecting surface is placed on the front (or first) surface of the glass (this eliminates reflection from glass surface ordinary back mirrors have). Some of them use silver, but most are aluminum, which is more reflective at short wavelengths than silver. All of these coatings are easily damaged and require special handling. They reflect 90% to 95% of the incident light when new. The coatings are typically applied by vacuum deposition. A protective overcoat is usually applied before the mirror is removed from the vacuum, because the coating otherwise begins to corrode as soon as it is exposed to oxygen and humidity in the air. Front silvered mirrors have to be resurfaced occasionally to keep their quality. The reflectivity of the mirror coating can be measured using a reflectometer and for a particular metal it will be different for different wavelengths of light. This is exploited in some optical work to make cold mirrors and hot mirrors. A cold mirror is made by using a transparent substrate and choosing a coating material that is more reflective to visible light and more transmissive to infrared light. A hot mirror is the opposite, the coating preferentially reflects infrared. Mirror surfaces are sometimes given thin film overcoatings both to retard degradation of the surface and to increase their reflectivity in parts of the spectrum where they will be used. For instance, aluminum mirrors are commonly coated with silicon dioxide or magnesium fluoride. The reflectivity as a function of wavelength depends on both the thickness of the coating and on how it is applied. For scientific optical work, dielectric mirrors are often used. These are glass (or sometimes other material) substrates on which one or more layers of dielectric material are deposited, to form an optical coating. By careful choice of the type and thickness of the dielectric layers, the range of wavelengths and amount of light reflected from the mirror can be specified. The best mirrors of this type can reflect >99.999% of the light (in a narrow range of wavelengths) which is incident on the mirror. Such mirrors are often used in lasers. In astronomy, adaptive optics is a technique to measure variable image distortions and adapt a deformable mirror accordingly on a timescale of milliseconds, to compensate for the distortions. Although the most of mirrors are designed to reflect visible light, surfaces reflecting other forms of electromagnetic radiation are also called "mirrors". The mirrors for other ranges of electromagnetic waves are used in optics and astronomy. Mirrors for radio waves are important elements of radio telescopes. A Mangin mirror is a combination lens and concave mirror and is widely used in optical instruments and even sometimes in cameras. Face-to-face mirrors Two or more mirrors placed exactly face to face give the appearance of an infinite regress. Some devices use this to generate multiple reflections: Fabry-Pérot interferometer Laser (which contains an optical cavity) some types of catoptric cistula momentum-enhanced solar sail Military applications It has been said that Archimedes used a large array of mirrors to burn Roman ships during an attack on Syracuse. This has never been proven or disproved; however, it has been put to the test. Recently, on a popular Discovery Channel show, MythBusters, a team from MIT tried to recreate the famous "Archimedes Death Ray". They were successful at starting a fire on a ship at 75 feet away; however, previous attempts to light the boat on fire using only the bronze mirrors available in Archimedes' time were unsuccessful, and the time taken to ignite the craft would have made its use impractical, resulting in the MythBusters team deeming the myth "busted". (See solar power tower for a practical use of this technique.) Seasonal lighting <Center>A multi-facet mirror in the Kibble Palace conservatory, Glasgow, Scotland. Due to its location in a steep-sided valley, the Italian town of Viganella gets no direct sunlight for seven weeks each winter. In 2006 a €100,000 computer-controlled mirror, 8×5 m, was installed to reflect sunlight into the town's piazza. In early 2007 the similarly situated village of Bondo, Switzerland, was considering applying this solution as well. BBC NEWS | Europe | Italy village gets 'sun mirror' Swiss Officials Want to Spread Sunshine, Swiss Officials May Build Giant Mirror to Give Light to Sunless Village - CBS News Mirrors can be used to produce enhanced lighting effects in greenhouses or conservatories. Leisure Decoration Mirrors, typically large and unframed, are frequently used in interior decoration to create an illusion of space, and amplify the apparent size of a room. Mirrors are used also in some schools of feng shui, an ancient Chinese practice of placement and arrangement of space to achieve harmony with the environment. The softness of old mirrors is sometimes replicated by contemporary artisans for use in interior design. These reproduction antiqued mirrors are works of art and can bring color and texture to an otherwise hard, cold reflective surface. It is an artistic process that has been attempted by many and perfected by few. A decorative reflecting sphere of thin metal-coated glass, working as a reducing wide-angle mirror, is sold as a Christmas ornament called a bauble. Entertainment The hall of mirrors, commonly found in amusement parks, is an attraction in which a number of distorted mirrors are used to produce unusual reflections of the visitor. Mirror mazes, also found in amusement parks, contain large numbers of mirrors and sheets of glass. The idea is to navigate the disorientating array without bumping into the walls. Mirrors are often used in magic to create an illusion. One effect is called Pepper's ghost. Illuminated rotating disco balls covered with small mirrors are used to cast moving spots of light around a dance floor. Mirrors are employed in kaleidoscopes, personal entertainment devices invented in Scotland by sir David Brewster. Art Filippo Brunelleschi discovered linear perspective with the help of the mirror, Leonardo da Vinci called the mirror the "master of painters". He recommended, "When you wish to see whether your whole picture accords with what you have portrayed from nature take a mirror and reflect the actual object in it. Compare what is reflected with your painting and carefully consider whether both likenesses of the subject correspond, particularly in regard to the mirror." The mirror is the central device in some of the greatest of European paintings: Jan Van Eyck's Arnolfini Portrait, Diego Velazquez's Las Meninas and Edouard Manet’s A Bar at the Folies-Bergère. Without a mirror, the great self portraits by Dürer, Rembrandt, Van Gogh and Frida Kahlo could not have been painted. M. C. Escher used special shapes of mirrors in order to have a much more complete view of the surroundings than by direct observation (Hand with Reflecting Sphere). István Orosz’s anamorphic works are images distorted such way that they only become clearly visible when reflected in a suitably-shaped and positioned mirror. Some other contemporary artists use mirrors as the material of art, like in mirror-sculptures and paintings on mirror surfaces. Some artists build special mirror installations as the neon mirror cubes by Jeppe Hein. Painters depicting someone in front of a mirror often also show the person's reflection. This is a kind of abstraction—in most cases the angle of view is such that the person's reflection should not be visible. Similarly, in movies and still photography an actor or actress is often shown ostensibly looking at him or herself in the mirror, and yet the reflection faces the camera. In reality, the actor or actress sees only the camera and its operator in this case, not their own reflection. Literature Mirrors play a powerful role in cultural literature, from the self-loving Narcissus of Greek Mythology to the Biblical reference to Through a Glass Darkly. The evil queen in the European fairy-tale Snow White asked, "Mirror, mirror, on the wall... who's the fairest of them all?" Some of the best-loved uses of mirrors in literature include Lewis Carroll's Through the Looking Glass and the Mirror of Erised in the Harry Potter series. Horror movies about mirrors include Candyman and Mirrors. Mirrors and superstition There are many legends and superstitions surrounding mirrors. Mirrors are said to be a reflection of the soul, and they were often used in traditional witchcraft as tools for scrying or performing other spells. It is also said that mirrors cannot lie. They can show only the truth, so it is a very bad omen indeed to see something in a mirror which should not be there. Also there is a legend that a newborn child should not see a mirror until its first birthday as its soul is still developing. If the child sees its reflection it is said that it will die. It is a common superstition that someone who breaks a mirror will receive seven years of bad luck. One of the many reasons for this belief is that the mirror is believed to reflect part of the soul, therefore, breaking the mirror will break part of the soul. However, the soul is said to regenerate every seven years, thus coming back unbroken. To counter this one of many rituals has to be performed, the easiest of which is to stop the mirror from reflecting the broken soul by grinding it to dust. www.mirrorsmyth.com The belief might also simply originate from the high cost of mirrors in times gone past. It is also said that tapping the broken mirror on a gravestone seven times will allow the soul to heal. Another option is to bury the mirror, also preventing the mirror from reflecting the broken soul. However, if the mirror is both touched to the gravestone and buried, the bad luck will remain. If you are in this position, the only course of action is to dig up the mirror and grind it to dust. Finally, this dust must be sprinkled around the same gravestone on which the mirror was initially tapped. In days past it was customary in the southern United States to cover the mirrors in a house where the wake of a deceased person was being held. It was believed that the person's soul would become trapped in a mirror left uncovered. Mirrors falling from walls or otherwise breaking or cracking mysteriously were said to be haunted. According to legend, a vampire has no reflection in mirrors because it is an undead creature and has already lost its soul. Spectrophobia is the fear of mirrors. Another superstition claims it is bad luck to have two mirrors facing each other. www.answers.com/topic/mirrors-4 A staple of childhood slumber parties is the game Bloody Mary, which involves chanting "Bloody Mary" three times in a darkened room while staring into a mirror. There are many versions of the game, but the general idea is that "Mary" will appear in the mirror and attempt to harm or kill the person who has summoned her. Thanks to a series of popular horror movies based on a supernatural killer who haunted mirrors, the phrase "Candy Man" may be substituted for Mary. Mirrors and animals The Asian elephant can recognise its own reflection in a mirror Experiments have shown that only large-brained social animals are able to recognise that a mirror shows a reflection of themselves. Animals that have shown they are able to use a mirror to study themselves: Asian elephants Bonobos Common chimpanzees Dolphins Magpies Orangutans Humans Unusual types of mirror Other types of reflecting device are also called "mirrors". For example metallic reflectors are used to reflect infrared light (such as in space heaters), or microwaves. 4.5 metre high acoustic mirror near Kilnsea Grange, East Yorkshire, UK An acoustic mirror is a passive device used to reflect and perhaps to focus sound waves. Acoustic mirrors were used for selective detection of sound waves, especially during World War II. They were used for detection of enemy aircraft prior to the development of radar. Acoustic mirrors are used for remote probing of the atmosphere; they can be used to form a narrow diffraction-limited beam. They can also be used for underwater "imaging". Active mirrors are mirrors that amplify the light they reflect. They are used to make disk lasers. The amplification is typically over a narrow range of wavelengths, and requires an external source of power. An atomic mirror is a device which reflects matter waves. Usually, atomic mirrors work at grazing incidence. Such a mirror can be used for atomic interferometry and atomic holography. It has been proposed that they can be used for non-destructive imaging systems with nanometer resolution. Cold mirrors are dielectric mirrors that reflect the entire visible light spectrum while efficiently transmitting infrared wavelengths. Conversely, hot mirrors reflect infrared light while allowing visible light to pass. These can be used to separate useful light from unneeded infrared to reduce heating of components in an optical device. They can also be used as dichroic beamsplitters. Corner reflectors use three flat mirrors to reflect light back towards its source. They are used for emergency location, and even laser ranging to the Moon. X-ray mirrors produce specular reflection of X-rays. All known types work only at angles near grazing incidence, and only a small fraction of the rays are reflected. A non-reversing mirror is a mirror that provides a non-reversed image of its subject. See also Anamorphosis Aranmula kannadi Bronze mirror Cold mirror and Hot mirror Curved mirror Deformable mirror Dielectric mirror Digital micromirror device Home decor Honeycomb mirror Mirror armour (an oriental partial plate armour from polished metal mirrors) Mirror writing Perfect mirror Periscope Rear-view mirror Reflectivity Silvering TLV mirror — An ancient type of Chinese mirror from the Han Dynasty. Two-way mirror (Also known as one-way mirror) Venus effect Notes Bibliography Mirror, Mirror: A History of the Human Love Affair with Reflection, Mark Pendergrast. Basic Books (2003). ISBN 0-465-05471-4 . On reflection, Jonathan Miller, National Gallery Publications Limited (1998). ISBN 0-300-07713-0 . The Mirror: A History, Sabine Melchior-Bonnet, Routledge, 2001, ISBN 0415924480 External links The Mirror: A History by Sabine Melchior-Bonnet at Google Books The Narcissus Syndrome Revisited by Yves Doré How Mirrors Are Made (video), Glass Association of North America] Knol/Google Mirror page How Antique Mirrors can be reproduced | Mirror |@lemmatized mirror:226 reflect:34 vase:1 object:5 least:1 one:21 polish:5 therefore:2 specularly:1 reflective:11 surface:21 familiar:1 type:11 plane:4 flat:5 curve:3 also:25 use:69 produce:6 magnified:1 diminish:1 image:13 focus:6 light:40 simply:2 distort:2 reflected:1 commonly:6 personal:2 grooming:1 case:3 old:2 fashioned:1 term:2 look:5 glass:33 decoration:4 architecture:1 scientific:2 apparatus:1 telescope:3 laser:7 camera:6 industrial:2 machinery:1 design:4 visible:7 however:7 wave:7 wavelength:11 electromagnetic:3 radiation:2 especially:4 optical:9 instrument:6 history:6 first:6 people:4 likely:1 pool:1 dark:3 still:4 water:2 collect:1 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5,161 | Musique_concrète | Musique concrète (French for "concrete music" or "real music"), is a form of electroacoustic music that utilises acousmatic sound as a compositional resource. The compositional material is not restricted to the inclusion of sonorities derived from musical instruments or voices, nor to elements traditionally thought of as 'musical' (melody, harmony, rhythm, metre and so on). The theoretical underpinnings of the aesthetic were developed by Pierre Schaeffer, beginning in the late 1940s. History Pierre Schaeffer The French composer and theorist Pierre Schaeffer is credited with originating musique concrete in five works for tape alone (known collectively as Cinq études de bruits, or Five Studies of Noises) including Etude violette (Study in Purple) and Etude aux chemins de fer (Study of Railroads). The works were premiered at a concert given in Paris on the 5th of October 1948 (Chion 1983). The development of musique concrete was facilitated by the emergence of new music technology in post-war Europe. Access to microphones and magnetic tape recorders (created in 1939), afforded by an association with the French national broadcasting organization, at that time the Radiodiffusion-Télévision Française, gave Schaeffer and his colleagues an opportunity to experiment with recording technology and tape manipulation. Schaeffer developed an aesthetic practice that was centered upon the use of sound as a primary compositional resource and emphasized the importance of play (jeu) in the creation of music. Schaeffer's use of jeu, from the verb jouer, carries the same double meaning as the English verb play: 'to enjoy oneself by interacting with one's surroundings', as well as 'to operate a musical instrument'. This notion is central to the musique concrète aesthetic. Groupe de Recherche de Musique Concrète In 1951 Schaeffer, along with the engineer Jacques Poullin, and composer-percussionist Pierre Henry, established the Groupe de Recherche de Musique Concrète (Research Group on Concrete Music) at RTF in Paris, the ancestor of the ORTF. At RTF the GRMC established the first purpose-built electroacoustic music studio. It quickly attracted several notable composers including Olivier Messiaen, Pierre Boulez, Jean Barraqué, Karlheinz Stockhausen, Edgar Varese, Iannis Xenakis, Michel Philippot, and Arthur Honegger. Compositional output from 1951 to 1953 comprised Étude I (1951) and Étude II (1951) by Boulez, Timbres-durées (1952) by Messiaen, Étude (1952) by Stockhausen, Le microphone bien tempéré (1952) and La voile d’Orphée (1953) by Henry, Étude I (1953) by Philippot, Étude (1953) by Barraqué, the mixed pieces Toute la lyre (1951) and Orphée 53 (1953) by Schaeffer\Henry, and the film music Masquerage (1952) by Schaeffer and Astrologie (1953) by Henry. In 1954 Varèse and Honegger visited to work on the tape parts of Déserts and La rivière endormie (Palombini 1999). Between 1952 and 1956 Schaeffer's commitments to RTF led him to appoint Philippe Arthuys with responsibility for the GRMC, with Pierre Henry operating as Director of Works. Pierre Henry’s composing talent developed greatly during this period at the GRMC and he worked with experimental filmmakers such as Max de Haas, Jean Gremillon, Enrico Fulchignoni, and Jean Rouch, and with choreographers including Dick Sanders and Maurice Béjart (Gayou 2007: 206). Schaeffer returned to run the group at the end of 1957, and immediately stated his disapproval of the direction the GRMC had taken. A proposal was then made to "renew completely the spirit, the methods and the personnel of the Group, with a view to undertake research and to offer a much needed welcome to young composers" (Gayou 2007: 207) . Groupe de Recherches Musicales Following the emergence of differences within the GRMC Pierre Henry, Philippe Arthuys, and several of their colleagues, resigned in April 1958. Schaeffer created a new collective, called Groupe de Recherches Musicales (GRM) and set about recruiting new members including Luc Ferrari, François-Bernard Mâche, Iannis Xenakis, Bernard Parmegiani, and Mireille Chamass-Kyrou. Later arrived Ivo Malec, Philippe Carson, Romuald Vandelle, Edgardo Canton and Francois Bayle (Gayou 2007: 207). GRM was one of several theoretical and experimental groups working under the umbrella of the Schaeffer led Service de la Recherche at ORTF (1960-74). Together with the GRM, three other groups existed: the Groupe de Recherches Image GRI, the Groupe de Recherches Technologiques GRT and the Groupe de Recherches Langage which became the Groupe d’Etudes Critiques (Gayou 2007: 207). Communication was the one theme that unified the various groups, all of which were devoted to production and creation. In terms of the question "who says what to whom?" Schaeffer added "how?", thereby creating a platform for research into audiovisual communication and mass media, audible phenomena and music in general (including non-Western musics). Beatriz Ferreyra, preface to 1998 reedition of Solfege De L'Objet Sonore, page 9. At the GRM the theoretical teaching remained based on practice and could be summed up in the catch phrase ‘do and listen’ (Gayou 2007: 207). Schaeffer kept up a practice established with the GRMC of delegating the functions (though not the title) of Group Director to colleagues. Since 1961 GRM has had six Group Directors: Michel Philippot (1960–61), Luc Ferrari (1962–63), Bernard Baschet and Francois Vercken (1964–66). From the beginning of 1966, Francois Bayle took over the direction for the duration of thirty-one years, to 1997. He was then replaced by Daniel Teruggi (Gayou 2007: 206). Traité des Objets Musicaux The group continued to refine Schaeffer's ideas and strengthened the concept of musique acousmatique (Peignot 1960: 111-123). Schaeffer had borrowed the term acousmatic from Pythagoras and defined it as: "Acousmatic, adjective: referring to a sound that one hears without seeing the causes behind it" (Schaeffer 1966: 91). In 1966 Schaeffer published the book Traité des Objets Musicaux (Treatise on musical objects) which represented the culmination of some 20 years of research in the field of musique concrète. In conjunction with this publication, a set of sound recordings was produced, entitled Le Solfège de l'Objet Sonore (Music Theory of the Acoustic Object), to provide examples of concepts dealt with in the treatise. Technology Initial tools of musique concrete In 1948, a typical radio studio consisted of a series of shellac record players, a shellac record recorder, a mixing desk, with rotating potentiometers, a mechanical reverberation, filters, and microphones. This technology made a number of limited operations available to a composer (Teruggi 2007): Shellac record players: could read a sound normally and in reverse mode, could change speed at fixed ratios thus permitting octave transposition. Shellac recorder: would record any result coming out of the mixing desk. Mixing desk: would permit several sources to be mixed together with an independent control of the gain or volume of the sound. The result of the mixing was sent to the recorder and to the monitoring loudspeakers. Signals could be sent to the filters or the reverberation unit. Mechanical reverberation: made of a metal plate or a series of springs that created the reverberation effect, indispensable to force sounds to ‘fuse’ together. Filters: two kinds of filters, 1/3 octave filters and, high and low-pass filters. They allow the elimination or enhancement of selected frequencies. Microphones: essential tool for capturing sound. The application of the above technologies in the creation of musique concrete led to the development of a number of sound manipulation techniques including (Teruggi 2007): Sound transposition: reading a sound at a different speed than the one at which it was recorded. Sound looping: composers developed a skilled technique in order to create loops at specific locations. Sound-sample extraction: a hand-controlled method that required delicate manipulation to get a clean sample of sound. It entailed letting the stylus read a small segment of a record. Used in the Symphonie pour un homme seul. Filtering: by eliminating most of the central frequencies of a signal, the remains would keep some trace of the original sound but without making it recognisable. Microphone: for capturing sounds and also for magnifying scarcely audible sound sources. Magnetic tape The first tape recorders start arriving at ORTF in 1949; however, their functioning was much less reliable than the shellac players, to the point that the Symphonie pour un homme seul, which was composed in 1950–51, was mainly composed with records, even if the tape recorder was available (Teruggi 2007: 216). In 1950, when the machines finally functioned correctly, the techniques of musique concrete were expanded. A range of new sound manipulation practices were explored using improved media manipulation methods and operations such as speed variation. A completely new possibility of organising sounds appears with tape editing, which permits tape to be spliced and arranged with an extraordinary new precision. The ‘axe-cut junctions’ were replaced with micrometric junctions and a whole new technique of production, less dependency on performance skills, could be developed. Tape editing brought a new technique called ‘micro-editing’, in which very tiny fragments of sound, representing milliseconds of time, were edited together, thus creating completely new sounds or structures (Teruggi 2007: 217). Development of novel devices During the GRMC period from 1951-1958 time Schaeffer and Jacques Poullin developed a number of novel sound creation tools including a three-track tape recorder, a machine with ten playback heads to replay tape loops in echo (the morphophone), a keyboard controlled machine to replay tape loops at twenty-four pre-set speeds (the keyboard, chromatic, or Tolana phonogène), a slide-controlled machine to replay tape loops at a continuously variable range of speeds (the handle, continuous, or Sareg phonogène), and a device to distribute live an encoded track across four loudspeakers, including one hanging from the centre of the ceiling (the potentiomètre d’espace) (Palombini 1999). The phonogene The chromatic phonogene. Speed variation was a powerful tool for sound design applications. It had been identified that transformations brought about by varying playback speed lead to modification in the character of the sound material: Variation in the sounds length, in a manner directly proportional to the ratio of speed variation. Variation in length is coupled with a variation in pitch, and is also proportional to the ratio of speed variation. A sounds attack characteristic is altered, whereby it is either dislocated from succeeding events, or the energy of the attack is more sharply focused. The distribution of spectral energy is altered, thereby influencing how the resulting timbre might be perceived, relative to its original unaltered state. The phonogene was a machine capable of modifying sound structure significantly and it provided composers with a means to adapt sound to meet specific compositional contexts. The initial phonogenes were manufactured in 1953 by two subcontractors: the chromatic phonogene by a company called Tolana, and the sliding version by the SAREG Company. A third version was developed later at ORTF. An outline of the unique capabilities of the various phonogenes can be see here: Chromatic:The chromatic phonogene was controlled through a one-octave keyboard. Multiple capstans of differing diameters vary the tape speed over a single stationary magnetic tape head. A tape loop was put into the machine, and when a key was played, it would act on an individual pinch roller / capstan arrangement and the tape played at the specified speed. The machine worked with short sounds only. Technical description sourced from an article by Jacques Poullin (Pierre Schaeffer's technical collaborator) entitled: L’apport des techniques d’enregistrement dans la fabrication de matieres et de formes musicales nouvelles. Applications à la musique concrète. http://www.ars-sonora.org/html/numeros/numero09/09f.htm Sliding:The sliding phonogene (also called continuous variation phonogene) provided continuous variation of tape speed using a control rod. The range allowed the motor to arrive at almost a stop position, always through a continuous variation. It was basically a normal tape recorder but with the ability to control its speed, so it could modify any length of tape. One of the earliest examples of its use can by heard in Voile d’Orphee by Pierre Henry (1953), where a lengthy glissando is used to symbolise the removal of Orpheus's veil as he enters hell. Universal:A final version called the universal phonogene was completed in 1963. The devices main ability that it enabled the dissociation of pitch variation from time variation. This was the starting point for methods that would later become widely available using digital technology, for instance harmonising (transposing sound without modifying duration) and time stretching (modifying duration without no pitch modification). This was obtained through a rotating magnetic head called the Springer temporal regulator, an ancestor of the rotating heads used in video machines. The three-head tape recorder This original tape recorder was one of the first machines permitting the simultaneous listening of several synchronised sources. Until 1958 musique concrete, radio and the studio machines were monophonic. The three head tape recorder superposed three magnetic tapes that were dragged by a common motor, each tape having an independent spools. The objective was to keep the three tapes synchronised from a common starting point. Works could then be conceived polyphonically, and thus each head conveyed a part of the information and was listened to through a dedicated loudspeaker. It was an ancestor of the multi-track player (four then eight tracks) that appeared in the 1960s. Timbres Durees by Olivier Messiaen with the technical assistance of Pierre Henry was the first work composed for this tape recorder in 1952. A very fast rhythmic polyphony was distributed through the three channels. The Morphophone The morphophone This machine was conceived to build complex forms through repetition, and accumulation of events through delays, filtering and feedback. It was basically made of a large turning disk, 50cm in size, on which a tape was ‘stuck’, with its magnetic side looking towards the outside. A series of magnetic heads were distributed around the disk, in contact with the tape and their position could be moved along the circle. There were twelve heads: a recording head, an erasing head, and ten playing heads. The principle was that a sound was recorded along the looped tape (four seconds of sound could be recorded) and then the ten playing heads would read the information with different delays in relation to their position around the disk. Each playing head had its own amplifier and a band-pass filter in order to modify the spectrum of that sound; feedback loops completed the system and could send the information towards the recording head. The result consisted of repetitions of a sound at different time intervals, with the possibility of filtering and creating feedback. Artificial reverberations or continuous sounds could easily be obtained through this system. Pierre Henry using induction coils to control sound spatially. Early sound spatialisation system At the premiere of Pierre Schaeffer's Symphonie pour un homme seul in 1951, a system that was designed for the spatial control of sound was tested. It was called a ‘relief desk’ (pupitre de relief, but also referred to as pupitre d'espace or potentiometre d'space) and was intended to control the dynamic level of music played from several shellac players. This created a 'stereophonic' effect simply by controlling the left–right positioning of a monophonic sound. The placement of loudspeakers in the performance space included two loudspeakers at the front right and left of the audience, one placed at the rear, and in the center of the space a loudspeaker was placed in a height position above the audience. On stage, the ‘relief desk’ consisted of two circular electro-magnets placed perpendicularly and in a manner that allowed both hands of a performer to move in and out the circles, or towards left and right, with the intention of manipulating the spatial intensity and the localisation of sound using electromagnetic induction. "...sitting in a small studio which was equipped with four loudspeakers - two in front of one - right and left; one behind one and fourth suspended above. In front center were four large loops and an 'executant' moving a small magnetic unit through the air. The four loops controlled the four speakers, and while all four were giving off sounds all the time, the distance of the unit from the loops determined the volume sent out from each. The music thus came to one at varying intensity from various parts of the room, and this 'spatial projection' gave new sense to the rather abstract sequence of sound originally recorded" Ungeheuer 1992: 152 in Emmerson 2007: 150 The central concept underlying this method was the notion that music should be controlled during public presentation in order to create a performance situation; an attitude that has stayed with acousmatic music to the present day (Teruggi 2007: 218). The Coupigny synthesiser and Studio 54 mixing desk Pierre Schaeffer at the Studio 54 desk adjusting a Moog, the Coupigny is in the row below. The Coupigny synthesiser and Studio 54 mixing desk had a major influence on the evolution of GRM and from the point of their introduction on they brought a new quality to the music. The mixing desk and synthesiser were combined in one unit and were created specifically for the creation of musique concrete. The design of the desk was influenced by trade union rules at French National Radio that required technicians and production staff to have clearly defined duties. The solitary practice of musique concrete composition did not suit a system that involved three operators: one in charge of the machines, a second controlling the mixing desk, and third to provide guidance to the others. Because of this the synthesiser and desk were combined and organised in a manner that allowed it to be used easily by a composer. Independently of the mixing tracks (twenty-four in total), it had a coupled connection patch that permitted the organisation of the machines within the studio. It also had a number of remote controls for operating tape recorders. The system was easily adaptable to any context, particularly that of interfacing with external equipment. Before the late 1960s the musique concrete produced at GRM had largely been based on the recording and manipulation of sounds, but synthesised sounds had featured in a number of works prior to the introduction of the Coupigny. Pierre Henry had used oscillators to produce sounds as early as 1955. But a synthesiser with parametrical control was something Pierre Schaeffer was against, since it favoured the preconception of music and therefore deviated from Schaeffer's principal of ‘making through listening’. Because of Schaeffer's concerns the Coupigny synthesiser was conceived as a sound event generator with parameters controlled globally, without a means to define values as precisely as some other synthesisers of the day. A number of requirements constrained the development of the machine. It needed be modular and easy to interconnect (this meant that there would be more modules than slots in the synthesiser and that it would have an easy-to-use patch). It also needed to include all the major functions of a modular synthesiser including oscillators, noise-generators, filters, ring-modulators, but an intermodulation facility was viewed as the primary requirement; to enable complex synthesis processes such as frequency modulation, amplitude modulation, and modulation via an external source. No keyboard was attached to the synthesiser and instead a specific and somewhat complex envelope generator was used to shape sound. The synthesiser was extremely practical for producing continuous and complex sounds using intermodulation techniques such as cross synthesis and frequency modulation but was less effective in generating precisely defined frequencies and triggering specific sounds. The Acousmonium Schaeffer presenting The Acousmonium. In 1966 composer and technician Francois Bayle was placed in charge of the Groupe de Recherches Musicales and in 1975, GRM was integrated with the new Institut national de l'audiovisuel (INA - Audiovisual National Institute) with Bayle as its head. In taking the lead on work that began in the early 1950s, with Jacques Poullin's potentiomètre d’espace, a system designed to move monophonic sound sources across four speakers, Bayle and the engineer Jean-Claude Lallemand created an orchestra of loudspeakers (un orchestra de haut-parleurs) known as the Acousmonium in 1974. An inaugural concert tool place at the Espace Pierre Cardin in Paris with a presentation of Bayle's Experience acoustique (Gayou 2007: 209). The Acousmonium is a specialised sound reinforcement system consisting of between 50 and 100 loudspeakers, depending on the character of the concert, of varying shape and size. The system was designed specifically for the concert presentation of musiques concrete based works but with the added enhancement of sound spatialisation. Loudspeakers are placed both on stage and at positions throughout the performance space (Gayou 2007: 209) and a mixing console is used to manipulate the placement of acousmatic material across the speaker array, using a performative technique known as sound diffusion (Austin 2000: 10-21). Bayle has commented that the purpose of the Acousmonium is to "substitute a momentary classical disposition of sound making, which diffuses the sound from the circumference towards the centre of the hall, by a group of sound projectors which form an ‘orchestration’ of the acoustic image" (Bayle 1993: 44). Notable musicians/composers Bernard Parmegiani Denis Smalley Francis Dhomont Francois Bayle Hugh Le Caine Luc Ferrari Michel Chion Pierre Henry Dick Raaymakers (Kid Baltan) Pierre Schaeffer Louis and Bebe Barron Pietro Grossi See also Audium Computer music Electronic music Electroacoustic music Experimental music Sound engineering Sound design Sound art Sound collage Notes References Austin, L. & Smalley, D. (2000), Sound Diffusion in Composition and Performance:An Interview with Denis Smalley, Computer Music Journal, 24:2, pp. 10–21, Summer 2000, MIT. Bayle, F. (1993), Musique acousmatique, propositions...positions, Paris: INA-GRM Buche/Chastel. Chion, M. (1983),Guide des objets sonores, Pierre Schaeffer et la recherche musicale, Ina-GRM/Buchet-Chastel, Paris. Emmerson, S. (2007). Living Electronic Music. Aldershot (Hants.), Burlington (VT): Ashgate. ISBN 0754655466 (cloth) ISBN 0754655482 (pbk) Gayou, E. (2007), The GRM: landmarks on a historic route, Organised Sound 12(3): 203–211, 2007 Cambridge University Press. Palombini, C. (1999), Musique Concrète Revisited, Electronic Musicological Review, Vol. 4, June 1999, Federal University of Paraná, Brazil. Peignot, J. (1960), De la musique concrète à l'acousmatique, Esprit, No. 280. Paris. Schaeffer, P. (1966), Traité des objets musicaux, Le Seuil, Paris. Schaeffer, P. & Reibel G. (1967), Solfege De L'Objet Sonore, Reedition 1998, preface by Daniel Teruggi, Guy Reibel, and Beatriz Ferreyra, coedition Ina-Publications, Paris. Teruggi, D. (2007), Technology and musique concrete: the technical developments of the Groupe de Recherches Musicales and their implication in musical composition, Organised Sound, 12(3): 213–231, 2007 Cambridge University Press. Further reading Dack, J. (1994), Pierre Schaeffer and the Significance of Radiophonic Art, Contemporary Music Review. Vol. 10, No. 2: London: Harwood: 3-11. Dack, J. (1993a), la Recherche de l'Instrument Perdu, Electroacoustic Music - Journal of the Electroacoustic Music Association of Great Britain: Vol. 7. London: Sonic Arts Network. Kane, B. (2007), L’Objet Sonore Maintenant: Pierre Schaeffer, sound objects and the phenomenological reduction, Organised Sound, 12(1): 15-24, Cambridge University Press. Schaeffer, P. (1952b), L'objet musical, La Revue Musicale: L'œuvre du XXe siècle, No. 212. Paris: Richard-Masse: 65-76. Schaeffer, P. (1967),La musique concrète, Paris: Presses Universitaires de Frances. External links INA-GRM website Francois Bayle's personal website Electroacoustic Music Studies Network Bernard Parmegiani's personal website ElectroAcoustic Resource Site at Du Montfort University INA-GRM 31st Season (2008/2009). Multiphonies program of events. Organised Sound: An International Journal of Music and Technology. 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5,162 | Emperor_Seinei | , or rather Shiraka no okimi was the 22nd emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. Titsingh, Isaac. (1834). Annales des empereurs du japon, pp. 28-29; Varley, Paul. (1980). Jinnō Shōtōki, pp. 115-116. No firm dates can be assigned to this emperor's life or reign, but Seinei is thought to have ruled the country during the late 5th century. There is an overall paucity of information about him. According to Kojiki and Nihonshoki, he was a son of Emperor Yūryaku. His name in birth was Shiraka. "Shiraka" means "white-haired" in Japanese, and it is said that the color of his hair was white since his birth (possibly due to albinism). After the death of his father, Seinei won the fight against Prince Hoshikawa, his brother, for the throne and so succeeded his father. Traditional dates which are ascribed to this emperor's reign are from 480 till 484. He fathered no children; however, two grandsons of Emperor Richū were found -- later to ascend as Prince Oke and Prince Woke. Seinei adopted them as his heirs. Aston, William. (1998). Nihongi, Vol. 1, pp. 373-377. He was entombed in Kawachi province, which is today in eastern Osaka prefecture. Notes References Aston, William George. (1896). Nihongi: Chronicles of Japan from the Earliest Times to A.D. 697. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner. [reprinted by Tuttle Publishing, Tokyo, 2007. 10-ISBN 0-8048-0984-4; 13-ISBN 978-0-8048-0984-9] Brown, Delmer M. and Ichirō Ishida, eds. (1979). [ Jien, c. 1220], Gukanshō (The Future and the Past, a translation and study of the Gukanshō, an interpretative history of Japan written in 1219). Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-03460-0 Nippon Gakujutsu Shinkokai (1969). The Manyōshū: The Nippon Gakujutsu Shinkokai Translation of One Thousand Poems. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-08620-2 Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon. (1959). The Imperial House of Japan. Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society. OCLC 194887 Titsingh, Isaac, ed. (1834). [Siyun-sai Rin-siyo/Hayashi Gahō, 1652], Nipon o daï itsi ran; ou, [http://books.google.com/books?id=18oNAAAAIAAJ&dq=nipon+o+dai+itsi+ran Annales des empereurs du Japon.] Paris: Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland. Varley, H. Paul , ed. (1980). [ Kitabatake Chikafusa, 1359], Jinnō Shōtōki ("A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns: Jinnō Shōtōki of Kitabatake Chikafusa" translated by H. Paul Varley). New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-04940-4 See also Emperor of Japan List of Emperors of Japan Imperial cult | Emperor_Seinei |@lemmatized rather:1 shiraka:3 okimi:1 emperor:7 japan:6 accord:2 traditional:2 order:1 succession:1 titsingh:2 isaac:2 annales:2 des:1 empereurs:2 du:2 japon:2 pp:3 varley:3 paul:4 jinnō:3 shōtōki:3 firm:1 date:2 assign:1 life:1 reign:2 seinei:3 think:1 rule:1 country:1 late:1 century:1 overall:1 paucity:1 information:1 kojiki:1 nihonshoki:1 son:1 yūryaku:1 name:1 birth:2 mean:1 white:2 haired:1 japanese:1 say:1 color:1 hair:1 since:1 possibly:1 due:1 albinism:1 death:1 father:3 win:1 fight:1 prince:3 hoshikawa:1 brother:1 throne:1 succeed:1 ascribe:1 till:1 child:1 however:1 two:1 grandson:1 richū:1 find:1 later:1 ascend:1 oke:1 woke:1 adopt:1 heir:1 aston:2 william:2 nihongi:2 vol:1 entomb:1 kawachi:1 province:1 today:1 eastern:1 osaka:1 prefecture:1 note:1 reference:1 george:1 chronicle:2 early:1 time:1 london:1 kegan:1 trench:1 trubner:1 reprint:1 tuttle:1 publishing:1 tokyo:1 isbn:5 brown:1 delmer:1 ichirō:1 ishida:1 ed:3 jien:1 c:1 gukanshō:2 future:1 past:1 translation:3 study:1 interpretative:1 history:1 write:1 berkeley:1 university:3 california:1 press:3 nippon:2 gakujutsu:2 shinkokai:2 manyōshū:1 one:1 thousand:1 poems:1 new:2 york:2 columbia:2 ponsonby:2 fane:1 richard:1 arthur:1 brabazon:1 imperial:2 house:1 kyoto:1 memorial:1 society:1 oclc:1 siyun:1 sai:1 rin:1 siyo:1 hayashi:1 gahō:1 nipon:2 daï:1 itsi:2 run:2 ou:1 http:1 book:2 google:1 com:1 id:1 dq:1 dai:1 de:1 paris:1 oriental:1 fund:1 great:1 britain:1 ireland:1 h:2 kitabatake:2 chikafusa:2 god:1 sovereign:1 translate:1 see:1 also:1 list:1 cult:1 |@bigram succession_titsingh:1 titsingh_isaac:2 isaac_annales:1 annales_des:1 des_empereurs:1 empereurs_du:2 du_japon:2 japon_pp:1 paul_jinnō:1 jinnō_shōtōki:3 paucity_information:1 kojiki_nihonshoki:1 william_nihongi:1 nihongi_vol:1 george_nihongi:1 nihongi_chronicle:1 kegan_paul:1 trench_trubner:1 trubner_reprint:1 reprint_tuttle:1 tuttle_publishing:1 brown_delmer:1 delmer_ichirō:1 ichirō_ishida:1 ishida_ed:1 ed_jien:1 jien_c:1 gukanshō_future:1 gukanshō_interpretative:1 nippon_gakujutsu:2 gakujutsu_shinkokai:2 ponsonby_fane:1 fane_richard:1 arthur_brabazon:1 brabazon_imperial:1 kyoto_ponsonby:1 ponsonby_memorial:1 oclc_titsingh:1 ed_siyun:1 siyun_sai:1 sai_rin:1 rin_siyo:1 siyo_hayashi:1 hayashi_gahō:1 gahō_nipon:1 nipon_daï:1 daï_itsi:1 itsi_run:2 id_dq:1 dq_nipon:1 nipon_dai:1 dai_itsi:1 japon_paris:1 ireland_varley:1 varley_h:1 ed_kitabatake:1 kitabatake_chikafusa:2 chikafusa_jinnō:1 shōtōki_chronicle:1 sovereign_jinnō:1 shōtōki_kitabatake:1 chikafusa_translate:1 paul_varley:1 |
5,163 | Costa_Rica | Costa Rica, officially the Republic of Costa Rica ( or República de Costa Rica, ) is a country in Central America, bordered by Nicaragua to the north, Panama to the east and south, the Pacific Ocean to the west and south and the Caribbean Sea to the east. Costa Rica, which translates literally as "Rich Coast", was the first country in the world to constitutionally abolish its army. (Spanish) Among Latin American countries, Costa Rica ranks 5th in terms of the 2006 Human Development Index. The country is ranked 5th in the world, and 1st among the Americas, in terms of the 2008 Environmental Performance Index. In 2007 the Costa Rican government announced plans for Costa Rica to become the first carbon neutral country by 2021. History In Pre-Columbian times the indigenous people, in what is now known as Costa Rica, were part of the international Intermediate Area located between the Mesoamerican and Andean cultural regions. This has recently been updated to include the influence of the Isthmo-Colombian area. It was the point where the Mesoamerican and South American native cultures met. A Pre-Columbian incense burner with acrocodile lid (500 - 1350 CE), from Costa Rica. The northwest of the country, the Nicoya Peninsula, was the southernmost point of Nahuatl (named after Nitin) cultural influence when the Spanish conquerors (conquistadores) came in the sixteenth century. The central and southern portions of the country had Chibcha influences. However, the indigenous people have influenced modern Costa Rican culture to a relatively small degree, as most of these died from diseases such as smallpox The Story Of... Smallpox and mistreatment by the Spaniards. The first European to reach what is now Costa Rica was Christopher Columbus in 1502. Geographia Accessed on Nov 22, 2007. During Spanish Colonial times, the largest city in Central America was Guatemala City. Costa Rica's distance from this hub led to difficulty in establishing trade routes and was one of the reasons that Costa Ricans developed in relative isolation and with little oversight from the Spanish Monarchy ("The Crown"). While this isolation allowed the colony to develop free of intervention by The Crown, it also contributed to its failure to share in the prosperity of the Colonies, making Costa Rica the poorest Spanish Colony in Central America. Costa Rica was described as "the poorest and most miserable Spanish colony in all Americas" by a Spanish governor in 1719. Another contributing factor to this poverty was the lack of indigenous people used as forced labor. While many Spaniards in the other colonies had tribal members working on their land, most of the Costa Rican settlers had to work on their own land themselves. For all these reasons Costa Rica was by and large unappreciated and overlooked by the Crown and left to develop on its own. It is believed that the circumstances during this period led to the formation of many of the idiosyncrasies that Costa Rica has become known for, while at the same time setting the stage for Costa Rica's development as a more egalitarian society than the rest of its neighbors. Costa Rica became a "rural democracy" with no oppressed mestizo or indigenous class. It was not long before Spanish settlers turned to the hills, where they found rich volcanic soil and a climate that was milder than that of the lowlands. Costa Rica - Cartago Costa Rica joined other Central American provinces in 1821 in a joint declaration of independence from Spain. After a brief time in the Mexican Empire of Agustín de Iturbide Costa Rica became a state in the Federal Republic of Central America from 1823 to 1839. In 1824 the capital was moved to San José, but violence briefly ensued through an intense rivalry with Cartago. Although the newly independent provinces formed a Federation, border disputes broke out among them, adding to the region's turbulent history and conditions. Costa Rica's membership in the newly formed Federal Republic of Central America, free of Spanish rule, was short lived; in 1838, long after the Central American Federation ceased to function in practice, Costa Rica formally withdrew and proclaimed itself sovereign. The distance from Guatemala City to the Central Valley of Costa Rica, where most of the population lived and still lives, was great. The local population had little allegiance to the government in Guatemala City, in part because of the history of isolation during Colonial times. Costa Rica's disinterest in participating as a province in a greater Central American government was one of the deciding factors in the break-up of the fledgling federation into independent states, which still exist today. However, all of the Central American nations still celebrate September 15 as their independence day, which pertains to the independence of Central America from Spain. Most Afro-Costa Ricans, who constitute about 3% of the country's population, descend from Jamaican immigrants who arrived during the 1880s to work in the construction of railways connecting the urban populations of the Central Plateau to the port of Limón on the Caribbean coast. United States convicts and Chinese immigrants also participated in the construction project, conducted by U.S. businessman Minor C. Keith. In exchange for completing the railroad, the Costa Rican government granted Keith large tracts of land and a lease on the train route, which he used to produce bananas and export them to the United States. As a result, bananas came to rival coffee as the principal Costa Rican export, while foreign-owned corporations (including the United Fruit Company) began to hold a major role in the national economy. Historically, Costa Rica has generally enjoyed greater peace and more consistent political stability compared with many of its fellow Latin American nations. Since the late nineteenth century, however, Costa Rica has experienced two significant periods of violence. In 1917-19, Federico Tinoco Granados ruled as a dictator until he was overthrown and forced into exile. Again in 1948, José Figueres Ferrer led an armed uprising in the wake of a disputed presidential election. With more than 2,000 dead, the resulting 44-day Costa Rican Civil War was the bloodiest event in Costa Rica during the twentieth-century. Afterwards, the new, victorious government junta, led by the opposition, abolished the military and oversaw the drafting of a new constitution by a democratically-elected assembly. Having enacted these reforms, the regime finally relinquished its power on November 8, 1949, to the new democratic government. After the coup d'etat, Figueres became a national hero, winning the country's first democratic election under the new constitution in 1953. Since then, Costa Rica has held 12 presidential elections, the latest being in 2006. All of them have been widely regarded by the international communityas peaceful, transparent, and relatively smooth transition. Geography Hatham beach at Isla del coco. Costa Rica is located on the Central American isthmus, 10° North of the equator and 84° West of the Prime Meridian. It borders both the Caribbean Sea (to the east) and the North Pacific Ocean (to the west), with a total of 1,290 kilometers (802 mi) of coastline (212 km / 132 mi on the Caribbean coast and 1,016 km / 631 mi on the Pacific Costa Rica also borders Nicaragua to the north (309 km / 192 mi of border) and Panama to the south-southeast (639 km / 397 mi of border). In total, Costa Rica comprises 51,100 square kilometers (19,730 sq. mi) plus 589.000 square kilometers of territorial waters. The highest point in the country is Cerro Chirripó, at 3,820 metres (12,532 ft), and is the fifth highest peak in Central America. The highest volcano in the country is the Irazú Volcano (3,431 m / 11,257 ft). The largest lake in Costa Rica is Lake Arenal. Costa Rica also comprises several islands. Cocos Island stands out because of its distance from continental landmass (24 km² / 9.25 sq mi, from Puntarenas coast), but Calero Island is the largest island of the country (151.6 km² / 58.5 sq mi). Costa Rica protects 23% of its national territory within the Protected Areas system. It also possesses the greatest density of species in the world. estudiofi Government Óscar Arias, Nobel Peace Prize winner, President of Costa Rica (1986-1990, 2006-present). Costa Rica is a democratic republic with a strong constitution. Although there are claims that the country has had more than 115 years of uninterrupted democracy, their presidential election history shows otherwise. Nonetheless, the country has had at least fifty-nine years of uninterrupted democracy, making it one of the most stable countries in the region. Costa Rica has been able to avoid the widespread violence that has plagued most of Latin America. Costa Rica is a republic with three powers: executive responsibilities are vested in a president, legislative power is vested on the Legislative Assembly, and Judicial power is vested on the Supreme Court. There are two vice presidents as well as a cabinet designated by the president. The president, vice presidents, and fifty-seven Legislative Assembly delegates are elected for four-year terms. A constitutional amendment approved in 1969 limited presidents and delegates to one term, although delegates were allowed to run again for an Assembly seat after sitting out a term. The Supreme Electoral Body, the Office of the Comptroller General, the Office of the Procurator General of the Republic and the Office of the Ombudsman also enjoy a lot of independence. The Supreme Court is divided into four chambers, one dealing with Constitutional Law, one dealing with Criminal Law and two dealing with Civil Law, Merchant Law and the like. In April 2003, the constitutional amendment ban on presidential re-election was reversed, allowing Óscar Arias (Nobel Peace Prize laureate, 1987) to run for president for a second term. In 2006, Óscar Arias was re-elected in a tight and highly contested election, running on a platform of promoting free trade. He took office on May 8, 2006. Certain autonomous state agencies enjoy considerable operational independence; they include the telecommunications and electrical power monopoly, the nationalized commercial banks, the state insurance monopoly, and the social security agency. Costa Rica has no military by constitution. Provinces, cantons, and districts Provinces of Costa Rica. Costa Rica is composed of seven provinces, which in turn are divided into 81 cantons ("cantón" in Spanish, plural "cantones"), each of which is directed by a mayor. Mayors are chosen democratically every four years by each canton's people. There are no provincial legislatures. The cantons are further divided into districts (distritos). The provinces are: Alajuela Cartago Guanacaste Heredia Limón Puntarenas San José Economy Intel microprocessor facility in Costa Rica is responsible for 20% of Costa Rican exports and 4.9% of the country's GDP. A coffee plantation in the Orosi Valley. According to the CIA World Factbook, Costa Rica's GDP per capita is US$13,500 PPP (2007 estimate); however, this developing country still faces the fourth highest inflation rate in Latin America, lack of maintenance and new investment in infrastructure (mainly due to constant seismic activity), over 16% of the people were below the poverty line (2006 estimate) and a 5.5% unemployment rate (2007 estimate). The Costa Rican economy grew nearly 5% in 2006 after experiencing four years of slow economic growth. Costa Rica is also the Latin American pioneer in the implementation of a modern welfare state. Its welfare spending is as high as that of Scandinavian countries. The central government offers tax exemptions for those who are willing to invest in the country. Several global high tech corporations have already started developing in the area exporting goods including chip manufacturer Intel, pharmaceutical company GlaxoSmithKline, and consumer products company Procter & Gamble. In 2006 Intel's microprocessor facility alone was responsible for 20% of Costa Rican exports and 4.9% of the country's GDP. Trade with South East Asia and Russia has boomed during 2004 and 2005, and the country is expected to obtain full Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation Forum (APEC) membership by 2007 (the country became an observer in 2004). For the fiscal year 2005, the country showed a government deficit of 2.1%, internal revenue increased an 18%, and exports increased a 12.8%. Revised economic figures released by the Central Bank indicate that economic growth stood at 5%, nevertheless the country faced high inflation (14%) and a trade deficit of 5.2%. As of 2007, Costa Rica's inflation rate stands at 9.30%, Latin America's 4th highest inflation rate. In recent times electronics, pharmaceuticals, financial outsourcing, software development, and ecotourism have become the prime industries in Costa Rica's economy. High levels of education among its residents make the country an attractive investing location. Since 1999, tourism earns more foreign exchange than the combined exports of the country's three main cash crops: bananas, pineapples and coffee. Table 44 and 45 Coffee production has played a key role in Costa Rica's history and economy and by 2006 was the third cash crop export. The largest coffee growing areas are in the provinces of San José, Alajuela, Heredia, Puntarenas, and Cartago. Costa Rica is famous for its gourmet coffee beans, with Costa Rican Tarrazú among the finest Arabica coffee beans in the world used for making espresso coffee, together with Jamaican Blue Mountain, Guatemalan Antigua and Ethiopian Sidamo. Edition 2071. Print edition pp. 140 The unit of currency is the colón, which trades around 575 Banco Central de Costa Rica to the U.S. dollar; currently about 710 to the euro. On October 16, 2006, a new currency exchange system was introduced, allowing the value of the CRC colón to float between two bands as done previously by Chile. The idea is that by doing so the Central Bank will be able to better tackle inflation and discourage the use of U.S. dollars. Since that time, the value of the colón against the dollar has stabilized. Costa Rica's location provides access to American markets as it has the same time zone as the central part of the United States and direct ocean access to Europe and Asia. A countrywide referendum has approved a free trade agreement with the United States. In the referendum on October 7, 2007, the voters of Costa Rica narrowly backed the free trade agreement, with 51.6% of "Yes" votes. Latinamerica Press Poás Volcano Crater is one of the country's main tourist attractions. With a $2.2 billion per year tourism industry, Costa Rica stands as the most visited nation in the Central American region, with 2.0 million foreign visitors in 2008, which translates into a relatively high expenditure per tourist of $1,100 per trip, and a rate of foreign tourists per capita of 0.46, one of the highest in the Caribbean Basin. Most of the tourists come from the U.S. and Canada (46%), and Europe (16%). 2006 Annual Survey from the Costa Rican Board of Tourism (ICT) In 2005, tourism contributed with 8.1% of the country's GNP and represented 13.3% of direct and indirect employment. Tourism now earns more foreign exchange than bananas and coffee combined. Ecotourism is extremely popular with the many tourists visiting the extensive national parks and protected areas around the country. Costa Rica was a pioneer in this type of tourism, and the country is recognized as one of the few with real ecotourism. In the 2009 Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Index, Costa Rica ranked 42nd in the world and first among Latin American countries. Just considering the sub-index natural resources, Costa Rica ranks 6th worldwide in terms of the natural resources pillar, but 89th in terms of its cultural resources. Foreign affairs Costa Rica is an active member of the United Nations and the Organization of American States. The Inter-American Court of Human Rights and the United Nations University of Peace are based in Costa Rica. The Costa Rican State is also a member of many other international organizations related to human rights and democracy. Costa Rica holds as a main foreign policy objective is to foster human rights and sustainable development as a way to secure stability and growth. Costa Rica is a member of the International Criminal Court, without a Bilateral Immunity Agreement of protection for the United States military (as covered under Article 98). Costa Rica also has a long-term disagreement with Nicaragua over the San Juan River which denotes the border between the two countries; the disagreement originates from the fact that the river, being Nicaraguan soil, is the only way of access to several communities in Costa Rica which need to be served by armed Costa Rican police forces. On June 1, 2007, Costa Rica broke ties with the Republic of China in Taiwan, switching allegiance to the People's Republic of China in mainland China. Boston.com Costa Rica is currently a non-permanent member of the United Nations Security Council, having been elected for a non-renewable two-year term in the 2007 election. Its term expires on 31 December 2009; this is Costa Rica's sixth time on the Security Council. Flora and fauna An anhinga drying its feathers. Heliconius doris Linnaeus butterfly of Costa Rica Costa Rica is home to a rich variety of plants and animals. While the country has only about 0.1% of the world's landmass, it contains 5% of the world's biodiversity. Chapter 5. Costa Rica: On the Beaten Path Around 25% of the country's land area is in protected national parks and protected areas, United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. "Issues relating to reducing emissions from deforestation in developing countries and recommendations on any further process" Table 1 the largest percentual of protected areas in the world. Published on website "Planeta Sustentável" One national park that is internationally renowned among ecologists for its biodiversity (including big cats and tapirs) and where visitors can expect to see an abundance of wildlife is the Corcovado National Park. Corcovado National Park Diversity of Corcovado National Park Corocovado is the one park in Costa Rica where all four Costa Rican monkey species can be found. These include the White-headed Capuchin, the Mantled Howler and the endangered Geoffroy's Spider Monkey. They also include the Central American Squirrel Monkey, which is found only on the Pacific coast of Costa Rica and a small part of Panama, and was considered endangered until 2008 when its status was upgraded to vulnerable. Tortuguero National Park — the name Tortuguero can be translated as "Full of Turtles" — is home to spider, howler and white-throated Capuchin monkeys, the three-toed sloth, 320 species of birds, and a variety of reptiles, but the park is recognized for the annual nesting of the endangered green turtle and is the most important nesting site for the species. Giant leatherback, hawksbill, and loggerhead turtles also nest there. The Monteverde Cloud Forest Reserve is home to about 2,000 plant species, Monteverde Cloud Forest Reserve including numerous orchids. Over four hundred types of birds and over one hundred species of mammals can be found there. As a whole, around eight hundred species of birds have been identified in Costa Rica. The Instituto Nacional de Biodiversidad is allowed to collect royalties on any biological discoveries of medical importance. Costa Rica and parts of Panama are home to the vulnerable Central American Squirrel Monkey. Deforestation, illegal pet-trading and hunting are the main reasons for its threatened status. Costa Rica is also a center of biological diversity for reptiles and amphibians, including the world's fastest living lizard, the spiny-tailed iguana (Ctenosaura similis). Demographics Costa Rica has a population of 4,253,877. The combined white and Mestizo groups constitute 94% of the population, while 3% are Black/Afro-Caribbean, 1% Amerindian, 1% Chinese and 1% are of other ethnic groups Costa Rica: Ethnic groups The exact breakdown, however, is not known because the Costa Rican census combines whites and Mestizos in one category. The white population is primarily of Spaniard ancestry White Settlement in Costa Rica with significant numbers of Costa Ricans of Italian, German, Jewish and Polish descent. Just under 3% of the population is of black African descent. The majority of the Afro-Costa Ricans are Creole English-speaking descendants of nineteenth century black Jamaican immigrant workers, as well as slaves who were brought during the Atlantic slave trade. The indigenous or Amerindian population numbers around 1%, or over 41,000 individuals. A significant portion of the population descends from a bi-racial mix of local Amerindians and Spaniards; most live in secluded Indian reservations in the Cordillera de Talamanca or Guanacaste. There is also an expatriate community of people from the United States, Canada, Germany, Netherlands, Britain, and other countries. Costa Rica hosts many refugees, mainly from Colombia and Nicaragua. As a result, an estimated 10% of the Costa Rican population is made up of Nicaraguans, www.state.gov Background Note: Costa Rica - People most of whom migrate for seasonal work opportunities and then return to their country. Moreover, Costa Rica took in many refugees from a range of other Latin American countries fleeing civil wars and dictatorships during the 1970s and 80s—notably from Chile and Argentina, as well as El Salvador who fled from guerrillas and government death squads. Religion Church of Our Lady of the Angels, during 2007 pilgrimage. Christianity is the predominant religion in Costa Rica, and Roman Catholicism is the official state religion as guaranteed by the constitution of 1949. Some 84% of Costa Ricans are Christian, International Religious Freedom Report 2008: Costa Rica and like many other parts of Latin America, Evangelical Protestant denominations have been experiencing rapid growth. However, 70% still adhere to Roman Catholicism. Because of the recent small but continuous immigration of communities from Asia, the Middle East, and other places, other religions have grown, the most popular being Buddhism (because of an increasing Chinese community of 40,000), and smaller numbers of Jewish, Muslim, Bahá’í and Hindu adherents. There is a Jewish synagogue, the B'nei Israel Congregation, in San José, near the La Sabana Metropolitan Park. Several homes in the neighborhood east of La Sabana Metropolitan Park are festooned with the Star of David and other recognizable Jewish symbols. Jewish Community in Costa Rica The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints has seen modest growth in Costa Rica in the last 40 years and has built one of only two temples in Central America in the San Antonio de Belen region of Heredia. San José Costa Rica LDS (Mormon) Temple Languages The only official language is Spanish. There are two main accents native to Costa Rica, the standard Costa Rican and the Nicoyan. The Nicoyan accent is very similar to the standard Nicaraguan accent. The Phonemes of Costa Rican Spanish O. L. Chavarria-Aguilar Language, Vol. 27, No. 3 (Jul. - Sep., 1951), pp. 248-253 A peculiarity of the Spanish in Costa Rica is the relative lack of the use of the pronoun tú, which is considered rather informal by native Costa Ricans. Instead, Costa Ricans use vos or usted. The conjugation of vos in Costa Rica is practically the same as in Argentina, with the exception of the subjunctive forms. Jamaican immigrants in the 19th century brought with them a dialect of English that has evolved into the Mekatelyu creole dialect. Culture Inside of the Teatro Nacional de Costa Rica, the Costa Rican national theater. Costa Rican breakfast with Gallo Pinto. Costa Rica boasts a varied history. Costa Rica was the point where the Mesoamerican and South American native cultures met. The northwest of the country, the Nicoya peninsula, was the southernmost point of Nahuatl cultural influence when the Spanish conquerors (conquistadores) came in the sixteenth century. The central and southern portions of the country had Chibcha influences. The Atlantic coast, meanwhile, was populated with African workers during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Costa Rican popular music genres include: American and British rock and roll,heavy metal, pop, reggae, and reggaeton are popular and common among the youth (especially urban youth) while dance-oriented genres like soca, salsa, bachata, merengue, cumbia and Costa Rican swing. The guitar is a popular instrument. Education The literacy rate in Costa Rica is of 95%, CIA World Factbook, January 2009 one of the highest in Latin America. Elementary and high schools are found throughout the country in practically every community. Universal public education is guaranteed in the constitution. Primary education is obligatory, and both preschool and high school are free. There are both state and private universities. There are only a few schools in Costa Rica that go beyond the 12th grade. Students who finish 11th grade receive a Costa Rican Bachillerato Diploma accredited by the Costa Rican Ministry of Education. International rankings Index (Year)Author / Editor / Source Year ofpublication Countriessampled World Ranking<sup>(1)</sup> RankingLatin America<sup>(2)</sup>Environmental Performance (2008) Yale University 2008 149 5 1Human Poverty, HPI-1 (2005)<sup>(3)</sup> United Nations (UNDP) page 240 2007-08 108 5 4 Poverty below $2 a day (1990-2005)<sup>(4)</sup> United Nations (UNDP) page 238-240 2007-08 71 8 3Press Freedom (2007) Reporters Without Borders 2007 169 21 1Democracy (2006) The Economist 2007 167 25 1Global Peace (2008) The Economist 2008 140 34 3Quality-of-life (2005) The Economist 2007 111 35 3Prosperity Index (2008) Legatum Institute 2008 104 38 4 Travel and Tourism Competitiveness (2009) World Economic Forum 2009 133 42 1Corruption Perception (2008) Transparency International 2008 180 47 3Economic Freedom (2008) The Wall Street Journal 2008 162 49 5Human Development (2006) United Nations (UNDP) page 25-26 2008 179 50 5Global Competitiveness (2008) World Economic Forum 2008-09 134 59 3Income inequality (1989-2007)<sup>(5)</sup> United Nations (UNDP) 2007-2008 126 100 5Life Satisfaction Index (2006-2007) <sup>(6)</sup> Inter-American Development Bank 2008 24 n.a<sup>(6)</sup> 1 (1) Worldwide ranking among countries evaluated. See notes (3) and (4) also (2) Ranking among the 20 Latin American countries (Puerto Rico is not included). (3) Ranking among 108 developing countries with available data only. (4) Ranking among 71 developing countries with available data only. Countries in the sample surveyed between 1990-2005. Refers to population below income poverty line as define by the World Bank's $2 per day indicator (5) Because the Gini coefficient used for the ranking corresponds to different years depending of the country, and the underlying household surveys differ in method and in the type of data collected, the distribution data are not strictly comparable across countries. The ranking therefore is only a proxy for reference purposes. (6) The Life Satisfaction Index study was performed by the Inter-American Development Bank among 24 countries in the Latin American and the Caribbean region, based on IDB calculations based on Gallup World Poll 2006 - 2007 and World Development Indicators. Therefore, it is a regional index. See also References External links Government and administration Casa Presidencial Official presidential site. Instituto Nacional de Biodiversidad, National Biodiversity Institute. Las Constituciones De Costa Rica De 1821-1949 Costa Rican Constitution Costa Rica Tourist Board Costa Rica Official Web Site Costa Rica National Chamber of Tourism Chief of State and Cabinet Members National anthem lyrics Himno Nacional de Costa Rica National Anthem Lyrics General Costa Rica at UCB Libraries GovPubs Museo de los Niños La Sabana Park Costa Rica Internet Portal Travel & tourism be-x-old:Коста-Рыка | Costa_Rica |@lemmatized costa:129 rica:97 officially:1 republic:8 república:1 de:12 country:49 central:25 america:15 border:8 nicaragua:4 north:4 panama:4 east:6 south:6 pacific:5 ocean:3 west:3 caribbean:7 sea:2 translate:3 literally:1 rich:3 coast:6 first:5 world:17 constitutionally:1 abolish:2 army:1 spanish:14 among:13 latin:12 american:23 rank:6 term:11 human:4 development:8 index:9 environmental:2 performance:2 rican:25 government:11 announce:1 plan:1 become:7 carbon:1 neutral:1 history:6 pre:2 columbian:2 time:9 indigenous:5 people:8 know:3 part:6 international:7 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5,164 | Donegal_fiddle_tradition | The Donegal fiddle tradition is a type of Irish traditional music, based on a two-hundred year-old tradition (or possibly set of coexisting traditions) of playing the fiddle in County Donegal, Ireland. Donegal is a partly Irish-speaking highland-county in northwestern Ireland and one of the three counties of the northern Irish province of Ulster that are part of the Republic of Ireland. The tradition has several distinguishing traits, most of which involves styles of bowing and the ornamentation of the music, as well as the rhythm. Another characteristic of the style is the rapid pace at which it tends to proceed. Modern players, such as the fiddle group Altan, continue to be popular due to a variety of reasons. History Newfoundland fiddler Paddy Moran Steeped in fiddle playing, the Donegal style has its roots in ancient Irish music. There is no one definitive style, and individuality of fiddling is traditionally preferred, and styles too differ from locale to locale. Almost every Donegal home had a fiddle, and music was played, and old Irish folklore stories were told around the fireside. Like fiddlers in north western Ireland, and also with some Scottish fiddlers (who, like Donegal fiddlers, tend to use a short bow and play in a straight-ahead fashion), some Donegal fiddlers worked at imitating the sound of the Irish bagpipes. The accent on the Donegal fiddle tradition is also somewhat related to the Scots tradition. Between the Jigs and the Reels: The Donegal Fiddle Tradition C Mac Aoidh - 1994 - Drumlin Publications Donegal and Shetland Fiddle Music D McLaughlin, Irish Traditional Music Society - 1992 - Irish Traditional Music Society, University College, Cork Changing cultural landscapes: the co-existence of musical genres in Irish culture and education. M McCarthy - Irish Studies Review, 2004 - Taylor & Francis Workers from Donegal would bring their music to Scotland and also bring back Scottish tunes with them such music of J. Scott Skinner and Mackenzie Murdoch. The historical connection between the west coast of Donegal and Scotland is an ancient one which was furthered by immigration from Donegal to Scotland in the 19th century (the regions share common names of dances), as can be heard in the volume of strathspeys, schottisches, marches, and Donegal's own strong piping tradition, has influenced and been influenced by music, and by the sounds, ornaments, and repertoire of the Píob Mhór, the traditional bagpipes of Ireland and Scotland. There are other differences between the Donegal style and the rest of Ireland. Instruments such as the tin whistle, flute, concertina and accordion were very rare in Donegal until modern times. Between the Jigs and the Reels: The Donegal Fiddle Tradition C Mac Aoidh - 1994 - Drumlin Publications Traditionally the píob mór and the fiddle were the only instruments used and the use of pipe or fiddle music was common in old wedding customs. Migrant workers carried their music to Scotland and also brought back a number of tunes of Scottish origin. The Donegal fiddlers may well have been the route by which Scottish tunes such as Lucy Campbell, Tarbolton Lodge (Tarbolton) and The Flagon (The Flogging Reel), that entered the Irish repertoire. These players prided themselves on their technical abilities, which included playing in higher positions (fairly uncommon among traditional Irish fiddlers), and sought out material which would demonstrate their skills. Description of style An example of the described musical styles. The Donegal style of fiddling is a label often applied to music from this area, though one also might plausibly identify several different, but related, styles within the county. To the extent to which there is one common style in the county, it is characterized by a rapid pace; a tendency to be more un-swung in the playing of the fast dance tune types (reel and jigs); short (non-slurred), aggressive bowing, sparse ornamentation, the use of bowed triplets more often than trills as ornaments, the use of double stops and droning; and the occurrence of "playing the octave", with one player playing the melody and the other playing the melody an octave lower. None of these characteristics is universal, and there is some disagreement as to the extent to which there is a common style at all. In general, however, the style is rather aggressive. Another feature of Donegal fiddling that makes it distinctive among Irish musical traditions is the variety of rare tune types that are played. Highlands, a type of tune in 4/4 time with some similarities to Scottish strathspeys, which are also played in Donegal, are one of the most commonly played types of tune in the county. Other tune types common solely in the county include barndances, also called "Germans," and mazurkas. Fiddlers of the Donegal tradition Historical Map showing the geography and some of the different regions of Donegal.There are a number of different strands to the history of fiddle playing in County Donegal. Perhaps the best-known and, in the last half of the twentieth century, the most influential has been that of the Doherty family. Hugh Doherty is the first known musician of this family. Born in 1790, he headed an unbroken tradition of fiddlers and pipers in the Doherty family until the death, in 1980, of perhaps the best-known Donegal fiddler, John Doherty. John, a travelling tinsmith, was known for his extremely precise and fast finger- and bow-work and vast repertoire, and is considered to be one of the greatest Irish fiddlers ever recorded. John's older brother, Mickey, was also recorded and, though Mickey was another of the great Irish fiddlers, his reputation has been overshadowed by John's. There is no single Donegal style but several distinctive styles. These styles traditionally come from the geographical isolated regions of Donegal including Inishowen, eastern Donegal, The Rosses and Gweedore, Croaghs, Teelin, Kilcar, Glencolmcille, Ballyshannon and Bundoran. Even with improved communications and transport, these regions still have recognisably different ways of fiddle playing. Notable deceased players of the older Donegal styles include Neillidh ("Neilly") Boyle, Francie Byrne, Con Cassidy, and Frank Cassidy. Recently deceased is James Byrne(1946-2008) of Min na Croise, Gleann Cholm Cille; who was a well known and respected fiddler and teacher. Currently living Donegal fiddlers, include , Vincent Campbell, John Gallagher, Paddy Glackin, Danny O'Donnell, and Tommy Peoples. Modern Fiddle playing continues to be popular in Donegal. The three fiddlers of the Donegal "supergroup" Altan, Mairéad Ní Mhaonaigh, Paul O'Shaughnessy, Dinny McLaughlin, and Ciarán Tourish, are generally admired within Donegal. Feldman, Allen, and Eamonn O'Doherty. The Northern Fiddler: Music and Musicians of Donegal and Tyrone. Belfast: Blackstaff Press, 1979. Liz Doherty is the youngest member of this tradition. Her album Last Orders appeared in 1999. The fiddle, and traditional music in general, remained popular in Donegal not only because of the international coverage of certain artists but because of local pride in the music. Traditional music Seisiúns are still common place both in pubs and in houses. The Donegal fiddle music has been influenced by recorded music, but this is claimed to have had a positive impact on the tradition. Modern Donegal fiddle music is often played in concerts and recorded on albums. See also Irish music Celtic music Notes | Donegal_fiddle_tradition |@lemmatized donegal:37 fiddle:17 tradition:14 type:6 irish:16 traditional:7 music:22 base:1 two:1 hundred:1 year:1 old:5 possibly:1 set:1 coexist:1 play:10 county:8 ireland:6 partly:1 speaking:1 highland:2 northwestern:1 one:8 three:2 northern:2 province:1 ulster:1 part:1 republic:1 several:3 distinguish:1 trait:1 involve:1 style:17 bowing:2 ornamentation:2 well:3 rhythm:1 another:3 characteristic:2 rapid:2 pace:2 tend:2 proceed:1 modern:4 player:4 group:1 altan:2 continue:2 popular:3 due:1 variety:2 reason:1 history:2 newfoundland:1 fiddler:16 paddy:2 moran:1 steep:1 playing:6 root:1 ancient:2 definitive:1 individuality:1 fiddling:3 traditionally:3 prefer:1 differ:1 locale:2 almost:1 every:1 home:1 folklore:1 story:1 tell:1 around:1 fireside:1 like:2 north:1 western:1 also:9 scottish:5 use:5 short:2 bow:2 straight:1 ahead:1 fashion:1 work:2 imitate:1 sound:2 bagpipe:2 accent:1 somewhat:1 related:2 scots:1 jig:3 reel:4 c:2 mac:2 aoidh:2 drumlin:2 publication:2 shetland:1 mclaughlin:2 society:2 university:1 college:1 cork:1 change:1 cultural:1 landscape:1 co:1 existence:1 musical:3 genre:1 culture:1 education:1 mccarthy:1 study:1 review:1 taylor:1 francis:1 worker:2 would:2 bring:3 scotland:5 back:2 tune:8 j:1 scott:1 skinner:1 mackenzie:1 murdoch:1 historical:2 connection:1 west:1 coast:1 immigration:1 century:2 region:4 share:1 common:6 name:1 dance:2 hear:1 volume:1 strathspeys:2 schottische:1 march:1 strong:1 piping:1 influence:3 ornament:2 repertoire:3 píob:2 mhór:1 difference:1 rest:1 instrument:2 tin:1 whistle:1 flute:1 concertina:1 accordion:1 rare:2 time:2 mór:1 pipe:1 wedding:1 custom:1 migrant:1 carry:1 number:2 origin:1 may:1 route:1 lucy:1 campbell:2 tarbolton:2 lodge:1 flagon:1 flogging:1 enter:1 pride:2 technical:1 ability:1 include:5 high:1 position:1 fairly:1 uncommon:1 among:2 seek:1 material:1 demonstrate:1 skill:1 description:1 example:1 described:1 label:1 often:3 apply:1 area:1 though:2 might:1 plausibly:1 identify:1 different:4 within:2 extent:2 characterize:1 tendency:1 un:1 swung:1 fast:2 non:1 slur:1 aggressive:2 sparse:1 bowed:1 triplet:1 trill:1 double:1 stop:1 droning:1 occurrence:1 octave:2 melody:2 lower:1 none:1 universal:1 disagreement:1 general:2 however:1 rather:1 feature:1 make:1 distinctive:2 similarity:1 commonly:1 solely:1 barndances:1 call:1 german:1 mazurkas:1 map:1 show:1 geography:1 strand:1 perhaps:2 best:2 known:2 last:2 half:1 twentieth:1 influential:1 doherty:6 family:3 hugh:1 first:1 musician:2 bear:1 head:1 unbroken:1 piper:1 death:1 know:3 john:5 travelling:1 tinsmith:1 extremely:1 precise:1 finger:1 vast:1 consider:1 great:2 ever:1 record:3 brother:1 mickey:2 reputation:1 overshadow:1 single:1 come:1 geographical:1 isolated:1 inishowen:1 eastern:1 ross:1 gweedore:1 croaghs:1 teelin:1 kilcar:1 glencolmcille:1 ballyshannon:1 bundoran:1 even:1 improve:1 communication:1 transport:1 still:2 recognisably:1 way:1 notable:1 deceased:1 neillidh:1 neilly:1 boyle:1 francie:1 byrne:2 con:1 cassidy:2 frank:1 recently:1 decease:1 james:1 min:1 na:1 croise:1 gleann:1 cholm:1 cille:1 respect:1 teacher:1 currently:1 live:1 vincent:1 gallagher:1 glackin:1 danny:1 donnell:1 tommy:1 people:1 supergroup:1 mairéad:1 ní:1 mhaonaigh:1 paul:1 shaughnessy:1 dinny:1 ciarán:1 tourish:1 generally:1 admire:1 feldman:1 allen:1 eamonn:1 tyrone:1 belfast:1 blackstaff:1 press:1 liz:1 young:1 member:1 album:2 order:1 appear:1 remain:1 international:1 coverage:1 certain:1 artist:1 local:1 seisiúns:1 place:1 pub:1 house:1 recorded:1 claim:1 positive:1 impact:1 concert:1 see:1 celtic:1 note:1 |@bigram donegal_fiddle:6 county_donegal:2 fiddle_playing:4 donegal_fiddler:5 jig_reel:2 taylor_francis:1 twentieth_century:1 |
5,165 | Greenland | Greenland (, meaning "Land of the Greenlanders"; ) is a member country of the Kingdom of Denmark located between the Arctic and Atlantic Oceans, east of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago. Though physiographically and ethnically an Arctic island country historically and geographically a part of the continent of North America, since the 18th century Greenland has been politically associated with Europe, specifically Denmark. In 1979, Denmark granted home rule to Greenland, with a relationship described by the Rigsfællesskabet, and in 2008 Greenland voted to become a separate country within the Kingdom of Denmark, effective June 21, 2009. Greenland is, by area, the world's largest island that is not a continent in its own right, Joshua Calder's World Island Info as well as the least densely populated country in the world. The 2008 Revision Population Database However, since the 1950s, scientists have postulated that the ice cap covering the country may actually conceal three separate island land masses that have been bridged by glacier. U.S. Climate Emergency Council: "Greenland's Ice Sheet Is Slip-Sliding Away" San Franscisco Chronicle: "Greenland's Huge Ice Sheet Is Melting Far Faster Than Scientists Expected" Ellensburg Daily Record (Google News): Greenland Icecap Bridges Three Islands History In prehistoric times Greenland was home to a number of Paleo-Eskimo cultures. From AD 986, it was colonised by Icelanders in two settlements on fjords near the southwesternmost tip of the island. The Fate of Greenland's Vikings, by Dale Mackenzie Brown, Archaeological Institute of America, February 28, 2000 The settlements, such as Brattahlid, thrived for centuries but disappeared sometime in the 1400s, at the time of one given date for the outbreak of the Little Ice Age. There has been some debate whether data from ice cores indicate that between AD 800 and 1300 the regions around the fjords of southern Greenland experienced a mild climate, with trees and herbaceous plants growing and livestock being farmed. What is verifiable is that the ice cores indicate Greenland experienced dramatic temperature shifts many times over the past 100,000 years. That fact makes it possible to state that areas Greenland may have been much warmer during the medieval period than it is now and that the ice sheet contracted significantly. These Icelandic settlements vanished during the 14th and 15th centuries, likely due to famine and increasing conflicts with the Inuit. Inuit and Norsemen in Arctic Canada AD 1000 to 1400 The condition of human bones from this period indicates that the Norse population was malnourished, probably because of soil erosion resulting from the Norsemen's destruction of natural vegetation to allow for farming, turf-cutting, and wood-cutting, because of a decline in temperatures during the Little Ice Age, and because of armed conflicts with the Inuit. Jared Diamond suggests that cultural practices, such as rejecting fish as a source of food and relying solely on livestock ill-adapted to Greenland's (degrading) climate resulted in recurring famine which led to abandonment of the colony. However, isotope analysis of the bones of inhabitants shows that marine food sources supplied more and more of the diet of the Norse Greenlanders, making up between 50% and 80% of their diet by the 1300s. http://www.europhysicsnews.org/articles/epn/pdf/2002/03/epn02301.pdf C-14 dating and the disappearance of Norsemen from Greenland The last written records of the Norse Greenlanders are of a marriage in 1408 in the church of Hvalsey — today the best-preserved Norse ruins in Greenland. In the 16th century Greenland was visited by Corte-Real and according to the Treaty of Tordesillas part of the Portuguese area of influence. It is possible that some Portuguese settlements were created there in that period, as attested in some maps. http://www.elizabethan-era.org.uk/portuguese-explorers.htm In 1721 a joint merchant-clerical expedition led by Norwegian missionary Hans Egede was sent to Greenland, not knowing whether a Norse civilization remained there. The expedition can be seen as part of the Danish colonization of the Americas. After 15 years in Greenland, Hans Egede left his son Paul Egede in charge of his mission in Greenland and returned to Denmark where he established a Greenland Seminary. This new colony was centered at Godthåb ("Good Hope") on the southwest coast. Gradually, Greenland became opened for Danish merchants, and closed to those from other countries. Norway occupied and claimed parts of the then-uninhabited eastern Greenland (also called Erik the Red's Land) in July 1931, claiming that it constituted Terra nullius. Norway and Denmark agreed to submit the matter in 1933 to the Permanent Court of International Justice, which decided against Norway. Greenland's connection to Denmark was severed on April 9, 1940, when, early in World War II, Denmark was occupied by Germany. Greenland was able to buy goods from the United States and Canada by selling cryolite from the mine in Ivittuut. During this war, the system of government changed: Governor Eske Brun ruled the island under a law of 1925 that allowed governors to take control under extreme circumstances; Governor Aksel Svane was transferred to the US to lead the commission to supply Greenland. A sledge patrol (in 1942, named the Sirius Patrol), guarding the northeastern shores of Greenland using dog sleds, detected and alerted American troops who then destroyed several German weather stations, giving Denmark a better position in the postwar turmoil. Greenland had been a protected and very isolated society until 1940. The Danish government, which governed Greenland as its colony, had been convinced that the society would face exploitation from the outside world or even extinction if the country was opened up. But wartime Greenland developed a sense of self-reliance through self-government and independent communication with the outside world. However, a commission in 1946 (with the highest Greenlandic council, the Landsrådene, as a participant) recommended patience and no radical reformation of the system. Two years later, the first step towards changing the government was initiated when a grand commission was established. A final report (G-50) was presented in 1950: Greenland was to be a modern welfare state with Denmark as sponsor and example. In 1953, Greenland was made an equal part of the Danish Kingdom. Home rule was granted in 1979. Sovereignty Norse Greenlanders submitted to Norwegian rule in the 13th century, and Norway entered into a personal union with Denmark in 1380 and from 1397 as a part of the Kalmar Union . After the Norse settlements died off, the area was de facto controlled by various Inuit groups. Eventually, the dependencies of Greenland, Iceland and the Faroe Islands became part of the reorganised "Kingdom of Denmark" after the Napoleonic Wars. In the early 20th century, the United States was believed to have claims made good by discovery and exploration of the Peary expeditions. In 1933, Norway attempted to claim eastern Greenland, but the Permanent Court of Arbitration decided that the entire island belonged to Denmark. During the Cold War, the United States developed a geopolitical interest in Greenland, and therefore in 1946, the United States offered to buy Greenland from Denmark for $100,000,000, but Denmark refused to sell. Time Magazine Monday, Jan. 27, 1947 “Deepfreeze Defense”: National Review May 7, 2001 "Let’s Buy Greenland! -- A complete missile-defense plan" By John J. Miller (National Review's National Political Reporter): Greenland became an integral part of the Kingdom of Denmark in 1953. It was granted home rule by the Folketing (Danish parliament) in 1979. The law went into effect on May 1, 1979. The Queen of Denmark, Margrethe II, remains Greenland's Head of State. Greenlandic voters subsequently chose to leave the European Economic Community upon achieving self-rule, because they did not want to allow European fishing fleets in Greenlandic waters. A referendum on greater autonomy http://www.nytimes.com/2008/11/27/world/europe/27greenland.html?_r=1&partner=rss&emc=rss was approved on 25 November 2008. > Politics Greenland's Head of State is currently Margrethe II. The Queen's government in Denmark appoints a Rigsombudsmand (High commissioner) representing the Danish government and monarchy. Greenland has an elected parliament of thirty-one members. The head of government is the Prime Minister, who is usually the leader of the majority party in Parliament. The current Prime Minister is Hans Enoksen. As part of the realm of the Kingdom of Denmark, Greenlanders elect two representatives who sit in the Danish parliament. In 1985, Greenland left the European Community (EC), unlike Denmark which remains a member. The EC later became the (European Union) when it was renamed and expanded in scope in 1992. Greenland retains some ties with the EU via Denmark. However EU law largely does not apply to Greenland except in the area of trade. Geography and climate The Atlantic Ocean borders Greenland's southeast; the Greenland Sea is to the east; the Arctic Ocean is to the north; and Baffin Bay is to the west. The nearest countries are Iceland, east of Greenland in the Atlantic Ocean, and Canada, to the west and across Baffin Bay. Greenland also contains the world's largest national park, and is the world's largest island and the largest dependent territory by area in the world. However, since the fifties, scientists have postulated that the ice cap covering the country may actually conceal three separate island land masses that have been bridged by glacier over the last geologic cooling period. U.S. Climate Emergency Council: "Greenland's Ice Sheet Is Slip-Sliding Away" San Franscisco Chronicle: "Greenland's Huge Ice Sheet Is Melting Far Faster Than Scientists Expected" Ellensburg Daily Record (Google News): Greenland Icecap Bridges Three Islands Southeast coast of Greenland The total area of Greenland measures 2,166,086 km² (836,109 sq mi), of which the Greenland ice sheet covers 1,755,637 km² (677,676 sq mi) (81%) and has a volume of approximately . IPCC Climate Change 2001: Working Group I: The Scientific Basis The coastline of Greenland is 39,330 km (24,430 miles) long, about the same length as the Earth's circumference at the Equator. The highest point on Greenland is Mkoliohn at 3,859 metres (12,119 ft). However, the majority of Greenland is under 1,500 metres (5,000 ft) elevation. The weight of the massive Greenlandic ice cap has depressed the central land area to form a basin lying more than 300 m (1,000 ft) below sea level. DK Atlas, 2001. The ice flows generally to the coast from the center of the island. All towns and settlements of Greenland are situated along the ice-free coast, with the population being concentrated along the west coast. The northeastern part of Greenland is not part of any municipality, but is the site of the world's largest national park, Northeast Greenland National Park. At least four scientific expedition stations and camps had been established in the ice-covered central part of Greenland (indicated as pale blue in the map to the right), on the ice sheet: Eismitte, North Ice, North GRIP Camp and The Raven Skiway. Currently, there is a year-round station, Summit Camp, on the ice sheet, established in 1989. The radio station Jørgen Brøndlund Fjord was, until 1950, the northernmost permanent outpost in the world. Southern Greenland scenery, near Nanortalik, where fjords and mountains dominate the landscape. The extreme north of Greenland, Peary Land, is not covered by an ice sheet, because the air there is too dry to produce snow, which is essential in the production and maintenance of an ice sheet. If the Greenland ice sheet were to completely melt away, sea level would rise by more than 7 m (23 ft) Greenland Melt May Swamp LA, Other Cities, Study Says and Greenland would most likely become an archipelago. Between 1989 and 1993, U.S. and European climate researchers drilled into the summit of Greenland's ice sheet, obtaining a pair of 3 km (2 mi) long ice cores. Analysis of the layering and chemical composition of the cores has provided a revolutionary new record of climate change in the Northern Hemisphere going back about 100,000 years and illustrated that the world's weather and temperature have often shifted rapidly from one seemingly stable state to another, with worldwide consequences. Alley, 2000 The glaciers of Greenland are also contributing to global sea level rise at a faster rate than was previously believed. Between 1991 and 2004, monitoring of the weather at one location (Swiss Camp) found that the average winter temperature had risen almost . http://ams.confex.com/ams/pdfpapers/87295.pdf Other research has shown that higher snowfalls from the North Atlantic oscillation caused the interior of the ice cap to thicken by an average of 6 cm/yr between 1994 and 2005. Satellite shows Greenland's ice sheets getting thicker The Register However, a recent study suggests a much warmer planet in relatively recent geological times: Scientists who probed two kilometers (1.2 miles) through a Greenland glacier to recover the oldest plant DNA on record said the planet was far warmer hundreds of thousands of years ago than is generally believed. DNA of trees, plants and insects including butterflies and spiders from beneath the southern Greenland glacier was estimated to date to 450,000 to 900,000 years ago, according to the remnants retrieved from this long-vanished boreal forest. That view contrasts sharply with the prevailing one that a lush forest of this kind could only have existed in Greenland as recently as 2.4 million years ago. The existence of those DNA samples suggest the temperature probably reached 10 degrees C (50 degrees Fahrenheit) in the summer and -17 °C (1 °F) in the winter. They also indicated that during the last interglacial period, 116,000–130,000 years ago, when temperatures were on average 5 °C (9 °F) higher than now, the glaciers on Greenland did not completely melt away. In 1996, the American "Top of the World" expedition found the world's northernmost island off Greenland: ATOW1996. An even more northerly candidate was spotted during the return from the expedition, but its status is yet to be confirmed. In 2007, the existence of a "new" island was announced. Named "Uunartoq Qeqertoq" (English: Warming Island), this island has always been present off the coast of Greenland, but was covered by an ice sheet. This ice sheet was discovered to be shrinking rapidly in 2002, and by 2007 had completely melted away, leaving the exposed island. An island made by global warming - Climate Change, Environment - Independent.co.uk The island was named "Place of the Year" by the Oxford Atlas of the World in 2007. Place of the Year Ben Keene, the atlas's editor, commented: "In the last two or three decades, global warming has reduced the size of glaciers throughout the Arctic and earlier this year, news sources confirmed what climate scientists already knew: water, not rock, lay beneath this ice bridge on the east coast of Greenland. More islets are likely to appear as the sheet of frozen water covering the world’s largest island continues to melt." Some controversy surrounds the history of the island, specifically over whether the island might have been revealed during a brief warm period in Greenland during the mid-20th century. http://dotearth.blogs.nytimes.com/2008/04/28/arctic-explorer-rebuts-critique-of-warming-island/?hp Etymology The name Greenland comes from Scandinavian settlers. In the Icelandic sagas, it is said that Norwegian-born Erik the Red was exiled from Iceland for murder. He, along with his extended family and thralls, set out in ships to find the land that was rumoured to be to the northwest. After settling there, he named the land ("Greenland") in the hope the pleasant name would attract settlers. http://www.gutenberg.org/files/17946/17946-h/17946-h.htm Retrieved 12-Feb-2007 Þorgilsson, Ari. "Íslendingabók." from Íslendinga Sögur. Reykjavik: Sigurður Kristjánsson, 1891. p. 10, http://ia331434.us.archive.org/3/items/slendingasgu0104valduoft/slendingasgu0104valduoft.pdf Retrieved 29-May-2009 Greenland was also called ("Ground-land") and (or ) on early maps. Whether green is an erroneous transcription of ("ground"), which refers to shallow bays, or vice versa, is not known. The southern portion of Greenland (not covered by glacier) is indeed very green in the summer and was likely to have been even greener in Erik's time because of the Medieval Warm Period. Topography About 81 percent of Greenland's surface is covered by the Greenland ice sheet. The weight of the ice has depressed the central land area into a basin shape, whose base lies more than below the surrounding ocean. Elevations rise suddenly and steeply near the coast. Economy Greenland today is critically dependent on fishing and fish exports. The shrimp fishing industry is by far the largest income earner. Despite resumption of several interesting hydrocarbon and mineral exploration activities, it will take several years before hydrocarbon production can materialize. The state oil company NUNAOIL was created in order to help develop the hydrocarbon industry in Greenland. The state company Nunamineral has been launched on the Copenhagen Stock Exchange to raise more capital to increase the production of gold, started in 2007. Exploitation of ruby deposits began in 2007. other mineral prospects are improving as prices are increasing;. These include uranium, aluminium, nickel, platinum, tungsten, titanium, and copper. Tourism is the only sector offering any near-term potential and even this is limited due to a short season and high costs. The public sector, including publicly owned enterprises and the municipalities, plays a dominant role in Greenland's economy. About half the government revenues come from grants from the Danish Government, an important supplement to the gross domestic product (GDP). Gross domestic product per capita is equivalent to that of the weaker economies of Europe. Greenland suffered an economic contraction in the early 1990s, but since 1993 the economy has improved. The Greenland Home Rule Government (GHRG) has pursued a tight fiscal policy since the late 1980s which has helped create surpluses in the public budget and low inflation. Since 1990, Greenland has registered a foreign trade deficit following the closure of the last remaining lead and zinc mine that year. More recently, new sources of ruby in Greenland have been discovered promising to bring new industry and a new export to the country. (See Greenland Ruby). Transport Air transport is the most important method of travel inside Greenland, and to and from the island. There is also scheduled boat traffic, but the long distances cause long travel times and low frequency. There are no roads between cities because the coast has too many fjords which would need ferries. Kangerlussuaq Airport on the West coast at Kangerlussuaq is the major airport in Greenland. Intercontinental flights connect mainly to Copenhagen. As of May 2007, Air Greenland initiated a seasonal route to and from Baltimore in the United States. Historical Maiden Flight US-Greenland - Official national guide by Greenland Tourism and Business Council However, on March 10, 2008, the route was cancelled due to financial losses. News - Air Greenland Air Iceland is opening a new route, Keflavík-Ilulissat, operated twice weekly from July 2009. Air Iceland to open new route to Ilulissat in 2009, The Official Tourism and Business Site of Greenland In addition to these routes there are scheduled international flights between Narsarsuaq and Copenhagen, between Kulusuk on the east coast and Reykjavík, and between Keflavík and Nuuk. Kangerlussuaq is the hub for domestic flights within Greenland. Sea passenger and freight transport is served by the coastal ferries operated by Arctic Umiaq Line. It has only one round trip per week which takes 80 hours per direction. Demographics Greenland has a population of 57,564 (2008), of whom 88% are Inuit or mixed Danish and Inuit. The remaining 12% are of European descent, mainly Danish. The majority of the population is Evangelical Lutheran. Nearly all Greenlanders live along the fjords in the south-west of the main island, which have a relatively mild climate. Greenland Languages Both Greenlandic (Kalaallisut) and Danish have been used in public affairs since the establishment of home rule in 1979, and most of the population speak both of the languages. Greenlandic, spoken by about 50,000 people, some monolingual, will be the sole official language from June 2009. A minority of Danish migrants with no Inuit ancestry speak Danish as their first, or only, language, and Danish, which was formerly one of the official languages, will remain a language of higher education. English is widely spoken as a third language Greenland Representation to the EU, Greenland Home Rule Government . The country has a 100% literacy rate. The Greenlandic language is the most populous of the languages of the Eskimo-Aleut language family and it has as many speakers as all the other languages of the family combined. Within Greenland, three main dialects are recognized: the northern dialect Inuktun or Avanersuarmiutut spoken by around 1000 people in the region of Qaanaaq, Western Greenlandic or Kalaallisut which serves as the official standard language, and the Eastern dialect Tunumiit oraasiat or Tunumiutut spoken in eastern Greenland. Culture An Inuit family in Greenland, 1917. The culture of Greenland has much in common with Inuit tradition, as the majority of people are descended from Inuit. People still go ice-fishing and there are annual dog-sled races in which everyone with a team participates. Nevertheless, for some time now, fishing by traditional methods has been increasingly replaced by the use of firearms and modern technology. Sport Association football is the national sport of Greenland. In January 2007, Greenland took part in the World Men's Handball Championship in Germany, finishing 22nd in a field of 24 national teams. Greenland competes in the biennial Island Games. See also Footnotes References Alley, Richard B. The Two-Mile Time Machine: Ice Cores, Abrupt Climate Change, and Our Future. Princeton University Press, 2000, ISBN 0-691-00493-5. CIA World Factbook, 2000. Lund, S. 1959. The Marine Algae of East Greenland. 1. Taxonomical Part. Meddr Gronland. 156(1), pp.1-245. Lund, S. 1959. The Marine Algae of East Greenland. 11. Geographic Distribution. Meddr Gronland. 156, pp.1-70. Steffen, Konrad, N. Cullen, and R. Huff (2005). "Climate variability and trends along the western slope of the Greenland Ice Sheet during 1991-2004," Proceedings of the 85th American Meteorological Society Annual Meeting (San Diego). Bardarson, I. (ed. Jónsson, F.) "Det gamle Grønlands beskrivelse af Ívar Bárðarson (Ivar Bårdssön)", (Copenhagen, 1930). External links Government Greenland Home Rule official government website (in English) Map of new municipalities official government website (in Greenlandic) Greenland.com from the Greenland Tourism & Business Council Statistics Greenland General information Country Profile and Timeline from BBC News Greenland from UCB Libraries GovPubs Greenland Map Other Dallas Morning News article by Dave Levinthal, Staff Writer Greenland Braces for Independence and Wealth by Manfred Ertel, Der Spiegel, November 11 2008 Massive support for Greenland self-rule referendum, 75 percent vote yes November 26 2008 Greenland Expedition 2010 be-x-old:Грэнляндыя | Greenland |@lemmatized greenland:122 meaning:1 land:10 greenlanders:6 member:3 country:12 kingdom:6 denmark:21 locate:1 arctic:8 atlantic:4 ocean:5 east:7 canadian:1 archipelago:2 though:1 physiographically:1 ethnically:1 island:27 historically:1 geographically:1 part:14 continent:2 north:6 america:3 since:7 century:7 politically:1 associate:1 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5,166 | Bisexuality | Bisexuality refers to sexual behavior with A study of the married bisexual male: paradox and resolution or physical attraction to people of both genders (male and female), or a bisexual orientation. People who have a bisexual orientation "can experience sexual, emotional, and affectional attraction to both their own sex and the opposite sex"; "it also refers to an individual’s sense of personal and social identity based on those attractions, behaviors expressing them, and membership in a community of others who share them." APA Help Center It is one of the three main classifications of sexual orientation, along with a heterosexual and a homosexual orientation. Individuals who do not experience sexual attraction to either sex are known as asexual. According to Alfred Kinsey's research into human sexuality in the mid-20th century, many humans do not fall exclusively into heterosexual or homosexual classifications but somewhere between. The Kinsey Institute - Kinsey Study Data [Research Program] The Kinsey scale measures sexual attraction and behavior on a seven-point scale ranging from 0 (exclusively heterosexual) to 6 (exclusively homosexual). According to Kinsey's study, a substantial number of people fall within the range of 1 to 5 (between heterosexual and homosexual). Although Kinsey's methodology has been criticized, the scale is still widely used in describing the continuum of human sexuality. Bisexuality has been observed in various human societies and elsewhere in the animal kingdom throughout recorded history. The term bisexuality, however, like the terms hetero- and homosexuality, was only coined in the 19th century. Description Despite misconceptions, bisexuality does not require that a person be attracted equally to both sexes. In fact, people who have a distinct but not exclusive preference for one sex over the other may still identify themselves as bisexual. A recent study by researchers Gerulf Rieger, Meredith L. Chivers, and J. Michael Bailey, which attracted media attention in 2005, purported to find that bisexuality is extremely rare in men. This was based on results of controversial penile plethysmograph testing when viewing pornographic material involving only men and pornography involving only women. Critics state that this study works from the assumption that a person is only truly bisexual if he or she exhibits virtually equal arousal responses to both opposite-sex and same-sex stimuli, and have consequently dismissed the self-identification of people whose arousal patterns showed even a mild preference for one sex. Some researchers say that the technique used in the study to measure genital arousal is too crude to capture the richness (erotic sensations, affection, admiration) that constitutes sexual attraction. The study, and The New York Times article which reported it, were subsequently criticized as flawed and biphobic. National Gay and Lesbian Task Force (July 2005). The Problems with "Gay, Straight, or Lying?" (PDF) Retrieved July 24, 2006. PrideSource: Bisexual study, New York Times article cause furor http://main.bisexual.com/forum/showthread.php?t=3799 "Gay Straight or Lying? Bisexuality Revisited," Revisited - Part 1 by William Burleson June 26 2007 FAIR also criticised the study. FAIR (July 8, 2005). New York Times Suggests Bisexuals Are "Lying": Paper fails to disclose study author's controversial history. Because bisexuality is often perceived as an ambiguous personal choice made between homosexuality and heterosexuality, bisexuals form a heterogeneous group and the relations between their behaviors, feelings, and identities are not always accepted as consistent. Many who might be classified as bisexual on the basis of their primary sexual behavior self-identify as homosexual. Heterosexual people who engage in occasional homosexual behavior could be considered bisexual, but may not identify as such. Those who believe that sexuality and sexual orientation is a distinctly defined aspect of the character consider this ambiguity problematic. Some people who engage in bisexual behavior may be supportive of homosexual people, but still self-identify as heterosexual; others may consider any labels irrelevant to their positions and situations. In 1995, Harvard Shakespeare professor Marjorie Garber made the academic case for bisexuality with her 600 page, Vice Versa: Bisexuality and the Eroticism of Everyday Life in which she argued that most people would be bisexual if not for "repression, religion, repugnance, denial" and "premature specialization." Bisexuality is often misunderstood as a form of adultery or polyamory, and a popular misconception is that bisexuals must always be in relationships with men and women simultaneously. Rather, individuals attracted to both males and females, like people of any other orientation, may live a variety of sexual lifestyles. These include lifelong monogamy, serial monogamy, polyamory, polyfidelity, promiscuity, group sex, open relationships and celibacy. For those with more than one sexual partner, these may, or may not, all be of the same gender. Unfortunately, bisexuals are often considered suspect by both homosexuals and heterosexuals because they are not recognized as being emotionally and physically committed to either a gay or lesbian existence, nor heterosexual society in general. Sexual orientation, identity, behaviour American Psychological Association states that sexual orientation "describes the pattern of sexual attraction, behavior and identity e.g. homosexual (aka gay, lesbian), bisexual and heterosexual (aka straight)." "Sexual attraction, behavior and identity may be incongruent. For example, sexual attraction and/or behavior may not necessarily be consistent with identity. Some individuals may identify themselves as homosexual or bisexual without having had any sexual experience. Others have had homosexual experiences but do not consider themselves to be gay, lesbian, or bisexual. Further, sexual orientation falls along a continuum. In other words, someone does not have to be exclusively homosexual or heterosexual, but can feel varying degrees of both. Sexual orientation develops across a person's lifetime-different people realize at different points in their lives that they are heterosexual, bisexual or homosexual." According to Rosario, Schrimshaw, Hunter, Braun (2006), "the development of a lesbian, gay, or bisexual (LGB) sexual identity is a complex and often difficult process. Unlike members of other minority groups (e.g., ethnic and racial minorities), most LGB individuals are not raised in a community of similar others from whom they leam about their identity and who reinforce and support that identity. Rather, LGB individuals are often raised in communities that are either ignorant of or openly hostile toward homosexuality." Rosario, M., Schrimshaw, E., Hunter, J., & Braun, L. (2006, February). Sexual identity development among lesbian, gay, and bisexual youths: Consistency and change over time. Journal of Sex Research, 43(1), 46-58. Retrieved April 4, 2009, from PsycINFO database. In a longitudinal study about sexual identity development among lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) youths, its authors "found evidence of both considerable consistency and change in LGB sexual identity over time." Youths who had identified as both gay/lesbian and bisexual prior to baseline were approximately three times more likely to identify as gay/lesbian than as bisexual at subsequent assessments. Of youths who had identified only as bisexual at earlier assessments, 60-70% continued to identify as bisexual, while approximately 30-40% assumed a gay/lesbian identity over time. Authors suggested that "although there were youths who consistently self-identified as bisexual throughout the study, for other youths, a bisexual identity served as a transitional identity to a subsequent gay/lesbian identity." Prevalence A 2002 survey in the United States by National Center for Health Statistics found that 1.8 percent of men ages 18–44 considered themselves bisexual, 2.3 percent homosexual, and 3.9 percent as "something else". The same study found that 2.8 percent of women ages 18–44 considered themselves bisexual, 1.3 percent homosexual, and 3.8 percent as "something else". The Janus Report on Sexual Behavior, published in 1993, showed that 5 percent of men and 3 percent of women consider themselves bisexual and 4 percent of men and 2 percent of women considered themselves homosexual. The 'Health' section of The New York Times has stated that "1.5 percent of American women identify themselves [as] bisexual." Dr. Alfred Kinsey's 1948 work Sexual Behavior in the Human Male found that "46% of the male population had engaged in both heterosexual and homosexual activities, or 'reacted to' persons of both sexes, in the course of their adult lives". Research Summary from the Kinsey Institute. The Kinsey Institute has stated that "Kinsey said in both the Male and Female volumes that it was impossible to determine the number of persons who are "homosexual" or "heterosexual". It was only possible to determine behavior at any given time". Kinsey's book, and its companion Sexual Behavior in the Human Female, have received vocal criticism for their findings and methodology. "Kinsey and the Homosexual Revolution" by Dr. Judith Reisman Biography of Statician John W. Tukey by Cengage Learning. American conservative magazine Human Events calls the Kinsey Report the fourth Most Harmful Book of the 19th and 20th Centuries. Roman Catholic educational association The Intercollegiate Studies Institute called it "A pervert's attempt to demonstrate that perversion is "statistically"normal" and the third "Worst Book of the Century". The New York Times called his research "conscientious and comprehensive" Pomeroy, Wardell (1972). Dr. Kinsey and the Institute for Sex Research. New York: Harper & Row. and Professor Martin Duberman called it "skillful" and "a monumental endeavor". Book review of Alfred C. Kinsey : A Public/Private Life originally published in The Nation. Dr. Fritz Klein believed that social and emotional attraction are very important elements in bisexual attraction. One third of the men in each group showed no significant arousal. The study did not claim them to be asexual, and Rieger stated that their lack of response did not change the overall findings. Etiology There is no consensus among scientists about the exact reasons that an individual develops a heterosexual, bisexual, gay, or lesbian orientation. http://www.apa.org/topics/sorientation.html Reasons include a combination of genetic factors http://www.time.com/time/health/article/0,8599,1815538,00.html What the gay brain looks like, Time Magazine; and environmental factors (including fraternal birth order, where the number of older brothers a boy has increases the chances of homosexuality; specific prenatal hormone exposure, where hormones play a role in determining sexual orientation as they do with sex differentiation; Dörner, G., Rohde, W., Stahl, F., Krell, L., & Masius, W.-G. (1975). A neuroendocrine predisposition for homosexuality in men. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 4, 1–8. Ellis & Ames (1987). Neurohormonal functioning and sexual orientation: A theory of homosexuality-heterosexuality. Psychological Bulletin, 101, 233–258. and prenatal stress on the mother. Dörner, G., Geier, T., Ahrens, L., Krell, L., Münx, G., Sieler, H., Kittner, E., & Müller, H. (1980). Prenatal stress as possible aetiogenetic factor of homosexuality in human males. Endokrinologie, 75, 365–368. Dörner, G., Schenk, B., Schmiedel, B., & Ahrens, L. (1983). Stressful events in prenatal life and bi- and homosexual men. Experimental and Clinical Endocrinology, 31, 83–87. Ellis, L., & Cole-Harding, S. (2001). The effects of prenatal stress, and of prenatal alcohol and nicotine exposure, on human sexual orientation. Physiology and Behavior, 74, 213–226. ) The American Academy of Pediatrics has stated that "sexual orientation probably is not determined by any one factor but by a combination of genetic, hormonal, and environmental influences." The American Psychological Association has stated that "there are probably many reasons for a person's sexual orientation and the reasons may be different for different people". It stated that, for most people, sexual orientation is determined at an early age. The American Psychiatric Association has stated that, "to date there are no replicated scientific studies supporting any specific biological etiology for homosexuality. Similarly, no specific psychosocial or family dynamic cause for homosexuality has been identified, including histories of childhood sexual abuse." Research into how sexual orientation may be determined by genetic or other prenatal factors plays a role in political and social debates about homosexuality, and also raises fears about genetic profiling and prenatal testing. Sigmund Freud theorized that every person has the ability to become bisexual at some time in his or her life. Freud, Sigmund (translated by A.A. Brill), Three Contributions to the Theory of Sex, Dover Publications, 128 pages, ISBN 0486416038 He based this on the idea that enjoyable experiences of sexuality with the same sex, whether sought or unsought, acting on it or being fantasized, become an attachment to his or her needs and desires in social upbringing. Prominent psychoanalyst Dr. Joseph Merlino, Senior Editor of the book, Freud at 150: 21st Century Essays on a Man of Genius stated in an interview: Human bisexuality has mainly been studied alongside with homosexuality. Van Wyk & Geist (1995) argue that this is a problem for sexuality research because the few studies that have observed bisexuals separately have found that bisexuals are often different from both heterosexuals and homosexuals. Furthermore, bisexuality does not always represent a halfway between the dichotomy. Research indicates that bisexuality is influenced by biological, cognitive and cultural variables in interaction, and this leads to different types of bisexuality. There is currently a debate on the importance of biological influences on sexual orientation. Biological explanations have been put to question by social scientists, particularly by feminists who encourage women to make conscious decisions about their life and sexuality. A difference in attitude between homosexual men and women has also been reported as men are more likely to regard their sexuality as biological, "reflecting the universal male experience in this culture, not the complexities of the lesbian world." There is also evidence that women's sexuality may be more strongly affected by cultural and contextual factors. Most of the few available scientific studies on bisexuality date from before the 1990s. Interest in bisexuality has generally grown, but research focus has lately been on sociology and gender studies as well as on bisexuals with HIV and AIDS. Social factors There is a consensus among scholars of different faculties that cultural and social factors have an effect on human sexual behaviour. As bisexual people come from all social classes and familial backgrounds, such factors cannot independently explain why some people are bisexual. Krafft-Ebing was the first to suggest that bisexuality is the original state of human sexuality. Freud has famously summarized on the basis of clinical observations: "[W]e have come to know that all human beings are bisexual - - and that their libido is distributed between objects of both sexes, either in a manifest or a latent form." According to Freud, people remain bisexual all their lives in a repression to monosexuality of fantasy and behaviour. This idea was taken up in the 1940s by the zoologist Alfred Kinsey who was the first to create a scale to measure the continuum of sexual orientation from hetero to homosexuality. Kinsey studied human sexuality and argued that people have the capability of being hetero or homosexual even if this trait does not present itself in the current circumstances. From an anthropological perspective, there is large variation in the prevalence of bisexuality between different cultures. Among some tribes it appears to be non-existent while in others a universal, including the Sambia of New Guinea and other similar Melanesian cultures. Even though only a small percentage of people have bisexual traits, this does not outrule the possibility of bisexual behaviour of the majority in different circumstances. Similarly, although evolutionary psychologists consider most males as promiscuous by nature, the majority of American men are faithful to their wives, appearing essentially monogamous. These traits can be explained as the result of culture constraints on evolutionary predispositions. Sex drive Several studies comparing bisexuals with hetero- or homosexuals have indicated that bisexuals have higher rates of sexual activity, fantasy or erotic interest. Van Wyk and Geist (1984) found that male and female bisexuals had more sexual fantasy than heterosexuals. Dixon (1985) found that bisexual men had more sexual activities with women than did heterosexual men. Bisexual men masturbated more but had less happy marriages than heterosexuals. Bressler and Lavender (1986) found that bisexual women had more orgasms per week and they described them as stronger than did hetero- or homosexual women. Goode and Haber (1977) found bisexual women to sexually mature earlier, masturbate and enjoy masturbation more and to be more experienced in different types of heterosexual contact. Recent research suggests that, for most women, high sex drive is associated with increased sexual attraction to both women and men. For men, however, high sex drive is associated with increased attraction to one sex or the other, but not to both, depending on sexual orientation.<ref>Lippa, R. A., 2006. Psychological Science," 17, 46-52</ref> More recent research, however, associates high sex drive and increased attraction to both sexes only in women. Bisexual men's pattern has been more similar to heterosexuals with a stronger correlation with high sex drive and other-sex attraction. Masculinization Masculinization of women and hypermasculinization of men has been a central theme in sexual orientation research. There are several studies suggesting that bisexuals have a high degree of masculinization. LaTorre and Wendenberg (1983) found differing personality characteristics for bisexual, heterosexual and homosexual women. Bisexuals were consistently more masculine than other subjects. Women usually have a better hearing sensitivity than males, but homosexual and bisexual women have been found to have weaker sensitivity than heterosexual women while homosexual and bisexual men have hypermasculinized hearing. Prenatal hormones The prenatal hormonal theory of sexual orientation suggests that people who are exposed to excess levels of sex hormones have masculinized brains and show increased homosexuality. Studies to provide evidence for the masculinization of the brain have however not been conducted to date. Research on special conditions such as CAH and DES indicate that prenatal exposure to, respectively, excess testosterone and estrogens are associated with female–female sex fantasies in adults. Both effects are associated with bisexuality rather than homosexuality. There is research evidence that the ratio of the length of the 2nd and 4th digits (index finger and ring finger) is somewhat negatively related to prenatal testosterone and positively to estrogen. Studies measuring the fingers found a statistically significant skew in the 2D:4D ratio (long ring finger) towards homosexuality with an even lower ratio in bisexuals. It is suggested that exposure to high prenatal testosterone and low prenatal estrogen concentrations is one cause of homosexuality whereas exposure to very high testosterone levels may be associated with bisexuality. Because testosterone in general is important for sexual differentiation, this view offers an alternative to the suggestion that male homosexuality is genetic. The prenatal hormonal theory suggests that a homosexual orientation results from exposure to excessive testosterone causing an over-masculinized brain. This is contradictory to another hypothesis that homosexual preferences may be due to a feminized brain in males. However, it has also been suggested that homosexuality may be due to high prenatal levels of unbound testosterone that results from a lack of receptors at particular brain sites. Therefore the brain could be feminized while other features, such as the 2D:4D ratio could be over-masculinized. Brain structure LaVey's (1991) examination at autopsy of 18 homosexual men, 1 bisexual man, 16 presumably heterosexual men and 6 presumably heterosexual women found that the INAH 3 nucleus of the anterior hypothalamus of homosexual men was smaller than that of heterosexual men and the size of heterosexual women. Although grouped with homosexuals, the INAH 3 size of the one bisexual subject was similar to that of the heterosexual men. Chromosomes There is some evidence to support the concept of biological precursors of bisexual orientation in genetic males. According to Money (1988), men with an extra Y chromosome are more likely to be bisexual, paraphilic and impulsive. Evolutionary theory Some evolutionary psychologists have argued that same-sex attraction does not have adaptive value because it has no association with potential reproductive success. Instead, bisexuality can be due to normal variation in brain plasticity. More recently, it has been suggested that same-sex alliances may have helped males climb the social hierarchy giving access to females and reproductive opportunities. Same-sex allies could have helped females to move to the safer and resource richer center of the group, which increased their chances of raising their offspring successfully. Brendan Zietsch of the Queensland Institute of Medical Research proposes the alternative theory that men exhibiting female traits become more attractive to females and are thus more likely to mate, provided the genes involved to not drive them to complete rejection of heterosexuality. How homosexuality may have evolved Also, in a 2008 study, its authors stated that "There is considerable evidence that human sexual orientation is genetically influenced, so it is not known how homosexuality, which tends to lower reproductive success, is maintained in the population at a relatively high frequency." They hypothesized that "while genes predisposing to homosexuality reduce homosexuals' reproductive success, they may confer some advantage in heterosexuals who carry them." and their results suggested that "genes predisposing to homosexuality may confer a mating advantage in heterosexuals, which could help explain the evolution and maintenance of homosexuality in the population." Zietsch, B., Morley, K., Shekar, S., Verweij, K., Keller, M., Macgregor, S., et al. (2008, November). Genetic factors predisposing to homosexuality may increase mating success in heterosexuals. Evolution and Human Behavior, 29(6), 424-433. Retrieved April 1, 2009, doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2008.07.002 Bisexuality in history Shudo (Japanese pederasty): a young male entertains an older male lover, covering his eyes while surreptitiously kissing a female servant. In 124 AD the bisexual Roman emperor Hadrian met Antinous, a 13- or 14-year-old boy from Bithynia, and they began their pederastic relationship. Antinous was deified by Hadrian when he died six years later. Many statues, busts, coins and reliefs display Hadrian's deep affections for him. Ancient Greece Young man and teenager engaging in intercrural sex, fragment of a black-figure Attic cup, 550 BC–525 BC, Louvre. Ancient Greek religious texts, reflecting cultural practices, incorporated bisexual themes. The subtexts varied, from the mystical to the didactic. Spartans thought that love and erotic relationships between experienced and novice soldiers would solidify combat loyalty and encourage heroic tactics as men vied to impress their lovers. Once the younger soldiers reached maturity, the relationship was supposed to become non-sexual, but it is not clear how strictly this was followed. There was some stigma attached to young men who continued their relationships with their mentors into adulthood. For example, Aristophanes calls them euryprôktoi, meaning "wide arses", and depicts them like women. Alexander the Great, the Macedonian king, is thought to have been bisexual, and to have had a male lover named Hephaestion. Social status In Ancient Greece pederasty was not problematic as long as the men involved eventually married and had children. There are bisexuals who marry or live with a heterosexual partner because they prefer the complementarity of different sexes in cohabiting and co-parenting but have felt greatly enriched by homosexual relationships alongside the marriage in both monogamous and "open" relationships. Since the 1970s, there have been waves of bisexual chic, in which celebrities and other persons of some notoriety have embraced and advocated bisexuality. This has led to more acceptance of bisexuals in some regards; however, some have latched onto bisexual chic for publicity's sake, with varying degrees of sincerity and permanency. Such celebrities as David Bowie, Dave Navarro, Anne Heche and others have claimed bisexuality only to later renounce the idea (although Bowie has since retreated some on renunciation ). Some in the homosexual community accuse those who self-identify as bisexual of duplicity, believing they are really homosexuals who engage in heterosexual activity merely to remain socially acceptable. They may be accused of "not doing their part" in gaining acceptance of "true" homosexuality. Some homosexual people may also suspect that a self-described bisexual is merely a homosexual in the initial stage of questioning their presumed heterosexuality, and will eventually accept that they are homosexual; this is expressed by a glib saying in gay culture: "Bi now, gay later." These situations can and do take place, but do not appear to be true of the majority of self-described bisexuals. Nonetheless, bisexuals do sometimes experience lesser acceptance from homosexual people, because of their declared orientation. Biphobia can sometimes be the results of repressed bisexual desire in homosexual people. Bisexuals are often associated with men who engage in same-sex activity while closeted or heterosexually married. The majority of such men—said to be living on the down-low—do not self-identify as bisexual. Because some bisexual people do not feel that they fit into either the homosexual or the heterosexual world, and because they have a tendency to be "invisible" in public, some bisexual persons are committed to forming their own communities, culture, and political movements. Some who identify as bisexual may merge themselves into either homosexual or heterosexual society. Still other bisexual people see this merging as enforced rather than voluntary; bisexual people can face exclusion from both homosexual and heterosexual society on coming out. Psychologist Beth Firestein states that bisexuals also tend to internalize social tensions related to their choice of partners. Firestein suggests bisexuals may feel pressured to label themselves as homosexuals instead of occupying a difficult middle ground in a culture that has it that if bisexuals are attracted to people of both sexes, they must have more than one partner, thus defying society's value on monogamy. These social tensions and pressure may and do affect bisexuals' mental health. Specific therapy methods have been developed for bisexuals to address this concern. Relatively few supportive bisexual communities exist, therefore there is not as much support from people who have gone through similar experiences. Pride symbols The bisexual pride flag A common symbol of the Bisexual community is the bisexual pride flag, which has a deep pink stripe at the top for homosexuality, a blue one on the bottom for heterosexuality, and a purple one, blended from the pink and blue, in the middle to represent bisexuality. The overlapping triangles Another symbol that uses the color scheme of the bisexual pride flag is a pair of overlapping pink and blue triangles, the pink triangle being a well-known symbol for the homosexual community, forming purple where they intersect. Bisexual moon symbol Many homosexual and bisexual individuals have a problem with the use of the pink triangle symbol as it was the symbol that Hitler's regime used to tag homosexuals (similar to the yellow Star of David that is constituted of two opposed, overlapping triangles). Because pink triangles were used in the persecution of homosexuals in the Nazi regime, a double moon symbol was devised specifically to avoid the use of triangles. The double moon symbol is common in Germany and surrounding countries. Another symbol used for bisexuality is a purple diamond, conceptually derived from the intersection of an upside down triangle and a right way up one, pink and blue (respectively), placed overlapping. Bisexuality in animals Many non-human animal species also exhibit bisexual behavior. This is, of course, common in hermaphroditic animals, but is also known in many other species. Examples of mammals include the bonobo (formerly known as the pygmy chimpanzee), orca, and bottlenose dolphin. Examples of avians include some species of gulls and Humboldt Penguins. Other examples occur among fish, flatworms, and crustaceans. Many species of animals are involved in the act of forming sexual and relationship bonds between the same sex; even when offered the opportunity to breed with members of the opposite sex, they picked the same sex. Some of these species are gazelles, antelope, bison, and sage grouse. In some cases animals will choose intercourse with different sexes at different times in their life, and sometimes will perform intercourse with different sexes at random. Homosexual intercourse can also be seasonal in some animals like male walruses, who often engage in homosexual intercourse with each other outside of the breeding season and will revert to heterosexual intercourse during breeding season. In some cases bisexuality is actually a form of fitness favored by evolution. For example, in the absence of male whiptail lizards (Cnemidophorus), females reproduce by pairing up with each other. During the breeding season females will take turns switching between "male" and "female" roles as their hormones fluctuate. Estrogen levels are high during ovulation ("female" role) and much lower after laying eggs ("male" role). While in the "male" role, a female lizard will mount another in the "female" role and go through the motions of sex to stimulate egg-laying. The hatchlings produced are all female. This all-female species has evolved from lizards with two sexes, but their eggs develop without fertilization (parthenogenesis). Female whiptail lizards can lay eggs without sex, but they lay far fewer eggs than if they engage in sexual stimulation by another female. Bisexuality in culture Comparatively positive and notable portrayals of bisexuality can be found throughout mainstream media. In movies such as: The Pillow Book (film); Alexander (film); The Rocky Horror Picture Show; Henry and June; Chasing Amy; Kissing Jessica Stein, The Fourth Man, Basic Instinct and Brokeback Mountain. Especially noteworthy are the bisexual themes in the films of Federico Fellini. While individual films are rarely "bisexual" themselves, he has made films that both employ prominent heterosexual characters and themes La Strada, La Dolce Vita, 8 1/2, and Amarcord and also made blatantly homosexual themed films such as Satyricon and involving homosexual themes and characters in many of his less famous films. Fellini was suspected of being bisexual in real life, though the extent to which he had many sexual relationships at all, much less of both sexes, is unclear. In popular music, many of the songs of The Smiths are commonly cited as classic examples. In 1995, Jill Sobule sung about bi-curiosity in her song "I Kissed a Girl". The video for the song was slightly less subtle alternating images of Jill Sobule and her boyfriend (played by Fabio) with images of her with her girlfriend. The recently popular song "I Kissed a Girl" by Katy Perry also hints at bisexuality, or at least bi-curiosity, with lyrics such as "I kissed a girl just to try it/I hope my boyfriend don't mind it" and "You're my experimental game/Just human nature". In notable graphic novels, Love and Rockets (1981 to 1996) subtly portrays bisexuality; Krazy Kat (1913 to 1944) is a comic-strip character whose love is not limited by sex; Alan Moore's Lost Girls (1991 to 2006) portrays bisexual versions of three famous literary characters; Terry Moore's Strangers in Paradise (1993 to 2007) includes several bisexual characters. Notable novels containing significant bisexual characters are: Bret Easton Ellis's many novels, including Less Than Zero, The Rules of Attraction, Glamorama, and Lunar Park Lisa Alther's Five Minutes in Heaven James Baldwin's Giovanni's Room Sean David Wright's Two for One--a novel about having choicesJamie Tabners I'm Lonely Anne Rice's Cry to Heaven Rosamond Lehmann's Dusty Answer Mary Renault's The Last of the Wine and The Persian Boy Colette's Claudine novels Jonathan Franzen's The Corrections David Leavitt's The Lost Language of Cranes and While England Sleeps Jeanette Winterson's The Passion Roopa Farooki's Bitter Sweets Calum Brodie's Milk and Cookies Marge Piercy's Woman on the Edge of Time Thomas Pynchon's Against the Day Alice Walker's The Color Purple Jane Rule's Young in One Another's Arms Sylvia Brownrigg's The Metaphysical Touch Robert Sawyer's Neanderthal Parallax Michael Chabon's The Mysteries of Pittsburgh Ursula K. Le Guin's The Dispossessed Marc Acito's How I Paid For College: A Novel of Sex, Theft, Friendship, and Musical Theatre Sarah Waters' Tipping The Velvet Whitley Strieber's The Hunger Anne Rice's The Vampire ArmandNon-fiction scholarship, such as Marjorie Garber's Vice Versa: Bisexuality and the Eroticism of Everyday Life (1995), and Camille Paglia's Sexual Personae (1990), has uncovered previously hidden histories of bisexuality. On the TV sitcom Will & Grace, the character of Karen Walker appears to be bisexual and—although married to a man—often kisses Grace and seems to have had many female lovers throughout her life. The character Jack Harkness of Doctor Who and Torchwood is from 51st century, in which mankind has become more open minded sexually since its integration with alien cultures. He is often described as "omnisexual" by his fans, remarking on the question of sexual orientation "You people and your quaint little categories." Harkness is the first openly non-heterosexual character depicted in the long-running Doctor Who. Torchwood also features bisexual characters Toshiko Sato, and Ianto Jones. Rebecca Romijn portrayed a bisexual con artist in the film Femme Fatale. In the crime procedural Homicide: Life on the Streets, the character Tim Bayliss began to explore bisexuality during the sixth season, and came out as bisexual during the seventh and final season. Bayliss appears to have roughly equal attraction to women and men during these last two seasons. In the sci-fi television series Babylon 5, characters including Susan Ivanova and Talia Winters are portrayed as bisexual or pansexual. There seems to be a general feeling in the show that it is accepted and common for people to follow their hearts wherever they may take them, ignoring sex. Other examples include the characters Marcus Cole and Stephen Franklin posing as a married couple, and series creator J. Michael Straczynski indicating that the station commander John Sheridan would have been propositioned by the male Lumati ambassador if Susan Ivanova had not been handling those negotiations. In the 1996 Broadway musical turned movie Rent, Idina Menzel plays Maureen Johnson, a character who has a relationship with both Mark Cohen (Anthony Rapp [who is openly bisexual in real life]), and Joanne Jefferson (Tracie Thoms/Fredi Walker). In the musical, Menzel's character sings the following lines in the song "Take Me or Leave Me": Ever since puberty, everybody stares at me, Boys, girls—I can't help it, babyIn the television program Bottom, Richie is shown consistently throughout the series to be trying to get a girlfriend but to be either secretly attracted to men or accidentally finding more luck with men. He maintains a facade of heterosexuality throughout this, although in the stage adaptations he is shown to be far more attracted to men but still also to women. In the Metal Gear video game series , the villain Vamp is known to be bisexual, as reported by Hideo Kojima, and as stated in Metal Gear Solid 2: Sons of Liberty in an optional conversation. In the Fox television series, The O.C., Marissa Cooper (played by Mischa Barton ) has a same-sex fling with the character Alex Kelly, played by Olivia Wilde. The high rated MTV series, A Shot At Love With Tila Tequila, is a bisexual reality show. Tila Tequila or Tila Nguyen, is the bisexual bachelorette, trying to find love from 16 straight males and 16 lesbians. The TV series Buffy the Vampire Slayer the character Willow Rosenberg, while identifying as a lesbian, is hinted to have a bisexual side to her. She forms strong heterosexual relationships across the first 3 seasons and her vampire alter ego displays overt bisexuality. In the medical comedy Scrubs the surgeon Todd is a misogynist who makes sex jokes at any opportunity. In the earlier seasons he is hinted at having gay tendencies and in the season five episode "My Lunch" he is seen looking at pictures of barechested men. Elliott and Carla convince him to come out but at the end of the episode he is revealed to be bisexual and walks down the hallway, hitting on a male and female nurse. The janitor asks him "What the hell are you?" to which he replies "I'm the Todd". In TV series House M.D. character of Remy "Thirteen" Hadley, played by Olivia Wilde is shown as bisexual. Media stereotypes There are also negative media portrayals—references sometimes made to stereotypes or mental disorders. In an article about Brokeback Mountain, sex educator Amy Andre argued that in films, bisexuals are always depicted negatively: Using a content analysis of more than 170 articles written between 2001 and 2006, sociologist Richard N. Pitt, Jr. concluded that the media pathologized black bisexual men’s behavior while either ignoring or sympathizing with white bisexual men’s similar actions. He argued that the "Down Low" black bisexual is often described negatively as a duplicitous heterosexual man whose behaviors threaten the black community. Alternately, the "Brokeback" white bisexual (when seen as bisexual at all) is often described in pitying language as a victimized homosexual man who is forced into the closet by the heterosexist society around him. Pitt, Richard N., Jr. (2006) "Downlow Mountain? De/Stigmatizing Bisexuality Through Pitying And Pejorative Discourses In Media". Journal Of Men's Studies 14:254-8. On the HBO drama Oz, Christopher Meloni played Chris Keller, a bisexual serial killer who tortured, raped, and had numerous sexual encounters with various men and women whom he met. A Saturday Night Live joke ran thus: "A bisexual is a person who reaches down the front of somebody's pants and is satisfied with whatever they find." -- Dana Carvey as The Church Lady, Saturday Night Live. Movies in which the bisexual characters conceal murderous neuroses include Basic Instinct, Black Widow, Blue Velvet, Cruising, and Girl, Interrupted. See also Bicurious Biphobia Bisexual chic Bisexual community Bisexual erasure Journal of Bisexuality List of bisexual people List of gay, lesbian or bisexual people List of LGBT-related organizations Media portrayal of bisexuality Mixed-orientation marriage Non-westernized concepts of male sexuality Societal attitudes towards homosexuality Pansexuality References Further reading General Louis Crompton. Homosexuality and Civilization, Cambridge, Mass. and London, 2003. ISBN 0-674-01197-X Michel Larivière. Homosexuels et bisexuels célèbres, Delétraz Editions, 1997. ISBN 2-911110-19-6 Sigmund Freud. Three Contributions to the Theory of Sex. ISBN 0486416038 Ancient Greek Kenneth J. Dover. Greek Homosexuality, New York; Vintage Books, 1978. ISBN 0-394-74224-9 Thomas K. Hubbard. Homosexuality in Greece and Rome, U. of California Press, 2003. ISBN 0-520-23430-8 Herald Patzer. Die Griechische Knabenliebe [Greek Pederasty], Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner Verlag, 1982. In: Sitzungsberichte der Wissenschaftlichen Gesellschaft an der Johann Wolfgang Goethe-Universität Frankfurt am Main, Vol. 19 No. 1. W. A. Percy III. Pederasty and Pedagogy in Archaic Greece, University of Illinois Press, 1996. ISBN 0-252-02209-2 By country Stephen O. Murray and Will Roscoe, et al. Islamic Homosexualities: Culture, History, and Literature, New York: New York University Press, 1997. ISBN 0-8147-7468-7 J. Wright & Everett Rowson. Homoeroticism in Classical Arabic Literature. 1998. ISBN 023110507X (pbbk)/ ISBN 0231105061 (hdbk) Gary Leupp. Male Colors: The Construction of Homosexuality in Tokugawa Japan, Berkeley, University of California Press, 1995. ISBN 0-520-20900-1 Tsuneo Watanabe & Jun'ichi Iwata. The Love of the Samurai. A Thousand Years of Japanese Homosexuality, London: GMP Publishers, 1987. ISBN 0-85449-115-5 Modern Western Bi Any Other Name : Bisexual People Speak Out by Loraine Hutchins, Editor & Lani Ka'ahumanu, Editor ISBN 1-55583-174-5 Getting Bi : Voices of Bisexuals Around the World by Robyn Ochs, Editor & Sarah Rowley, Editor ISBN 0-9653881-4-X The Bisexual Option by Fritz Klein, MD ISBN 1-56023-033-9 Bi Men : Coming Out Every Which Way by Ron Suresha and Pete Chvany, Editors ISBN 978-1-56023-615-9 Bi America : Myths, Truths, And Struggles Of An Invisible Community by William E. Burleson ISBN 978-1-56023-478-4 Bisexuality in the United States : A Social Science Reader by Paula C. Rodriguez Rust, Editor ISBN 0-231-10226-7 Bisexuality : The Psychology and Politics of an Invisible Minority by Beth A. Firestein, Editor ISBN 0-8039-7274-1 Current Research on Bisexuality by Ronald C. Fox PhD, Editor ISBN 978-1-56023-288-5 Exploring Biphobia. (144 KB PDF). Report on the problems caused by stereotyping of bisexuals. http://xoomer.alice.it/letteraturadamore/Orlando.html ("Orlando", a Virginia Woolf's novel focused on sexual ambiguity) Film Bryant, Wayne M.. Bisexual Characters in Film: From Anais to Zee''. Haworth Gay & Lesbian Studies, 1997. ISBN 1-56023-894-1 External links "Bisexuality" at the Magnus Hirschfeld Archive for Sexology The Continuum Complete International Encyclopedia of Sexuality | Bisexuality |@lemmatized bisexuality:43 refers:1 sexual:54 behavior:20 study:27 married:4 bisexual:131 male:28 paradox:1 resolution:1 physical:1 attraction:18 people:32 gender:3 female:24 orientation:29 experience:9 emotional:2 affectional:1 sex:49 opposite:3 also:18 refer:1 individual:9 sense:1 personal:2 social:13 identity:16 base:3 express:2 membership:1 community:11 others:6 share:1 apa:2 help:5 center:3 one:15 three:5 main:3 classification:2 along:2 heterosexual:40 homosexual:55 either:8 know:7 asexual:2 accord:5 alfred:4 kinsey:17 research:17 human:18 sexuality:12 mid:1 century:6 many:13 fall:3 exclusively:4 somewhere:1 institute:6 data:1 program:2 scale:4 measure:4 seven:1 point:2 range:2 substantial:1 number:3 within:1 although:7 methodology:2 criticize:2 still:5 widely:1 use:9 describe:7 continuum:4 observe:2 various:2 society:6 elsewhere:1 animal:7 kingdom:1 throughout:6 recorded:1 history:6 term:2 however:6 like:5 hetero:5 homosexuality:33 coin:2 description:1 despite:1 misconception:2 require:1 person:10 attract:5 equally:1 fact:1 distinct:1 exclusive:1 preference:3 may:27 identify:16 recent:3 researcher:2 gerulf:1 rieger:2 meredith:1 l:7 chivers:1 j:6 michael:3 bailey:1 medium:7 attention:1 purport:1 find:18 extremely:1 rare:1 men:42 result:6 controversial:2 penile:1 plethysmograph:1 test:1 view:2 pornographic:1 material:1 involve:6 pornography:1 woman:28 critic:1 state:16 work:2 assumption:1 truly:1 exhibit:3 virtually:1 equal:2 arousal:4 response:2 stimulus:1 consequently:1 dismiss:1 self:8 identification:1 whose:3 pattern:3 show:10 even:5 mild:1 say:4 technique:1 genital:1 crude:1 capture:1 richness:1 erotic:3 sensation:1 affection:2 admiration:1 constitute:2 new:10 york:9 time:16 article:5 report:6 subsequently:1 flaw:1 biphobic:1 national:2 gay:20 lesbian:17 task:1 force:2 july:3 problem:4 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5,167 | Barcelona | Barcelona (Catalan , Spanish ) is the capital and most populous city of the Autonomous Community of Catalonia and the second largest city in Spain, with a population of 1,615,908 in 2008. It is the eleventh-most populous municipality in the European Union and sixth-most populous urban area in the European Union after Paris, London, Ruhr Area, Madrid and Milan with the population 4,185,000. Demographia: World Urban Areas 4,9 million United Nations - Department of Economic and Social Affairs: World Urbanization Prospects (2007 revision), Table A.12 Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development: Competitive Cities in the Global Economy, OECD Territorial Reviews, (OECD Publishing, 2006), Table 1.1 Àmbit Metropolità. Sèrie temporal (catalan) people live in Barcelona metropolitan area. The main part of a union of adjacent cities and municipalities named Área Metropolitana de Barcelona (AMB) with a population of 3,186,461 in area of 636 km² (density 5.010 hab/km²). It is located on the Mediterranean coast () between the mouths of the rivers Llobregat and Besòs and is bounded to the west by the Serra de Collserola ridge (). Barcelona is recognised as a global city because of its importance in finance, commerce, media, entertainment, arts and international trade. Barcelona is a major economic centre with one of Europe's principal Mediterranean ports, and Barcelona International Airport is the second largest in Spain after the Madrid-Barajas Airport (handles about 30 million passengers per year). Founded as a Roman city, Barcelona became the capital of the Counts of Barcelona. After merging with the Kingdom of Aragon, it became one of the most important cities of the Crown of Aragon. Besieged several times during its history, Barcelona is today an important cultural centre and a major tourist destination and has a rich cultural heritage. Particularly renowned are architectural works of Antoni Gaudí and Lluís Domènech i Montaner that have been designated UNESCO World Heritage Sites. The city is well known in recent times for the 1992 Summer Olympics. The headquarters of the Union for the Mediterranean are located in Barcelona. As the capital of Catalonia, Barcelona houses the seat of the Catalan government, known as the Generalitat de Catalunya; of particular note are the executive branch, the parliament, and the Supreme Court of Catalonia. The city is also the capital of the Barcelonès comarca (shire). Names The name Barcelona comes from the ancient Greek: ; Ptolemy, ii. 6. § 8 Latin: Barcino, Barcelo Avienus Ora Maritima., and Barceno. Itin. Ant. During the Middle Ages, the city was variously known as Barchinona, Barçalona, Barchelona, and Barchenona. History The foundation of Barcelona is the subject of two different legends. The first attributes the founding of the city to Hercules 400 years before the building of Rome and that it was rebuilt by the Carthaginian Hamilcar Barca, father of Hannibal, who named the city Barcino after his family, in the 3rd century BC. The second legend attributes the foundation directly to Hamilcar Barca. Oros. vii. 143; Miñano, Diccion. vol. i. p. 391; Auson. Epist. xxiv. 68, 69, Punica Barcino. About 15 BC, the Romans redrew the town as a castrum (Roman military camp) centred on the "Mons Taber", a little hill near the contemporary city hall (Plaça de Sant Jaume). Under the Romans, it was a colony with the surname of Faventia, Plin. iii. 3. s. 4 or, in full, Colonia Faventia Julia Augusta Pia Barcino Inscr. ap. Gruter, p. 426, nos. 5, 6. or Colonia Julia Augusta Faventia Paterna Barcino. Mela ii. 6 mentions it among the small towns of the district, probably as it was eclipsed by its neighbour Tarraco (modern Tarragona); but it may be gathered from later writers that it gradually grew in wealth and consequence, favoured as it was with a beautiful situation and an excellent harbour. Avien. Ora Maritima. 520: "Et Barcilonum amoena sedes ditium." It enjoyed immunity from imperial burdens. Paul. Dig. 1. tit. 15, de Cens. The city minted its own coins; some from the era of Galba survive. Some important Roman ruins are exposed under the Plaça del Rei, entrance by the city museum (Museu d'Història de la Ciutat), and the typically Roman grid-planning is still visible today in the layout of the historical centre, the Barri Gòtic ("Gothic Quarter"). Some remaining fragments of the Roman walls have been incorporated into the cathedral. The cathedral, also known as basilica La Seu is said to have been founded in 343. The city was conquered by the Visigoths in the early fifth century, by the Moors in the early eighth century, reconquered in 801 by Charlemagne's son Louis who made Barcelona the seat of Carolingian "Spanish Marches" (Marca Hispanica), a buffer zone ruled by the Count of Barcelona. The Counts of Barcelona became increasingly independent and expanded their territory to include all of Catalonia. In 1137, Aragon and the County of Barcelona merged by dynastic union El Tall dels Temps, 14. (Palma de) Mallorca: El Tall, 1996. ISBN 84-96019-28-4. 127pp. by the marriage of Ramon Berenguer IV and Petronilla of Aragon and their titles were finally borne by only one person when their son Alfonso II of Aragon ascended to the throne in 1162. His territories were later to be known as the Crown of Aragon which conquered many overseas possessions, ruling the western Mediterranean Sea with outlying territories in Naples and Sicily and as far as Athens in the thirteenth century. The forging of a dynastic link between the Crowns of Aragon and Castile marked the beginning of Barcelona's decline. Geography Barcelona is located on the northeast coast of the Iberian Peninsula, facing the Mediterranean Sea, on a plateau approximately wide limited by the mountain range of Collserola, the Llobregat river to the south-west and the Besòs river to the north. This plateau has , of which 101 km² (38.9 sq mi) Guies Estadístiques. Barcelona en Xifres. Novembre 2006. are occupied by the city itself. It is 160 km (100 mi) south of the Pyrenees and the Catalonian border with France. Collserola, part of the coastal mountain range, shelters the city to the north-west. Its highest point, the peak of Tibidabo, high, offers striking views over the city and is topped by the Torre de Collserola, a telecommunications tower that is visible from most of the city. Barcelona is peppered with small hills, most of them urbanized and that gave their name to the neighbourhoods built upon them, such as Carmel (267 m), Putxet (181 m) and Rovira (261 m). The escarpment of Montjuïc (173 m), situated to the southeast, overlooks the harbour and is topped by Montjuïc castle, a fortress built in the 17–18th centuries to control the city as a replacement for the Ciutadella. Today, the fortress is a museum and Montjuïc is home to several sporting and cultural venues, as well as Barcelona's biggest park and gardens. The city borders are the municipalities of Santa Coloma de Gramenet and Sant Adrià de Besòs to the north; L'Hospitalet de Llobregat and Esplugues de Llobregat to the south; the Mediterranean Sea to the east; and Montcada i Reixac and Sant Cugat del Vallès to the west. Climate Barcelona has a Mediterranean climate, with sub-mediterranean influence. Thus, it is not the "classical Mediterranean climate" with mild, humid winters and warm, dry summers. Barcelona is located on the eastern coast of the Iberian Peninsula, so Atlantic west winds often arrive in Barcelona with low humidity, producing no rain. The proximity of the Atlantic, its latitude, and the relief, are the reasons why the summers are not as dry as in most other Mediterranean Basin locations. Lows (not surface lows but high-atmospheric "cold invasions") can easily affect the area of Barcelona (and Catalonia), causing storms, particularly in August. Some years, the beginning of June is still cool and rainy, like April and May which, together with August, September, October and November, are the wettest months of the year. The driest are July, February, March and June. As in many parts of Catalonia, weather through the year can be really different from year to year. So, on average, the rainy seasons are spring and autumn, and the dry ones are winter and summer. The order from wettest to driest is: AUT-SPR-WIN-SUM. The Western Mediterranean Climate is one of the most irregular climates in the world. For instance, one year October can be very dry and July or February wet months. Barcelona and London have the same annual rainfall, but London's climate is not as irregular and torrential as Barcelona's. As for temperatures, December, January and February are the coldest months, averaging temperatures of 9°C at the Airport and over 10°C in the city. July and August are the hottest months, averaging temperatures of 24°C . The highest temperature recorded in the city centre is 38.6°C. Grup dels Sis: 2003: Un Estiu Infernal The coldest temperature recorded was –6.7 °C on 11 February 1956 and –5°C on 12 January 1985. However, in the 19th century –9.6°C was recorded in January 1896. At the Fabra Observatory, situated on the Tibidabo hill, 412 m above the sea level, the record summer temperature is C 39.8°C Grup dels Sis: Climatologia de Catalunya on 7 July 1982, and the lowest temperature ever registered, -10.0° on 11 February 1956. Near the hills and the Airport annual rainfall reaches 650 mm, and in the city centre about 600 mm. Snow falls and night frosts occur almost every year. Snowfalls http://acam.cat/node/90 seldom cause any disruption to traffic. Nonetheless, the city has experienced its share of heavy snowfalls, as for example at Christmas 1962, when a true blizzard affected the city, with 50 cm of snow falling in the city and at least 1 metre on the hills. But, according to old news sources, the greatest snowfall took place in 1887, with over 50 cm. The third heaviest snowfall was in December 1933, with 30 cm on Montjuïc hill. The most recent ones were on 6 January 2009, 27 January 2006, 28 February 2005, 29 February 2004, 18 February 2003 and 14 December 2001 and the rare sonowfall of 21 November 1999 [](the only time in which has snowed so soon in at least 3 centuries). Thunderstorms, which occasionally reach severe limits, are common from mid August until November. The most recent big heavy summer storm was on the 31 July 2002, when over 200 mm of rain were recorded at some observatories. Though Barcelona is normally not a windy city, it is affected by sea breezes from May/June to September and winds from the west and north-west in winter. Eastern gales sometimes cause floods on the coastline. East and NE winds can exceed 100 km/h. In winter Barcelona is sometimes affected by the tramontana or mistral winds—like other places in the Northwestern Mediterranean Basin. Although Barcelona is generally a sunny city, some days of fog and spells of cloudy days are not rare. Sea fog is frequent in early spring, when the first warm African air masses come in over the cold sea water. Cloudy days are most frequent from April to October/November. Cityscape Parks Barcelona contains 68 municipal parks, divided into 12 historic parks, 5 thematic (botanical) parks, 45 urban parks and 6 forest parks. Parcs i Jardins > Els Parcs > Els Parcs de Barcelona They range from vest-pocket parks to large recreation areas. The urban parks alone cover 10% of the city (). The total park surface grows about per year, Parcs i Jardins > Els Parcs > Història > La ciutat i el verd with a proportion of of park area per inhabitant. Parcs i Jardins > Els Parcs > Història > La democràcia Of Barcelona's parks, Montjuïc is the largest, with 203 ha located on the mountain of the same name. It is followed by Ciutadella Park (situated in the place of the old military citadel and which houses the Parliament building, the zoo and several museums; including the zoo), the Guinardó Park (), Park Güell (designed by Antoni Gaudí; ), Oreneta Castle Park (also ), Diagonal Mar Park (, inaugurated in 2002), Nou Barris Central Park (), Can Dragó Sports Park and Poblenou Park (both ) and the Labyrinth Park (), named after the garden maze it contains. A part of the Collserolla Park is also within the city limits. Beaches Barcelona has seven beaches, totalling 4.5 km (2.8 mi) of coastline. Sant Sebastià and Barceloneta beaches, both in length, are the largest, oldest and the most frequented beaches in Barcelona. The Olympic port separates them from the other city beaches: Nova Icària, Bogatell, Mar Bella, Nova Mar Bella and Llevant. These beaches (ranging from 400 to 640 m/1,300 to 2,100 ft) were opened as a result of the city restructuring to host the 1992 Summer Olympics, when a great number of industrial buildings were demolished. At present, the beach sand is replenished from quarries given that storms regularly remove large quantities of material. The 2004 Universal Forum of Cultures left the city a large concrete bathing zone on the eastmost part of the city's coastline. Other The area around the Plaça Catalunya makes up the city's historical centre and, alongside the upper half of Avinguda Diagonal, is the main commercial area of the city. Barcelona has several commercial complexes, like L'Illa in the higher part of the Diagonal avenue and Diagonal Mar in the lowest, La Maquinista, Glòries in the place of the same name and the Maremagnum by the port. Barcelona has several skyscrapers, the tallest being the Hotel Arts and its twin the Torre Mapfre, both high, followed by the newest, Torre Agbar . Finally, Barcelona is really well situated for the sky ressorts of the Pyrenées, just 125 km. far from the city. Anyway the skyline of the city is decorated in winter by the summit (1712 m. high) of the Montseny mountain, normally covered by the snow. Demographics According to Barcelona's City Council, Barcelona's population as of 1 June 2006 was 1,673,075 people, Ajuntament de Barcelona: Estadística: Indicadors demogràfics. 2005 while the population of the urban area was 4,185,000. It is the central nucleus of the Barcelona metropolitan area, which relies on a population of 4,928,852. The population density of Barcelona was , Ajuntament de Barcelona: Estadística: Densitat de població. 2005 with Eixample being the most populated district. 62% of the inhabitants were born in Catalonia, with a 23.5% coming from the rest of Spain. Of the 13.9% from other countries, a proportion which has more than tripled since 2001 when it was 3.9%, the majority come from (in order) Ecuador, Peru, Morocco, Colombia, Argentina, Pakistan and China. Ajuntament de Barcelona: Estadística: Nacionalitat per sexe. 2005 95% of the population understand Catalonia's native Catalan language, while 74.6% can speak it, 75% can read it, and 47.1% can write it, Ajuntament de Barcelona: Estadística: Coneixement de la llengua catalana per grans grups d'edat. 2001 thanks to the linguistic immersion educational system. While most of the population state they are Roman Catholic (208 churches), there are also a number of other groups, including Evangelical (71 locations, mostly professed by Roma), Jehovah's Witnesses (21 Kingdom Halls) and Buddhists (13 locations), Barcelona: Directory: Theme: Religion and a number of Muslims due to immigration. In 1900, Barcelona had a population of 533,000 people, which grew steadily but slowly until 1950, when it started absorbing a high number of people from other less-industrialized parts of Spain. Barcelona's population peaked in 1979 with 1,906,998 people, and fell throughout the 1980s and 1990s as more people sought a higher quality of life in outlying cities in the Barcelona Metropolitan Area. After bottoming out in 2000 with 1,496,266 people, the city's population began to rise again as younger people started to return, causing a great increase in housing prices. Ajuntament de Barcelona: Estadística: Evolució de la població. 1900-2005 Economy Barcelona has a long-standing mercantile tradition. Less well known is that the region was one of the earliest to begin industrialization in continental Europe, beginning with textile related works from the mid 1780s but really gathering momentum in the mid nineteenth century, when it became a major center for the production of textiles and machinery. Since then, manufacturing has played a large role in its history. The traditional importance in textiles is reflected in Barcelona's repeated attempts to become a major fashion center. In summer 2006, the city became a host for the prestigious Bread & Butter urban fashion fair until 2009 when it was announced that it would be celebrated again on Berlin. This was a hard blow for the city as the fair brought €100 m to the city in just three days. There have been many attempts to launch Barcelona as a fashion capital, notably Gaudi Home. As in other modern cities, the manufacturing sector has long since been overtaken by the services sector, though it remains very important. The region's leading industries today are textiles, chemical, pharmaceutical, motor, electronic, printing, logistics, publishing, telecommunications and information technology services. Drawing upon its tradition of creative art and craftsmanship, Barcelona is nowadays also known for its award-winning industrial design. It also has several congress halls, notably Fira de Barcelona (Trade Fair), that host a quickly growing number of national and international events each year, which had also meant the opening of new hotels each year. However, the economic crisis and deep cuts in business travel are affecting the Council´s positioning of the city as a convention centre. La crisis pone en jaque los proyectos de nuevos hoteles en Barcelona y Madrid In addition to the economic downturn, the recent mafia-style killing of the director of the city's International Convention Centre and the revelation in El Periódico newspaper of Thursday 12 February 2009 that the Bombay attacks were planned from Barcelona may only worsen matters. El Periódico pointed out that Barcelona´s International Convention Centre and its biggest luxury hotels are all near the waterfront and thus provide a tempting target. Barcelona has one of the highest costs of living in Spain, and occupying the 31st position in the world rank according to a report by Mercer Human Resource. Government and administrative divisions Barcelona is governed by a city council formed by 41 city councilors, elected for a four-year term by universal suffrage. As one of the two biggest cities in Spain, Barcelona is subject to a special law articulated through the Carta Municipal (Municipal Law). A first version of this law was passed in 1960 and amended later, but the current version was approved in March 2006. BOE - LEY 1/2006, de 13 de marzo, por la que se regula el Régimen Especial del municipio de Barcelona. According to this law, Barcelona's city council is organized in two levels: a political one, with elected city councilors, and one executive, which administrates the programs and executes the decisions taken on the political level. Ajuntament de Barcelona > Ajuntament > El Govern de la Ciutat This law also gives the local government a special relationship with the central government and it also gives the mayor wider prerogatives by the means of municipal executive commissions. Ajuntament de Barcelona: Organització política It expands the powers of the city council in areas like telecommunications, city traffic, road safety and public safety. It also gives a special economic regime to the city's treasury and it gives the council a veto in matters that will be decided by the central government, but that will need a favourable report from the council. The Comissió de Govern (Government Commission) is the executive branch, formed by 24 councilors, led by the Mayor, with 5 lieutenant-mayors and 17 city councilors, each in charge of an area of government, and 5 non-elected councilors. Ajuntament de Barcelona > Council> The city government> Council Executive The plenary, formed by the 41 city councilors, has advisory, planning, regulatory, and fiscal executive functions. Ajuntament de Barcelona > Council> The city government> Plenary The six Commissions del Consell Municipal (City council commissions) have executive and controlling functions in the field of their jurisdiction. They are composed by a number of councilors proportional to the number of councilors each political party has in the plenary. Ajuntament de Barcelona > Council> The city government> Committees of the Municipal Council The city council has jurisdiction in the fields of city planning, transportation, municipal taxes, public highways security through the Guardia Urbana (the municipal police), city maintenance, gardens, parks and environment, facilities (like schools, nurseries, sports centres, libraries, etc.), culture, sports, youth and social welfare. Some of these competencies are not exclusive, but shared with the Generalitat de Catalunya or the central Spanish government. The executive branch is led by a Chief Municipal Executive Officer which answers to the Mayor. It is made up of departments which are legally part of the city council and by separate legal entities of two tipes: autonomous public departments and public enterprises. Ajuntament de Barcelona > Council> The municipal administration The seat of the city council is on the Plaça Sant Jaume, opposite the seat of Generalitat de Catalunya. Since the coming of the Spanish democracy, Barcelona has been governed by the PSC, first with an absolute majority and later in coalition with ERC and ICV. Since the May 2007 elections, PSC is governing in minority only with IC, since ERC decided against a renewal of the previous coalition. The second most voted party in Barcelona is CiU, followed by PP, both currently in the opposition. Districts Since 1987, the city has been divided into 10 administrative districts (districtes in Catalan, distritos in Spanish), each one with its own council led by a city councillor. The composition of each district council depends on the number of votes each political party had in that district, so a district can be led by a councillor from a different party than the executive council. The districts are based mostly on historical divisions. Several of the city's districts are former towns annexed by the city of Barcelona in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries that still maintain their own distinct character. The official names of these districts are in the Catalan language. Neighborhoods Ciutat Vella ("Old City"): El Raval (also known in Spanish as the Barrio Chino, ("Chinatown"), the Barri Gòtic ("Gothic Quarter"), La Barceloneta and the Barri de la Ribera. Eixample: Sant Antoni, Esquerra de l'Eixample ("the left side of the Eixample" facing away from the sea), Dreta de l'Eixample ("the right side of the Eixample"), Barri de la Sagrada Família, Fort Pienc, Sant Antoni Sants–Montjuïc: Poble Sec, La Marina, La Font de La Guatlla, La Bordeta, Hostafrancs, Sants, Badal. Les Corts: Les Corts, La Maternitat, Pedralbes. Sarrià-Sant Gervasi: Tres Torres, Sarrià, Vallvidrera, Bonanova, Sant Gervasi, Putxet-Farró, Galvany. Gràcia: Vallcarca, El Coll, La Salut, Gràcia, El Camp d'en Grassot Horta-Guinardó: Horta, El Carmel, La Teixonera, El Guinardó (Alt i Baix), La Clota, La Vall D'Hebron, Montbau Nou Barris: Can Peguera, Porta, Canyelles, Ciutat Meridiana, Guineueta, Prosperitat, Vallbona, Verdum, Vilapicina, Roquetes, Trinitat Vella, Trinitat Nova, Torre Baró, Torre Llobeta and Turó de la Peira. Sant Andreu: La Sagrera, Congrés, Trinitat Vella, Bon Pastor, Sant Andreu, Navas, Baró de Viver Sant Martí: Diagonal Mar, Fort Pius, San Martí de Provençals, Poble Nou, La Verneda, El Clot, Vila Olímpica del Poblenou. Education Barcelona has a well-developed higher education system of public universities. Most prominent among these is the University of Barcelona, a world-renowned research and teaching institution with campuses around the city. Barcelona is also home to the Polytechnic University of Catalonia, the newer Pompeu Fabra University and, in the private sector, the Ramon Llull University encompassing internationally renowned institutions like IESE Business School and ESADE Business School. The Autonomous University of Barcelona, another public university, is located in Bellaterra, a town in the Metropolitan Area. The city has a network of public schools, from nurseries to high schools, under the responsibility of the city council (though the student subjects are the responsibility of the Generalitat de Catalunya). There are also many private schools, some of them Roman Catholic. Like other cities in Spain, Barcelona now faces the integration of a large number of immigrant children from Latin America, Africa and Asia. Culture Barcelona's cultural roots go back 2000 years. To a greater extent than the rest of Catalonia, where Catalonia's native Catalan is more dominant, Barcelona is a bilingual city: Catalan and Spanish are both official languages and widely spoken. The Catalan spoken in Barcelona, Central Catalan, is the one closest to standard Catalan. Since the arrival of democracy, the Catalan culture (very much repressed during the dictatorship) has been promoted, both by recovering works from the past and by stimulating the creation of new works. Barcelona is designated as a world-class city by the Globalization and World Cities Study Group and Network. Entertainment and performing arts Barcelona has many venues for live music and theatre, including the world-renowned Gran Teatre del Liceu opera theatre, the Teatre Nacional de Catalunya, the Teatre Lliure and the Palau de la Música Catalana concert hall. Barcelona also is home to the Sónar Music Festival Sónar Music Festival which takes place around June every year, and to the Barcelona and Catalonia National Symphonic Orchestra (Orquestra Simfònica de Barcelona i Nacional de Catalunya, usually known as OBC) is the largest symphonic orchestra in Catalonia. In 1999, the OBC inaugurated its new venue in the brand-new Auditorium (l'Auditori). It performs around 75 concerts per season and its current director is Eiji Oue. L'Auditori: OBC It has a thriving alternative music scene, with groups such as The Pinker Tones receiving international attention. Yearly two major pop music festivals take place in Parc del Fòrum, the Sónar Festival and the Primavera Sound Festival. Football is also important in Barcelona Spain their home team is FC Barcelona their biggest rival is CF Real Madrid. Museums Barcelona has a great number of museums, which cover different areas and eras. The National Museum of Art of Catalonia possesses a well-known collection of Romanesque art while the Barcelona Museum of Contemporary Art focuses on post-1945 Catalan and Spanish art. The Fundació Joan Miró, Picasso Museum and Fundació Antoni Tàpies hold important collections of these world-renowned artists. Several museums cover the fields of history and archeology, like the City History Museum, the Museum of the History of Catalonia, the Archeology Museum of Catalonia, the Barcelona Maritime Museum and the private-owned Egyptian Museum. The Erotic museum of Barcelona is among the most peculiar ones, while Cosmocaixa is a science museum that received the European Museum of the Year Award in 2006. Architecture The Barri Gòtic ("Gothic Quarter" in Catalan) is the centre of the old city of Barcelona. Many of the buildings date from medieval times, some from as far back as the Roman settlement of Barcelona. Catalan modernisme architecture (often known as Art Nouveau in the rest of Europe), developed between 1885 and 1950 and left an important legacy in Barcelona. A great number of these buildings are World Heritage Sites. Especially remarkable is the work of architect Antoni Gaudí, which can be seen throughout the city. His best known work is the immense but still unfinished church of the Sagrada Família, which has been under construction since 1882, and is still financed by private donations. As of 2007, completion is planned for 2026. The Space-Time Towers in The Rise of Darkrai is also heavily based on the Sagrada Família church. Barcelona is also home to Mies van der Rohe's Barcelona Pavilion. Designed in 1929 for the Internation Exposition for Germany. It is an iconic building designed by one of the most influential architects of the 20th century. Barcelona won the 1999 RIBA Royal Gold Medal for its architecture, RIBA Royal Gold Medallists the first (and as of 2007, only) time that the winner has been a city, and not an individual architect. World Heritage Sites in Barcelona Works by Lluís Domènech i Montaner, Palau de la Música Catalana and Hospital de Sant Pau, included in the list in 1997. Works by Antoni Gaudí, including Park Güell, Palau Güell, Casa Milà, Casa Vicens, Sagrada Família (Nativity façade and crypt), Casa Batlló, Crypt in Colonia Güell. The first three works were inscribed as a World Heritage Site in 1984. The other four were added as extensions to the site in 2005. Media El Periódico de Catalunya (Catalan and Spanish editions) and La Vanguardia (Spanish) are Barcelona's two major daily newspapers while Sport and El Mundo Deportivo (both in Spanish) are the city's two major sports daily newspapers, published by the same companies. The city is also served by a number of smaller publications such as Avui and El Punt (both in Catalan), by nation-wide newspapers with special Barcelona editions like El Pais and El Mundo (both in Spanish), and by several free newspapers like Metro, 20 minutos, ADN and Què (all bilingual). Several major FM stations include Catalunya Ràdio, RAC 1, RAC 105 and Cadena SER. Barcelona also has several local TV stations, among them BTV (owned by city council) and 8TV (owned by the Godó group, that also owns La Vanguardia). The headquarters of Televisió de Catalunya, Catalonia's public network, are located in Sant Joan Despí, in Barcelona's metropolitan area. Sports Barcelona has a long sporting tradition and hosted the successful 1992 Summer Olympics as well as several matches during the 1982 FIFA World Cup. It has also hosted the Eurobasket twice and the X FINA World Championships. FC Barcelona is a sports club best known for its football team, one of the biggest in Europe, three-time winner of the UEFA Champions League. FC Barcelona also has teams in the Spanish basketball ACB league (Regal FC Barcelona), the handball ASOBAL league (FC Barcelona Handbol), and the roller hockey league (FC Barcelona Hoquei). The club's museum is the second most visited in Catalonia. Twice a season, FC Barcelona and cross-town rivals RCD Espanyol contest in the local derby in the La Liga. Barcelona also has other clubs in lower categories, like CE Europa and UE Sant Andreu. Barcelona has two UEFA 5-star rated football stadiums: FC Barcelona's Camp Nou and the Estadi Olímpic Lluís Companys, used for the 1992 Olympics and the current home of Espanyol, pending completion of the club's new stadium. The Open Seat Godó, a 50-year-old ATP World Tour 500 Series tennis tournament, is held annually in the facilities of the Real Club de Tenis Barcelona (Barcelona Royal Tennis Club). Several popular running competitions are organized year-round in Barcelona: Cursa del Corte Inglés (with about 60,000 participants each year), Cursa de la Mercè, Cursa Jean Bouin, Milla Sagrada Família and the San Silvestre. Also, each Christmas, a swimming race across the port is organized. Near Barcelona, in Montmeló, the 131,000 capacity Circuit de Catalunya racetrack hosts the Formula One Spanish Grand Prix and the Catalan motorcycle Grand Prix. Barcelona has also become very popular with skateboarders, which has led to a new anti-skateboarding law, which came into effect in 2006. Transportation and Infrastructure Airports Barcelona is served by Barcelona International Airport in the town of El Prat de Llobregat, about from Barcelona. It is the second-largest airport in Spain, and the largest on the Mediterranean coast. It is a main hub for Vueling Airlines and Clickair, and also a focus for Spanair, Air Europa and Iberia. The airport mainly serves domestic and European destinations, but some airlines offer destinations in Asia and the United States. The airport is connected to the city by highway, commuter train and scheduled bus service. The airport handled 32,800,570 passengers in 2007. Aena statistics (see annual report for 2007) A new terminal (T1) has been built, and will enter service on 17 June 2009. Sabadell Airport is a smaller airport in the nearby town of Sabadell, devoted to pilot training, commercial flights, aerotaxi and private flights. Some low-cost airlines, like Ryanair and Martinair, prefer to use Girona-Costa Brava Airport, situated about to the north of Barcelona and Reus Airport, situated to the south. Seaport The Port of Barcelona has a 2000-year history and a great contemporary commercial importance. It is Europe's ninth largest container port, with a trade volume of 2.3 million TEU's in 2006. The port is managed by the Port Authority of Barcelona. Its are divided into three zones: Port Vell (the Old Port), the commercial port and the logistics port (Barcelona Free Port). The port is undergoing an enlargement that will double its size thanks to diverting the mouth of the Llobregat river 2 km (1¼ mi) to the south. Port de Barcelona The Port Vell area also houses the Maremagnum (a commercial mall), a multiplex cinema, the IMAX Port Vell and an aquarium. Public transportation Barcelona is served by a comprehensive local public transport network that includes a metro, a bus network, two separate modern tram networks, a separate historic tram line, and several funiculars and aerial cable cars. The Barcelona Metro network comprises nine lines, identified by an "L" followed by the line number as well as by individual colours. Most of the network is operated by the Transports Metropolitans de Barcelona (TMB), but three lines are FGC commuter lines that run through the city. When finished, the L9 will be the second longest underground metro line in Europe with 42.6 km; only shorter than London's 76 km Central Line. TMB also provides most of the services of the city's daytime bus network, as well as a tourist bus service. The tourist bus service gives the opportunity to visit the city on open-topped double-decker buses. The Barcelona Bus Turistic runs along three sightseeing routes, and passengers can get on and off as many times as they like. The night bus network, known as Nitbus, is operated by Tusgsal and Mohn. Transports Ciutat Comtal operates the Aerobus (to the airport) and the Tibibus (bus from Catalunya Square to Tibidabo amusement park) services. Other companies operate services that connect the city with towns in the metropolitan area. Another company, TRAMMET, operates the city's two modern tram networks, known as Trambaix and Trambesòs. News related with the council plans for the tram network union. The historic tram line, the Tramvia Blau, Information of Tramvia Blau connects the metro to the Funicular del Tibidabo. The Funicular de Tibidabo climbs the Tibidabo hill, as does the Funicular de Vallvidrera. The Funicular de Montjuïc climbs the Montjuïc hill. The city has two aerial cable cars: one to the Montjuïc castle and another that runs via Torre Jaume I and Torre Sant Sebastià over the port. Barcelona is a major hub for RENFE, the Spanish state railway network, and its main intercity train station is Barcelona-Sants station. The AVE high-speed rail system was recently extended from Madrid to Barcelona. Renfe cercanías/rodalies and the Ferrocarrils de la Generalitat de Catalunya (FGC) run Barcelona's widespread commuter train service. The Estació del Nord (Northern Station), a former train station that was renovated for the 1992 Olympic Games, now serves as the terminus for long-distance and regional bus services. Barcelona has a metered taxi fleet governed by the Institut Metropolità del Taxi (Metropolitan Taxi Institute), composed of more than 10,000 cars. Most of the licenses are in the hands of self-employed drivers. L'Administració i la gestió del Taxi de Barcelona With their black and yellow livery, Barcelona's taxis are easily spotted. On March 22, 2007, Bicing: Noticies: Data d'inici 22 de març a les 14:00 h. Pots realitzar l'alta al servei a partir del dia 16/03/07. Barcelona's City Council started the Bicing service, a bicycle service understood as a public transport. Once the user has their user card, they can take a bicycle from any of the 100 stations spread around the city and use it anywhere the urban area of the city, and then leave it at another station. Bicing: Què és Bicing? The service has been a success, with 50,000 subscribed users in three months. Bicing: Notícies: El Bicing ja té més de 50.000 abonats. Roads and highways Barcelona is circled by three ring roads or bypasses, Ronda de Dalt (on the mountain side), Ronda del Litoral (along the coast) and Ronda del Mig (separated into two parts: Gran Via de les Corts Catalanes in the north and the Gran via Carles III), two partially covered The covered Rondes (by-pass) fast highways with several exits that bypass the city. The city's main arteries include Diagonal Avenue, which crosses the city diagonally, Meridiana Avenue which leads to Glòries and connects with Diagonal Avenue and Gran Via de les Corts Catalanes, which crosses the city from east to west, passing through the center of the city. International relations Twin towns - Sister cities Barcelona is twinned with the following cities (in chronological order): Sister cities, in city council's webpage. Montpellier, France, 1963 Medellín, Colombia Monzón, Spain, 1969 Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 1972 Batangas, Philippines, 2005 Monterrey, Mexico, 1977 Boston, United States, 1983 Busan, South Korea, 1983 Cologne, Germany, 1984 São Paulo, Brazil, 1985 {{cite web |url=http://www.netlegis.com.br/indexRJ.jsp?arquivo=/detalhesNoticia.jsp&cod=41796 |title=São Paulo - Sister Cities Program |publisher=© 2005-2008 Fiscolegis - Todos os direitos reservados Editora de publicações periodicas - LTDA / © 2008 City of São Paulo |accessdate = 2008-12-09}} Montevideo, Uruguay, 1985 St.Petersburg, Russia, 1985 Havana, Cuba, 1993 Kobe, Japan, 1993 Antwerp, Belgium, 1997 Istanbul, Turkey, 1997 Tel Aviv, Israel, 1998 Gaza, Palestinian National Authority, 1998 Dublin, Ireland, 1998 Athens, Greece, 1999 Isfahan, Iran, 2000 Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, 2000 Valparaíso, Chile, 2001 Shanghai, People's Republic of China, 2001 Nicosia, Cyprus, 2004 Baku, Azerbaijan, 2005 Dubai, United Arab Emirates, 2006 Other forms of cooperation and city friendship similar to the twin city programmes: Niš, Serbia Tirana, Albania Other sights See also Barcelona metropolitan area Catalan cuisine Catalan language Flag of Barcelona Guardia Urbana List of Markets in Barcelona List of tallest buildings and structures in Barcelona Mossos Urban Region of Barcelona References Bibliography External links Official Website of Barcelona Official Website Of Barcelona's Metropolitan Transports Travel Guide Featuring Iteneraries, Monuments, Hotels, Pubs, Museums, Maps, Parks And Things To Do Barcelona Yellow Pages with comprehensive list of upcoming events UK based travel guide with a different view on the Catalan city From Barcelona: The City, the Life and the People be-x-old:Барсэлёна | Barcelona |@lemmatized barcelona:150 catalan:21 spanish:15 capital:5 populous:3 city:112 autonomous:3 community:1 catalonia:18 second:7 large:13 spain:10 population:12 eleventh:1 municipality:3 european:4 union:6 sixth:1 urban:8 area:22 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5,168 | Extinction_event | An extinction event (also known as: mass extinction; extinction-level event, ELE) is a sharp decrease in the number of species in a relatively short period of time. Mass extinctions affect most major taxonomic groups present at the time — birds, mammals, reptiles, amphibians, fish, invertebrates and other simpler life forms. They may be caused by one or both of: extinction of an unusually large number of species in a short period. a sharp drop in the rate of speciation. Over 99% of species that ever lived are now extinct, but extinction occurs at an uneven rate. Based on the fossil record, the background rate of extinctions on Earth is about two to five taxonomic families of marine invertebrates and vertebrates every million years. Marine fossils are mostly used to measure extinction rates because they are more plentiful and cover a longer time span than fossils of land organisms. Since life began on earth, several major mass extinctions have significantly exceeded the background extinction rate. The most recent, the Cretaceous–Tertiary extinction event, occurred 65 million years ago, and has attracted more attention than all others as it marks the extinction of nearly all dinosaur species, which were the dominant animal class of the period. In the past 540 million years there have been five major events when over 50% of animal species died. There probably were mass extinctions in the Archean and Proterozoic Eons, but before the Phanerozoic there were no animals with hard body parts to leave a significant fossil record. Estimates of the number of major mass extinctions in the last 540 million years range from as few as five to more than twenty. These differences stem from the threshold chosen for describing an extinction event as "major", and the data chosen to measure past diversity. Major extinction events The classical "Big Five" mass extinctions identified by Jack Sepkoski and David M. Raup in their 1982 paper are widely agreed upon as some of the most significant: End Ordovician, Late Devonian, End Permian, End Triassic, and End Cretaceous. Morell, V., and Lanting, F., 1999. "The Sixth Extintion," National Geographic Magazine, February. The Holocene extinction event is referred to as the Sixth Extinction. These and a selection of other extinction events are outlined below. The articles about individual mass extinctions describe their effects in more detail and discuss theories about their causes. Holocene extinction event - nearly 70% of biologists view the present era as part of a mass extinction event, possibly one of the fastest ever, according to a 1998 survey by the American Museum of Natural History., American Museum of Natural History. "National Survey Reveals Biodiversity Crisis - Scientific Experts Believe We are in the Midst of the Fastest Mass Extinction in Earth's History". URL accessed September 20, 2006. Some, such as E. O. Wilson of Harvard University, predict that humanity's destruction of the biosphere could cause the extinction of half of all species in the next 100 years. Research and conservation efforts, such as the IUCN's annual "Red List" of threatened species, all point to an ongoing period of enhanced extinction, though some offer much lower rates and hence longer time scales before the onset of catastrophic damage. The extinction of many megafauna near the end of the most recent ice age is also sometimes considered part of the Holocene extinction event. Some paleontologists, however, question whether the available data support a comparison with mass extinctions in the past. Cretaceous–Tertiary extinction event - 65 Ma at the Cretaceous-Paleogene transition about 17% of all families and 50% of all genera went extinct. (75% species). It ended the reign of dinosaurs and opened the way for mammals and birds to become the dominant land vertebrates. In the seas it reduced the percentage of sessile animals to about 33%. The K/T extinction was rather uneven — some groups of organisms became extinct, some suffered heavy losses and some appear to have been only minimally affected. Triassic-Jurassic extinction event - 205 Ma at the Triassic-Jurassic transition about 20% of all marine families (55% genera) as well as most non-dinosaurian archosaurs, most therapsids, and the last of the large amphibians were eliminated. 23% of all families and 48% of all genera went extinct. Permian-Triassic extinction event - 251 Ma at the Permian-Triassic transition, Earth's largest extinction killed 53% of marine families, 84% of marine genera, about 96% of all marine species and an estimated 70% of land species (including plants, insects, and vertebrate animals). 57% of all families and 83% of all genera went extinct. The "Great Dying" had enormous evolutionary significance: on land it ended the dominance of mammal-like reptiles and created the opportunity for archosaurs and then dinosaurs to become the dominant land vertebrates; in the seas the percentage of animals that were sessile dropped from 67% to 50%. The whole late Permian was a difficult time for at least marine life — even before the "Great Dying". Late Devonian extinction 360-375 Ma near the Devonian-Carboniferous transition at the end of the Frasnian Age in the later part(s) of the Devonian Period. A prolonged series of extinctions eliminated about 70% of all species. This extinction event lasted perhaps as long as 20 MY, and there is evidence for a series of extinction pulses within this period. 19% of all families of life and 50% of all genera went extinct. Ordovician-Silurian extinction events 440-450 Ma at the Ordovician-Silurian transition two events occurred, and together are ranked by many scientists as the second largest of the five major extinctions in Earth's history in terms of percentage of genera that went extinct. 27% of all families and 57% of all genera became extinct. Cambrian-Ordovician extinction events - 488 Ma a series of mass extinctions at the Cambrian-Ordovician transition eliminated many brachiopods and conodonts and severely reduced the number of trilobite species. The older the fossil record gets the more difficult it is to read it. This is because: Older fossils are harder to find because they are usually buried at a considerable depth in the rock. Dating fossils is difficult. Productive fossil beds are researched more than unproductive ones, therefore leaving certain periods unresearched. Prehistoric environmental disturbances can disturb the deposition process. The preservation of fossils varies on land, but marine fossils tend to be better preserved than their sought after land-based cousins. Sole, R. V., and Newman, M., 2002. "Extinctions and Biodiversity in the Fossil Record - Volume Two, The earth system: biological and ecological dimensions of global environment change" pp. 297-391, Encyclopedia of Global Enviromental Change John Wilely & Sons. </blockquote> It has been suggested that the apparent variations in marine biodiversity may actually be an artifact, with abundance estimates directly related to quantity of rock available for sampling from different time periods. However, statistical analysis shows that this can only account for 50% of the observed pattern, and other evidence (such as fungal spikes) provides reassurance that most widely accepted extinction events are indeed real. A quantification of the rock exposure of Western Europe does indicate that many of the minor events for which a biological explanation has been sought are most readily explained by sampling bias. Minor events Minor extinction events include: Partial list from :Image:Extinction Intensity.png Precambrian End-Ediacaran extinction - circa 542 Ma Cambrian Period End Botomian - circa 517 Ma Dresbachian Silurian Period Ireviken event Mulde event Lau event End Silurian Carboniferous Period Middle Carboniferous Jurassic Period Toarcian turnover circa 183 Ma End Jurassic Cretaceous Period Aptian extinction circa 117 Ma Paleogene Period Eocene-Oligocene extinction event Neogene Period Cat gap Middle Miocene disruption circa 14.5 Ma Quaternary Period (disputed) Quaternary extinction event Evolutionary importance Mass extinctions have sometimes accelerated the evolution of life on earth. When dominance of particular ecological niches passes from one group of organisms to another, it is rarely because the new dominant group is "superior" to the old and usually because an extinction event eliminates the old dominant group and makes way for the new one. For example mammaliformes ("almost mammals") and then mammals existed throughout the reign of the dinosaurs, but could not compete for the large terrestrial vertebrate niches which dinosaurs monopolized. The end-Cretaceous mass extinction removed the non-avian dinosaurs and made it possible for mammals to expand into the large terrestrial vertebrate niches. Another point of view put forward in the Escalation hypothesis predicts that species in ecological niches with more organism-to-organism conflict will be less likely to survive extinctions. This is because the very traits that keep a species numerous and viable under fairly static conditions become a burden once population levels fall among competing organisms during the dynamics of an extinction event. Furthermore, many groups which survive mass extinctions do not recover in numbers or diversity, and many of these go into long-term decline, and these are often referred to as "Dead Clades Walking". So analysing extinctions in terms of "what died and what survived" often fails to tell the full story. Apparent decreasing frequency The gaps between mass extinctions appear to be becoming longer, while the average and background rates of extinction are decreasing. Mass extinctions are thought to result when a long-term stress is compounded by a short term shock. Over the course of the Phanerozoic, individual taxa appear to be less likely to become extinct at any time, which may reflect more robust food webs as well as less extinction-prone species and other factors such as continental distribution. However the taxonomic susceptibility to extinction does not appear to make mass extinctions more or less probable. The idea that mass extinctions are becoming less frequent is rather speculative – from a statistical point of view a sample of about 10 extinction events is too small to be a reliable sign of any actual trend. But the average and background rates of extinction are based on hundreds of samples over a period of 550M years, so the apparent decrease in these rates is statistically significant and needs to be explained. Both of these phenomena could be explained in one or more ways: Reasonably complete fossils are very rare, most extinct organisms are represented only by partial fossils, and complete fossils are rarest in the oldest rocks. So paleontologists have mistakenly assigned parts of the same organism to different genera which were often defined solely to accommodate these finds (an example is the story of Anomalocaris). The risk of this mistake is higher for older fossils because these are often unlike parts of any living organism. Many of the "superfluous" genera are represented by fragments which are not found again and the "superfluous" genera appear to become extinct very quickly. Martin (1994, 1996) has argued that the oceans have become more hospitable to life over the last 500M years and less vulnerable to mass extinctions: dissolved oxygen became more widespread and penetrated to greater depths; the development of life on land reduced the run-off of nutrients and hence the risk of eutrophication and anoxic events; and marine ecosystems became more diversified so that food chains were less likely to be disrupted. Causes There is still debate about the causes of all mass extinctions before the Holocene. In general, large extinctions may result when a biosphere under long-term stress undergoes a short-term shock. Looking for the causes of particular mass extinctions A good theory for a particular mass extinction should: (i) explain all of the losses, not just focus on a few groups (such as dinosaurs); (ii) explain why particular groups of organisms died out and why others survived; (iii) provide mechanisms which are strong enough to cause a mass extinction but not a total extinction; (iv) be based on events or processes that can be shown to have happened, not just inferred from the extinction. It may be necessary to consider combinations of causes. For example the marine aspect of the end-Cretaceous extinction appears to have been caused by several processes which partially overlapped in time and may have had different levels of significance in different parts of the world. Arens and West (2006) proposed a "press / pulse" model in which mass extinctions generally require two types of cause: long-term pressure on the eco-system ("press") and a sudden catastrophe ("pulse") towards the end of the period of pressure. Arens, N.C. and West, I.D. (2006). "Press/Pulse: A General Theory of Mass Extinction?"" 'GSA Conference paper' Abstract Their statistical analysis of marine extinction rates throughout the Phanerozoic suggested that neither long-term pressure alone nor a catastrophe alone was sufficient to cause a significant increase in the extinction rate. Most widely supported explanations Macleod (2001) summarized the relationship between mass extinctions and events which are most often cited as causes of mass extinctions, using data from Courtillot et al. (1996), Courtillot, V., Jaeger, J-J., Yang, Z., Féraud, G., Hofmann, C. (1996). "The influence of continental flood basalts on mass extinctions: where do we stand?" in Ryder, G., Fastovsky, D., and Gartner, S, eds. "The Cretaceous-Tertiary event and other catastrophes in earth history". The Geological Society of America, Special Paper 307, 513-525. Hallam (1992) Hallam, A. (1992). "Phanerozoic sea-level changes". New York; Columbia University Press. and Grieve et al. (1996): Grieve, R., Rupert, J., Smith, J., Therriault, A. (1996). "The record of terrestrial impact cratering". GSA Today 5: 193-195 Flood basalt events: 11 occurrences, all associated with significant extinctions The earliest known flood basalt event is the one which produced the Siberian Traps and is associated with the end-Permian extinction. Some of the extinctions associated with flood basalts and sea-level falls were significantly smaller than the "major" extinctions, but still much greater than the background extinction level. But Wignall (2001) concluded that only 5 of the major extinctions coincided with flood basalt eruptions and that the main phase of extinctions started before the eruptions. Wignall, P.B. (2001), "Large igneous provinces and mass extinctions", Earth-Science Reviews vol. 53 issues 1-2 pp 1-33 Sea-level falls: 12, of which 7 were associated with significant extinctions. Asteroid impacts producing craters over 100km wide: one, associated with one mass extinction. Asteroid impacts producing craters less than 100km wide: over 50, the great majority not associated with significant extinctions. The most commonly suggested causes of mass extinctions are listed below. Flood basalt events The formation of large igneous provinces by flood basalt events could have: produced dust and particulate aerosols which inhibited photosynthesis and thus caused food chains to collapse both on land and at sea emitted sulfur oxides which were precipitated as acid rain and poisoned many organisms, contributing further to the collapse of food chains emitted carbon dioxide and thus possibly causing sustained global warming once the dust and particulate aerosols dissipated. Flood basalt events occur as pulses of activity punctuated by dormant periods. As a result they are likely to cause the climate to oscillate between cooling and warming, but with an overall trend towards warming as the carbon dioxide they emit can stay in the atmosphere for hundreds of years. It is speculated that Massive volcanism caused or contributed to the End-Cretaceous, End-Permian, and End Triassic extinctions. http://park.org/Canada/Museum/extinction/cretcause.html Speculated Causes of the End-Cretaceous Extinction] What was the Permian–Triassic Extinction Event? What is the Triassic-Jurassic Extinction Event? Sea-level falls These are often clearly marked by world-wide sequences of contemporaneous sediments which show all or part of a transition from sea-bed to tidal zone to beach to dry land - and where there is no evidence that the rocks in the relevant areas were raised by geological processes such as orogeny. Sea-level falls could reduce the continental shelf area (the most productive part of the oceans) sufficiently to cause a marine mass extinction, and could disrupt weather patterns enough to cause extinctions on land. But sea-level falls are very probably the result of other events, such as sustained global cooling or the sinking of the mid-ocean ridges. Sea-level falls are associated with most of the mass extinctions, including all of the "Big Five" — End-Ordovician, Late Devonian, End-Permian, End-Triassic, and End-Cretaceous. A study, published in the journal Nature (online June 15, 2008) established a relationship between the speed of mass extinction events and changes in sea level and sediment. The study suggests changes in ocean environments related to sea level exert a driving influence on rates of extinction, and generally determine the composition of life in the oceans. Newswise: Ebb and Flow of the Sea Drives World's Big Extinction Events Retrieved on June 15, 2008. Impact events The impact of a sufficiently large asteroid or comet could have caused food chains to collapse both on land and at sea by producing dust and particulate aerosols and thus inhibiting photosynthesis. Impacts on sulfur-rich rocks could have emitted sulfur oxides precipitating as poisonous acid rain, contributing further to the collapse of food chains. Such impacts could also have caused megatsunamis and / or global forest fires, but evidence for these events has been difficult to prove. Only the Cretaceous–Tertiary extinction event is associated with strong evidence of such an impact, but that impact is easily the largest for which there is strong evidence. Sustained and significant global cooling Sustained global cooling could kill many polar and temperate species and force others to migrate towards the equator; reduce the area available for tropical species; often make the Earth's climate more arid on average, mainly by locking up more of the planet's water in ice and snow. The glaciation cycles of the current ice age are believed to have had only a very mild impact on biodiversity, so the mere existence of a significant cooling is not sufficient on its own to explain a mass extinction. It has been suggested that global cooling caused or contributed to the End-Ordovician, Permian-Triassic, Late Devonian extinctions, and possibly others. Sustained global cooling is distinguished from the temporary climatic effects of flood basalt events or impacts. Sustained and significant global warming This would have the opposite effects: expand the area available for tropical species; kill temperate species or force them to migrate towards the poles; possibly cause severe extinctions of polar species; often make the Earth's climate wetter on average, mainly by melting ice and snow and thus increasing the volume of the water cycle. It might also cause anoxic events in the oceans (see below). Global warming as a cause of mass extinction is supported by several recent studies. The most dramatic example of sustained warming is the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum, which was associated with one of the smaller mass extinctions. It has also been suggested to have caused the Triassic-Jurassic extinction event, during which 20% of all marine families went extinct. Furthermore, the Permian–Triassic extinction event has been suggested to have been caused by warming. Clathrate gun hypothesis Clathrates are composites in which a lattice of one substance forms a cage round another. Methane clathrates (in which water molecules are the cage) form on continental shelves. These clathrates are likely to break up rapidly and release the methane if the temperature rises quickly or the pressure on them drops quickly — for example in response to sudden global warming or a sudden drop in sea level or even earthquakes. Methane is a much more powerful greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide, so a methane eruption ("clathrate gun") could cause rapid global warming or make it much more severe if the eruption was itself caused by global warming. The most likely signature of such a methane eruption would be a sudden decrease in the ratio of carbon-13 to carbon-12 in sediments, since methane clathrates are low in carbon-13; but the change would have to be very large, as other events can also reduce the percentage of carbon-13. It has been suggested that "clathrate gun" methane eruptions were involved in the end-Permian extinction ("the Great Dying") and in the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum, which was associated with one of the smaller mass extinctions. Anoxic events Anoxic events are situations in which the upper and even the middle layers of the ocean become deficient or totally lacking in oxygen. Their causes are complex and controversial, but all known instances are associated with severe and sustained global warming, mostly caused by massive sustained volcanism. It has been suggested that anoxic events caused or contributed to the late Devonian, Permian-Triassic and Triassic-Jurassic extinctions. On the other hand, there are widespread black shale beds from the mid-Cretaceous which indicate anoxic events but are not associated with mass extinctions. Hydrogen sulfide emissions from the seas Kump, Pavlov and Arthur (2005) have proposed that during the Permian-Triassic extinction event the warming also upset the oceanic balance between photosynthesising plankton and deep-water sulfate-reducing bacteria, causing massive emissions of hydrogen sulfide which poisoned life on both land and sea and severely weakened the ozone layer, exposing much of the life that still remained to fatal levels of UV radiation. Berner, R.A., and Ward, P.D. (2004). "Positive Reinforcement, H2S, and the Permo-Triassic Extinction: Comment and Reply" describes possible positive feedback loops in the catastrophic release of hydrogen sulfide proposed by Kump, Pavlov and Arthur (2005). Kump, L.R., Pavlov, A., and Arthur, M.A. (2005). "Massive release of hydrogen sulfide to the surface ocean and atmosphere during intervals of oceanic anoxia". Geology v. 33, p.397–400. Abstract. Summarised by Ward (2006). Ward, P.D. (2006). "Impact from the Deep". Scientific American October 2006. Oceanic overturn Oceanic overturn is a disruption of thermo-haline circulation which lets surface water (which is more saline than deep water because of evaporation) sink straight down, bringing anoxic deep water to the surface and therefore killing most of the oxygen-breathing organisms which inhabit the surface and middle depths. It may occur either at the beginning or the end of a glaciation, although an overturn at the start of a glaciation is more dangerous because the preceding warm period will have created a larger volume of anoxic water. Unlike other oceanic catastrophes such as regressions (sea-level falls) and anoxic events, overturns do not leave easily-identified "signatures" in rocks and are theoretical consequences of researchers' conclusions about other climatic and marine events. It has been suggested that oceanic overturn caused or contributed to the late Devonian and Permian-Triassic extinctions. A nearby nova, supernova or gamma ray burst A nearby gamma ray burst (fewer than 6000 light years away) could sufficiently irradiate the surface of Earth to kill organisms living there and destroy the ozone layer in the process. From statistical arguments, approximately 1 gamma ray burst would be expected to occur close to Earth in the last 540 million years. A proposal that a supernova or gamma ray burst had caused a mass extinction would also have to be backed up by astronomical evidence of such an explosion at the right place and time. It has been suggested that a supernova or gamma ray burst caused the End-Ordovician extinction. Continental drift Movement of the continents into some configurations can cause or contribute to extinctions in several ways: by initiating or ending ice ages; by changing ocean and wind currents and thus altering climate; by opening seaways or land bridges which expose previously isolated species to competition for which they are poorly-adapted (for example the extinction of most American marsupials after the creation of a land bridge between North and South America). Occasionally continental drift creates a super-continent which includes the vast majority of Earth's land area, which in addition to the effects listed above is likely to reduce the total area of continental shelf (the most species-rich part of the ocean) and produce a vast, arid continental interior which may have extreme seasonal variations. It is widely thought that the creation of the super-continent Pangaea contributed to the End-Permian mass extinction. Pangaea was almost fully formed at the transition from mid-Permian to late-Permian, and the "Marine genus diversity" diagram at the top of this article shows a level of extinction starting at that time which might have qualified for inclusion in the "Big Five" if it were not overshadowed by the "Great Dying" at the end of the Permian. Plate tectonics Plate tectonics is the mechanism which drives many of the possible causes of mass extinctions, especially volcanism and continental drift. So it is implicated in many extinctions, but in each case it is necessary to specify which manifestations of plate tectonics were involved. Other hypotheses Many other hypotheses have been proposed, such as the spread of a new disease or simple out-competition following an especially successful biological innovation. But all have been rejected, usually for one of the following reasons: they require events or processes for which there is no evidence; they assume mechanisms which are contrary to the available evidence; they are based on other theories which have been rejected or superseded. Postulated extinction cycles It has been suggested by several sources that biodiversity and/or extinction events may be influenced by cyclic processes. The best-known hypothesis of extinction events by a cyclic process is the 26M to 30M year cycle in extinctions proposed by Raup and Sepkoski (1986). More recently, Rohde and Muller (2005) have suggested that biodiversity fluctuates primarily on 62 ± 3 million year cycles. It is difficult to evaluate the validity of such claims except through reduction to statistical arguments about how plausible or implausible it is for the observed data to exhibit a particular pattern, as the causes of most extinction events are still too uncertain to attribute to them any specific cause let alone a recurring one. Much early work in this area also suffered from the poor accuracy of geological dating, where errors often exceed 10M years. However, improvements in radiometric dating have reduced the scale of uncertainty to at most 4M years — theoretically adequate for studying these processes. While the statistics alone have been judged as sufficiently compelling to warrant publication, it is important to consider processes that might be responsible for a cyclic pattern of extinctions and future work may focus on trying to find evidence of such processes. Hypothetical companion star to the sun The physicist Richard A. Muller has produced a number of speculative hypotheses for the regularity of mass extinctions. One is that the extinction cycle could be caused by the orbit of a hypothetical companion star dubbed Nemesis that periodically disturbs the Oort cloud, sending storms of large asteroids and comets towards the Solar System. Galactic plane oscillations Muller has also speculated the periodicity of mass extinctions may be related to the solar system's oscillation through the plane of our Milky Way galaxy as it rotates around the galactic centre, with a number of possible hypothesized effects including gravitationally-induced comet showers or periods of intense radiation as the solar system hits the galactic shock wave. Passage through galactic spiral arms It has also been suggested that extinction events correlate to the passage of the solar system through the spiral arms of the Milky Way. The Earth passes through all four arms every 700 million years, and there is some evidence to suggest a cyclicity of extraterrestrial activity back to 2 billion years ago. Geological instabilities Other hypotheses are that geological instabilities allow heat to periodically build up deep in the Earth, which is then released through mantle plumes, periods of major volcanism and active plate tectonics. See also Background extinction rate Doomsday event Elvis taxon Endangered species Impact event Lazarus taxon Middle Miocene disruption Rare species Signor-Lipps Effect Snowball Earth Timeline of extinctions References Bibliography Cowen, R. (1999). "The History of Life". Blackwell Science. The chapter about extinctions is creproduced at Richard Leakey and Roger Lewin, 1996, The Sixth Extinction : Patterns of Life and the Future of Humankind, Anchor, ISBN 0-385-46809-1. Excerpt from this book: The Sixth Extinction Wilson, E.O., 2002, The Future of Life, Vintage (pb), ISBN 0-679-76811-4 The Current Mass Extinction Event Nemesis — Raup and Sepkoski Richard A. Muller, 1988, Nemesis, Weidenfeld & Nicolson, ISBN 1-55584-173-2 Robert J. Sawyer, 2000, Calculating God, TOR, ISBN 0-812-58035-4 Ward, P.D., (2000) Rivers In Time: The Search for Clues to Earth's Mass Extinctions Ward, P.D., (2007) Under a Green Sky: Global Warming, the Mass Extinctions of the Past, and What They Can Tell Us About Our Future (2007) ISBN 9780061137921 0061137928 Phil Berardelli, Of Cosmic Rays and Dangerous Days at ScienceNOW, August 1 2007. Notes External links Calculate the effects of an Impact The Current Mass Extinction Event Species Alliance (nonprofit organization producing a documentary about Mass Extinction titled "Call of Life: Facing the Mass Extinction) American Museum of Natural History official statement on the current mass extinction Interstellar Dust Cloud-induced Extinction Theory Extinction Level Event in short The Extinction Website Nasa's Near Earth Object Program Fossils Suggest Chaotic Recovery from Mass Extinction — LiveScience.com Sepkoski's Global Genus Database of Marine Animals — Calculate extinction rates for yourself! | Extinction_event |@lemmatized extinction:155 event:69 also:12 know:4 mass:52 level:18 ele:1 sharp:2 decrease:4 number:7 specie:25 relatively:1 short:5 period:22 time:11 affect:2 major:10 taxonomic:3 group:8 present:2 bird:2 mammal:6 reptile:2 amphibian:2 fish:1 invertebrate:2 simpler:1 life:14 form:4 may:11 cause:42 one:15 unusually:1 large:14 drop:4 rate:14 speciation:1 ever:2 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5,169 | Anne_Brontë | Anne Brontë () (17 January 1820 – 28 May 1849) was a British novelist and poet, the youngest member of the Brontë literary family. The daughter of a poor Irish clergyman in the Church of England, Anne Brontë lived most of her life with her family at the remote village of Haworth on the Yorkshire moors. For a couple of years she went to a boarding school. At the age of nineteen, she left Haworth working as a governess between 1839 and 1845. After leaving her teaching position, she fulfilled her literary ambitions. She wrote a volume of poetry with her sisters (Poems by Currer, Ellis, and Acton Bell, 1846) and in short succession she wrote two novels: Agnes Grey, based upon her experiences as a governess, was published in 1847; her second and last novel, The Tenant of Wildfell Hall appeared in 1848. Anne's creative life was cut short with her death of pulmonary tuberculosis when she was only twenty-nine years old. Anne Brontë is often overshadowed by her more famous sisters, Charlotte, author of four novels including Jane Eyre, and Emily, author of Wuthering Heights. Anne's two novels, written in a sharp and ironic style, are completely different from the romanticism followed by her sisters. She wrote in a realistic, rather than a romantic style. Her novels, like those of her sisters, have become classics of English literature. Family background Anne's father, Patrick Brontë (1777–1861), was born in a meagre two-room cottage in Emdale, Loughbrickland, County Down, Ireland. Fraser, The Brontës, p. 4 Barker, The Brontës, p. 3 He was the first of ten children born to Hugh Brunty and Eleanor McCrory, a couple of poor Irish peasant farmers. Barker, The Brontës, p. 2 The family surname mac Aedh Ó Proinntigh had been earlier Anglicised as Prunty or sometimes Brunty.<ref name="Fraser 4">Fraser, The Brontës'''', p. 4</ref> Struggling against poverty, Patrick learned how to read and write and from 1798 to teach others. In 1802, at the age of twenty-six, he won a place at Cambridge to study theology at St. John's College. There he gave up his original name, Brunty, and called himself by the more distinguished Brontë. In 1807 he was ordained in the priesthood in the Church of England. Barker, The Brontës, p. 14 He served as an assistant priest or curate in various parishes and in 1810 he published his first poem Winter Evening Thoughts in a local newspaper, Barker, The Brontës, p. 41 followed in 1811 by a collection of moral verse, Cottage Poems. Barker, The Brontës, p. 43 In 1811, he was made vicar of St. Peter's church in Hartshead in Yorkshire. Barker, The Brontës, p. 36 The following year he was appointed an examiner of Bible knowledge at a Wesleyan academy, Woodhouse Grove School. There, at age thirty-five, he met his future wife, Maria Branwell, the headmaster's niece. Anne's mother, Maria Branwell (1783–1821), was the daughter of a successful, property-owning grocer and tea merchant of Penzance, Thomas Branwell and Anne Crane, the daughter of a silversmith in the town. Fraser, The Brontës, pp. 12–13 The eighth of eleven children, Maria had enjoyed all the benefits of belonging to a prosperous family in a small town. After the death of both parents within a year of each other, Maria went to help her aunt with the teaching at the school. A tiny, neat woman, aged thirty, she was well read and intelligent. Fraser, The Brontës, p. 15 Her strong Methodist faith immediately attracted Patrick Brontë. Barker, The Brontës, p. 48 Though from vastly different backgrounds, within three months Patrick Brontë and Maria Branwell were married on 29 December 1812. Fraser, The Brontës, p. 16 Their first child, Maria (1814–1825), was born after their move to Hartshead. In 1815, Patrick was made curate of a chapel in the little village of Thornton, near Bradford; a second daughter, Elizabeth (1815–1825), was born shortly after. Barker, The Brontës, p. 61 Four more children would follow: Charlotte, (1816–1855), Patrick Branwell (1817–1848), Emily, (1818–1848) and Anne (1820–1849). Early life Anne, the youngest member of the Brontë family, was born on 17 January 1820, at number 74 Market Street in the village of Thornton, Bradford, Yorkshire County, England. Barker, The Brontës, p. 86 When Anne was born, her father was the curate of Thornton and she was baptised there on 25 March 1820. Shortly after, Anne's father took a perpetual curacy, a secure but not enriching vocation, in Haworth, a remote small town some seven miles (11 km) away. In April 1820, The Brontë family moved into the Haworth Parsonage. This five-room building became the Brontë's family home for the rest of their lives. Anne was barely a year old when her mother became ill of what is believed to have been uterine cancer. Barker, The Brontës, pp. 102–104 Maria Branwell died on 15 September 1821. Fraser, The Brontës, p. 28 In order to provide a mother for his children, Patrick tried to remarry, but he had no success. Fraser, The Brontës, p. 30 Maria's sister, Elizabeth Branwell (1776–1842), had moved into the parsonage, initially to nurse her dying sister, but she subsequently spent the rest of her life there raising the Brontë children. She did it from a sense of duty, but she was a stern woman who expected respect, rather than love. Fraser, The Brontës, p. 29 There was little affection between her and the eldest children, but to Anne, her favorite according to tradition, she did relate. Anne shared a room with her aunt, they were particularly close, and this may have strongly influenced Anne's personality and religious beliefs. In Elizabeth Gaskell's biography, Anne's father remembered her as precocious, reporting that once, when she was four years old, in reply to his question about what a child most wanted, "she answered: age and experience". Fraser, The Brontës, p. 31 In the summer of 1824, Patrick sent his eldest daughters Maria, Elizabeth, Charlotte and Emily to Crofton Hall in Crofton, West Yorkshire, and later to the Clergy Daughter's School, Cowan Bridge, Lancashire. Fraser, The Brontës, p. 35 When the two eldest siblings died of consumption in 1825, Maria on 6 May and Elizabeth on 15 June, Charlotte and Emily were immediately brought home. Fraser, The Brontës, p. 31 The unexpected deaths of Anne's two eldest sisters distressed the bereaved family enough that Patrick could not face sending them away again. For the next five years, all the Brontë children were educated at home, largely by their father and aunt. Fraser, The Brontës, pp. 44–45 The young Brontës made little attempt to mix with others outside the parsonage, but relied upon each other for friendship and companionship. The bleak moors surrounding Haworth became their playground. Education Anne Brontë, by Charlotte Brontë, 1834 Anne's studies at home included music and drawing. Anne, Emily and Branwell had piano lessons at the parsonage from the Keighley parish organist. The Brontë children received art lessons from John Bradley of Keighley and all of them drew with some skill. Barker, The Brontës, p. 150 Their aunt tried to make sure the girls knew how to run a household, but their minds were more inclined to literature. Fraser, The Brontës, p. 45 Their father's well-stocked library was a main source of knowledge. They read the Bible, Homer, Virgil, Shakespeare, Milton, Byron, Scott, and many others, and examined articles from Blackwood's Edinburgh Magazine, Fraser's Magazine, and The Edinburgh Review. In addition, they read history, geography and biographies. Fraser, The Brontës, pp. 45–48 Those readings fed the Brontë's imaginations. The children's creativity soared after their father presented Branwell with a set of toy soldiers in June 1826. They named the soldiers and developed their characters, which they called the "Twelves". The soldiers appear in The Twelve and the Genii, a 1962 children's fantasy novel by Pauline Clarke. This led to the creation of an imaginary world: the African kingdom of "Angria". That was illustrated with maps and watercolour renderings. The children kept themselves busy devising plots about the people of Angria, and its capital city, "Glass Town", later called Verreopolis, and finally, Verdopolis. Barker, The Brontës, pp. 154–155 These fantasy worlds and kingdoms gradually acquired all the characteristics of the real world—sovereigns, armies, heroes, outlaws, fugitives, inns, schools and publishers. For these peoples and lands the children created newspapers, magazines and chronicles, all of which were written out in extremely tiny books, with writing that was so small it was difficult to read without the aid of a magnifying glass. These juvenile creations and writings served as the apprenticeship of their later, literary talents. Fraser, The Brontës, pp. 48–58 Juvenilia Around 1831, when Anne was eleven, she and her sister Emily broke away from Charlotte and Branwell in the creation and development of the fictional sagas of Angria establishing their own fantasy world of Gondal. Anne was at this time particularly close to Emily; the closeness of their relationship was reinforced by Charlotte's departure for Roe Head School, in January 1831. Fraser, The Brontës, pp. 52–53 When Charlotte's friend Ellen Nussey visited Haworth in 1833, she reported that Emily and Anne were "like twins", "inseparable companions". She described Anne at this time: "Anne, dear gentle Anne was quite different in appearance from the others, and she was her aunt's favourite. Her hair was a very pretty light brown, and fell on her neck in graceful curls. She had lovely violet-blue eyes; fine pencilled eyebrows and a clear almost transparent complexion. She still pursued her studies and especially her sewing, under the surveillance of her aunt." Fraser, A Life of Anne Brontë, p. 39 Barker, The Brontës, p. 195 Anne also took lessons from Charlotte, after she came back from the boarding school, at Roe Head. Later, Anne began more formal studies at Miss Wooler's school at Roe Head, Huddersfield. Charlotte returned there on 29 July 1835 as a teacher. Emily accompanied her as a pupil; her tuition largely financed by Charlotte's teaching. Within a few months, Emily was unable to adapt to life at school, and by October, was physically ill from homesickness. She was withdrawn from the school and replaced by Anne. At fifteen, it was Anne's first time away from home, and she made few friends at Roe Head. She was quiet and hard working, and determined to stay and get the education that would allow her to support herself. Barker, The Brontës, pp. 237–238 Fraser, The Brontës, p. 84 Anne stayed for two years, winning a good-conduct medal in December 1836, and returning home only during Christmas and the summer holidays. Anne and Charlotte do not appear to have been close during their time at Roe Head (Charlotte's letters almost never mention Anne) but Charlotte was concerned about the health of her sister. At some point before December 1837, Anne became seriously ill with gastritis and underwent a religious crisis. Fraser, The Brontës, p. 113 A Moravian minister was called to see Anne several times during her illness, suggesting that her distress was caused, at least in part, by conflict with the local Anglican clergy. Charlotte was sufficiently concerned about Anne's illness to notify Patrick Brontë, and to take Anne home where she remained to recover. Employment at Blake Hall Little is known about Anne's life during 1838, but in 1839, a year after leaving the school and at the age of nineteen, she was actively looking for a teaching position. As the daughter of a poor clergyman, she needed to earn a living. Her father had no private income and the parsonage would revert to the church on his death. Teaching or being a governess in a private family were among the few options available to poor but educated women. In April, 1839, Anne began to work as a governess with the Ingham family at Blake Hall, near Mirfield. Barker, The Brontës, p. 307 The children in Anne's charge were spoilt and wild, and persistently disobeyed and tormented her. Barker, The Brontës, p. 308 She experienced great difficulty controlling them, and had almost no success in instilling any education. She was not empowered to inflict any punishment, and when she complained of their behaviour to their parents, she received no support, but was merely criticized for not being capable of her job. The Inghams, unsatisfied with their children's progress, dismissed Anne at the end of the year. Barker, The Brontës, p. 318 She returned home at Christmas, 1839, joining Charlotte and Emily, who had left their positions, and Branwell. The whole episode at Blake Hall was so traumatic for Anne, that she reproduced it in almost perfect detail in her later novel, Agnes Grey. William Weightman At Anne's return to Haworth, she met William Weightman, Patrick's new curate, who began work in the parish in August 1839. Twenty-six years old, he had obtained a two-year licentiate in theology from the University of Durham. He quickly became welcome at the parsonage. Anne's acquaintance with William Weightman parallels the writing of a number of poems, which may suggest that she fell in love with him. Barker, The Brontës, p. 341 Barker, The Brontës, p. 407 There is considerable disagreement over this point. Barker, The Brontës, p. 344 Not much outside evidence exists beyond a teasing anecdote of Charlotte's to Ellen Nussey in January 1842. It may or may not be relevant that the source of Agnes Grey 's renewed interest in poetry is the curate to whom she is attracted. As the person to whom Anne Brontë may have been attracted, William Weightman has aroused much curiosity. It seems clear that he was a good-looking, engaging young man, whose easy humour and kindness towards the Brontë sisters made a considerable impression. It is such a character that she portrays in Edward Weston, and that her heroine Agnes Grey finds deeply appealing. If Anne did form an attachment to Weightman, that does not imply that he, in turn, was attracted to her. Indeed, it is entirely possible that Weightman was no more aware of her than of her sisters or their friend Ellen Nussey. Nor does it follow that Anne believed him to be interested in her. If anything, her poems suggest just the opposite–they speak of quietly experienced but intensely felt emotions, intentionally hidden from others, without any indication of their being requited. It is also possible that an initially mild attraction to Weightman assumed increasing importance to Anne over time, in the absence of other opportunities for love, marriage, and children. Anne would have seen William Weightman on her holidays at home, particularly during the summer of 1842, when her sisters were away. He died of cholera in the same year. Barker, The Brontës, p. 403 Governess Anne soon obtained a second post: this time as a governess to the children of the Reverend Edmund Robinson and his wife Lydia, at Thorp Green, a wealthy country house near York. Barker, The Brontës, p. 329 Thorp Green appeared later as Horton Lodge in her novel Agnes Grey. Anne was to have four pupils: Lydia, age 15, Elizabeth, age 13, Mary, age 12, and Edmund, age 8. Barker, The Brontës, p. 330 Initially, she encountered the same problems with the unruly children that she had experienced at Blake Hall. Anne missed her home and family, commenting in a diary paper in 1841 that she did not like her situation and wished to leave it. Her own quiet, gentle disposition did not help matters. However, despite her outwardly placid appearance, Anne was determined and with the experience she gradually gained, she eventually made a success of her position, becoming well liked by her new employers. Her charges, the Robinson girls, ultimately became her lifelong friends. For the next five years, Anne spent no more than five or six weeks a year with her family, during holidays at Christmas and in June. The rest of her time she was with the Robinsons at their home Thorp Green. She was also obliged to accompany the family on their annual holidays to Scarborough. Between 1840 and 1844, Anne spent around five weeks each summer at the resort, and loved the place. Barker, The Brontës, pp. 358–359 A number of locations in Scarborough formed the setting for Agnes Grey 's final scenes. During the time working for the Robinsons, Anne and her sisters considered the possibility of setting-up their own school. Various locations, including their own home, the parsonage, were considered as places to establish it. The project never materialized and Anne chose repeatedly to return to Thorp Green. She came home at the death of her aunt in early November 1842, while her sisters were away in Brussels. Barker, The Brontës, p. 404 Elizabeth Branwell left a £350 legacy for each of her nieces. Barker, The Brontës, p. 409 Anne returned to Thorp Green in January 1843. She secured a position for Branwell with her employers: he was to take over from her as tutor to the Robinsons' son, Edmund, the only boy in the family, who was growing too old to be under Anne's care. However Branwell did not live in the house with the Robinson family, as Anne did. Anne's vaunted calm appears to have been the result of hard-fought battles, balancing deeply felt emotions with careful thought, a sense of responsibility, and resolute determination. All three Brontë sisters had spent time working as governesses or teachers, and all had experienced problems controlling their charges, gaining support from their employers, and coping with homesickness—but Anne was the only one who persevered and made a success of her work. Back at the parsonage Brontë Parsonage Museum Anne and Branwell continued to teach at Thorp Green for the next two years. However, Branwell was enticed into a secret relationship with his employer's wife, Lydia Robinson. When Anne and her brother returned home for the holidays in June 1845, she resigned her position. Barker, The Brontës, p. 450 While Anne gave no reason for leaving Thorp Green, it is generally believed that she chose to leave upon becoming aware of the relationship between her brother and Mrs. Robinson. Branwell was sternly dismissed when his employer found out about his relationship with his wife. In spite of her brother's behaviour, Anne retained close ties to Elizabeth and Mary Robinson, exchanging frequent letters with them even after Branwell's disgrace. The Robinson sisters came to visit Anne in December 1848. Barker, The Brontës, p. 574 Once free of her position as a governess, Anne took Emily to visit some of the places she had come to know and love in the past five years. An initial plan of going to the sea at Scarborough fell through, and the sisters went instead to York, where Anne showed her sister the York Minster. Barker, The Brontës, p. 451 A book of poems The sisters, painted by their brother, Branwell c. 1834. From left to right, Anne, Emily and Charlotte (there still remains a shadow of Branwell, which appeared after he painted himself out). In the summer of 1845, all four of the Brontës were at home with their father Patrick. None of the four had any immediate prospect of employment. It was at this point that Charlotte came across Emily's poems. They had been shared only with Anne, her partner in the world of Gondal. Charlotte proposed that they be published. Anne also revealed her own poems. Charlotte's reaction was characteristically patronizing: "I thought that these verses too had a sweet sincere pathos of their own". Eventually, though not easily, the sisters reached an agreement. They told neither Branwell, nor their father, nor their friends about what they were doing. Anne and Emily each contributed 21 poems and Charlotte with nineteen. With Aunt Branwell's money, the Brontë sisters paid to have the collection published. Afraid that their work would be judged differently if they revealed their identity as women, the book appeared under their three chosen pseudonyms—or pen-names, the initials of which were the same as their own. Barker, The Brontës, p. 480 Charlotte became Currer Bell, Emily became Ellis Bell and Anne became Acton Bell. Poems by Currer, Ellis, and Acton Bell was available for sale in May 1846. The cost of publication was about 3/4 of Anne's annual salary at Thorp Green. On 7 May 1846, the first three copies of the book were delivered to Haworth Parsonage. Barker, The Brontës, p. 491 The volume achieved three somewhat favourable reviews, but was a dismal failure, with only two copies being sold during the first year. Anne, however, began to find a market for her more recent poetry. Both the Leeds Intelligencer and Fraser's Magazine published her poem "The Narrow Way" under her pseudonym, Acton Bell. Four months earlier, in August, Fraser's Magazine had also published her poem "The Three Guides". Novelist Even before the fate of the book of poems became apparent, the three sisters were working on a new project. They began to work on their first novels. Charlotte wrote The Professor, Emily Wuthering Heights and Anne Agnes Grey. By July 1846, a package with the three manuscripts was making the rounds of London publishers. After a number of rejections, Emily's Wuthering Heights and Anne's Agnes Grey were accepted by a publisher in London, but Charlotte's novel was rejected by every other publisher to whom it was sent. Barker, The Brontës, p. 525 However, Charlotte was not long in completing her second novel, the now famous Jane Eyre, and this was immediately accepted by Smith, Elder & Co., a different publisher from Anne's and Emily's though also located in London. However, Jane Eyre was the first to appear in print. While Anne and Emily's novels 'lingered in the press', Charlotte's second novel became an immediate and resounding success. Meanwhile, Anne and Emily were obliged to pay fifty pounds to help meet the publishing costs. Their publisher, urged on by the success of Jane Eyre, finally published Emily's Wuthering Heights and Anne's Agnes Grey in December 1847. Barker, The Brontës, p.539 These too sold exceptionally well, but Agnes Grey was distinctly outshone by Emily's much more dramatic Wuthering Heights. Barker, The Brontës, p. 540 Agnes Grey Anne began Agnes Grey with the words "All true histories contain instruction", and wrote in a realistic style, rather than the romantic style followed by her sisters. The title character is the younger daughter of a poor clergyman and sets out to earn a living as a governess. Anne drew strongly on her own life. Her rather plain first-person female narrator begins the story young, inexperienced, and idealistic, but strives for self-respect and independence.Agnes Grey is a wish-fulfilment story in which patience and virtue are rewarded. It is also a quiet but sharply pointed critique of the life of a governess and the instruction of children at the time. Anne portrays her characters and their surroundings with the minute attention to detail of a camera eye, focusing on the direct experience of daily life in a constrained environment, and recognizing the importance of subtle impressions. Anne's understated humour and occasional satire also remind the reader of Jane Austen. The Tenant of Wildfell Hall Anne's second novel, The Tenant of Wildfell Hall, was published in the last week of June 1848. Barker, The Brontës, p. 557 It was an instant phenomenal success; within six weeks it was sold out. In The Tenant of Wildfell Hall, the twin themes of character and education are woven throughout the novel, in the experiences of Helen, who has been poorly prepared to choose a marital partner; her husband Arthur Huntingdon; and later her young son, also named Arthur, whose father appears likely to give him the worst possible education. The novel is also a realist's response to the romanticization of violence and conflict that had occurred in her sisters' writings. Anne pointedly emphasizes the degradation of drunkenness and violence, and any initial attractiveness of her 'Byronic' character, Huntingdon, is outweighed by her painstaking and detailed description of his degradation and death. The Tenant of Wildfell Hall is perhaps the most shocking of the Brontë's novels. In seeking to present the truth in literature, Anne's depiction of alcoholism and debauchery were profoundly disturbing to nineteenth century readers. Helen Graham, the tenant of the title, intrigues Gilbert Markham and gradually she reveals her mysterious past as an artist and wife of the dissipated Arthur Huntingdon. The book's brilliance lies in its revelation of the position of women at the time, and its multi-layered plot. It is easy today to underestimate the extent to which the novel challenged existing social and legal structures. May Sinclair, in 1913, said that the slamming of Helen Huntingdon's bedroom door against her husband reverberated throughout Victorian England. Anne's heroine eventually leaves her husband to protect their young son from his influence. She supports herself and her son by painting, while living in hiding, fearful of discovery. In doing so, she violates not only social conventions, but also English law. At the time, a married woman had no independent legal existence, apart from her husband; could not own her own property, sue for divorce, or control custody of her children. If she attempted to live apart from him, her husband had the right to reclaim her. If she took their child with her, she was liable for kidnapping. In living off her own earnings, she was held to be stealing her husband's property, since any income she made was legally his. London visit In July 1848, in order to dispel the rumour that the three "Bell brothers" were all the same person, Charlotte and Anne went to London to reveal their identities to the publisher George Smith. The girls spent several days in his company. Many years after Anne's death, he wrote in the Cornhill Magazine his impressions of her, describing her as: "...a gentle, quiet, rather subdued person, by no means pretty, yet of a pleasing appearance. Her manner was curiously expressive of a wish for protection and encouragement, a kind of constant appeal which invited sympathy." Barker, The Brontës, p. 559 In the second edition of The Tenant of Wildfell Hall, which appeared in August 1848, Anne clearly stated her intentions in writing it. She presented a forceful rebuttal to critics who considered her portrayal of Huntingdon overly graphic and disturbing. (Charlotte was among them.) Anne also sharply castigated reviewers who speculated on the sex of the authors, and the appropriateness of their writing to their sex, in words that do little to reinforce the stereotype of Anne as meek and gentle. The increasing popularity of the Bells' work led to renewed interest in the Poems by Currer, Ellis, and Acton Bell, originally published by Aylott and Jones. The remaining print run was purchased by Smith and Elder, and reissued under new covers in November 1848. It still sold poorly. Family tragedies Only in their late twenties, a highly successful literary career appeared a certainty for Anne and her sisters. However, an impending tragedy was to engulf the family. Within the next ten months, two of the siblings, including Anne, would be dead. Branwell's health had gradually deteriorated over the previous two years, but its seriousness was half disguised by his persistent drunkenness. He died on the morning of 24 September 1848. Barker, The Brontës, p. 568 His sudden death came as a shock to the family. He was aged just thirty-one. The cause was recorded as Chronic bronchitis - Marasmus; though, through his recorded symptoms, it is now believed that he was also suffering from tuberculosis. The whole family had suffered from coughs and colds during the winter of 1848 and it was Emily who next became severely ill. She deteriorated rapidly over a two month period, persistently refusing all medical aid until the morning of 19 December, when, being so weak, she declared: "if you will send for a doctor, I will see him now". It was far too late. At about two o'clock that afternoon, after a hard, short conflict in which she struggled desperately to hang on to life, she died, aged just thirty. Barker, The Brontës, p. 576 Emily's death deeply affected Anne and her grief further undermined her physical health. Over Christmas, Anne caught influenza. Her symptoms intensified, and in early January, her father sent for a Leeds physician, who diagnosed her condition as consumption, and intimated that it was quite advanced leaving little hope of a recovery. Anne met the news with characteristic determination and self-control. Unlike Emily, Anne took all the recommended medicines, and responded to all the advice she was given. Her health fluctuated as the months passed, but she progressively grew thinner and weaker. Death Anne Brontë's grave at Scarborough In February 1849, Anne seemed somewhat better. Barker, The Brontës, p. 588 By this time, she had decided to make a return visit to Scarborough in the hope that the change of location and fresh sea air might initiate a recovery, and give her a chance to live. Barker, The Brontës, p. 587 On 24 May 1849, Anne said her good-byes to her father and the servants at Haworth, and set off for Scarborough with Charlotte and their friend Ellen Nussey. En route, the three spent a day and a night in York, where, escorting Anne around in a wheelchair, they did some shopping, and at Anne's request, visited the colossal York Minster. However, it was clear that Anne had little strength left. On Sunday, 27 May, Anne asked Charlotte whether it would be easier for her if she return home to die instead of remaining at Scarborough. A doctor, consulted the next day, indicated that death was already close. Anne received the news quietly. She expressed her love and concern for Ellen and Charlotte, and seeing Charlotte's distress, whispered to her to "take courage". Barker, The Brontës, p. 594 Conscious and calm, Anne died at about two o'clock in the afternoon, Monday, 28 May 1849. Over the following few days, Charlotte made the decision to "lay the flower where it had fallen". Anne was buried not in Haworth with the rest of her family, but in Scarborough. The funeral was held on Wednesday, 30 May, which did not allow time for Patrick Brontë to make the trip to Scarborough, had he wished to do so. The former schoolmistress at Roe Head, Miss Wooler, was also in Scarborough at this time, and she was the only other mourner at Anne's funeral. Barker, The Brontës, p. 575 She was buried in St. Mary's churchyard; beneath the castle walls, and overlooking the bay. Charlotte commissioned a stone to be placed over her grave, with the simple inscription "Here lie the remains of Anne Brontë, daughter of the Revd. P. Brontë, Incumbent of Haworth, Yorkshire. She died, Aged 28, May 28th, 1849". Anne was actually twenty-nine at her death. Reputation A year after Anne's death, further editions of her novels were required; however, Charlotte prevented re-publication of Anne's second novel, The Tenant of Wildfell Hall. Fraser, The Brontës, p. 387 In 1850, Charlotte wrote damningly "Wildfell Hall it hardly appears to me desirable to preserve. The choice of subject in that work is a mistake, it was too little consonant with the character, tastes and ideas of the gentle, retiring inexperienced writer." Barker, The Brontës, p. 654 This act was the predominant cause of Anne's relegation to the back seat of the Brontë bandwagon. Anne's novel was daring for the Victorian era with its depiction of scenes of mental and physical cruelty and approach to divorce. The consequence was that Charlotte's novels, along with Emily's Wuthering Heights, continued to be published, firmly launching these two sisters into literary stardom, while Anne's work was consigned to oblivion. Further, Anne was only twenty-eight when she wrote The Tenant of Wildfell Hall; at a comparable age, Charlotte had produced only The Professor. The general view has been that Anne is a mere shadow compared with Charlotte, the family's most prolific writer, and Emily, the genius. This has occurred to a large extent because Anne is very different, as a person and as a writer, from Charlotte and Emily. The controlled, reflective camera eye of Agnes Grey is closer to Jane Austen's Persuasion than to Charlotte Brontë's Jane Eyre. The painstaking realism and social criticism of The Tenant of Wildfell Hall directly counters the romanticized violence of Wuthering Heights. Anne's religious concerns reflected in her books and expressed directly in her poems, were not concerns shared by her sisters. Anne's subtle prose has a fine ironic edge; her novels also reveal Anne to be the most socially radical of the three. Now, with increasing critical interest in women authors, her life is being reexamined, and her work reevaluated. A re-appraisal of Anne's work has begun, gradually leading to her acceptance, not as a minor Brontë, but as a major literary figure in her own right. See, for instance, Glen Downey's "The Critics of Wildfell Hall" Under the collective title Brotherly Sisters, Terence Pettigrew tells the Brontë story in fifty-three individual narrative poems. The collection starts with their father's farewell to his native Ireland in 1802 (The Road From Drumballyroney) and ends with a poignant description of Anne Brontë's death, in Scarborough, in 1849 (Do Angels Feel The Cold ?). Notes References Barker, Juliet, The Brontës, St. Martin's Pr., ISBN 0-312-14555-1 Chitham, Edward, A Life of Anne Brontë, Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, 1991, ISBN 0-631-18944-0 Fraser, Rebeca, The Brontës: Charlotte Brontë and her family, Crown Publishers,1988, ISBN 0-517-56438-6 Gérin, Winifred, Anne Brontë'', Allen Lane, 1976, ISBN 0-713-90977-3 External links Website of the Brontë Parsonage Museum in Haworth BrontëBlog Anne Brontë – The Scarborough Connection Anne Brontë - Local to Scarborough Music On Christmas Morning - Audio Poem Information about Anne. 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5,170 | Plague_(disease) | Plague is a deadly infectious disease caused by the enterobacteria Yersinia pestis (Pasteurella pestis). Plague is a zoonotic, primarily carried by rodents (most notably rats) and spread to humans via fleas. Plague is notorious throughout history, due to the unprecedented scale of death and devastation it brought. Plague is still endemic in some parts of the world. Name The epidemiological use of the term plague is currently applied to bacterial infections that cause buboes, although historically the medical use of the term plague has been applied to pandemic infections in general. Plague is often synonymous with "bubonic plague" but this only describes one of its manifestations. Other names have been used to describe this disease, such as "The Black Plague" and "The Black Death", the latter is now used primarily to describe the second, and most devastating pandemic of the disease. Infection and transmission Xenopsylla cheopis primary vector of Bubonic plague Bubonic plague is mainly a disease in rodents and fleas (Xenopsylla cheopis). Infection in a human occurs when a person is bitten by a flea that has been infected by biting a rodent that itself has been infected by the bite of a flea carrying the disease. The bacteria multiply inside the flea, sticking together to form a plug that blocks its stomach and causes it to begin to starve. The flea then voraciously bites a host and continues to feed, even though it cannot quell its hunger, and consequently the flea vomits blood tainted with the bacteria back into the bite wound. The bubonic plague bacterium then infects a new victim, and the flea eventually dies from starvation. Serious outbreaks of plague are usually started by other disease outbreaks in rodents, or a rise in the rodent population. In 1894, two bacteriologists, Alexandre Yersin of France and Shibasaburo Kitasato of Japan, independently isolated the bacterium in Hong Kong responsible for the Third Pandemic. Though both investigators reported their findings, a series of confusing and contradictory statements by Kitasato eventually led to the acceptance of Yersin as the primary discoverer of the organism. Yersin named it Pasteurella pestis in honor of the Pasteur Institute, where he worked, but in 1967 it was moved to a new genus, renamed Yersinia pestis in honor of Yersin. Yersin also noted that rats were affected by plague not only during plague epidemics but also often preceding such epidemics in humans, and that plague was regarded by many locals as a disease of rats: villagers in China and India asserted that, when large numbers of rats were found dead, plague outbreaks in people soon followed. In 1898, the French scientist Paul-Louis Simond (who had also come to China to battle the Third Pandemic) established the rat-flea vector that drives the disease. He had noted that persons who became ill did not have to be in close contact with each other to acquire the disease. In Yunnan, China, inhabitants would flee from their homes as soon as they saw dead rats, and on the island of Formosa (Taiwan), residents considered handling dead rats a risk for developing plague. These observations led him to suspect that the flea might be an intermediary factor in the transmission of plague, since people acquired plague only if they were in contact with recently dead rats, but not affected if they touched rats that had been dead for more than 24 hours. In a now classic experiment, Simond demonstrated how a healthy rat died of plague after infected fleas had jumped to it from a plague-dead rat. Pathology Bubonic plague Buboes on the thigh of a person suffering from Bubonic plague When a flea bites a human and contaminates the wound with regurgitated blood, the plague carrying bacteria are passed into the tissue. Y. pestis can reproduce inside cells, so even if phagocytosed, they can still survive. Once in the body, the bacteria can enter the lymphatic system, which drains interstitial fluid. Plague bacteria secrete several toxins, one of which is known to cause dangerous beta-adrenergic blockade. Y. pestis spreads through the lymphatics of the infected human until it reaches a lymph node, where it stimulates severe haemorrhagic inflammation that causes the lymph nodes to expand. The expansion of lymph nodes is the cause of the characteristic "bubo" associated with the disease. Septicemic plague Lymphatics ultimately drain into the bloodstream, so the plague bacteria may enter the blood and travel to almost any part of the body. In septicemic plague, bacterial endotoxins cause disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC), causing tiny clots throughout the body and possibly ischaemic necrosis (tissue death due to lack of circulation/perfusion to that tissue) from the clots. DIC results in depletion of the body's clotting resources, so that it can no longer control bleeding. Consequently, there is bleeding into the skin and other organs, which can cause red and/or black patchy rash and hemoptysis/haemoptysis (coughing up or vomiting of blood). There are bumps on the skin that look somewhat like insect bites; these are usually red, and sometimes white in the center. Untreated, septicemic plague is usually fatal. Early treatment with antibiotics reduces the mortality rate to between 4 and 15 percent. People who die from this form of plague often die on the same day symptoms first appear. Pneumonic plague The pneumonic plague infects the lungs, and with that infection comes the possibility of person-to-person transmission through respiratory droplets. The incubation period for pneumonic plague is usually between two and four days, but can be as little as a few hours. The initial symptoms, of headache, weakness, and coughing with hemoptysis, vomiting blood, are indistinguishable from other respiratory illnesses. Without diagnosis and treatment, the infection can be fatal in one to six days; mortality in untreated cases is 50–90%. Other forms There are a few other rare manifestations of plague, including asymptomatic plague and abortive plague. Cellulocutaneous plague sometimes results in infection of the skin and soft tissue, often around the bite site of a flea. Plague meningitis can occur in very rare cases of septicemic plague. Treatments Vladimir Havkin, a doctor of Russian-Jewish origin who worked in India, was the first to invent and test a bubonic plague vaccine, Haffkine, W. M. 1897. Remarks on the plague prophylactic fluid. Br. Med. J. 1:1461 on January 10, 1897. The traditional treatments are: Streptomycin 30 mg/kg IM twice daily for 7 days Chloramphenicol 25–30 mg/kg single dose, followed by 12.5–15 mg/kg four times daily Tetracycline 2 g single dose, followed by 500 mg four times daily for 7–10 days (not suitable for children) More recently, Gentamicin 2.5 mg/kg IV or IM twice daily for 7 days Doxycycline 100 mg (adults) or 2.2 mg/kg (children) orally twice daily have also been shown to be effective. History Nicolas Poussin (1594-1665), French. The Plague of Ashdod, 1630. Oil on canvas, 148 x 198 cm. Musée du Louvre, Paris, France, Giraudon/Bridgeman Art Library. "Der Doktor Schnabel von Rom" (English: "Doctor Beak of Rome") engraving by Paul Fürst (after J Columbina). The beak is a primitive gas mask worn by physicians, stuffed with substances (such as spices and herbs) thought to ward off the plague. The earliest (though unvalidated) account describing a possible plague epidemic is found in I Samuel 5:6 of the Hebrew Bible (Tanakh). In this account, the Philistines of Ashdod were stricken with a plague for the crime of stealing the Ark of the Covenant from the Children of Israel. These events have been dated to approximately the second half of the eleventh century B.C. The word "tumors" is used in most English translations to describe the sores that came upon the Philistines. The Hebrew, however, can be interpreted as "swelling in the secret parts". The account indicates that the Philistine city and its political territory were stricken with a "ravaging of mice" and a plague, bringing death to a large segment of the population. In the second year of the Peloponnesian War (430 B.C.), Thucydides described an epidemic disease which was said to have begun in Ethiopia, passed through Egypt and Libya, then come to the Greek world. In the Plague of Athens, the city lost possibly one third of its population, including Pericles. Modern historians disagree on whether the plague was a critical factor in the loss of the war. Although this epidemic has long been considered an outbreak of plague, many modern scholars believe that typhus Plague of Athens , smallpox, or measles may better fit the surviving descriptions. A recent study of the DNA found in the dental pulp of plague victims, led by Manolis J. Papagrigorakis, suggests that typhoid was actually responsible. Other scientists dispute this conclusion, citing serious methodological flaws in the DNA study. In the first century A.D., Rufus of Ephesus, a Greek anatomist, refers to an outbreak of plague in Libya, Egypt, and Syria. He records that Alexandrian doctors named Dioscorides and Posidonius described symptoms including acute fever, pain, agitation, and delirium. Buboes—large, hard, and non-suppurating—developed behind the knees, around the elbows, and "in the usual places." The death toll of those infected was very high. Rufus also wrote that similar buboes were reported by a Dionysius Curtus, who may have practiced medicine in Alexandria in the third century B.C. If this is correct, the eastern Mediterranean world may have been familiar with bubonic plague at that early date. Simpson, W.J. Patrick, A. First Pandemic: Plague of Justinian The Plague of Justinian in A.D. 541–542 is the first known attack on record, and marks the first firmly recorded pattern of bubonic plague. This outbreak is thought to have originated in Ethiopia. The huge city of Constantinople imported massive amounts of grain, mostly from Egypt, to feed its citizens. The grain ships were the source of contagion for the city, with massive public granaries nurturing the rat and flea population. At its peak the plague was killing 10,000 people in Constantinople every day and ultimately destroyed perhaps 40% of the city's inhabitants. It went on to destroy up to a quarter of the human population of the eastern Mediterranean. In A.D. 588 a second major wave of plague spread through the Mediterranean into what is now France. It is estimated that the Plague of Justinian killed as many as 100 million people across the world. The History of the Bubonic Plague Scientists Identify Genes Critical to Transmission of Bubonic Plague It caused Europe's population to drop by around 50% between 541 and 700. An Empire's Epidemic It also may have contributed to the success of the Arab conquests. Justinian's Flea The Great Arab Conquests An outbreak of it in the A.D. 560s was described in A.D. 790 as causing "swellings in the glands...in the manner of a nut or date" in the groin "and in other rather delicate places followed by an unbearable fever". While the swellings in this description have been identified by some as buboes, there is some contention as to whether the pandemic should be attributed to the bubonic plague, Yersinia pestis, known in modern times. Second Pandemic: Black Death Map showing the spread of bubonic plague in EuropeFrom 1347 to 1351, the Black Death, a massive and deadly pandemic originated in Central Asia, swept through Asia, Europe and Africa. It may have reduced the world's population from 450 million to between 350 and 375 million. Historical Estimates of World Population, U.S. Census Bureau China lost around half of its population, from around 123 million to around 65 million; Europe around 1/3 of its population, from about 75 million to about 50 million; and Africa approximately 1/8th of its population, from around 80 million to 70 million (mortality rates tended to be correlated with population density so Africa, being less dense overall, had the lowest rate). This makes the Black Death the largest death toll from any known non-viral epidemic. Although accurate statistical data does not exist, it is thought that 1.4 million died in England (1/3 of England's 4.2 million people), while an even higher percentage of Italy's population was likely wiped out. On the other hand, Northeastern Germany, Bohemia, Poland and Hungary are believed to have suffered less, and there are no estimates available for Russia or the Balkans. It is conceivable that Russia may not have been as affected due to its very cold climate and large size, hence often less close contact with the contagion. The Black Death contributed to the destruction of the feudal system in Medieval Time. As more slaves and workers died, there were fewer people to work for the nobles and they had to give higher wages to the workers willing to work on the nobles' lands. The Black Death also killed many great kings and nobles. In its aftermath, the Black Death may also have favoured the use of more advanced farming tools as a smaller workforce was available and plots grew larger as a result of the population loss. The plague continued to strike parts of Europe sporadically until the 17th century, each time with reduced intensity and fatality, suggesting an increased resistance due to natural selection. Some have also argued that changes in hygiene habits and efforts to improve public health and sanitation had a significant impact on the falling rates of infection. Nature of the disease In the early 20th century, following the identification by Yersin and Kitasato of the plague bacterium that caused the late 19th and early 20th century Asian bubonic plague (the Third Pandemic), most scientists and historians came to believe that the Black Death was an incidence of this plague, with a strong presence of the more contagious pneumonic and septicemic varieties increasing the pace of infection, spreading the disease deep into inland areas of the continents. It was claimed that the disease was spread mainly by black rats in Asia and that therefore there must have been black rats in north-west Europe at the time of the Black Death to spread it, although black rats are currently rare except near the Mediterranean. This led to the development of a theory that brown rats had invaded Europe, largely wiping out black rats, bringing the plagues to an end, although there is no evidence for the theory in historical records. Some historians suggest that marmots, rather than rats, were the primary carriers of the disease. The Shifting Explanations for the Black Death, the Most Devastating Plague in Human History The view that the Black Death was caused by Yersinia pestis has been incorporated into medical textbooks throughout the 20th century and has become part of popular culture, as illustrated by recent books, such as John Kelly's The Great Mortality. Many modern researchers have argued that the disease was more likely to have been viral (that is, not bubonic plague), pointing to the absence of rats from some parts of Europe that were badly affected and to the conviction of people at the time that the disease was spread by direct human contact. According to the accounts of the time the black death was extremely virulent, unlike the 19th and early 20th century bubonic plague. Samuel K. Cohn has made a comprehensive attempt to rebut the bubonic plague theory. In the Encyclopedia of Population, he points to five major weaknesses in this theory: very different transmission speeds — the Black Death was reported to have spread 385 km in 91 days in 664, compared to 12-15 km a year for the modern Bubonic Plague, with the assistance of trains and cars difficulties with the attempt to explain the rapid spread of the Black Death by arguing that it was spread by the rare pneumonic form of the disease — in fact this form killed less than 0.3% of the infected population in its worst outbreak (Manchuria in 1911) different seasonality — the modern plague can only be sustained at temperatures between 50 and 78 °F (10 and 26 °C) and requires high humidity, while the Black Death occurred even in Norway in the middle of the winter and in the Mediterranean in the middle of hot dry summers very different death rates — in several places (including Florence in 1348) over 75% of the population appears to have died; in contrast the highest mortality for the modern Bubonic Plague was 3% in Mumbai in 1903 the cycles and trends of infection were very different between the diseases — humans did not develop resistance to the modern disease, but resistance to the Black Death rose sharply, so that eventually it became mainly a childhood disease Cohn also points out that while the identification of the disease as having buboes relies on accounts of Boccaccio and others, they described buboes, abscesses, rashes and carbuncles occurring all over the body, the neck or behind the ears. In contrast, the modern disease rarely has more than one bubo, most commonly in the groin, and is not characterised by abscesses, rashes and carbuncles. Researchers have offered a mathematical model based on the changing demography of Europe from 1000 to 1800 AD demonstrating how plague epidemics, 1347 to 1670, could have provided the selection pressure that raised the frequency of a mutation to the level seen today that prevent HIV from entering macrophages that carry the mutation (the average frequency of this allele is 10% in European populations). It is suggested that the original single mutation appeared over 2,500 years ago and that persistent epidemics of a haemorrhagic fever struck at the early classical civilizations. Third Pandemic The Third Pandemic began in China in 1855, spreading plague to all inhabited continents and ultimately killing more than 12 million people in India and China alone. Casualty patterns indicate that waves of this pandemic may have come from two different sources. The first was primarily bubonic and was carried around the world through ocean-going trade, transporting infected persons, rats, and cargoes harboring fleas. The second, more virulent strain was primarily pneumonic in character, with a strong person-to-person contagion. This strain was largely confined to Manchuria and Mongolia. Researchers during the "Third Pandemic" identified plague vectors and the plague bacterium (see above), leading in time to modern treatment methods. Plague occurred in Russia in 1877–1889 in rural areas near the Ural Mountains and the Caspian Sea. Efforts in hygiene and patient isolation reduced the spread of the disease, with approximately 420 deaths in the region. Significantly, the region of Vetlianka in this area is near a population of the bobak marmot, a small rodent considered a very dangerous plague reservoir. The last significant Russian outbreak of Plague was in Siberia in 1910 after sudden demand for Marmot skins (a substitute for Sable) increased the price by 400 percent. The traditional hunters would not hunt a sick Marmot and it was taboo to eat the fat from under the arm (the axillary lymphatic gland that often harboured the plague) so outbreaks tended to be confined to single individuals. The price increase, however, attracted thousands of Chinese hunters from Manchuria who not only caught the sick animals but ate the fat which was considered a delicacy. The plague spread from the hunting grounds to the terminus of the Chinese Eastern Railway and then followed the track for 2,700 km. The plague lasted 7 months and killed 60,000 people. The bubonic plague continued to circulate through different ports globally for the next fifty years; however, it was primarily found in Southeast Asia. An epidemic in Hong Kong in 1894 had particularly high death rates, 90% . As late as 1897, medical authorities in the European powers organized a conference in Venice, seeking ways to keep the plague out of Europe. Mumbai plague epidemic stuck the city of Mumbai (Bombay) in 1896. The disease reached the Republic of Hawaii in December 1899, and the Board of Health’s decision to initiate controlled burns of select buildings in Honolulu’s Chinatown turned into an uncontrolled fire which led to the inadvertent burning of most of Chinatown on January 20, 1900 according to the Star Bulletin's Feature on the Great Chinatown Fire. Plague persisted in Hawaii on the outer islands of Maui and Hawaii (The Big Island) until it was finally eradicated in 1959. https://scholarsbank.uoregon.edu/xmlui/bitstream/handle/1794/7694/Bailey_Kevin_thesis2007.pdf?sequence=1 Plague finally reached the United States later that year in San Francisco. Although the outbreak that began in China in 1855 is conventionally known as the Third Pandemic, (the First being the Plague of Justinian and the second being the Black Death), it is unclear whether there have been fewer, or more, than three major outbreaks of bubonic plague. Most modern outbreaks of bubonic plague amongst humans have been preceded by a striking, high mortality amongst rats, yet this phenomenon is absent from descriptions of some earlier plagues, especially the Black Death. The buboes, or swellings in the groin, that are especially characteristic of bubonic plague, are a feature of other diseases as well. Plague as a biological weapon Plague has a long history as a biological weapon. Historical accounts from ancient China and medieval Europe detail the use of infected animal carcasses, such as cows or horses, and human carcasses, by the Xiongnu/Huns, Mongols, Turks, and other groups, to contaminate enemy water supplies. Han Dynasty General Huo Qubing is recorded to have died of such a contamination while engaging in warfare against the Xiongnu. Plague victims were also reported to have been tossed by catapult into cities under siege. In 1347, the Genoese possession of Caffa, a great trade emporium on the Crimean peninsula, came under siege by an army of Mongol warriors of the Golden Horde under the command of Janibeg. After a protracted siege during which the Mongol army was reportedly withering from the disease, they decided to use the infected corpses as a biological weapon. The corpses were catapulted over the city walls, infecting the inhabitants. The Genoese traders fled, transferring the plague (Black Death) via their ships into the south of Europe, whence it rapidly spread. During World War II, the Japanese Army developed weaponised plague, based on the breeding and release of large numbers of fleas. During the Japanese occupation of Manchuria, Unit 731 deliberately infected Chinese, Korean, and Manchurian civilians and prisoners of war with the plague bacterium. These subjects, termed "maruta", or "logs", were then studied by dissection, others by vivisection while still conscious. Members of the unit such as Shiro Ishii were exonerated from the Tokyo tribunal by Douglas MacArthur but twelve of them were prosecuted in the Khabarovsk War Crime Trials in 1949 during which some admitted having spread Bubonic plague within a 36-km radius around the city of Changde. Daniel Barenblatt, A plague upon Humanity, HarperCollns, 2004, pp.220-221 After World War II, both the United States and the Soviet Union developed means of weaponising pneumonic plague. Experiments included various delivery methods, vacuum drying, sizing the bacterium, developing strains resistant to antibiotics, combining the bacterium with other diseases (such as diphtheria), and genetic engineering. Scientists who worked in USSR bio-weapons programs have stated that the Soviet effort was formidable and that large stocks of weaponised plague bacteria were produced. Information on many of the Soviet projects is largely unavailable. Aerosolized pneumonic plague remains the most significant threat. The plague can be easily treated with antibiotics, thus a widespread epidemic is highly unlikely in developed countries. Worldwide distribution of plague infected animals 1998 1994 Epidemic in Surat, India In 1994, there was a pneumonic plague epidemic in Surat, India that resulted in 52 deaths and in a large internal migration of about 300,000 residents, who fled fearing quarantine . A combination of heavy monsoon rain and clogged sewers led to massive flooding which resulted in unhygienic conditions and a number of uncleared animal carcasses. It is believed that this situation precipitated the epidemic. . There was widespread fear that the flood of refugees might spread the epidemic to other parts of India and the world, but that scenario was averted, probably as a result of effective public health response mounted by the Indian health authorities . Much like the Black Death that spread through medieval Europe, some questions still remain unanswered about the 1994 epidemic in Surat . Initial questions about whether it was an epidemic of plague arose because the Indian health authorities were unable to culture Yersinia pestis, but this could have been due to poor laboratory procedures. Yet, there are several lines of evidence strongly suggesting that it was a plague epidemic: blood tests for Yersinia were positive, a number of individuals showed antibodies against Yersinia and the clinical symptoms displayed by the affected were all consistent with the disease being plague . Other Contemporary cases Two non-plague Yersinia - Yersinia pseudotuberculosis and Yersinia enterocolitica - still exist in fruit and vegetables from the Caucasus Mountains east across southern Russia and Siberia, to Kazakhstan, Mongolia, and parts of China; in Southwest and Southeast Asia, Southern and East Africa (including the island of Madagascar); in North America, from the Pacific Coast eastward to the western Great Plains, and from British Columbia south to Mexico; and in South America in two areas: the Andes mountains and Brazil. There is no plague-infected animal population in Europe or Australia. On August 31, 1984, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention reported a case of pneumonic plague in Claremont, California. The CDC believes that the patient, a veterinarian, contracted plague from a stray cat. This could not be confirmed since the cat was destroyed prior to the onset of symptoms. From 1995 to 1998, annual outbreaks of plague were witnessed in Mahajanga, Madagascar as per a study done by Pascal Boisier and other scientists and publish in Emerging Infectious Diseases journal in March 2002. In the U.S., about half of all food cases of plague since 1970 have occurred in New Mexico. There were 2 plague deaths in the state in 2006, the first fatalities in 12 years. In February 2002, a small outbreak of pneumonic plague took place in the Shimla District of Himachal Pradesh state in northern India. 2002 - Plague in India. WHO In Fall of 2002, a New Mexico couple contracted the disease, just prior to a visit to New York City. They both were treated by antibiotics, but the male required amputation of both feet to fully recover, due to the lack of blood flow to his feet, cut off by the bacteria. On April 19, 2006, CNN News and others reported a case of plague in Los Angeles, California, lab technician Nirvana Kowlessar, the first reported case in that city since 1984. In May 2006, KSL Newsradio reported a case of plague found in dead field mice and chipmunks at Natural Bridges about west of Blanding in San Juan County, Utah. In May 2006, AZ Central reported a case of plague found in a cat. One hundred deaths resulting from pneumonic plague were reported in Ituri district of the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo in June 2006. Control of the plague was proving difficult due to the ongoing conflict. It was reported in September 2006 that three mice infected with Yersinia pestis apparently disappeared from a laboratory belonging to the Public Health Research Institute, located on the campus of the University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey, which conducts anti-bioterrorism research for the United States government. On May 16, 2007, an 8-year-old hooded capuchin monkey in the Denver Zoo died of the bubonic plague. Five squirrels and a rabbit were also found dead on zoo grounds and tested positive for the disease. On June 5, 2007 in Torrance County, New Mexico a 68 year old woman developed bubonic plague, which progressed to pneumonic plague. On November 2, 2007, Eric York, a 37 year old wildlife biologist for the National Park Service's and The Felidae Conservation Fund, was found dead in his home at Grand Canyon National Park. On October 27, York performed a necropsy on a mountain lion that had likely perished from the disease and three days afterward York complained of flu-like symptoms and called in sick from work. He was treated at a local clinic but was not diagnosed with any serious ailment. The discovery of his death sparked a minor health scare, with officials stating he likely died of either plague or hantavirus, and 49 people who had come in to contact with York were given aggressive antibiotic treatments. None of them fell ill. Autopsy results released on November 9, confirmed the presence of Y. pestis in his body, confirming plague as a likely cause of death. In January 2008, at least 18 people died of bubonic plague in Madagascar. Madagascar: eighteen dead from Bubonic Plague, five in hospital since 1 January 2008 On January 19, 2009, British newspaper The Sun reported an Al-Qaeda training camp in Algeria had been wiped out by the plague, killing approximately 40 Islamic extremists Literary and popular culture references The Decameron by Giovanni Boccaccio (1350). Takes place in Florence in 1348, during the outbreak of the Black Death. Romeo and Juliet (1597) Friar John was unable to go to Mantua and deliver a letter to Romeo because of Bubonic Plague quarantine. A Journal of the Plague Year by Daniel Defoe (1722). A fictional first hand account of the London outbreak of 1665. Probably based on the experiences of Defoe's uncle. "The Masque of the Red Death" (1842) by Edgar Allan Poe includes a vivid description of pestilence that some scholars have interpreted to be septicemic plague. Cummings Study Guide for "The Masque of the Red Death" I Promessi Sposi (The Betrothed) (1842) by Alessandro Manzoni set in early 17th century in Northern Italy, is one of the most read and better known classical novels in Italian literature. Contains a detailed and vivid account of society during the plague outbreak in its time. Narcissus and Goldmund by Hermann Hesse (1930). A fictional account in which the main character ends up witnessing the effects of the plague first-hand. The Plague by Albert Camus (1947) depicts an outbreak of plague at the Algerian city of Oran. The disease serves as a means for the author to examine his characters' responses to hardship, suffering and death. Panic in the Streets (1950) by Elia Kazan. A murder victim is found to be infected with pneumonic plague. To prevent a catastrophic epidemic, the police must find and inoculate the killers and their associates. (Don't Fear) The Reaper (1976) by Blue Öyster Cult. The line "40,000 men and women everyday... Like Romeo and Juliet - 40,000 men and women everyday... Redefine happiness - Another 40,000 coming everyday... We can be like they are" is a reference to the number of people dying daily during The Black Plague" The Plague Dogs (1977), by Richard Adams. A fictional story in which two dogs, Rowf and Snitter, escape from a British government research laboratory and are hunted down by the government as potential carriers of the plague. Doomsday Book by Connie Willis (1992). A Hugo award and Nebula award-winning historical science fiction novel, in which a time-traveler inadvertently ends up in the plague-ridden England of 1348.King of Shadows (1999), by Susan Cooper. Nathan Field, an actor, is infected with the bubonic plague while staying in London, which sends him back in time to the Elizabethan ages. Confessions of an Ugly Stepsister (1999), a novel by Gregory Maguire, takes place in 17th Century Haarlem, Netherlands, where a resurgence of the plague occurred. Year of Wonders by Geraldine Brooks (2001), a fictional story of an historical event in which the small Derbyshire village of Eyam quarantines themselves once infected with the plague. The Years of Rice and Salt by Kim Stanley Robinson (2002). Presents an alternate history of the world where the population of Europe is obliterated by the Black Death setting the stage for a world without Europeans and Christianity. In Dies the Fire by S. M. Stirling in (2004), an epidemic of the Black Death is described around the city of Portland, Oregon. Episode 18 of the second season of American television show House features the bubonic plague. In the season one episode of Torchwood, "End of Days", a woman from the 14th century infected by the plague falls through the rift into Cardiff, causing an infection of dozens of people in a local hospital. Third Watch In the third episode of the fifth season, a number of illegal immigrants are discovered in the back of a truck and brought to hospital where they are diagnosed with the plague. The situation is complicated by the fact one of the immigrants managed to flee. In The Keys to the Kingdom by Garth Nix, Suzy Turquoise Blue, one of the Piper's children, was led to the House by the Piper from London during the Great Plague of London. Grey's Anatomy In the first episode of the third season, a couple comes into the hospital because of flu symptoms, but get in a car crash along the way because the woman passed out while driving. Different rooms in the hospital are quarantined, and the woman in the crash dies after surgery, due to complications from the plague. In Grand Theft Auto, Liberty City is said to be affected by Bubonic plague. The band Modest Mouse references "the rats and the fleas" that caused the disease to spread to humans in their song March into the Sea. An episode of the TV show Wire in the Blood features a strain of bubonic plague as a biological weapon. In Spooks Series 6 (episodes one and two) a fictional virus that causes symptoms mimicking pneumonic plague is accidentally released in London. Lux perpetua (2006) by Andrzej Sapkowski. One of the main characters is murdered by magically induced septicemic plague. World Without End (2007) by Ken Follett. The plague's spread throughout Europe in the 14th century is an integral part of the book's storyline. The Shifting Tide (2004) by Anne Perry. The plague enters England via a ship transporting ivory. In an episode of the TV show NCIS, SWAK, a team member gets infected with an engineered variant of pneumonic plague after opening a contaminated envelope. In the television series The Marvelous Misadventures of Flapjack, the Plague makes people's faces hideously swelled and deformed. The only person it does not affect is Flapjack, whose blood is needed to make a cure. Bubbie does not get the Plague either, all though it is unknown if she is immune or not. The Return of the Black Death, an album by the Christian Black Metal band Antestor, deals with the second outbreak of the Plague epidemic in Norway and the country's subsequent Christianization. In Dilbert the television series, episode 6, "Trip to Elbonia", the travel brochure to Elbonia states that the leading cause of death in Elbonia was no longer "black plague, but...self inflicted gunshot wounds?" It was passed off as a typo, and remains unverified. References Notes Bibliography Weatherford 2004: 242-250 Benedictow, Ole J. The Black Death 1346-1353: The Complete History. DS Brewer, 2006. ISBN 978-1843832140. Biraben, Jean-Noel. Les Hommes et la Peste The Hague 1975. Buckler, John and Bennet D. Hill and John P. McKay. "A History of Western Society, 5th Edition." New York: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1995. Cantor, Norman F., In the Wake of the Plague: the Black Death and the World It Made New York: Harper Perennial, 2002. ISBN 978-0060014346. de Carvalho, Raimundo Wilson; Serra-Freire, Nicolau Maués; Linardi, Pedro Marcos; de Almeida, Adilson Benedito; and da Costa, Jeronimo Nunes (2001). Small Rodents Fleas from the Bubonic Plague Focus Located in the Serra dos Órgãos Mountain Range, State of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Memórias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz 96(5), 603–609. PMID 11500756. this manuscript reports a census of potential plague vectors (rodents and fleas) in a Brazilian focus region (i.e. region associated with cases of disease); free PDF download Retrieved 2005-03-02 Chase, Marilyn. The Barbary Plague: The Black Death in Victorian San Francisco. New York: Random House Trade Paperbacks, 2004. ISBN 978-0375757082. Gregg, Charles T. Plague!: The shocking story of a dread disease in America today. New York, NY: Scribner, 1978, ISBN 0-684-15372-6. Ernest Jawetz, et al. Medical Microbiology. 18th ed. United States: Prentice-Hall International Inc., 1989. ISBN 0-8385-6238-8 Kelly, John. The Great Mortality: An Intimate History of the Black Death, the Most Devastating Plague of All Time. New York: HarperCollins Publishers Inc., 2005. ISBN 0-06-000692-7. McNeill, William H. Plagues and People. New York: Anchor Books, 1976. ISBN 0-385-12122-9. Reprinted with new preface 1998. Mohr, James C. Plague and Fire: Battling Black Death and the 1900 Burning of Honolulu's Chinatown. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2005, ISBN 0-19-516231-5. Moote, A. Lloyd, and Dorothy C. Moote. The Great Plague: The Story of London's Most Deadly Year. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2004. ISBN 978-0801877834. Orent, Wendy. Plague: The Mysterious Past and Terrifying Future of the World's Most Dangerous Disease. New York: Free Press, 2004. ISBN 0-7432-3685-8. Papagrigorakis, Manolis J., Christos Yapijakis, Philippos N. Synodinos, and Effie Baziotopoulou-Valavani. "DNA examination of ancient dental pulp incriminates typhoid fever as a probable cause of the Plague of Athens," International Journal of Infectious Diseases 10 (2006): 206-214. ISSN 1201-9712. Patrick, Adam. "Disease in Antiquity: Ancient Greece and Rome," in Diseases in Antiquity, editors: Don Brothwell and A. T. Sandison. Springfield, Illinois; Charles C. Thomas, 1967. Platt, Colin. King Death: The Black Death and its Aftermath in Late-Medieval England Toronto University Press, 1997. Simpson, W. J. A Treatise on Plague. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1905. Spielvogel, Jackson J. Western Civilization: A Brief History Vol. 1: to 1715''. Belmont, Calif.: West/Wadsworth, 1999, Ch. 3, p. 56, paragraph 2. ISBN 0-534-56062-8. External links World Health Organization Health topic Communicable Disease Surveillance & Response - Impact of plague & Information resources Centers for Disease Control and Prevention CDC Plague map world distribution, publications, information on bioterrorism preparedness and response regarding plague Infectious Disease Information more links including travelers' health Agent Fact Sheet: Plague, Center for Biosecurity Symptoms, causes, pictures of bubonic plague Secrets of the Dead . Mystery of the Black Death PBS Researchers sound the alarm: the multidrug resistance of the plague bacillus could spread Plague - LoveToKnow 1911 Genome information is available from the NIAID Enteropathogen Resource Integration Center (ERIC) | Plague_(disease) |@lemmatized plague:185 deadly:3 infectious:4 disease:45 cause:20 enterobacteria:1 yersinia:11 pestis:11 pasteurella:2 zoonotic:1 primarily:5 carry:5 rodent:8 notably:1 rat:22 spread:21 human:12 via:3 flea:18 notorious:1 throughout:4 history:10 due:8 unprecedented:1 scale:1 death:49 devastation:1 bring:4 still:5 endemic:1 part:9 world:17 name:4 epidemiological:1 use:8 term:3 currently:2 apply:2 bacterial:2 infection:11 bubo:10 although:6 historically:1 medical:4 pandemic:14 general:2 often:6 synonymous:1 bubonic:36 describe:10 one:12 manifestation:2 black:40 latter:1 second:9 devastating:3 transmission:5 xenopsylla:2 cheopis:2 primary:3 vector:4 mainly:3 occurs:1 person:9 bite:8 infect:15 bacteria:8 multiply:1 inside:2 stick:2 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5,171 | Al_Capone | Alphonse Gabriel "Al" Capone (January 17, 1899 – January 25, 1947), was an Italian-American gangster who led a crime syndicate dedicated to smuggling and bootlegging of liquor and other illegal activities during the Prohibition Era of the 1920s and 1930s. Born in 1899 Brooklyn to Southeastern Italian immigrants Gabriele and Teresina Capone, Capone began his career in Brooklyn before moving to Chicago and becoming the boss of the criminal organization known as the Chicago Outfit— although his business card reportedly described him as a used furniture dealer. Iorizzo, Luciano J. Al Capone: a biography. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 2003. ISBN 0-313-32317-8. By the end of the 1920s, Capone had gained the attention of the Bureau of Investigation following his being placed on the Chicago Crime Commission's "public enemies" list. Although never successfully convicted of racketeering charges, Capone's criminal career ended in 1931, when he was indicted and convicted by the federal government for income-tax evasion. Early life in New York Alphonse Gabriel Capone was born in Palmdale, New York to Gabriel (December 12, 1864 – November 14, 1920) and Teresina Capone (December 28, 1867 – November 29, 1952), on January 17, 1899. Gabriel was a barber from Castellammare di Stabia, a town about 15 miles (24 km) south of Naples, Italy. Teresina was a seamstress and the daughter of Angelo Raiola from Angri, a town in the province of Salerno. Gabriele and Teresina had 8 children: Vincenzo Capone (1892 – October 1, 1952), Raffaele Capone (who was also known as Ralph Capone and later placed in charge of Al Capone's beverage industry; January 12, 1894 – November 22, 1974), Salvatore Capone (January 1895 – April 1 , 1924), Alphonse "Scarface Al" Capone (January 17, 1899 – January 25, 1947), Umberto Capone (1906 – June 1980), Matthew Capone (1908 – January 31, 1967), Rose Capone (born and died 1910) and Mafalda Capone (later Mrs. John J. Maritote, January 28, 1912 – March 25, 1988). The Capone family immigrated to the United States in 1893 and settled at 95 Navy Street, in the Navy Yard section of downtown Brooklyn, near the Barber Shop that employed Gabriele at 29 Park Avenue. When Al was 11, the Capone family moved to 38 Garfield Place in Park Slope, Brooklyn. Capone dropped out of the Brooklyn public school system at the age of 14, after being expelled from Catholic School 133. He then worked at odd jobs around Brooklyn, including in a candy store and a bowling alley. Kobler, 27. During this time, Capone was influenced by gangster Johnny Torrio, whom he came to regard as a mentor figure. Kobler, 26. After his initial stint with small-time gangs, including The Junior Forty Thieves, Capone joined the Brooklyn Rippers and then the notorious Five Points Gang. He was mentored by and employed as a bouncer and bartender in a Coney Island dance hall and saloon called the Harvard Inn by racketeer Frankie Yale. Kobler, 31. Kobler, 35. It was in this field that Capone received the scars that gave him the nickname "Scarface"; he inadvertently insulted a woman while working the door at a Brooklyn night club, provoking a fight with her brother Frank Gallucio. Capone's face was slashed three times on the left side. Capone apologized to Gallucio at Yale's request and would hire his attacker as a bodyguard in later life. Kobler, 36. When photographed, Capone hid the scarred left side of his face and would misrepresent his injuries as war wounds. Kobler, 15. According to the 2002 magazine from Life called Mobsters and Gangsters: from Al Capone to Tony Soprano, Capone was called "Snorky" by his closest friends. Mobsters and Gangsters from Al Capone to Tony Soprano, Life (2002). On December 30, 1918, Capone married Mae Josephine Coughlin, an Irish woman. Earlier that month she had given birth to their son, Albert Francis ("Sonny") Capone. Capone's departure from New York, with his family, to Chicago is believed to have occurred in 1921. Capone purchased a modest house at 7244 South Prairie Ave. in the Park Manor neighborhood on the city's south side in 1923 for USD $5,500. http://www.chicagotribune.com/features/lifestyle/chi-talk-caponeapr02,0,5381253.story Capone came at the invitation of Torrio, who was seeking business opportunities in bootlegging following the onset of prohibition. Torrio had acquired the crime empire of James "Big Jim" Colosimo after the latter refused to enter this new area of business and was subsequently murdered (presumably by Frankie Yale, although legal proceedings against him had to be dropped due to a lack of evidence). Capone was also a suspect for two murders at the time, and was seeking a better job to provide for his new family. Kobler, 37. Activity in Cicero, Illinois After the 1923 election of reform mayor William Emmett Dever, Chicago's city government began to put pressure on the gangster elements inside the city limits. To put its headquarters outside of city jurisdiction and create a safe zone for its operations, the Capone organization muscled its way into Cicero, Illinois. This led to one of Capone's greatest triumphs: the takeover of Cicero's town government in 1924. Cicero gangster Myles O'Donnell and his brother William "Klondike" O'Donnell fought with Capone over their home turf. The war resulted in over 200 deaths, including that of the infamous "Hanging Prosecutor" Bill McSwiggins. The 1924 town council elections in Cicero became known as one of the most crooked elections in the Chicago area's long history, with voters threatened at polling stations by thugs. Capone's mayoral candidate won by a huge margin but only weeks later announced that he would run Capone out of town. Capone met with his puppet-mayor and personally knocked him down the town hall steps, a powerful assertion of gangster power and a major victory for the Torrio-Capone alliance. For Capone, this event was marred by the death of his brother Frank at the hands of the police. As was the custom amongst gangsters, Capone signaled his mourning by attending the funeral unshaven, and he cried openly at the gathering. He ordered the closure of all the speakeasies in Cicero for a day as a mark of respect. Much of Capone's family put down roots in Cicero as well. In 1930, Capone's sister Mafalda's marriage to John J. Maritote took place at St. Mary of Czestochowa, a massive Neogothic edifice towering over Cicero Avenue in the so-called Polish Cathedral style. Capone's wealth and power grows in Cicero Severely injured in a 1925 assassination attempt by the North Side Gang, the shaken Torrio turned over his business to Capone and returned to Italy. Capone was notorious during the Prohibition Era for his control of large portions of the Chicago underworld, which provided the Outfit with an estimated US $100 million per year Purchasing Power of Money in the United States from 1774 to 2008." Online calculator appears on the right side of website. http://www.measuringworth.com/ppowerus/index.php in revenue. This wealth was generated through all manner of illegal enterprises, such as gambling and prostitution, although the largest moneymaker was the sale of liquor. In those days Capone had the habit of "interviewing" new prostitutes for his club himself. Demand was met by a transportation network that moved smuggled liquor from the rum-runners of the East Coast and The Purple Gang in Detroit and local production in the form of Midwestern moonshine operations and illegal breweries. With the funds generated by his bootlegging operation, Capone's grip on the political and law-enforcement establishments in Chicago grew stronger. Through this organized corruption, which included the bribing of Mayor of Chicago William "Big Bill" Hale Thompson, Capone's gang operated largely free from legal intrusion, operating casinos and speakeasies throughout Chicago. Wealth also permitted Capone to indulge in a luxurious lifestyle of custom suits, cigars, gourmet food and drink (his preferred liquor was Templeton Rye from Iowa), jewelry, and female companionship. He garnered media attention, to which his favorite responses were "I am just a businessman, giving the people what they want" and "All I do is satisfy a public demand." Capone had become a celebrity. Mob wars However, the violence that lead to this unprecedented level of criminal success drew the retaliation from Capone's rivals, particularly his bitter rivalries with North Side gangsters lead by Hymie Weiss and Bugs Moran. He had his car riddled with bullets more than once. In a particularly unnerving incident on September 20, 1926, the North Side gang shot into Capone's entourage as he was eating lunch in the restaurant of the Hawthorne Hotel. A motorcade of ten vehicles, using Thompson Submachine guns and shotguns riddled the outside of the Hotel and the restaurant on the first floor of the building. Capone's bodyguard (Frankie Rio) threw him to the ground at the first sound of gunfire and laid on top of "The Big Fellow", as the headquarters was riddled with bullet holes. Several bystanders were hurt from flying glass and bullet shrapnel in the raid, including a young boy and his mother who would have lost her eyesight had not Capone paid for top-dollar medical care. http://www.hymieweiss.com/1926%20-%20A%20goddamn%20crazy%20place!.htm This event prompted Capone to call for a truce. Negotiations fell through. http://www.hymieweiss.com/1926%20-%20A%20goddamn%20crazy%20place!.htm These attacks prompted Capone to fit his Cadillac with armor plating, bullet-proof glass, run-flat tires, and a police siren. Every attempt on his life left him increasingly shaken by Moran, who was almost certainly involved in most of the attacks. This car was seized by the Treasury Department in 1932 and was later used as President Franklin D. Roosevelt's limousine. http://edition.cnn.com/2009/POLITICS/01/06/driving.obama/index.html#cnnSTCOther1 The Lexington Hotel, Chicago. Capone's headquarters. Known as Capone's castle. Photographed in the early 1990s; it was demolished in 1995. Capone placed armed bodyguards around the clock at his headquarters at the Lexington Hotel, at 22nd Street (later renamed Cermak Road) and Michigan Avenue. For his trips away from Chicago, Capone was reputed to have had several other retreats and hideouts located in Brookfield, Wisconsin; Saint Paul, Minnesota; Olean, New York; French Lick, as well as Terre Haute, Indiana; Dubuque, Iowa; Hot Springs, Arkansas; Johnson City, Tennessee; and Lansing, Michigan. As a further precaution, Capone and his entourage would often suddenly show up at one of Chicago's train depots and buy up an entire Pullman sleeper car on night trains to places like Cleveland, Omaha, Kansas City and Little Rock/Hot Springs in Arkansas, where they would spend a week in luxury hotel suites under assumed names with the apparent knowledge and connivance of local authorities. In 1928, Capone bought a 14-room retreat on Palm Island, Florida close to Miami Beach. Saint Valentine's Day Massacre The St. Valentine's Day Massacre eliminated Capone's enemies, but outraged the general public Capone arranged the most notorious gangland killing of the century, the 1929 Saint Valentine's Day Massacre in the Lincoln Park neighborhood on Chicago's North Side, although details of the killing of the seven victims in a garage at 2122 North Clark Street (then the SMC Cartage Co.) are widely disputed and no one was ever brought to trial for the crime. The massacre was The Outfit's effort to strike back at Bugs Moran's North Side gang, which had become increasingly bold in hijacking the Outfit's booze trucks, assassinating two presidents of the Outfit-controlled Unione Siciliane, and three assassination attempts on one of Capone's top enforcers, Jack McGurn. St. Valentine's Day Massacre Part I: Introduction. Retrieved on 2009-05-03. To monitor their targets' habits and movements, Capone’s men rented an apartment across from the trucking warehouse that served as a Moran headquarters. On the morning of Thursday February 14, 1929, Capone’s lookouts signaled gunmen disguised as police to start a 'raid'. The faux police lined the seven victims along a wall without a struggle then signaled for accomplices with machine guns. The seven victims were machine-gunned and shot-gunned, each with fifteen to twenty or more bullets. Photos of the massacre shocked the public and greatly harmed Capone in the public opinion thereby prompting federal law enforcement to focus more closely on investigating his activities. Conviction and prison In 1929, Prohibition Bureau agent Eliot Ness began a successful investigation of Capone and his business. Shutting down many breweries and speakeasies Capone owned, Ness brought down his empire slowly. To lie low, Capone arranged to have himself jailed in a comfortable cell at Philadelphia's Eastern State Penitentiary for nine months beginning August 1929. Al Capone Cell Interpretation|accessdate=05-04-2009. Upon his return to Chicago, he quickly found himself in the legal quagmire that effectively removed him from power. In 1931 Capone was indicted for income tax evasion and various violations of the Volstead Act. Facing overwhelming evidence, his attorneys made a plea deal, but the presiding judge warned he might not follow the sentencing recommendation from the prosecution, so Capone withdrew his plea of guilty. Attempting to bribe and intimidate the potential jurors, his plan was discovered by Ness' men. The jury pool was then switched with one from another case, and Capone was stymied. Following a long trial, he was found guilty on some income tax evasion counts (the Volstead Act violations were dropped). The judge gave him an eleven-year sentence along with heavy fines, and liens were filed against his various properties. His appeal was denied. In May 1932, Capone was sent to Atlanta U.S. Penitentiary, a tough federal prison, but he was able to obtain special privileges. He was then transferred to Alcatraz, where tight security and an uncompromising warden ensured that Capone had no contact with the outside world. His isolation from his associates and the repeal of Prohibition in January 1933, precipitously diminished his power. Capone earned the contempt of many inmates when he refused to take part in a prisoners' strike after a sick inmate was denied medical treatment and died. Continuing his work in the prison laundry, Capone was continually harassed by other prisoners and often called a "scab" or "rat." When Capone attempted to bribe guards he was sent to solitary confinement. Capone suffered further harassment and unsuccessful attempts on his life throughout his prison sentence, including spiking his coffee with lye and an attack as he was walking to the dentist's office. Though he adjusted relatively well to his new environment, his health declined as the syphilis he caught as a youth progressed. Antibiotics to cure the disease (i.e.penicillin) existed, but their use in the treatment of syphillis was not yet known. He spent the last year of his sentence in the prison hospital, confused and disoriented. Al Capone: Chicago's Most Infamous Mob Boss - The Crime library. Capone completed his term in Alcatraz on January 6, 1939, and was transferred to the Federal Correctional Institution at Terminal Island in California, to serve his one-year misdemeanor sentence. He was paroled on November 16, 1939, spent a short time in a hospital, then returned to his home in Palm Island, Florida. Physical decline and death Capone's control and interests within organized crime diminished rapidly after his imprisonment, and he was no longer able to run the Outfit after his release. He had lost weight, and his physical and mental health had deteriorated under the effects of neurosyphilis. He often raved on about Communists, foreigners, and George Moran, who he was convinced was still plotting to kill him from his Ohio prison cell. On January 21, 1947, Capone had an apoplectic stroke. He regained consciousness and started to improve but contracted pneumonia on January 24. He suffered a fatal cardiac arrest the next day. Capone was buried in Mount Olivet Cemetery, in Chicago's far South Side between the graves of his father, Gabriele, and brother, Frank. However, in March 1950, the remains of all three family members were moved to Mount Carmel Cemetery in Hillside, Illinois, west of Chicago. Cultural icon One of the most notorious American gangsters of the 20th century, Capone has been the subject of numerous articles, books, and films. Capone's personality and character have been used in fiction as a model for crime lords and criminal masterminds ever since his death. The stereotypical image of a mobster wearing a blue pinstriped suit and tilted fedora is based on photos of Capone, most notably his draft registration photo http://www.archives.gov/southeast/exhibit/popups.php?p=4.1.3 taken at age 19. His accent, mannerisms, facial construction, sometimes his physical stature, and parodies of his name have been used for numerous gangsters in comics, movies, and literature. In 2009, Madonna Mia, the sheet music for a song that Capone composed while in Alcatraz was put up for sale and has been recorded on CD. Comics In the Dick Tracy comic, the name of the gang boss and common thug Alphonse "Big Boy" Caprice is based on Capone. In Tintin in America, boy reporter Tintin captures Capone, but due to a policeman's blunder, Capone escapes. Al Capone is the only real life character featured in any Tintin book. Capone and Eliot Ness are regular supporting characters in the Franco-Belgian comics series Sammy, written by Raoul Cauvin. In the Manga series Soul Eater, Al Capone appears as a Mob Boss for people who devour human souls. He is killed later on by a body guard who was protecting a young witch. Film Capone has been portrayed on screen by Nicholas Kokenes, Wallace Beery, Paul Muni, Barry Sullivan, Rod Steiger, Neville Brand, Jason Robards, Eric Roberts, Ben Gazzara, Robert De Niro, William Devane, Titus Welliver, Juan Orol, Anthony LaPaglia and William Forsythe. In the 1932 film Scarface, Capone was fictionalized as "Antonio 'Tony' Camonte" (played by Paul Muni). Capone is also a supporting character in Night at the Museum: Battle of the Smithsonian, played by Jon Bernthal . Literature In Mario Puzo's 1969 novel, The Godfather, Capone played a small role in the fictionalized mob war of 1933. In reality, Capone was in prison by 1933. Capone was featured in the Kinky Friedman novel The Love Song of J. Edgar Hoover. In Kim Newman and Eugene Byrne's novel Back in the USSA, Al Capone is President and Chairman of the alternate history United Socialist States of America, serving as an analog of Joseph Stalin. Jimmy Hoffa and Frank Nitti take the place of Vyacheslav Molotov and Lavrenti Beria. Also more recently, a historical fiction book was written by Gennifer Choldenko called Al Capone Does My Shirts. In Peter F. Hamilton's Night's Dawn Trilogy, Capone comes back from the dead and builds a new empire called the Organization. Music Al Capone transcribed a love song called Madonna Mia while in prison. In May 2009, his rendition of the song was recorded for the first time in history. Al Capone was mentioned in the song The Night Chicago Died by the British band Paper Lace that depicted a fictionalized battle between Al Capone's gang and the Chicago police. See also Gangster American Mafia Timeline of organized crime List of criminal organizations The Mystery of Al Capone's Vault Scarface (1932 film) Scarface (1983 Film) References Further reading Kobler, John. Capone: The Life and Times of Al Capone. New York: Da Capo Press, 2003. ISBN 0-306-81285-1 Pasley, Fred D. Al Capone: The Biography of a Self-Made Man. Garden City, New York: Garden City Publishing Co., 2004. ISBN 1-4179-0878-5 Schoenberg, Robert J. Mr. Capone. New York: HarperCollins Publishers, 1992. ISBN 0-688-12838-6 Ferrara, Eric - Gangsters, Murderers & Weirdos of the Lower East Side; A self-guided walking tour 2008 MacDonald, Alan. Dead Famous - Al Capone and his Gang Scholastic. External links Listen online – The Life Story of Al Capone - The American Storyteller Radio Journal Miami Beach USA The Un-Welcomed Visitor: Al Capone in Miami. (with photos) Obituary, NY Times, January 26, 1947 Capone Dead At 48; Dry Era Gang Chief Collection of Al Capone pictures Complete FBI files on Al Capone An article on the Brothers Capone Al Capone at the Crime Library Al Capone bio by Robert L. 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5,172 | American_(word) | The meaning of the word American in the English language varies, according to the historic, geographic, and political context in which it is used. It derives from America, a term originally denoting all of the New World (also called "the Americas"). It retains this Pan-American sense, but its usage evolved over time, and due to various historical reasons the word came to denote people or things specifically from the United States of America. In modern English "American" generally refers to the United States, and in the U.S. itself this usage is almost universal, with any other use of the term requiring specification of the subject under discussion. Wilson, Kenneth G. (1993). The Columbia Guide to Standard American English New York: Columbia University Press, pp. 27–28. ISBN 0231069898. However, this ambiguity has been the source of controversy, particularly among Latin Americans, who feel that using the term solely for the United States appropriates it. Some Canadians, among others have also expressed concerns. Walter S. Avis, Patrick D. Drysdale, Robert J. Gregg, Victoria E. Eeufeldt, Mattheew H. Scargill (1983). Gage Canadian Dictionary. Toronto: Gage Publishing Limited, p. 37. ISBN 0-7715-9122-5 pbk. The word can be used as both a noun and an adjective. In adjectival use, it is generally understood to mean "of or relating to the United States"; for example, "Elvis Presley was an American singer" or "the American president gave a speech today;" in noun form, it generally means U.S. citizen or national (see names for Americans). The noun is rarely used in American English to refer to people not connected to the United States. When used with a grammatical qualifier the adjective American can mean "of or relating to the Americas," as in Latin American or Indigenous American. Less frequently, the adjective can take this meaning without a qualifier, as in "American Spanish dialects and pronunciation differ by country", or the name of the Organization of American States. A third use of the term pertains specifically to the indigenous peoples of the Americas, for instance, "In the 16th century, many Americans died from imported diseases during the Spanish conquest". Other languages The Spanish, French, Portuguese, German, and Italian languages use cognates of the word "American", in denoting "U.S. citizen". In Spanish, americano denotes geographic and cultural origin in the New World; the adjective and noun, denoting a U.S. national, estadounidense (United Statesman), derives from Estados Unidos de América (United States of America). Portuguese, has americano, denoting a person or thing from the Americas, and for a U.S. national and things estadunidense (United Statesman), from Estados Unidos da América, norteamericano (North American), and ianque (Yankee). In French, étasunien, from États-Unis d'Amérique, distinguishes U.S. things and persons from the adjective américain, which chiefly denotes persons and things from the United States but may also refer to the Americas; likewise, the German usages U.S.-amerikanisch and U.S.-Amerikaner observe said cultural distinction, solely denoting U.S. things and people. The Spanish words estadounidense (United Statesman), norteamericano (North American), yanqui (Yankee), and gringo are Mexican, Central American, and South American usages denoting U.S. things and persons. In personal denotation, "gringo" means a norteamericano, in particular, and anglophones in general, and, linguistically, any speech not Spanish, i.e. "She is speaking gringo, not Spanish". Cognate usages may cause cultural friction between U.S. nationals and Latin Americans who object to American English's exclusionary denotations of American. History of the word British Map of America in 1744. The derivation of America has several explanatory naming theories. The most common is Martin Waldseemüller's deriving it from Americus Vespucius, the Latinised version of Amerigo Vespucci's name, the Italian merchant and cartographer who explored South America's east coat and the Caribbean sea in the early 1500s. Later, his published letters were the basis of Waldseemüller's 1507 map, which is the first usage of America. (See ) In 1886, Jules Marcou said Vespucci renamed himself from Alberigo Vespucci (Albericus Vespucius) to Amerigo Vespucci after meeting the native inhabitants of the eponymous Amerrique mountain ranges of Nicaragua that connect North America and South America, an important geographic feature of New World maps and charts. Moreover, there is the 1908 theory that America derives from Richard Amerike of Bristol, England, financier of John Cabot's 1497 expedition. Cabot is believed the first Western European on the mainland. In the event, the adjective American subsequently denotes the New World's peoples and things. The 16th-century European usage of American denoted the native inhabitants of the New World. "American". From the Oxford English Dictionary. Retrieved November 27, 2008. The earliest recorded use of this term in English is in Thomas Hacket's 1568 translation of André Thévet's book on France Antarctique; Thévet himself had referred to the natives as Ameriques. In the following century the term was extended to European settlers and their descendants in the Americas. The earliest recorded use of this term in English dates to 1648, in Thomas Gage's The English-American: A New Survet of the West Indies. In English, "American" was used especially for people in the British America, and came to be applied to citizens of the United States when the country was formed. The Declaration of Independence refers to "[the] unanimous Declaration of the thirteen united States of America" adopted by the "Representatives of the united States of America" on July 4, 1776. The official name of the country was established on November 15, 1777, when the Second Continental Congress adopted the Articles of Confederation, the first of which says, "The Stile of this Confederacy shall be 'The United States of America' ". The confederation articles further state: "In Witness whereof we have hereunto set our hands in Congress. Done at Philadelphia in the State of Pennsylvania the ninth day of July in the Year of our Lord One Thousand Seven Hundred and Seventy-Eight, and in the Third Year of the independence of America." Common short forms and abbreviations are the United States, the U.S., the U.S.A., and America. Colloquial versions are the U.S. of A. and the States. The term Columbia (from the Columbus surname), was a popular name for the U.S. and for the entire geographic Americas; its usage is restricted to the District of Columbia name. Moreover, the womanly personification of Columbia appears in some official documents, including editions of the U.S. dollar. In the Federalist Papers, Alexander Hamilton and James Madison use American with two different meanings, political and geographic; "the American republic" in Federalist Paper 51 and in Federalist Paper 70, and, in Federalist Paper 24, Hamilton's American usage denotes the lands beyond the U.S.'s political borders: United States President George Washington's farewell in 1796 says: "The name of American, which belongs to you in your national capacity, must always exalt the just pride of patriotism more than any appellation." "Washington's Farewell Address 1796". From The Avalon Project. Retrieved November 10, 2008. Originally, the name "the United States" was plural — "the United States are" — a usage found in the U.S. Constitution's Thirteenth Amendment (1865), but its current common usage is singular — "the United States is". The plural is set in the idiom "these United States". Before the Constitutional Convention, several country names were proffered, the most popular being "Columbia". The problems of "the United States of America" as a name (long, awkward, imprecise) were discussed; the Constitution ignores the matter, using "the United States of America" and "the United States". The name "Colombia" (derived from Christopher Columbus; Sp: Cristóbal Colón, It: Cristoforo Colombo), was proposed by the revolutionary Francisco de Miranda to denote the New World — especially Spain's and Portugal's American territories and colonies; it was used in the (short-lived) country name "United States of Colombia". Early official U.S. documents betray inconsistent usage; the 1778 Treaty of Alliance with France uses the "the United States of North America" in the first sentence, then uses "the said United States" afterwards; "the United States of America" and "the United States of North America" derive from "the United Colonies of America" and "the United Colonies of North America". The Treaty of Peace and Amity of September 5, 1795 between the United States and the Barbary States contains the usages "the United States of North America", "citizens of the United States", and "American Citizens". Semantic divergence among Anglophones did not affect the Spanish colonies. In 1801, the document titled Letter to American Spaniards — published in French (1799), in Spanish (1801), and in English (1808 — might have influenced Venezuela's Act of Independence and its 1811 constitution. The Latter-day Saints' Articles of Faith refer to the American continent as where they are to build Zion. Articles of Faith 1 . The Old Catholic Encyclopedia's usage of America is as "the Western Continent or the New World". It discusses American republics, ranging from the U.S. to the "the republic of Mexico, the Central American republics of Guatemala, Honduras, San Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Leon, and Panama; the Antillian republics of Haiti, Santo Domingo, and Cuba, and the South American republics of Venezuela, Colombia, Brazil, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay, the Argentine, and Chile". Catholic Encyclopedia: America . Different meanings The use of American as a national demonym for U.S. nationals is challenged, primarily by Latin Americans. Political and cultural views Latin America The Luxury Link travel guide advises U.S. nationals in Mexico to not refer to themselves as Americans, because Mexicans consider themselves Americans. The Getting Through Customs website advises business travellers not to use "in America" as a U.S. reference when conducting business in Brazil. In Latin America, usage not distinguishing between the word American denoting the Western hemisphere's landmass, and American exclusively denoting U.S. nationals is perceived as disadvantageous to Latin American countries dealing with U.S. foreign policy. Spain The Diccionario de la Lengua Española (Dictionary of the Spanish Language) published by the Real Academia Española (Royal Spanish Academy), defines estadounidense (United Statesman) as "someone or something from or relating to the United States", the common Spanish usage for U.S. people and things. People originating from, or who have lived in, the Western Hemisphere might be called americanos. Moreover, the Royal Spanish Academy advises against using americanos exclusively for U.S. nationals: Real Academia Española English translation: Canada Prior to Confederation in 1867, the word "Canadian" referred only to residents of the colony of Canada, which consisted of the territory of modern Quebec and Ontario. The term did not apply to residents of the colonies of New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island or Newfoundland. Collectively, the British colonies were known as British North America, and their residents referred to themselves as "British Americans." Since the War of 1812, in which the U.S.A. attempted but failed to extend its borders northward, the term "American" acquired a pejorative context within Canada. Even since the BNA Act of 1867, which defines the word Canada in its modern context, the pejorative context of the term "American" remains widespread. Canadians seldom refer to their southern neighbor as "America", using the terms "the United States", "the U.S.", or (informally) "the States" instead, Fee, Margery and McAlpine, J. 1997. Oxford Guide to Canadian English Usage. (ISBN 0-19-541619-8) Toronto: Oxford University Press; p. 36. although "American" is the usual demonym in modern Canadian English. Modern Canadians rarely apply the term American to themselves – some Canadians resent being referred to as Americans because of mistaken assumptions that they are U.S. citizens or an inability, particularly of people overseas, to distinguish Canadian English and American English accents. Some Canadians protested the use of American as a national demonym in the past. When Canadians need to refer to the larger continental context, North American (or North and South American), not "American", is the term in current usage. People of U.S. ethnic origin in Canada are categorized as "American (U.S.)" by Statistics Canada for purposes of census counts. 97F0010XCB2001001 The terms Étasunien and Étatsunisien are sometimes used in Québec French as a demonym for American citizens in place of the more common Américain. Portugal and Brazil Generally, Americano denotes "U.S. citizen" in Portugal. Usage of americano to exclusively denote people and things of the U.S. is discouraged by the Academia das Ciências de Lisboa (Lisbon Academy of Sciences), because the specific word estado-unidense (also estadunidense) clearly denotes a "United Statesman" and a "United Stateswoman". In Brazil, the term americano (American) is used to address both that which pertains to the American continent and, in current speech, that which pertains to the U.S.A. (the particular meaning is deduced from context). Alternatively the term "norte-americano" (North American) is also used in more informal contexts while "estadunidense" (united satesman) is the preferred form in academia. The term "América" (America) on the other hand is used almost exclusevily for the continent as the U.S.A. are called "Estados Unidos" (United States) or "Estados Unidos da América" (United States of America). United States "United States or American" ancestry by county, per 2000 U.S. Census. (Dark colors represent higher relative density.) The United States Census Bureau reports 7.3 percent of U.S. residents to be of "United States or American" ancestry United States - QT-P13. Ancestry: 2000 based on responses to the 2000 Census long-form questionnaire (1 in 6 sample). Discrete responses of United States and American or an ambiguous response or a state-name response (excluding Hawaii) were aggregated as "United States or American". Distinct racial and ethnic groups such as "American Indian", "Mexican American", "African American", and "Hawaiian" were coded separately. Diplomatic usage of American varies; in a speech given in Honduras, U.S. president Bill Clinton, speaking in Spanish, said: "... todos somos americanos" (... we are all Americans), as translated by the Washington Post newspaper and the CNN television program. American in other contexts American in the Associated Press Stylebook (1994) is defined as: "An acceptable description for a resident of the United States. It also may be applied to any resident or citizen of nations in North or South America". Elsewhere, the AP Stylebook indicates that "United States" must "be spelled out when used as a noun. Use U.S. (no space) only as an adjective". The New York Times Manual of Style and Usage (1999) America entry reads: the "terms America, American(s) and Americas refer not only to the United States, but to all of North America and South America. They may be used in any of their senses, including references to just the United States, if the context is clear. The countries of the Western Hemisphere are collectively the Americas ". American in international law International law uses "U.S. citizen" in defining a citizen of the United States, not American citizen, which is an informal, non-legal usage; an excerpt from the North American Free Trade Agreement: American in U.S. Law (general) American was defined in the sixth edition (1990) of Black's Law Dictionary as: "Of or pertaining to the United States". The two more recent (1999 and 2004) editions have no such entry. American in U.S. commercial regulation Products that are labelled, advertised, and marketed in the U.S. as "American Made" must be "all or virtually all made in the U.S." The Federal Trade Commission, to prevent deception of customers and unfair competition, considers an unqualified claim of "American Made" to expressly claim exclusive manufacture in the U.S. "The FTC Act gives the Commission the power to bring law enforcement actions against false or misleading claims that a product is of U.S. origin." Complying with the Made In the USA Standard US national in other languages English, French, German, Italian, Japanese, Japanese: アメリカ人 amerika-jin Hebrew, Arabic, Portuguese, and Russian speakers may use the term American to refer to either inhabitants of the Americas or to US nationals. They generally have other terms specific to US nationals, such as German US-Amerikaner, French étatsunien, Japanese 米国人 beikokujin, and Italian statunitense, but these may be less common than the term American. Adjectives derived from "United States" (such as United Statesian) are awkward in English, but similar constructions exist in Spanish (estadounidense or estadinense), Portuguese (estado-unidense, estadunidense) and Finnish (yhdysvaltalainen: from Yhdysvallat, United States), and also in French (états-unien), and Italian (statunitense). In Spanish, estadounidense, estado-unidense or estadunidense are preferred to americano for U.S. nationals; the latter tends to refer to any resident of the Americas and not necessarily from the United States. In Portuguese, estado-unidense(or estadunidense) is the recommended form by language regulators but today it is less frequently used than americano and norte-americano. Latin Americans also may employ the term norteamericano (North American), which conflates the United States and Canada and generally excludes Mexico. With the 1994 passage of the North American Free Trade Agreement, the following words were used to label the United States Section of that organization: in French, étatsunien; in Spanish, estadounidense. In English the adjective used to indicate relation to the United States is U.S. The word Gringo is widely used in parts of Latin America in reference to U.S. residents, often in a pejorative way but not necessarily. Yanqui (Yankee) is also very common in some regions, but it is usually pejorative. Throughout Latin America the word Gringo is also used for any foreigner from the United States, Canada, or Europe, however the true sense of the word is a foreigner that is tall, very light skinned (white), and often with blond or red hair. In other languages, however, there is no possibility for confusion. Chinese měiguórén Standard Mandarin pronunciation; written 美國人 (traditional), 美国人 (simplified) for example, is derived from a word for the United States, měiguó, where měi is an abbreviation for Yàměilìjiā "America" and guó is "country". The name for the continent of America is měizhōu, 美洲 from měi plus zhōu "continent". Thus a měizhōurén is an American in the generic sense, and a měiguórén is an American in the US sense. Similar words are found in Korean 미국(인) Migug(in) vs. 아메리카(인) Amerika(in) and Vietnamese. (người) Hoa Kỳ 花旗 vs. (người) Châu Mỹ 洲美; the term for the US is taken from its flag. Japanese has such terms as well, 米国(人) beikoku(jin) vs. 米洲人 beishū(jin), but they are found more in newspaper headlines than in speech, where amerikajin predominates. In Swahili, the more naturalized word Marekani means specifically the United States, and Wamarekani are US nationals, whereas the international form Amerika refers to the continent, and Waamerika are the inhabitants thereof. Likewise, the Esperanto word Ameriko refers only to the continent. For the country there is the term Usono, cognate with the English word Usonia later popularized by Frank Lloyd Wright. Thus a citizen of the United States is an usonano, whereas an amerikano is an inhabitant of the Americas. Alternative adjectives for U.S. citizens There are a number of alternatives to the demonym "American" (a citizen of the United States) that do not simultaneously mean any inhabitant of the Americas. One uncommon alternative is "Usonian," which usually describes a certain style of residential architecture designed by Frank Lloyd Wright. Over the years, many other alternatives have also surfaced, but most have long fallen into disuse and obscurity. Merriam-Webster's Dictionary of English Usage says, "The list contains (in approximate historical order from 1789 to 1939) such terms as Columbian, Columbard, Fredonian, Frede, Unisian, United Statesian, Colonican, Appalacian, Usian, Washingtonian, Usonian, Uessian, U-S-ian, Uesican, United Stater." Merriam-Webster's Dictionary of English Usage, p. 88. Merriam-Webster: 1994. Nevertheless, no alternative to "American" is common. See also Americas (terminology) References Scholarly sources Chapter 8: “...So near the United States”. 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5,173 | Krakatoa | Krakatoa (), also spelled Krakatao, is a volcanic island in the Sunda Strait between the islands of Java and Sumatra in Indonesia. The name is used for the island group, the main island (also called Rakata), and the volcano as a whole. Historical significance The best-known eruption of Krakatoa culminated in a series of massive explosions on August 26–27, 1883, which was among the most violent volcanic events in modern and recorded history. With a Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) of 6, the eruption was equivalent to 200 megatons (MT) of TNT—about 13,000 times the nuclear yield of the Little Boy bomb (13 to 16 kT) that devastated Hiroshima, Japan during World War II and four times the yield of the Tsar Bomba (50 MT), the largest nuclear device ever detonated. The 1883 eruption ejected approximately of rock, ash, and pumice. The Volcano That Shook the world: Krakatoa 1883Deborah Hopkinson. Storyworks. New York: Jan 2004. Vol. 11, Iss. 4; pg. 8 from Scholastic.com The cataclysmic explosion was distinctly heard as far away as Perth in Western Australia, about away, and the island of Rodrigues near Mauritius, about away. Near Krakatoa, according to official records, 165 villages and towns were destroyed and 132 seriously damaged, at least 36,417 (official toll) people died, and many thousands were injured by the eruption, mostly from the tsunamis that followed the explosion. The eruption destroyed two-thirds of the island of Krakatoa. Eruptions at the volcano since 1927 have built a new island in the same location, named Anak Krakatau (Indonesian: "Child of Krakatoa"). This island currently has a radius of roughly and a high point around above sea level, growing each year. Origin and spelling of the name Although there are earlier descriptions of an island in the Sunda Strait with a "pointed mountain", the earliest mention of Krakatoa by name in the Western world was on a 1611 map by Lucas Janszoon Waghenaer, who labeled the island "Pulo Carcata". (Pulo is a form of pulau, the Indonesian word for "island".) About two dozen variants have been found, including Crackatouw, Cracatoa, and Krakatao (in an older Portuguese-based spelling). The first known appearance of the spelling Krakatau was by Wouter Schouten, who passed by "the high tree-covered island of Krakatau" in October 1658. The origin of the Indonesian name Krakatau is uncertain. The main theories are: Onomatopoeia, imitating the noise made by cockatoos (Kakatoes) which used to inhabit the island. However, Van den Berg points out that these birds are found only in the "eastern part of the archipelago" (meaning the Lesser Sundas, east of Java). (See Wallace Line). From Sanskrit karka or karkata or karkataka, meaning "lobster" or "crab". (Rakata also means "crab" in the older Javan language.) This is considered the most likely origin. The closest Malay word is kelakatu, meaning "white-winged ant". Furneaux points out that in pre-1883 maps, Krakatoa does somewhat resemble an ant seen from above, with Lang and Verlaten lying to the sides like wings. Van den Berg (1884) recites a story that Krakatau was the result of a linguistic error. According to the legend, a visiting ship's captain asked a local inhabitant the island's name, and the latter replied, "Kaga tau" (Aku nggak tau)—a Jakartan/Betawinese slang phrase meaning "I don't know". This story is largely discounted; it closely resembles other linguistic myths about the origin of the word kangaroo and the name of the Yucatán Peninsula. There are two generally accepted modern spellings, Krakatau and Krakatoa, although it must be mentioned that Krakatau is frequently misstated as Krakatoa http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/allnames.htm and Krakatau is the only official name. This is most likely caused by a British journalist (the result of a typographical error: the journalist swapped the 'a' and 'o' of the Portuguese spelling) who reported on the massive eruption of 1883. Also, like Egypt a couple of decades earlier, Polynesia (South Pacific) was in vogue in the late 19th century, and the Polynesian-like suffix -oa (as in Samoa) may have caught on as a result. While Krakatoa is more common in the English-speaking world, the Indonesian Krakatau tends to be favored by others, including geologists. Verbeek seems to have started the modern convention of using Krakatau for the island proper and reserving Rakata for the main cone. Geographical setting The Sunda Strait Indonesia has over 130 active volcanoes, the most of any nation. They make up the axis of the Indonesian island arc system, which was produced by northeastward subduction of the Indo-Australian Plate. A majority of these volcanoes lie along Indonesia's two largest islands, Java and Sumatra. These two islands are separated by the Sunda Straits, which are located at a bend in the axis of the island arc. Krakatoa is directly above the subduction zone of the Eurasian Plate and the Indo-Australian Plate where the plate boundaries make a sharp change of direction, possibly resulting in an unusually weak crust in the region. Krakatau Islands, 18 May 1992 Before the 1883 eruption, Krakatoa comprised three main islands: Lang ("long", now called Rakata Kecil or Panjang) and Verlaten ("forsaken" or "deserted", now Sertung), which were edge remnants of a previous very large caldera-forming eruption; and Krakatoa itself, an island long by wide. Also there was a tree-covered islet near Lang named Poolsche Hoed ("Polish hat", apparently because it looked like one from the sea) and several small rocks or banks between Krakatoa and Verlaten. There were three volcanic cones on Krakatoa: Rakata, () to the south; Danan, () to the north; and Perboewatan, () to the north (Danan may have been a twin volcano). Pre-1883 history At some point in prehistory, an earlier caldera-forming eruption occurred, leaving as remnants Verlaten, Lang, Poolsche Hoed, and the base of Rakata. Later, at least two more cones (Perboewatan and Danan) formed and eventually joined with Rakata, forming the main island of Krakatoa. The dating of these events is currently unknown; the Sunda Strait was first mentioned by Arab sailors around 1100 AD. 416 AD event The Javanese Book of Kings (Pustaka Raja) records that in the year 338 Saka (416 AD): There is no geological evidence of a Krakatoa eruption of this size around that time; it may describe loss of land which previously joined Java to Sumatra across what is now the narrow east end of the Sunda Strait; or it may be a mistaken date, referring to an eruption in 535 AD, for which there is some corroborating historical evidence. 535 AD event David Keys, Ken Wohletz, and others have postulated that a violent volcanic eruption, possibly of Krakatoa, in 535 may have been responsible for the global climate changes of 535-536. Wohletz KH, 2000, Were the Dark Ages triggered by volcano-related climate changes in the 6th century? EOS Trans Amer Geophys Union 48(81), F1305. Keys explores what he believes to be the radical and far-ranging global effects of just such a putative 6th-century eruption in his book Catastrophe: An Investigation into the Origins of the Modern World. Additionally, in recent times, it has been argued that it was this eruption which created the islands of Verlaten, Lang, and the beginnings of Rakata—all indicators of early Krakatoa's caldera's size. However, to date, little, if any, datable charcoal from that eruption has been found. Thornton (p. 47) mentions that Krakatoa was known as "The Fire Mountain" during Java's Cailendra dynasty, with records of seven eruptive events between the 9th and 16th centuries. These have been tentatively dated as 850, 950, 1050, 1150, 1320, and 1530 (all AD/CE). 1680 In February 1681, Johann Wilhelm Vogel, a Dutch mining engineer at Salida, Sumatra (near Padang), on his way to Batavia (modern Jakarta) passed through the Sunda Strait. In his diary he wrote: Vogel spent several months in Batavia, returning to Sumatra in November 1681. On the same ship were several other Dutch travelers, including Elias Hesse, who would be called a travel writer nowadays. Hesse's journal reports that on Vogel returned to Amsterdam in 1688 and published the first edition of his journal in 1690. These reports of an eruption in 1680-81 pose somewhat of a puzzle. These are the only two reports of an eruption that have been found to date, yet at the time, the Sunda Strait was one of the heaviest-traveled waterways in the world. Records for this time period are particularly detailed, because there was an intense effort to wipe out pirates that were preying on vessels in the Strait. Neither Vogel nor Hesse mention Krakatoa in any real detail in their other passings, and no other travelers at the time mention an eruption or evidence of one. (In November 1681, a pepper crop was being offered for sale.) Both Van den Berg and Verbeek conclude from this that Vogel must have exaggerated the extent of the eruption he saw. Even so, there must have been an eruption around this time, since in 1880, Verbeek investigated a fresh unweathered lava flow at the northern coast of Perboewatan, which could not have been more than a couple of centuries old. Visit by HMS Discovery In February 1780, the crews of HMS Resolution and HMS Discovery, on the way home after Captain James Cook's death in Hawaii, stopped for a few days on Krakatoa. They found two springs on the island, one fresh water and the other hot. They described the natives who then lived on the island as "friendly" and made several sketches. (In his journal, John Ledyard calls the island "Cocoterra".) Dutch activity In 1620, the Dutch set up a naval station on the islands, and somewhat later, a shipyard was built. Sometime in the late 1600s, an attempt was made to establish a pepper plantation on Krakatoa, but generally, the islands were ignored by Dutch colonial authorities. In 1809, a penal colony was established at an unspecified location which was in operation for about a decade. By the 1880s, the islands were without permanent inhabitants; the nearest settlement was the nearby island of Sebesi (about 12 km away), with a population of about 3000. Several surveys and charts were made, but mainly for the purpose of mariners, and the islands were little explored or studied. An 1854 map of the islands was used in an English chart, which shows some difference to a Dutch chart made in 1874. In July 1880, Rogier Verbeek made an official survey of the islands, but he was only allowed to spend a few hours there. He was able to collect samples from several places, and his investigation proved important in judging the geological impact of the 1883 eruption. Symons, G.J. (ed) The Eruption of Krakatoa and Subsequent Phenomena (Report of the Krakatoa Committee of the Royal Society). London, 1888 The 1883 eruption While seismic activity around the volcano was intense in the years preceding the cataclysmic 1883 eruption, a series of lesser eruptions beginning in mid-June 1883 led up to the disaster. The volcano released huge plumes of steam and ash, lasting until late August. On August 27, a series of four huge explosions almost entirely destroyed the island. The explosions were so violent that they were heard away in Perth, Western Australia and the island of Rodrigues near Mauritius, away. The Independent, May 3 2006."How Krakatoa made the biggest bang." The pressure wave from the final explosion was recorded on barographs around the world, which continued to register it up to 5 days after the explosion. The recordings show that the shockwave from the final explosion reverberated around the globe 7 times in total. Ash was propelled to a height of . The combined effects of pyroclastic flows, volcanic ashes and tsunamis had disastrous results in the region. The official death toll recorded by the Dutch authorities was 36,417, although some sources put the estimate at 120,000 or more. There are numerous documented reports of groups of human skeletons floating across the Indian Ocean on rafts of volcanic pumice and washing up on the east coast of Africa, up to a year after the eruption. In the year following the eruption, average global temperatures fell by as much as 1.2 degrees Celsius. Weather patterns continued to be chaotic for years, and temperatures did not return to normal until 1888. Subsequent volcanism Eruption in 1999 Anak Krakatau Verbeek, in his report on the eruption, predicted that any new activity would manifest itself in the region which had been between Perboewatan and Danan. This prediction came true on 29 December 1927, when evidence of a submarine eruption was seen in this area (an earlier event in the same area had been reported in June 1927). A few days later, a new island volcano, named Anak Krakatau ("Child of Krakatoa"), broke water. Initially, the eruptions were of pumice and ash, and it (and two later islands) was quickly eroded away by the sea; but eventually Anak Krakatau #4 (broke water in August 1930) produced lava flows faster than the waves could erode them. Of considerable interest to volcanologists, this has been the subject of extensive study. Current activity Volcanic activity at Anak Krakatau Since the 1950s, Anak Krakatau has grown at an average rate of five inches (13 cm) per week. The island is still active, with its most recent eruptive episode having begun in 1994. Since then, quiet periods of a few days have alternated with almost continuous Strombolian eruptions, with occasional much larger explosions. The most recent eruption began in April 2008, when hot gases, rocks, and lava were released. Scientists monitoring the volcano have warned people to stay out of a 3 km zone around the island. Indonesia's Krakatau roars, dazzles with fireworks - in.reuters.com Nov 11, 2007. Biological research The islands have become a major case study of island biogeography and founder populations in an ecosystem being built from the ground up in an environment virtually sterilized. The islands had been little explored or surveyed before the 1883 catastrophe—only two pre-1883 biological collections are known: one of plant specimens and the other part of a shell collection. From descriptions and drawings made by the HMS Discovery, the flora appears to have been representative of a typical Javan tropical climax forest. The pre-1883 fauna is virtually unknown but was probably typical of the smaller islands in the area. The Krakatau problem Biologically, the Krakatau problem refers to the question of whether the islands were completely sterilized by the 1883 eruption or whether some life survived. When the first researchers reached the islands in May 1884, the only living thing they found was a spider in a crevice on the south side of Rakata. Life has quickly recolonized the islands, however—Verbeek's visit in October 1884 found grass shoots already growing. The eastern side of the island has been extensively vegetated by trees and shrubs, presumably brought there as seeds washed up by ocean currents or carried in birds' droppings (or brought by natives and scientific investigators). It is, however, in a somewhat fragile position, and the vegetated area has been badly damaged by recent eruptions. Handl's occupancy A German, Johann Handl, obtained a permit to mine pumice in October 1916 (Thornton). His lease was for , which was basically the eastern half of the island, for 30 years. He occupied the south slope of Rakata from 1915 to 1917, when he left due to "violation of the terms of the lease." (Winchester gives the date of Handl's leaving as late 1917–1921.) Handl built a house and planted a garden with "4 European families and about 30 coolies". He is also believed to have introduced Rattus rattus (Black Rat). He also found unburned wood below the 1883 ash deposits when digging, and fresh water was found below . National park After Handl's departure, the western half of Rakata and Verlaten were designated a national monument in July 1919. The eastern half was added in 1925, and the islands were included in the Ujung Kulon Reserve, which had been established in 1921. In 1982, Ujung Kulon was made a national park. This led to a political problem since the Krakatoa Islands are politically controlled by the Lampung province of Sumatra, but part of a Javan park. This paradox was resolved in 1990, when Krakatoa was made a separate nature reserve. Park rangers have a station on Sertung, from which they patrol, but as of 1996, they have no permanent patrol boats. See also List of deadliest natural disasters List of volcanoes in Indonesia Krakatoa documentary and historical materials Krakatoa in media and popular culture Noctilucent cloud Plinian eruption San Benedicto Island Volcanic Explosivity Index (includes list of large eruptions) Notes References Dickins, Rosie; The Children's Book of Art (An introduction to famous paintings) Usborne Publishing Ltd., Usborne House, 83-85 Saffron Hill, London ISBN 978-0-439-88981-0 (2005) Furneaux, Rupert; Krakatoa Secker and Warburg, London (1965) Simkin, Tom and Richard S. Fiske (editors); Krakatau, 1883--the volcanic eruption and its effects Smithsonian Institution Press, Washinton, D.C. ISBN 0-87474-841-0 (1983) Symons, G.J. (ed); The Eruption of Krakatoa and Subsequent Phenomena (Report of the Krakatoa Committee of the Royal Society) London (1888) Thornton, Ian; Krakatau: The Destruction and Reassembly of an Island Ecosystem (1996) Verbeek, Rogier Diederik Marius; Krakatau Batavia (1885) Winchester, Simon; Krakatoa: The Day the World Exploded: August 27, 1883 HarperCollins, New York ISBN 0066212855 (2003) External links Krakatau image gallery from Volcano World, Public Outreach project of the North Dakota and Oregon Space Grant Consortia administered by the Department of Geosciences at Oregon State University "In het Rijk van Vulcaan" — "In the Realm of the Volcano", eyewitness account by R.A. van Sandick (in Dutch) Natural wonders: Krakatau basic info about the 1883 eruption from the University of South Florida 1883 Eruption of Krakatau from the United States Geological Survey's Cascades Volcano Observatory Krakatau, Indonesia (1883) information from San Diego State University about the 1883 eruption Krakatoa Volcano: The Son Also Rises — Companion website to the NPR programme On-line images of some of Ashcroft's sunset sketches. | Krakatoa |@lemmatized krakatoa:37 also:9 spell:3 krakatao:2 volcanic:10 island:53 sunda:8 strait:9 java:5 sumatra:6 indonesia:6 name:10 use:4 group:2 main:5 call:4 rakata:11 volcano:17 whole:1 historical:3 significance:1 best:1 know:5 eruption:43 culminate:1 series:3 massive:2 explosion:9 august:5 among:1 violent:3 event:6 modern:5 recorded:1 history:2 explosivity:2 index:2 vei:1 equivalent:1 megaton:1 mt:2 tnt:1 time:9 nuclear:2 yield:2 little:4 boy:1 bomb:1 kt:1 devastate:1 hiroshima:1 japan:1 world:10 war:1 ii:1 four:2 tsar:1 bomba:1 large:5 device:1 ever:1 detonate:1 eject:1 approximately:1 rock:3 ash:6 pumice:4 shake:1 hopkinson:1 storyworks:1 new:5 york:2 jan:1 vol:1 pg:1 scholastic:1 com:2 cataclysmic:2 distinctly:1 hear:2 far:2 away:7 perth:2 western:4 australia:2 rodrigues:2 near:6 mauritius:2 accord:2 official:5 record:6 village:1 town:1 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5,174 | List_of_FIPS_country_codes | This is a list of FIPS 10-4 country codes for Countries, Dependencies, Areas of Special Sovereignty, and Their Principal Administrative Divisions. The two-letter country codes are used by the U.S. Government for geographical data processing in many publications, such as the CIA World Factbook. The standard is also known as DAFIF 0413 ed 7 Amdt. No. 3 (Nov 2003) and as DIA 65-18 (Defense Intelligence Agency, 1994, "Geopolitical Data Elements and Related Features"). The FIPS 10-4 codes are similar to (but sometimes incompatible with) the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 country codes. The standard also includes codes for the top-level subdivision of the countries, similar to but usually incompatible with the ISO 3166-2 standard. The ISO 3166 codes are used by the United Nations and for Internet top-level country code domains. Non-sovereign entities are in parentheses. : A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Resources - See also__NOTOC__ A AA (Aruba) AC Antigua and Barbuda AE United Arab Emirates AF Afghanistan AG Algeria AJ Azerbaijan AL Albania AM Armenia AN Andorra AO Angola AQ (American Samoa) AR Argentina AS Australia AT (Ashmore and Cartier Islands) AU Austria AV (Anguilla) AX (Akrotiri) AY (Antarctica) AFS [(Africa)] B BA Bahrain BB Barbados BC Botswana BD (Bermuda) BE Belgium BF The Bahamas BG Bangladesh BH Belize BK Bosnia and Herzegovina BL Bolivia BM Burma (Myanmar) BN Benin BO Belarus BP Solomon Islands BQ (Navassa Island) BR Brazil BT Bhutan BU Bulgaria BV (Bouvet Island) BX Brunei BY Burundi C CA Canada CB Cambodia CD Chad CE Sri Lanka CF Republic of the Congo CG Democratic Republic of the Congo CH China CI Chile CJ (Cayman Islands) CK (Cocos (Keeling) Islands) CM Cameroon CN Comoros CO Colombia CQ (Northern Mariana Islands) CR (Coral Sea Islands) CS Costa Rica CT Central African Republic CU Cuba CV Cape Verde CW (Cook Islands) CY Cyprus D DA Denmark DJ Djibouti DO Dominica DQ (Jarvis Island) DR Dominican Republic DX (Dhekelia) E EC Ecuador EG Egypt EI Ireland EK Equatorial Guinea EN Estonia ER Eritrea ES El Salvador ET Ethiopia EZ Czech Republic F FG (French Guiana) FI Finland FJ Fiji FK (Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas)) FM Federated States of Micronesia FO (Faroe Islands) FP (French Polynesia) FQ (Baker Island) FR France FS (French Southern and Antarctic Lands) G GA The Gambia GB Gabon GG Georgia GH Ghana GI (Gibraltar) GJ Grenada GK (Guernsey) GL (Greenland) GM Germany GP (Guadeloupe) GQ (Guam) GR Greece GT Guatemala GV Guinea GY Guyana GZ (Gaza Strip) H HA Haiti HK (Hong Kong) HM (Heard Island and McDonald Islands) HO Honduras HQ (Howland Island) HR Croatia HU Hungary I IC Iceland ID Indonesia IM (Isle of Man) IN India IO (British Indian Ocean Territory) IP (Clipperton Island) IR Iran IS Israel IT Italy IV Côte d'Ivoire IZ Iraq J JA Japan JE (Jersey) JM Jamaica JN (Jan Mayen) JO Jordan JQ (Johnston Atoll) K KE Kenya KG Kyrgyzstan KN North Korea KQ (Kingman Reef) KR Kiribati KS South Korea KT (Christmas Island) KU Kuwait KV Kosovo KZ Kazakhstan L LA Laos LE Lebanon LG Latvia LH Lithuania LI Liberia LO Slovakia LQ (Palmyra Atoll) LS Liechtenstein LT Lesotho LU Luxembourg LY Libya M MA Madagascar MB (Martinique) MC (Macau) MD Moldova MF (Mayotte) MG Mongolia MH (Montserrat) MI Malawi MJ Montenegro MK Macedonia ML Mali MN Monaco MO Morocco MP Mauritius MQ (Midway Islands) MR Mauritania MT Malta MU Oman MV Maldives MX Mexico MY Malaysia MZ Mozambique N NC (New Caledonia) NE (Niue) NF (Norfolk Island) NG Niger NH Vanuatu NI Nigeria NL Netherlands NO Norway NP Nepal NR Nauru NS Suriname NT (Netherlands Antilles) NU Nicaragua NZ New Zealand P PA Paraguay PC (Pitcairn Islands) PE Peru PF (Paracel Islands) PG (Spratly Islands) PK Pakistan PL Poland PM Panama PO Portugal PP Papua New Guinea PS Palau PU Guinea-Bissau Q QA Qatar R RE (Réunion) RI Serbia RM Marshall Islands RN (Saint Martin) RO Romania RP Philippines RQ (Puerto Rico) RS Russia RW Rwanda S SA Saudi Arabia SB (Saint Pierre and Miquelon) SC Saint Kitts and Nevis SE Seychelles SF South Africa SG Senegal SH (Saint Helena) SI Slovenia SL Sierra Leone SM San Marino SN Singapore SO Somalia SP Spain ST Saint Lucia SU Sudan SV (Svalbard) SW Sweden SX (South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands) SY Syria SZ Switzerland T TB (Saint Barthelemy) TD Trinidad and Tobago TH Thailand TI Tajikistan TK (Turks and Caicos Islands) TL (Tokelau) TN Tonga TO Togo TP Sao Tome and Principe TS Tunisia TT Timor-Leste TU Turkey TV Tuvalu TW Taiwan TX Turkmenistan TZ Tanzania U UG Uganda UK United Kingdom UP Ukraine US United States UV Burkina Faso UY Uruguay UZ Uzbekistan V VC Saint Vincent and the Grenadines VE Venezuela VI (British Virgin Islands) VM Vietnam VQ (United States Virgin Islands) VT Vatican City (Holy See) W WA Namibia WE (West Bank) WF (Wallis and Futuna) WI (Western Sahara) WQ (Wake Island) WS Samoa WZ Swaziland Y YM Yemen Z ZA Zambia ZI Zimbabwe Resources The above is taken from a US Government public-domain source at http://www.state.gov/s/inr/rls/4250.htm. (Independent States in the World) http://www.state.gov/s/inr/rls/10543.htm. (Dependencies and Areas of Special Sovereignty) The complete standard can be found at: http://www.itl.nist.gov/fipspubs/fip10-4.htm Updates to the standard are at http://earth-info.nga.mil/gns/html/fips_files.htm. 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5,175 | Book_of_Ruth | This article is about the ancient Hebrew religious text. For the 20th-century English-language novel, see The Book of Ruth (novel) The Book of Ruth (; Sephardic, Israeli Hebrew: [məgi'lat rut]; Ashkenazi Hebrew: [mə'gɪləs rus]; "the Scroll of Ruth") is one of the books of the Ketuvim ("Writings") of the Tanakh (the Hebrew Bible) and of the Historical Books of the Old Testament. It is a rather short book, in both Jewish and Christian scripture, consisting of only four chapters. Synopsis During the time of the Judges when there was a famine, an Israelite family from Bethlehem—Elimelech, his wife Naomi, and their sons Mahlon and Chilion—emigrate to the nearby country of Moab. Elimelech dies, and the sons marry two Moabite women: Mahlon marries Ruth and Chilion marries Orpah. The two sons of Naomi then die themselves. Naomi decides to return to Bethlehem. She tells her daughters-in-law to return to their own mothers, and remarry. Orpah reluctantly leaves; however, Ruth says, "Entreat me not to leave you, or to turn back from following you; For wherever you go, I will go; And wherever you lodge, I will lodge; Your people shall be my people, and your God, my God. Where you die, I will die, and there will I be buried. The LORD do so to me, and more also, if anything but death parts you and me." (Ruth 1:16-17 NKJV) The two women return to Bethlehem. It is the time of the barley harvest, and in order to support her mother-in-law and herself, Ruth goes to the fields to glean. The field she goes to belongs to a man named Boaz, who is kind to her because he has heard of her loyalty to her mother-in-law. Ruth tells her mother-in-law of Boaz's kindness, and she gleans in his field through the remainder of the harvest season. Boaz is a close relative of Naomi's husband's family. He is therefore obliged by the Levirate law to marry Mahlon's widow, Ruth, in order to carry on his family line. Naomi sends Ruth to the threshing floor at night and tells her to "uncover the feet" of the sleeping Boaz. Ruth does so, Boaz awakes, and Ruth reminds him that he is "the one with the right to redeem." Boaz states he is willing to "redeem" Ruth via marriage, but informs Ruth that there is another male relative who has the first right of redemption. The next morning, Boaz discusses the issue with the other male relative before the town elders. The other male relative is unwilling to jeopardise the inheritance of his own estate by marrying Ruth, and so relinquishes his right of redemption, thus allowing Boaz to marry Ruth. Boaz and Ruth get married and have a son named Obed (who by Levirate customs is also considered a son or heir to Mahlon, and thus Naomi's grandson). In the genealogy which concludes the story, it is pointed out that Obed is the descendant of Perez the son of Judah, and the grandfather of David. Authorship Naomi entreating Ruth and Orpah to return to the land of Moab by William Blake, 1795 Many of the books of the Old Testament do not identify their authors, and the Book of Ruth is one of these. There is, however, a historical tradition that alludes to a possibility. The Talmud refers to Samuel as the author, but scholars do not accept this tradition. Samuel died before David became king, and the way in which the author writes the genealogy in Ruth 4:18-22 supposes that the lineage is well known. Even the reference in Ruth 1:1 to the "days when the judges ruled..." indicates that the era had ended and that the audience was somewhat removed from the time. Furthermore, Ruth 4:7 states that the legal custom of taking off a shoe to seal the agreement is no longer in use. Only a generation exists between Samuel and Boaz; therefore, it is unlikely that the time span would require this explanation. Some scholars suggest that the author of the text is a woman. Two observations point in the direction of a woman author. First, the story centers on the life journey of two women in desperate straits in a male-dominated society and appears to be from the viewpoint of a woman. Second, Naomi and Ruth’s ingenuity and assertiveness propels the story line. However, female authorship is conjecture, supported by only circumstantial evidence. Title The full title in Hebrew is , Megillat Ruth, or "the scroll of Ruth", which places the book as one of the Five Megillot. Goswell argues that while Naomi is the central character of the book, Ruth is the main character, and so the book "can be considered aptly named."<ref>Gregory Goswell, "What's in a Name? Book Titles in the Latter Prophets and Writings," Pacfica 21 (2008), 8.</ref> Date The Book of Ruth, according to many scholars, was originally part of the Book of Judges, but it was later separated from that book and made independent. The opening verses explicitly place the Book of Ruth in the time of the Judges and it concludes with the Davidic lineage. Therefore, it is likely that the author wrote the story after the time of King David, though it is unknown how long after. One possibility is around 900 BC, shortly after David's reign. Scholars who choose this date link it to the importance of David’s lineage recorded at the end of Ruth. In Ruth 4:12 the author states that Ruth and Boaz’ child is named Obed and that Obed “…became the father of Jesse, the father of David.” The final verses trace the family line. On the other hand, the message of the book shows acceptance of the Israelites marrying converts to Judaism, and this has been used to suggest that the book was written during the postexilic period, perhaps around 500 BC. Ezra (10:2ff) and Nehemiah (13:23ff) record the problem that arose from the Israelites marrying foreign women. Instead of the wives converting to Judaism the Israelites began to follow their wives' gods. As a result, God’s people fell out of relationship with YHWH. For this reason, Ezra condemned intermarriages and forced the Israelites to abandon their non-Jewish wives. According to this theory, the book was written in response to Ezra's reform and in defense of a marriage to a foreign wife when the wife converts to Judaism. Acceptance of marriages to foreigners who convert to Judaism is further enforced by making the connection to the Davidic line since David is commonly seen as Israel's greatest king. Scholars who prefer the 500 B.C. date do so in reference to this dilemma, and such writers contend that the Book of Ruth demonstrates the belief that a marriage to a foreigner is acceptable to God when the foreigner follows God. In addition, the later date of 500 B.C is preferred when explaining the use of language in Ruth; however, scholars also realize that the linguistic style of the book could reflect the work of editors following the 900 B.C. date. Essentially, the dating of Ruth is ambiguous, and scholars cannot date the Book of Ruth with any degree of certainty. It is actually argued, in terms of language, that the book of Ruth is much more akin to an archaic style of Hebrew (J.M. Myers, The Linguistic and Literary Form of the Book of Ruth and Ronald M. Hals, The Theology of the Book of Ruth). It is much more likely that the author wrote in an "archaic" style of Hebrew because he lived in the time period when that form of Hebrew was normal, and that the Aramaic infiltrations in the book of Ruth were later inserted. This is much more easily argued than the other stance that the book was written later (i.e. circa 500 B.C.) with archaic forms of Hebrew being inserted. Therefore, linguistically, it is believed that the Aramaic that is found in the book does not indicate that the book was written later, but that later editorship brought about certain linguistic changes, that, if not scrutinized, may be taken to be evidence for a late authorship. This has not held up well to most scholarship on the subject. Context Scholars agree that Ruth is a narrative story, and they often use terms like 'novella' to describe it. The plot of a novella is more central than historical data; however, that is not to say this style of writing ignores historical facts or for that matter theological precepts. This style of writing reflects the craftsmanship of the writer. The mood of the story is fashioned from the start through the meanings hidden in the names of the participants. Elimelech, which means "my God is King," Elimelech, Blue Letter Bible Lexicon foreshadows the continuance of his line to King David, who is God’s anointed on earth. Naomi, which means "my gracious one" or "my delight," Naomi, Blue Letter Bible Lexicon later asks to be called Mara, "the bitter one." Mara, Blue Letter Bible Lexicon Naomi’s name change elicits the emotions that she is experiencing and the direction of the story. Even the names of the two sons, Mahlon ("sick") Mahlon, Blue Letter Bible Lexicon and Chilion ("weakening" or "pining") Chilion, Blue Letter Bible Lexicon alerts the reader to their physical conditions. Orpah (meaning "mane" or "gazelle", from the root for "nape" or "back of the neck") Orpah, Blue Letter Bible Lexicon turns her back on Naomi and returns to her people; Ruth (meaning "friend") Ruth, Blue Letter Bible Lexicon pledges her loyalty to Naomi. Boaz ("fleetness" Boaz, Blue Letter Bible Lexicon or "strength is (in) him" or "he comes in strength") becomes the kinsman redeemer and Obed’s name appropriately means "servant." Obed, Blue Letter Bible Lexicon Obed is the ancestor of King David, and Israel’s kings are servants of Yahweh. The use of names in the Book of Ruth deepens the story’s narrative strength and assists the reader in appreciating the text’s meaning. The marriage of Boaz and Ruth was of a type known as a Levirate marriage. Redemption Easton Dictionary Easton Dictionary is a feature of Levirate marriage, and it is a duty taught in Deuteronomy (25:5-10). This custom required a close relative to marry the widow of the deceased (the kinsman) in order to continue his family line. Interestingly, Ruth is not Elimelech’s widow and Boaz is not his brother. Therefore, some scholars refer to Boaz’ duty as “Levirate-like” or as a "kinsman-marriage." LaSor et al. Moreover, the Israelites understanding of redemption included both that of people and of land. In Israel land had to stay in the family. The family could mortgage the land to ward off poverty; and the law of Leviticus 25:25ff required a kinsman to purchase it back into the family. The kinsman, who Boaz meets at the city gate, first says he will purchase the land, but upon hearing he must also take Ruth as his wife he withdraws his offer. His decision was primarily a financial decision since a child born to Ruth through the union would inherit Elimelech’s land, and he would not be reimbursed for the money he paid Naomi. Boaz becomes Ruth and Naomi’s "kinsman-redeemer." The Israelites' understanding of redemption is woven into their understanding of Yahweh. God stands by the oppressed and needy. He extends his love and mercy offering a new freedom and hope. God has a deep concern for the welfare of his people, materially, emotionally and spiritually. The redemption theme extends beyond this biblical book through the genealogy. First, in Ruth 4:13 God made her conceive. Second, through the genealogy it is shown that the son born to Naomi is more than just a gift from God to continue her lineage. The history of God’s rule through the David line connects the book’s theme in to the Bible’s main theme of redemptive history.Hesed, sometimes translated as "loving kindness," also implies loyalty. The theme of hesed is woven throughout Ruth, beginning at 1:8 with Naomi blessing her two daughters-in-law as she urges them to return to their Moabite families. She says, “May the Lord deal kindly with you, as you have dealt with the dead and with me.” Both Ruth and Boaz demonstrate hesed to their family members throughout the story. These are not acts of kindness with an expectation of measure for measure. Rather, they are acts of hesed that go beyond measure and demonstrate that a person can be required to go beyond the minimum expectations of the law and choose the unexpected. However, the importance of the law is evident within the Book of Ruth, and the story reflects a need to stay within legal boundaries. Boaz, in going beyond measure in acquiring the property (demonstrating hesed), redeems not only the land but both Naomi and Ruth as well. The two widows now have a secure and protected future. Jewish and Christian perspectives In many ways, most of what Christians and Jews would draw from the text would be the same. The Book of Ruth has a unique significance to Jews. In particular, the figure of Ruth is celebrated as a convert to Judaism who understood Jewish principles and took them to heart. This book is also held in esteem by Jews who fall under the category of Jews-by-choice, as evident in the considerable presence of Boaz in rabbinic literature. For Christians the book has additional significance. The connection between Ruth and David is very important because Jesus of Nazareth was born of Mary, betrothed to Joseph of the lineage of David (see Chapter 3 in Luke and Chapter 1 in Matthew, respectively). Thus in Christian Biblical lineage, Ruth is a fore-mother of Jesus Christ (Matthew 1:5). The line can be traced as:Julius Schnorr von Carolsfeld: Ruth in Boaz's Field, 1828 Boaz, father of Obed Obed, father of Jesse Jesse, father of David David, ancestor of Joseph ... ... ... Joseph, husband of Mary, mother of Jesus The genealogy of Jesus that we find at the beginning of the Gospel of Matthew is a male lineage. Only four women from the Hebrew Bible (Old Testament) are included in this long lineage, one of whom is Ruth. Many Christians interpret Boaz and Ruth as typical of Jesus and the Church. Lessons from the Book of Ruth Ruth's famous words, "For wherever you go, I will go ...," are used in Catholic and some Protestant marriage services, underscoring the similarity of marriage and religious conversion. Ruth is also commemorated as a matriarch in the Calendar of Saints of the Lutheran Church - Missouri Synod on July 16. Family tree of those mentioned Notes References Atkinson, David J. Message of Ruth (Bible Speaks Today). Repr. ed. IVP., 1985. Baylis, Charles P. "Naomi in the book of Ruth in Light of the Mosaic Covenant". Bibliotheca Sacra 161, no. 644 (October-December 2004): 413-431. Bos, Johanna. Ruth, Esther, Jonah''. Paperback ed. Westminster John Knox Pr., 1986. Brenner, Athalya, ed. Ruth and Esther: A Feminist Companion to the Bible. Sheffield, England: Sheffield Academic Press, 1999. Buttrick, George Arthur and board, eds. The Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible, Vol. 4. Nashville, Tennessee: Abingdon Press, 1962. Carmody, Denise Lardner and John Tully Carmody. Corn & Ivy: Spiritual Reading in Ruth and Jonah. Valley Forge, Pennsylvania: Trinity Press International, 1995. Coogan, et al., eds. The New Oxford Annotated Bible, 3d. ed. NRSV. Oxford: University Press, 2001. Hubbard, Robert L., Jr. The Book of Ruth. Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1988. Korpel, Marjo C.A. The Structure of the Book of Ruth. The Netherlands: Royal Van Gorcum, 2001. Larkin, Katrina J.A. Ruth and Esther. England: Sheffield Academic Press Ltd., 1996. LaSor, William Sanford et al. Old Testament Survey: The Message, Form, and Background of the Old Testament, 2d. ed. Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1996. Nielsen, Kirsten. Ruth: A Commentary. Louisville, Kentucky: Westminster John Knox Press, 1997. Olson, Harriett Jane, ed. director. The New Interpreter’s Bible: Volume II, 2nd ed. Nashville, Tennessee: Abingdon Press, 1998. 891-896. Roop, Eugene F. Believers Church Bible Commentary. Scottdale, Pennsylvania: Herald Press, 2002. Sakenfeld, Katharine Doob. Ruth. Louisville, Kentucky: John Knox Press, 1999. Peipman, J. Darline The Book of Ruth: Line by Line. Xulon Press, 2004. The Book of Ruth: Precept Upon Precept. Xulon Press, 2007. Exhaustive studies of the book of Ruth. External links Jewish translations and study guides Ruth at Mechon Momre - (Jewish Publication Society of America Version) Jewish Virtual Library Jewish Encyclopedia Ruth with Rashi commentary (English translation) Christian translations and study guides The Kinsman Redeemer Online Bible - GospelHall.org Biblegateway Bible Study on Cross-Cultural Love - InterVarsity website Other links Catholic Encyclopedia Study notes on Ruth - Tim Bulkeley, Univ. of Auckland The Book of Ruth - A special reading for Shavuot - Rabbi Ronald H. 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5,176 | Gospel_of_Matthew | The Gospel of Matthew (Gk. , Kata Matthaion Euangelion or , To Euangelion kata Matthaion) is one of the four canonical gospels in the New Testament and is a synoptic gospel. It narrates an account of the life and ministry of Jesus of Nazareth. It describes his genealogy, his miraculous birth and childhood, his baptism and temptation, his ministry of healing and preaching in Galilee, his trip to Jerusalem marked by an incident in the Temple, and finally his crucifixion and resurrection. The resurrected Jesus commissions his Apostles to "go and make disciples of all nations." The Early Christian tradition attributes the Gospel to Matthew, one of Jesus' disciples. Beginning in the 18th century scholars have increasingly questioned that traditional view, and today most scholars agree Matthew did not write the Gospel which bears his name. Most contemporary scholars describe the author as an anonymous Christian writing towards the end of the first century. The consensus view of the contemporary New Testament scholars is that the Gospel was originally composed in Greek rather than being a translation from Aramaic or Hebrew. A majority of scholars believe today that Matthew (and Luke) used Mark's narrative of Jesus' life and death, plus the hypothetical Q document's record of Jesus' sayings while the minority argue that Matthew was the first, Luke expanded on Matthew and Mark is the conflation of Matthew and Luke. Of the four canonical gospels, Matthew is most closely aligned with first century Judaism. Matthew repeatedly stresses how Jesus fulfilled Jewish prophecies. Most scholars hold that the author was a Jewish Christian rather than a Gentile. The author arranged Jesus' teaching into five sermons: Sermon on the Mount (ch 5-7), the Mission discourse (ch 10), a collection of parables (ch 13), instructions for the community (ch 18) and finally teaching concerning the future (ch 24-25, also probably including the woes against the scribes and Pharisees in ch 23). Like the two other synoptic Gospels but in contrast with John, in Matthew Jesus talks more about the Kingdom of Heaven than himself, and teaches primarily using short parables or short sayings rather than extended speeches (as in John). Matthew's birth narrative, with the homage of the Wise Men, the flight into Egypt and the massacre of the innocents, has no parallel in other gospels and is different from Luke's corresponding account. The special commission given to Peter, found only in Matthew, has been highly influential. Matthew is also the only Gospel to mention the church (ecclesia). Jesus cites its authority and calls on his disciples to practice forgiveness (ch. 18). With its integration of Mark's narrative with Jesus' teachings and its emphasis on the church, Matthew was the most popular Gospel when they circulated separately. Harris, Stephen L., Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985. Matthew has a rhythmical and often poetical prose. Graham N. Stanton (1989), p.59 Of the Synoptics, it is the Gospel best suited for public reading, and it has probably always been the best-known of them. "Matthew, Gospel acc. to St." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005 Matthew includes a large amount of material containing teachings of Jesus; its Sermon on the Mount is widely respected and referred to, even by non-Christians. It is also distinguished by its widespread use of proof texts based on the Old Testament,anti-Jewish statements and harsh comments on Judgment. Graham N. Stanton (1989), p.60 Composition Saint Matthew, from the 9th-century Ebbo Gospels. Date of gospel The date of the gospel is not precisely known. The majority of scholars date the gospel between the years 70 and 100. Brown 1997, p. 172 Ehrman 2004, p. 110 and Harris 1985 both specify a range c. 80-85; However, Gundry 1982, Hagner 1993, and Blomberg 1992 argue for a date before 70AD. The writings of Ignatius show "a strong case ... for [his] knowledge of four Pauline epistles and the Gospel of Matthew" Foster, P. "The Epistles of Ignatius of Antioch and the Writings that later formed the NT," in Gregory & Tuckett, (2005), The Reception of the NT in the Apostolic Fathers OUP, p.186 ISBN 978-0199267828 , which gives a terminus ad quem of c. 110. The author of the Didache (c 100) probably knew it as well. Anti-supernaturalists have argued that since Jesus refers to the destruction of Jerusalem (e.g. Matthew 22:7) this gospel must have been written after the siege and destruction of Jerusalem by Romans in 70 AD. D. Moody Smith, Matthew the evangelist, Encyclopedia of Religion, vol. 9, p.5780 Some significant conservative scholars argue for a pre-70 date, generally considering the gospel to be written by the apostle Matthew. Brown 1997, pp. 216-7; Also Carson 1992, p.66 In December 1994, Carsten Peter Thiede redated the Magdalen papyrus, which bears a fragment in Greek of the Gospel of Matthew, to the late 1st century on palaeographical grounds, Thiede 1995 although Thiede's re-dating has generally been viewed with skepticism by established Biblical scholars i.e. Philip Comfort and David Barret (2001) Text of the Earliest NT Greek Manuscripts. In recent times, John Wenham, one of the biggest supporters of the Augustinian hypothesis, is among the more notable defenders of an early date for the Gospel of Matthew. Authorship The Early Christian tradition attributes the Gospel to Matthew, one of Jesus' disciples. This tradition of authorship dates from the writings of Papias in the first half of the second century AD. Beginning in the 18th century, however, critical scholars have increasingly questioned whether Matthew wrote the Gospel which bears his name. Bart Erhman (2004), p. 92 . Many contemporary scholars describe the author as an anonymous Christian writer, who wrote the gospel towards the end of the first century. According to Howard Clark Kee, it appears that Jesus' teachings and sayings were handed down orally until they were eventually written down. This theory is partly based upon "the fact that other, later Christian writings include sayings attributed to Jesus that resemble those in the gospels, but for which there is no exact equivalent." Howard Clark Kee (1997), p. 447 There are some indications that Matthew was written for a community of Jewish Christians. At Jesus instructs his disciples to treat an offending member of the community as "a Gentile and tax collector". White, p. 246 At Jesus and Peter discuss whether it is right to pay the Temple Tax. After suggesting that they should not have to pay it, Jesus miraculously provides a coin and instructs Peter to use it to pay the tax for both of them. White, p. 246 After the Jewish Revolt the Romans redirected the Temple Tax to pay for the cost of the war; this passage may be a reference to disputes within the Jewish Christian community over whether it was appropriate to continue to pay this tax. There are debates today as to whether or not Matthew is the true author of this book. The first evidence for Mattean authorship was believed to be Papias, a second century Bishop of Hierapolis. His findings are stated in Eusebius H.E. 3.39, that says, ‘Matthew made and ordered arrangement of the oracles in the Hebrew (or: Aramaic) language, and each one translated (or: interpreted) it as he was able’” (Allison and Davies 2004, xi). Although because Matthew is not stated as the author in the actual book modern scholars have rejected the claims that Matthew wrote this gospel. On the other side, there are no known debates about the authenticity of the Gospel of Matthew in the early church (unlike, for example, the book of Hebrews) Carson 1992, pp. 66-67 . Many scholars have asked “why would an eyewitness rely so heavily on the work of someone who was not an eyewitness” (DeSilva 2004, 234)? However, it is seen that Matthew only used the 90 percent of Mark’s Gospel as a foundation and he “would try not to reinvent that part of the wheel that worked for him, giving his attention rather to combining Mark’s building blocks with his own enormous collection of Jesus’ teachings” (DeSilva 2004, 235). The Gospel “is clearly Jewish, in dialogue with contemporary Jewish thought, and skilled in traditional Jewish interpretation of the Old Testament” (Keener 1999, 40) therefore it can be presumed that because Matthew was a Jew he could have written this Gospel. There is, however, not enough evidence to accurately label the author as Matthew or anyone else. Matthew the Evangelist Since the second century, the Christian tradition has attributed the Gospel to the disciple Matthew. Watson E. Mills, Richard F. Wilson, Roger Aubrey Bullard(2003), p.942 Arguments made to discount Matthew's authorship include the contention that the text was originally composed in Greek, not Aramaic, the Gospel's apparent heavy reliance on Mark (nearly universally agreed among scholars), and the lack of characteristics usually attributed to an eyewitness account. Ridderbos, Herman N. Matthew: Bible student's commentary. Zondervan, 1987. p. 7; from earlychristianwritings.com Bart D. Ehrman argues that the original manuscripts did not have names attached to them, a conclusion drawn from the fact that the surviving Greek manuscripts provide a wide variety of different titles for the Gospels. Had Matthew written the gospel, he would have called it by a title of the type "The Gospel of Jesus Christ" whereas the choice of the title “Gospel according to Matthew” indicates someone else trying to explain, at the outset, whose version of the story this one is. Furthermore, the Gospel always talks in third person and lacks phrases like "I and Jesus”, etc. It furthermore talks about the disciple Matthew in Matthew 9:9, but there is no indication that he is the person writing the account: (Matthew 9:9 reads: "as Jesus went on from there, he saw a man named Matthew sitting at the tax collector's booth. "Follow me," he told him, and Matthew got up and followed him") Bart Erhman, Jesus: Apocalyptic Prophet of the New Millennium, Oxford University Press, p.42, 248-249 Comparing the latter verse with Mark 2:13-14 that calls the tax collector by the name Levi, W. E. Mills et al. argue that this might be a conscious change on the part of the author, in turn indicating that the author belonged to a community whose foundation was indebted to the disciple Matthew. Some support Matthew's authorship by noting that the gospel reflects his occupation as a tax collector; the gospel attributed to him refers to money more often than any other, and does so using specific monetary terms Werner G. Marx, "Money Matters in Matthew," Bibliotheca Sacra 136:542 (April-June 1979):148- 57 . A Roman tax collector such as Matthew would have been highly capable of writing accurate and detailed records. If Matthew did write the gospel bearing his name, then his humility is evident, as he refers to his feast for Jesus as a dinner (Matthew 9:9-10), while Luke calls it as a great banquet (Luke 5:29). Instead of attempting to conceal Matthew's identity, which would be a sign of untrustworthiness, the author admits that Matthew was a tax collector, which was a highly unpopular job among first-century Jews, who often considered them as traitors and cronies of the Roman Empire. Thomas L. Constable, "Notes on Matthew" 3 - 5 Papias' church history The first reference to a text written by the disciple Matthew comes from Papias (bishop of Hierapolis in Asia Minor during the first half of the second century) around 120-130 AD. Papias discusses the origin of the gospel of Mark, and further remarks that "Matthew composed the logia in the Hebrew tongue and each one interpreted them as he was able". According to Ehrman this is not a reference to the gospel we have since the Gospel of Matthew was originally written in Greek and not Hebrew. Bart Ehrman, Jesus: Apocalyptic Prophet of the New Millennium, Oxford University Press, p.43 The interpretation of the above quote from Papias depends on the meaning of the term logia. The term literally means "oracles", but the intended meaning by Papias has been controversial. Traditionally this was taken as a reference to the gospel according to Matthew. Another view uses the fact that the early Church fathers also used "oracles" to refer to the words of the Old Testament, to argue that Matthew composed a list of prophecies or prooftexts from OT. Others say that this refers to a list of saying of Jesus (perhaps Q or something like Q, see below). Adopting the latter translation, Ehrman argues that Papias is not referring to our Matthew since it contains much more than sayings. Geoffrey William Bromiley, The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Publisher, p.281 Irenaeus and the four gospels Apart from Papias' comment, we do not hear about the author of the Gospel until Irenaeus around 185 AD who remarks that there are only four Gospels that had been inspired by God, and that they were written by Matthew, Mark, Luke and John. According to Ehrman, Irenaeus had reasons to convince his readers of the apostolic origin of the books: Irenaeus and many other Church leaders were involved in heated debate over correct doctrine. Irenaeus for example knew a large group of people who believed that there were two separate Gods, the God of the Old Testament and the God of the New Testament. Each group adhering to a certain doctrine had books in proof of their view. In order to support the authenticity of previously anonymous gospels, names were attached to them. The insistence on the disciple Matthew's authorship therefore, in Erhman's view, should be viewed as part of the campaign against heretics. Bart Erhman, Jesus: Apocalyptic Prophet of the New Millennium, Oxford University Press, p.44 Contemporary scholarship Modern scholars have made several suggestions as to the identity of the author: a converted Jewish rabbi or scribe, a Hellenised Jew, a Gentile convert who was deeply knowledgeable about the Jewish faith, or a member of a "school" of scribes within a Jewish-Christian community. Donald Harman Akenson, Surpassing Wonder: The Invention of the Bible and the Talmuds, 2001, University of Chicago Press, p.260 Most scholars hold that the author was a Jewish-Christian, rather than a Gentile. For a review of the debate see: Paul Foster, Why Did Matthew Get the Shema Wrong? A Study of Matthew 22:37, Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. 122, No. 2 (Summer, 2003), pp. 309-333 Some scholars have suggested that the author, in Matthew 13:52, may be hinting that he is a learned scribe when says: "every scribe who has become a disciple of the kingdom of heaven is like a head of a household, who brings out of his treasure things new and old." Anthony J. Saldarini (2003), p.1000 According to Browning, it is possible that the author came from a city whose Church was founded by the disciple Matthew. W. R. F. Browning, Gospel of Matthew, A dictionary of the Bible, Oxford University Press, p.245-246 Sources The Gospels of Mark, Matthew and Luke (known as Synoptic Gospels) include many of the same episodes, often in the same sequence, and often even in the same wording. The relationship of Matthew to the Gospels of Mark and Luke is an open question known as the synoptic problem. Out of a total of 1,071 verses, Matthew has 387 in common with Mark and the Gospel of Luke, 130 with Mark alone, 184 with Luke alone; only 370 being unique to itself. The great amount of overlap in sentence structure and word choice of the three Gospels has been explained by arguing that the Gospel writers either copied from each other, or they all copied from another common source. Although the author of Matthew wrote according to his own plans and aims and from his own point of view, most scholars agree he borrowed extensively from Mark, and possibly another source or sources as well. The most popular view in modern scholarship is the two-source hypothesis, which speculates that Matthew borrowed from both Mark and a hypothetical sayings collection, called Q (for the German Quelle, meaning "source"). A similar but less common view is the Farrer hypothesis, which theorizes that Matthew borrowed material only from Mark, and that Luke wrote last, using both earlier Synoptics. For most scholars, the Q collection accounts for what Matthew and Luke share — sometimes in exactly the same words — but are not found in Mark. Examples of such material are the Devil's three temptations of Jesus, the Beatitudes, the Lord's prayer and many individual sayings. Amy-Jill Levine (2001), p.372-373 Howard Clark Kee (1997), p. 448 Bart Erhman, Jesus: Apocalyptic Prophet of the New Millennium, Oxford University Press, p.80-81 According to one source, Matthew contains around 612 verses of the 662 verses of Mark, and mostly in exactly the same order. Graham N. Stanton (1989), p.63-64 Matthew however quite frequently removes or modifies from Mark redundant phrases or unusual words and modifies the passages in Mark that might put Jesus in a negative light (i.e. removing the highly critical comment that Jesus "was out of his mind" in Mark 3:21, removing "do you not care" from Mark 4:38 etc) Graham N. Stanton (1989), p.36 In The Four Gospels: A Study of Origins (1924), Burnett Hillman Streeter argued that a third source, referred to as M and also hypothetical, lies behind the material in Matthew that has no parallel in Mark or Luke. Streeter, Burnett H. The Four Gospels. A Study of Origins Treating the Manuscript Tradition, Sources, Authorship, & Dates. London: MacMillian and Co., Ltd., 1924. Throughout the remainder of the 20th century, there were various challenges and refinements of Streeter's hypothesis. For example, in his 1953 book The Gospel Before Mark, Pierson Parker posited an early version of Matthew (proto-Matthew) as the primary source of both Matthew and Mark, and the Q source used by Matthew. Pierson Parker. The Gospel Before Mark. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1953. A minority of scholars subscribe to Early Christian tradition, which asserts Matthean priority, with Mark borrowing from Matthew (see: Augustinian hypothesis and Griesbach hypothesis). For example, in 1911, the Pontifical Biblical Commission Commissio Pontificia de re biblicâ, established 1902 asserted that Matthew was the first gospel written, that it was written by the evangelist Matthew, and that it was written in Aramaic. Synoptics entry in Catholic Encyclopedia. Language Most New Testament scholars believe that the Gospel of Matthew was originally composed in Greek. There has, however, been extended discussion about the possibility of an earlier version in Aramaic. Gospel According to Matthew., Encyclopædia Britannica. There is a pervasive Jewish-Christian dimension in the Gospel of Matthew, suggesting that the author was of Jewish-Christian background and was writing for Christians of similar background: Christ's fulfillment of Old Testament prophecies are emphasized. Jesus is represented as a new lawgiver whose miracles are a confirmation of his divine mission. Some scholars have suggested that Papias' statement about Matthew's collection of Jesus' sayings is a reference to an earlier version of the Gospel in Aramaic that was used by the author of the Gospel of Matthew. Possible Aramaic or Hebrew gospel of Matthew There are numerous testimonies, starting from Papias and Irenaeus, that Matthew originally wrote in Hebrew letters and in the "Hebrew dialect", which some think refers to Aramaic. The sixteenth century Erasmus was the first to express doubts on the subject of an original Aramaic or Hebrew version of the Gospel of Matthew: "It does not seem probable to me that Matthew wrote in Hebrew, since no one testifies that he has seen any trace of such a volume." Here Erasmus distinguishes between a Gospel of Matthew in Hebrew letters and the partly lost Gospel of the Hebrews and Gospel of the Nazora. In more recent times, an expanding circle of scholars has rejected that Jesus would have spoken Aramaic and are now convinced that his native language was Hebrew and that the Gospels of Matthew and Mark were originally written in Hebrew. <ref>Jesus Rabbi & Lord by Robert L. Lindsey, Cornerstone, Oak Creek, WI, 1990</ref> Understanding the Difficult Words of Jesus by David Biven and Roy Blizzard, Destiny Image, Shippensburg, PA, 1995</ref><ref>Jewish Sources in Early Christianity by David Flusser, Adama Books, NY, 1987 Characteristics According to W. R. F. Browning (who adopts the more common view that the author of Matthew was a Jewish-Christian), due to author's rabbinical background, he avoids using the holy word God in the expression "Kingdom of God", and instead prefers the term "Kingdom of Heaven". He also divides his work into great blocks each ending with the phrase: "When Jesus had finished these sayings ..." This narrative framework echoes that of the Hexateuch: "the birth narratives/Genesis; the baptism in the Jordon and Jesus' temptations/Exodus; healing of a leper and an untouchable woman/Leviticus; callings of disciples/Numbers; the Passion and Death of Jesus/Deuteronomy; the Resurrection/Joshua (the entry into promised land)". Graham N. Stanton discounts the suggestion that the "five" discourses are an imitation of the first five books of the Old Testament arguing that many Jewish and Greco-Roman writings have five divisions or section. Overview For convenience, the book can be divided into its four structurally distinct sections: Two introductory sections; the main section, which can be further broken into five sections, each with a narrative component followed by a long discourse of Jesus; and finally, the Passion and Resurrection section. Containing the genealogy, the birth, and the infancy of Jesus (; ). The discourses and actions of John the Baptist preparatory to Christ's public ministry (; ). The discourses and actions of Christ in Galilee (4:12–26:1). The Sermon on the Mount, concerning morality (Ch. 5–7) The Missionary Discourse, concerning the mission Jesus gave his Twelve Apostles. (10–11:1) The Parable Discourse, stories that teach about the Kingdom of Heaven (13). The "Church Order" Discourse, concerning relationships among disciples (18–19:1). The Eschatological Discourse, which includes the Olivet Discourse and Judgement of the Nations, concerning his Second Coming and the end of the age (24–25). The sufferings, death and Resurrection of Jesus, the Great Commission (26-28). Woodcut from Anton Koberger's Bible (Nuremberg, 1483): The angelically-inspired Saint Matthew musters the Old Testament figures, led by Abraham and David Genealogy and Infancy narrative Matthew (like Luke) provides a genealogy and an infancy narrative of Jesus. Although the two accounts differ, both agree on Jesus being both Son of David, and Son of God, and on his virgin birth, and according to Howard W. Clarke, that Jesus' status as the long-awaited Messiah and as the Son of God was assured before his birth rather than being conferred later in his ministry or acquired after his death. Howard W. Clarke (2003), p. 1: According to Clarke, this is because some Pauline epistles give the impression that Jesus' divinity was confirmed only by his death, resurrection and ascension. Genealogy After giving a genealogy from Abraham to Jesus, Matthew gives the number of generations from Abraham to David, from David to the deportation to Babylon, and from the deportation to Jesus as fourteen each. (In fact, the total number of men in the list, including both Abraham and Jesus, is only 41.) Matthew traces the genealogy of Jesus through Joseph, not Mary. Matthew puts Joseph a descendant of David's son Solomon while in Luke he is descended from another son of David, Nathan. Bart D. Ehrman (2004), p.121 After David, the lists coincide again at Shealtiel and Zerubbabel (founder of the second temple) but then again part company until they reach Joseph through his father (Jacob according to Matthew; Heli in Luke). These and other differences between Matthew's and Luke's genealogy have presented a problem for both ancient and modern readers of the Gospels. An early explanation given by Julius Africanus, was that supposedly on the authority of Jesus family, involving levirate marriage, Joseph's official father was not his biological father (see Genealogy of Jesus). Some have suggested that Matthew wants to underscore the birth of a messianic child of royal lineage (mentioning Solomon) whereas Luke's genealogy is priestly (mentioning Levi, but note that the Levi in question is not the ancestor of the Levites but rather the grandfather of Heli). Howard W. Clarke (2003), p. 1 David D. Kupp (1996), p.170 According to Scott Gregory Brown, the reason for the difference between the two genealogies is that it was not included in the written accounts that the writers of the two Gospels shared (i.e. Gospel of Mark and Q). Scott Gregory Brown (2005), p.87 Two other common reasons are (1) Luke presents Mary’s genealogy, while Matthew relates Joseph’s; (2) Luke has Jesus’ actual human ancestry through Joseph, while Matthew gives his legal ancestry by which he was the legitimate successor to the throne of David. Craig Blomberg, vol. 22, Matthew, electronic ed., Logos Library System; The New American Commentary (Nashville: Broadman & Holman Publishers, 2001, c1992), p.53. According to Howard W. Clarke, the two accounts cannot be harmonized and today the genealogy accounts are generally taken to be "theological" constructs. Taken this way, writes Stanton, the genealogy foreshadows acceptance of Gentiles into the Kingdom of God: in reference to Jesus as "the Son of Abraham", the author has in mind the promise given to Abraham in Gen 22:18. Matthew holds that due to Israel's failure to produce the "fruits of the kingdom" and her rejection of Jesus, God's kingdom is now taken away from Israel and given to Gentiles. Another foreshadowing of the acceptance of Gentiles is the inclusion of four women in the genealogy (three of whom were Gentiles), something unexpected to a first century reader. According to Stanton, women are probably representing non-Jews to a first century reader. Graham N. Stanton (1989), p.67 According to Markus Bockmuehl et al., Matthew is mentioning this to prepare his reader for the apparent scandal surrounding Jesus' birth by emphasizing the point that God's purpose is sometimes worked out in unorthodox and surprising ways. Markus Bockmuehl, Donald A. Hagner (2005), p. 191 Infancy narrative Mary becomes pregnant "of the Holy Spirit", and so Joseph decides to break his relationship with her quietly. He however has a dream with the promise of the birth of Jesus. The gospel proceeds with visit of the Magi who acknowledge the infant Jesus as king. This is followed by Herod's massacre of the innocents and the flight into Egypt, and an eventual return to Nazareth. Mary Clayton (1998), p.6-7 According to Mary Clayton, the chief aim of the infancy narrative is to convince readers of the divine nature of Jesus through his conception through the Holy Spirit and his virgin birth; the visit of Magi and flight into Egypt intended to show that Jesus' kingship is not restricted to Jews but is rather universal. Baptism and Temptation John baptizes Jesus, and the Holy Spirit descends upon him. The evangelist addresses the puzzling scene of Jesus, reputedly born sinless, being baptized. He omits reference to baptism being for forgiveness of sins and depicts John emphasizing his inferiority to Jesus. The descent of the Holy Spirit tells the reader that Jesus has become God's anointed (Messiah or Christ). See "The Gospels" (p. 266-269) and "Matthew" (p. 272-285) in Harris, Stephen L., Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985. Jesus prays and meditates in the wilderness for forty days, and then is tempted by the Devil. Jesus refutes the Devil with quotations from Jewish Law. Sermon on the Mount Matthew's principal contribution to Mark's narrative is five collections of teaching material, and the first is the Sermon on the Mount. Jesus, presented as a greater Moses, completes and transcends Mosaic law. The Beatitudes bless the poor in spirit and the meek. In six expositions or antitheses (depending on how the sermon is interpreted, see Expounding of the Law), Jesus reinterprets the Law. He offers the Lord's prayer as a simple alternative to ostentatious prayer. The Lord's prayer contains parallels to First Chronicles 29:10-18. Clontz, T.E. and J., "The Comprehensive New Testament with complete textual variant mapping and references for the Dead Sea Scrolls, Philo, Josephus, Nag Hammadi Library, Pseudepigrapha, Apocrypha, Plato, Egyptian Book of the Dead, Talmud, Old Testament, Patristic Writings, Dhammapada, Tacitus, Epic of Gilgamesh", Cornerstone Publications, 2008, p. 451, ISBN 978-0-977873-71-5 Critical scholars see the historical Jesus in his startling congratulations to the unfortunate and his call to return violence with forgiveness ("turn the other cheek", see also Evangelical counsels). Funk, Robert W., Roy W. Hoover, and the Jesus Seminar. The five gospels. HarperSanFrancisco. 1993. Matthew's beatitudes differ from those found in Luke. The paradoxical blessings in Luke to the poor and hungry are here blessings to the poor in spirit and those who hunger for justice. In addition, Matthew has more blessings than Luke, the extras apparently derived from Psalms and from numerous precedents for virtues being rewarded. Instructions to the Twelve Disciples Matthew names the Twelve Disciples. Jesus sends them to preach to the Jews, perform miracles, and prophesy the imminent coming of the Kingdom. Jesus commands them to travel lightly, without even a staff or sandals. He tells them they will face persecution. Scholars are divided over whether the rules originated with Jesus or with apostolic practice. Parables on the Kingdom Jesus tells the parable of the sower, paralleling Mark. Like Mark and Luke, Matthew portrays Jesus as using parables in order to prevent the unworthy from receiving his message. The parables of the wheat and the tares and of the net, unique to Matthew, portray God's sure judgment as indefinitely delayed. The parables of the mustard seed and of the pearl "of very special value" emphasize the secret nature and incomprehensible worth of the Kingdom. Instructions to the Church Matthew is the only Gospel to discuss the ecclesia (Greek: assembly), or church. In Matthew, Jesus establishes his church on Peter, giving Peter and the Church the power to bind and loose (or forbid and allow). The instructions for the church emphasize ecclesiastical responsibility and humility. He calls on his disciples to practice forgiveness, but he also gives them the authority to excommunicate the unrepentant. Peter's special commission has been highly influential (see Saint Peter). Fifth discourse Jesus heaps the "seven woes" on the scribes and Pharisees. This hostility is thought to represent the attitude of the first-century church. Signs of the Times Matthew expands Marks' account of the Parousia, or Second Coming. Matthew mentions such things as false Messiahs, earthquakes, and persecution of his disciples, but states that these are not signs of the end times. After the tribulation, the sun, moon, and stars will fail. The declaration that his generation would not pass away before all the prophecies are fulfilled indicates that the author thought himself to be living in the last days. This discourse might incorporate two different Parousia traditions, one with typical apocalyptic signs and the other emphasizing that the Master will return without warning. Parables and vision of the Second Coming The parables of the foolish virgins and of the talents emphasize constant readiness and Jesus' unexpected return. In a prophetic vision, Jesus judges the world. The godly ("sheep") are those who helped those in need, while the wicked ("goats") are those who did not. Final Days and Resurrection Matthew generally follows Mark's sequence of events. Jesus triumphantly enters Jerusalem and drives the money changers from the temple. He identifies Judas as his traitor. Jesus prays to be spared the coming agony, and a mob takes him by force to the Sanhedrin. To the trial, Matthew adds the detail that Pilate's wife, tormented by a dream, tells him to have nothing to do with "that righteous man", and Pilate washes his hands of him. To Mark's account of Jesus' death, Matthew adds the occurrence of an earthquake, and saints arising from their tombs and appearing to many people in Jerusalem (). He also provides two stories of the Jewish leaders conspiring to undermine belief in the resurrection (), and he describes Mark's "young man" at Jesus' tomb as being a radiant angel (). Matthew does not relate any of Jesus' post-resurrection appearances to the disciples in Judea, nor his Ascension. He appears to the Eleven in Galilee and commissions them to preach to the world: "Go therefore and make disciples of all nations baptizing them in the name (singular) of the Father of the Son and of the Holy Spirit"... and that name is Jesus (). Themes in Matthew Kingdom of Heaven Of note is the phrase "Kingdom of Heaven" (ἡ βασιλεία τῶν οὐρανῶν) used often in the gospel of Matthew, as opposed to the phrase "Kingdom of God" used in other synoptic gospels such as Luke. The phrase "Kingdom of Heaven" is used 32 times in 31 verses in the Gospel of Matthew. It is speculated that this indicates that this particular Gospel was written to a primarily Jewish audience, such as the Jewish Christians, as many Jewish people of the time felt the name of God was too holy to be written. Matthew's abundance of Old Testament references also supports this theory. The theme "Kingdom of Heaven" as discussed in Matthew seems to be at odds with what was a circulating Jewish expectation—that the Messiah would overthrow Roman rulership and establish a new reign as the new King of the Jews. Christian scholars, including N. T. Wright (The Challenge of Jesus) have long discussed the ways in which certain 1st-century Jews (including Zealots) misunderstood the sayings of Jesus—that while Jesus had been discussing a spiritual kingdom, certain Jews expected a physical kingdom. See also Jewish Messiah. Jewish elements While Paul's epistles and the other Gospels emphasize Jesus' international scope, Matthew addresses the concerns of a Jewish audience. The cast of thought and the forms of expression employed by the writer show that this Gospel was written by a Jewish Christian of Iudaea Province. The one aim pervading the book is to show that Jesus of Nazareth was the promised Messiah — he "of whom Moses in the law and the prophets did write" — and that in him the ancient prophecies had their fulfillment. This book is full of allusions to passages of the Old Testament which the book interprets as predicting and foreshadowing Jesus' life and mission. This Gospel contains no fewer than sixty-five references to the Old Testament, forty-three of these being direct verbal citations, thus greatly outnumbering those found in the other Gospels. Matthew uses Old Testament quotations out of context (as is common in Jewish writings such as the Talmud), as individual lines or even letters of Scripture were said to have inspired meanings different from the original ones. The main feature of this Gospel may be expressed in the motto "I am not come to destroy [the Law and the Prophets], but to fulfill" (). See also Expounding of the Law. It was the contention of Marcion that Christ had come to destroy the law. Epiphanius:Panarion: No.42 See Biblical law in Christianity for the modern debate. This Gospel sets forth a view of Jesus as Messiah and portrays him as an heir to King David's throne, the rightful King of the Jews. Matthew's genealogy, the wise men of the east, the massacre of the innocents, and the flight into Egypt affirm Jesus' kingship and liken him to Moses. Matthew regards Jesus as a greater Moses. He arranges Jesus' sermons into five discourses, probably parallel to the five Books of Moses, the Jewish Torah. Matthew affirms Jesus' authority to give the eternal law of Moses a new meaning. While addressing Jewish concerns, Matthew also addresses the universal nature of the church in the Great Commission (which is directed at "all nations"). See Interpretations of the Sermon on the Mount and Christian view of the Law. Comparison with other canonical Gospels According to Amy-Jill Levine, in Matthew (and the two other synoptic Gospels), Jesus talks more about the Kingdom of God than about himself, unlike John in which Jesus identifies himself as the true vine; the bread of life; the way, the truth and the life. Another difference is that while in Matthew and the two other synoptic gospels, Jesus teaches primarily using short parables or short sayings, in John he teaches using extended speeches. Levine states that each of the three synoptic gospels offer a distinct portraits of Jesus. For example, "Matthew has Jesus' earthly mission restricted to the 'lost sheep of the house of Israel' (Matt 15:24, see also 10:5-6) and emphasizing obedience to and preservation of biblical law. Mark however opens this mission to Gentiles and suggests abrogation of the dietary regulations mandated by the Torah." Amy-Jill Levine (2001), p.373 In terms of chronology Matthew agrees with the other gospels that Jesus' public ministry began with an encounter with John the Baptist. Then Matthew (and the two other synoptic Gospels) mention teaching and healing activities of Jesus in Galilee. This is followed by a trip to Jerusalem marked by an incident in the Temple. Jesus is crucified on the day of the Passover holiday. John by contrast puts the Temple incident very early in Jesus' ministry and depicts several trips to Jerusalem. The crucifixion is also placed the day before the Passover holiday, when the lambs for the Passover meal were being sacrificed in Temple. Details related only by Matthew Certain details of Jesus's life, of his infancy in particular, are only related by Matthew. For example, only Matthew mentions "Joseph’s perplexity on learning that Mary is pregnant, the homage of the Wise Men, the flight into Egypt to escape Herod’s soldiers, the massacre of the innocents, and the return of the holy family from Egypt", the description of Pilate washing his hand, or Jesus' permission of divorce in case of unchastity and/or unlawful marriage. In art The Chi Rho monogram from the Book of Kells is the most lavish such monogram In Insular Gospel Books (copies of the Gospels produced in Ireland and Britain under Celtic Christianity), the first verse of Matthew's genealogy of Christ Matthew 1:18 was often treated in a decorative manner, as it began not only a new book of the Bible, but was the first verse in the Gospels. See also Textual variants in the Gospel of Matthew List of Gospels List of omitted Bible verses Gospel of the Ebionites Gospel of the Hebrews Gospel of the Nazoraeans Great Commission Il vangelo secondo Matteo, a film by Pier Paolo Pasolini Joseph Smith—Matthew Olivet discourse Papyrus 64 Sermon on the Mount Matthew 16:2b-3 Woes of the Pharisees Notes References Markus Bockmuehl, Donald A. Hagner, The Written Gospel, Cambridge University Press, 2005, ISBN 0521832853. Scott Gregory Brown, Mark's Other Gospel: Rethinking Morton Smith's Controversial Discovery, Wilfrid Laurier University Press, 2005, ISBN 0889204616. Howard W. Clarke, The Gospel of Matthew and Its Readers, Indiana University Press, 2003. Mary Clayton, The Apocryphal Gospels of Mary in Anglo-Saxon England, Cambridge University Press, 1998, ISBN 0521581680. D.A Carson, Douglas J. Moo, and Leon Morris: An introduction to the New TestamentBlomberg, Craig: Matthew The New American CommentaryDavies, W. D., and Dale C. Allison: A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Gospel According to Saint Matthew. Hagner, Donald Alfred: Matthew 1-13 Word Biblical Commentary. Gundry, Robert Horton: Matthew, a Commentary on His Literary and Theological Art. Bart D. Ehrman, The New Testament: A Historical Introduction to the Early Christian Writings. New York: Oxford, (2004), ISBN 0-19-515462-2. Michael Green: The Message of Matthew. The Kingdom of Heaven. Bible Speaks Today. InterVarsity Press, Downers Grove 2001 ISBN 0-8308-1243-1. Harris, Stephen L., Understanding the Bible, Palo Alto: Mayfield, 1985. Howard Clark Kee, part 3, The Cambridge Companion to the Bible, Cambridge University Press, 1997. David D. Kupp, Matthew's Emmanuel: Divine Presence and God's People in the First, Cambridge University Press, 1996, ISBN 0521570077. Amy-Jill Levine, chapter 10, The Oxford History of the Biblical World, Oxford University Press, 2001. Watson E. Mills, Richard F. Wilson, Roger Aubrey Bullard, Mercer Commentary on the New Testament, Mercer University Press, 2003. Anthony J. Saldarini, Eerdmans Commentary on the Bible, Editors: James D. G. Dunn, John William Rogerson, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2003, ISBN 0802837115. Graham N. Stanton, The Gospels and Jesus, Oxford University Press, 1989. {{cite journal|last=Thiede|first=Carsten Peter|year=1995|title=Papyrus Magdalen Greek External links A list of online translations of the Gospel of Matthew: A textual commentary on the Gospel of Matthew Detailed text-critical discussion of the 300 most important variants of the Greek text (PDF, 438 pages). 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5,177 | Transport_in_Indonesia | Indonesia's transport system has been shaped over time by the economic resource base of an archipelago with thousands of islands, and the distribution of its more than 200 million people highly concentrated on a single island which is Java Indonesia's Diversity Revisited http://cip.cornell.edu/Dienst/UI/1.0/Summarize/seap.indo/1107012385 . All transport modes play a role in the country’s transport system and are generally complementary rather than competitive. Road transport is predominant, with a total system length of 370,500 km in 2003. The railway system has four unconnected networks in Java and Sumatra primarily dedicated to transport bulk commodities and long-distance passenger traffic. Sea transport is extremely important for economic integration and for domestic and foreign trade. It is well developed, with each of the major islands having at least one significant port city. The role of inland waterways is relatively minor and is limited to certain areas of Eastern Sumatra and Kalimantan. The function of air transport is significant, particularly where land or water transport is deficient or non-existent. It is based on an extensive domestic airline network where all major cities can be reached by passenger plane. Merchant marine vessels Map of Indonesia Because Indonesia encompasses a sprawling archipelago, maritime shipping provides essential links between different parts of the country. Boats in common use include large container ships, a variety of ferries, passenger ships, sailing ships, and smaller motorized vessels. Frequent ferry services cross the straits between nearby islands, especially in the chain of islands stretching from Sumatra through Java to the Lesser Sunda Islands. On the busy crossings between Sumatra, Java, and Bali, multiple car ferries run frequently twenty-four hours per day. There are also international ferry services between across the Straits of Malacca between Sumatra and Malaysia, and between Singapore and nearby Indonesian islands, such as Batam. bob marley is indonesian Pelni Shipping Routes 2006 A network of passenger ships makes longer connections to more remote islands, especially in the eastern part of the archipelago. The national shipping line, Pelni, provides passenger service to ports throughout the country on a two to four week schedule. These ships generally provide the least expensive way to cover long distances between islands. Still smaller privately run boats provide service between islands. On some islands, major rivers provide a key transportation link in the absence of good roads. On Kalimantan, longboats running on the rivers are the only way to reach many inland areas. Waterways Indonesia has 21,579 km of navigable waterways (), of which about one half are on Kalimantan, and a quarter each on Sumatra and Papua. Waterways are highly needed because the rivers on these islands are not wide enough to hold medium-sized ships. In addition to this, roads and railways are not good options since Kalimantan and Papua are not like Java, which is a highly developed island Politics and Business Indonesia http://kerrycollison.net/index.php?/archives/2805-Politics-and-Business-Mix-in-Indonesia.html . With the current length of waterways, Indonesia ranked seven on the countries with longest waterways rant Rank Order - Waterways https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2093rank.html . Ports and harbours Major ports and harbors include Cilacap, Cirebon, Jakarta, Kupang, Palembang, Semarang, Surabaya, and Makassar. Ports are managed by the various Indonesia Port Corporations, of which there are four, numbered I through IV. Each has jurisdiction over various regions of the country, with I in the west and IV in the east. Roads and highways Loading cargo onto a minibusA wide variety of vehicles are used for transportation on Indonesia's roads. Bus services are available in most areas connected to the road network. Between major cities, especially on Sumatra, Java, and Bali, services are frequent and direct; many services are available with no stops until the final destination. In more remote areas, and between smaller towns, most services are provided with minibuses or minivans (angkut). Buses and vans are also the primary form of transportation within cities. Often, these are operated as share taxis, running semi-fixed routes. Many cities and towns have some form of transportation for hire available as well, such as taxis, Busways and motorized autorickshaws (bajaj). Cycle rickshaws, called becak in Indonesia, are common in many cities, and provide an inexpensive form of in-town transportation. They have been blamed for causing traffic congestion and banned from most parts of central Jakarta. Horse-drawn carts are found in some cities and towns. Private cars are far too expensive for the majority of the population, and are uncommon except in larger cities. The AH2 highway is one of Indonesia's main highways. Indonesia has about 213,649 km of paved highways and about 154,711 km of unpaved highways ( estimate). Indonesia has some highways, all the freeways are tolled (toll road). The most expensive is the Cipularang Toll road that connects Jakarta and Bandung. Here are some Indonesian toll roads (Jalan tol) : Java Jakarta Inner Ring Road (beltway) Jakarta Outer Ring Road (JORR) (beltway) (some parts have not finished) http://www.bpjt.net/index.php?id=53&itemid=2&mode=3 JORR W1 (Pantai Indah Kapuk-Kebon Jeruk Toll Road) (under construction) JORR W2 U (Kebon Jeruk-Ulujami Toll Road) (contract) JORR W2 S (Ulujami-Pondok Pinang Toll Road) (finished) JORR S (Pondok Pinang-Taman Mini Indonesia Indah Toll Road) (finished) JORR E1 (Taman Mini Indonesia Indah-Cikunir Toll Road) (finished) JORR E2+E3 (Cikunir-Cakung-Cilincing Toll Road) (finished) JORR N (Tanjung Priok Access Toll Road) (under construction) Prof. Dr. Sedyatmo Toll Road (Soekarno-Hatta International Airport Toll Road) Jakarta-Serpong Toll Road Surabaya/Waru-Juanda International Airport Toll Road Surabaya-Madura Bridge (Suramadu Bridge) (under construction, planned to be finished on 2009) Transjava Toll Road (under Construction, some parts are finished) http://www.bpjt.net/index.php?id=53&itemid=1&mode=3 Tangerang-Merak Toll Road (finished) Jakarta-Tangerang Toll Road (finished) Cilegon-Bojonegara Toll Road (tender preparation) Jakarta-Bogor-Ciawi Toll Road (Jagorawi Toll Road) (finished) Ciawi-Sukabumi Toll Road (contract) Sukabumi-Ciranjang Toll Road (tender preparation) Ciranjang-Padalarang Toll Road (contract) Jakarta-Cikampek Toll Road (finished) Cikampek-Purwakarta-Padalarang Toll Road (Cipularang Toll Road) (finished) Padalarang-Cileunyi Toll Road (Padaleunyi Toll Road) (finished) Cileunyi-Sumedang Toll Road (tender preparation) Sumedang-Dawuan/Palimanan Toll Road (tender preparation) Cikampek-Palimanan Toll Road (contract) Palimanan-Cirebon-Kanci Toll Road (Palikanci Toll Road) (finished) Kanci-Pejagan Toll Road (under construction) Pejagan-Pemalang Toll Road (contract) Pemalang-Batang Toll Road (contract) Batang-Semarang Toll Road (contract) Semarang Section A,B,C Toll Road (finished) Semarang-Demak Toll Road (tender preparation) Semarang-Solo Toll Road (under construction) Solo-Yogyakarta Toll Road (tender preparation) Solo-Mantingan-Ngawi Toll Road (tender negotiation) Ngawi-Kertosono Toll Road (tender negotiation) Kertosono-Mojokerto Toll Road (under construction) Mojokerto-Surabaya Toll Road (under construction) Surabaya-Gresik Toll Road (finished) Surabaya-Gempol Toll Road (finished) Gempol-Pandaan Toll Road (contract) Pandaan-Malang Toll Road (tender preparation) Gempol-Pasuruan Toll Road (under construction) Pasuruan-Probolinggo Toll Road (contract) Probolinggo-Banyuwangi Toll Road (tender preparation) Bogor Ring Road Planned : Merak-Bakauheuni Bridge (Sunda Strait Bridge) Jakarta/Antasari-Depok Toll Road (under construction) http://www.pu.go.id/ditjen_prasarana%20wil/jalan_tol.asp Jakarta Outer Ring Road 2 (JORR 2) (beltway) http://www.bpjt.net/index.php?id=53&itemid=2&mode=3 Soekarno-Hatta International Airport-Kunciran Toll Road (tender negotiation) Kunciran-Serpong Toll Road (tender negotiation) Serpong-Cinere Toll Road (tender negotiation) Cinere-Cimanggis/Jagorawi Toll Road (under construction) Cimanggis-Cibitung Toll Road (tender negotiation) Cibitung-Cilincing Toll Road (contract) Bekasi-Cawang-Kampung Melayu Toll Road (Becakayu Toll Road) (contract) http://www.pu.go.id/ditjen_prasarana%20wil/jalan_tol.asp Serpong-Balaraja Toll Road Balaraja-Soekarno-Hatta International Airport Toll Road Bogor Ring Road (beltway) http://www.pu.go.id/ditjen_prasarana%20wil/jalan_tol.asp Pasir Koja-Soreang Toll Road http://www.bpjt.net/index.php?id=54 Sumatra Belawan-Medan-Tanjung Morawa Toll Road (Belmera Toll Road) Planned : Medan-Kuala Namu International Airport-Tebing Tinggi http://www.bpjt.net/index.php?id=54 Medan-Binjai Toll Road http://www.bpjt.net/index.php?id=54 Pekanbaru-Kandis-Dumai Toll Road http://www.bpjt.net/index.php?id=54 Palembang-Indralaya Toll Road http://www.bpjt.net/index.php?id=54 Tegineneng-Babatan Toll Road http://www.bpjt.net/index.php?id=54 Sulawesi Makassar-Sultan Hasanuddin International Airport Toll Road Makassar Section 1,2,3,4 Toll Road Planned: Manado-Bitung Toll Road http://www.bpjt.net/index.php?id=54 Bali Planned: Serangan-Tanjung Benoa Toll Road http://www.bpjt.net/index.php?id=54 Note: Tender Preparation --> Tender Negotiation --> Contract --> Construction --> Operational/Finished Railways Most railways in Indonesia are on Java, which has two major rail lines that run the length of the island, as well as several minor lines. Passenger and freight service runs on all of the lines. There is also commuter rail service in the Jakarta metropolitan area, known as KRL Jabotabek and Surabaya and the vicinities. In 2008, the government under PT Kereta Api and Angkasa Pura planned to built the airport railway from Soekarno-Hatta Airport to Manggarai (Jakarta). A monorail mass transit system is under construction in Jakarta. The only other areas in Indonesia having railroads are three separate regions of Sumatra, one in the north around Medan, second in the West Sumatra from Pariaman to Padang and the other in the southern trip, from Lubuk Linggau (South Sumatra) to Bandar Lampung, (Lampung). Pipelines Crude oil 2,505 km; petroleum products 456 km; natural gas 1,703 km (1989) Air transport Air transportation in Indonesia is important to connect thousands of islands spread throughout archipelago. However safety issue still remains a problem. Several accidents happened in 2006–2007 has made Indonesia air transportation safety among the lowest with global average of 0.25 in 2007. "Safety woeful, admits air chief." Sydney Morning Herald online, November 2, 2007 - 2:17PM. Airports Total: 668 (2005) Airports - with paved runways over 3,047 m: 4 2,438 to 3,047 m: 15 1,524 to 2,437 m: 48 914 to 1,523 m: 51 under 914 m: 43 Total: 161 (2005) Airports - with unpaved runways 1,524 to 2,437 m: 6 914 to 1,523 m: 26 under 914 m: 475 Total: 507 (2005) Heliports Total: 23 (2005) Airlines National airline: Garuda Indonesia Other airlines Airlines of Indonesia See also Indonesia Department of Transportation, Indonesia References | Transport_in_Indonesia |@lemmatized indonesia:24 transport:9 system:5 shape:1 time:1 economic:2 resource:1 base:2 archipelago:4 thousand:2 island:15 distribution:1 million:1 people:1 highly:3 concentrate:1 single:1 java:8 diversity:1 revisit:1 http:16 cip:1 cornell:1 edu:1 dienst:1 ui:1 summarize:1 seap:1 indo:1 mode:4 play:1 role:2 country:5 generally:2 complementary:1 rather:1 competitive:1 road:85 predominant:1 total:5 length:3 km:7 railway:5 four:4 unconnected:1 network:4 sumatra:11 primarily:1 dedicate:1 bulk:1 commodity:1 long:4 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5,178 | Arizona_State_University | Arizona State University (also referred to as ASU, or Arizona State) is the largest public research university in the United States under a single administration, with total student enrollment of 67,082 as of fall 2008. ASU is spread across four campuses in the Phoenix Metropolitan Area, and is governed by the Arizona Board of Regents. ASU was founded in 1885 as the Tempe Normal School for the Arizona Territory in Tempe, Arizona. It subsequently was renamed Arizona State College in 1945, and, on December 5, 1958, a statewide ballot measure renamed the school "Arizona State University," the only institution of higher education to have achieved university status by popular mandate. In addition to the original campus in Tempe, ASU comprises three additional campuses: West campus was created in 1984 in northwest Phoenix, Polytechnic campus was opened in 1996 in Mesa, and the Downtown Phoenix campus opened in August 2006. All four campuses are accredited as a single university by the Higher Learning Commission. Accreditation status of Arizona State University Higher Learning Commission In the 2007–2008 academic year, 14,535 students graduated from ASU. In 2008, 168 National Merit Scholars chose to attend ASU, ASU Enrollment Press Release, Fall 2008 Arizona State University many of which are part of Barrett, The Honors College, which has produced numerous grant and scholarship winners since its founding in 1988. Under the Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education, ASU is classified as a "RU/VH" (research university with very high research activity). History Old Main Originally named the Tempe Normal School, the institution was founded on March 12, 1885 after John Samuel Armstrong first introduced House Bill 164, "An Act to Establish a Normal school in the Territory of Arizona to the 13th Legislative Assembly of the Arizona Territory. Instruction was instituted on February 8, 1886 under the supervision of Principal Hiram Bradford Farmer. Land for the school was donated by Tempe residents George and Martha Wilson, allowing 33 students to meet in a single room. More ASU History Early years At the beginning of the 20th century the schools name was changed from Tempe Normal School to the Normal School of Arizona, and President Arthur John Matthews brought a 30-year tenure of progress to the school. Under his tenure the school was given all-college student status; before becoming a college the Normal School enrolled high school students with no other secondary education facilities. The first dormitories built in the state were constructed under his supervision. Of the 18 buildings constructed while Matthews was president, six are still in use. He envisioned an "evergreen campus," with many shrubbery brought to the campus and the planting of Palm Walk, now one of the feature landmarks of the school. His legacy is being continued today: the main campus is a nationally recognized arboretum. The Arboretum at Arizona State University During the Great Depression, Ralph W. Swetman was hired as president for a three-year term. Archives & Special Collections, Principals and Presidents of Arizona State University Although enrollment increased by almost 100% during his tenure due to the depression, many faculty were terminated and faculty salaries were cut. "Eighth President Ralph Waldo Swetman 1930-1933" Gammage Auditorium,which was placed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1985 Gammage years In 1933, Grady Gammage, then president of Arizona State Teachers College at Flagstaff, became president of Arizona State Teachers College at Tempe, a tenure that would last for nearly 28 years. Like his predecessor, Dr. Gammage oversaw the construction of a number of buildings on the Tempe campus. Dr. Gammage oversaw the development of the university, graduate programs, and the renaming of the Arizona State College to Arizona State University in 1958. Years of growth and stature University Center, West Campus During the 1960s, with the presidency of Dr. G. Homer Durham, Arizona State University began to expand its academic curriculum by establishing several new colleges and beginning to award Doctor of Philosophy and other doctoral degrees. ASU Libraries: The New ASU Story: Leadership The next three presidents—Harry K. Newburn, 1969–71, John W. Schwada, 1971–81, and J. Russell Nelson, 1981–89—and Interim President Richard Peck, 1989, led the university to increased academic stature, creation of the West Campus, and rising enrollment. Under the leadership of Dr. Lattie F. Coor, from 1990 to June 2002, ASU grew to serve the Valley of the Sun through the creation of the Polytechnic campus and extended education sites. His commitment to diversity, quality in undergraduate education, research, and economic development underscored the university’s significant gains in each of these areas over his 12-year tenure. Part of Dr. Coor’s legacy to the university was a successful fund-raising campaign. Through private donations, primarily from the local community, more than $500 million was invested in targeted areas that significantly impact the future of ASU. Among the campaign’s achievements were the naming and endowing of the Barrett Honors College, the Katherine K. Herberger College of Fine Arts, and the Morrison School of Agribusiness and Resource Management at the Polytechnic campus; the creation of many new endowed faculty positions; and hundreds of new scholarships and fellowships. ASU Libraries: The New ASU Story: Leadership The Crow Era The Biodesign Institute is the result of a major capital campaign designed to increase ASU's involvement in biotechnology. On July 1, 2002, Michael Crow would become the university's 16th president. At his inauguration, President Crow outlined his vision for transforming ASU into a New American University—one that would be open and inclusive. As the only research university serving the metropolitan Phoenix area, Crow has stated that ASU is in a unique position to evolve together with the city into one of the great intellectual institutions in the world. Under Crow's leadership, and aided by hundreds of millions of dollars in donations, ASU has embarked on its most aggressive capital building effort in more than a decade. The university is adding one million square feet of world-class research infrastructure, and is continuing its development and expansion of the West, Polytechnic and Downtown campuses. Viewpoints: ASU's Michael Crow first 5 years Campuses Arizona State University comprises four campuses: the Tempe campus, which is the original and largest campus, the West campus in northwest Phoenix, the Polytechnic campus located in eastern Mesa, and the Downtown Phoenix campus in downtown Phoenix. ASU Campuses Although there is some redundancy in undergraduate academic offerings across the campuses, each campus was designed to host a unique set of colleges and departments. One University in Many Places Explanation of the ASU campus organization All four campuses award both undergraduate degrees and graduate degrees. Unlike a university system, the ASU campuses are all part of a single university, with a common administration presiding over the faculty, staff, and students. The campuses do not have separate admissions, and students receive the same diplomas regardless of which campus they primarily attended. As the original ASU campus in Tempe has nearly reached build-out, the university is reorganizing its colleges and schools, moving some to the newer campuses. Although most colleges are localized on a single campus, some colleges have a presence on all four campuses, particularly Barrett, The Honors College, Graduate College, University College, and the College of Teacher Education and Leadership. Tempe campus Underground entrance of Charles Trumbull Hayden Library- Tempe campus. ASU's Tempe campus lies in the heart of Tempe, Arizona, about eight miles (13 km) east of downtown Phoenix. The campus is considered urban, and is approximately in size. ASU's Tempe campus is arranged around broad pedestrian malls and is completely encompassed by an arboretum. ASU's Tempe campus Arizona Arboretums And Botanical Gardens ASU has an extensive public art collection, considered one of the ten best among university public art collections in America according to Public Art Review. Against the northwest edge of campus is the Mill Avenue district (part of downtown Tempe) which has a college atmosphere that attracts many students to its restaurants and bars. ASU's Tempe Campus is also home to all of the university's athletic facilities. The Tempe campus is the original campus, and Old Main, the first building constructed on the campus, still stands today. The Tempe campus is also the largest of the four campuses, with 52,734 students enrolled in its programs. http://uoia.asu.edu/files/quickfacts/Quick_Facts_Fall_2007.pdf There are many notable landmarks on campus, including Grady Gammage Memorial Auditorium, designed by Frank Lloyd Wright. Other notable landmarks include Palm Walk, which is lined by 111 palm trees, Arizona State University: Virtual Tour Charles Trumbull Hayden Library, Old Main, the University Club Building, and University Bridge. The Tempe campus comprises the following schools and colleges: List of ASU Colleges W.P. Carey School of Business Herberger Institute for Design and the Arts Mary Lou Fulton Institute and Graduate School of Education Ira A. Fulton School of Engineering Sandra Day O'Connor College of Law College of Liberal Arts and Sciences School of Sustainability College of Teacher Education and Leadership (Headquartered on the West campus) Barrett, The Honors College (All campuses) Graduate College (All campuses) University College (All campuses) West campus Robert L. Fletcher Library in background- West campus The West campus was established in 1984 by the Arizona Legislature and sits on in northwest Phoenix, bordering the city of Glendale, Arizona. The West campus lies about northwest of downtown Phoenix, and about northwest of the Tempe campus. The programs on the west campus currently enroll more than 9,500 students in 58 undergraduate and graduate degree programs. In 2008, the West campus was designated as a Phoenix Point of Pride, 2008 Phoenix Points of Pride and in 2009, construction began on a large solar array that will power nearly the entire campus with solar power. ASU News West campus Solarization Project The West campus comprises the following schools and colleges: New College of Interdisciplinary Arts and Sciences College of Teacher Education and Leadership W.P. Carey School of Business (Headquartered on the Tempe campus) Barrett, The Honors College (All campuses) Graduate College (All campuses) University College (All campuses) Polytechnic campus Founded originally as ASU East, the campus opened in fall 1996 on the former Williams Air Force Base in eastern Mesa, Arizona. The campus opened with nearly 1,000 students enrolled in one of the eight degrees offered. The small campus started with two schools -- School of Technology and School of Management and Agribusiness. East College was added in 1997 as an incubator for new professional programs. Today nearly 9,614 students are enrolled in 40 degree programs. ASU shares more than in eastern Mesa with Chandler-Gilbert Community College, Mesa Community College, a United States Air Force research laboratory, a Veteran's Administration Clinic and the Silvestre Herrera Army Reserve Center. These entities make up what is known as the Williams Campus. The Polytechnic campus comprises the following schools and colleges: ASU Reorganization, Spring 2009 College of Technology and Innovation College of Teacher Education and Leadership (Headquartered on the West campus) W.P. Carey School of Business (Headquartered on the Tempe campus) School of Letters and Sciences (Headquartered on the Downtown Phoenix campus) College of Nursing and Health Innovation (Headquartered on the Downtown Phoenix campus) Barrett, The Honors College (All campuses) Graduate College (All campuses) University College (All campuses) Downtown Phoenix campus Walter Cronkite School of Journalism Building - Downtown Phoenix campus ASU's Downtown Phoenix campus is located in the heart of Downtown Phoenix. It is the newest of the four ASU campuses. http://www.asu.edu/downtownphoenix/academics/colleges-schools.html Classes began there in August, 2006, with students from the College of Public Programs and College of Nursing. The Walter Cronkite School of Journalism and Mass Communication recently moved to Downtown Phoenix. Public Television station KAET is expected to complete the move to downtown in 2009. As of the fall 2008 semester, 8,431 students were enrolled at this campus. The Downtown Phoenix campus comprises the following schools and colleges: Walter Cronkite School of Journalism and Mass Communication School of Letters and Sciences College of Nursing and Health Innovation College of Public Programs College of Teacher Education and Leadership (Headquartered on the West campus) Ira A. Fulton School of Engineering (Headquartered on the Tempe campus) The University of Arizona College of Medicine Phoenix Campus (In collaboration with ASU). Barrett, The Honors College (All campuses) Graduate College (All campuses) University College (All campuses) Academics ASU offers over 250 majors to undergraduate students, and more than 100 graduate programs leading to masters and doctoral degrees. These programs are divided into over a dozen colleges and schools, the largest of which is the College of Liberal Arts and Sciences, which houses nearly 30 programs and departments. Degrees awarded include the B.A., B.S., B.S.E., B.I.S., M.A., M.S., M.F.A., M.B.A., L.L.M., M.M., M.Eng., Ph.D., J.D., Ed.D., and D.M.A.. Reputation and ranking Undergraduate program ASU is ranked 121st in the top tier of "national universities" by the US News and World Report ranking of US colleges and universities and has an acceptance rate of 95 percent. Up and Coming Universities 2009 US News and World Report Barrett, The Honors College serves as a virtual university-within-a-university and maintains strict admissions standards while providing a more rigorous curriculum with smaller classes and increased faculty interaction. Barrett, The Honors College - Arizona State University This honors college is largely responsible for the 168 freshmen National Merit Scholars, and 16 Fulbright scholars who entered ASU as freshmen in 2007. ASU Quick Facts Arizona State University In addition, US News named ASU as the #4 "Up and Coming" university in the US, for substantial improvements to academics and facilities. Up and Coming Universities 2009 US News and World Report Ranked graduate programs In the US News and World Report guide to graduate schools: The W. P. Carey School of Business MBA program was ranked 29th and the undergraduate business program ranked 25th. Many of the individual programs rank in the top 25 nationwide, including the 4th ranked program in Supply Chain Management and the 11th ranked program in Information Systems. The Mary Lou Fulton College of Education ASU Mary Lou Fulton College of Education was ranked 24th in the nation in 2009. 2009 Education Rankings US News and World Report Best Graduate Schools Its program in counseling was ranked 12th in the nation, and its Education Policy Studies ASU Mary Lou Fulton College of Education doctoral program was ranked 15th. Six out of nine of the College's specialty programs were ranked in the top 20. 97% of students pass their exam to become a licensed teacher. The Ira A. Fulton School of Engineering, was ranked 41st and the graduate program ranked 47th. Many of the individual programs within the college rank in the top tier of over 300 nationwide programs, including five graduate programs ranked in the top 30 by U.S. News and World Report. Ira A. Fulton School of Engineering at Arizona State University The Sandra Day O'Connor College of Law http://law.asu.edu is ranked 51st out of 197 ABA-approved law schools by US News in 2007. The Academic Educational Quality Rankings Welcome to Brian Leiter's Law School Rankings identifies the college of law as having one of the top 30 law faculties in the nation "based on a standard 'objective' measure of scholarly impact" Brian Leiter Faculty Quality Based on Scholarly Impact, 2005 and ranks the college of law as a top 40 law school based on overall academic reputation. The College of Law was established in 1967 and is one of three ABA-approved law schools in Arizona. The ASU School of Public Affairs Welcome to the School of Public Affairs at Arizona State University Master of Public Administration program was ranked 26th overall in the nation (out of 250+ schools). The College of Design is reputedly rigorous and highly ranked. College of Design News 2005: ASU The Interior Design program was ranked 2nd and the Architecture Master's Degree ranked 10th in 2005 by America's Best Architecture and Design Schools. The School of Criminology and Criminal Justice is ranked #12 in the nation by US News & World Report. 2008 Graduate Criminology Rankings US News and World Report The Walter Cronkite School of Journalism and Mass Communication is consistently ranked in the annual Top Ten Hearst Intercollegiate Journalism Competition, often called the Pulitzers of college journalism. An annual event for the Cronkite School is a visit from Walter Cronkite himself to award the distinguished Cronkite Award. The Walter Cronkite School of Journalism and Mass Communication - Walter Cronkite The Hugh Downs School of Communication is nationally ranked for undergraduate and doctoral programs in the study of rhetoric, interpersonal, intercultural and organizational communication by the National Communication Association. Doctoral Programs Reputational Study Hugh Downs visits the school often and plays an integral part in the school’s success. Hugh Downs School of Human Communication The Ph.D. program in psychology was ranked #36 out of 240 graduate programs as of 2009. Psychology Graduate Program Rankings U.S. News and World Report Best Graduate Schools 2009 In addition, ASU maintains several programs that are ranked among the top ten nationally according to the Faculty Scholarly Productivity Index: Ecology & Evolution, Accountancy, Marketing, Curriculum & Instruction, Educational Leadership, Industrial Engineering, Interdisciplinary Studies, Speech & Hearing Science, Spanish, Physical Anthropology, Clinical Psychology, Counseling Psychology, Developmental Psychology, Educational Psychology, Justice Studies, Political Science, and Social Psychology. Faculty Scholarly Productivity Index Rankings of top programs International programs ASU is currently collaborating with several world class institutions in several countries such as China, Switzerland and Mexico. In Mexico, ASU collaborates with Instituto Tecnológico Autónomo de México (ITAM) in the ITAM/W.P. Carey School of Business Executive MBA Program. In Switzerland, ASU collaborates with HEC Lausanne, the affiliated business school of the University of Lausanne. Fundraising and endowment Created in 1955, the ASU Foundation is one of Arizona’s oldest 501 (c)(3) organizations. It raises, invests and manages private resources for Arizona State University. The foundation coordinates and directs major fundraising campaigns on behalf of ASU and its colleges and schools, and partners with the university to provide complementary support for entrepreneurial activities in technology transfer and real estate investment. In fiscal 2007-2008, the university received private cash gifts of more than $120 million – only the third time in history that private support for the university has topped the $100 million mark. This gift total included six outright gifts of $1 million or more. In addition, there were five gift pledges of between $5 and $20 million each to ASU for strategic initiatives. The ASU endowment has doubled in size over the past four years. During fiscal year 2008, the endowment increased by $29 million in gifts to new endowed funds or existing endowments reaching a total value of $493 million on June 30, 2008. The average annual return on endowment investments for the past three years was 11.2 percent, outperforming both the benchmark and the Standard & Poor's 500 Index for this period. In addition, the total assets managed by the foundation, which includes non-endowment assets, increased by $41 million, capping a six-year, $578 million growth. Gifts, endowment income and entrepreneurial partnerships provide important resources that advance ASU's vision of a New American University. Athletics Sparky the Sun Devil Arizona State University's Division I athletic teams are called the Sun Devils, which is also the nickname used to refer to students and alumni of the university. They compete in the Pac-10 Conference in 20 varsity sports. Historically, the university has shown great athletic dominance in men's, women's, and mixed archery; men's, women's, and mixed badminton; women's golf; women's swimming and diving; and baseball. In 1987, the football team won the Rose Bowl, and they have been to the Fiesta Bowl five times. Arizona State University's NCAA Division I-A program competes in 9 varsity sports for men and 11 for women. The Sun Devil mascot is a devil named Sparky. The university is a member of the Pacific-10 Conference in all varsity sports. ASU's current athletic director is Lisa Love, who was the former athletic administrator at USC and in her tenure is responsible for hiring new coaches Herb Sendek, the men's basketball coach, and Dennis Erickson, the men's football coach. ASU won national championships in men's archery 15 times, women's archery 21 times, mixed archery 20 times, men's badminton 13 times, women's badminton 17 times, mixed badminton 10 times, baseball 5 times, women's tennis 3 times, men's gymnastics once, men's track and field once, women's indoor track and field twice, men's indoor track and field once, wrestling once, men's golf twice, women's golf 13 times, women's softball three times, and women's swimming and diving 7 times, for a total of 136 national championships. Football The Arizona State Sun Devils football team was founded in 1897 under coach Fred Irish. History :: The Arizona State University Sun Devils - Official Athletic Site Currently, the team has played in the 2007 Holiday Bowl, 1997 Rose Bowl and also won the Rose Bowl in 1987 as well as the Fiesta Bowl in 1982, 1975, 1973, 1972, and 1971. In 1970 they were co-champions of the NCAA Division I FBS National Football Championship. Student activities Palm Walk- Tempe Campus Extracurricular programs Arizona State University has an active extracurricular involvement program (Sun Devil Involvement Center) with over 600 registered clubs and organizations on campus. Memorial Union - Student Organizations Located on the 3rd floor of the Memorial Union, the Sun Devil Involvement Center (SDIC) provides opportunities for student involvement through clubs, sororities, fraternities, community service, leadership, student government, and co-curricular programming. "ASU Cares" is the largest community service project sponsored by the university. It is an annual event that allows students to give back some time by helping residents and communities clean up, rebuild, and/or serve each other. Faculty, staff, alumni, members of the community and their families and guests are also invited to be part of this large ASU effort to help residents of the various communities surrounding the metropolitan area. ASU Cares From 1958 until the 1990s, Arizona State University was home to the Eta chapter of Phrateres, a philanthropic-social organization for female college students. Eta was the second chapter to use that name (after the defunct Colorado State chapter ) and the 18th overall. Phrateres eventually had over 20 chapters in Canada and the United States, including the Lambda chapter at the University of Arizona which closed in 2000. Hayden Butte, also known as 'A' Mountain- Tempe Campus The Freshman Year Experience (FYE) and the Greek community (Greek Life) at Arizona State University have been important in binding students to the university, and providing social outlets. The Freshman Year Experience at Arizona State University was developed to improve the freshman experience at Arizona State University and increase student retention figures. FYE provides advising, computer labs, free walk-in tutoring, workshops, and classes for students. In 2003, U.S. News and World Report ranked FYE as the 23rd best first year program in the nation. The ASU Student Emergency Medical Services (SEMS),a student-run organization, is the ambulance company dedicated to serving the ASU campus community. Student media ASU Student Media includes The State Press (student newspaper), the Web Devil (online news site) and Sun Devil Television (television station broadcast on campus and in student residence halls). The State Press is a daily paper published on Monday through Friday during the fall and spring semesters, and weekly during the summer sessions. ASU Web Devil - Monday, March 24, 2008 Student editors and managers are solely responsible for the content of all Student Media products. They are overseen by an independent board and guided by a professional adviser employed by the University. During the fall and spring semesters 13,500 copies of the State Press are printed each week day. More than 96% of ASU students on all four campuses read The State Press at least once per week, and 65% read it every day or most days. There are an average of 2.5 readers per each copy of the State Press, resulting in more than 45,000 readers across all four campuses. In addition, the State Press Magazine, a weekly arts and culture publication, comes out on Wednesdays. The Web Devil, the online arm of the State Press, publishes the paper's daily content online, as well as independent news and editorial content. The campus has two radio stations. KASC The Blaze 1260 AM, is a broadcast station and is not an official part of Student Media - it is owned and funded by the Cronkite School - but is completely student-run save for a faculty and professional adviser. The Blaze broadcasts local, alternative and independent music 24 hours a day, and also features news and sports updates at the top and bottom of every hour. kasc - the blaze 1260 am - asu's original alternative W7ASU is an amateur radio station that was first organized in 1935. W7ASU has about 30 members that enjoy amateur radio, and is primarily a contesting club. W7ASU - Amateur Radio Society at Arizona State University Student government Associated Students of Arizona State University (ASASU) is the student government at Arizona State University's campus at Tempe, Arizona. ASASU Website It is composed of the Undergraduate Student Government & the Graduate & Professional Student Association (GPSA). Members and officers of the ASASU are elected annually by the student body. The Residence Hall Association (RHA) of Arizona State University-Tempe is the student government for every ASU student living on-campus. The purpose of RHA is to enhance the quality of residence hall life and provide a cohesive voice for the residents by addressing the concerns of the on-campus populations to university administrators and other campus organizations; providing cultural, diversity, educational, and social programming; establishing and working with individual hall councils. In 2008, the RHA of ASU-Tempe was voted "Best School of the Year" out of over 400 higher education institutions. Residence halls Tempe Campus North Neighborhood Manzanita Hall (Freshman) Palo Verde Main Hall (Freshman) Palo Verde East Hall (Freshman) Palo Verde West Hall (Freshman) San Pablo Hall (Freshman and Residential College of Engineering) Center Neighborhood Best Hall (Freshman and Residential College-Barrett Honors and Arts) Hayden Hall (Freshman and Residential College- Barrett Honors) Irish Hall (Freshman and Residential College- Barrett Honors) McClintock Hall (Freshman Residential College of Design) South Neighborhood Hassayampa Academic Village (A - E) (Mohave Hall-CLAS living and learning communities)(Arroyo Hall-Mary Lou Foulton College of Education)(Jojoba Hall - WP Carey School of Business)(Chuparosa Hall - First Year Residential Experience)(Acacia Hall - Live Well Community) Hassayampa Academic Village (F - H) Sonora Center (Freshman) Adelphi Commons I (Panhellenic Sorority Housing; Female only) and II (Fraternity, Undergrad, & Grad Housing; Co-ed) - Privately managed by Campus Living Villages, owned by ASU Campus Apartments University Towers (Upper division) Cholla Apartments (Upper division) Vista del Sol (Upper division) - Privately owned, operated, and managed by American Campus Communities through an on campus Real-Estate Investment Trust (Student REIT) set up through American Campus Communities and Arizona State University. This agreement is one of the first of its kind. West campus Las Casas Downtown campus Taylor Place Polytechnic campus North Residence Halls South Village North Village West Village Notable alumni and former students Notable faculty and staff Chuck Backus - Former University Vice President and Provost Aaron Brown - Former host of CNN's NewsNight with Aaron Brown, currently serving as an instructor at the Cronkite School. David Berliner - Professor, Fulton College of Education Elizabeth D. "Betty" Capaldi - Executive Vice President and Provost of the University, professor of psychology, co-director of the Center for Measuring University Performance Phil Christensen - Regents' Professor; Principal Investigator of TES and THEMIS; co-investigator / co-designer, Mars Exploration Rovers Robert B. Cialdini - Regents' Professor of Social Psychology; Author, Influence Science and Practice John M. Cowley - Regents' Professor of Physics. Paul Davies - Professor. Director of BEYOND: Center for Fundamental Concepts in Science. Gene V. Glass - Regents' Professor; Statistician and developer of Meta-analysis John W. Fowler - Professor of Industrial Engineering and a pioneer of applying operations research in semiconductor manufacturing. David Hickman - Regents' Professor of Music; American trumpet soloist Bert Hölldobler - Foundation Professor, School of Life Sciences; co-winner of the Pulitzer Prize for The Ants (1991) with Edward O. Wilson. Marianne Jennings, Professor of Legal and Ethical Studies, author, columnist and commentator Donald Johanson - Director, Institute of Human Origins; discovered 3.18 million year old fossil hominid Lucy (Australopithecus) in Ethiopia Craig W. Kirkwood - Professor and Department Chair, Department of Supply Chain Management; Pioneer in Decision Analysis. Mark Klett - Regents' Professor of Photography Lawrence M. Krauss - Professor of Physics, and author of The Physics of Star Trek. Merlyna Lim - Researcher of Information and Communication Studies at the School of Justice and Social Inquiry and the Consortium for Science, Policy and Outcomes Douglas C. Montgomery - Regents' Professor and ASU Foundation Professor of Industrial Engineering. D.J.Pinkava - Professor Emeritus of Botany George Poste - Director, Arizona Biodesign Institute Edward C. Prescott - Regents' Professor, W.P. Carey School of Business; awarded the 2004 Nobel Prize in Economics Alberto Rios - Regents' Professor, Katharine C. Turner Endowed Chair, Department of English Dan L. Shunk - Avnet Endowed Chair and Professor of Industrial Engineering and Director of the TechMBA program in the W.P. Carey School of Business. Co-founder of the United States Air Force Integrated Computer-Aided Manufacturing (ICAM) program and a pioneer of IDEF methods. Billie Lee Turner - Gilbert F White Chair, Geography. Points of interest Arboretum at Arizona State University Sun Devil Marching Band Arizona State University Art Museum Cady Fountain Charles Trumbull Hayden Library Danforth Mediation Chapel Grady Gammage Memorial Auditorium Center for Meteorite Studies Decision Theater Life Sciences Center of Living Collections Mars Space Flight Facility Memorial Union Museum of Anthropology Old Main Public Art at ASU R.S. Dietz Museum of Geology Tempe Butte West campus - voted "Phoenix Point of Pride" 2008 Criticism On April 7, 2009 it was reported that the university would not award President Barack Obama an honorary degree at the commencement ceremony on May 13. “Because President Obama’s body of work is yet to come, it’s inappropriate to recognize him at this time,” University spokeswoman Sharon Keeler explained. - ASU Web Devil - Wednesday, April 8, 2009 Since 2003, it has been ASU policy to not award honorary degrees to individuals while they hold public office. On April 11, 2009, ASU confirmed its original intent to honor Obama by renaming a major scholarship program the "President Barack Obama Scholars." The University has been criticized by the media for this decision. Notes External links Official website Official athletics website ASU Chronology | Arizona_State_University |@lemmatized arizona:53 state:50 university:84 also:8 refer:2 asu:78 large:7 public:12 research:8 united:4 single:5 administration:4 total:5 student:47 enrollment:4 fall:6 spread:1 across:3 four:10 campus:114 phoenix:22 metropolitan:3 area:5 govern:1 board:2 regent:10 found:4 tempe:32 normal:6 school:69 territory:3 subsequently:1 rename:3 college:81 december:1 statewide:1 ballot:1 measure:3 institution:6 high:7 education:19 achieve:1 status:3 popular:1 mandate:1 addition:6 original:6 comprises:1 three:6 additional:1 west:20 create:2 northwest:6 polytechnic:8 open:5 mesa:5 downtown:17 august:2 accredit:1 learning:3 commission:2 accreditation:1 academic:11 year:19 graduate:21 national:8 merit:2 scholar:3 choose:1 attend:2 press:8 release:1 many:9 part:7 barrett:12 honor:14 produce:1 numerous:1 grant:1 scholarship:3 winner:2 since:2 founding:1 carnegie:1 classification:1 classify:1 ru:1 vh:1 activity:3 history:4 old:6 main:6 originally:2 name:5 march:3 john:5 samuel:1 armstrong:1 first:8 introduce:1 house:2 bill:1 act:1 establish:5 legislative:1 assembly:1 instruction:2 institute:6 february:1 supervision:2 principal:3 hiram:1 bradford:1 farmer:1 land:1 donate:1 resident:4 george:2 martha:1 wilson:2 allow:2 meet:1 room:1 early:1 beginning:1 century:1 change:1 president:16 arthur:1 matthew:2 bring:2 tenure:6 progress:1 give:2 become:4 enrol:5 secondary:1 facility:4 dormitory:1 build:3 construct:3 building:5 six:4 still:2 use:3 envision:1 evergreen:1 shrubbery:1 planting:1 palm:4 walk:4 one:11 feature:2 landmarks:1 legacy:2 continue:2 today:3 nationally:3 recognize:2 arboretum:5 great:3 depression:2 ralph:2 w:11 swetman:2 hire:2 term:1 archive:1 special:1 collection:4 although:3 increase:7 almost:1 due:1 faculty:12 terminate:1 salary:1 cut:1 eighth:1 waldo:1 gammage:7 auditorium:3 place:4 register:1 historic:1 grady:3 teacher:8 flagstaff:1 would:4 last:1 nearly:6 like:1 predecessor:1 dr:5 oversee:2 construction:2 number:1 development:3 program:43 renaming:1 growth:2 stature:2 center:10 presidency:1 g:1 homer:1 durham:1 begin:4 expand:1 curriculum:3 several:4 new:12 award:8 doctor:1 philosophy:1 doctoral:5 degree:11 library:6 story:2 leadership:11 next:1 harry:1 k:2 newburn:1 schwada:1 j:3 russell:1 nelson:1 interim:1 richard:1 peck:1 lead:2 creation:3 rise:4 lattie:1 f:4 coor:2 june:2 grow:1 serve:5 valley:1 sun:10 extended:1 site:3 commitment:1 diversity:2 quality:4 undergraduate:9 economic:1 underscore:1 significant:1 gain:1 successful:1 fund:3 raise:2 campaign:4 private:4 donation:2 primarily:3 local:2 community:14 million:12 invest:1 targeted:1 significantly:1 impact:3 future:1 among:3 achievement:1 naming:1 endowing:1 katherine:1 herberger:2 fine:1 art:12 morrison:1 agribusiness:2 resource:3 management:4 endow:4 position:2 hundred:2 fellowship:1 crow:6 era:1 biodesign:2 result:2 major:4 capital:2 design:9 involvement:5 biotechnology:1 july:1 michael:2 inauguration:1 outline:1 vision:2 transform:1 american:5 inclusive:1 unique:2 evolve:1 together:1 city:2 intellectual:1 world:13 aid:1 dollar:1 embark:1 aggressive:1 effort:2 decade:1 add:2 square:1 foot:1 class:5 infrastructure:1 expansion:1 viewpoint:1 campuses:1 comprise:5 locate:3 eastern:3 redundancy:1 offering:1 host:2 set:2 department:5 explanation:1 organization:7 unlike:1 system:2 common:2 presiding:1 staff:3 separate:1 admission:2 receive:2 diploma:1 regardless:1 reach:2 reorganize:1 move:3 newer:1 localize:1 presence:1 particularly:1 underground:1 entrance:1 charles:3 trumbull:3 hayden:5 lie:2 heart:2 eight:2 mile:1 km:1 east:4 consider:2 urban:1 approximately:1 size:2 arrange:1 around:1 broad:1 pedestrian:1 mall:1 completely:2 encompass:1 botanical:1 garden:1 extensive:1 ten:3 best:7 america:2 accord:2 review:1 edge:1 mill:1 avenue:1 district:1 atmosphere:1 attract:1 restaurant:1 bar:1 home:2 athletic:6 stand:1 http:3 uoia:1 edu:3 file:1 quickfacts:1 pdf:1 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5,179 | Hydrogen | Hydrogen ( Hydrogen, entry in the Oxford English Dictionary, prepared by J. A. Simpson and E. S. C. Weiner, vol. 7, second edition, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989. ISBN 0-19-861219-2 (vol. 7), ISBN 0-19-861186-2 (set.) ) is the chemical element with atomic number 1. It is represented by the symbol H. At standard temperature and pressure, hydrogen is a colorless, odorless, nonmetallic, tasteless, highly flammable diatomic gas with the molecular formula H2. With an atomic weight of 1.00794, hydrogen is the lightest element. Hydrogen is the most abundant chemical element, constituting roughly 75% of the universe's elemental mass. Stars in the main sequence are mainly composed of hydrogen in its plasma state. Elemental hydrogen is relatively rare on Earth. Industrial production is from hydrocarbons such as methane with most being used "captively" at the production site. The two largest uses are in fossil fuel processing (e.g., hydrocracking) and ammonia production mostly for the fertilizer market. Hydrogen may be produced from water by electrolysis at substantially greater cost than production from natural gas. The most common isotope of hydrogen is protium (name rarely used) with a single proton and no neutrons. In ionic compounds it can take a negative charge (an anion known as a hydride and written as H-), or as a positively-charged species H+. The latter cation is written as though composed of a bare proton, but in reality, hydrogen cations in ionic compounds always occur as more complex species. Hydrogen forms compounds with most elements and is present in water and most organic compounds. It plays a particularly important role in acid-base chemistry with many reactions exchanging protons between soluble molecules. As the only neutral atom with an analytic solution to the Schrödinger equation, the study of the energetics and bonding of the hydrogen atom played a key role in the development of quantum mechanics. Hydrogen is important in metallurgy as it can embrittle many metals, complicating the design of pipelines and storage tanks. Hydrogen is highly soluble in many rare earth and transition metals and is soluble in both nanocrystalline and amorphous metals. Hydrogen solubility in metals is influenced by local distortions or impurities in the crystal lattice. Combustion The Space Shuttle Main Engine burns hydrogen with oxygen, producing a nearly invisible flame Hydrogen gas (dihydrogen ) is highly flammable and will burn in air at a very wide range of concentrations between 4% and 75% by volume. The enthalpy of combustion for hydrogen is −286 kJ/mol: 2 H2(g) + O2(g) → 2 H2O(l) + 572 kJ (286 kJ/mol) Energy is per mole of the combustible material, Hydrogen. 286 kJ/mol Hydrogen/oxygen mixtures are explosive across a wide range of proportions. Its autoignition temperature, the temperature at which it ignites spontaneously in air, is . Pure hydrogen-oxygen flames emit ultraviolet light and are nearly invisible to the naked eye as illustrated by the faint plume of the Space Shuttle main engine compared to the highly visible plume of a Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster). The detection of a burning hydrogen leak may require a flame detector; such leaks can be very dangerous. The explosion of the Hindenburg airship was an infamous example of hydrogen combustion; the cause is debated, but the visible flames were the result of combustible materials in the ship's skin. Because hydrogen is buoyant in air, hydrogen flames tend to ascend rapidly and cause less damage than hydrocarbon fires. Two-thirds of the Hindenburg passengers survived the fire, and many deaths were instead the result of falls or burning diesel fuel. H2 reacts with every oxidizing element. Hydrogen can react spontaneously and violently at room temperature with chlorine and fluorine to form the corresponding halides: hydrogen chloride and hydrogen fluoride. Electron energy levels Depiction of a hydrogen atom showing the diameter as about twice the Bohr model radius (image not to scale). The ground state energy level of the electron in a hydrogen atom is −13.6 eV, which is equivalent to an ultraviolet photon of roughly 92 nm. The energy levels of hydrogen can be calculated fairly accurately using the Bohr model of the atom, which conceptualizes the electron as "orbiting" the proton in analogy to the Earth's orbit of the sun. However, the electromagnetic force attracts electrons and protons to one another, while planets and celestial objects are attracted to each other by gravity. Because of the discretization of angular momentum postulated in early quantum mechanics by Bohr, the electron in the Bohr model can only occupy certain allowed distances from the proton, and therefore only certain allowed energies. A more accurate description of the hydrogen atom comes from a purely quantum mechanical treatment that uses the Schrödinger equation or the equivalent Feynman path integral formulation to calculate the probability density of the electron around the proton. Elemental molecular forms First tracks observed in liquid hydrogen bubble chamber at the Bevatron There exist two different spin isomers of hydrogen diatomic molecules that differ by the relative spin of their nuclei. In the orthohydrogen form, the spins of the two protons are parallel and form a triplet state; in the parahydrogen form the spins are antiparallel and form a singlet. At standard temperature and pressure, hydrogen gas contains about 25% of the para form and 75% of the ortho form, also known as the "normal form". The equilibrium ratio of orthohydrogen to parahydrogen depends on temperature, but since the ortho form is an excited state and has a higher energy than the para form, it is unstable and cannot be purified. At very low temperatures, the equilibrium state is composed almost exclusively of the para form. The physical properties of pure parahydrogen differ slightly from those of the normal form. The ortho/para distinction also occurs in other hydrogen-containing molecules or functional groups, such as water and methylene. The uncatalyzed interconversion between para and ortho H2 increases with increasing temperature; thus rapidly condensed H2 contains large quantities of the high-energy ortho form that convert to the para form very slowly. The ortho/para ratio in condensed H2 is an important consideration in the preparation and storage of liquid hydrogen: the conversion from ortho to para is exothermic and produces enough heat to evaporate the hydrogen liquid, leading to loss of the liquefied material. Catalysts for the ortho-para interconversion, such as ferric oxide, activated carbon, platinized asbestos, rare earth metals, uranium compounds, chromic oxide, or some nickel compounds, are used during hydrogen cooling. A molecular form called protonated molecular hydrogen, or H3+, is found in the interstellar medium (ISM), where it is generated by ionization of molecular hydrogen from cosmic rays. It has also been observed in the upper atmosphere of the planet Jupiter. This molecule is relatively stable in the environment of outer space due to the low temperature and density. H3+ is one of the most abundant ions in the Universe, and it plays a notable role in the chemistry of the interstellar medium. Compounds Covalent and organic compounds While H2 is not very reactive under standard conditions, it does form compounds with most elements. Millions of hydrocarbons are known, but they are not formed by the direct reaction of elementary hydrogen and carbon (although synthesis gas production followed by the Fischer-Tropsch process to make hydrocarbons comes close to being an exception, as this begins with coal and the elemental hydrogen is generated in situ). Hydrogen can form compounds with elements that are more electronegative, such as halogens (e.g., F, Cl, Br, I); in these compounds hydrogen takes on a partial positive charge. When bonded to fluorine, oxygen, or nitrogen, hydrogen can participate in a form of strong noncovalent bonding called hydrogen bonding, which is critical to the stability of many biological molecules. IUPAC Compendium of Chemical Terminology, Electronic version, Hydrogen Bond Hydrogen also forms compounds with less electronegative elements, such as the metals and metalloids, in which it takes on a partial negative charge. These compounds are often known as hydrides. Hydrogen forms a vast array of compounds with carbon. Because of their general association with living things, these compounds came to be called organic compounds; the study of their properties is known as organic chemistry and their study in the context of living organisms is known as biochemistry. By some definitions, "organic" compounds are only required to contain carbon. However, most of them also contain hydrogen, and since it is the carbon-hydrogen bond which gives this class of compounds most of its particular chemical characteristics, carbon-hydrogen bonds are required in some definitions of the word "organic" in chemistry. In inorganic chemistry, hydrides can also serve as bridging ligands that link two metal centers in a coordination complex. This function is particularly common in group 13 elements, especially in boranes (boron hydrides) and aluminium complexes, as well as in clustered carboranes. Hydrides Compounds of hydrogen are often called hydrides, a term that is used fairly loosely. The term "hydride" implies that the H atom has acquired a negative or anionic character, denoted H−, and is used when hydrogen forms a compound with a more electropositive element. The existence of the hydride anion, suggested by Gilbert N. Lewis in 1916 for group I and II salt-like hydrides, was demonstrated by Moers in 1920 with the electrolysis of molten lithium hydride (LiH), that produced a stoichiometric quantity of hydrogen at the anode. For hydrides other than group I and II metals, the term is quite misleading, considering the low electronegativity of hydrogen. An exception in group II hydrides is BeH2, which is polymeric. In lithium aluminium hydride, the AlH4− anion carries hydridic centers firmly attached to the Al(III). Although hydrides can be formed with almost all main-group elements, the number and combination of possible compounds varies widely; for example, there are over 100 binary borane hydrides known, but only one binary aluminium hydride. Binary indium hydride has not yet been identified, although larger complexes exist. Protons and acids Oxidation of hydrogen, in the sense of removing its electron, formally gives H+, containing no electrons and a nucleus which is usually composed of one proton. That is why H+ is often called a proton. This species is central to discussion of acids. Under the Bronsted-Lowry theory, acids are proton donors, while bases are proton acceptors. A bare proton H+ cannot exist in solution or in ionic crystals, because of its unstoppable attraction to other atoms or molecules with electrons. Except at the high temperatures assocated with plasmas, such protons cannot be removed from the electron clouds of atoms and molecules, and will remain attached to them. However, the term 'proton' is sometimes used loosely and metaphorically to refer to positively charged or cationic hydrogen attached to other species in this fashion, and as such is denoted "H+" without any implication that any single protons exist freely as a species. To avoid the implication of the naked "solvated proton" in solution, acidic aqueous solutions are sometimes considered to contain a less unlikely fictitious species, termed the "hydronium ion" (H3O+). However, even in this case, such solvated hydrogen cations are thought more realistically physically to be organized into clusters that form species closer to H9O4+. Other oxonium ions are found when water is in solution with other solvents. Although exotic on earth, one of the most common ions in the universe is the H3+ ion, known as protonated molecular hydrogen or the triatomic hydrogen cation. Isotopes Protium, the most common isotope of hydrogen, has one proton and one electron. Unique among all stable isotopes, it has no neutrons (see diproton for discussion of why others do not exist). Hydrogen has three naturally occurring isotopes, denoted 1H, 2H, and 3H. Other, highly unstable nuclei (4H to 7H) have been synthesized in the laboratory but not observed in nature. 1H is the most common hydrogen isotope with an abundance of more than 99.98%. Because the nucleus of this isotope consists of only a single proton, it is given the descriptive but rarely used formal name protium. 2H, the other stable hydrogen isotope, is known as deuterium and contains one proton and one neutron in its nucleus. Essentially all deuterium in the universe is thought to have been produced at the time of the Big Bang, and has endured since that time. Deuterium is not radioactive, and does not represent a significant toxicity hazard. Water enriched in molecules that include deuterium instead of normal hydrogen is called heavy water. Deuterium and its compounds are used as a non-radioactive label in chemical experiments and in solvents for 1H-NMR spectroscopy. Heavy water is used as a neutron moderator and coolant for nuclear reactors. Deuterium is also a potential fuel for commercial nuclear fusion. 3H is known as tritium and contains one proton and two neutrons in its nucleus. It is radioactive, decaying into Helium-3 through beta decay with a half-life of 12.32 years. Small amounts of tritium occur naturally because of the interaction of cosmic rays with atmospheric gases; tritium has also been released during nuclear weapons tests. It is used in nuclear fusion reactions, as a tracer in isotope geochemistry, and specialized in self-powered lighting devices. Tritium has also been used in chemical and biological labeling experiments as a radiolabel. Hydrogen is the only element that has different names for its isotopes in common use today. (During the early study of radioactivity, various heavy radioactive isotopes were given names, but such names are no longer used). The symbols D and T (instead of 2H and 3H) are sometimes used for deuterium and tritium, but the corresponding symbol P is already in use for phosphorus and thus is not available for protium. In its nomenclatural guidelines, the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry allows any of D, T, 2H, and 3H to be used, although 2H and 3H are preferred. § IR-3.3.2, Provisional Recommendations, Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry, Chemical Nomenclature and Structure Representation Division, IUPAC. Accessed on line October 3, 2007. Natural occurrence NGC 604, a giant region of ionized hydrogen in the Triangulum Galaxy Hydrogen is the most abundant element in the universe, making up 75% of normal matter by mass and over 90% by number of atoms. This element is found in great abundance in stars and gas giant planets. Molecular clouds of H2 are associated with star formation. Hydrogen plays a vital role in powering stars through proton-proton reaction and CNO cycle nuclear fusion. Throughout the universe, hydrogen is mostly found in the atomic and plasma states whose properties are quite different from molecular hydrogen. As a plasma, hydrogen's electron and proton are not bound together, resulting in very high electrical conductivity and high emissivity (producing the light from the sun and other stars). The charged particles are highly influenced by magnetic and electric fields. For example, in the solar wind they interact with the Earth's magnetosphere giving rise to Birkeland currents and the aurora. Hydrogen is found in the neutral atomic state in the Interstellar medium. The large amount of neutral hydrogen found in the damped Lyman-alpha systems is thought to dominate the cosmological baryonic density of the Universe up to redshift z=4. Under ordinary conditions on Earth, elemental hydrogen exists as the diatomic gas, H2 (for data see table). However, hydrogen gas is very rare in the Earth's atmosphere (1 ppm by volume) because of its light weight, which enables it to escape from Earth's gravity more easily than heavier gases. However, hydrogen (in chemically combined form) is the third most abundant element on the Earth's surface. Most of the Earth's hydrogen is in the form of chemical compounds such as hydrocarbons and water. Hydrogen gas is produced by some bacteria and algae and is a natural component of flatus. Methane is a hydrogen source of increasing importance. History Discovery and use Hydrogen gas, H2, was first artificially produced and formally described by T. Von Hohenheim (also known as Paracelsus, 1493–1541) via the mixing of metals with strong acids. He was unaware that the flammable gas produced by this chemical reaction was a new chemical element. In 1671, Robert Boyle rediscovered and described the reaction between iron filings and dilute acids, which results in the production of hydrogen gas. In 1766, Henry Cavendish was the first to recognize hydrogen gas as a discrete substance, by identifying the gas from a metal-acid reaction as "inflammable air" and further finding in 1781 that the gas produces water when burned. He is usually given credit for its discovery as an element. In 1783, Antoine Lavoisier gave the element the name hydrogen (from the Greek hydro meaning water and genes meaning creator) when he and Laplace reproduced Cavendish's finding that water is produced when hydrogen is burned. Hydrogen was liquefied for the first time by James Dewar in 1898 by using regenerative cooling and his invention, the vacuum flask. He produced solid hydrogen the next year. Deuterium was discovered in December 1931 by Harold Urey, and tritium was prepared in 1934 by Ernest Rutherford, Mark Oliphant, and Paul Harteck. Heavy water, which consists of deuterium in the place of regular hydrogen, was discovered by Urey's group in 1932. François Isaac de Rivaz built the first internal combustion engine powered by a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen in 1806. Edward Daniel Clarke invented the hydrogen gas blowpipe in 1819. The Döbereiner's lamp and limelight were invented in 1823. The first hydrogen-filled balloon was invented by Jacques Charles in 1783. Hydrogen provided the lift for the first reliable form of air-travel following the 1852 invention of the first hydrogen-lifted airship by Henri Giffard. German count Ferdinand von Zeppelin promoted the idea of rigid airships lifted by hydrogen that later were called Zeppelins; the first of which had its maiden flight in 1900. Regularly scheduled flights started in 1910 and by the outbreak of World War I in August 1914, they had carried 35,000 passengers without a serious incident. Hydrogen-lifted airships were used as observation platforms and bombers during the war. The first non-stop transatlantic crossing was made by the British airship R34 in 1919. Regular passenger service resumed in the 1920s and the discovery of helium reserves in the United States promised increased safety, but the U.S. government refused to sell the gas for this purpose. Therefore, H2 was used in the Hindenburg airship, which was destroyed in a midair fire over New Jersey on May 6, 1937. The incident was broadcast live on radio and filmed. Ignition of leaking hydrogen as widely assumed to be the cause but later investigations pointed to ignition of the aluminized fabric coating by static electricity. But the damage to hydrogen's reputation as a lifting gas was already done. In the same year the first hydrogen-cooled turbogenerator went into service with gaseous hydrogen as a coolant in the rotor and the stator in 1937 at Dayton, Ohio, by the Dayton Power & Light Co, because of the thermal conductivity of hydrogen gas this is the most common type in its field today. The nickel hydrogen battery was used for the first time in 1977 aboard the U.S. Navy's Navigation technology satellite-2 (NTS-2). For example, the ISS, Mars Odyssey and the Mars Global Surveyor are equipped with nickel-hydrogen batteries. The Hubble Space Telescope, at the time its original batteries were finally changed in May 2009, more than 19 years after launch, led with the highest number of charge/discharge cycles of any NiH2 battery in low earth orbit. Role in quantum theory Hydrogen emission spectrum lines in the visible range. These are the four visible lines of the Balmer seriesBecause of its relatively simple atomic structure, consisting only of a proton and an electron, the hydrogen atom, together with the spectrum of light produced from it or absorbed by it, has been central to the development of the theory of atomic structure. Furthermore, the corresponding simplicity of the hydrogen molecule and the corresponding cation H2+ allowed fuller understanding of the nature of the chemical bond, which followed shortly after the quantum mechanical treatment of the hydrogen atom had been developed in the mid-1920s. One of the first quantum effects to be explicitly noticed (but not understood at the time) was a Maxwell observation involving hydrogen, half a century before full quantum mechanical theory arrived. Maxwell observed that the specific heat capacity of H2 unaccountably departs from that of a diatomic gas below room temperature and begins to increasingly resemble that of a monatomic gas at cryogenic temperatures. According to quantum theory, this behavior arises from the spacing of the (quantized) rotational energy levels, which are particularly wide-spaced in H2 because of its low mass. These widely spaced levels inhibit equal partition of heat energy into rotational motion in hydrogen at low temperatures. Diatomic gases composed of heavier atoms do not have such widely spaced levels and do not exhibit the same effect. Production H2 is produced in chemistry and biology laboratories, often as a by-product of other reactions; in industry for the hydrogenation of unsaturated substrates; and in nature as a means of expelling reducing equivalents in biochemical reactions. Laboratory In the laboratory, H2 is usually prepared by the reaction of acids on metals such as zinc with Kipp's apparatus. Zn + 2 H+ → Zn2+ + H2 Aluminium can also produce H2 upon treatment with bases: 2 Al + 6 H2O + 2 OH-→ 2 Al(OH)4- + 3 H2 The electrolysis of water is a simple method of producing hydrogen. A low voltage current is run through the water, and gaseous oxygen forms at the anode while gaseous hydrogen forms at the cathode. Typically the cathode is made from platinum or another inert metal when producing hydrogen for storage. If, however, the gas is to be burnt on site, oxygen is desirable to assist the combustion, and so both electrodes would be made from inert metals. (Iron, for instance, would oxidize, and thus decrease the amount of oxygen given off.) The theoretical maximum efficiency (electricity used vs. energetic value of hydrogen produced) is between 80–94%. 2H2O(aq) → 2H2(g) + O2(g) In 2007, it was discovered that an alloy of aluminium and gallium in pellet form added to water could be used to generate hydrogen. The process also creates alumina, but the expensive gallium, which prevents the formation of an oxide skin on the pellets, can be re-used. This has important potential implications for a hydrogen economy, since hydrogen can be produced on-site and does not need to be transported. Industrial Hydrogen can be prepared in several different ways, but economically the most important processes involve removal of hydrogen from hydrocarbons. Commercial bulk hydrogen is usually produced by the steam reforming of natural gas. At high temperatures (700–1100 °C; 1,300–2,000 °F), steam (water vapor) reacts with methane to yield carbon monoxide and H2. CH4 + H2O → CO + 3 H2 This reaction is favored at low pressures but is nonetheless conducted at high pressures (20 atm; 600 inHg) since high pressure H2 is the most marketable product. The product mixture is known as "synthesis gas" because it is often used directly for the production of methanol and related compounds. Hydrocarbons other than methane can be used to produce synthesis gas with varying product ratios. One of the many complications to this highly optimized technology is the formation of coke or carbon: CH4 → C + 2 H2 Consequently, steam reforming typically employs an excess of H2O. Additional hydrogen can be recovered from the steam by use of carbon monoxide through the water gas shift reaction, especially with an iron oxide catalyst. This reaction is also a common industrial source of carbon dioxide: CO + H2O → CO2 + H2 Other important methods for H2 production include partial oxidation of hydrocarbons: 2 CH4 + O2 → 2 CO + 4 H2 and the coal reaction, which can serve as a prelude to the shift reaction above: C + H2O → CO + H2 Hydrogen is sometimes produced and consumed in the same industrial process, without being separated. In the Haber process for the production of ammonia, hydrogen is generated from natural gas. Electrolysis of brine to yield chlorine also produces hydrogen as a co-product. Thermochemical There are more than 200 thermochemical cycles which can be used for water splitting, around a dozen of these cycles such as the iron oxide cycle, cerium(IV) oxide-cerium(III) oxide cycle, zinc zinc-oxide cycle, sulfur-iodine cycle, copper-chlorine cycle and hybrid sulfur cycle are under research and in testing phase to produce hydrogen and oxygen from water and heat without using electricity. A number of laboratories (including in France, Germany, Greece, Japan, and the USA) are developing thermochemical methods to produce hydrogen from solar energy and water. Applications Large quantities of H2 are needed in the petroleum and chemical industries. The largest application of H2 is for the processing ("upgrading") of fossil fuels, and in the production of ammonia. The key consumers of H2 in the petrochemical plant include hydrodealkylation, hydrodesulfurization, and hydrocracking. H2 has several other important uses. H2 is used as a hydrogenating agent, particularly in increasing the level of saturation of unsaturated fats and oils (found in items such as margarine), and in the production of methanol. It is similarly the source of hydrogen in the manufacture of hydrochloric acid. H2 is also used as a reducing agent of metallic ores. Apart from its use as a reactant, H2 has wide applications in physics and engineering. It is used as a shielding gas in welding methods such as atomic hydrogen welding. H2 is used as the rotor coolant in electrical generators at power stations, because it has the highest thermal conductivity of any gas. Liquid H2 is used in cryogenic research, including superconductivity studies. Since H2 is lighter than air, having a little more than 1/15th of the density of air, it was once widely used as a lifting gas in balloons and airships. In more recent applications, hydrogen is used pure or mixed with nitrogen (sometimes called forming gas) as a tracer gas for minute leak detection. Applications can be found in the automotive, chemical, power generation, aerospace, and telecommunications industries. Hydrogen is an authorized food additive (E 949) that allows food package leak testing among other anti-oxidizing properties. Hydrogen's rarer isotopes also each have specific applications. Deuterium (hydrogen-2) is used in nuclear fission applications as a moderator to slow neutrons, and in nuclear fusion reactions. Deuterium compounds have applications in chemistry and biology in studies of reaction isotope effects. Tritium (hydrogen-3), produced in nuclear reactors, is used in the production of hydrogen bombs, as an isotopic label in the biosciences, and as a radiation source in luminous paints. The triple point temperature of equilibrium hydrogen is a defining fixed point on the ITS-90 temperature scale at 13.8033 kelvins. Energy carrier Hydrogen is not an energy resource, except in the hypothetical context of commercial nuclear fusion power plants using deuterium or tritium, a technology presently far from development. The Sun's energy comes from nuclear fusion of hydrogen, but this process is difficult to achieve controllably on Earth. Elemental hydrogen from solar, biological, or electrical sources require more energy to make it than is obtained by burning it, so in these cases hydrogen functions as an energy carrier, like a battery. Hydrogen may be obtained from fossil sources (such as methane), but these sources are unsustainable. The energy density per unit volume of both liquid hydrogen and compressed hydrogen gas at any practicable pressure is significantly less than that of traditional fuel sources, although the energy density per unit fuel mass is higher. Nevertheless, elemental hydrogen has been widely discussed in the context of energy, as a possible future carrier of energy on an economy-wide scale. For example, CO2 sequestration followed by carbon capture and storage could be conducted at the point of H2 production from fossil fuels. Hydrogen used in transportation would burn relatively cleanly, with some NOx emissions, but without carbon emissions. However, the infrastructure costs associated with full conversion to a hydrogen economy would be substantial. See Biological reactions H2 is a product of some types of anaerobic metabolism and is produced by several microorganisms, usually via reactions catalyzed by iron- or nickel-containing enzymes called hydrogenases. These enzymes catalyze the reversible redox reaction between H2 and its component two protons and two electrons. Creation of hydrogen gas occurs in the transfer of reducing equivalents produced during pyruvate fermentation to water. Water splitting, in which water is decomposed into its component protons, electrons, and oxygen, occurs in the light reactions in all photosynthetic organisms. Some such organisms—including the alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii and cyanobacteria—have evolved a second step in the dark reactions in which protons and electrons are reduced to form H2 gas by specialized hydrogenases in the chloroplast. Efforts have been undertaken to genetically modify cyanobacterial hydrogenases to efficiently synthesize H2 gas even in the presence of oxygen. Efforts have also been undertaken with genetically modified alga in a bioreactor. Safety and precautions Inhalation of air with high concentration of hydrogen displaces oxygen and may cause the above symptoms as an asphyxant. Lenntech: Health effects of hydrogen - Environmental effects of hydrogen Received on 11 February, 2009 Hydrogen poses a number of hazards to human safety, from potential detonations and fires when mixed with air to being an asphyxant in its pure, oxygen-free form. In addition, liquid hydrogen is a cryogen and presents dangers (such as frostbite) associated with very cold liquids. Hydrogen dissolves in some metals, and, in addition to leaking out, may have adverse effects on them, such as hydrogen embrittlement. Hydrogen gas leaking into external air may spontaneously ignite. Moreover, hydrogen fire, while being extremely hot, is almost invisible, and thus can lead to accidental burns. Even interpreting the hydrogen data (including safety data) is confounded by a number of phenomena. Many physical and chemical properties of hydrogen depend on the parahydrogen/orthohydrogen ratio (it often takes days or weeks at a given temperature to reach the equilibrium ratio, for which the data is usually given). Hydrogen detonation parameters, such as critical detonation pressure and temperature, strongly depend on the container geometry. See also Antihydrogen Blacklight Power Hydrogen cycle Hydrogen leak testing Hydrogen-like atom Hydrogen line Hydrogen planes Hydrogen spectral series Hydrogen station Hydrogen technologies Hydrogen vehicle Metallic hydrogen Oxyhydrogen Photohydrogen References Further reading Author interview at Global Public Media. External links Basic Hydrogen Calculations of Quantum Mechanics Hydrogen phase diagram Wavefunction of hydrogen be-x-old:Вадарод | Hydrogen |@lemmatized hydrogen:171 entry:1 oxford:2 english:1 dictionary:1 prepare:4 j:1 simpson:1 e:4 c:4 weiner:1 vol:2 second:2 edition:1 clarendon:1 press:1 isbn:2 set:1 chemical:14 element:18 atomic:7 number:7 represent:2 symbol:3 h:10 standard:3 temperature:18 pressure:7 colorless:1 odorless:1 nonmetallic:1 tasteless:1 highly:7 flammable:3 diatomic:5 gas:40 molecular:8 formula:1 weight:2 light:8 abundant:4 constitute:1 roughly:2 universe:7 elemental:7 mass:4 star:5 main:4 sequence:1 mainly:1 compose:4 plasma:4 state:8 relatively:4 rare:4 earth:13 industrial:4 production:14 hydrocarbon:8 methane:5 use:43 captively:1 site:3 two:8 large:6 us:2 fossil:4 fuel:7 processing:2 g:6 hydrocracking:2 ammonia:3 mostly:2 fertilizer:1 market:1 may:8 produce:28 water:23 electrolysis:4 substantially:1 great:2 cost:2 natural:5 common:8 isotope:13 protium:4 name:6 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5,180 | Formalist_film_theory | Formalist film theory is a theory of film study that is focused on the formal, or technical, elements of a film: i.e., the lighting, scoring, sound and set design, use of color, shot composition, and editing. It is a major theory of film study today. Basic Theory Formalism, at its most general, considers the synthesis (or lack of synthesis) of the multiple elements of film production, and the effects, emotional and intellectual, of that synthesis and of the individual elements. For example, let's take the single element of editing. A formalist might study how standard Hollywood "continuity editing" creates a more comforting effect and non-continuity or jump-cut editing might become more disconcerting or volatile. Or one might consider the synthesis of several elements, such as editing, shot composition, and music. The shoot-out that ends Sergio Leone's Spaghetti Western "Dollars" trilogy is a valid example of how these elements work together to produce an effect: The shot selection goes from very wide to very close and tense; the length of shots decreases as the sequence progresses towards its end; the music builds. All of these elements, in combination rather than individually, create tension. Formalism is unique in that it embraces both ideological and auteurist branches of criticism. In both these cases, the common denominator for Formalist criticism is style. Ideological Formalism Ideologues focus on how socio-economic pressures create a particular style, and auteurists on how auteurs put their own stamp on the material. Since formalism is primarily concerned with style and how it communicates the ideas, emotions, and themes (rather than, as critics of formalism point out, concentrating on the themes of a work itself). Two examples of ideological interpretations that are related to formalism: The classical Hollywood cinema has a very distinct style, sometimes called the Institutional Mode of Representation: continuity editing, massive coverage, three-point lighting, "mood" music, dissolves, all designed to make the experience as pleasant as possible. The socio-economic ideological explanation for this is, quite crassly, that Hollywood wants to make as much money and appeal to as many ticket-buyers as possible. Film noir, which was given its name by Nino Frank, is marked by lower production values, darker images, underlighting, location shooting, and general nihilism: this is because, we are told, during the war and post-war years filmmakers were generally more pessimistic (as well as filmgoers). Also, the German Expressionists (including Fritz Lang, who was not technically an expressionist as popularly believed) emigrated to America and brought their stylized lighting effects (and disillusionment due to the war) to American soil. It can be argued that, by this approach, the style or 'language' of these films is directly affected not by the individuals responsible, but by social, economic, and political pressures, of which the filmmakers themselves may be aware or not. It is this branch of criticism that gives us such categories as the classical Hollywood cinema, the American independent movement, the New American independent movement, the new queer cinema, and the French, German, and Czech new waves. Formalism in Auteur Theory If the ideological approach is concerned with broad movements and the effects of the world around the filmmaker, then the auteur theory is diametrically opposed to it, celebrating the individual, usually in the person of the filmmaker, and how his personal decisions, thoughts, and style manifest themselves in the material. This branch of criticism, begun by François Truffaut and the other young film critics writing for Cahiers du cinema, was created for two reasons. First, it was created to redeem the art of film itself. By arguing that films had auteurs, or authors, Truffaut sought to make films (and their directors) at least as important as the more widely-accepted art forms, such as literature, music, and painting. Each of these art forms, and the criticism thereof, is primarily concerned with a sole creative force: the author of a novel (not, for example, his editor or type-setter), the composer of a piece of music (though sometimes the performers are given credence, akin to actors in film today), or the painter of a fresco (not his assistants who mix the colours or often do some of the painting themselves). By elevating the director, and not the screenwriter, to the same importance as novelists, composers, or painters, it sought to free the cinema from its popular conception as a bastard art, somewhere between theater and literature. Secondly, it sought to redeem many filmmakers who were looked down upon by mainstream film critics. It argued that genre filmmakers and low-budget B-movies were just as important, if not more, than the prestige pictures commonly given more press and legitimacy in France and the United States. According to Truffaut's theory, auteurs took material that was beneath their talents—a thriller, a pulpy action film, a romance—and, through their style, put their own personal stamp on it. It is this auteur style that concerns formalism. A perfect example of formalist criticism of auteur style would be the work of Alfred Hitchcock. Hitchcock primarily made thrillers, which, according to this the Cahiers du cinema crowd, were popular with the public but dismissed by the critics and the award ceremonies (though it should be noted that Hitchcock's Rebecca won the Oscar for Best Picture at the 1940 Academy Awards, and though he never won the Oscar for directing, he was nominated five times in the category). Truffaut and his colleagues argued that Hitchcock had a style as distinct as that of Flaubert or Van Gogh: the virtuoso editing, the lyrical camera movements, the droll humour. He also had "Hitchcockian" themes: the wrong man falsely accused, violence erupting at the times it was least expected, the cool blonde. Now, Hitchcock is more or less universally lauded, his films dissected shot-by-shot, his work celebrated as being that of a master. And the study of this style, his variations, and obsessions all fall quite neatly under the umbrella of formalist film theory. References Bordwell, David, "Film Art: An Introduction"; McGraw-Hill; 7th edition (June, 2003). Braudy, Leo, ed., "Film Theory and Criticism: Introductory Readings"; Oxford University Press; 6th edition (March, 2004). Gianetti, Leo, "Understanding Movies"; Prentice Hall; 10th edition (March, 2004) | Formalist_film_theory |@lemmatized formalist:5 film:18 theory:9 study:4 focus:2 formal:1 technical:1 element:7 e:1 lighting:3 score:1 sound:1 set:1 design:2 use:1 color:1 shot:5 composition:2 edit:3 major:1 today:2 basic:1 formalism:8 general:2 consider:2 synthesis:4 lack:1 multiple:1 production:2 effect:5 emotional:1 intellectual:1 individual:3 example:5 let:1 take:2 single:1 might:3 standard:1 hollywood:4 continuity:3 create:5 comforting:1 non:1 jump:1 cut:1 editing:4 become:1 disconcerting:1 volatile:1 one:1 several:1 music:5 shoot:1 end:2 sergio:1 leone:1 spaghetti:1 western:1 dollar:1 trilogy:1 valid:1 work:4 together:1 produce:1 selection:1 go:1 wide:1 close:1 tense:1 length:1 shots:1 decrease:1 sequence:1 progress:1 towards:1 build:1 combination:1 rather:2 individually:1 tension:1 unique:1 embrace:1 ideological:5 auteurist:1 branch:3 criticism:7 case:1 common:1 denominator:1 style:11 ideologue:1 socio:2 economic:3 pressure:2 particular:1 auteurists:1 auteur:7 put:2 stamp:2 material:3 since:1 primarily:3 concern:4 communicate:1 idea:1 emotion:1 theme:3 critic:4 point:2 concentrate:1 two:2 interpretation:1 relate:1 classical:2 cinema:6 distinct:2 sometimes:2 call:1 institutional:1 mode:1 representation:1 massive:1 coverage:1 three:1 mood:1 dissolve:1 make:4 experience:1 pleasant:1 possible:2 explanation:1 quite:2 crassly:1 want:1 much:1 money:1 appeal:1 many:2 ticket:1 buyer:1 noir:1 give:4 name:1 nino:1 frank:1 mark:1 low:2 value:1 darker:1 image:1 underlighting:1 location:1 shooting:1 nihilism:1 told:1 war:3 post:1 year:1 filmmaker:6 generally:1 pessimistic:1 well:1 filmgoers:1 also:2 german:2 expressionist:2 include:1 fritz:1 lang:1 technically:1 popularly:1 believe:1 emigrate:1 america:1 bring:1 stylize:1 disillusionment:1 due:1 american:3 soil:1 argue:4 approach:2 language:1 directly:1 affect:1 responsible:1 social:1 political:1 may:1 aware:1 u:1 category:2 independent:2 movement:4 new:3 queer:1 french:1 czech:1 wave:1 broad:1 world:1 around:1 diametrically:1 oppose:1 celebrate:2 usually:1 person:1 personal:2 decision:1 thought:1 manifest:1 begin:1 françois:1 truffaut:4 young:1 write:1 cahiers:2 du:2 reason:1 first:1 redeem:2 art:5 author:2 seek:3 director:2 least:2 important:2 widely:1 accepted:1 form:2 literature:2 paint:2 thereof:1 sole:1 creative:1 force:1 novel:1 editor:1 type:1 setter:1 composer:2 piece:1 though:3 performer:1 credence:1 akin:1 actor:1 painter:2 fresco:1 assistant:1 mix:1 colour:1 often:1 elevate:1 screenwriter:1 importance:1 novelist:1 free:1 popular:2 conception:1 bastard:1 somewhere:1 theater:1 secondly:1 look:1 upon:1 mainstream:1 genre:1 budget:1 b:1 movie:2 prestige:1 picture:2 commonly:1 press:2 legitimacy:1 france:1 united:1 state:1 accord:2 beneath:1 talent:1 thriller:2 pulpy:1 action:1 romance:1 perfect:1 would:1 alfred:1 hitchcock:5 crowd:1 public:1 dismiss:1 award:2 ceremony:1 note:1 rebecca:1 win:2 oscar:2 best:1 academy:1 never:1 directing:1 nominate:1 five:1 time:2 colleague:1 flaubert:1 van:1 gogh:1 virtuoso:1 lyrical:1 camera:1 droll:1 humour:1 hitchcockian:1 wrong:1 man:1 falsely:1 accuse:1 violence:1 erupting:1 expect:1 cool:1 blonde:1 less:1 universally:1 laud:1 dissect:1 master:1 variation:1 obsession:1 fall:1 neatly:1 umbrella:1 reference:1 bordwell:1 david:1 introduction:1 mcgraw:1 hill:1 edition:3 june:1 braudy:1 leo:2 ed:1 introductory:1 reading:1 oxford:1 university:1 march:2 gianetti:1 understand:1 prentice:1 hall:1 |@bigram sergio_leone:1 socio_economic:2 fritz_lang:1 diametrically_oppose:1 françois_truffaut:1 cahiers_du:2 alfred_hitchcock:1 van_gogh:1 falsely_accuse:1 mcgraw_hill:1 prentice_hall:1 |
5,181 | International_Phonetic_Alphabet | The International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) "The acronym 'IPA' strictly refers [...] to the 'International Phonetic Association'. But it is now such a common practice to use the acronym also to refer to the alphabet itself (from the phrase 'International Phonetic Alphabet') that resistance seems pedantic. Context usually serves to disambiguate the two usages." (Laver 1994:561) is a system of phonetic notation based on the Latin alphabet, devised by the International Phonetic Association as a standardized representation of the sounds of spoken language. International Phonetic Association (IPA), Handbook. The IPA is used by foreign language students and teachers, linguists, speech pathologists and therapists, singers, actors, lexicographers, and translators. The IPA is designed to represent only those qualities of speech that are distinctive in spoken language: phonemes, intonation, and the separation of words and syllables. To represent additional qualities of speech such as tooth-gnashing, lisping, and sounds made with a cleft palate, an extended set of symbols called the Extensions to the IPA is used. Occasionally symbols are added, removed, or modified by the International Phonetic Association. As of 2008, there are 107 distinct letters, 52 diacritics, and 4 prosody marks in the IPA proper. History In 1886, a group of French and British language teachers, led by the French linguist Paul Passy, formed what would come to be known (from 1897 onwards) as the International Phonetic Association (in French, l’Association phonétique internationale). International Phonetic Association, Handbook, pp. 194–196 The original alphabet was based on a spelling reform for English known as the Romic alphabet, but in order to make it usable for other languages, the values of the symbols were allowed to vary from language to language. "Originally, the aim was to make available a set of phonetic symbols which would be given different articulatory values, if necessary, in different languages." (International Phonetic Association, Handbook, pp. 195–196) For example, the sound [] (sh in shoe) was originally represented with the letter <c> in English, but with the letter <x> in French. However, in 1888, the alphabet was revised so as to be uniform across languages, thus providing the base for all future revisions. Since its creation, the IPA has undergone a number of revisions. After major revisions and expansions in 1900 and 1932, the IPA remained unchanged until the IPA Kiel Convention in 1989. A minor revision took place in 1993, with the addition of four mid-central vowels and the removal of symbols for voiceless implosives. Pullum and Ladusaw, Phonetic Symbol Guide, pp. 152, 209 The alphabet was last revised in May 2005, with the addition of a symbol for the labiodental flap. Apart from the addition and removal of symbols, changes to the IPA have consisted largely in renaming symbols and categories, and modifying typefaces. Extensions of the alphabet are relatively recent; "Extensions to the IPA" was created in 1990 and officially adopted by the International Clinical Phonetics and Linguistics Association in 1994. International Phonetic Association, Handbook, p. 186 Description A chart of the full International Phonetic Alphabet. The general principle of the IPA is to provide one symbol for each distinctive sound (or speech segment). “From its earliest days…the International Phonetic Association has aimed to provide ‘a separate sign for each distinctive sound; that is, for each sound which, being used instead of another, in the same language, can change the meaning of a word’.” (International Phonetic Association, Handbook, p. 27) This means that it does not use letter combinations to represent single sounds, In contrast, English sometimes uses combinations of two letters to represent single sounds, such as the digraphs sh and th for the sounds and /, respectively. or single letters to represent multiple sounds (the way <x> represents [ks] or [gz] in English). There are no letters that have context-dependent sound values (as <c> does in English and other European languages), and finally, the IPA does not usually have separate letters for two sounds if no known language makes a distinction between them (a property known as "selectiveness"). For instance, flaps and taps are two different kinds of articulation, but since no language has (yet) been found to make a distinction between, say, an alveolar flap and an alveolar tap, the IPA does not provide such sounds with dedicated symbols. Instead, it provides a single symbol (in this case, ) for both sounds. Strictly speaking, this makes the IPA a phonemic alphabet, not a phonetic one. Among the symbols of the IPA, 107 represent consonants and vowels, 31 are diacritics that are used to further specify these sounds, and 19 are used to indicate such qualities as length, tone, stress, and intonation. There are five basic tone marks, which are combined for contour tones; six of these combinations are in common use. Letterforms The symbols chosen for the IPA are meant to harmonize with the Latin alphabet. "The non-roman letters of the International Phonetic Alphabet have been designed as far as possible to harmonize well with the roman letters. The Association does not recognise makeshift letters; It recognises only letters which have been carefully cut so as to be in harmony with the other letters." (IPA 1949) For this reason, most symbols are either Latin or Greek letters, or modifications thereof. However, there are symbols that are neither: for example, the symbol denoting the glottal stop, <>, has the form of a "gelded" question mark, and was originally an apostrophe. Technically, the symbol could be considered Latin-derived, since the question mark may have originated as "Qo", an abbreviation of the Latin word quæstio, "question". In fact, there are a few symbols, such as that of the voiced pharyngeal fricative, <>, which, though modified to blend with the Latin alphabet, were inspired by glyphs in other writing systems (in this case, the Arabic letter , `ain). Despite its preference for letters that harmonize with the Latin alphabet, the International Phonetic Association has occasionally admitted symbols that do not have this property. For example, before 1989, the IPA symbols for click consonants were <>, <>, <>, and <>, all of which were derived either from existing symbols, or from Latin and Greek letters. However, except for <>, none of these symbols was widely used among Khoisanists or Bantuists, and as a result, they were replaced by the less Latin-like but more widespread symbols <>, <>, <>, <>, and <> at the IPA Kiel Convention in 1989. Laver, Principles of Phonetics,pp. 174–175 Symbols and sounds The International Phonetic Alphabet is based on the Latin alphabet, using as few non-Latin forms as possible. The Association created the IPA so that the sound values of most consonants taken from the Latin alphabet would correspond to “international usage”. Hence, the letters <>, <>, <>, (hard) <>, (non-silent) <>, (unaspirated) <>, <>, <>, <>, (unaspirated) <>, (voiceless) <>, (unaspirated) <>, <>, <>, and <> have the values used in English; and the vowels from the Latin alphabet (<>, <>, <>, <>, <>) correspond to the sound values of Latin: is like the vowel in machine, is as in rule, etc. Other letters may differ from English, but are used with these values in other European languages, such as <>, <>, and <>. This inventory was extended by using capital or cursive forms, diacritics, and rotation. There are also several derived or taken from the Greek alphabet, though the sound values may differ. For example, <> is a vowel in Greek, but an only indirectly related consonant in the IPA. Two of these (<> and <>) are used unmodified in form; for others (including <>, <>, <>, <>, and <>) subtly different glyph shapes have been devised, which may be encoded in Unicode separately from their "parent" letters. The sound values of modified Latin letters can often be derived from those of the original letters. "The new letters should be suggestive of the sounds they represent, by their resemblance to the old ones." (International Phonetic Association, Handbook, p. 196) For example, letters with a rightward-facing hook at the bottom represent retroflex consonants; and small capital letters usually represent uvular consonants. Apart from the fact that certain kinds of modification to the shape of a letter generally correspond to certain kinds of modification to the sound represented, there is no way to deduce the sound represented by a symbol from the shape of the symbol (unlike, for example, in Visible Speech). Beyond the letters themselves, there are a variety of secondary symbols which aid in transcription. Diacritic marks can be combined with IPA letters to transcribe modified phonetic values or secondary articulations. There are also special symbols for suprasegmental features such as stress and tone that are often employed. Usage Ébauche is a French term meaning "outline" or "blank". Although the IPA offers over a hundred symbols for transcribing speech, it is not necessary to use all relevant symbols at the same time; it is possible to transcribe speech with various levels of precision. The most precise kind of phonetic transcription, in which sounds are described in as much detail as the system allows, without any regard for the linguistic significance of the distinctions thus made, is known as narrow transcription. Anything else is termed broad transcription, though "broad" is obviously a relative term. Both kinds of transcriptions are generally enclosed in brackets, but broad transcriptions are sometimes enclosed in slashes instead of brackets. Two phonetic transcriptions of the word "international", demonstrating two distinct pronunciations. Broad transcription only distinguishes sounds which are considered different by speakers of a language. Sounds that may be pronounced differently between styles and dialects or depending on neighbouring sounds can be considered the "same" sound in the sense that they are allophones of the same phoneme. When a word is written as phonemes, it is usually enclosed in slashes. For example, the pronunciation of the English word "little" may be transcribed broadly using the IPA as , and this broad (imprecise) transcription is a correct (accurate) description of many, if not all, pronunciations. This broad transcription merely identifies the separate phonetically relevant components of the word, and it does not indicate the variety of corresponding sounds. On the other hand, the narrow transcription (placed between square brackets) specifies the way each sound is pronounced. A more narrow transcription of "little" would be different depending on the way it is said: (General American), (Cockney), or are just a few possibilities. Neither broad nor narrow transcription using the IPA provides an absolute description; rather, they provide relative descriptions of phonetic sounds. This is especially true with respect to the IPA vowels: there exists no hard and fast mapping between IPA symbols and formant frequency ranges, and in fact one set of formant frequencies may correspond to two different IPA symbols, depending on the phonology of the language in question. Educational initiative There is some interest in using native speakers to produce sound and video files of all the IPA speech sounds. Such a project would encompass a large subset of the world's languages. This would aid linguistic and anthropologic research, as well as help teach language learning. A standard reference IPA could preserve examples of speech sounds. For education, the IPA can help standardize resources which prepare students and children for language acquisition through familiarization and subsequent imitation of the breadth of human speech sounds. Research by Flege, Mackay and Piske (2002) and Sebastián-Gallés, Echeverría and Bosch (2005) have shown that early exposure to extra phonetic sounds and uses improves later comprehension and pronunciation (accent). Use Linguists Although IPA is popular for transcription by linguists, it is also common to use Americanist phonetic notation or IPA together with some nonstandard symbols, for reasons including reducing the error rate on reading handwritten transcriptions or (arguable) awkwardness of IPA in some situations. The exact practice may vary somewhat between languages and even individual researchers, so authors are generally encouraged to include a chart or other explanation of their choices. Dictionaries Many British dictionaries, among which are learner's dictionaries such as the Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary and the Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary, now use the International Phonetic Alphabet to represent the pronunciation of words. However, most American (and some British) volumes use their own conventions intended to be more intuitive for readers unfamiliar with the IPA. For example, the pronunciation-representation systems in many American dictionaries (such as Merriam-Webster) use "y" for IPA and "sh" for IPA , reflecting common representations of those sounds in written English. Pronunciation respelling for English has detailed comparisons. (In IPA, represents the sound of the French u (as in tu), and represents the pair of sounds in grasshopper.) One of the benefits of using an alternative to the IPA is the ability to use a single symbol for a sound pronounced differently in different dialects. For example, the American Heritage Dictionary uses ŏ for the vowel in cot (kŏt) but ô for the one in caught (kôt). Some American speakers pronounce the vowels ŏ and ô the same way (for example, like IPA in the Boston dialect); for those speakers who maintain the distinction, depending on the accent, the vowel in cot may vary from to , while the vowel in caught may vary from to , or may even be a diphthong. Using one symbol for the vowel in cot (instead of having different symbols for different pronunciations of the o) enables the dictionary to provide meaningful pronunciations for speakers of most dialects of English. The IPA is also not universal among dictionaries in other countries and languages. Mass-market Czech multilingual dictionaries, for instance, tend to use the IPA only for sounds not found in the Czech language. Orthographies and capital variants IPA symbols have been incorporated into the standard orthographies of various languages, notably in Subsaharan Africa but in other regions as well. These include for example: Hausa; Fula; Akan; Gbe languages; and Manding languages. An example of capital letter forms for IPA symbols is Kabiyé of northern Togo, which has (capital ): . Other IPA-paired capitals include . The abovementioned and other capital forms are supported by Unicode, but appear in Latin ranges other than the IPA extensions. Classical singing IPA has widespread use among classical singers for preparation, especially among English-speaking singers who rarely sing in their native language. Opera librettos are authoritatively transcribed in IPA, such as Nico Castel's volumes and Timothy Cheek's book Singing in Czech. Opera singers' ability to read IPA was recently used by the Visual Thesaurus, which employed several opera singers "to make recordings for the 150,000 words and phrases in VT's lexical database. ...for their vocal stamina, attention to the details of enunciation, and most of all, knowledge of IPA." Letters The International Phonetic Alphabet divides its letter symbols into three categories: pulmonic consonants, non-pulmonic consonants, and vowels. "Segments can usefully be divided into two major categories, consonants and vowels." (International Phonetic Association, Handbook, p. 3) International Phonetic Association, Handbook, p. 6. Each character is assigned a number, to prevent confusion between similar letters (such as and ), for example in printing manuscripts. Different categories of sounds are assigned different ranges of numbers. Pulmonic consonants A pulmonic consonant is a consonant made by obstructing the glottis (the space between the vocal cords) or oral cavity (the mouth) and either simultaneously or subsequently letting out air from the lungs. Pulmonic consonants make up the majority of consonants in the IPA, as well as in human language. All consonants in the English language fall into this category. The pulmonic consonant table, which includes most consonants, is arranged in rows that designate manner of articulation, meaning how the consonant is produced, and columns that designate place of articulation, meaning where in the vocal tract the consonant is produced. The main chart includes only consonants with a single place of articulation. View this table as an image. Place of articulation → Labial Coronal Dorsal Radical Glottal Bilabial Labiodental Dental Alveolar Postalveolar Retroflex Palatal Velar Uvular Pharyngeal Epiglottal Manner of articulation ↓ Nasal </span> Plosive Fricative Approximant Trill * Tap or Flap ⱱ̟† ⱱ† ɢ̆ Lateral Fricative * * * Lateral Approximant Lateral Flap * Notes Asterisks (*) next to symbols mark reported sounds that do not (yet) have official IPA symbols. See the respective articles for ad hoc symbols found in the literature. Daggers (†) mark IPA symbols that have recently been added to Unicode. As of Unicode 5.1.0, this is the case of the labiodental flap, symbolized by a right-hook v: Labiodental flap. These display properly with a recent version of Charis SIL, Doulos SIL or DejaVu Sans fonts installed. In rows where some symbols appear in pairs (the obstruents), the symbol to the right represents a voiced consonant (except breathy-voiced ). However, cannot be voiced, and the voicing of is ambiguous. Ladefoged and Maddieson, 1996, Sounds of the World's Languages, §2.1. In the other rows (the sonorants), the single symbol represents a voiced consonant. Although there is a single symbol for the coronal places of articulation for all consonants but fricatives, when dealing with a particular language, the symbols may be treated as specifically dental, alveolar, or post-alveolar, as appropriate for that language, without diacritics. Shaded areas indicate articulations judged to be impossible. The symbols represent either voiced fricatives or approximants. In many languages, such as English, and are not actually glottal, fricatives, or approximants. Rather, they are bare phonation. Ladefoged and Maddieson, 1996, Sounds of the World's Languages, §9.3. It is primarily the shape of the tongue rather than its position that distinguishes the fricatives , , and . Coarticulation Coarticulated consonants are sounds that involve two simultaneous places of articulation (are pronounced using two parts of the vocal tract). In English, the [w] in "went" is a coarticulated consonant, because it is pronounced by rounding the lips and raising the back of the tongue. Other languages, such as French and Swedish, have different coarticulated consonants. View this table as an image ʍ Voiceless labialized velar approximant w Voiced labialized velar approximant ɥ Voiced labialized palatal approximant ɕ Voiceless palatalized postalveolar (alveolo-palatal) fricative ʑ Voiced palatalized postalveolar (alveolo-palatal) fricative ɧ Voiceless "palatal-velar" fricative Note is described as a "simultaneous and ". However, this analysis is disputed. (See voiceless palatal-velar fricative for discussion.) Affricates and double articulation Affricates and doubly articulated stops are represented by two symbols joined by a tie bar, either above or below the symbols. The six most common affricates are optionally represented by ligatures, though this is no longer official IPA usage, because a great number of ligatures would be required to represent all affricates this way. Alternatively, a superscript notation for a consonant release is sometimes used to transcribe affricates, for example for , paralleling ~ . The symbols for the palatal plosives, , are often used as a convenience for or similar affricates, even in official IPA publications, so they must be interpreted with care. View this table as an image. Tie bar Ligature Description voiceless alveolar affricate voiced alveolar affricate voiceless postalveolar affricate voiced postalveolar affricate voiceless alveolo-palatal affricate voiced alveolo-palatal affricate – voiceless alveolar lateral affricate – voiceless labial-velar plosive – voiced labial-velar plosive – labial-velar nasal stop Note If your browser uses Arial Unicode MS to display IPA characters, the following incorrectly formed sequences may look better due to a bug in that font: . Non-pulmonic consonants Non-pulmonic consonants are sounds whose airflow is not dependent on the lungs. These include clicks (found in the Khoisan languages of Africa), implosives (found in languages such as Swahili) and ejectives (found in many Amerindian and Caucasian languages). View this table as an image Clicks Implosives Ejectives Bilabial Bilabial For example: Laminal alveolar ("dental") Alveolar Bilabial Apical (post-) alveolar ("retroflex") Palatal Alveolar Laminal postalveolar ("palatal") Velar Velar Lateral coronal ("lateral") Uvular Alveolar fricative Notes Clicks are double articulated and have traditionally been described as having a forward 'release' and a rear 'accompaniment', with the click letters representing the release. Therefore all clicks would require two letters for proper notation: etc., or . When the dorsal articulation is omitted, a may usually be assumed. However, recent research disputes the concept of 'accompaniment'. Amanda L. Miller et al., "Differences in airstream and posterior place of articulation among Nǀuu lingual stops". Submitted to the Journal of the International Phonetic Association. Retrieved 2007-05-27. In such approaches, the click letter represents both articulations, there is no velar-uvular distinction, and the accompanying letter represents the manner of the click: etc. Symbols for the voiceless implosives are no longer supported by the IPA, though they remain in Unicode. Instead, the IPA uses the voiced equivalent with a voiceless diacritic: , etc. Although not confirmed as contrastive in any language, and therefore not explicitly recognized by the IPA, a retroflex implosive, , is supported in the Unicode Phonetic Extensions Supplement, added in version 4.1 of the Unicode Standard, or can be created as a composite . The ejective symbol often stands in for a superscript glottal stop in glottalized but pulmonic sonorants, such as . These may also be transcribed as creaky . Vowels An X-ray film shows the sounds Tongue positions of cardinal front vowels with highest point indicated. The position of the highest point is used to determine vowel height and backness The IPA defines a vowel as a sound which occurs at a syllable center. International Phonetic Association, Handbook, p. 10. Below is a chart depicting the vowels of the IPA. The IPA maps the vowels according to the position of the tongue. The vertical axis of the chart is mapped by vowel height. Vowels pronounced with the tongue lowered are at the bottom, and vowels pronounced with the tongue raised are at the top. For example, (said as the "a" in "palm") is at the bottom because the tongue is lowered in this position. However, (said as the vowel in "meet") is at the top because the sound is said with the tongue raised to the roof of the mouth. In a similar fashion, the horizontal axis of the chart is determined by vowel backness. Vowels with the tongue moved towards the front of the mouth (such as , the vowel in "met") are to the left in the chart, while those in which it is moved to the back (such as , the vowel in "but") are placed to the right in the chart. In places where vowels are paired, the right represents a rounded vowel (in which the lips are rounded) while the left is its unrounded counterpart. View the vowel chart as an image Notes officially represents a front vowel, but there is little distinction between front and central open vowels, and is frequently used for an open central vowel. However, if disambiguation is required, the retraction diacritic may be added to indicate an open central vowel (). Phonetic Symbol Guide (published by Chicago University Press) has [ä] for a low central unrounded vowel (which can be useful for contrasting cot/Don and caught/Dawn vowels in various American accents). Diacritics Diacritics are small markings which are placed around the IPA letter in order to show a certain alteration or more specific description in the letter's pronunciation. International Phonetic Association, Handbook, pp. 14–15. Sub-diacritics (markings normally placed below a letter or symbol) may be placed above a symbol having a descender (informally called a tail), e.g. . The dotless i, <>, is used when the dot would interfere with the diacritic. Other IPA symbols may appear as diacritics to represent phonetic detail: (fricative release), (breathy voice), (glottal onset), (epenthetic schwa), o (diphthongization). Additional diacritics were introduced in the Extensions to the IPA, which were designed principally for speech pathology. View the diacritic table as an imageSyllabicity diacritics Syllabic Non-syllabicConsonant-release diacritics Aspirated No audible release Nasal release Lateral releasePhonation diacritics Voiceless Voiced Breathy voiced Creaky voicedArticulation diacritics Dental Linguolabial Apical Laminal Advanced Retracted Centralized Mid-centralized Raised ( = voiced alveolar nonsibilant fricative) Lowered ( = bilabial approximant)Co-articulation diacritics More rounded Less rounded Labialized or labio-velarized Palatalized Velarized Pharyngealized Labio-palatalized Velarized or pharyngealized Advanced tongue root Retracted tongue root Nasalized Rhotacized Notes aWith aspirated voiced consonants, the aspiration is also voiced. Many linguists prefer one of the diacritics dedicated to breathy voice. bSome linguists restrict this breathy-voice diacritic to sonorants, and transcribe obstruents as . The state of the glottis can be finely transcribed with diacritics. A series of alveolar plosives ranging from an open to a closed glottis phonation are: voiceless breathy voice, also called murmured slack voice modal voice stiff voice creaky voice glottal closure Suprasegmentals These symbols describe the features of a language above the level of individual consonants and vowels, such as prosody, tone, length, and stress, which often operate on syllables, words, or phrases: that is, elements such as the intensity, pitch, and gemination of the sounds of a language, as well as the rhythm and intonation of speech. International Phonetic Association, Handbook, p. 13. Although most of these symbols indicate distinctions that are phonemic at the word level, symbols also exist for intonation on a level greater than that of the word. View this table as an imageLength, stress, and rhythm Primary stress (symbol goes before stressed syllable) Secondary stress (symbol goes before stressed syllable) Long (long vowel orgeminate consonant) Half-long Extra-short Syllable break Linking (absence of a break)Intonation Minor (foot) break Major (intonation) break Global rise Global fallTone diacritics and tone letters Extra high / top Upstep High Rise Mid Low Fall Extra low / bottom Downstep Finer distinctions of tone may be indicated by combining the tone diacritics and letters shown here, though not many fonts support this. The primary examples are high (mid) rising ; low rising ; high falling ; low (mid) falling ; peaking ; and dipping . A work-around for diacritics sometimes seen when a language has more than one rising or falling tone, and the author does not wish to completely abandon the IPA, is to restrict generic rising and falling for the higher-pitched of the rising and falling tones, and , and to use the non-standard subscript diacritics and for the lower-pitched rising and falling tones, and . When a language has four level tones, the two mid tones are sometimes transcribed as high-mid (non-standard) and low-mid . Obsolete symbols and nonstandard symbols The IPA inherited alternate symbols from various traditions, but eventually settled on one for each sound. The other symbols are now considered obsolete. An example is which has been standardised to . Several symbols indicating secondary articulation have been dropped altogether, with the idea that such things should be indicated with diacritics: for is one. In addition, the rare voiceless implosive series has been dropped; they are now written or respectively. There are also unsupported or ad hoc symbols from local traditions that find their way into publications that otherwise use the standard IPA. This is especially common with affricates such as for (the "tl" in "Nahuatl"). IPA extensions Extensions to the IPA, also often abbreviated as extIPA, is a group of symbols whose original purpose was to accurately transcribe disordered speech. At the IPA Kiel Convention in 1989, a group of linguists drew up the initial set of symbols for the Extended IPA. "At the 1989 Kiel Convention of the IPA, a sub-group was established to draw up recommendations for the transcription of disordered speech." ("Extensions to the IPA: An ExtIPA Chart" in International Phonetic Association, Handbook, pp. 186.) Extensions to the IPA were first published in 1990, and modified over the next few years before its official publication in the Journal of the International Phonetic Association in 1994 allowed it to be officially adopted by the ICPLA. "Extensions to the IPA: An ExtIPA Chart" in International Phonetic Association, Handbook, pp. 186–187. While its original purpose was to transcribe disordered speech, linguists have used it to designate a number of unique sounds within standard communication, such as hushing, gnashing teeth, and smacking lips. The Extensions to the IPA have also been used to record certain peculiarities in an individual's voice, such as nasalized voicing. Aside from the extIPA, another set of symbols is used for voice quality (VoQS), such as whispering. Segments that have no symbols The remaining blank cells on the IPA chart can be filled without too much difficulty if the need arises. Some ad hoc symbols have appeared in the literature, for example for the retroflex lateral flap and the voiceless lateral fricative series, the epiglottal trill, and the labiodental plosives. (See the grey symbols in the PDF chart.) Diacritics can supply much of the remainder, which would indeed be appropriate if the sounds were allophones. "Diacritics may also be employed to create symbols for phonemes, thus reducing the need to create new letter shapes." (International Phonetic Association, Handbook, p. 27) Consonants without letters Representations of consonant sounds outside of the core set are created by adding diacritics to symbols for similar sound values. The Spanish bilabial approximant is commonly written as a lowered fricative, . Similarly, voiced lateral fricatives would be written as raised lateral approximants, . A few languages such as Banda have a bilabial flap as the preferred allophone of what is elsewhere a labiodental flap. It has been suggested that this be written with the labiodental flap symbol and the advanced diacritic, . Olson, Kenneth S.; & Hajek, John. (1999). The phonetic status of the labial flap. Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 29 (2), pp. 101–114. Similarly, a labiodental trill would be written (bilabial trill and the dental sign), and labiodental stops rather than with the ad hoc symbols sometimes found in the literature. Other taps can be written as extra-short plosives or laterals, e.g. , though in some cases the diacritic would need to be written below the letter. A retroflex trill can be written as a retracted , just as retroflex fricatives sometimes are. The remaining consonants, the uvular laterals ( etc.) and the palatal trill, while not strictly impossible, are very difficult to pronounce and are unlikely to occur even as allophones in the world's languages. Vowels without letters The vowels are similarly manageable by using diacritics for raising, lowering, fronting, backing, centering, and mid-centering. "The diacrtics...can be used to modify the lip or tongue position implied by a vowel symbol." (International Phonetic Association, Handbook, p. 16) For example, the unrounded equivalent of can be transcribed as mid-centered , and the rounded equivalent of as raised . True mid vowels are lowered , while centered and are near-close and open central vowels, respectively. The only known vowels that cannot be represented in this scheme are vowels with unexpected roundedness, which would require a dedicated diacritic, such as or . Symbol names An IPA symbol is often distinguished from the sound it is intended to represent since there is not a one-to-one correspondence between symbol and sound in broad transcription. While the Handbook of the International Phonetic Association states that no official names exist for symbols, it admits the presence of one or two common names for each character that are commonly used. "...the International Phonetic Association has never officially approved a set of names..." (International Phonetic Association, Handbook, p. 31) The symbols also have nonce names in the Unicode standard. In some cases, the Unicode names and the IPA names do not agree. For example, IPA calls "epsilon", but Unicode calls it "small letter open E". The traditional names of the Latin and Greek letters are usually used for unmodified symbols. For example, [p] is called "Lower-case P" and [χ] is "Chi." (International Phonetic Association, Handbook, p. 171) Letters which are not directly derived from these alphabets, such as , may have a variety of names, sometimes based on the appearance of the symbol, and sometimes based on the sound that it represents. In Unicode, some of the symbols of Greek origin have Latin forms for use in IPA; the others use the symbols from the Greek section. For diacritics, there are two methods of naming. For traditional diacritics, the IPA uses the name of the symbol from a certain language, for example, is acute, based on the name of the symbol in English and French. In non-traditional diacritics, the IPA often names a symbol according to an object it resembles, as is called bridge. ASCII transliterations, IPA influence on other phonetic alphabets Since the IPA uses symbols that are outside the ASCII character set, several systems have been developed that map the IPA symbols to ASCII characters. Notable systems include Kirshenbaum, SAMPA, and X-SAMPA. The usage of mapping systems in on-line text has to some extent been adopted in the context input methods, allowing convenient keying of IPA characters that would be otherwise unavailable on standard keyboard layouts. See also Articulatory phonetics IAST IPA chart for English dialects List of phonetics topics Phonetic transcription SAMPA, X-SAMPA and Kirshenbaum are other methods of mapping IPA designations into ASCII. Semyon Novgorodov - the inventor of IPA-based Yakut alphabet. TIPA provides IPA support for LaTeX. Unicode Phonetic Symbols Notes References Further reading External links General A little encyclopedia of phonetics, Peter Roach, Professor of Phonetics, University of Reading, UK. (pdf) Information on IPA by Omniglot IPA Chart in Unicode and XHTML/CSS IPA copy & paste charts, keyboards, etc by IPA.Webstuff.org Learning the IPA for English, (Standard American English) The International Phonetic Alphabet (revised to 2005) Symbols for all languages are shown on this one-page chart. The International Phonetic Association web site Using IPA fonts with Mac OS X: The Comprehensive Guide, an article explaining how to install and use freeware fonts and keyboard layouts to type in the International Phonetic Alphabet on OS X. Free IPA font downloads Charis SIL, a very complete international font (Latin, Greek, Cyrillic) in roman, italic, and bold typefaces that includes tone letters and pre-composed tone diacritics on IPA vowels, the new labiodental flap, and many non-standard phonetic symbols. Based on Bitstream Charter, this font suffers from extremely bad hinting when rendered by Freetype on Linux. DejaVu fonts have full Unicode IPA support. Doulos SIL, a Times/Times New Roman style font. It contains the same characters as Charis SIL, but only in a single face, roman. Gentium, a professionally designed international font (Latin, Greek, Cyrillic) in roman and italic typefaces that includes the IPA, but not yet tone letters or the new labiodental flap. For bold typefaces but only the most basic IPA letters, Gentium Basic may be used. TIPA, a font and system for entering IPA phonetic transcriptions in LaTeX documents. Keyboard input Complete Guide: Beginners’ guide to using IPA on Windows, Mac OS and Linux, covering many office applications and browsers Downloadable IPA keyboard layout for Microsoft Windows for Unicode IPA input Downloadable IPA-SIL keyboard layout for Mac OS X for Unicode IPA input IPA Character Picker Web-based input method IPA Palette is the Mac OS X version of IPACharMap. IPACharMap is an on-screen keyboard for point and click character entry, which can then be copied and pasted into a unicode-aware word processor. Based on IPA Palette. IPATotal keyboard Microsoft Template - Creates a Toolbar for Microsoft Word. (This uses macros) Online keyboard Online keyboard with MP3 sound files for IPA symbols IPAEdit Unicode-compliant Transcription Editor for Linux, Mac OS X and Windows from the University of Marburg Sound files An introduction to the sounds of languages Complete IPA chart with sound samples, including English diphthongs IPA chart with MP3 sound files for all IPA symbols on the chart (limited version is available to anyone) IPA chart with AIFF sound files for IPA symbols Peter Ladefoged's Course in Phonetics (with sound files) Set of IPA sound samples from the Norwegian University of Science and Technology including tones, accents, diacritics Unicode charts International Phonetic Alphabet in Unicode from the University of Marburg Unicode-HTML codes for IPA symbols: Tables of symbol names, character entity references and/or numeric character references at PennState. MySQL Unicode collation chart for IPA and other phonetic blocks Technical note Most IPA symbols are not included in the most widely used form of Times New Roman (though they are included in the version provided with Windows Vista), the default font for Latin scripts in Internet Explorer for Windows. To properly view IPA symbols in that browser, you must set it to use a font which includes the IPA extensions characters. Such fonts include Lucida Sans Unicode, which comes with Windows XP; Gentium, Charis (SIL), Doulos (SIL), DejaVu Sans, or TITUS Cyberbit, which are freely available; or Arial Unicode MS, which comes with Microsoft Office. On this page, we have forced Internet Explorer to use such a font by default, so it should appear correctly, but this hasn't yet been done to all the other pages containing IPA. This also applies to other pages using special symbols. Bear this in mind if you see error symbols such as "蚟" in articles. Special symbols should display properly without further configuration with Mozilla Firefox, Konqueror, Opera†, Safari and most other recent browsers. At the default font size for normal-sized Wikipedia text, Opera for Windows renders the two different symbols "ː" and "ɪ" identically. 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5,182 | History_of_the_Cook_Islands | The Cook Islands are named from a Russian naval chart of the early 1880s, after Captain James Cook, who visited the islands in 1773 and 1777 Cook : the Extraordinary voyages of Captain James Cook, 2003, by Nicholas Thomas, pages 310-311. . The Cook Islands became a British protectorate in 1888. By 1900, administrative control was transferred to New Zealand; in 1965 residents chose self-government in free association with New Zealand. The Cook Islands contain fifteen islands in the group spread over a vast area in the South Pacific. The majority of islands are low coral atolls in Northern Group, with Rarotonga, a volcanic island in the Southern Group, as the main administration and government centre. The main Cook Islands language is Rarotongan Māori. There are some variations in dialect in the 'outer' islands. History The Cook Islands were first settled in the sixth century by Polynesian peoples who migrated from Tahiti and East Polynesia. In the Marquesan version of the Polynesian myth of the hero Laka/Aka, this great voyager is mentioned as having undertaken a long and dangrous voyage to Aotona in what are now the Cook Islands, in order to obtain the highly prized feathers of a red parrot as gifts for his son and daughter. On the voyage a hundred out of his 140 rowers died of hunger, but the survivors reached Aotona and captured enough parrots to fill 140 bags with their feathers. :*R.D. Craig, Dictionary of Polynesian Mythology (Greenwood Press: New York, 1989), 6.; E.S.C. Handy, Marquesan Legends (Bernice P. Bishop Museum Press: Honolulu, 1930), 130-1 Whatever the precise truth of specific details, the data of red parrot feathers being highly valuable in other islands and worth a long voyage to obtain is likely to have a kernel of historical veracity. Spanish ships visited the islands in the late sixteenth century; the first written record of contact with the Islands came with the sighting of Pukapuka by Spanish sailor Álvaro de Mendaña de Neira in 1595. Another Spaniard Pedro Fernandes de Queirós made the first recorded European landing in the islands when he set foot on Rakahanga in 1606. British navigator Captain James Cook arrived in 1773 and 1777; Cook named the islands the 'Hervey Islands' to honour a British Lord of the Admiralty; Half a century later a Russian cartographer (Admiral Adam Johann von Krusenstern) published the Atlas de l'Ocean Pacifique, in which he renamed the islands the Cook Islands to honour Cook. Captain Cook navigated and mapped much of the group. Surprisingly, Cook never sighted the largest island, Rarotonga, and the only island that he personally set foot on was tiny, uninhabited Palmerston Atoll. Lonely Planet Guidebook : Rarotonga & the Cook Islands, by Errol Hunt & Nancy J. Keller p10-11 ISBN 1-74059-083-X In 1813, John Williams, a missionary on the Endeavour (not the same ship as Cook's), made the first official sighting of the Island Rarotonga. The first recorded landing by Europeans was in 1814 by the Cumberland; trouble broke out between the sailors and the Islanders and many were killed on both sides. The islands saw no more Europeans until missionaries arrived from England in 1821. Christianity quickly took hold in the culture and retains that grip today. Brutal Peruvian slave traders, known as blackbirders, took a terrible toll on the islands of the Northern Group in 1862 and 1863. At first the traders may have genuinely operated as labour recruiters, but they quickly turned to subterfuge and outright kidnapping to round up their human cargo. The Cook Islands was not the only island group visited by the traders, but Penrhyn Atoll was their first port of call and it has been estimated that three-quarters of the population was taken to Callao, Peru. Discoverers Of The Cook Islands And The Names They Gave, by Alphons M.J. Kloosterman Chap 10. Penrhyn Rakahanga and Pukapuka also suffered tremendous losses. Lonely Planet Guidebook : Rarotonga & the Cook Islands, by Errol Hunt & Nancy J. Keller p11-12 ISBN 1-74059-083-X The Kingdom of Rarotonga was established in 1858 and in 1888 it became a British protectorate at their own request in, mainly to thwart French expansionism. Then were transferred to New Zealand in 1901. They remained a New Zealand protectorate until 1965, at which point they became a self-governing territory in free association with New Zealand. The first Prime Minister Sir Albert Henry led the county until 1978 when he was accused of vote-rigging. Today, the Cook Islands are essentially independent (self-governing in free association with New Zealand), but are still officially placed under New Zealand sovereignty. New Zealand is tasked with overseeing the country's foreign relations and defence. The Cook Islands are one of four New Zealand dependencies, along with Tokelau, Niue and the Ross Dependency. After achieving autonomy in 1965, the Cook Islands elected Albert Henry of the Cook Islands Party as their first Prime Minister. He was succeeded in 1978 by Tom Davis of the Democratic Party. On June 11, 1980, the United States signed a treaty with the Cook Islands specifying the maritime border between the Cook Islands and American Samoa and also relinquishing its claim to the islands of Penrhyn, Pukapuka, Manihiki, and Rakahanga. On June 13, 2008, a small majority of members of the House of Ariki attempted a coup, claiming to dissolve the elected government and to take control of the country's leadership. "Basically we are dissolving the leadership, the prime minister and the deputy prime minister and the ministers," chief Makea Vakatini Joseph Ariki explained. The Cook Islands Herald suggested that the ariki were attempting thereby to regain some of their traditional prestige or mana. "Cooks heading for internal strife", TVNZ, June 13, 2008 "NZ Maori stirs Cooks sovereignty stoush", Stuff.co.nz, June 13, 2008 Prime Minister Jim Marurai described the take-over move as "ill-founded and nonsensical". "NZ Maori behind strange Cook's 'coup'", Stuff.co.nz, June 17, 2008 By June 23, the situation appeared to have normalised, with members of the House of Ariki accepting to return to their regular duties. "Cook Islands chiefs drop take over claim, return to normal duties", Radio New Zealand International, June 23, 2008 The emigration of skilled workers to New Zealand and government deficits are continuing problems. Timeline 1595 — Spaniard Álvaro de Mendaña de Neira is the first European to sight the islands. 1606 — Portuguese-Spaniard Pedro Fernández de Quirós made the first recorded European landing in the islands when he set foot on Rakahanga. 1773 — Captain James Cook explores the islands and names them the Hervey Islands. Fifty years later they are renamed in his honour by Russian Admiral Adam Johann von Krusenstern. 1821 — English and Tahitian missionaries arrive, become the first non-native settlers. 1858 — The Cook Islands become united as a state, the Kingdom of Rarotonga. 1862 — Peruvian slave traders took a terrible toll on the islands of the Northern Group in 1862 and 1863. Penrhyn was their first port of call and it has been estimated that three-quarters of the population was taken. Rakahanga and Pukapuka also suffered tremendous losses. 1888 — Cook Islands are proclaimed a British protectorate and a single federal parliament is established. 1901 — The Cook Islands are annexed to New Zealand. 1924 — The All Blacks Invincibles stop in Rarotonga on their way to the United Kingdom and play a friendly match against a scratch Rarotongan team. 1946 — Legislative Council is established. For the first time since 1912, the territory has direct representation. 1965 — The Cook Islands become a self-governing territory in free association with New Zealand. Albert Henry, leader of the Cook Islands Party, is elected as the territory's first prime minister. 1974 — Albert Henry is knighted by Queen Elizabeth II 1979 — Sir Albert Henry is found guilty of electoral fraud and stripped of his premiership and his knighthood. Tom Davis becomes Premier. 1981 — Constitution is amended. Parliament grows from 22 to 24 seats and the parliamentary term is extended from four to five years. Tom Davis is knighted. 1984 — The country's first coalition government, between Sir Thomas and Geoffrey Henry, is signed in the lead up to hosting regional Mini Games in 1985. Shifting coalitions saw ten years of political instability. At one stage, all but two MPs were in government. 1985 — Rarotonga Treaty is opened for signing in the Cook Islands, creating a nuclear free zone in the South Pacific. 1986 — In January 1986, following the rift between New Zealand and the USA in respect of the ANZUS security arrangements Prime Minister Tom Davis declared the Cook Islands a neutral country, because he considered that New Zealand (which has control over the islands' defence and foreign policy) was no longer in a position to defend the islands. The proclamation of neutrality meant that the Cook Islands would not enter into a military relationship with any foreign power, and, in particular, would prohibit visits by US warships. Visits by US naval vessels were allowed to resume by Henry's Government. 1991 — The Cook Islands signed a treaty of friendship and co-operation with France, covering economic development, trade and surveillance of the islands' EEZ. The establishment of closer relations with France was widely regarded as an expression of the Cook Islands' Government's dissatisfaction with existing arrangements with New Zealand which was no longer in a position to defend the Cook Islands. 1995 — The French Government resumed its Programme of nuclear-weapons testing at Mururoa Atoll in September 1995 upsetting the Cook Islands. New Prime Minister Geoffrey Henry was fiercely critical of the decision and dispatched a vaka (traditional voyaging canoe) with a crew of Cook Islands' traditional warriors to protest near the test site. The tests were concluded in January 1996 and a moratorium was placed on future testing by the French government. 1997 — Full diplomatic relations established with China. 1997 — In November, Cyclone Martin in Manihiki kills at least six people; 80% of buildings are damaged and the black pearl industry suffered severe losses. 1999 — A second era of political instability begins, starting with five different coalitions in less than nine months, and at least as many since then. 2000 — Full diplomatic relations concluded with France. 2002 — Prime Minister Terepai Maoate is ousted from government following second vote of no-confidence in his leadership. 2004 — Prime Minister Robert Woonton visits China; Chinese Premier Wen Jiabao grants $16 million in development aid. 2006 — Parliamentary elections held. The Democratic Party keeps majority of seats in parliament, but is unable to command a majority for confidence, forcing a coalition with breakaway MPs who left, then rejoined the "Demos." Television In 2006, the British television station Channel 4 broadcast TV series show Shipwrecked, which was filmed in the Cook Islands. In the autumn of 2006, the 13th season of CBS's Survivor TV series was filmed in the Cook Islands over the summer of the same year (see: Survivor: Cook Islands). In 2007, Les Stroud was shipwrecked on a small atoll, Aitutaki, in the Cook Islands for the show Survivorman www.survivorman.ca "Survivorman Official Website" References | History_of_the_Cook_Islands |@lemmatized cook:49 island:45 name:4 russian:3 naval:2 chart:1 early:1 captain:5 james:4 visit:6 extraordinary:1 voyage:4 nicholas:1 thomas:2 page:1 islands:18 become:6 british:6 protectorate:4 administrative:1 control:3 transfer:2 new:18 zealand:16 resident:1 choose:1 self:4 government:11 free:5 association:4 contain:1 fifteen:1 group:7 spread:1 vast:1 area:1 south:2 pacific:2 majority:4 low:1 coral:1 atoll:5 northern:3 rarotonga:9 volcanic:1 southern:1 main:2 administration:1 centre:1 language:1 rarotongan:2 māori:1 variation:1 dialect:1 outer:1 history:1 first:16 settle:1 sixth:1 century:3 polynesian:3 people:2 migrate:1 tahiti:1 east:1 polynesia:1 marquesan:2 version:1 myth:1 hero:1 laka:1 aka:1 great:1 voyager:1 mention:1 undertaken:1 long:2 dangrous:1 aotona:2 order:1 obtain:2 highly:2 prized:1 feather:3 red:2 parrot:3 gift:1 son:1 daughter:1 hundred:1 rower:1 die:1 hunger:1 survivor:3 reach:1 capture:1 enough:1 fill:1 bag:1 r:1 craig:1 dictionary:1 mythology:1 greenwood:1 press:2 york:1 e:1 c:1 handy:1 legend:1 bernice:1 p:1 bishop:1 museum:1 honolulu:1 whatever:1 precise:1 truth:1 specific:1 detail:1 data:1 valuable:1 worth:1 likely:1 kernel:1 historical:1 veracity:1 spanish:2 ship:2 late:1 sixteenth:1 write:1 record:4 contact:1 come:1 sighting:2 pukapuka:4 sailor:2 álvaro:2 de:7 mendaña:2 neira:2 another:1 spaniard:3 pedro:2 fernandes:1 queirós:1 make:3 european:5 landing:3 set:3 foot:3 rakahanga:5 navigator:1 arrive:3 hervey:2 honour:3 lord:1 admiralty:1 half:1 later:2 cartographer:1 admiral:2 adam:2 johann:2 von:2 krusenstern:2 publish:1 atlas:1 l:1 ocean:1 pacifique:1 rename:2 navigate:1 map:1 much:1 surprisingly:1 never:1 sight:2 large:1 personally:1 tiny:1 uninhabited:1 palmerston:1 lonely:2 planet:2 guidebook:2 errol:2 hunt:2 nancy:2 j:3 keller:2 isbn:2 x:2 john:1 williams:1 missionary:3 endeavour:1 official:2 cumberland:1 trouble:1 break:1 islander:1 many:2 kill:2 side:1 saw:2 england:1 christianity:1 quickly:2 take:8 hold:2 culture:1 retain:1 grip:1 today:2 brutal:1 peruvian:2 slave:2 trader:4 know:1 blackbirders:1 terrible:2 toll:2 may:1 genuinely:1 operate:1 labour:1 recruiter:1 turn:1 subterfuge:1 outright:1 kidnap:1 round:1 human:1 cargo:1 penrhyn:4 port:2 call:2 estimate:2 three:2 quarter:2 population:2 callao:1 peru:1 discoverer:1 give:1 alphons:1 kloosterman:1 chap:1 also:3 suffer:3 tremendous:2 loss:3 kingdom:3 establish:4 request:1 mainly:1 thwart:1 french:3 expansionism:1 remain:1 point:1 govern:3 territory:4 prime:10 minister:11 sir:3 albert:5 henry:8 lead:2 county:1 accuse:1 vote:2 rigging:1 essentially:1 independent:1 still:1 officially:1 place:2 sovereignty:2 task:1 oversee:1 country:4 foreign:3 relation:4 defence:2 one:2 four:2 dependency:2 along:1 tokelau:1 niue:1 ross:1 achieve:1 autonomy:1 elect:2 party:4 succeed:1 tom:4 davis:4 democratic:2 june:7 united:3 state:2 sign:4 treaty:3 specify:1 maritime:1 border:1 american:1 samoa:1 relinquish:1 claim:3 manihiki:2 small:2 member:2 house:2 ariki:4 attempt:2 coup:2 dissolve:2 elected:1 leadership:3 basically:1 deputy:1 chief:1 makea:1 vakatini:1 joseph:1 explain:1 herald:1 suggest:1 thereby:1 regain:1 traditional:3 prestige:1 mana:1 head:1 internal:1 strife:1 tvnz:1 nz:4 maori:2 stir:1 stoush:1 stuff:2 co:3 jim:1 marurai:1 describe:1 move:1 ill:1 found:1 nonsensical:1 behind:1 strange:1 situation:1 appear:1 normalise:1 accept:1 return:2 regular:1 duty:2 chiefs:1 drop:1 normal:1 radio:1 international:1 emigration:1 skilled:1 worker:1 deficit:1 continue:1 problem:1 timeline:1 portuguese:1 fernández:1 quirós:1 explore:1 fifty:1 year:4 english:1 tahitian:1 non:1 native:1 settler:1 proclaim:1 single:1 federal:1 parliament:3 annex:1 black:2 invincibles:1 stop:1 way:1 play:1 friendly:1 match:1 scratch:1 team:1 legislative:1 council:1 time:1 since:2 direct:1 representation:1 leader:1 knight:2 queen:1 elizabeth:1 ii:1 find:1 guilty:1 electoral:1 fraud:1 stripped:1 premiership:1 knighthood:1 becomes:1 premier:2 constitution:1 amend:1 grow:1 seat:2 parliamentary:2 term:1 extend:1 five:2 coalition:4 geoffrey:2 host:1 regional:1 mini:1 game:1 shift:1 ten:1 political:2 instability:2 stage:1 two:1 mp:2 open:1 create:1 nuclear:2 zone:1 january:2 follow:2 rift:1 usa:1 respect:1 anzus:1 security:1 arrangement:2 declare:1 neutral:1 consider:1 policy:1 longer:2 position:2 defend:2 proclamation:1 neutrality:1 meant:1 would:2 enter:1 military:1 relationship:1 power:1 particular:1 prohibit:1 u:2 warship:1 vessel:1 allow:1 resume:2 friendship:1 operation:1 france:3 cover:1 economic:1 development:2 trade:1 surveillance:1 eez:1 establishment:1 closer:1 widely:1 regard:1 expression:1 dissatisfaction:1 exist:1 programme:1 weapon:1 test:3 mururoa:1 september:1 upset:1 fiercely:1 critical:1 decision:1 dispatch:1 vaka:1 voyaging:1 canoe:1 crew:1 warrior:1 protest:1 near:1 site:1 conclude:2 moratorium:1 future:1 testing:1 full:2 diplomatic:2 china:2 november:1 cyclone:1 martin:1 least:2 six:1 building:1 damage:1 pearl:1 industry:1 severe:1 second:2 era:1 begin:1 start:1 different:1 less:1 nine:1 month:1 terepai:1 maoate:1 oust:1 confidence:2 robert:1 woonton:1 chinese:1 wen:1 jiabao:1 grant:1 million:1 aid:1 election:1 keep:1 unable:1 command:1 force:1 breakaway:1 leave:1 rejoin:1 demo:1 television:2 station:1 channel:1 broadcast:1 tv:2 series:2 show:2 shipwreck:2 film:2 autumn:1 season:1 cbs:1 summer:1 see:1 le:1 stroud:1 aitutaki:1 survivorman:3 www:1 ca:1 website:1 reference:1 |@bigram cook_islands:17 coral_atoll:1 lord_admiralty:1 lonely_planet:2 slave_trader:2 prime_minister:10 skilled_worker:1 queen_elizabeth:1 electoral_fraud:1 nuclear_weapon:1 diplomatic_relation:2 wen_jiabao:1 |
5,183 | James_P._Hogan_(writer) | At the 63rd World Science Fiction Convention in Glasgow, August 2005. James Patrick Hogan (born 27 June 1941) is a British science fiction author. Biography Hogan was born in London, England. He was raised in the Portobello Road area on the west side of London. After leaving school at the age of sixteen, he worked various odd jobs until, after receiving a scholarship, he began a five-year program at the Royal Aircraft Establishment at Farnborough covering the practical and theoretical sides of electrical, electronic, and mechanical engineering. He first married at the age of twenty, and he has had three other subsequent marriages and fathered six children. Hogan worked as a design engineer for several companies and eventually moved into sales in the 1960s, travelling around Europe as a sales engineer for Honeywell. In the 1970s he joined the Digital Equipment Corporation's Laboratory Data Processing Group and in 1977 moved to Boston, Massachusetts to run its sales training program. He published his first novel, Inherit the Stars, in the same year to win an office bet. He quit DEC in 1979 and began writing full time, moving to Orlando, Florida, for a year where he met his third wife Jackie. They then moved to Sonora, California. Writings Hogan's style of science fiction is usually hard science fiction. In his earlier works he conveyed a sense of what science and scientists were about. His philosophical view on how science should be done comes through in many of his novels; theories should be formulated based on empirical research, not the other way around. If a theory does not match the facts, it is theory that should be discarded, not the facts. This is very evident in the Giants series, which begins with the discovery of a 50,000 year-old human body on the Moon. This discovery leads to a series of investigations, and as facts are discovered, theories on how the astronaut's body arrived on the Moon 50,000 years ago are elaborated, discarded, and replaced. Hogan's fiction also reflects anti-authoritarian social views. Many of his novels have strong anarchist or libertarian themes, often promoting the idea that new technological advances render certain social conventions obsolete. For example, the effectively limitless availability of energy that would result from the development of controlled nuclear fusion would make it unnecessary to limit access to energy resources. In essence, energy would become free. This melding of scientific and social speculation is clearly present in the novel Voyage from Yesteryear (strongly influenced by Eric Frank Russell's famous story "And Then There Were None"), which describes the contact between a high-tech anarchist society on a planet in the Alpha Centauri system, with a starship sent from Earth by a dictatorial government. The story uses many elements of civil disobedience. His novels include: Inherit the Stars - May 1977 (1st book in Giants series) The Genesis Machine - April 1978 The Gentle Giants of Ganymede - May 1978 (2nd book in Giants series) The Two Faces of Tomorrow - June 1979 Thrice Upon a Time - March 1980 Giants' Star - July 1981 (3rd book in Giants series) Voyage from Yesteryear - July 1982 The Minervan Experiment - November 1982 (an omnibus edition of the first three books of the Giants series) Code of the Lifemaker - June 1983 (exploring ideas of a Clanking replicator robotic system) The Proteus Operation - October 1985 Endgame Enigma - August 1987 The Mirror Maze - March 1989 The Infinity Gambit - March 1991 Entoverse - October 1991 (4th book in Giants series) The Multiplex Man - December 1992 Out of Time 1993 (novella) The Immortality Option - February 1995 (sequel to Code of the Lifemaker) Realtime Interrupt - March 1995 Paths to Otherwhere - February 1996 Bug Park - April 1997 Star Child - June 1998 Outward Bound - March 1999 (A Jupiter Novel) Cradle of Saturn - June 1999 The Legend that was Earth - October 2000 Martian Knightlife - October 2001 The Anguished Dawn - June 2003 (sequel to "Cradle of Saturn") Mission to Minerva - May 2005 (5th Book in the Giants series) Echoes of an Alien Sky - February 2007 Moon Flower - April 2008 Short story collections include: Minds, Machines & Evolution - 1988 (republished by Baen, December 1999) Rockets, Redheads & Revolution - April 1999 (short stories and essays) Catastrophes, Chaos & Convolutions (title as published; was to be Catastrophes, Creation & Convolutions) - December 2005 (short stories and essays) Non-fiction science writings Mind Matters - Exploring the World of Artificial Intelligence - March 1997 Kicking the Sacred Cow - July 2004 Controversy In recent years, Hogan's views have tended towards those widely considered "fringe" or pseudoscientific. He is a serious proponent of Immanuel Velikovsky's version of catastrophism, and of the theory that AIDS is caused by pharmaceutical use rather than HIV (see AIDS denialism). He has stated that he finds basic evidence of evolution's being random to be lacking - or to disprove the theory outright, though he doesn't propose theistic creationism as an alternative. Hogan is also skeptical of the alleged scientific consensus on global warming and ozone depletion. Hogan has also espoused the idea that the Holocaust didn't happen in the manner described by mainstream historians, writing that he finds the work of Arthur Butz and Mark Weber to be "more scholarly, scientific, and convincing than what the history written by the victors says." While such theories are seen by many to contradict his views on scientific rationality, he has repeatedly stated that these theories hold his attention due to the high quality of their presentation - a quality he believes established sources should attempt to emulate, but have instead resorted to attacking their originators. As such, they are consistent with the view that scientific theories should not be accepted simply because they are widely held (see, for instance, argument from authority). References External links Official website Bibliography on SciFan | James_P._Hogan_(writer) |@lemmatized world:2 science:7 fiction:6 convention:2 glasgow:1 august:2 james:1 patrick:1 hogan:8 born:1 june:6 british:1 author:1 biography:1 bear:1 london:2 england:1 raise:1 portobello:1 road:1 area:1 west:1 side:2 leave:1 school:1 age:2 sixteen:1 work:4 various:1 odd:1 job:1 receive:1 scholarship:1 begin:3 five:1 year:6 program:2 royal:1 aircraft:1 establishment:1 farnborough:1 cover:1 practical:1 theoretical:1 electrical:1 electronic:1 mechanical:1 engineering:1 first:3 marry:1 twenty:1 three:2 subsequent:1 marriage:1 father:1 six:1 child:2 design:1 engineer:2 several:1 company:1 eventually:1 move:4 sale:3 travel:1 around:2 europe:1 honeywell:1 join:1 digital:1 equipment:1 corporation:1 laboratory:1 data:1 processing:1 group:1 boston:1 massachusetts:1 run:1 train:1 publish:2 novel:5 inherit:2 star:4 win:1 office:1 bet:1 quit:1 dec:1 write:3 full:1 time:3 orlando:1 florida:1 meet:1 third:1 wife:1 jackie:1 sonora:1 california:1 writing:2 style:1 usually:1 hard:1 early:1 convey:1 sense:1 scientist:1 philosophical:1 view:5 come:1 many:4 theory:9 formulate:1 base:1 empirical:1 research:1 way:1 match:1 fact:3 discard:2 evident:1 giant:9 series:8 discovery:2 old:1 human:1 body:2 moon:3 lead:1 investigation:1 discover:1 astronaut:1 arrive:1 ago:1 elaborate:1 replace:1 also:3 reflect:1 anti:1 authoritarian:1 social:3 strong:1 anarchist:2 libertarian:1 theme:1 often:1 promote:1 idea:3 new:1 technological:1 advance:1 render:1 certain:1 obsolete:1 example:1 effectively:1 limitless:1 availability:1 energy:3 would:3 result:1 development:1 controlled:1 nuclear:1 fusion:1 make:1 unnecessary:1 limit:1 access:1 resource:1 essence:1 become:1 free:1 melding:1 scientific:5 speculation:1 clearly:1 present:1 voyage:2 yesteryear:2 strongly:1 influence:1 eric:1 frank:1 russell:1 famous:1 story:5 none:1 describe:2 contact:1 high:2 tech:1 society:1 planet:1 alpha:1 centauri:1 system:2 starship:1 sent:1 earth:2 dictatorial:1 government:1 use:2 element:1 civil:1 disobedience:1 novels:1 include:2 may:3 book:6 genesis:1 machine:2 april:4 gentle:1 ganymede:1 two:1 face:1 tomorrow:1 thrice:1 upon:1 march:6 july:3 minervan:1 experiment:1 november:1 omnibus:1 edition:1 code:2 lifemaker:2 explore:2 clanking:1 replicator:1 robotic:1 proteus:1 operation:1 october:4 endgame:1 enigma:1 mirror:1 maze:1 infinity:1 gambit:1 entoverse:1 multiplex:1 man:1 december:3 novella:1 immortality:1 option:1 february:3 sequel:2 realtime:1 interrupt:1 path:1 otherwhere:1 bug:1 park:1 outward:1 bound:1 jupiter:1 cradle:2 saturn:2 legend:1 martian:1 knightlife:1 anguish:1 dawn:1 mission:1 minerva:1 echo:1 alien:1 sky:1 flower:1 short:3 collection:1 mind:2 evolution:2 republish:1 baen:1 rocket:1 redhead:1 revolution:1 essay:2 catastrophe:2 chaos:1 convolution:2 title:1 creation:1 non:1 matter:1 artificial:1 intelligence:1 kick:1 sacred:1 cow:1 controversy:1 recent:1 tend:1 towards:1 widely:2 consider:1 fringe:1 pseudoscientific:1 serious:1 proponent:1 immanuel:1 velikovsky:1 version:1 catastrophism:1 aid:2 cause:1 pharmaceutical:1 rather:1 hiv:1 see:3 denialism:1 state:2 find:2 basic:1 evidence:1 random:1 lack:1 disprove:1 outright:1 though:1 propose:1 theistic:1 creationism:1 alternative:1 skeptical:1 allege:1 consensus:1 global:1 warming:1 ozone:1 depletion:1 espouse:1 holocaust:1 happen:1 manner:1 mainstream:1 historian:1 arthur:1 butz:1 mark:1 weber:1 scholarly:1 convince:1 history:1 victor:1 say:1 contradict:1 rationality:1 repeatedly:1 hold:2 attention:1 due:1 quality:2 presentation:1 believe:1 establish:1 source:1 attempt:1 emulate:1 instead:1 resort:1 attack:1 originator:1 consistent:1 accept:1 simply:1 instance:1 argument:1 authority:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 official:1 website:1 bibliography:1 scifan:1 |@bigram science_fiction:4 boston_massachusetts:1 orlando_florida:1 alpha_centauri:1 civil_disobedience:1 artificial_intelligence:1 aid_denialism:1 global_warming:1 ozone_depletion:1 external_link:1 |
5,184 | Presidential_Medal_of_Freedom | The Presidential Medal of Freedom is a decoration bestowed by the President of the United States and is, along with the equivalent Congressional Gold Medal bestowed by an act of Congress, the highest civilian award in the United States. It is designed to recognize individuals who have made "an especially meritorious contribution to the security or national interests of the United States, world peace, cultural or other significant public or private endeavors." The award is not limited to United States citizens, and while a civilian award, can also be awarded to military personnel and worn on the uniform. History of the award Medal and other accoutrements including undress ribbon, miniature, and lapel badge. The Presidential Medal of Freedom has its roots in the Medal of Freedom established by President Harry Truman in 1945 to honor civilian service during World War II. Executive Order 9590, signed 21 July 1945;Federal Register 10 FR 9203, July 25, 1945 President John F. Kennedy nominally revived the medal in 1963 through Executive Order 11085. In practical terms, this order created what amounted to a new decoration, with totally different insignia, vastly expanded purpose, and far higher prestige. Executive Order 11085, signed 22 February 1963; Federal Register 28 FR 1759, February 26, 1963 The medal is awarded annually, on or near the Fourth of July, and at other times as chosen by the President. Recipients are selected by the President, either on his own initiative or based on recommendations. The order reviving the medal also expanded the size and the responsibilities of the Distinguished Civilian Service Awards Board so it could serve as a major source of such recommendations. The medal may be awarded to an individual more than once (for example, John Kenneth Galbraith and Colin Powell), and may also be awarded posthumously (for example, Paul "Bear" Bryant, Roberto Clemente and John F. Kennedy). Insignia Muhammad Ali's Presidential Medal of Freedom on display at the Muhammad Ali Center The badge of the Presidential Medal of Freedom is in the form of a golden star with white enamel, with a red enamel pentagon behind it; the central disc bears thirteen gold stars on a blue enamel background (taken from the Great Seal of the United States) within a golden ring. Golden American Eagles with spread wings stand between the points of the star. It is worn around the neck on a blue ribbon with white edge stripes. A special grade of the medal, known as the Presidential Medal of Freedom with Distinction, has the above mentioned medal worn as a star on the left chest; in addition, the above-mentioned ribbon is worn as a sash on the right shoulder, with its rosette (blue with white edge, bearing the central disc of the medal at its center) resting on the left hip. The medal may also be worn in miniature form on the above-mentioned ribbon on the left chest, with a silver American eagle with spread wings on the ribbon (or a golden eagle if a medal "With Distinction"). In addition, the medal is accompanied by a ribbon bar for wear on military uniform and a lapel badge for wear on civilian business suit (all shown in the accompanying photograph of the full presentation set). Ronald Reagan receives the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1993 President Ronald Reagan presents Mother Teresa with the Presidential Medal of Freedom at a White House ceremony, 1985 See also Awards and decorations of the United States government Awards and decorations of the United States military List of Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients Presidential Citizens Medal Légion d'honneur Order of Canada Order of Australia Order of Merit References External links Article from the JFK Library Text of the order re-establishing the medal List of recent recipients, from the United States Senate website President Bush Honors Medal of Freedom Recipients, 2006 | Presidential_Medal_of_Freedom |@lemmatized presidential:9 medal:24 freedom:10 decoration:4 bestow:2 president:7 united:8 state:8 along:1 equivalent:1 congressional:1 gold:2 act:1 congress:1 high:2 civilian:5 award:11 design:1 recognize:1 individual:2 make:1 especially:1 meritorious:1 contribution:1 security:1 national:1 interest:1 world:2 peace:1 cultural:1 significant:1 public:1 private:1 endeavor:1 limited:1 citizen:2 also:5 military:3 personnel:1 wear:6 uniform:2 history:1 accoutrement:1 include:1 undress:1 ribbon:6 miniature:2 lapel:2 badge:3 root:1 establish:2 harry:1 truman:1 honor:2 service:2 war:1 ii:1 executive:3 order:9 sign:2 july:3 federal:2 register:2 fr:2 john:3 f:2 kennedy:2 nominally:1 revive:2 practical:1 term:1 create:1 amount:1 new:1 totally:1 different:1 insignia:2 vastly:1 expand:2 purpose:1 far:1 prestige:1 february:2 annually:1 near:1 fourth:1 time:1 choose:1 recipient:4 select:1 either:1 initiative:1 base:1 recommendation:2 size:1 responsibility:1 distinguished:1 board:1 could:1 serve:1 major:1 source:1 may:3 example:2 kenneth:1 galbraith:1 colin:1 powell:1 posthumously:1 paul:1 bear:3 bryant:1 roberto:1 clemente:1 muhammad:2 ali:2 display:1 center:2 form:2 golden:4 star:4 white:4 enamel:3 red:1 pentagon:1 behind:1 central:2 disc:2 thirteen:1 blue:3 background:1 take:1 great:1 seal:1 within:1 ring:1 american:2 eagle:3 spread:2 wing:2 stand:1 point:1 around:1 neck:1 edge:2 stripe:1 special:1 grade:1 know:1 distinction:2 mention:3 worn:1 left:3 chest:2 addition:2 sash:1 right:1 shoulder:1 rosette:1 rest:1 hip:1 silver:1 accompany:2 bar:1 business:1 suit:1 show:1 photograph:1 full:1 presentation:1 set:1 ronald:2 reagan:2 receive:1 present:1 mother:1 teresa:1 house:1 ceremony:1 see:1 government:1 list:2 légion:1 honneur:1 canada:1 australia:1 merit:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 article:1 jfk:1 library:1 text:1 recent:1 senate:1 website:1 bush:1 |@bigram gold_medal:1 harry_truman:1 kenneth_galbraith:1 colin_powell:1 roberto_clemente:1 muhammad_ali:2 ronald_reagan:2 légion_honneur:1 external_link:1 |
5,185 | Economy_of_Jordan | Jordan is a small country with limited natural resources, but has improved much since its inception as a country. Its current GDP per capita soared by 351% in the Seventies. But this growth proved unsustainable and consequently shrank by 30% in the Eighties. But it rebounded with growth of 36% in the Nineties. Just over 10% of its land is arable, and even that is subject to the vagaries of a limited water supply. Rainfall is low and highly variable, and much of Jordan's available ground water is not renewable. Jordan's economic resource base centers on phosphates, potash, and their fertilizer derivatives; tourism; overseas remittances; and foreign aid. These are its principal sources of hard currency earnings. Lacking forests, coal reserves, hydroelectric power, or commercially viable oil deposits, Jordan relies on natural gas for 10% of its domestic energy needs. Jordan used to depend on Iraq for oil until the Iraq invasion in 2003 by the United States. Jordan is also classified as an emerging market. Exchange Rates This is a chart of trend of gross domestic product of Jordan at market prices estimated by the International Monetary Fund with figures in millions of Jordanian Dinars. Year Gross Domestic Product US Dollar Exchange Inflation Index (2000=100) 1980 1,165 0.29 Jordanian Dinars 35 1985 1,971 0.39 Jordanian Dinars 45 1990 2,761 0.66 Jordanian Dinars 70 1995 4,715 0.70 Jordanian Dinars 87 2000 5,999 0.70 Jordanian Dinars 100 2005 9,118 0.70 Jordanian Dinars 112 For purchasing power parity comparisons, the Jordanian Dinar is exchanged per US dollar at 0.359. Jordan's population is 3,945,000 Economic History Since 1987, Jordan has struggled with a substantial debt burden and rising unemployment. In 1989, efforts to increase revenues by raising prices of certain commodities and utilities triggered riots in the south. The mood of political discontent that swept the country in the wake of the riots helped set the stage for Jordan's moves toward democratization. Jordan also suffered adverse economic consequences from the 1990-91 Gulf War. While tourist trade plummeted, the Gulf states' decision to limit economic ties with Jordan deprived it of worker remittances, traditional export markets, a secure supply of oil, and substantial foreign aid revenues. UN sanctions against Iraq—Jordan's largest pre-war trading partner—caused further hardships, including higher shipping costs due to inspections of cargo shipments entering the Gulf of Aqaba. Finally, absorbing up to 300,000 returnees from the Gulf countries exacerbated unemployment and strained the government's ability to provide essential services. Macro-economic trend Although the population is highly educated, its high growth rate (3.4% in the late 1990s, but 2.8% since 2003 and declining) and relative youth (more than 50% of Jordanians are under 16) make it difficult for the economy to generate jobs and sustain living standards. However, campaigns to boost female education and awareness about contraceptives have since gradually if somewhat belatedly reduced population growth. It is expect to remain over 2.5% till the end of the decade. Jordan's geographic disposition and sole port of Aqaba puts it far from other markets makes its exports expensive to deliver. The problem is further compounded by complicated government procedures and bureaucratic culture. A further problem remains emphasis on large scale foreign investment and limited programmes to enhance local enterprise and productivity. This in turn means that several industries in Jordan are protected by the government and run near local monopolies (these include the Jordan Refinery Company among others, where steel and cement imports are limited) and government levies on raw materials generally translate to higher costs of production. A further problem can be found in local small and medium sized enterprises local and regional outlook rather than an orientation towards broader export markets. Political disputes among its traditional trading partners—Iraq, Saudi Arabia, and the Gulf states—frequently restrict regional trade and development. King Abdullah II has encouraged his government to liberalise the economy, improve economic ties in the region, and seek opportunities in the global information economy. Industries Agriculture, forestry, and fishing Despite increases in production, the agriculture sector’s share of the economy has declined steadily to just 2.4 percent of gross domestic product by 2004. About 4 percent of Jordan’s labor force worked in the agricultural sector in 2002. The most profitable segment of Jordan’s agriculture is fruit and vegetable production (including tomatoes, cucumbers, citrus fruit, and bananas) in the Jordan Valley. The rest of crop production, especially cereal production, remains volatile because of the lack of consistent rainfall. Fishing and forestry are negligible in terms of the overall domestic economy. The fishing industry is evenly divided between live capture and aquaculture; the live weight catch totaled just over 1,000 metric tons in 2002. The forestry industry is even smaller in economic terms; approximately 240,000 total cubic meters of roundwood were removed in 2002, the vast majority for fuelwood. "Country Profile: Jordan". Library of Congress Federal Research Division (September 2006). Mining and minerals Potash and phosphates are among the country’s main economic exports. In 2003 approximately 2 million tons of potash salt production translated into US$192 million in export earnings, making it the second most lucrative exported good. Potash production totaled 1.9 million tons in 2004 and 1.8 million tons in 2005. In 2004 approximately 6.75 million tons of phosphate rock production generated US$135 million in export earnings, placing it fourth on Jordan’s principal export list. With production totaling 6.4 million tons in 2005, Jordan was the world’s third largest producer of raw phosphates. In addition to these two major minerals, smaller quantities of unrefined salt, copper ore, gypsum, manganese ore, and the mineral precursors to the production of ceramics (glass sand, clays, and feldspar) are also mined. Industry and manufacturing The industrial sector, which includes mining, manufacturing, construction, and power, accounted for approximately 26 percent of gross domestic product in 2004 (including manufacturing, 16.2 percent; construction, 4.6 percent; and mining, 3.1 percent). More than 21 percent of the country’s labor force was reported to be employed in this sector in 2002. The main industrial products are potash, phosphates, pharmaceuticals, cement, clothes, and fertilizers. The most promising segment of this sector is construction. In the past several years, demand has increased rapidly for housing and offices of foreign enterprises based in Jordan to better access the Iraqi market. The manufacturing sector has grown as well (to nearly 20 percent of GDP by 2005), in large part as a result of the United States–Jordan Free Trade Agreement (ratified in 2001 by the U.S. Senate); the agreement has led to the establishment of approximately 13 qualifying industrial zones (QIZs) throughout the country. The QIZs, which provide duty-free access to the U.S. market, produce mostly light industrial products, especially ready-made garments. By 2004 the QIZs accounted for nearly US$1.1 billion in exports according to the Jordanian government. Energy seealso|Oil shale in Jordan Unlike most of its neighbors, Jordan has no significant petroleum resources of its own and is heavily dependent on oil imports to fulfill its domestic energy needs. In 2002 proved oil reserves totaled only 445,000 barrels. Jordan produced only 40 barrels per day in 2004 but consumed an estimated 103,000 barrels per day. According to U.S. government figures, oil imports had reached about 100,000 barrels per day in 2004. The Iraq invasion of 2003 disrupted Jordan’s primary oil supply route from its eastern neighbor, which under Saddam Hussein had provided the kingdom with highly discounted crude oil via overland truck routes. Since late 2003, an alternative supply route by tanker through the Al Aqabah port has been established; Saudi Arabia is now Jordan’s primary source of imported oil; Kuwait and the United Arab Emirates (UAE) are secondary sources. Although not so heavily discounted as Iraqi crude oil, supplies from Saudi Arabia and the UAE are subsidized to some extent. In the face of continued high oil costs, interest has increased in the possibility of exploiting Jordan's vast oil shale resources, which are estimated to total approximately 40 billion tons, 4 billion tons of which are believed to be recoverable. Jordan's oil shale resources could produce 28 billion barrels of oil, enabling production of about 100,000 barrels per day. The oil shale in Jordan has the fourth largest in the world which currently, there are several companies who are negotiating with the Jordanian government about exploiting the oil shale like Royal Dutch Shell, Petrobras and Eesti Energia. Natural gas is increasingly being used to fulfill the country’s domestic energy needs, especially with regard to electricity generation. Jordan was estimated to have only modest natural gas reserves (about 6 billion cubic meters in 2002), but new estimates suggest a much higher total. In 2003 the country produced and consumed an estimated 390 million cubic meters of natural gas. The primary source is located in the eastern portion of the country at the Risha gas field. The country imports the bulk of its natural gas via the recently completed Arab Gas Pipeline that stretches from the Al Arish terminal in Egypt underwater to Al Aqabah and then to northern Jordan, where it links to two major power stations. This Egypt–Jordan pipeline supplies Jordan with approximately 1 billion cubic meters of natural gas per year. The state-owned National Electric Power Company (NEPCO) produces most of Jordan’s electricity (94%). Since mid-2000, privatization efforts have been undertaken to increase independent power generation facilities; a Belgian firm was set to begin operations at a new power plant near Amman with an estimated capacity of 450 megawatts. Power plants at Az Zarqa (400 megawatts) and Al Aqabah (650 MW) are Jordan's other primary electricity providers. As a whole, the country consumed nearly 8 billion kilowatt-hours of electricity in 2003 while producing only 7.5 billion kWh of electricity. Electricity production in 2004 rose to 8.7 billion kWh, but production must continue to increase in order to meet demand, which the government estimates will continue to grow by about 5% per year. About 99 percent of the population is reported to have access to electricity. Services and tourism Services accounted for more than 70 percent of gross domestic product (GDP) in 2004. The sector employed nearly 75 percent of the labor force in 2002. The tourism sector is widely regarded as underdeveloped, especially given the country’s rich history, ancient ruins, Mediterranean climate, and diverse geography. Despite personal appeals by the king and an increasingly sophisticated marketing campaign, the industry is still adversely affected by the political instability of the region. More than 5 million visitors entered Jordan in 2004, generating US$1.3 billion in earnings. Earnings from tourism rose to US$1.4 billion in 2005. The fact that the bulk of Jordan’s tourist trade emanates from elsewhere in the Middle East should contribute to the industry’s growth potential in the years ahead, as Jordan is relatively stable, open, and safe in comparison to many of its neighbors. External trade Jordanian exports in 2006 Since 1995, economic growth has been low. Real GDP has grown at only about 1.5% annually, while the official unemployment has hovered at 14% (unofficial estimates are double this number). The budget deficit and public debt have remained high and continue to widen, yet during this period inflation has remained low due mainly to stable monetary policy and the continued peg to the United States Dollar. Exports of manufactured goods have risen at an annual rate of 9%. Monetary stability has been reinforced, even when tensions were renewed in the region during 1998, and during the illness and ultimate death of King Hussein in 1999. Expectations of increased trade and tourism as a consequence of Jordan's peace treaty with Israel have been disappointing though not unexpected. Security-related restrictions to trade with the West Bank and the Gaza Strip have led to a substantial decline in Jordan's exports there. Following his ascension, King Abdullah improved relations with Arabic states of the Persian Gulf and Syria, but this brought few real economic benefits. Most recently the Jordanians have focused on WTO membership and a Free Trade Agreement with the U.S. as means to encourage export-led growth. Investment The stock market capitalisation of listed companies in Jordan was valued at $37,639 million in 2005 by the World Bank. See also Qualifying Industrial Zone References Notes Bibliography Brand, Laurie. Jordan’s Inter-Arab Relations: The Political Economy of Alliance Making. New York: Columbia University Press, 1994. Country Profile: Jordan 1995-96. London: The Economist Intelligence Unit, 1995. International Monetary Fund Jordan Page Jeffreys, Andrew ed. Emerging Jordan 2003. London: The Oxford Business Group, 2002. Maciejewski, Edouard and Ahsan Mansur eds. Jordan: Strategy for Adjustment and Growth. Washington, D.C.: International Monetary Fund, 1996. Piro, Timothy. The Political Economy of Market Reform in Jordan. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 1998. Prados, Alfred and Jeremy Sharp. Congressional Research Service. Report for Congress. Jordan: U.S. Relations and Bilateral Issues. Washington, D.C.: Library of Congress, 2006. Robins, Philip. Jordan to 1990: Coping with Change. London: The Economist Intelligence Unit, 1986. 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5,186 | Lascaux | Cave painting of a dun horse (equine) at Lascaux Lascaux is the setting of a complex of caves in southwestern France famous for its Paleolithic cave paintings. The original caves are located near the village of Montignac, in the Dordogne département. They contain some of the most well-known Upper Paleolithic art. These paintings are estimated to be 16,000 years old. They primarily consist of realistic images of large animals, most of which are known from fossil evidence to have lived in the area at the time. In 1979, Lascaux was added to the UNESCO World Heritage Sites list along with other prehistoric sites in the Vézère valley. History The cave was discovered on 12 September 1940 by four teenagers, Marcel Ravidat, Jacques Marsal, Georges Agnel, and Simon Coencas, as well as Ravidat's dog, Robot . Public access was made easier after World War II. By 1955, the carbon dioxide produced by 1,200 visitors per day had visibly damaged the paintings. The cave was closed to the public in 1963 in order to preserve the art. After the cave was closed, the paintings were restored to their original state, and are now monitored on a daily basis. Rooms in the cave include The Great Hall of the Bulls, the Lateral Passage, the Shaft of the Dead Man, the Chamber of Engravings, the Painted Gallery, and the Chamber of Felines. Reproductions of some Lascaux artworks in Lascaux II Lascaux II, a replica of two of the cave halls—the Great Hall of the Bulls and the Painted Gallery—was opened in 1983, 200 meters from the original. Reproductions of other Lascaux artwork can be seen at the Centre of Prehistoric Art at Le Thot, France. Since the year 2000 the cave has been beset with a fungus, variously blamed on a new air conditioning system that was installed in the caves, the use of high-powered lights, and the presence of too many visitors. As of 2008, the cave contained black mold which scientists are trying to keep away from the paintings. In January 2008, authorities closed the cave for three months even to scientists and preservationists. A single individual was allowed to enter the cave for 20 minutes once a week to monitor climatic conditions. Now only a few scientific experts are allowed to work inside the cave and just for a few days a month. (requires free registration) The images The cave contains nearly 2,000 figures. Many are too faint to discern, while others have deteriorated. Over 900 can be identified as animals, and 605 of these have been precisely identified. There are also many geometric figures. Of the animals, equines predominate, with 364 images. There are 90 paintings of stags. Also represented are cattle and bison, each representing 4-5% of the images. A smattering of other images include seven felines, a bird, a bear, a rhinoceros, and a human. Among the most famous images are four huge, black bulls or aurochs in the Hall of the Bulls. There are no images of reindeer, even though that was the principal source of food for the artists. Gregory Curtis, The Cave Painters: Probing the Mysteries of the World's First Artists, Knopf, New York, NY, USA, 2006. 1-4000-4348-4, pp. 96-97 The most famous section of the cave is The Great Hall of the Bulls where bulls, equines and stags are depicted. But it is the four black bulls that are the dominant figures among the 36 animals represented here. One of the bulls is long -- the largest animal discovered so far in cave art. Additionally, the bulls appear to be in motion. Gregory Curtis, The Cave Painters: Probing the Mysteries of the World's First Artists, Knopf, New York, NY, USA, 2006. 1-4000-4348-4, p. 102 A painting referred to as "The Crossed Bison" and found in the chamber called the Nave is often held as an example of the skill of the Paleolithic cave painters. The crossed hind legs show the ability to use perspective in a manner that wasn't seen again until the 15th century. Of the non-figurative images, one researcher has speculated that the painted dots are maps of the night sky, since the patterns correlate with various constellations. An alternative hypothesis proposed by David Lewis-Williams following work with similar art of the San people of Southern Africa is that this type of art is spiritual in nature relating to visions experienced during ritualistic trance-dancing. These trance visions are a function of the human brain and so are independent of geographical location. Popular culture In Dougal Dixon's Ice Age Explorer, the seventh book in the Time Machine series, the reader has to travel back to the last ice age and identify the animals painted in these caves. Dixon, Dougal; Ice Age Explorer (Time Machine, No. 7); published 1985 by Bantam Books; p. 106 The Lascaux Cave paintings were featured in the Carmen Sandiego episode, The Cave Art Caper. The area around Lascaux and the caves themselves form the setting for the fifth book in the "Earth's Children" series by Jean M. Auel, entitled "The Shelters of Stone". Mayfair Games and Phalanx Games released the board game "Lascaux" in 2007. Players compete in auctions for cards depicting the cave art. References Further reading Joseph Nechvatal, "Immersive Excess in the Apse of Lascaux", Technonoetic Arts 3, no3. 2005 Brigitte and Gilles Delluc, Discovering Lascaux, Sud Ouest edit., Bordeaux, 2006 See also Pre-historic art List of archaeological sites sorted by country European archaeology List of caves Cave painting External links Lascaux Cave Official Lascaux Web site, from the French Ministry of Culture. Lascaux Cave some info on the cave and more links | Lascaux |@lemmatized cave:31 painting:9 dun:1 horse:1 equine:3 lascaux:15 setting:2 complex:1 southwestern:1 france:2 famous:3 paleolithic:3 original:3 locate:1 near:1 village:1 montignac:1 dordogne:1 département:1 contain:3 well:2 know:2 upper:1 art:10 estimate:1 year:2 old:1 primarily:1 consist:1 realistic:1 image:8 large:2 animal:6 fossil:1 evidence:1 live:1 area:2 time:3 add:1 unesco:1 world:4 heritage:1 site:4 list:3 along:1 prehistoric:2 vézère:1 valley:1 history:1 discover:3 september:1 four:3 teenager:1 marcel:1 ravidat:2 jacques:1 marsal:1 george:1 agnel:1 simon:1 coencas:1 dog:1 robot:1 public:2 access:1 make:1 easier:1 war:1 ii:3 carbon:1 dioxide:1 produce:1 visitor:2 per:1 day:2 visibly:1 damage:1 close:3 order:1 preserve:1 restore:1 state:1 monitor:2 daily:1 basis:1 room:1 include:2 great:3 hall:5 bull:9 lateral:1 passage:1 shaft:1 dead:1 man:1 chamber:3 engraving:1 painted:3 gallery:2 feline:2 reproduction:2 artwork:2 replica:1 two:1 open:1 meter:1 see:3 centre:1 le:1 thot:1 since:2 beset:1 fungus:1 variously:1 blame:1 new:3 air:1 conditioning:1 system:1 instal:1 use:2 high:1 powered:1 light:1 presence:1 many:3 black:3 mold:1 scientist:2 try:1 keep:1 away:1 january:1 authority:1 three:1 month:2 even:2 preservationist:1 single:1 individual:1 allow:2 enter:1 minute:1 week:1 climatic:1 condition:1 scientific:1 expert:1 work:2 inside:1 require:1 free:1 registration:1 nearly:1 figure:3 faint:1 discern:1 others:1 deteriorate:1 identify:3 precisely:1 also:3 geometric:1 predominate:1 stag:2 represent:3 cattle:1 bison:2 smattering:1 seven:1 bird:1 bear:1 rhinoceros:1 human:2 among:2 huge:1 aurochs:1 reindeer:1 though:1 principal:1 source:1 food:1 artist:1 gregory:2 curtis:2 painter:3 probe:2 mystery:2 first:2 artists:2 knopf:2 york:2 ny:2 usa:2 pp:1 section:1 depict:2 dominant:1 one:2 long:1 far:2 additionally:1 appear:1 motion:1 p:2 refer:1 crossed:2 find:1 call:1 nave:1 often:1 hold:1 example:1 skill:1 hind:1 leg:1 show:1 ability:1 perspective:1 manner:1 century:1 non:1 figurative:1 researcher:1 speculate:1 dot:1 map:1 night:1 sky:1 pattern:1 correlate:1 various:1 constellation:1 alternative:1 hypothesis:1 propose:1 david:1 lewis:1 williams:1 follow:1 similar:1 san:1 people:1 southern:1 africa:1 type:1 spiritual:1 nature:1 relate:1 vision:2 experience:1 ritualistic:1 trance:2 dancing:1 function:1 brain:1 independent:1 geographical:1 location:1 popular:1 culture:2 dougal:2 dixon:2 ice:3 age:3 explorer:2 seventh:1 book:3 machine:2 series:2 reader:1 travel:1 back:1 last:1 paint:2 publish:1 bantam:1 feature:1 carmen:1 sandiego:1 episode:1 caper:1 around:1 form:1 fifth:1 earth:1 child:1 jean:1 auel:1 entitle:1 shelter:1 stone:1 mayfair:1 game:3 phalanx:1 release:1 board:1 player:1 compete:1 auction:1 card:1 reference:1 read:1 joseph:1 nechvatal:1 immersive:1 excess:1 apse:1 technonoetic:1 brigitte:1 gilles:1 delluc:1 sud:1 ouest:1 edit:1 bordeaux:1 pre:1 historic:1 archaeological:1 sort:1 country:1 european:1 archaeology:1 external:1 link:2 official:1 web:1 french:1 ministry:1 info:1 |@bigram upper_paleolithic:1 carbon_dioxide:1 air_conditioning:1 climatic_condition:1 hind_leg:1 lascaux_cave:4 joseph_nechvatal:1 external_link:1 |
5,187 | Fra_Bartolomeo | Fra Bartolomeo or Fra Bartolommeo (di Pagholo) (March 28, 1472 – October 6, 1517), also known as Baccio della Porta, was an Italian Renaissance painter of religious subjects. Biography The Vision of St. Bernard ca 1504 (Uffizi). He was born in Savignano di Prato, Tuscany. He received the nickname of Baccio della Porta for his house was near the Porta ("Gate") San Pier Gattolini. Starting from 1483 or 1484, by recommendation of Benedetto da Maiano, he apprenticed in the workshop of Cosimo Rosselli. He was one of the greatest painters of his time. In 1490 or 1491 he began a collaboration with Mariotto Albertinelli. In the late 1490s Baccio was drawn to the teachings of Fra Girolamo Savonarola, who denounced what he viewed as vain and corrupt contemporary art. Savonarola argued for art serving as a direct visual illustration of the Bible to educate those unable to read the book. From 1498 is his famous portrait of Savonarola, now in the Museo Nazionale di San Marco in Florence. The following year he was commissioned a fresco of the Universal Judgement for the Ospedale di Santa Maria Nuova, completed by Albertinelli and Giuliano Bugiardini when Baccio became a Dominican friar on July 26 1500. The following year he entered the convent of San Marco. He renounced painting for several years, not resuming until 1504 when he became the head of the monastery workshop in obedience to his superior. In that year he began a Vision of St. Bernard for Bernardo Bianco's family chapel in the Badia Fiorentina, finished in 1507. Soon thereafter, Raphael visited Florence and befriended the friar. Bartolomeo learned perspective from the younger artist, while Raphael added skills in coloring and handling of drapery, which was noticeable in the works he produced after their meeting. With Raphael, he remained on the friendliest terms, and when he departed from Rome, left in his hands two unfinished pictures which Raphael completed. At the beginning of 1508 Bartolomeo moved to Venice to paint a Holy Father, St. Mary Magdalene and St. Catherine of Siena for the Dominicans of San Pietro Martire in Murano, influenced somewhat by Venetian colorism. As the Dominicans did not pay the work, he took it back to Lucca, where it can be seen now. Also in Lucca, in the October 1509, he painted by Albertinelli an altarpiece with Madonna and Child with Saints for the local cathedral. On November 26 1510 Pier Soderini commissioned him an altarpiece for the Sala del Consiglio of Florence, now in the Museum of San Marco. Two years later he finished another altarpiece for the cathedral of Besançon. Scene with Christ in the Temple (1519). Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna. In 1513 he went to Rome, where he painted a Peter and Paul, now in the Pinacoteca Vaticana, while from the following years are the St. Mark Evangelist of Palazzo Pitti in Florence and the frescoes in the Dominican convent of Pian di Mugnone. After a promised Feast of Venus for Duke Alfonso I d'Este of Ferrara, of which only drawings remain, his last work is fresco of Noli me tangere also in Pian di Mugnone. He died in Florence in 1517. Evaluation Pietà (1516). Palazzo Pitti, Florence. Initially, his works showed the influence of Rosselli's assistant, Piero di Cosimo, and those of Ghirlandaio and Filippino Lippi. After his hiatus from 1500 to 1503, he seemed to change vision, taking from Raphael the representation of light and its effects over moving shapes. Fra Bartolomeo's figures are generally small and draped. These qualities were alleged against him as defects, and to prove that his style was not the result of want of power, he painted the magnificent figure of the St. Mark Evangelist (ranked as his masterpiece), and the undraped figure of St. Sebastian. It is alleged that the latter was felt to be so strongly expressive of suffering and agony, that it was found necessary to remove it from the place where it had been exhibited in the chapel of a convent. Fra Bartolomeo's compositions are remarkable for skill in the massing of light and shade, richness and delicacy of colouring, and for the admirable drapery of the figures, Bartolomeo having been the first to introduce and use the lay-figure with joints. Works External links Biography from Artist-Biography.info Sources | Fra_Bartolomeo |@lemmatized fra:5 bartolomeo:6 bartolommeo:1 di:7 pagholo:1 march:1 october:2 also:3 know:1 baccio:4 della:2 porta:3 italian:1 renaissance:1 painter:2 religious:1 subject:1 biography:3 vision:3 st:7 bernard:2 ca:1 uffizi:1 bear:1 savignano:1 prato:1 tuscany:1 receive:1 nickname:1 house:1 near:1 gate:1 san:5 pier:2 gattolini:1 start:1 recommendation:1 benedetto:1 da:1 maiano:1 apprentice:1 workshop:2 cosimo:2 rosselli:2 one:1 great:1 time:1 begin:2 collaboration:1 mariotto:1 albertinelli:3 late:1 draw:1 teaching:1 girolamo:1 savonarola:3 denounce:1 view:1 vain:1 corrupt:1 contemporary:1 art:2 argue:1 serving:1 direct:1 visual:1 illustration:1 bible:1 educate:1 unable:1 read:1 book:1 famous:1 portrait:1 museo:1 nazionale:1 marco:3 florence:6 following:3 year:6 commission:2 fresco:3 universal:1 judgement:1 ospedale:1 santa:1 maria:1 nuova:1 complete:2 giuliano:1 bugiardini:1 become:2 dominican:4 friar:2 july:1 enter:1 convent:3 renounce:1 paint:5 several:1 resume:1 head:1 monastery:1 obedience:1 superior:1 bernardo:1 bianco:1 family:1 chapel:2 badia:1 fiorentina:1 finish:2 soon:1 thereafter:1 raphael:5 visit:1 befriend:1 learn:1 perspective:1 young:1 artist:2 add:1 skill:2 color:1 handle:1 drapery:2 noticeable:1 work:5 produce:1 meeting:1 remain:2 friendly:1 term:1 depart:1 rome:2 leave:1 hand:1 two:2 unfinished:1 picture:1 beginning:1 move:2 venice:1 holy:1 father:1 mary:1 magdalene:1 catherine:1 siena:1 pietro:1 martire:1 murano:1 influence:2 somewhat:1 venetian:1 colorism:1 pay:1 take:2 back:1 lucca:2 see:1 altarpiece:3 madonna:1 child:1 saint:1 local:1 cathedral:2 november:1 soderini:1 sala:1 del:1 consiglio:1 museum:2 later:1 another:1 besançon:1 scene:1 christ:1 temple:1 kunsthistorisches:1 vienna:1 go:1 peter:1 paul:1 pinacoteca:1 vaticana:1 mark:2 evangelist:2 palazzo:2 pitti:2 pian:2 mugnone:2 promised:1 feast:1 venus:1 duke:1 alfonso:1 este:1 ferrara:1 drawing:1 last:1 noli:1 tangere:1 die:1 evaluation:1 pietà:1 initially:1 show:1 assistant:1 piero:1 ghirlandaio:1 filippino:1 lippi:1 hiatus:1 seem:1 change:1 representation:1 light:2 effect:1 shape:1 figure:5 generally:1 small:1 draped:1 quality:1 allege:2 defect:1 prove:1 style:1 result:1 want:1 power:1 magnificent:1 rank:1 masterpiece:1 undraped:1 sebastian:1 latter:1 felt:1 strongly:1 expressive:1 suffer:1 agony:1 find:1 necessary:1 remove:1 place:1 exhibit:1 composition:1 remarkable:1 massing:1 shade:1 richness:1 delicacy:1 colouring:1 admirable:1 first:1 introduce:1 use:1 lay:1 joint:1 external:1 link:1 info:1 source:1 |@bigram fra_bartolomeo:3 della_porta:2 girolamo_savonarola:1 nazionale_di:1 san_marco:3 marco_florence:1 santa_maria:1 dominican_friar:1 mary_magdalene:1 catherine_siena:1 san_pietro:1 palazzo_pitti:2 dominican_convent:1 alfonso_este:1 noli_tangere:1 external_link:1 |
5,188 | List_of_Olympic_medalists_in_basketball | Basketball is a sport contested at the Summer Olympic Games. A men's basketball tournament was first held at the 1904 Olympics as a demonstration; it has been held at every Summer Olympics since 1936. In the 1972 Olympics, the Basketball at the 1972 Summer Olympics#Gold Medal Match controversy final game between the United States and the Soviet Union was a controversial one, as the game was ended and replayed twice, before the Soviet Union won their first gold medal, which would have been won by the United States if the game wasn't replayed. The U.S. filed a formal protest but was rejected by the International Basketball Federation (FIBA). As a result, the United States refused to accept the silver medal, and haven't reclaimed since. After a protest of the Soviet war in Afghanistan, the United States boycotted the 1980 Moscow Olympics. The Soviet Union responded by leading the 1984 Summer Olympics boycott, citing security concerns in the United States. Both boycotts affected basketball at the Olympics, as both had successful basketball teams at the time. In 1989, the International Olympic Committee (IOC) decided to allow professional athletes to compete in the Olympics, and starting in 1992, the National Basketball Association (NBA) allowed its players to participate. Women's basketball was first held at the 1976 Summer Olympics. Both events have been held at every Olympic Games since. Teresa Edwards is the all-time leader for the most Olympic medals in basketball, with four gold and one bronze. Three athletes have won four medals: Lisa Leslie (four gold), Gennadi Volnov (one gold, two silver, one bronze), and Sergei Belov (one gold, three bronze). Leslie is the all-time leader for the most consecutive gold medal wins in basketball. Five Americans have won three gold—Edwards, Leslie, Katie Smith, Dawn Staley, and Sheryl Swoopes—and nineteen, not including the previously mentioned, have won three medals. The United States have been successful in both the men's and women's tournaments, winning a medal in every Olympiad except the 1980 Summer Olympics. The Soviet Union is the only other team to have won 12 medals in the men's and women's tournament, 10 of which were won from 1952 to 1980. Other teams to have won four or more medals include Brazil (three men's, two women's) and Australia's women. As of the 2008 Summer Olympics, 78 medals (26 of each color) have been awarded to teams from 19 National Olympic Committees. __TOC__ Men 1936 Berlin Sam Balter Ralph Bishop Joe Fortenberry Tex Gibbons Francis Johnson Carl Knowles Frank Lubin Art Mollner Donald Piper Jack Ragland Willard Schmidt Carl Shy Duane Swanson Bill Wheatley Gordon Aitchison Ian Allison Art Chapman Chuck Chapman Edward Dawson Irving Meretsky Doug Peden James Stewart Malcolm Wiseman Carlos Borja Víctor BorjaRodolfo Choperena Luis de la Vega Raúl Fernández Andrés GómezSilvio Hernández Francisco Martínez Jesús Olmos José Pamplona Greer Skousen 1948 London Cliff BarkerDon BarksdaleRalph BeardLew BeckVince BorylaGordon CarpenterAlex GrozaWah Wah JonesBob KurlandRay LumppRobert PittsJesse RenickJackie RobinsonKenny Rollins André BarraisMichel BonnevieAndré BuffièreRené ChocatRené DérencyMaurice DesaymonnetAndré EvenMaurice GirardotFernand GuillouRaymond OffnerJacques PerrierYvan QuéninLucien RebufficPierre Thiolon AlgodãoBrázRuy de FreitasMarcus Vinícius DiasAffonso ÉvoraAlexandre GemignaniAlfredo da MottaAlberto MarsonNilton PachecoMassinet Sorcinelli 1952 Helsinki Ron BontempsMark FreibergerWayne GlasgowCharlie HoagBill HouglandJohn KellerDean KelleyBob KenneyBob KurlandBill LienhardClyde LovelletteFrank McCabeDan PippinHowie Williams Stepas ButautasNodar DzhordzhikiyaAnatoly KonevOtar KorkiyaHeino KruusIlmar KullamJustinas LagunavičiusJoann LõssovAleksandr MoiseyevYuri OzerovKazys PetkevičiusStasys StonkusMaigonis ValdmanisViktor Vlasov Martín Acosta y LaraEnrique BaliñoVictorio CieslinskasHéctor CostaNelson DemarcoHéctor García OteroTabaré Larre BorgesAdesio LombardoRoberto LoveraSergio MattoWilfredo PeláezCarlos Roselló 1956 Melbourne K.C. JonesBurdette HaldorsonCarl CainGilbert FordRichard BoushkaJames WalshCharles DarlingWilliam EvansBill HouglandRobert JeangerardBill RussellRonald Tomsic Arkadi BochkaryovMaigonis ValdmanisViktor ZubkovJanis KruminsAlgirdas LauritėnasValdis MuiznieksYuri OzerovKazys PetkevičiusMichail SemyonovStasys StonkusMichail StudenezkiVladimir Torban Carlos BlixenRamiro CortesHéctor CostaNelson ChelleNelson DemarcoHéctor García OteroCarlos GonzálesSergio MattoOscar MogliaRaúl MeraAriel OlascoagaMilton Scarón 1960 Rome Jay ArnetteWalt BellamyBob BoozerTerry DischingerBurdette HaldorsonDarrall ImhoffAllen KelleyLester LaneJerry LucasOscar RobertsonAdrian SmithJerry West Yury KomeyevJanis KruminsGuram MinaschviliValdis MuiznieksCesars OzersAleksandr PetrovMichail SemyonovVladimir UgrekelidzeMaigonis ValdmanisAlbert ValtinGennadi VolnovViktor Zubkov Edson Bispo dos SantosMoyses BlasWaldemar BlatkauskasAlgodãoCarmo de SouzaCarlos Domingos MassoniWaldyr Geraldo BoccardoWlamir MarquesAmaury Antônio PasosFernando Pereira de FreitasAntonio Salvador SucarJatyr Eduardo Schall 1964 Tokyo Jim BarnesBill BradleyLarry BrownJoe CaldwellMel CountsDick DaviesWalt HazzardLucious JacksonJohn McCaffreyJeff MullinsJerome ShippGeorge Wilson Armenak AlachachyanNikolai BagleiVyacheslav ChryninJuris KalninsYury KorneyevJanis KruminsJaak LipsoLevan MosechviliValdis MuiznieksAleksandr PetrovAleksandr TravinGennadi Volnov Edson Bispo dos SantosFriedrich Wilhelm BraunCarmo de SouzaCarlos Domingos MassoniWlamir MarquesVictor MirshawkaAmaury Antônio PasosUbiratan Pereira MacielAntonio Salvador SucarJatyr Eduardo SchallJosé Edvar SimoesSergio de Toledo Machado 1968 Mexico City Michael BarrettJohn ClawsonDonald DeeCalvin FowlerSpencer HaywoodBill HosketJim KingGlynn SaultersCharles ScottMichael SillimanKenneth SpainJoseph White Dragutin ČermakKrešimir ĆosićVladimir CvetkovićIvo DaneuRadivoj KoraćTrajko RajkovićZoran MaroevićDragoslav RažnjatovićPetar SkansiDamir SolmanNikola PlećašAljoša Zorga Anatoli PolivodaAnatoli KrikunVadim KapranovVladimir AndreyevSergei KovalenkoModestas PaulauskasJaak LipsoGennadi VolnovPriit TomsonZurab SakandelidzeYury SelichovSergei Belov 1972 Munich Anatoli PolivodaModestas PaulauskasZurab SakandelidzeAlzhan ZharmukhamedovAleksandr BoloshevIvan EdeshkoSergei BelovMikheil KorkiyaIvan DvornyGennadi VolnovAleksandr BelovSergei Kovalenko Kenneth DavisDoug CollinsTom HendersonMike BantomRobert JonesDwight JonesJames ForbesJim BrewerTom BurlesonTom McMillenKevin JoyceEd Ratleff Juan DomecqRuperto HerreraJuan RocaPedro ChappéJosé Miguel Alvarez PozoRafael CanizaresConrado PerezMiguel CalderonTomas HerreraOscar VaronaAlejandro UrgellesFranklin Standard 1976 Montreal Phil FordSteve SheppardAdrian DantleyWalter DavisQuinn BucknerErnie GrunfeldKenneth CarrScott MayTate ArmstrongTom LaGardePhil HubbardMitch Kupchak Blagoje GeorgijevskiDragan KićanovićVinko JelovacRajko ŽižicŽeljko JerkovAndro KnegoZoran SlavnićKrešimir ĆosićDamir SolmanŽarko VarajićDražen DalipagićMirza Delibašić Vladimir ArsamaskovAleksandr SalnikovValeri MiloserdovAlzhan ZharmukhamedovAndrei MakeyevIvan EdeshkoSergei BelovVladimir TkachenkoAnatoli MyshkinMikheil KorkiyaAleksandr BelovVladimir Zhigily 1980 Moscow Andro KnegoDragan KićanovićRajko ŽižicMihovil NakićŽeljko JerkovBranko SkroceZoran SlavnićKrešimir ĆosićRatko RadovanovićDuje KrstulovićDražen DalipagićMirza Delibašić Romeo SacchettiRoberto BrunamontiMichael SilvesterEnrico GilardiFabrizio Della FioriMarco SolfriniMarco BonamicoDino MeneghinRenato VillaltaRenzo VecchiatoPierluigi MarzoratiPietro Generali Stanislav EreminValeri MiloserdovSergei TarakanovAleksandr SalnikovAndrei LopatovNikolai DeruginSergei BelovVladimir TkachenkoAnatoli MyshkinSergėjus JovaišaAlexander BelostennyVladimir Zhigily 1984 Los Angeles Steve AlfordLeon WoodPatrick EwingVern FlemingAlvin RobertsonMichael JordanJoe KleineJon KoncakWayman TisdaleChris MullinSam PerkinsJeffrey Turner José Manuel BeiranJosé Luis LlorenteFernando ArcegaJosé Maria MargallAndrés JiménezFernando RomayFernando MartínJuan Antonio CorbalánIgnacio SolozábalJuan Domingo de la CruzJuan Manuel López IturriagaJuan Antonio San Epifanio Dražen PetrovićAleksandar PetrovićNebojša ZorkićRajko ŽižicIvan SunaraEmir MutapčićSabit HadžićAndro KnegoRatko RadovanovićMihovil Nakić-VojnovićDražen DalipagićBranko Vukićević 1988 Seoul Aleksandr VolkovTiit SokkSergei TarakanovŠarūnas MarčiulionisIgors MiglinieksValeri TichonenkoRimas KurtinaitisArvydas SabonisViktor PankrashinValdemaras ChomičiusAlexander BelostennyValeri Goborov Dražen PetrovićZdravko RadulovićZoran ČuturaToni KukočŽarko PaspaljŽeljko ObradovićJure ZdovcStojko VrankovićVlade DivacFranjo ArapovićDino RađaDanko Cvjetičanin Mitch RichmondCharles E. SmithCharles D. SmithBimbo ColesJeff GrayerWillie AndersonStacey AugmonDan MajerleDanny ManningJ. R. ReidDavid RobinsonHersey Hawkins 1992 Barcelona Charles BarkleyLarry BirdClyde DrexlerPatrick EwingMagic JohnsonMichael JordanChristian LaettnerKarl MaloneChris MullinScottie PippenDavid RobinsonJohn Stockton Vladan AlanovićFranjo ArapovićDanko CvjetičaninAlan GregovArijan KomazecToni KukočAramis NaglićVelimir PerasovićDražen PetrovićDino RađaŽan TabakStojko Vranković Romanas BrazdauskisValdemaras ChomičiusDarius DimavičiusGintaras EinikisSergėjus JovaišaArtūras KarnišovasGintaras KrapikasRimas KurtinaitisŠarūnas MarčiulionisAlvydas PazdrazdisArvydas SabonisArūnas Visockas 1996 Atlanta Charles BarkleyGrant HillAnfernee HardawayDavid RobinsonScottie PippenMitch RichmondReggie MillerKarl MaloneJohn StocktonShaquille O'NealGary PaytonHakeem Olajuwon Miroslav BerićDejan BodirogaPredrag DanilovićVlade DivacAleksandar ĐorđevićNikola LončarSaša ObradovićŽarko PaspaljŽeljko RebračaZoran SavićDejan TomaševićMilenko Topić Gintaras EinikisAndrius JurkūnasArtūras KarnišovasRimas KurtinaitisDarius LukminasŠarūnas MarčiulionisTomas PačėsasArvydas SabonisSaulius ŠtombergasRytis VaišvilaEurelijus ŽukauskasMindaugas Žukauskas 2000 Sydney Shareef Abdur-RahimRay AllenVin BakerVince CarterKevin GarnettTim HardawayAllan HoustonJason KiddAntonio McDyessAlonzo MourningGary PaytonSteve Smith Jim BilbaYann BonatoMakan DioumassiLaurent FoirestThierry GadouCyril JulianCrawford PalmerAntoine RigaudeauStéphane RisacherLaurent SciarraMoustapha SonkoFrédéric Weis Dainius AdomaitisGintaras EinikisAudrius GiedraitisŠarūnas JasikevičiusKęstutis MarčiulionisDarius MaskoliūnasTomas MasiulisRamūnas ŠiškauskasDarius SongailaSaulius ŠtombergasMindaugas TiminskasEurelijus Žukauskas 2004 Athens Carlos DelfinoGabriel FernándezEmanuel GinóbiliLeonardo GutierrezWálter HerrmannAlejandro MontecchiaAndrés NocioniFabricio ObertoPepe SánchezLuis ScolaHugo SconochiniRubén Wolkowyski Gianluca BasileMassimo BulleriRoberto ChiacigGiacomo GalandaLuca GarriDenis MarconatoMichele MianGianmarco PozzeccoNikola RadulovićAlex RighettiRodolfo RombaldoniMatteo Soragna Carmelo AnthonyCarlos BoozerTim DuncanAllen IversonLeBron JamesRichard JeffersonStephon MarburyShawn MarionLamar OdomEmeka OkaforAmare StoudemireDwyane Wade2008 BeijingCarlos BoozerJason KiddLeBron JamesDeron WilliamsMichael ReddDwyane WadeKobe BryantDwight HowardChris BoshChris PaulTayshaun PrinceCarmelo AnthonyPau GasolRudy FernándezRicky RubioJuan Carlos NavarroJosé CalderónFelipe ReyesCarlos JiménezRaül LópezBerni RodríguezMarc GasolÁlex MumbrúJorge GarbajosaCarlos DelfinoManu GinóbiliRomán GonzálezLeonardo GutiérrezJuan Pedro GutiérrezFederico KammerichsAndrés NocioniFabricio ObertoAntonio PortaPablo PrigioniPaolo QuinterosLuis Scola Women 1976 Montreal Olga BaryshevaTamara DaunienėNatalya KlimovaTatyana OvechkinaAngelė RupšienėNadezhda ShuvayevaNadezhda ZakharovaUljana SemjonovaRaisa KurvyakovaNelli FeryabnikovaOlga SukharnovaTatiana Zakharova-Nadirova Cindy BrogdonSusan RojcewiczAnn MeyersLusia HarrisNancy DunkleCharlotte LewisNancy LiebermanGail MarquisPatricia RobertsMary Anne O’ConnorPatricia HeadJulienne Simpson Krasimira BogdanovaDiana DilovaKrasimira GyurovaPenka MetodievaSnezhana MikhaylovaGirgina SkerlatovaMariya StoyanovaMargarita ShtarkelovaPetkana MakaveevaNadka GolchevaPenka StoyanovaTodorka Yordanova 1980 Moscow Olga BaryshevaTatyana IvinskayaNelli FeryabnikovaVida BeselienėTatyana OvechkinaAngelė RupšienėLyubov SharmayUljana SemjonovaTatiana Zakharova-NadirovaOlga SukharnovaNadezhda ShuvayevaLyudmila Rogozhina Krasimira BogdanovaVanya DermendzhievaSilviya GermanovaPetkana MakaveevaNadka GolchevaPenka StoyanovaEvladiya SlavchevaKostadinka RadkovaSnezhana MikhaylovaAngelina MikhaylovaPenka MetodievaDiana Dilova Vera ĐuraškovićMersada BećirspahićJelica KomnenovićMira BjedovVukica MitićSanja OžegovićSofija PekićMarija TonkovićZorica ĐurkovićVesna DespotovićBiljana MajstorovićJasmina Perazić 1984 Los Angeles Teresa EdwardsLea HenryLynette WoodardAnne DonovanCathy BoswellCheryl MillerJanice LawrenceCindy NobleKim MulkeyDenise CurryPamela McGeeCarol Menken-Schaudt Aei-Young ChoiEun-Sook KimHyung-Sook LeeKyung-Hee ChoiMi-Ja LeeKyung-Ja MoonHwa-Soon KimMyung-Hee JeongYoung-Hee KimJung-A SungChan-Sook Park Chen YuefangLi XiaoqinBa YanSong XiaoboQui ChenWang JunXiu LijuanZheng HaixiaCong XuediZhang HuiLiu QingZhang Yueqin 1988 Seoul Teresa EdwardsKamie EthridgeCynthia BrownAnne DonovanTeresa WeatherspoonBridgette GordonVicky BullettAndrea LloydKatrina McClainJennifer GillomCynthia CooperSuzanne McConnell Stojna VangelovskaMara LakićZana LelasEleonora WildKornelija KvesićDanira NakićSlađana GolićPolona DornikRazija MujanovićVesna BajkušaAselija ArbutinaBojana Milošević Olga BuryakinaYelena KhudashovaVitalija TuomaitėOlga YakovlevaGalina SavitskayaAleksandra LeonovaOlga YevkovaIrina SumnikovaIrina MinkhIrina GerlitsOlesya BarelNatalya Zasulskaya 1992 Barcelona Elen BunatyantsIrina SumnikovaMarina TkachenkoIrina MinkhIrina GerlitsSvetlana ZaboluyevaNatalya ZasulskayaYelena ZhirkoYelena TornikiduYelena ShvaybovichYelena KhudashovaYelena Baranova Cong XuediHe JunLi DongmeiLi XinLiu JunLiu QingPeng PingWang FangZhan ShupingZheng DongmeiZheng Haixia Vicky BullettDaedra CharlesCynthia CooperClarissa DavisMedina DixonTeresa EdwardsTammy JacksonCarolyn JonesKatrina McClainSuzanne McConnellVickie OrrTeresa Weatherspoon 1996 Atlanta Jennifer AzziRuthie BoltonTeresa EdwardsVenus LacyLisa LeslieRebecca LoboKatrina McClainNikki McCrayCarla McGheeDawn StaleyKaty StedingSheryl Swoopes Roseli GustavoMarta SobralSilvinhaAlessandra OliveiraCintia SantosClaudia Maria PastorHortência MarcariAdriana SantosMaria AngelicaJaneth ArcainMaria Paula SilvaLeila Sobral Robyn MaherRachael SpornMichele TimmsMichelle BroganTrisha FallonAllison CookCarla BoydSandy BrondelloShelley SandieFiona RobinsonMichelle Chandler 2000 Sydney Teresa EdwardsYolanda GriffithChamique HoldsclawRuthie BoltonLisa LeslieNikki McCrayDeLisha Milton-JonesKatie SmithDawn StaleySheryl SwoopesNatalie WilliamsKara Wolters Carla BoydSandy BrondelloTrisha FallonMichelle GriffithsKristi HarrowerJo HillLauren JacksonAnnie La FleurShelley SandieRachael SpornMichele TimmsJennifer Whittle Janeth ArcainIlisaine Karin DavidLilian Cristin ConcalvesHelen LuzSilvinhaCláudia das NevesAlessandra OliveiraAdriana Moisés PintoAdriana SantosCintia SantosKelly SantosMarta Sobral 2004 Athens Sue BirdSwin CashTamika CatchingsYolanda GriffithShannon JohnsonLisa LeslieRuth RileyKatie SmithDawn StaleySheryl SwoopesDiana TaurasiTina Thompson Suzy BatkovicSandy BrondelloTrisha FallonKristi HarrowerLauren JacksonNatalie PorterAlicia PotoBelinda SnellRachael SpornLaura SummertonPenny TaylorAllison Tranquilli Anna ArkhipovaOlga ArteshinaYelena BaranovaDiana GoustilinaMaria KalmykovaElena KarpovaIlona KorstinIrina OsipovaOxana RakhmatulinaTatiana ShchegolevaMaria StepanovaNatalia Vodopyanova2008 BeijingSeimone AugustusSue BirdTamika CatchingsSylvia FowlesKara LawsonLisa LeslieDeLisha Milton-JonesCandace ParkerCappie PondexterKatie SmithDiana TaurasiTina ThompsonErin PhillipsTully BevilaquaJennifer ScreenPenny TaylorSuzy BatkovicHollie GrimaKristi HarrowerLaura SummertonBelinda SnellEmma RandallRohanee CoxLauren JacksonMarina KuzinaOxana RakhmatulinaNatalia VodopyanovaBecky HammonMarina KarpuninaTatiana ShchegolevaIlona KorstinMaria StepanovaYekaterina LisinaIrina SokolovskayaSvetlana AbrosimovaIrina Osipova Athlete medal leaders Rank Athlete Nation OlympicsGoldSilverBronze Total 1 1984–2000 4 0 1 5 2 1996–2008 4 0 0 4 3 1960–1972 1 2 1 4 4 1968–1980 1 0 3 4 5 1996–2004 3 0 0 3 6 1996–2004 3 0 0 3 7 2000–2008 3 0 0 3 Notes The United States have not accepted their medals after a protest about the replays of the game. References General Specific External links Basketball: Men's Basketball at sports-reference.com Basketball: Women's Basketball at sports-reference.com | List_of_Olympic_medalists_in_basketball |@lemmatized basketball:14 sport:3 contest:1 summer:7 olympic:5 game:6 men:6 tournament:3 first:3 hold:4 olympics:11 demonstration:1 every:3 since:3 gold:8 medal:13 match:1 controversy:1 final:1 united:7 state:7 soviet:5 union:4 controversial:1 one:5 end:1 replayed:2 twice:1 win:10 would:1 u:1 file:1 formal:1 protest:3 reject:1 international:2 federation:1 fiba:1 result:1 refuse:1 accept:2 silver:2 reclaim:1 war:1 afghanistan:1 boycott:3 moscow:3 respond:1 lead:1 cite:1 security:1 concern:1 affect:1 successful:2 team:4 time:3 committee:2 ioc:1 decide:1 allow:2 professional:1 athlete:4 compete:1 start:1 national:2 association:1 nba:1 player:1 participate:1 woman:7 event:1 teresa:4 edward:3 leader:3 four:4 bronze:3 three:5 lisa:1 leslie:3 gennadi:1 volnov:2 two:2 sergei:1 belov:2 consecutive:1 five:1 american:1 katie:1 smith:2 dawn:1 staley:1 sheryl:1 swoopes:1 nineteen:1 include:2 previously:1 mention:1 olympiad:1 except:1 brazil:1 australia:1 color:1 award:1 berlin:1 sam:1 balter:1 ralph:1 bishop:1 joe:1 fortenberry:1 tex:1 gibbon:1 francis:1 johnson:1 carl:2 knowles:1 frank:1 lubin:1 art:2 mollner:1 donald:1 piper:1 jack:1 ragland:1 willard:1 schmidt:1 shy:1 duane:1 swanson:1 bill:1 wheatley:1 gordon:1 aitchison:1 ian:1 allison:1 chapman:2 chuck:1 dawson:1 irving:1 meretsky:1 doug:1 peden:1 james:1 stewart:1 malcolm:1 wiseman:1 carlos:4 borja:1 víctor:1 borjarodolfo:1 choperena:1 luis:2 de:7 la:3 vega:1 raúl:1 fernández:1 andrés:1 gómezsilvio:1 hernández:1 francisco:1 martínez:1 jesús:1 olmos:1 josé:2 pamplona:1 greer:1 skousen:1 london:1 cliff:1 barkerdon:1 barksdaleralph:1 beardlew:1 beckvince:1 borylagordon:1 carpenteralex:1 grozawah:1 wah:1 jonesbob:1 kurlandray:1 lumpprobert:1 pittsjesse:1 renickjackie:1 robinsonkenny:1 rollins:1 andré:1 barraismichel:1 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5,189 | Endocarditis | Endocarditis is an inflammation of the inner layer of the heart, the endocardium. It usually involves the heart valves (native or prosthetic valves). Other structures which may be involved include the interventricular septum, the chordae tendinae, the mural endocardium, or even on intracardiac devices. Endocarditis is characterized by a prototypic lesion, the vegetation, which is a mass of platelets, fibrin, microcolonies of microorganisms, and scant inflammatory cells. In the subacute form of infective endocarditis, the vegetation may also include a center of granulomatous tissue, which may fibrose or calcify. There are multiple ways to classify endocarditis. The simplest classification is based on etiology: either infective or non-infective, depending on whether a microorganism is the source of the inflammation. Regardless, diagnosis of endocarditis is based on the clinical features, investigations such as echocardiogram, as well as any blood cultures demonstrating the presence of endocarditis-causing microorganisms. Infective endocarditis Since the valves of the heart do not receive any dedicated blood supply, defensive immune mechanisms (such as white blood cells) cannot directly reach the valves via the bloodstream. If an organism (such as bacteria) attaches to a valve surface and forms a vegetation, the host immune response is blunted. The lack of blood supply to the valves also has implications on treatment, since drugs also have difficulty reaching the infected valve. Normally, blood flows smoothly through these valves. If they have been damaged (from rheumatic fever, for example) the risk of bacteria attachment is increased. Non-infective endocarditis Nonbacterial thrombic endocarditis (NBTE) or marantic endocarditis is most commonly found on previously undamaged valves. As opposed to infective endocarditis, the vegetations in NBTE are small, sterile, and tend to aggregate along the edges of the valve or the cusps. Also unlike infective endocarditis, NBTE does not cause an inflammation response from the body. NBTE usually occurs during a hypercoagulable state such as system wide bacterial infection, or pregnancy, though it is also sometimes seen in patients with venous catheters. NBTE may also occur in patients with cancers, particularly mucinous adenocarcinoma. Typically NBTE does not cause many problems on its own, but parts of the vegetations may break off and embolize to the heart or brain, or they may serve as a focus where bacteria can lodge, thus causing infective endocarditis. Another form of sterile endocarditis, which is fairly rare, is termed Libman-Sacks endocarditis; this form occurs more often in patients with lupus erythematosus and is thought to be due to the deposition of immune complexes. Like NBTE, Libman-Sacks endocarditis involves small vegetations, while infective endocarditis is composed of large vegetations. These immune complexes precipitate an inflammation reaction, which helps to differentiate it from NBTE. Also unlike NBTE, Libman-Sacks endocarditis does not seem to have a preferred location of deposition and may form on the undersurfaces of the valves or even on the endocardium. References External links Endocarditis information from Seattle Children's Hospital Heart Center | Endocarditis |@lemmatized endocarditis:19 inflammation:4 inner:1 layer:1 heart:5 endocardium:3 usually:2 involve:3 valves:1 native:1 prosthetic:1 valve:10 structure:1 may:7 include:2 interventricular:1 septum:1 chordae:1 tendinae:1 mural:1 even:2 intracardiac:1 device:1 characterize:1 prototypic:1 lesion:1 vegetation:7 mass:1 platelet:1 fibrin:1 microcolonies:1 microorganism:3 scant:1 inflammatory:1 cell:2 subacute:1 form:5 infective:9 also:7 center:2 granulomatous:1 tissue:1 fibrose:1 calcify:1 multiple:1 way:1 classify:1 simple:1 classification:1 base:2 etiology:1 either:1 non:2 depend:1 whether:1 source:1 regardless:1 diagnosis:1 clinical:1 feature:1 investigation:1 echocardiogram:1 well:1 blood:5 culture:1 demonstrate:1 presence:1 cause:4 since:2 receive:1 dedicated:1 supply:2 defensive:1 immune:4 mechanism:1 white:1 cannot:1 directly:1 reach:2 via:1 bloodstream:1 organism:1 bacteria:3 attache:1 surface:1 host:1 response:2 blunt:1 lack:1 implication:1 treatment:1 drug:1 difficulty:1 infected:1 normally:1 flow:1 smoothly:1 damage:1 rheumatic:1 fever:1 example:1 risk:1 attachment:1 increase:1 nonbacterial:1 thrombic:1 nbte:9 marantic:1 commonly:1 find:1 previously:1 undamaged:1 oppose:1 small:2 sterile:2 tend:1 aggregate:1 along:1 edge:1 cusp:1 unlike:2 body:1 occur:3 hypercoagulable:1 state:1 system:1 wide:1 bacterial:1 infection:1 pregnancy:1 though:1 sometimes:1 see:1 patient:3 venous:1 catheter:1 cancer:1 particularly:1 mucinous:1 adenocarcinoma:1 typically:1 many:1 problem:1 part:1 break:1 embolize:1 brain:1 serve:1 focus:1 lodge:1 thus:1 another:1 fairly:1 rare:1 term:1 libman:3 sack:3 often:1 lupus:1 erythematosus:1 think:1 due:1 deposition:2 complex:2 like:1 compose:1 large:1 precipitate:1 reaction:1 help:1 differentiate:1 seem:1 preferred:1 location:1 undersurface:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 information:1 seattle:1 child:1 hospital:1 |@bigram infective_endocarditis:7 immune_response:1 rheumatic_fever:1 bacterial_infection:1 lupus_erythematosus:1 external_link:1 |
5,190 | Elizabeth_Garrett_Anderson | Dr. Elizabeth Garrett Anderson, LSA, MD (June 9 1836 – December 17 1917), was an English physician and feminist, the first woman to gain a medical qualification in Britain. Biography Garrett was the daughter of Newson Garrett, of Aldeburgh, Suffolk, where she was born in 1836, and the sister of Millicent Fawcett. She was also the cousin of Elizabeth Dunnell who married Richard Garrett III the famous owner of Richard Garrett & Sons. Elizabeth was educated at home and at a private school. In 1860 she resolved to study medicine, an almost unheard-of thing for a woman at that time, and regarded by some as almost indecent. Having obtained some more or less irregular instruction at the Middlesex Hospital, London, she was refused admission as a full student both there and at many other medical schools to which she applied. Finally she studied anatomy privately at the London Hospital, and with some of the professors at the University of St Andrews, and at the Edinburgh Extra-Mural school. She had no less difficulty in gaining a qualifying diploma to practice medicine. London University, the Royal Colleges of Physicians and Surgeons, and many other examining bodies refused to admit her to their examinations; but in the end the Society of Apothecaries allowed her to enter for the Licence of Apothecaries' Hall, which she obtained in 1865. This entitled her to have her name entered on the medical register, the second woman after Elizabeth Blackwell, and the first woman qualified in Britain to do so. In 1866 she was appointed general medical attendant to St Mary's Dispensary, a London institution started to enable poor women to obtain medical help from qualified practitioners of their own sex. The dispensary soon developed into the New Hospital for Women, and there Dr Garrett worked for over twenty years. In 1870 she obtained the University of Paris degree of MD, three months after Frances Hoggan obtained that qualification. BBC - Mid Wales Brecon Life - Pioneering Physician The same year she was elected to the first London School Board, at the head of the poll for Marylebone, and was also made one of the visiting physicians of the East London Hospital for Children; but the duties of these two positions she found to be incompatible with her principal work, and she soon resigned them. She also built a medical school for women. In 1871 she married James George Skelton Anderson (d. 1907) of the Orient Steamship Company co-owned by his uncle Arthur Anderson, but she did not give up her practice. She had three children, Louisa, Margaret who died of meningitis, and Alan. Louisa also became a pioneering doctor of medicine and social campaigner. In 1873 she gained membership of the British Medical Association and remained the only woman member for 19 years, due to the Association's vote against the admission of further women — "one of several instances where Garrett, uniquely, was able to enter a hitherto all male medical institution which subsequently moved formally to exclude any women who might seek to follow her." M. A. Elston, "Anderson, Elizabeth Garrett (1836–1917)", Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, Sept 2004; online edn, Oct 2005 accessed 4 Feb 2007 Elizabeth worked steadily at the development of the New Hospital for Women, and (from 1874) at the creation of the London School of Medicine for Women. Both institutions have since been handsomely and suitably housed and equipped, the New hospital for Women (in the Euston Road) for many years being worked entirely by medical women, and the schools (in Hunter Street, WC1) having over 200 students, most of them preparing for the medical degree of London University (the present-day University College London), which was opened to women in 1877. In 1897 Dr Garrett Anderson was elected president of the East Anglian branch of the British Medical Association. On 9 November 1908 she was elected mayor of Aldeburgh, the first female mayor in England. The movement for the admission of women to the medical profession, of which Dr Anderson was the indefatigable pioneer in England, extended in her lifetime to all of North America and Europe, except for Spain and Turkey. She died in 1917 and is buried in Aldeburgh. Notes: The New Hospital for Women was renamed the Elizabeth Garrett Anderson Hospital in 1918 and amalgamated with the Obstetric Hospital in 2001 to form the Elizabeth Garrett Anderson and Obstetric Hospital UCLH - Our hospitals - Elizabeth Garrett Anderson and Obstetric Hospital . She took part in the Suffrage movement. In 1861 Elizabeth visited her family accompanied by her friend Emily Davies. Sitting by the fireside with her sister Millicent they selected careers for advancing the frontiers of women's rights, Elizabeth took Medicine, Emily took education, and 13 year old Milly was allocated politics and votes for women. Leslie Abdella, BBC Radio 4 / Great Lives See also History of feminism London School of Medicine for Women Sophia Jex-Blake Women in medicine Sources M. A. Elston, "Anderson, Elizabeth Garrett (1836–1917)", Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, Sept 2004; online edn, Oct 2005 accessed 4 Feb 2007 Manton, Jo. Elizabeth Garrett Anderson: England's first woman physician. Methuen, London 1965 Long, Tony, "Sept. 28, 1865: England Gets Its First Woman Physician, the Hard Way, Wired.com, Wired Magazine, September 272007. References External links Elizabeth Garrett Anderson BBC page on Elizabeth Garrett Anderson Picture of The United Elizabeth Garrett Anderson Hospital and Hospital for Women Soho, near Euston Station in London. | Elizabeth_Garrett_Anderson |@lemmatized dr:4 elizabeth:16 garrett:17 anderson:14 lsa:1 md:2 june:1 december:1 english:1 physician:6 feminist:1 first:6 woman:24 gain:3 medical:12 qualification:2 britain:2 biography:3 daughter:1 newson:1 aldeburgh:3 suffolk:1 bear:1 sister:2 millicent:2 fawcett:1 also:5 cousin:1 dunnell:1 marry:2 richard:2 iii:1 famous:1 owner:1 son:1 educate:1 home:1 private:1 school:8 resolve:1 study:2 medicine:7 almost:2 unheard:1 thing:1 time:1 regard:1 indecent:1 obtain:5 less:2 irregular:1 instruction:1 middlesex:1 hospital:14 london:12 refused:1 admission:3 full:1 student:2 many:3 apply:1 finally:1 anatomy:1 privately:1 professor:1 university:7 st:2 andrew:1 edinburgh:1 extra:1 mural:1 difficulty:1 qualify:2 diploma:1 practice:2 royal:1 college:2 surgeon:1 examine:1 body:1 refuse:1 admit:1 examination:1 end:1 society:1 apothecary:2 allow:1 enter:3 licence:1 hall:1 entitle:1 name:1 register:1 second:1 blackwell:1 appoint:1 general:1 attendant:1 mary:1 dispensary:2 institution:3 start:1 enable:1 poor:1 help:1 qualified:1 practitioner:1 sex:1 soon:2 develop:1 new:4 work:4 twenty:1 year:5 paris:1 degree:2 three:2 month:1 france:1 hoggan:1 bbc:3 mid:1 wale:1 brecon:1 life:2 pioneering:2 elect:3 board:1 head:1 poll:1 marylebone:1 make:1 one:2 visit:2 east:2 child:2 duty:1 two:1 position:1 find:1 incompatible:1 principal:1 resign:1 build:1 james:1 george:1 skelton:1 orient:1 steamship:1 company:1 co:1 uncle:1 arthur:1 give:1 louisa:2 margaret:1 die:2 meningitis:1 alan:1 become:1 doctor:1 social:1 campaigner:1 membership:1 british:2 association:3 remain:1 member:1 due:1 vote:2 several:1 instance:1 uniquely:1 able:1 hitherto:1 male:1 subsequently:1 move:1 formally:1 exclude:1 might:1 seek:1 follow:1 elston:2 oxford:4 dictionary:2 national:2 press:2 sept:3 online:2 edn:2 oct:2 access:2 feb:2 steadily:1 development:1 creation:1 since:1 handsomely:1 suitably:1 house:1 equip:1 euston:2 road:1 entirely:1 hunter:1 street:1 prepare:1 present:1 day:1 open:1 president:1 anglian:1 branch:1 november:1 mayor:2 female:1 england:4 movement:2 profession:1 indefatigable:1 pioneer:1 extend:1 lifetime:1 north:1 america:1 europe:1 except:1 spain:1 turkey:1 bury:1 note:1 rename:1 amalgamate:1 obstetric:3 form:1 uclh:1 take:3 part:1 suffrage:1 family:1 accompany:1 friend:1 emily:2 davy:1 sit:1 fireside:1 select:1 career:1 advance:1 frontier:1 right:1 education:1 old:1 milly:1 allocate:1 politics:1 leslie:1 abdella:1 radio:1 great:1 see:1 history:1 feminism:1 sophia:1 jex:1 blake:1 source:1 manton:1 jo:1 methuen:1 long:1 tony:1 get:1 hard:1 way:1 wire:2 com:1 magazine:1 september:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 page:1 picture:1 united:1 soho:1 near:1 station:1 |@bigram elizabeth_garrett:10 garrett_anderson:9 physician_surgeon:1 east_anglian:1 external_link:1 |
5,191 | Mars_Direct | Mars Direct is a proposal for a relatively low-cost manned mission to Mars with current rocket technology. The plan was originally detailed in a research paper by Robert Zubrin and David Baker in 1990. The mission was expanded upon in Zubrin's 1996 book The Case for Mars. The plan is now a staple of Zubrin's speaking engagements and general advocacy as head of the Mars Society, an organization devoted to the colonization of Mars, and has been released in video format. The proposal The plan involves launching an unmanned "Earth Return Vehicle" (ERV) directly from Earth's surface to Mars using a heavy-lift booster derived from Space Shuttle components. The booster is no bigger than the Saturn V used for the Apollo missions. Several launches are made in preparation for the manned mission. The first of these launches the ERV, a supply of hydrogen, a chemical plant and a small nuclear reactor. Once there, a relatively simple set of chemical reactions (the Sabatier reaction coupled with electrolysis) would combine a small amount of hydrogen carried by the ERV with the carbon dioxide of the Martian atmosphere to create up to 112 tonnes of methane and oxygen propellants, 96 tonnes of which would be needed to return the ERV to Earth at the end of the mission. This process would take approximately ten months to complete. Some 26 months after the ERV is originally launched from Earth, a second vehicle, the "Mars Habitat Unit" (MHU), would be launched on a high-energy transfer to Mars carrying a crew of four. This vehicle would take some six months to reach Mars. During the trip, artificial gravity would be generated by tying the spent upper stage of the booster to the Habitat Unit, and setting them both rotating about a common axis. On reaching Mars, the spent upper stage would be jettisoned, with the Habitat Unit aerobraking into Mars orbit before soft-landing in proximity to the ERV. Once on Mars, the crew would spend 18 months on the surface, carrying out a range of scientific research, aided by a small rover vehicle carried aboard their MHU, and powered by excess methane produced by the ERV. To return, they would use the ERV, leaving the MHU for the possible use of subsequent explorers. The propulsion stage of the ERV would be used as a counterweight to generate artificial gravity for the trip back. The initial cost estimate for Mars Direct was put at $55 billion, to be paid over ten years. Components Earth Return Vehicle The ERV is a two-stage vehicle. The upper stage comprises the living accommodation for the crew during their six-month return trip to Earth from Mars. The lower stage contains the vehicle's rocket engines and a small chemical production plant. Round trip payload Crew compartment 7,100 kg Reaction control system 400 kg Biconic brake 2,450 kg Stage 1(dry) 6,330 kg Stage 2 (dry) 1,770 kg Mars-bound payload Hydrogen for propellant production 5,810 kg SP-100 Reactor 4,500 kg Earth-bound payload Crew 450 kg Suits 300 kg Consumables (dry food) 2,000 kg Soil Samples 150 kg Stage 1 propulsion system Usable propellant (methane / oxygen) 70,160 kg Dry mass 8,850 kg Total engine thrust <td>85,237 kgf (835.89 kN) Specific impulse 373 s (3.65 kN·s/kg) Stage 2 propulsion system Usable propellant (methane / oxygen) 25,000 kg Dry mass 2,560 kg Total engine thrust 9,059 kgf (88.84 kN) Specific impulse 373 s (3.65 kN·s/kg) Mars Habitat Unit The MHU is a 2- or 3-deck vehicle, providing a comprehensive living and working environment for a Mars crew. As well as individual sleeping quarters which provide a degree of privacy for each of the crew and a place for personal effects, the MHU includes a communal living area, a small galley, exercise area, and hygiene facilities. The lower deck of the MHU provides the primary working space for the crew: small laboratory areas for carrying out geology and life science research; storage space for samples, airlocks for reaching the surface of Mars, and a suiting-up area where crew members prepare for surface operations. The MHU also includes a small pressurized rover that is stored in the lower deck area and assembled on the surface of Mars. Powered by a small methane engine, this is designed to extend the range over which astronauts can explore the surface of Mars. Protection from harmful radiation while in space and on the surface of Mars (e.g. from solar flares) is provided by a dedicated "storm shelter" in the core of the vehicle. Since it was first proposed as a part of Mars Direct, the MHU has been adopted by NASA as a part of their Mars Design Reference Mission, which utilizes two MHUs - one of which flies to Mars unmanned, providing a dedicated laboratory facility on Mars, together with the capacity to carry a larger rover vehicle. The second MHU flies to Mars with the crew, its interior given over completely to living / storage space. To prove the viability of the MHU, the Mars Society has implemented the Mars Analogue Research Station Programme (MARS), which has established a number of prototype MHUs around the world. <table width="49%" cellspacing="1" cellpadding="1"> Round Trip Payload Tonnes Main Structure 8.52 Decks 6.00 Airlock / Radiation Shelter 1.82 0.30 </tr> Furniture 0.50 Science Equipment 1.00 Exercise and Health 0.20 Plumbing and Lighting 1.00 Replacement Air (3 charges) 0.81 Solar Panels 0.25 Life Support System 4.00 Consumables for Crew 11.76 Crew of 6 0.45 Personal Effects 0.70 Spacesuits 0.30 Pressurized Rover 2.00 Deployed Surface Science 0.40 Contingency 5.00 Total 45.41 </table> Revisions Since Mars Direct was initially conceived, it has undergone considerable review and development by Zubrin himself, the Mars Society, NASA and Stanford University, and others. Zubrin and Weaver developed a modified version of Mars Direct, called Mars Semi-Direct, in response to some specific criticisms R. Zubrin and D. Weaver "Practical methods for near-term piloted Mars missions". AIAA93-2089,29th AIAA/ASME Joint Propulsion Conference, Monterrey CA, United States, June 28-30th, 1993 . The mission consists of two spacecraft, one of which remains in Mars orbit, and propellants are only manufactured for use by a small ascent craft to reach Mars orbit, rather than for the entire return journey. The Mars Semi-Direct architecture has been used as the basis of a number of studies, including the NASA Design Reference Missions. The NASA model, referred to as the Design Reference Mission, currently on version 5.0, calls for a significant upgrade in hardware (up to 3 launches per mission, not two), and sends the ERV to Mars fully fuelled, parking it in orbit above the planet, where it is reached by a small ascent craft. The Mars Society and Stanford studies retain the original 2-vehicle mission profile of Mars Direct, but increase the crew size to six. Mars Society Australia developed their own four-person Mars Oz reference mission, based on Mars Semi-Direct. This study uses horizontally landing, bent biconic shaped modules, and relies on solar power and chemical propulsion throughout D.Willson and J.D.A Clarke "A Practical Architecture for Exploration-Focused Manned Mars Missions Using Chemical Propulsion, Solar Power Generation and In-Situ Resource Utilisation." Proceedings of the 6th Australian Space Science Conference,p.186-211, 2006 . This is in contrast to Mars Direct and the DRMs, which used nuclear reactors for surface power and, in the case of the DRMs for propulsion as well. The Mars Oz reference mission also differs from Mars Direct in assuming, based on space station experience, that spin gravity will not been required. The Mars Society has argued the viability of the Mars Habitat Unit concept through their Mars Analogue Research Station program. These are two or three decked vertical cylinders ~8 m in diameter and 8 m high. Mars Society Australia plans to build its own station based on the Mars Oz design Mars Society Australia Mars-Oz web site http://www.marssociety.org.au/marsoz.php . The Mars Oz design features a horizontal cylinder 4.7 m in diameter and 18 m long, with a tapered nose. A second similar module will function as a garage and power and logistics module. Mars Direct was featured on a Discovery Channel programs Mars: The Next Frontier in which were discussed, in part, issues surrounding NASA funding of the project, and on Mars Underground, where the plan is discussed more in-depth. Currently NASA is in the final stages of implementing a modified Mars Direct approach to both Lunar and Martian exploration. Zubrin's ultimate goal of a fully terraformed and colonized Mars is a long-term, multigenerational goal, but eventually, if NASA's 30 year architecture is carried to fruition, that end might be seen as plausible. A modified proposal, "Mars for Less" , was developed by Grant Bonin and has been adopted as the design reference mission for a new umbrella group of advocates, the MarsDrive consortium . The design retains most of the essential features of Mars Direct, but uses multiple medium-lift rocket launchers that are commercially available today (such as the Ariane V or the Delta rocket) to launch the crew vehicles, and their propulsion, separately, and mate them in orbit. By doing so, the multi-billion dollar development cost of a new launch vehicle is avoided. A modified proposal has also been offered by Dean Unick, to not return the first immigrant/explorers immediately, or ever. According to Unick, the cost of sending a four or six person team is one fifth to one tenth the cost of returning that same four or six person team. A quite complete lab can be sent and landed for less than the cost of sending back even 50 kilos of rocks. Twenty or more persons can be sent for the cost of returning four. In fiction Mars Direct is the mission mode used in Gregory Benford's novel, The Martian Race, and in Geoffrey A. Landis's novel Mars Crossing, as well as Zubrin's own novel, First Landing. Mars Direct forms the basis for the 2000 film Mission to Mars. In the Futurama episode "The Luck of the Fryrish", a short clip shows the first man on Mars with a spacecraft that resembles the Mars Habitat Unit. In the West Wing episode "The Warfare of Genghis Khan", a NASA staffer describes Mars Direct to the skeptical White House Deputy Chief of Staff Josh Lyman and is able to convince him of its merit. Both Mars Direct and Mars for Less concepts figure prominently in Brian Enke's 2004 novel, Shadows of Medusa. A Mars Direct scheme is used in Larry Niven's novel Rainbow Mars. A Mars Direct scheme is used in Robert M. Blevins' 2005 novel The 13th Day of Christmas. See also TMK Manned mission to Mars Zubrin, Baker. (1990). "Mars Direct, Humans to the Red Planet by 1999." 41st Congress of the International Astronautical Federation The Case for Mars In-Situ Resource Utilization References External links The Mars Society MarsDrive | Mars_Direct |@lemmatized mar:78 direct:21 proposal:4 relatively:2 low:4 cost:7 man:3 mission:19 current:1 rocket:4 technology:1 plan:5 originally:2 detail:1 research:5 paper:1 robert:2 zubrin:9 david:1 baker:2 expand:1 upon:1 book:1 case:3 staple:1 speaking:1 engagement:1 general:1 advocacy:1 head:1 society:9 organization:1 devote:1 colonization:1 release:1 video:1 format:1 involve:1 launch:8 unmanned:2 earth:7 return:9 vehicle:13 erv:11 directly:1 surface:9 use:14 heavy:1 lift:2 booster:3 derive:1 space:7 shuttle:1 component:2 big:1 saturn:1 v:2 apollo:1 several:1 make:1 preparation:1 manned:2 first:5 supply:1 hydrogen:3 chemical:5 plant:2 small:10 nuclear:2 reactor:3 simple:1 set:2 reaction:3 sabatier:1 couple:1 electrolysis:1 would:10 combine:1 amount:1 carry:7 carbon:1 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5,192 | Learning_theory_(education) | In psychology and education, a common definition of learning is a process that brings together cognitive, emotional, and environmental influences and experiences for acquiring, enhancing, or making changes in one's knowledge, skills, values, and world views (Illeris,2000; Ormorod, 1995). Learning as a process focuses on what happens when the learning takes place. Explanations of what happens constitute learning theories. A learning theory is an attempt to describe how people and animals learn, thereby helping us understand the inherently complex process of learning. Learning theories have two chief values according to Hill(2002). One is in providing us with vocabulary and a conceptual framework for interpreting the examples of learning that we observe. The other is in suggesting where to look for solutions to practical problems. The theories do not give us solutions, but they do direct our attention to those variables that are crucial in finding solutions. There are three main categories or philosophical frameworks under which learning theories fall: behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism. Behaviorism focuses only on the objectively observable aspects of learning. Cognitive theories look beyond behavior to explain brain-based learning. And constructivism views learning as a process in which the learner actively constructs or builds new ideas or concepts. Behaviorism Behavorism as a theory was most developed by B. F. Skinner. It loosely includes the work of such people as Thorndike, Tolman, Guthrie, and Hull. What characterizes these investigators is their underlying assumptions about the process of learning. In essence, three basic assumptions are held to be true. First, learning is manifested by a change in behavior. Second, the environment shapes behavior. And third, the principles of contiguity (how close in time, two events must be for a bond to be formed ) and reinforcement (any means of increasing the likelihood that an event will be repeated ) are central to explaining the learning process. For behaviorism, learning is the acquisition of new behavior through conditioning. There are two types of possible conditioning: 1) Classical conditioning, where the behavior becomes a reflex response to stimulus as in the case of Pavlov's Dogs. Pavlov was interested in studying reflexes, when he saw that the dogs drooled without the proper stimulus. Although no food was in sight, their saliva still dribbled. It turned out that the dogs were reacting to lab coats. Every time the dogs were served food, the person who served the food was wearing a lab coat. Therefore, the dogs reacted as if food was on its way whenever they saw a lab coat.In a series of experiments, Pavlov then tried to figure out how these phenomena were linked. For example, he struck a bell when the dogs were fed. If the bell was sounded in close association with their meal, the dogs learned to associate the sound of the bell with food. After a while, at the mere sound of the bell, they responded by drooling. 2) Operant conditioning where there is reinforcement of the behavior by a reward or a punishment. The theory of operant conditioning was developed by B.F. Skinner and is known as Radical Behaviorism. The word ‘operant’ refers to the way in which behavior ‘operates on the environment’. Briefly, a behavior may result either in reinforcement, which increases the likelihood of the behavior recurring, or punishment, which decreases the likelihood of the behavior recurring. It is important to note that, a punisher is not considered to be punishment if it does not result in the reduction of the behavior, and so the terms punishment and reinforcement are determined as a result of the actions. Within this framework, behaviorists are particularly interested in measurable changes in behavior. Educational approaches such as applied behavior analysis, curriculum based measurement, and direct instruction have emerged from this model. Cognitivism The earliest challenge to the behavorists came in a publication in 1929 by Bode, a Gestalt psychologist. He criticized behaviorists for being too dependent on overt behavior to explain learning. Gestalt psychologists proposed looking at the patterns rather than isolated events. Gestalts views of learning have been incorporated into what have come to be labeled cognitive theories. Two key assumptions underlie this cognitive approach:(1) that the memory system is an active organized processor of information and (2) that prior knowledge plays an important role in learning. Cognitive theories look beyond behavior to explain brain-based learning. Cognitivists consider how human memory works to promote learning. For example, the physiological processes of sorting and encoding information and events into short term memory and long term memory are important to educators working under the cognitive theory. The major difference between Gestaltists and behaviorists is the locus of control over the learning activity . For Gestaltists it lies with the individual learner; for behaviorists it lies with the environment. Once memory theories like the Atkinson-Shiffrin memory model and Baddeley's Working memory model were established as a theoretical framework in Cognitive Psychology, new cognitive frameworks of learning began to emerge during the 1970s, 80s, and 90s. Today researchers are concentrating on topics like Cognitive load and Information Processing Theory. These theories of learning are very useful as they guide the Instructional design.. Aspects of cognitivism can be found in learning how to learn, social role acquisition, intelligence, learning and memory as related to age. Constructivism Constructivism views learning as a process in which the learner actively constructs or builds new ideas or concepts based upon current and past knowledge. In other words, "learning involves constructing one's own knowledge from one's own experiences." Constructivist learning, therefore, is a very personal endeavor, whereby internalized concepts, rules, and general principles may consequently be applied in a practical real-world context. This is also known as social constructivism (see social constructivism). Social constructivists posit that knowledge is constructed when individuals engage socially in talk and activity about shared problems or tasks. Learning is seen as the process by which individuals are introduced to a culture by more skilled members"(Driver et al., 1994) Constructivism itself has many variations, such as Active learning, discovery learning, and knowledge building. Regardless of the variety, constructivism promotes a student's free exploration within a given framework or structure.The teacher acts as a facilitator who encourages students to discover principles for themselves and to construct knowledge by working to solve realistic problems. Aspects of constructivism can be found in self-directed learning, transformational learning,experiential learning, situated cognition, and reflective practice. Informal and post-modern theories Informal theories of education deal with more practical breakdown of the learning process. One of these deals with whether learning should take place as a building of concepts toward an overall idea, or the understanding of the overall idea with the details filled in later. Modern thinkers favor the latter, though without any basis in real world research. Critics believe that trying to teach an overall idea without details (facts) is like trying to build a masonry structure without bricks. Other concerns are the origins of the drive for learning. To this end, many have split off from the mainstream holding that learning is a primarily self taught thing, and that the ideal learning situation is one that is self taught. According to this dogma, learning at its basic level is all self taught, and class rooms should be eliminated since they do not fit the perfect model of self learning. However, real world results indicate that isolated students fail. Social support seems crucial for sustained learning. Informal learning theory also concerns itself with book vs real-world experience learning. Many consider most schools severely lacking in the second. Newly emerging hybrid instructional models combining traditional classroom and computer enhanced instruction promise the best of both worlds. Other learning theories Other learning theories have also been developed. These learning theories may have a more specific purpose than general learning theories. For example, andragogy is the art and science to help adults learn. Connectivism is a recent theory of networked learning which focuses on learning as making connections Multimedia learning theory focuses on principles for the effective use of multimedia in learning. The Sudbury Model learning theory adduces that learning is a process you do, not a process that is done to you. This theory states that there are many ways to learn without the intervention of a teacher. Other interests Every well-constructed theory of education has at its center a philosophical anthropology. Theodora Polito, Educational Theory as Theory of Culture: A Vichian perspective on the educational theories of John Dewey and Kieran Egan Educational Philosophy and Theory, Vol. 37, No. 4, 2005 See also Instructional theory Instructional design Science, technology, society and environment education Andragogical learning theory Connectivism (learning theory) About accelerating the learning process spaced repetition incremental reading About the mechanisms of memory and learning: neural networks in the brain sleep and learning latent learning memory consolidation short-term memory versus working memory long-term memory declarative memory versus procedural memory the cerebellum and motor learning About learning theories related to classroom learning: Contemporary Educational Psychology/Chapter 2: The Learning Process Notes 2-Learning in Adulthood a comprehensive guide by Sharan B. Merriam, Rosemary S. Caffarella, and Lisa M.Baumgartner. Third edition External links Creating Learning Centered Classrooms. What Does Learning Theory Have To Say? ERIC Digest. How People Learn (and What Technology Might Have To Do with It). ERIC Digest. Critical-learning wiki Applied Constructivism About Learning 12 Learning Theories Described Theory Into Practice (TIP) database brief summaries of 50 major theories of learning and instruction Theory of Affirmation Teaching Folk knowledge and academic learning. In B. J. Ellis & D. F. Bjorklund (Eds.), Origins of the social mind (pp. 493-519). New York: Guilford Publications. A paper from the perspective of evolutionary developmental psychology Teaching in a Computer Lab Encyclopaedia of Informal Education | Learning_theory_(education) |@lemmatized psychology:4 education:5 common:1 definition:1 learning:32 process:14 bring:1 together:1 cognitive:9 emotional:1 environmental:1 influence:1 experience:3 acquire:1 enhance:2 make:2 change:3 one:6 knowledge:8 skill:1 value:2 world:6 view:4 illeris:1 ormorod:1 learn:47 focus:4 happen:2 take:2 place:2 explanation:1 constitute:1 theory:39 attempt:1 describe:2 people:3 animal:1 thereby:1 help:2 u:3 understand:1 inherently:1 complex:1 two:4 chief:1 accord:2 hill:1 provide:1 vocabulary:1 conceptual:1 framework:6 interpret:1 example:4 observe:1 suggest:1 look:4 solution:3 practical:3 problem:3 give:2 direct:3 attention:1 variable:1 crucial:2 find:3 three:2 main:1 category:1 philosophical:2 fall:1 behaviorism:5 cognitivism:3 constructivism:10 objectively:1 observable:1 aspect:3 beyond:2 behavior:15 explain:4 brain:3 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5,193 | Central_Plaza_(Hong_Kong) | Central Plaza is the second tallest skyscraper in Hong Kong. With a height of 374 m (1,227 ft), Central Plaza is only surpassed by 2 IFC (415 m / 1,362 ft) in Central. The building is located at 18 Harbour Road, in Wan Chai on Hong Kong Island. It was the tallest building in Asia from 1992 to 1996, until the Shun Hing Square in Shenzhen, People's Republic of China, was built. The 78-storey building was completed in August 1995. The building surpassed the Bank of China Tower as the tallest building in Hong Kong until the completion of 2IFC. Central Plaza was also the tallest reinforced concrete building in the world, until it was surpassed by CITIC Plaza, Guangzhou. The building uses a triangular floor plan. On the top of the tower is a four-bar neon clock that indicates the time by displaying different colors in 15 minute intervals, blinking at the change of the quarter. An anemometer is installed on the tip of the building's mast; the anemometer sits at 378 m (1,240 ft) above sea level. The mast has a height of 102 m (335 ft). It also houses the world's highest church--Hong Kong City Church. Design Main Lobby Central Plaza is made up of two principal components: a free standing 368 m (1,207 ft) high office tower and a 30.5 m (100 ft) high podium block attached to it. The tower is made up of three sections: a 30.5 m (100 ft) high tower base forming the main entrance and public circulation spaces; a 235.4 m (772 ft) tall tower body containing 57 office floors, a sky lobby and five mechanical plant floors; and the tower top consist of six mechanical plant floors and a 102 m (335 ft) tall tower mast. The ground level public area along with the public sitting out area form an 8,400 m² (90,400 sq ft) landscaped garden with fountain, trees and artificial stone paving. No commercial element is included in the podium. The first level is a public thoroughfare for three pedestrian bridges linking the Mass Transit Railway, the Convention and Exhibition Centre and the China Resource Building. By turning these space to public use, the building got 20% plot ratio more as bonus. The shape of the tower is not truly triangular but with its three corners cut off to provide better internal office spaces. Design constraints The Sky Lobby Triangular shaped floor plan The building was designed to be in triangular shape because it could provide 20% more of the office area to enjoy the harbour view as compared with the square or rectangular shaped buildings. From an architectural point of view, this arrangement could provide better floor area utilisation, offering an internal column-free office area with a clear depth of 9 to 13.4 metres and an overall usable floor area efficiency of 81%. Nonetheless, the triangular building plan causes the air handling unit (AHU) room in the internal core also to assume a triangular configuration with only limited space. This makes the adoption of a standard AHU not feasible. Furthermore, all air-conditioning ducting, electrical trunking and piping gathered inside the core area had to be squeezed into a very narrow and congested corridor ceiling void. Super high-rise building As the building is situated opposite to the HKCEC, the only way to get more sea view for the building and not be obstructed by the neighbouring high-rise buildings is to build it tall enough. However, a tall building brings a lot of difficulties to structural and building services design, for example, excessive system static pressure for water systems, high line voltage drop and long distance of vertical transportation. All these problems can increase the capital cost of the building systems and impair the safety operation of the building. Maximum clear ceiling height As a general practice, for achieving a clear height of 2.6 to 2.7 m (8.5 to 8.9 ft), a floor-to-floor height of 3.9 to 4.0 m (12.8 to 13.1 ft) would be required. However, because of high windload in Hong Kong for such a super high-rise building, every increase in building height by a metre would increase the structural cost by more than HK$1 million (HK$304,800 per ft). Therefore a comprehensive study was conducted and finally a floor height of 3.6 m (11.8 ft) was adopted. With this issue alone, an estimated construction cost saving for a total of 58 office floors, would be around HK$30 million. Yet at the same time, a maximum ceiling height of 2.6 m (8.5 ft) in office area could still be achieved with careful coordination and dedicated integration. Structural constraints Hong Kong City Church lounge area in the Apex The site is a newly reclaimed area with a maximum water table rises to about 2 meters (6.5 ft) below ground level. In the original brief, a 6 storey basement is required, therefore a diaphragm wall design came out. The keyword to this project is: time. With a briefing in a limited detail, the structural engineer needed to start work The diaphragm wall design allowed for the basement to be constructed by the top-down method. It allows the superstructure to be constructed at the same time as the basement, thereby removing time consuming basement construction period from the critical path. Wind loading is another major design criterion in Hong Kong as it is situated in an area influenced by typhoons. Not only must the structure be able to resist the loads generally and the cladding system and its fixings resist higher local loads, but the building must also perform dynamically in an acceptable manner such that predicted movements lie within acceptable standards of occupant comfort criteria. To ensure that all aspects of the building's performance in strong winds will be acceptable, a detailed wind tunnel study was carried out by Professor Alan Davenport at the BLWT at UWO. Steel structure vs reinforced concrete Steel structure is more commonly adopted in high-rise building. In the original scheme, an externally cross-braced framed tube was applied with primary/secondary beams carrying metal decking with reinforced concrete slab. The core was also of steelwork, designed to carry vertical load only. Later after a financial review by the developer, they decided to reduce the height of the superstructure by increasing the size of the floor plate so as to reduce the complex architectural requirements of the tower base which means a highstrength concrete solution became possible. In the final scheme, columns at 4.6 m (15.1 ft) centres and 1.1 m (3.6 ft) deep floor edge beams were used to replace the large steel corner columns. As climbing form and table form construction method and efficient construction management are used in this project which make this reinforced concrete structure take no longer construction time than the steel structure. And the most attractive point is that the reinforced concrete scheme can save HK$230 million compared to that of steel structure. Hence the reinforced concrete structure was adopted and Central Plaza is now the tallest reinforced concrete building in the world. In the reinforced concrete structure scheme, the core has a similar arrangement to the steel scheme and the wind shear is taken out from the core at the lowest basement level and transferred to the perimeter diaphragm walls. In order to reduce large shear reversals in the core walls in the basement, and at the top of the tower base level, the ground floor, basement levels 1 and 2 and the 5th and 6th floors, the floor slabs and beams are separated horizontally from the core walls. Another advantage of using reinforced concrete structure is that it is more flexible to cope with changes in structural layout, sizes and height according to the site conditions by using table form system. Current tenants Royal Saudi Consulate Of Hong Kong (64th Floor) Nvidia (10th Floor) ExxonMobil (23rd Floor) CB Richard Ellis (30th and 34th Floors) Chevron (Caltex) 41st Floor & 42nd floor Siemens (58th Floor) AFP (62nd Floor) Sun Microsystems (66th Floor) Hong Kong City Church 75th Floor (Apex) Gallery See also List of buildings and structures in Hong Kong List of skyscrapers List of tallest freestanding structures in the world List of buildings External links www.centralplaza.com.hk Official home site of the building. Architectural study of the building Hong Kong's skyscrapers in comparison Central Plaza at Emporis.com Central Plaza at SkyscraperPage.com Satellite view of the site Central Plaza Elevator Layout References | Central_Plaza_(Hong_Kong) |@lemmatized central:9 plaza:9 second:1 tall:9 skyscraper:3 hong:11 kong:11 height:10 ft:18 surpass:3 ifc:1 building:30 locate:1 harbour:2 road:1 wan:1 chai:1 island:1 asia:1 shun:1 hing:1 square:2 shenzhen:1 people:1 republic:1 china:3 build:3 storey:2 complete:1 august:1 bank:1 tower:11 completion:1 also:6 reinforced:7 concrete:10 world:4 citic:1 guangzhou:1 use:6 triangular:6 floor:26 plan:3 top:4 four:1 bar:1 neon:1 clock:1 indicate:1 time:6 display:1 different:1 color:1 minute:1 interval:1 blink:1 change:2 quarter:1 anemometer:2 instal:1 tip:1 mast:3 sit:2 sea:2 level:7 house:1 high:11 church:4 city:3 design:8 main:2 lobby:3 make:4 two:1 principal:1 component:1 free:2 stand:1 office:7 podium:2 block:1 attach:1 three:3 section:1 base:3 form:5 entrance:1 public:5 circulation:1 space:4 body:1 contain:1 sky:2 five:1 mechanical:2 plant:2 consist:1 six:1 ground:3 area:11 along:1 sq:1 landscape:1 garden:1 fountain:1 tree:1 artificial:1 stone:1 paving:1 commercial:1 element:1 include:1 first:1 thoroughfare:1 pedestrian:1 bridge:1 link:2 mass:1 transit:1 railway:1 convention:1 exhibition:1 centre:2 resource:1 turn:1 get:2 plot:1 ratio:1 bonus:1 shape:3 truly:1 corner:2 cut:1 provide:3 good:2 internal:3 constraints:1 could:3 enjoy:1 view:4 compare:2 rectangular:1 shaped:1 architectural:3 point:2 arrangement:2 utilisation:1 offer:1 column:3 clear:3 depth:1 metre:2 overall:1 usable:1 efficiency:1 nonetheless:1 cause:1 air:2 handle:1 unit:1 ahu:2 room:1 core:7 assume:1 configuration:1 limited:2 adoption:1 standard:2 feasible:1 furthermore:1 conditioning:1 ducting:1 electrical:1 trunking:1 piping:1 gather:1 inside:1 squeeze:1 narrow:1 congested:1 corridor:1 ceiling:3 void:1 super:2 rise:5 situate:2 opposite:1 hkcec:1 way:1 obstruct:1 neighbouring:1 enough:1 however:2 bring:1 lot:1 difficulty:1 structural:5 service:1 example:1 excessive:1 system:5 static:1 pressure:1 water:2 line:1 voltage:1 drop:1 long:2 distance:1 vertical:2 transportation:1 problem:1 increase:4 capital:1 cost:3 impair:1 safety:1 operation:1 maximum:3 general:1 practice:1 achieve:2 would:3 require:2 windload:1 every:1 hk:5 million:3 per:1 therefore:2 comprehensive:1 study:3 conduct:1 finally:1 adopt:3 issue:1 alone:1 estimate:1 construction:5 saving:1 total:1 around:1 yet:1 still:1 careful:1 coordination:1 dedicated:1 integration:1 constraint:1 lounge:1 apex:2 site:4 newly:1 reclaim:1 table:3 meter:1 original:2 brief:1 basement:7 diaphragm:3 wall:5 come:1 keyword:1 project:2 briefing:1 detail:1 engineer:1 need:1 start:1 work:1 allow:2 construct:2 method:2 superstructure:2 thereby:1 remove:1 consume:1 period:1 critical:1 path:1 wind:4 loading:1 another:2 major:1 criterion:2 influence:1 typhoon:1 must:2 structure:11 able:1 resist:2 load:3 generally:1 cladding:1 fixing:1 local:1 perform:1 dynamically:1 acceptable:3 manner:1 predict:1 movement:1 lie:1 within:1 occupant:1 comfort:1 ensure:1 aspect:1 performance:1 strong:1 detailed:1 tunnel:1 carry:3 professor:1 alan:1 davenport:1 blwt:1 uwo:1 steel:6 v:1 reinforce:2 commonly:1 scheme:5 externally:1 cross:1 brace:1 framed:1 tube:1 apply:1 primary:1 secondary:1 beam:3 metal:1 deck:1 slab:2 steelwork:1 later:1 financial:1 review:1 developer:1 decide:1 reduce:3 size:2 plate:1 complex:1 requirement:1 mean:1 highstrength:1 solution:1 become:1 possible:1 final:1 deep:1 edge:1 replace:1 large:2 climb:1 efficient:1 management:1 take:2 attractive:1 save:1 hence:1 tallest:1 similar:1 shear:2 low:1 transfer:1 perimeter:1 order:1 reversal:1 separate:1 horizontally:1 advantage:1 flexible:1 cope:1 layout:2 accord:1 condition:1 current:1 tenant:1 royal:1 saudi:1 consulate:1 nvidia:1 exxonmobil:1 cb:1 richard:1 elli:1 chevron:1 caltex:1 siemens:1 afp:1 sun:1 microsystems:1 gallery:1 see:1 list:4 freestanding:1 external:1 www:1 centralplaza:1 com:3 official:1 home:1 comparison:1 emporis:1 skyscraperpage:1 satellite:1 elevator:1 reference:1 |@bigram tall_skyscraper:1 hong_kong:11 wan_chai:1 reinforced_concrete:7 sq_ft:1 air_conditioning:1 meter_ft:1 reinforce_concrete:2 concrete_slab:1 sun_microsystems:1 tall_freestanding:1 freestanding_structure:1 external_link:1 |
5,194 | Centimetre | 1 centimetre A carpenters' ruler with centimetre divisions A centimetre (American spelling: centimeter, symbol cm) is a unit of length in the metric system, equal to one hundredth of a metre, which is the current SI base unit of length. Centi is the SI prefix for a factor of . BIPM - SI prefixes Hence a centimetre can be written as (engineering notation) or (scientific E notation) — meaning or respectively,centimetre-gram-second system of units. Though for many physical quantities, SI prefixes for factors of 103—like milli- and kilo-—are often preferred by technicians, the centimetre remains a practical unit of length for many everyday measurements. A centimetre is approximately the width of the fingernail of an adult person. Equivalence to other units of length 1 centimetre is equal to: 0.01 metre, which can be represented by 1.00 E-2 m (1 metre is equal to 100 centimetres) about 0.393700787401575 inch (1 inch is equal to 2.54 centimetres) Inch - from Eric Weisstein's World of Physics 1 cubic centimetre is equal to 1 millilitre, under the current system of units. Uses of centimetre In addition to its use in the measurement of length, the centimetre is used: sometimes, to report the level of rainfall as measured by a rain gauge Rain Measurement, Rain Gauge, Wireless Rain Gauge, Rain Gage, Rain Gauge Data in the CGS system, the centimetre is used to measure capacitance, where 1 cm of capacitance = 1.113×10 Farad Capacitance - from Eric Weisstein's World of Physics in maps, centimetres are used to make conversions from map scale to real world scale (kilometres) Unicode symbols For the purposes of compatibility with Chinese, Japanese and Korean (CJK) characters, Unicode has symbols for: CJK Compatibility excerpt from The Unicode Standard, Version 4.1. centimetre (㎝) - code 339D square centimetre (㎠) - code 33A0 cubic centimetre (㎤) - code 33A4 They are only useful with East Asian fixed-width CJK fonts, because they are equal in size to one Chinese character. See also 1 E-2 m SI prefix Metric system Orders of magnitude (length) Conversion of units, for comparison with other units of length References CJK Compatibility excerpt from The Unicode Standard, Version 4.4 and co-exterior users. be-x-old:Сантымэтар | Centimetre |@lemmatized centimetre:18 carpenter:1 ruler:1 division:1 american:1 spelling:1 centimeter:1 symbol:2 cm:2 unit:8 length:7 metric:2 system:5 equal:6 one:2 hundredth:1 metre:3 current:2 si:5 base:1 centi:1 prefix:4 factor:2 bipm:1 hence:1 write:1 engineering:1 notation:2 scientific:1 e:3 mean:1 respectively:1 gram:1 second:1 though:1 many:2 physical:1 quantity:1 like:1 milli:1 kilo:1 often:1 prefer:1 technician:1 remain:1 practical:1 everyday:1 measurement:3 approximately:1 width:2 fingernail:1 adult:1 person:1 equivalence:1 represent:1 inch:3 eric:2 weisstein:2 world:3 physic:2 cubic:2 millilitre:1 us:1 addition:1 use:4 sometimes:1 report:1 level:1 rainfall:1 measure:2 rain:6 gauge:4 wireless:1 gage:1 data:1 cgs:1 capacitance:3 farad:1 map:2 make:1 conversion:2 scale:2 real:1 kilometre:1 unicode:4 purpose:1 compatibility:3 chinese:2 japanese:1 korean:1 cjk:4 character:2 symbols:1 excerpt:2 standard:2 version:2 code:3 square:1 useful:1 east:1 asian:1 fix:1 font:1 size:1 see:1 also:1 order:1 magnitude:1 comparison:1 reference:1 co:1 exterior:1 user:1 x:1 old:1 сантымэтар:1 |@bigram si_prefix:4 centimetre_inch:2 eric_weisstein:2 cubic_centimetre:2 capacitance_farad:1 |
5,195 | Mychal_Judge | Mychal F. Judge, OFM (born Robert Emmet Judge on May 11, 1933; died September 11, 2001) was a Roman Catholic priest of the Franciscan Order of Friars Minor, Chaplain of the Fire Department of New York, and the first recorded victim of the September 11, 2001 attacks. Early years Judge was the son of Irish Catholic immigrants from County Leitrim, the firstborn of a pair of fraternal twins. With his twin sister Dympna, and his older sister Erin, he grew up in Brooklyn, N.Y. during the Great Depression. His lifelong affinity for the poor began at a young age; he often gave his only quarter to beggars on the street. At the age of six, he watched his father die of a slow and painful illness. To compensate for his father's inability to work, Judge shined shoes at New York Penn Station from where he would visit St. Francis of Assisi Church on West 31st Street. Seeing the Franciscan friars there, "I realized that I didn't care for material things," he later said, "I knew then that I wanted to be a friar." pp. 7-19: Daly, Michael, The Book of Mychal: The Surprising Life and Heroic Death of Father Mychal Judge. St. Martin's Press (2008) . Franciscan Order of Friars Minor In 1948, at the age of 15, Judge began the formation process to enter the Franciscan community. He trained at three seminaries in NY, NJ, and NH before receiving his BA degree from St. Bonaventure University. He completed his training and was ordained a priest at Holy Name College in Washington, DC in 1961. pp.23-33: Daly, Michael, Ibid (2008) Upon entering the Order of Friars Minor, he took the religious name of Mychal. From 1961 to 1986, Judge served at St. Anthony Shrine in Boston, St. Joseph parish in East Rutherford, NJ, Sacred Heart in Rochelle Park, NJ, and St. Joseph in West Milford, NJ. For three years he served as assistant to the president at Siena College in Loudonville, NY. In 1986, he was assigned to the Monastery of St. Francis of Assisi Church on West 31st Street, New York, where he lived and worked until his death in 2001. pp.37-77: Daly, Michael, Ibid (2008) Around 1971, Judge became an alcoholic, though he never showed obvious signs. In 1978, with the support of Alcoholics Anonymous, he became sober, and he continued to share his personal story of alcoholism to help others facing addiction. p. 62: Daly, Michael, Ibid (2008) . In 1992, Judge was appointed Chaplain of the Fire Department of New York. As Chaplain, he offered encouragement and prayers at fires, rescues, and hospitals, and he counseled firefighters and their families, often working 16 hour days. "His whole ministry was about love; Mychal loved the fire department and they loved him." Saint of 9/11 (film) homepage spoken by Malachy McCourt in the film, Saint of 9/11 (2006) In New York, Judge was also well known for ministering to the homeless, the hungry, recovering alcoholics, people with AIDS, the sick, injured, and grieving, immigrants, gays and lesbians, and those alienated by the Church. pp. 107-139: Ford, Michael, Father Mychal Judge: An Authentic American Hero. Paulist Press (2002) . For example, Judge once gave the winter coat off his back to a homeless woman in the street, later saying, "She needed it more than me." When he anointed a man who was dying of AIDS, the man asked him, "Do you think God hates me?" Judge just picked him up, kissed him, and silently rocked him in his arms. Saint of 9/11 film, Ibid (2006) Even before his death on 9/11, many considered Judge to be a living saint for his extraordinary works of charity and his deep spirituality. While praying, Judge would sometimes "become so lost in God, as if lost in a trance, that he'd be shocked to find several hours had passed." p. 320: Daly, Michael, Ibid (2008) "He achieved an extraordinary degree of union with the divine," said Judge's former spiritual director, Fr. John McNeill. "We knew we were dealing with someone directly in line with God." pp. 114-115: Ford, Michael, Ibid (2002) World Trade Center, September 11, 2001 Upon hearing the news that the World Trade Center had been hit by hijacked jetliners, Judge rushed to the site. He was met by the Mayor of New York, Rudolph Giuliani, who asked him to pray for the city and its victims. Judge administered last rites to some lying on the streets, then entered the lobby of the World Trade Center north tower where an emergency command post was organized. There he continued offering aid and prayers for the rescuers, the injured and dead. When the south tower collapsed at 9:59 AM, debris went flying through the north tower lobby, killing many inside, including Judge. At the moment he was struck and killed, Judge was repeatedly praying aloud, "Jesus, please end this right now! God please end this!", according to Judge biographer and New York Daily News columnist Michael Daly. NY Daily News, 2/11/02 "Judge stood alone at a plate-glass window overlooking the carnage and devastation. A Fire Department photographer heard him praying aloud, Jesus, please end this right now! God please end this! p. 336: Daly, Michael, Ibid (2008) . Shannon Stapleton, photographer from Reuters, photographed Judge's body being carried out of the rubble by five men: four uniformed and one non-uniformed. It became one of the most famous images related to 9/11. The Philadelphia Weekly reports the photograph being called an American Pietà. Upward Christian Soldier Philadelphia Weekly. Judge's body was formally identified by NYPD Detective Steven McDonald, a longtime friend of Judge. Although some speculate that he died of a heart attack, the coroner found that Judge died of "blunt force trauma to the head". p. 347: Daly, Michael, Ibid (2008) . Mourning and honors Father Judge's body bag was labeled "Victim 0001," recognized as the first official victim of the September 11, 2001 attacks. Former President Bill Clinton was among the 3,000 people who attended his funeral, held on September 15 at St. Francis of Assisi Church in Manhattan. It was presided over by Archbishop Edward Egan. Clinton said his death was "a special loss. We should live his life as an example of what has to prevail." Judge was buried at Holy Sepulchre Cemetery in Totowa, New Jersey. with photos. There have been calls within the Roman Catholic Church to canonize Judge to Sainthood. Saint Mychal Judge website Sainthood call for chaplain rises from Sept.11 ashes While there is no indication that Rome is seriously considering this, several churches independent of Rome, most notably the Orthodox Catholic Church of America, have declared him a saint. Some Catholic leaders recognize Judge as a de facto Saint. Some assert that Mychal Judge has already been declared a saint by widespread acclamation of the faithful, as was the custom of the early Church. Is Mychal Judge a Saint? There have been claims of miraculous healings through prayers to Judge. The Making of Saint Mychal: USA Today Evidence of miracles is required for canonization to Sainthood in the Catholic Church. Judge's helmet was presented to Pope John Paul II. France awarded him the Légion d'honneur. The U.S. Congress nominated him for a Presidential Medal of Freedom. In 2002, the City of New York renamed a portion of West 31st Street "Father Mychal F. Judge Street" Father Mychal F. Judge Street , and christened a commuter boat "The Father Mychal Judge Ferry". The Father Mychal Judge Ferry A campaign has been started in Carlstadt, New Jersey to have a statue of Judge erected in its Memorial Park. Alvernia University, a private independent college in the Franciscan tradition in Reading, Pennsylvania, named a new residence hall in honor of Judge. In 2002, the U.S. Congress passed The Father Mychal Judge Police and Fire Chaplains Public Safety Officers Benefit Act into law. The Mychal Judge Act This was the first time the federal government ever extended equal benefits for same-sex couples, allowing the domestic partners of public safety officers killed in the line of duty to collect their federal death benefit. In 2006 a film, The Saint of 9/11, directed by Glenn Holsten and narrated by Sir Ian McKellen, was released, celebrating Father Judge's life. The film includes testimonies of work colleagues and people who met him at different stages of his life. Saint of 9/11 (film) homepage The Father Mychal Judge Walk of Remembrance takes place every year in New York around the 9/11 anniversary. It begins with a Mass at St. Francis Church on West 31st Street, then proceeds to the site of Ground Zero, retracing Judge's final journey and praying along the way. Annual Father Mychal Judge Walk of Remembrance Every September 11, there is also a Mass in memory of Mychal Judge in Boston, attended by many who lost family members on 9/11. Annual Father Mychal Judge Mass in Boston Gay orientation and affiliations Following his death a few of his friends and associates revealed that Father Judge was gay — as a matter of orientation rather than practice, as he was a celibate priest. According to fire commissioner Thomas Von Essen: "I actually knew about his homosexuality when I was in the Uniformed Firefighters Association. I kept the secret, but then he told me when I became commissioner five years ago. He and I often laughed about it, because we knew how difficult it would have been for the other firefighters to accept it as easily as I had. I just thought he was a phenomenal, warm, sincere man, and the fact that he was gay just had nothing to do with anything." The revelations about Father Judge's sexual orientation were not without controversy, however. Dennis Lynch, a lawyer, wrote an article about Judge that appeared on the website catholic.org. Lynch claimed that the priest was not gay and that any attempt to define Judge as gay was due to "homosexual activists" who wanted to "attack the Catholic Church" and turn the priest into "a homosexual icon". A September 11th Hijacking Others refuted Lynch’s claims with evidence that Judge did identify himself as gay, both to others and in his personal journals. A Gay Saint in fact pp. 86, 301-302: Daly, Michael, Ibid (2008) Judge was a long-term member of Dignity, a Catholic LGBT activist organization that advocates for change in the Catholic Church's teaching on homosexuality. What is Dignity? On October 1, 1986, the Vatican's Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith issued an encyclical, On the Pastoral Care of Homosexual Persons, Letter to the Bishops of the Catholic Church on the Pastoral Care of Homosexual Persons which declared homosexuality to be a "strong tendency ordered toward an intrinsic moral evil". In response, many bishops, including John Cardinal O'Connor, banned Dignity from diocesan churches under their control. Judge then welcomed Dignity's AIDS ministry to the Church of Saint Francis of Assisi, which is under the control of the Franciscan friars, thereby circumventing the Cardinal's ban of Dignity. pp. 119-120: Ford, Michael, Ibid (2002) . Judge disagreed with the Vatican regarding homosexuality, p. 182: Ford, Michael, Ibid (2002) though by all accounts, he remained celibate. Judge often asked, "Is there so much love in the world that we can afford to discriminate against any kind of love?" p. 124: Ford, Michael, Ibid (2002) References Further reading External links Fire Chaplain Becomes Larger than Life The Happiest Man on Earth: Eulogy of Fr. 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5,196 | J._Philippe_Rushton | John Philippe Rushton (born December 3, 1943) is a psychology professor at the University of Western Ontario, Canada, most widely known for his work on intelligence and racial differences, particularly his book Race, Evolution and Behavior. His work in this area is highly controversial, and many have criticized it as being poorly researched and racist in nature. Steven F. Cronshaw, Leah K. Hamilton, Betty R. Onyura, and Andrew S. Winston (2006) Case for Non-Biased Intelligence Testing Against Black Africans Has Not Been Made: A Comment on International Journal of Selection and Assessment 14 (3), 381-384. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2389.2006.00346.x Into the Mainstream: Academic Racists' Work Inching Toward Legitimacy Quote from Rushton Revisited, Ottawa Citizen, Sept. 1, 2005. He also researches altruism from several perspectives. for example, Rushton, J. P., & Bons, T. A. (2005). Mate choice and friendship in twins: Evidence for genetic similarity.Psychological Science, 16, 555-559. He is a Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, and the American, British, and Canadian Psychological Associations. In 1988, he was made a Fellow of the John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation. He has been head of the Pioneer Fund since 2002. Biography Rushton was born in Bournemouth, England. During his childhood, he emigrated with his family to South Africa where he lived from age 4 to 8 (1948-1952). His father was a building contractor, and his mother, who was French, gave him his middle name. He spent most of his teen years in Canada. Rushton received a B.Sc. in psychology from Birkbeck College at the University of London in 1970, and, in 1973, received his Ph.D. from the London School of Economics for work on altruism in children. He continued his work at the University of Oxford until 1974. Rushton taught at York University in Canada from 1974-1976 and the University of Toronto until 1977. He then moved to the University of Western Ontario and was made full professor there in 1985. He received a D.Sc. from the University of London in 1992. J. Philippe Rushton, Ph.D. - Bio Sketch Curriculum Vitae He has published more than 250 articles and six books, including two on altruism, one on scientific excellence, and co-authored an introductory psychology textbook. Roediger, H. L. III., Rushton, J. P., Capaldi, E. D., & Paris, S. G. (1984). Psychology. Boston: Little, Brown.(1987, 2nd Edition) Over ten of his papers have appeared in Intelligence, a journal for which Rushton sits on the editorial board. He is a signatory to the opinion piece "Mainstream Science on Intelligence". Gottfredson, Linda (December 13, 1994). "Mainstream Science on Intelligence". Wall Street Journal, p A18. Work Genetic similarity theory Early in his career, Rushton's research focussed on altruism. He theorized a heritable component in altruism and is the founder of Genetic Similarity Theory, which states that individuals tend to be more altruistic to individuals who are genetically similar to themselves (kin selection), and less altruistic, and sometimes outwardly hostile to individuals who are less genetically similar. Rushton describes "ethnic conflict and rivalry" as "one of the great themes of historical and contemporary society" and suggests that it may have its roots in the evolutionary impact on individuals from groups "giving preferential treatment to genetically similar others." He says "the makeup of a gene pool [i.e., a human population's total reservoir of alternative genes] causally affects the probability of any particular ideology being adopted." r/K selection theory Rushton's book Race, Evolution, and Behavior (1995) uses r/K selection theory to explain how East Asians consistently average high, blacks low, and whites in the middle on characteristics indicative of nurturing behavior on an evolutionary scale. He first published this theory in 1984. Rushton purports to show that East Asians and their descendants average a larger brain size, greater intelligence, more sexual restraint, slower rates of maturation, and greater law abidingness and social organization than do Europeans and their descendants, who average higher scores on these dimensions than Africans and their descendants. Rolling Stone magazine (1994) quotes Rushton: "It's a trade off, more brains or more penis. You can't have everything." Rushton interview with Rolling Stone October 20, 1994 Rushton's work in this area has been referred to by VDARE's Steve Sailer as "Rushton's Rule of Three." Sailer says that Rushton's comparisons are more informative than many traditional comparisons because they analyze characteristics across three races instead of two, providing a reference point for analyses between two other races. The Southern Poverty Law Center (SPLC) considers VDARE a hate group. http://www.splcenter.org/intel/map/hate.jsp?S=VA&m=3 Opinions on Rushton and his work Support Harvard biologist E.O. Wilson (one of the two co-founders of the r/K selection theory): I think Phil is an honest and capable researcher. The basic reasoning by Rushton is solid evolutionary reasoning; that is, it is logically sound. If he had seen some apparent geographic variation for a non-human species - a species of woozle or boggart hawk, for example - no one would have batted an eye. Knudson P. (1991), A Mirror to Nature: Reflections on Science, Scientists, and Society; Rushton on Race, Stoddart Publishing (ISBN 0773724672) Science journalist Peter Knudson: Despite the occasional media stereotype of Rushton as some sort of incompetent scientific adventurist, he has throughout most of his career as a psychologist been seen as a highly competent researcher. He has published more than 100 papers, most of them, particularly those dealing with altruism, in highly respectable journals. A Mirror to Nature by Peter Knudson pg 176 Psychologist Hans Eysenck, Rushton's former doctoral supervisor, of the University of London: Professor Rushton is widely known and respected for the unusual combination of rigour and originality in his work... (and commenting on Rushton's book Race, Evolution and Behavior) ... Few concerned with understanding the problems associated with race can afford to disregard this storehouse of well-integrated information which gives rise to a remarkable synthesis. Race, Evolution, and Behavior Criticism of motivation and funding Since 2002, Rushton has been the president of the Pioneer Fund. Tax records from 2000 show that his Charles Darwin Research Institute received $473,835 — 73% of that year's grants. Academic Racism: Key race scientist takes reins at Pioneer Fund From the Southern Poverty Law Center The Southern Poverty Law Center (a civil rights activist organization) characterizes the Pioneer Fund as a hate group. SPLCenter.org: Into the Mainstream Race and 'Reason' "In publication after publication, hate groups are using this "science" to legitimize racial hatred." They claim Rushton has spoken on eugenics several times at conferences of the American Renaissance magazine, in which he has also published a number of general articles. 'Science' at the Mall Anti-racist Searchlight Magazine described one of these meetings as a "veritable 'who’s who' of American white supremacy" and said Rushton's "imputation that on 'average' Asians might have a higher IQ than whites left more than one diner at our table with a bitter taste in the mouth after an otherwise pleasant meal." BNP leader embraced by top US nazis Popular science commentator David Suzuki spoke out against Rushton's racial theories in a live televised debate (1989) at the University of Western Ontario. "There will always be Rushtons in science," Suzuki said "and we must always be prepared to root them out!". "Oh, no!" exclaimed Rushton when asked if he himself believed in racial superiority. He went on to explain that "from an evolutionary point of view, superiority can only mean adaptive value--if it even means this. And we've got to realize that each of these populations is perfectly, beautifully adapted to their own ancestral environments." A Mirror to Nature, by Peter Knudson, pg 187 . He has written articles for VDARE, a website that advocates reduced immigration into the United States. J. Philippe Rushton Articles Stefan Kühl wrote in his book The Nazi Connection: eugenics, American racism, and German national socialism that Rushton was a part of the revival of public interest in scientific racism in the 1980s. The Nazi Connection: eugenics, American racism, and German national socialism By Stefan Kühl William H. Tucker, critic of the hereditarian point of view, states: Rushton has not only contributed to American Renaissance publications and graced their conferences with his presence but also offered praise and support for the "scholarly" work on racial differences of Henry Garrett, who spent the last two decades of his life opposing the extension of the Constitution to blacks on the basis that the "normal" black resembled a European after frontal lobotomy. Informed of Garrett's assertion that blacks were not entitled to equality because their "ancestors were ... savages in an African jungle," Rushton dismissed the observation as quoted "selectively from Garrett's writing", finding nothing opprobrious in such sentiments because the leader of the scientific opposition to civil rights had made other statements about black inferiority that were, according to Rushton, "quite objective in tone and backed by standard social science evidence." Quite apart from the questionable logic in defending a blatant call to deprive citizens of their rights by citing Garrett's less offensive writing—as if it were evidence of Ted Bundy's innocence that there were some women he had met and not killed—there was no sense on Rushton's part that all of Garrett's assertions, whether or not "objective," were utterly irrelevant to constitutional guarantees, which are not predicated on scientific demonstrations of intellectual equality. Tucker, W. H. (2002). The Funding of Scientific Racism, Champaign, IL: University of Illinois Press. The Southern Poverty Law Center has called Rushton "venomous" Into the Mainstream: Academic Racists' Work Inching Toward Legitimacy Quote from Rushton Revisited, Ottawa Citizen, Sept. 1, 2005. , citing his remarks to the Ottawa Citizen, including: "But people are pulling their hair out and are saying, ‘What about Toronto the Good? Where did it go to?’ What about Ottawa? I’m sure it is the same? What about Montreal? I’ll bet you it’s the same. I’ll bet it’s the same in every bloody city in Canada where you have black people. It’s inevitable that it won’t be." "Rushton Revisited", Andrew Duffy. The Ottawa Citizen. Ottawa, Ont.: Oct 1, 2005. pg. A.1. Rushton spoke at the Preserving Western Civilization conference in Baltimore in February 2009, organized by Michael H. Hart to address the need to defend "America’s Judeo-Christian heritage and European identity" from immigrants, Muslims, and African Americans. Preserving Western Civilization: Purpose [http://preservingwesternciv.com/speakers.html Preserving Western Civilization: Speakers" In his speech, Rushton contended that Islam was not just a cultural, but also a genetic problem. According to Rushton, the Muslim problem is not just a condition of their particular belief system. Instead, he argued that Muslims have an aggressive personality with relatively closed, simple minds, and are less impervious to reason than one might expect. "Stateside: Inside the Preserving Western Civilization Conference" Searchlight, Devin Burghart, April 2009 The Anti-Defamation League describe the conference as being attended by "racist academics, conservative pundits and anti-immigrant activists". "Racists Gather in Maryland to 'Preserve' Western Civilization" ADL, February 13, 2009 Criticism of methodology There has been criticism of Rushton's work in the scholarly literature, to which Rushton has generally responded, often in the same journal. Steven Cronshaw and colleagues wrote in a paper for the International Journal of Selection and Assessment in 2006 that psychologists need to critically examine the science employed in Rushton's race-realist research. Through a re-analysis of the validity criteria for test bias using data reported in the Rushton et al. paper, they assert that the testing methods were in fact biased against Black Africans. They disagree with other aspects of Rushton's methodology, such as the use of non-equivalent groups in test samples. Steven F. Cronshaw, Leah K. Hamilton, Betty R. Onyura, and Andrew S. Winston (2006) Case for Non-Biased Intelligence Testing Against Black Africans Has Not Been Made: A Comment on International Journal of Selection and Assessment 14 (3), 278–287. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2389.2006.00346.x Rushton replied in the next issue of the journal, explaining why his results were valid, and why the criticisms were incorrect. See International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 14, 381-384. Lisa Suzuki and Joshua Aronson of New York University wrote in 2005 that Rushton has ignored evidence that fails to support his position that IQ test score gaps represent a genetic racial hierarchy. He has not changed his position on this matter for 30 years. The cultural malleability of intelligence and its impact on the racial/ethnic hierarchy L Suzuki, J Aronson - Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 2005 Rushton replied in the same issue of the journal. See Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 11, 328-336. After Rushton had mailed a booklet to psychology, sociology, and anthropology professors across North America, Hermann Helmuth, a professor of anthropology at Trent University, said: "It is in a way personal and political propaganda. There is no basis to his scientific research." Rushton responded, "It's not racist, it's a matter of science and recognizing variation in all groups of people." UWO Gazette Volume 93, Issue 68 Tuesday, February 1, 2000 Psych prof accused of racism Zack Cernovsky, in the Journal of Black Studies, claims "some of Rushton's references to scientific literature with respects to racial differences in sexual characteristics turned out to be references to a nonscientific semipornographic book and to an article in the Penthouse magazine's Forum." On the similarities of American blacks and whites: A reply to J.P. Rushton, by Zack Cernovsky, Journal of Black Studies, Vol. 25 (July 1, 1995), p. 672. Criticism of scholarly conduct Articles in the Canadian press based on interviews with Rushton's first-year psychology students claim that in 1988 Rushton surveyed student participants by asking "such questions as how large their penises are, how many sex partners they have had, and how far they can ejaculate." Charles Lane, Response to Daniel R. Vining, Jr., New York Review of Books, Vol. 42, Number 5, March 23, 1995 First-year psychology students at UWO are required "to participate in approved surveys as a condition of their studies. If they choose not to, they must write five research papers. Also, many students feel subtle pressure to participate in order not to offend professors who may later be grading their work. However, if a study is not approved these requirements do not apply at all." For not telling them they had the option to not participate without incurring additional work, Rushton was barred from using students as research subjects for two years. Also in 1988, Rushton conducted a survey at the Eaton Centre mall in Toronto where 50 whites, 50 blacks, and 50 Asians were paid to answer questions about their sexual habits. For not receiving the UWO's ethics committee's explicit permission, the administration at the University of Western Ontario reprimanded Rushton. This was "a serious breach of scholarly procedure," said University President, George Pederson. See also Race and intelligence Mankind Quarterly References External links Rushton's UWO faculty page with links to selected publications Rushton's personal page and curriculum vitae Biography from the Pioneer Fund Abridged version of Race, Evolution, and Behavior "Psych prof accused of racism" The Gazette of UWO February 1, 2000 Review of "Race, Evolution, and Behavior" including a discussion of circumstances surrounding its publication by Irving Horowitz. Journal: Intelligence - List of editorial board members. Works by Rushton "The New Enemies of Evolutionary Science", essay by Rushton "The Mismeasures of Gould", Rushton, 1997. Pro-Rushton "Academia's road to ruin", editorial by Ian Hunter "Race, Rushton, And Us: Getting Used To What We Can't Change" "Paternal Provisioning versus Mate Seeking in Human Populations", Edward M. Miller, 1994. An alternative explanation for Rushton's racial triochotomy, derived from parental investment theory instead of differential K theory. Anti-Rushton "Kin selection, genic selection, and information-dependent strategies" Critical commentary from evolutionary biologists John Tooby & Leda Cosmides, Behavioral and Brain Sciences, (1989). Rushton, Mankind Quarterly and Eugenics The Race-Research Funder "How “Caucasoids” Got Such Big Crania and Why They Shrank, From Morton to Rushton" Leonard Lieberman, Current Anthropology (2001). | J._Philippe_Rushton |@lemmatized john:3 philippe:3 rushton:70 born:1 december:2 psychology:9 professor:6 university:14 western:9 ontario:4 canada:4 widely:2 know:2 work:15 intelligence:10 racial:9 difference:3 particularly:2 book:7 race:16 evolution:6 behavior:7 area:2 highly:3 controversial:1 many:4 criticize:1 poorly:1 research:9 racist:7 nature:4 steven:3 f:2 cronshaw:3 leah:2 k:6 hamilton:2 betty:2 r:6 onyura:2 andrew:3 winston:2 case:2 non:4 bias:4 test:6 black:13 african:6 make:5 comment:3 international:4 journal:13 selection:10 assessment:4 doi:2 j:8 x:2 mainstream:5 academic:4 inch:2 toward:2 legitimacy:2 quote:4 revisit:3 ottawa:6 citizen:5 sept:2 also:7 altruism:6 several:2 perspective:1 example:2 p:6 bons:1 mate:2 choice:1 friendship:1 twin:1 evidence:4 genetic:5 similarity:4 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5,197 | Judgement_of_Paris | The Judgement of Paris, Peter Paul Rubens, ca 1636 (National Gallery, London) The Judgement of Paris is a story from Greek mythology, which was one of the events that led up to the Trojan War and (in slightly later versions of the story) to the foundation of Rome. Sources of the episode As with many mythological tales, details vary depending on the source. The Iliad (24.25–30) alludes to the Judgement as a story which was familiar to its audience, and a fuller version was told in the Cypria, a lost work of the Epic Cycle, of which only fragments (and a reliable summary The outline of Proclus, summarized by Photius, found in English translation in Hesiod, the Homeric Hymns, and Homerica, ed. Evelyn-White, London and Cambridge, Mass. (Loeb series), new and revised edition 1936. ) remain. The later writers Ovid (Heroides 16.71ff, 149–152 and 5.35f), Lucian (Dialogues of the Gods 20), and Hyginus (Fabulae 92), retell the story with skeptical, ironic or popularizing agendas. But it appeared wordlessly on the ivory and gold votive chest of the 7th-century tyrant Cypselus at Olympia, which was described by Pausanias as showing "Hermes bringing to Alexander the son of Priam the goddesses of whose beauty he is to judge, the inscription on them being: 'Here is Hermes, who is showing to Alexander, that he may arbitrate concerning their beauty, Hera, Athena and Aphrodite." (Description of Greece, LXV.9.5). The subject was favoured by painters of Red-figure pottery as early as the sixth century BC, Kerenyi 1959, fig. 68. and remained popular in Greek and Roman art, before enjoying a significant revival, as an opportunity to show three female nudes, in the Renaissance. The Judgment of Paris by Lucas Cranach the Elder Mythic narrative It is recounted A synthesized account drawn from several cited sources is offered by Karl Kerenyi, The Heroes of the Greeks, ""The Prelude to the Trojan War", ppespecially pp 312314. that Zeus held a banquet in celebration of the marriage of Peleus and Thetis (parents of Achilles). However, Eris, goddess of discord, was uninvited. Angered by this snub, Eris arrived at the celebration, where she threw a golden apple (the Apple of Discord) into the proceedings, upon which was the inscription καλλίστῃ ("for the fairest one"). Three goddesses claimed the apple: Hera, Athena and Aphrodite. They asked Zeus to judge which of them was fairest, and eventually Zeus, reluctant to favour any claim himself, declared that Paris, a Phrygian mortal, would judge their cases, for he had recently shown his exemplary fairness in a contest in which Ares in bull form had bested Paris's own prize bull, and the shepherd-prince had unhesitatingly awarded the prize to the god. Rawlinson Excidium Troie Thus it happened that, with Hermes as their guide, all three of the candidates appeared to Paris on Mount Ida, in the climactic moment that is the crux of the tale. After bathing in the spring of Ida, each attempted with her powers to bribe Paris; Hera offered to make him king of Europe and Asia, Athena offered wisdom and skill in , and Aphrodite, who had the Charites and the Horai to enhance her charms with flowers and song (according to a fragment of the Cypria quoted by Athenagoras), offered the love of the world's most beautiful woman (Euripides, Andromache, l.284, Helena l. 676). This was Helen of Sparta, wife of the Greek king Menelaus. Paris accepted Aphrodite's gift and awarded the apple to her, receiving Helen as well as the enmity of the Greeks and especially of Hera. The Greeks' expedition to retrieve Helen from Paris in Troy is the mythological basis of the Trojan War. The Judgement of Paris on an Etruscan bronze mirrorback, 4th-3rd century BCE (Louvre) According to tradition , "cow-eyed" Hera was indeed the most objectively beautiful. Hera was the Goddess of the marital order and of cuckolded wives, amongst other things. Hera was often portrayed as the shrewish, jealous wife of Zeus, who himself often escaped from her controlling ways by cheating on her with mortal and immortal women. Aphrodite was effortlessly sexual, both beautiful and charming; thus her ability to sway Paris and her position as Goddess of Love were more palatable to Paris. Athena's beauty is rarely commented upon in the myths, perhaps because Greeks held her up as an asexual being, being able to "overcome" her "womanly weaknesses" in order to become both wise and talented in war (both considered male domains by the Greeks). Her rage at losing makes her join the Greeks in the battle against Paris's Trojans, a key event in the turning point of the war. Seen purely as a story, such as is recounted in Bulfinch's Mythology, the Judgement of Paris is simply an amoral episode in which Paris' skill for sound judgement (for which the gods approved him) is overcome by appeals to his lust; thus a lengthy and blood-soaked war revolves upon a series of apparently trivial episodes, each adding to the inertia that drives events to their inevitable and tragic conclusions. The Judgement of Paris, porcelain, Capitoline Museums, Rome Alternatively, the narrative can be seen as a rationalized series of episodic causes and consequences that has been developed to embed within a human timeframe, and to explain, a moment of epiphany that occurs in a suspended moment out of time that artists endeavor to recapture in an icon (illustration): a blissfully fortunate mortal is confronted by a trinity of goddesses and a transcendent gift, the "apple", is exchanged. The story appears to be the result of an interpretation of an archaic iconic image representing such an ecstatic moment, which logically must have preceded the narrative invented to explicate it. In the archaic prototypical stories antedating the Judgement of Paris, the gift is imparted by the deity, like the pomegranate that the Goddess offers on Minoan seal-impressions, and the mortal the recipient. As such, the classic telling of the Judgement of Paris is an example of mythic inversion, in which the apple becomes his to award. The mytheme of the Judgement of Paris naturally offered artists the opportunity to portray three ideally lovely women in undress, as a sort of beauty contest, but the myth, at least since Euripides, rather concerns a choice among the gifts that each goddess embodies: a subtext of the bribery involved is ironic, and a late ingredient. In each allusion to the Judgement of Paris or narrative account, an aspect of Paris' sojourn as a shepherd-exile that is never linked to the explication of the central moment is his connection with the nurturing nymph of Mount Ida, Oenone. Kallistē(i) Kallistē(i) is the word of the Ancient Greek language inscribed on the Golden Apple of Discord by Eris. In Greek, the word is καλλίστῃ (the dative singular of the feminine superlative of καλος, beautiful). Its meaning can be rendered "to the fairest one". In post-Classical art Judgement of Paris, c. 1515, Marcantonio after Raphael The subject became popular in art from the late Middle Ages onwards, with the three goddesses usually shown nude, following the classical literary sources, although in ancient art it is only Venus who appears nude, and that not always. Bull:346-47 The opportunity for three female nudes was a large part of the attraction of the subject. It appeared in illuminated manuscripts and was popular in decorative art, including 15th century Italian inkstands and other works in maiolica, and cassoni. Bull:345 As a subject for easel paintings, it was more common in Northern Europe, although Marcantonio Raimondi's engraving of ca. 1515, probably based on a drawing by Raphael, and using a composition derived from a Roman sacrophagus, was a highly influential treatment, which made Paris's Phyrgian cap an attribute in most later versions. Bull:346 The subject was painted many times by Lucas Cranach the Elder. Rubens painted several compositions of the subject at different points in his career. Later artists painting the subject include Renoir and Salvador Dalí. Use in Discordianism The word Kallisti (Modern Greek) written on a golden apple, has become a principal symbol of Discordianism, a post-modernist religion. In non-philological texts (such as Discordian ones) the word is usually spelled as καλλιστι. Most versions of Principia Discordia actually spell it as καλλιχτι, but this is definitely incorrect; in the afterword of the 1979 Loompanics edition of Principia, Gregory Hill says that was because on the IBM typewriter he used, not all Greek letters coincided with Latin ones, and he didn't know enough of the letters to spot the mistake. Zeus' failure to invite Eris is referred to as The Original Snub in Discordian mythology. Other uses Kallisti (Καλλίστη) is also an ancient name for the isle of Thera. Dramatizations The Judgement of Paris was burlesqued to great effect in the 1954 musical The Golden Apple. In it, the three goddesses have been reduced to three town biddies in smalltown Washington state. They ask Paris, a travelling salesman, to judge the cakes they have made for the church social. Each woman (the mayor's wife, the schoolmarm, and the matchmaker) makes appeals to Paris who chooses the matchmaker. The matchmaker, in turn, sets him up with Helen, the town floozy. And she runs off with him. The Judgement of Paris is featured in the 2003 TV miniseries Helen of Troy. Cilea's 1902 opera, Adriana Lecouvreur, includes a ballet sequence, "The Judgment of Paris." See also Discordianism References Sources Malcolm Bull, The Mirror of the Gods, How Renaissance Artists Rediscovered the Pagan Gods, Oxford UP, 2005, ISBN 100195219236 External links The Judgement of Paris Full-text of Bulfinch's Mythology Explore paintings that depict the Judgement of Paris, including Rubens, de Clerck References Kerenyi, Karl, 1959. 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5,198 | Light-emitting_diode | A light-emitting diode (LED) ( , or just ), is an electronic light source. The LED was first invented in Russia in the 1920s, and introduced in America as a practical electronic component in 1962. Oleg Vladimirovich Losev was a radio technician who noticed that diodes used in radio receivers emitted light when current was passed through them. In 1927, he published details in a Russian journal of the first ever LED. All early devices emitted low-intensity red light, but modern LEDs are available across the visible, ultraviolet and infra red wavelengths, with very high brightness. LEDs are based on the semiconductor diode. When the diode is forward biased (switched on), electrons are able to recombine with holes and energy is released in the form of light. This effect is called electroluminescence and the color of the light is determined by the energy gap of the semiconductor. The LED is usually small in area (less than 1 mm2) with integrated optical components to shape its radiation pattern and assist in reflection. LEDs present many advantages over traditional light sources including lower energy consumption, longer lifetime, improved robustness, smaller size and faster switching. However, they are relatively expensive and require more precise current and heat management than traditional light sources. Applications of LEDs are diverse. They are used as low-energy indicators but also for replacements for traditional light sources in general lighting and automotive lighting. The compact size of LEDs has allowed new text and video displays and sensors to be developed, while their high switching rates are useful in communications technology. History Discoveries and early devices Electroluminescence was discovered in 1907 by the British experimenter H. J. Round of Marconi Labs, using a crystal of silicon carbide and a cat's-whisker detector. Russian Oleg Vladimirovich Losev independently created the first LED in the mid 1920s; his research was distributed in Russian, German and British scientific journals, but no practical use was made of the discovery for several decades. Rubin Braunstein of the Radio Corporation of America reported on infrared emission from gallium arsenide (GaAs) and other semiconductor alloys in 1955. Braunstein observed infrared emission generated by simple diode structures using gallium antimonide (GaSb), GaAs, indium phosphide (InP), and silicon-germanium (SiGe) alloys at room temperature and at 77 kelvin. In 1961, experimenters Robert Biard and Gary Pittman working at Texas Instruments, found that GaAs emitted infrared radiation when electric current was applied and received the patent for the infrared LED. The first practical visible-spectrum (red) LED was developed in 1962 by Nick Holonyak Jr., while working at General Electric Company. Holonyak is seen as the "father of the light-emitting diode". M. George Craford , a former graduate student of Holonyak, invented the first yellow LED and improved the brightness of red and red-orange LEDs by a factor of ten in 1972. In 1976, T.P. Pearsall created the first high-brightness, high efficiency LEDs for optical fiber telecommunications by inventing new semiconductor materials specifically adapted to optical fiber transmission wavelengths. T.P. Pearsall, B.I. Miller, R.J. Capik, and K.J. Bachmann, "Efficient, Lattice-matched, Double Heterostructure LEDs at 1.1 mm from GaxIn1-xAsyP1-y by Liquid-phase Epitaxy", Appl. Phys. Lett., 28, 499-501 (1976). Up to 1968 visible and infrared LEDs were extremely costly, on the order of US $200 per unit, and so had little practical application. The Monsanto Corporation was the first organization to mass-produce visible LEDs, using gallium arsenide phosphide in 1968 to produce red LEDs suitable for indicators. E. Fred Schubert, Light-Emitting Diodes, Cambridge University Press, 2003 Chapter 1 Hewlett Packard (HP) introduced LEDs in 1968, initially using GaAsP supplied by Monsanto. The technology proved to have major applications for alphanumeric displays and was integrated into HP's early handheld calculators. Practical use Some police vehicle lightbars incorporate LEDs. The first commercial LEDs were commonly used as replacements for incandescent indicators, and in seven-segment displays, first in expensive equipment such as laboratory and electronics test equipment, then later in such appliances as TVs, radios, telephones, calculators, and even watches (see list of signal applications). These red LEDs were bright enough only for use as indicators, as the light output was not enough to illuminate an area. Later, other colors became widely available and also appeared in appliances and equipment. As the LED materials technology became more advanced, the light output was increased, while maintaining the efficiency and the reliability to an acceptable level. The invention and development of the high power white light LED led to use for illumination (see list of illumination applications). Most LEDs were made in the very common 5 mm T1¾ and 3 mm T1 packages, but with increasing power output, it has become increasingly necessary to shed excess heat in order to maintain reliability , so more complex packages have been adapted for efficient heat dissipation. Packages for state-of-the-art high power LEDs bear little resemblance to early LEDs. Continuing development The first high-brightness blue LED was demonstrated by Shuji Nakamura of Nichia Corporation and was based on InGaN borrowing on critical developments in GaN nucleation on sapphire substrates and the demonstration of p-type doping of GaN which were developed by Isamu Akasaki and H. Amano in Nagoya. In 1995, Alberto Barbieri at the Cardiff University Laboratory (GB) investigated the efficiency and reliability of high-brightness LEDs demonstrated a very impressive result by using a transparent contact made of indium tin oxide (ITO) on (AlGaInP/GaAs) LED. The existence of blue LEDs and high efficiency LEDs quickly led to the development of the first white LED, which employed a Y3Al5O12:Ce, or "YAG", phosphor coating to mix yellow (down-converted) light with blue to produce light that appears white. Nakamura was awarded the 2006 Millennium Technology Prize for his invention. The development of LED technology has caused their efficiency and light output to increase exponentially, with a doubling occurring about every 36 months since the 1960s, in a way similar to Moore's law. The advances are generally attributed to the parallel development of other semiconductor technologies and advances in optics and material science. This trend is normally called Haitz's Law after Dr. Roland Haitz. In February 2008, Bilkent university in Turkey reported 300 lumens of visible light per watt luminous efficacy (not per electrical watt) and warm light by using nanocrystals Warm light and high efficiency . Technology The inner workings of an LED Physics Like a normal diode, the LED consists of a chip of semiconducting material impregnated, or doped, with impurities to create a p-n junction. As in other diodes, current flows easily from the p-side, or anode, to the n-side, or cathode, but not in the reverse direction. Charge-carriers—electrons and holes—flow into the junction from electrodes with different voltages. When an electron meets a hole, it falls into a lower energy level, and releases energy in the form of a photon. The wavelength of the light emitted, and therefore its color, depends on the band gap energy of the materials forming the p-n junction. In silicon or germanium diodes, the electrons and holes recombine by a non-radiative transition which produces no optical emission, because these are indirect band gap materials. The materials used for the LED have a direct band gap with energies corresponding to near-infrared, visible or near-ultraviolet light. LED development began with infrared and red devices made with gallium arsenide. Advances in materials science have made possible the production of devices with ever-shorter wavelengths, producing light in a variety of colors. LEDs are usually built on an n-type substrate, with an electrode attached to the p-type layer deposited on its surface. P-type substrates, while less common, occur as well. Many commercial LEDs, especially GaN/InGaN, also use sapphire substrate. Most materials used for LED production have very high refractive indices. This means that much light will be reflected back in to the material at the material/air surface interface. Therefore Light extraction in LEDs is an important aspect of LED production, subject to much research and development. Efficiency and operational parameters Typical indicator LEDs are designed to operate with no more than 30–60 milliwatts [mW] of electrical power. Around 1999, Philips Lumileds introduced power LEDs capable of continuous use at one watt [W]. These LEDs used much larger semiconductor die sizes to handle the large power inputs. Also, the semiconductor dies were mounted onto metal slugs to allow for heat removal from the LED die. One of the key advantages of LED-based lighting is its high efficiency, as measured by its light output per unit power input. White LEDs quickly matched and overtook the efficiency of standard incandescent lighting systems. In 2002, Lumileds made five-watt LEDs available with a luminous efficacy of 18–22 lumens per watt [lm/W]. For comparison, a conventional 60–100 W incandescent lightbulb produces around 15 lm/W, and standard fluorescent lights produce up to 100 lm/W. A recurring problem is that efficiency will fall dramatically for increased current. This effect is known as droop and effectively limits the light output of a given LED, increasing heating more than light output for increased current. In September 2003, a new type of blue LED was demonstrated by the company Cree, Inc. to provide 24 mW at 20 milliamperes [mA]. This produced a commercially packaged white light giving 65 lm/W at 20 mA, becoming the brightest white LED commercially available at the time, and more than four times as efficient as standard incandescents. In 2006 they demonstrated a prototype with a record white LED luminous efficacy of 131 lm/W at 20 mA. Also, Seoul Semiconductor has plans for 135 lm/W by 2007 and 145 lm/W by 2008, which would be approaching an order of magnitude improvement over standard incandescents and better even than standard fluorescents. Nichia Corporation has developed a white LED with luminous efficiency of 150 lm/W at a forward current of 20 mA. It should be noted that high-power (≥ 1 W) LEDs are necessary for practical general lighting applications. Typical operating currents for these devices begin at 350 mA. The highest efficiency high-power white LED is claimed Datasheet is not sufficient to confirm the claim, comparing Philips LXHL-LW6C and OSRAM LUW W5AM-LXLY-6P7R by Philips Lumileds Lighting Co. with a luminous efficacy of 115 lm/W (350 mA). Cree issued a press release on November 19, 2008 about a laboratory prototype LED achieving 161 lumens/watt at room temperature. The total output was 173 lumens, and the correlated color temperature was reported to be 4689 K. Lifetime and failure Solid state devices such as LEDs are subject to very limited wear and tear if operated at low currents and at low temperatures. Many of the LEDs produced in the 1970s and 1980s are still in service today. Typical lifetimes quoted are 25000 to 100000 hours but heat and current settings can extend or shorten this time significantly. The most common symptom of LED (and diode laser) failure is the gradual lowering of light output and loss of efficiency. Sudden failures, although rare, can occur as well. Early red LEDs were notable for their short lifetime. With the development of high power LEDs the devices are subjected to higher junction temperatures and higher current densities than traditional devices. This causes stress on the material and may cause early light output degradation. To quantitatively classify lifetime in a standardized manner it has been suggested to use the terms L75 and L50 which is the time it will take a given LED to reach 75% and 50% light output respectively. L50 is equivalent to the half-life of the LED. Colors and materials Conventional LEDs are made from a variety of inorganic semiconductor materials, the following table shows the available colors with wavelength range, voltage drop and material: ColorWavelength [nm]Voltage [V]Semiconductor MaterialInfrared λ > 760 ΔV < 1.9 Gallium arsenide (GaAs) Aluminium gallium arsenide (AlGaAs)Red 610 < λ < 760 1.63 < ΔV < 2.03 Aluminium gallium arsenide (AlGaAs)Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP)Aluminium gallium indium phosphide (AlGaInP) Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP)Orange 590 < λ < 610 2.03 < ΔV < 2.10 Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP)Aluminium gallium indium phosphide (AlGaInP) Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP)Yellow 570 < λ < 590 2.10 < ΔV < 2.18 Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP)Aluminium gallium indium phosphide (AlGaInP) Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP)Green 500 < λ < 570 2.18 < ΔV < 4.0 Indium gallium nitride (InGaN) / Gallium(III) nitride (GaN)Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP)Aluminium gallium indium phosphide (AlGaInP)Aluminium gallium phosphide (AlGaP)Blue 450 < λ < 500 2.48 < ΔV < 3.7 Zinc selenide (ZnSe)Indium gallium nitride (InGaN)Silicon carbide (SiC) as substrateSilicon (Si) as substrate — (under development)Violet 400 < λ < 450 2.76 < ΔV < 4.0 Indium gallium nitride (InGaN)Purple multiple types 2.48 < ΔV < 3.7 Dual blue/red LEDs, blue with red phosphor, or white with purple plasticUltraviolet λ < 400 3.1 < ΔV < 4.4 diamond (C)Aluminium nitride (AlN) Aluminium gallium nitride (AlGaN) Aluminium gallium indium nitride (AlGaInN) — (down to 210 nm )White Broad spectrum ΔV = 3.5 Blue/UV diode with yellow phosphor Ultraviolet and blue LEDs Blue LEDs. Blue LEDs are based on the wide band gap semiconductors GaN (gallium nitride) and InGaN (indium gallium nitride). They can be added to existing red and green LEDs to produce the impression of white light, though white LEDs today rarely use this principle. The first blue LEDs were made in 1971 by Jacques Pankove (inventor of the gallium nitride LED) at RCA Laboratories. However, these devices had too little light output to be of much practical use. In the late 1980s, key breakthroughs in GaN epitaxial growth and p-type doping by Isamu Akasaki and Hiroshi Amano (Nagoya, Japan) ushered in the modern era of GaN-based optoelectronic devices. Building upon this foundation, in 1993 high brightness blue LEDs were demonstrated through the work of Shuji Nakamura at Nichia Corporation. By the late 1990s, blue LEDs had become widely available. They have an active region consisting of one or more InGaN quantum wells sandwiched between thicker layers of GaN, called cladding layers. By varying the relative InN-GaN fraction in the InGaN quantum wells, the light emission can be varied from violet to amber. AlGaN aluminium gallium nitride of varying AlN fraction can be used to manufacture the cladding and quantum well layers for ultraviolet LEDs, but these devices have not yet reached the level of efficiency and technological maturity of the InGaN-GaN blue/green devices. If the active quantum well layers are GaN, as opposed to alloyed InGaN or AlGaN, the device will emit near-ultraviolet light with wavelengths around 350–370 nm. Green LEDs manufactured from the InGaN-GaN system are far more efficient and brighter than green LEDs produced with non-nitride material systems. With nitrides containing aluminium, most often AlGaN and AlGaInN, even shorter wavelengths are achievable. Ultraviolet LEDs in a range of wavelengths are becoming available on the market. Near-UV emitters at wavelengths around 375–395 nm are already cheap and often encountered, for example, as black light lamp replacements for inspection of anti-counterfeiting UV watermarks in some documents and paper currencies. Shorter wavelength diodes, while substantially more expensive, are commercially available for wavelengths down to 247 nm. Sensor Electronic Technology, Inc.: Nitride Products Manufacturer As the photosensitivity of microorganisms approximately matches the absorption spectrum of DNA, with a peak at about 260 nm, UV LEDs emitting at 250–270 nm are to be expected in prospective disinfection and sterilization devices. Recent research has shown that commercially available UVA LEDs (365 nm) are already effective disinfection and sterilization devices. Development of a new water sterilization device with a 365 nm UV-LED, Medical and Biological Engineering and Computing, Volume 45, Number 12 / December, 2007 Wavelengths down to 210 nm were obtained in laboratories using aluminium nitride. While not an LED as such, an ordinary NPN bipolar transistor will emit violet light if its emitter-base junction is subjected to non-destructive reverse breakdown. This is easy to demonstrate by filing the top off a metal-can transistor (BC107, 2N2222 or similar) and biasing it well above emitter-base breakdown (≥ 20 V) via a current-limiting resistor. White light There are two ways of producing high intensity white-light using LEDs. One is to use individual LEDs that emit three primary colors – red, green, and blue, and then mix all the colors to produce white light. The other is to use a phosphor material to convert monochromatic light from a blue or UV LED to broad-spectrum white light, much in the same way a fluorescent light bulb works. Due to metamerism, it is possible to have quite different spectra which appear white. RGB systems Combined spectral curves for blue, yellow-green, and high brightness red solid-state semiconductor LEDs. FWHM spectral bandwidth is approximately 24–27 nm for all three colors. White light can be produced by mixing differently colored light, the most common method is to use red, green and blue (RGB). Hence the method is called multi-colored white LEDs (sometimes referred to as RGB LEDs). Because its mechanism is involved with sophisticated electro-optical design to control the blending and diffusion of different colors, this approach has rarely been used to mass produce white LEDs in the industry. Nevertheless this method is particularly interesting to many researchers and scientists because of the flexibility of mixing different colors. In principle, this mechanism also has higher quantum efficiency in producing white light. There are several types of multi-colored white LEDs: di-, tri-, and tetrachromatic white LEDs. Several key factors that play among these different approaches include color stability, color rendering capability, and luminous efficacy. Often higher efficiency will mean lower color rendering, presenting a trade off between the luminous efficiency and color rendering. For example, the dichromatic white LEDs have the best luminous efficacy(120 lm/W), but the lowest color rendering capability. Conversely, although tetrachromatic white LEDs have excellent color rendering capability, they often have poor luminous efficiency. Trichromatic white LEDs are in between, having both good luminous efficacy(>70 lm/W) and fair color rendering capability. What multi-color LEDs offer is not merely another solution of producing white light, but is a whole new technique of producing light of different colors. In principle, most perceivable colors can be produced by mixing different amounts of three primary colors, and this makes it possible to produce precise dynamic color control as well. As more effort is devoted to investigating this technique, multi-color LEDs should have profound influence on the fundamental method which we use to produce and control light color. However, before this type of LED can truly play a role on the market, several technical problems need to be solved. These certainly include that this type of LED's emission power decays exponentially with increasing temperature, resulting in a substantial change in color stability. Such problem is not acceptable for industrial usage. Therefore, many new package designs aiming to solve this problem have been proposed, and their results are being reproduced by researchers and scientists. Phosphor based LEDs Spectrum of a “white” LED clearly showing blue light which is directly emitted by the GaN-based LED (peak at about 465 nm) and the more broadband Stokes-shifted light emitted by the Ce3+:YAG phosphor which emits at roughly 500–700 nm. This method involves coating an LED of one color (mostly blue LED made of InGaN) with phosphor of different colors to produce white light, the resultant LEDs are called phosphor based white LEDs. A fraction of the blue light undergoes the Stokes shift being transformed from shorter wavelengths to longer. Depending on the color of the original LED, phosphors of different colors can be employed. If several phosphor layers of distinct colors are applied, the emitted spectrum is broadened, effectively increasing the color rendering index (CRI) value of a given LED. Phosphor based LEDs have a lower efficiency than normal LEDs due to the heat loss from the Stokes shift and also other phosphor-related degradation issues. However, the phosphor method is still the most popular technique for manufacturing high intensity white LEDs. The design and production of a light source or light fixture using a monochrome emitter with phosphor conversion is simpler and cheaper than a complex RGB system, and the majority of high intensity white LEDs presently on the market are manufactured using phosphor light conversion. The greatest barrier to high efficiency is the seemingly unavoidable Stokes energy loss. However, much effort is being spent on optimizing these devices to higher light output and higher operation temperatures. For instance, the efficiency can be increased by adapting better package design or by using a more suitable type of phosphor. Philips Lumileds' patented conformal coating process addresses the issue of varying phosphor thickness, giving the white LEDs a more homogeneous white light. With development ongoing, the efficiency of phosphor based LEDs is generally increased with every new product announcement. Technically the phosphor based white LEDs encapsulate InGaN blue LEDs inside of a phosphor coated epoxy. A common yellow phosphor material is cerium-doped yttrium aluminium garnet (Ce3+:YAG). White LEDs can also be made by coating near ultraviolet (NUV) emitting LEDs with a mixture of high efficiency europium-based red and blue emitting phosphors plus green emitting copper and aluminium doped zinc sulfide (ZnS:Cu, Al). This is a method analogous to the way fluorescent lamps work. This method is less efficient than the blue LED with YAG:Ce phosphor, as the Stokes shift is larger and more energy is therefore converted to heat, but yields light with better spectral characteristics, which render color better. Due to the higher radiative output of the ultraviolet LEDs than of the blue ones, both approaches offer comparable brightness. Another concern is that UV light may leak from a malfunctioning light source and cause harm to human eyes or skin. Other white LEDs Another method used to produce experimental white light LEDs used no phosphors at all and was based on homoepitaxially grown zinc selenide (ZnSe) on a ZnSe substrate which simultaneously emitted blue light from its active region and yellow light from the substrate. Organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs) If the emitting layer material of the LED is an organic compound, it is known as an Organic Light Emitting Diode (OLED). To function as a semiconductor, the organic emitting material must have conjugated pi bonds. The emitting material can be a small organic molecule in a crystalline phase, or a polymer. Polymer materials can be flexible; such LEDs are known as PLEDs or FLEDs. Compared with regular LEDs, OLEDs are lighter, and polymer LEDs can have the added benefit of being flexible. Some possible future applications of OLEDs could be: Inexpensive, flexible displays Light sources Wall decorations Luminous cloth OLEDs have been used to produce visual displays for portable electronic devices such as cellphones, digital cameras, and MP3 players. Larger displays have been demonstrated, but their life expectancy is still far too short (<1,000 hours) to be practical. Today, OLEDs operate at substantially lower efficiency than inorganic (crystalline) LEDs. Quantum dot LEDs (experimental) A new technique developed by Michael Bowers, a graduate student at Vanderbilt University in Nashville, involves coating a blue LED with quantum dots that glow white in response to the blue light from the LED. This technique produces a warm, yellowish-white light similar to that produced by incandescent bulbs. Quantum dots are semiconductor nanocrystals that possess unique optical properties. Quantum-dot LED may be screen of choice for future electronics Massachusetts Institute of Technology News Office,December 18, 2002 Their emission color can be tuned from the visible throughout the infrared spectrum. This allows quantum dot LEDs to create almost any color on the CIE diagram. This provides more color options and better color rendering white LEDs. Quantum dot LEDs are available in the same package types as traditional phosphor based LEDs. Types LEDs are produced in a variety of shapes and sizes. The 5 mm cylindrical package (red, fifth from the left) is the most common, estimated at 80% of world production. The color of the plastic lens is often the same as the actual color of light emitted, but not always. For instance, purple plastic is often used for infrared LEDs, and most blue devices have clear housings. There are also LEDs in SMT packages, such as those found on blinkies and on cell phone keypads (not shown). The main types of LEDs are miniature, high power devices and custom designs such as alphanumeric or multi-color. Miniature LEDs Different sized LEDs. 8 mm, 5 mm and 3 mm, with a wooden match-stick for scale. These are mostly single-die LEDs used as indicators, and they come in various-sizes from 2 mm to 8 mm, through-hole and surface mount packages. They are usually simple in design, not requiring any separate cooling body. LED-design Typical current ratings ranges from around 1 mA to above 20 mA. The small scale set a natural upper boundary on power consumption due to heat caused by the high current density and need for heat sinking. High power LEDs High power LEDs from Philips Lumileds Lighting Company mounted on a 21 mm star shaped base metal core PCB High power LEDs (HPLED) can be driven at hundreds of mA (vs. tens of mA for other LEDs), some with more than one ampere of current, and give out large amounts of light. Since overheating is destructive, the HPLEDs must be highly efficient to minimize excess heat; furthermore, they are often mounted on a heat sink to allow for heat dissipation. If the heat from a HPLED is not removed, the device will burn out in seconds. A single HPLED can often replace an incandescent bulb in a flashlight, or be set in an array to form a powerful LED lamp. LEDs have been developed by Seoul Semiconductor that can operate on AC power without the need for a DC converter. For each half cycle part of the LED emits light and part is dark, and this is reversed during the next half cycle. The efficacy of this type of HPLED is typically 40 lm/W. Some well-known HPLED's in this category are the Lumileds Rebel Led, Osram Opto Semiconductors Golden Dragon and Cree X-lamp. As of November 2008 some HPLEDs manufactured by Cree Inc. now exceed 95 lm/W (e.g. the XLamp MC-E LED chip emitting Cool White light) and are being sold in lamps intended to replace incandescent, halogen, and even fluorescent style lights as LEDs become more cost competitive. Application-specific variations Flashing LEDs are used as attention seeking indicators without requiring external electronics. Flashing LEDs resemble standard LEDs but they contain an integrated multivibrator circuit inside which causes the LED to flash with a typical period of one second. In diffused lens LEDs this is visible as a small black dot. Most flashing LEDs emit light of a single color, but more sophisticated devices can flash between multiple colors and even fade through a color sequence using RGB color mixing. Old calculator LED display. Bi-color LEDs are actually two different LEDs in one case. It consists of two dies connected to the same two leads but in opposite directions. Current flow in one direction produces one color, and current in the opposite direction produces the other color. Alternating the two colors with sufficient frequency causes the appearance of a blended third color. For example, a red/green LED operated in this fashion will color blend to produce a yellow appearance. Tri-color LEDs are two LEDs in one case, but the two LEDs are connected to separate leads so that the two LEDs can be controlled independently and lit simultaneously. A three-lead arrangement is typical with one common lead (anode or cathode). RGB LEDs contain red, green and blue emitters, generally using a four-wire connection with one common lead (anode or cathode). Alphanumeric LED displays are available in seven-segment and starburst format. Seven-segment displays handle all numbers and a limited set of letters. Starburst displays can display all letters. Seven-segment LED displays were in widespread use in the 1970s and 1980s, but increasing use of liquid crystal displays, with their lower power consumption and greater display flexibility, has reduced the popularity of numeric and alphanumeric LED displays. Considerations for use Power sources The current/voltage characteristics of an LED is similar to other diodes, in that the current is dependent exponentially on the voltage (see Shockley diode equation). This means that a small change in voltage can lead to a large change in current. If the maximum voltage rating is exceeded by a small amount the current rating may be exceeded by a large amount, potentially damaging or destroying the LED. The typical solution is therefor to use constant current power supplies, or driving the LED at a voltage much below the maximum rating. Since most household power sources (batteries, mains) are not constant current sources, most LED fixtures must include a power converter. Electrical polarity As with all diodes, current flows easily from p-type to n-type material. However, no current flows and no light is produced if a small voltage is applied in the reverse direction. If the reverse voltage becomes large enough to exceed the breakdown voltage, a large current flows and the LED may be damaged. Advantages Efficiency: LEDs produce more light per watt than incandescent bulbs. Color: LEDs can emit light of an intended color without the use of color filters that traditional lighting methods require. This is more efficient and can lower initial costs. Size: LEDs can be very small (smaller than 2 mm2 ) and are easily populated onto printed circuit boards. On/Off time: LEDs light up very quickly. A typical red indicator LED will achieve full brightness in microseconds. Philips Lumileds technical datasheet DS23 for the Luxeon Star states "less than 100ns". LEDs used in communications devices can have even faster response times. Cycling: LEDs are ideal for use in applications that are subject to frequent on-off cycling, unlike fluorescent lamps that burn out more quickly when cycled frequently, or HID lamps that require a long time before restarting. Dimming: LEDs can very easily be dimmed either by Pulse-width modulation or lowering the forward current. Cool light: In contrast to most light sources, LEDs radiate very little heat in the form of IR that can cause damage to sensitive objects or fabrics. Wasted energy is dispersed as heat through the base of the LED. Slow failure: LEDs mostly fail by dimming over time, rather than the abrupt burn-out of incandescent bulbs. Lifetime: LEDs can have a relatively long useful life. One report estimates 35,000 to 50,000 hours of useful life, though time to complete failure may be longer. http://apps1.eere.energy.gov/buildings/publications/pdfs/ssl/lifetime_white_leds_aug16_r1.pdf Fluorescent tubes typically are rated at about 10,000 to 15,000 hours, depending partly on the conditions of use, and incandescent light bulbs at 1,000–2,000 hours. Shock resistance: LEDs, being solid state components, are difficult to damage with external shock, unlike fluorescent and incandescent bulbs which are fragile. Focus: The solid package of the LED can be designed to focus its light. Incandescent and fluorescent sources often require an external reflector to collect light and direct it in a usable manner. Toxicity: LEDs do not contain mercury, unlike fluorescent lamps. Disadvantages High initial price: LEDs are currently more expensive, price per lumen, on an initial capital cost basis, than most conventional lighting technologies. The additional expense partially stems from the relatively low lumen output and the drive circuitry and power supplies needed. However, when considering the total cost of ownership (including energy and maintenance costs), LEDs far surpass incandescent or halogen sources and begin to threaten compact fluorescent lamps. Temperature dependence: LED performance largely depends on the ambient temperature of the operating environment. Over-driving the LED in high ambient temperatures may result in overheating of the LED package, eventually leading to device failure. Adequate heat-sinking is required to maintain long life. This is especially important when considering automotive, medical, and military applications where the device must operate over a large range of temperatures, and is required to have a low failure rate. Voltage sensitivity: LEDs must be supplied with the voltage above the threshold and a current below the rating. This can involve series resistors or current-regulated power supplies. The Led Museum Light quality: Most cool-white LEDs have spectra that differ significantly from a black body radiator like the sun or an incandescent light. The spike at 460 nm and dip at 500 nm can cause the color of objects to be perceived differently under cool-white LED illumination than sunlight or incandescent sources, due to metamerism, red surfaces being rendered particularly badly by typical phosphor based cool-white LEDs. However, the color rendering properties of common fluorescent lamps are often inferior to what is now available in state-of-art white LEDs. Area light source: LEDs do not approximate a “point source” of light, but rather a lambertian distribution. So LEDs are difficult to use in applications requiring a spherical light field. LEDs are not capable of providing divergence below a few degrees. This is contrasted with lasers, which can produce beams with divergences of 0.2 degrees or less. Hecht, E: "Optics", Fourth Edition, page 591. Addison Wesley, 2002. Blue Hazard: There is increasing concern that blue LEDs and cool-white LEDs are now capable of exceeding safe limits of the so-called blue-light hazard as defined in eye safety specifications such as ANSI/IESNA RP-27.1-05: Recommended Practice for Photobiological Safety for Lamp and Lamp Systems. 071214 sciencenews.org Blue pollution: Because cool-white LEDs (i.e., LEDs with high color temperature) emit much more blue light than conventional outdoor light sources such as high-pressure sodium lamps, the strong wavelength dependence of Rayleigh scattering means that cool-white LEDs can cause more light pollution than other light sources. It is therefore very important that cool-white LEDs are fully shielded when used outdoors. Compared to low-pressure sodium lamps, which emit at 589.3 nm, the 460 nm emission spike of cool-white and blue LEDs is scattered about 2.7 times more by the Earth's atmosphere. Cool-white LEDs should not be used for outdoor lighting near astronomical observatories. Applications The many application of LEDs are very diverse but fall into three major categories: Visual signal application where the light goes more or less directly from the LED to the human eye, to convey a message or meaning. Illumination where LED light is reflected from object to give visual response of these objects. Finally LEDs are also used to generate light for measuring and interacting with processes that do not involve the human visual system. EPIC European Photonics Industry Consortium. Indicators and signs LED destination displays on buses, one with a colored route number. Railway Crossing signal using LED Traffic light using LED The low energy consumption, low maintenance and small size of modern LEDs has led to applications as status indicators and displays on a variety of equipment and installations. Large area LED displays are used as stadium displays and as dynamic decorative displays. Thin, lightweight message displays are used at airports and railway stations, and as destination displays for trains, buses, trams, and ferries. The single color light is well suited for traffic lights and signals, exit signs, emergency vehicle lighting, ships' lanterns and LED-based Christmas lights. Red or yellow LEDs are used in indicator and alphanumeric displays in environments where night vision must be retained: aircraft cockpits, submarine and ship bridges, astronomy observatories, and in the field, e.g. night time animal watching and military field use. Because of their long life and fast switching times, LEDs have been used for automotive high-mounted brake lights and truck and bus brake lights and turn signals for some time, but many high-end vehicles are now starting to use LEDs for their entire rear light clusters. The use of LEDs also has styling advantages because LEDs are capable of forming much thinner lights than incandescent lamps with parabolic reflectors. The significant improvement in the time taken to light up (perhaps 0.5s faster than an incandescent bulb) improves safety by giving drivers more time to react. It has been reported that at normal highway speeds this equals one car length increased reaction time for the car behind. White LED headlamps are beginning to make an appearance. Due to the relative cheapness of low output LEDs they are also used in many temporary applications such as glowsticks and throwies and Lumalive, a photonic textile, artist have also used LEDs for Light art and more specifically LED art. Lighting LED daytime running lights of Audi A4 With the development of high efficiency and high power LEDs it has become possible to incorporate LEDs in lighting and illumination. Replacement light bulbs have been made as well as dedicated fixtures and LED lamps. LEDs are used as street lights and in other architectural lighting where color changing is used. The mechanical robustness and long lifetime is used in automotive lighting on cars, motorcycles and on bicycle lights. LEDs are also suitable for backlighting for LCD televisions and lightweight laptop displays and light source for DLP projectors. RGB LEDs increase the color gamut by as much as 45%. Screen for TV and computer displays can be made increasingly thin using LEDs for backlighting. http://www.nytimes.com/2007/06/24/business/yourmoney/24novel.html The lack of IR/heat radiation makes LEDs ideal for stage lights using banks of RGB LEDs that can easily change color and decrease heating from traditional stage lighting, as well as medical lighting where IR-radiation can be harmful. Since LEDs are small, durable and require little power they are used in hand held devices such as flashlights. LED strobe lights or camera flashes operate at a safe, low voltage, as opposed to the 250+ volts commonly found in xenon flashlamp-based lighting. This is particularly applicable to cameras on mobile phones, where space is at a premium and bulky voltage-increasing circuitry is undesirable. LEDs are used for infrared illumination in night vision applications including security cameras. A ring of LEDs around a video camera, aimed forward into a retroreflective background, allows chroma keying in video productions. LEDs are used for decorative lighting as well. Decorative LED lighting is used for indoor/outdoor decor, limousines, cargo trailers, cruise ships, RVs, boats, automobiles, and utility trucks. Decorative LED lighting can also come in the form of Lited Logo Panels and Engravings and Step and Aisle lighting in theaters and auditoriums. Smart lighting Light can be used to transmit broadband data, which is already implemented in IrDA standards using infrared LEDs. Because LEDs can cycle on and off millions of times per second, they can, in effect, become wireless routers for data transport. Lasers can also be modulated in this manner. Non-visual applications LED panel light source used in an experiment on plant growth. The findings of such experiments may be used to grow food in space on long duration missions. Light has many other uses besides for seeing. LEDs are used for some of these applications. The uses fall in three groups: Communication, sensors and light matter interaction. The light from LEDs can be modulated very fast so they are extensively used in optical fiber and Free Space Optics communications. This include remote controls, such as for TVs and VCRs, where infrared LEDs are often used. Opto-isolators use an LED combined with a photodiode or phototransistor to provide a signal path with electrical isolation between two circuits. This is especially useful in medical equipment where the signals from a low voltage sensor circuit (usually battery powered) in contact with a living organism must be electrically isolated from any possible electrical failure in a recording or monitoring device operating at potentially dangerous voltages. An optoisolator also allows information to be transferred between circuits not sharing a common ground potential. Many sensor systems rely on light as the main medium. LEDs are often ideal as a light source due to the requirements of the sensors. LEDs are used as movement sensors, for example in optical computer mice. The Nintendo Wii's sensor bar uses infrared LEDs. In pulse oximeters for measuring oxygen saturation. Some flatbed scanners use arrays of RGB LEDs rather than the typical cold-cathode fluorescent lamp as the light source. Having independent control of three illuminated colors allows the scanner to calibrate itself for more accurate color balance, and there is no need for warm-up. Furthermore, its sensors only need be monochromatic, since at any one point in time the page being scanned is only lit by a single color of light. Touch sensing: Since LEDs can also be used as photodiodes, they can be used for both photo emission and detection. This could be used in for example a touch-sensing screen that register reflected light from a finger or stylus. Many materials and biological systems are sensitive to, or dependent on light. Grow lights use LEDs to increase photosynthesis in plants and bacteria and vira can be removed from water and other substances using UV LEDs for sterilization. Other uses are as UV curing devices for some ink and coating applications as well as LED printers. The use of LEDs is particularly interesting to Cannabis cultivators, mainly because it is more energy efficient, less heat is produced (can damage plants close to hot lamps) and can provide the optimum light frequency for Cannabis growth and bloom periods compared to currently used grow lights: HPS (High Pressure Sodium), MH (Metal Halide) or CFL/Low-energy. It has however not replaced these grow lights due to it having a higher retail price, as mass production and LED kits develop the product will become cheaper. LEDs have also been used as a medium quality voltage reference in electronic circuits. The forward voltage drop (e.g., about 1.7 V for a normal red LED) can be used instead of a Zener diode in low-voltage regulators. Although LED forward voltage is much more current-dependent than a good Zener, Zener diodes are not widely available below voltages of about 3 V. Light sources for machine vision systems Machine vision systems often require bright and homogeneous illumination, so features of interest are easier to process. LEDs are often used to this purpose, and this field of application is likely to remain one of the major application areas until price drops low enough to make signaling and illumination applications more widespread. Barcode scanners are the most common example of machine vision, and many inexpensive ones used red LEDs instead of lasers. LEDs constitute a nearly ideal light source for machine vision systems for several reasons: The size of the illuminated field is usually comparatively small and machine vision systems are often quite expensive, so the cost of the light source is usually a minor concern. However, it might not be easy to replace a broken light source placed within complex machinery, and here the long service life of LEDs is a benefit. LED elements tend to be small and can be placed with high density over flat or even shaped substrates (PCBs etc) so that bright and homogeneous sources can be designed which direct light from tightly controlled directions on inspected parts. This can often be obtained with small, inexpensive lenses and diffusers, helping to achieve high light densities with control over lighting levels and homogeneity. LED sources can be shaped in several configurations (spot lights for reflective illumination; ring lights for coaxial illumination; back lights for contour illumination; linear assemblies; flat, large format panels; dome sources for diffused, omnidirectional illumination). LEDs can be easily strobed (in the microsecond range and below) and synchronized with imaging. High power LEDs a available allowing well lit images even with very short light pulses. This is often used in order to obtain crisp and sharp “still” images of quickly-moving parts. LEDs come in several different colors and wavelengths, easily allowing to use the best color for each application, where different color may provide better visibility of features of interest. Having a precisely known spectrum allows tightly matched filters to be used to separate informative bandwidth or to reduce disturbing effect of ambient light. LEDs usually operate at comparatively low working temperatures, simplifying heat management and dissipation, therefore allowing plastic lenses, filters and diffusers to be used. Waterproof units can also easily be designed, allowing for use in harsh or wet environments (food, beverage, oil industries). See also Solid state lighting (SSL) Laser diode LED circuit Nixie tube LEDs as light sensors Display examples LED Screen China References Cited General Shuji Nakamura, Gerhard Fasol, Stephen J Pearton The Blue Laser Diode: The Complete Story, Springer Verlag, 2nd Edition (October 2, 2000) Moreno, I., "Spatial distribution of LED radiation," in The International Optical Design Conference, Proc. SPIE vol. 6342, 634216:1-7 (2006). (More details regarding the use of quantum dots as a phosphor for white LEDs.) External links FlatpanelsHD - review of Philips first LED-based LCD-TV Photonics Sources Group, Tyndall National Institute GaN and other photonics research at the Tyndall National Institute, Ireland. LEDs for Sustainable Development Light emitting diodes.org site Dendrimers in the spotlight - an Instant Insight examining the use of dendrimers in organic light-emitting diodes from the Royal Society of Chemistry MAKE Presents: The LED - A movie about the origins of the LED and how to make your own from carborundum! | Light-emitting_diode |@lemmatized light:156 emit:31 diode:24 lead:101 electronic:5 source:30 first:13 invent:3 russia:1 introduce:2 america:2 practical:8 component:3 oleg:2 vladimirovich:2 losev:2 radio:4 technician:1 notice:1 use:100 receiver:1 current:30 pass:1 publish:1 detail:2 russian:3 journal:2 ever:2 early:6 device:28 low:23 intensity:4 red:25 modern:3 led:189 available:14 across:1 visible:8 ultraviolet:8 infra:1 wavelength:15 high:48 brightness:9 base:22 semiconductor:16 forward:6 bias:2 switch:1 electron:4 able:1 recombine:2 hole:5 energy:16 release:3 form:7 effect:4 call:6 electroluminescence:2 color:71 determine:1 gap:9 usually:7 small:15 area:5 less:7 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5,199 | Grok | To grok () is to share the same reality or line of thinking with another physical or conceptual entity. Author Robert A. Heinlein coined the term in his best-selling 1961 book Stranger in a Strange Land. In Heinlein's view of quantum theory, grokking is the intermingling of intelligence that necessarily affects both the observer and the observed. From the novel: The Oxford English Dictionary defines grok as "to understand intuitively or by empathy; to establish rapport with" and "to empathize or communicate sympathetically (with); also, to experience enjoyment." Other forms of the word include "groks" (present third person singular), "grokked" (past participle) and "grokking" (present participle). In an ideological context, a grokked concept becomes part of the person who contributes to its evolution by improving the doctrine, perpetuating the myth, espousing the belief, adding detail to the social plan, refining the idea or proofing the theory. Etymology Stranger in a Strange Land Robert A. Heinlein originally coined the term grok in his 1961 novel Stranger in a Strange Land as a Martian word that could not be defined in earthly terms, but can be associated with various literal meanings such as "water", "to drink", "life", or "to live", and had a much more profound figurative meaning that is hard for Earthers to understand because of our assumption of a singular reality. According to the book, drinking is a central focus on Mars where water is scarce. Martians use the merging of their bodies with water as a simple example or symbol of how two entities can combine to create a new reality greater than the sum of its parts. The water becomes part of the drinker, and the drinker part of the water. Both grok each other. Things that once had separate realities become entangled in the same experiences, goals, history, and purpose. Within the book, the statement of divine immanence verbalized between the main characters, "Thou Art God", is logically derived from the concept inherent in the term grok. Heinlein describes Martian words as "guttural" and "jarring". Martian speech is described as sounding "like a bullfrog fighting a cat". Accordingly, grok is generally pronounced as a guttural "gr" terminated by a sharp "k" with very little or no vowel sound (a narrow IPA transcription might be ). Adoption and modern usage In counterculture Tom Wolfe, in his book The Electric Kool-Aid Acid Test, describes a character's thoughts during an acid trip: "He looks down, two bare legs, a torso rising up at him and like he is just noticing them for the first time... he has never seen any of this flesh before, this stranger. He groks over that...." Contemporary spiritual teacher Ram Dass, in Be Here Now, quotes a large passage from Stranger about the word. Numerous examples of its use in the late 1960s appear, including in Playboy and The New Yorker. The word is also used in passing in The Illuminatus Trilogy by Robert Anton Wilson and Robert Shea, and frequently by Wilson in his other work. According to Ed Sanders' book The Family, convicted murderer Charles Manson was a fan of Heinlein and Stranger and adopted many of the terms associated with both including "grok" and "thou art God". In science fiction A popular t-shirt and bumper sticker slogan for Trekkies, seen as early as 1968, was I grok Spock (often showing the Star Trek character using the Vulcan salute). Other science fiction authors, such as David Brin or Greg Cox, have borrowed the term over the years as an homage. In hacker culture Uses of the word in the decades after the 1960s are more concentrated in computer culture, such as a 1984 appearance in InfoWorld: "There isn't any software! Only different internal states of hardware. It's all hardware! It's a shame programmers don't grok that better." The Jargon File, which describes itself as a "Hacker's Dictionary" and has thrice been published under that name, puts grok in a programming context: When you claim to ‘grok’ some knowledge or technique, you are asserting that you have not merely learned it in a detached instrumental way but that it has become part of you, part of your identity. For example, to say that you “know” Lisp is simply to assert that you can code in it if necessary — but to say you “grok” LISP is to claim that you have deeply entered the world-view and spirit of the language, with the implication that it has transformed your view of programming. Contrast zen, which is a similar supernatural understanding experienced as a single brief flash.</blockquote> The entry existed in the very earliest forms of the Jargon File, dating from the early 1980s. A typical tech usage from the Linux Bible, 2005 characterizes the Unix software development philosophy as "one that can make your life a lot simpler once you grok the idea". The book Perl Best Practices defines "grok" as understanding a portion of computer code in a profound way. It goes on to suggest that to "re-grok" code is to re-load the intricacies of that portion of code into one's memory after some time has passed and all the details of it are no longer remembered. In that sense, to "grok" means to load everything into memory for immediate use. It is analogous to the way a processor caches memory for short term use, but the only implication by this reference was that it was something that a human (or maybe a martian) would do. Mainstream usage In their book The Fourth Turning, William Strauss and Neil Howe write of 1996 Presidential candidate Bob Dole as "not a person who could grok values in the now-dominant Boomer tongue". Groklaw is a website with information on legal matters, usually of an IT nature. GrokCode is a website covering computer programming and software development. Grok is a web application framework, written in the Python programming language and based on Zope 3. In a 1987 Life In Hell strip titled "What I Learned In School", a character representing "The Simpsons" creator Matt Groening is depicted being dressed down by an unseen "hip" college professor: "Mr. Gru-nink, I'm getting bad vibes from you. The rest of the class groks what is going on -- why can't you?" Songwriter Stephin Merritt uses the word "grok" in the song "Swinging London", from the 1994 Magnetic Fields album "Holiday" - "you couldn't grok my race car but you dug the roadside blur". Groks Science Radio Show and Podcast is a science program that uses the term in their name. In an episode of "Night Court" bailiff Bull Shannon responding to Judge Harry Stone asking what a "grok" says it is " A sudden flash of insight dirived from a profound empathetic experience." Episode recently aired 08/05/2009. The name of a commercial federated search engine, grokker. In an episode of the television show "Silver Spoons" in 1985, Rickie calls chatting on a BBS "grokking". In The Police song "Friends," lyrics state that the singer will "grok your essence." In the straight-to-DVD Futurama outing Into the Wild Green Yonder Number 9 of the Legion of Madfellows says their group has "been grokking some super weird junk" from the life force Ch'i. The Legion of Madfellows are a group of (crazy, homeless) mindreaders that defend the universe. See also Gestalt psychology Knowledge by acquaintance Knowledge by description Anschauung, a related "sense-perception" concept in Kantian philosophy References External links Grok definition in the Jargon File SF citations for grok gathered for the Oxford English Dictionary by Jesse Sheidlower Grok in the Merriam-Webster online dictionary WikiQuote on Stranger in a Strange Land includes many uses of grok Grok and the Vanguard of Science, essay from Groks Science Radio Show and Podcast | Grok |@lemmatized grok:30 share:1 reality:4 line:1 think:1 another:1 physical:1 conceptual:1 entity:2 author:2 robert:4 heinlein:5 coin:2 term:8 best:2 selling:1 book:7 stranger:7 strange:4 land:4 view:3 quantum:1 theory:2 grokking:4 intermingling:1 intelligence:1 necessarily:1 affect:1 observer:1 observe:1 novel:2 oxford:2 english:2 dictionary:4 defines:1 understand:3 intuitively:1 empathy:1 establish:1 rapport:1 empathize:1 communicate:1 sympathetically:1 also:3 experience:4 enjoyment:1 form:2 word:7 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